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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 5 (of 12), by G. Maspero
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 5 (of 12)
+
+Author: G. Maspero
+
+Editor: A.H. Sayce
+
+Translator: M.L. McClure
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2005 [EBook #17325]
+Last Updated: September 7, 2016
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT, CHALDÆA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Spines]
+
+[Illustration: Cover]
+
+HISTORY OF EGYPT CHALDEA, SYRIA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA
+
+By G. MASPERO, Honorable Doctor of Civil Laws, and Fellow of Queen’s
+College, Oxford; Member of the Institute and Professor at the College of
+France
+
+Edited by A. H. SAYCE, Professor of Assyriology, Oxford
+
+Translated by M. L. McCLURE, Member of the Committee of the Egypt
+Exploration Fund
+
+
+CONTAINING OVER TWELVE HUNDRED COLORED PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+Volume V.
+
+
+LONDON
+
+THE GROLIER SOCIETY
+
+PUBLISHERS
+
+[Illustration: Frontispiece]
+
+[Illustration: Titlepage]
+
+
+THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY--(continued)
+
+_THÛTMOSIS III.: THE ORGANISATION OF THE SYRIAN PROVINCES--AMENÔTHES
+III.: THE WORSHIPPERS OF ATONÛ._
+
+_Thutmosis III.: the talcing of Qodshâ in the 42nd year of his
+reign--The tribute of the south--The triumph-song of Amon._
+
+_The constitution of the Egyptian empire--The Grown vassals and
+their relations with the Pharaoh--The king’s messengers--The allied
+states--Royal presents and marriages; the status of foreigners in the
+royal harem--Commerce with Asia, its resources and its risks; protection
+granted to the national industries, and treaties of extradition._
+
+_Amenôthes II, his campaigns in Syria and Nubia--Thûtmosis IV.; his
+dream under the shadow of the Sphinx and his marriage--Amenôthes III.
+and his peaceful reign--The great building works--The temples of
+Nubia: Soleb and his sanctuary built by Amenôthes III, Gebel Barkal,
+Elephantine--The beautifying of Thebes: the temple of Mat, the temples
+of Amon at Luxor and at Karnak, the tomb of Amenôthes III, the chapel
+and the colossi of Memnon._
+
+_The increasing importance of Anion and his priests: preference shown
+by Amenôthes III. for the Heliopolitan gods, his marriage with Tii--The
+influence of Tii over Amenôthes IV.: the decadence of Amon and of
+Thebes, Atonû and Khûîtniatonû--Change of physiognomy in Khûniaton, his
+character, his government, his relations with Asia: the tombs of Tel
+el-Amarna and the art of the period--Tutanlchamon, At: the return of the
+Pharaohs to Thebes and the close of the XVIIIth dynasty._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I--THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY--(continued)
+
+
+_Thutmosis III.: the organisation of the Syrian provinces--Amenothes
+III.: the royal worshippers of Atonû._
+
+In the year XXXIV. the Egyptians reappeared in Zahi. The people of
+Anaugasa having revolted, two of their towns were taken, a third
+surrendered, while the chiefs of the Lotanû hastened to meet their lord
+with their usual tribute. Advantage was taken of the encampment being at
+the foot of the Lebanon to procure wood for building purposes, such as
+beams and planks, masts and yards for vessels, which were all shipped by
+the Kefâtiu at Byblos for exportation to the Delta. This expedition was,
+indeed, little more than a military march through the country. It would
+appear that the Syrians soon accustomed themselves to the presence of
+the Egyptians in their midst, and their obedience henceforward could be
+fairly relied on. We are unable to ascertain what were the circumstances
+or the intrigues which, in the year XXXV., led to a sudden outbreak
+among the tribes settled on the Euphrates and the Orontes. The King
+of Mitanni rallied round him the princes of Naharaim, and awaited the
+attack of the Egyptians near Aruna. Thûtmosis displayed great personal
+courage, and the victory was at once decisive. We find mention of only
+ten prisoners, one hundred and eighty mares, and sixty chariots in the
+lists of the spoil. Anaugasa again revolted, and was subdued afresh
+in the year XXXVIII.; the Shaûsû rebelled in the year XXXIX., and the
+Lotanû or some of the tribes connected with them two years later. The
+campaign of the year XLII. proved more serious. Troubles had arisen in
+the neighbourhood of Arvad. Thûtmosis, instead of following the usual
+caravan route, marched along the coast-road by way of Phoenicia. He
+destroyed Arka in the Lebanon and the surrounding strongholds, which
+were the haunts of robbers who lurked in the mountains; then turning to
+the northeast, he took Tunipa and extorted the usual tribute from
+the inhabitants of Naharaim. On the other hand, the Prince of Qodshû,
+trusting to the strength of his walled city, refused to do homage to the
+Pharaoh, and a deadly struggle took place under the ramparts, in which
+each side availed themselves of all the artifices which the strategic
+warfare of the times allowed. On a day when the assailants and besieged
+were about to come to close quarters, the Amorites let loose a mare
+among the chariotry of Thûtmosis. The Egyptian horses threatened to
+become unmanageable, and had begun to break through the ranks, when
+Amenemhabî, an officer of the guard, leaped to the ground, and, running
+up to the creature, disembowelled it with a thrust of his sword; this
+done, he cut off its tail and presented it to the king. The besieged
+were eventually obliged to shut themselves within their newly
+built walls, hoping by this means to tire out the patience of their
+assailants; but a picked body of men, led by the same brave Amenemhabî
+who had killed the mare, succeeded in making a breach and forcing an
+entrance into the town. Even the numerous successful campaigns we have
+mentioned, form but a part, though indeed an important part, of the wars
+undertaken by Thûtmosis to “fix his frontiers in the ends of the
+earth.” Scarcely a year elapsed without the viceroy of Ethiopia having a
+conflict with one or other of the tribes of the Upper Nile; little merit
+as he might gain in triumphing over such foes, the spoil taken from them
+formed a considerable adjunct to the treasure collected in Syria, while
+the tributes from the people of Kûsh and the Uaûaîû were paid with as
+great regularity as the taxes levied on the Egyptians themselves. It
+comprised gold both from the mines and from the rivers, feathers, oxen
+with curiously trained horns, giraffes, lions, leopards, and slaves of
+all ages. The distant regions explored by Hâtshopsîtû continued to pay
+a tribute at intervals. A fleet went to Pûanît to fetch large cargoes
+of incense, and from time to time some Ilîm chief would feel himself
+honoured by having one of his daughters accepted as an inmate of the
+harem of the great king. After the year XLII. we have no further records
+of the reign, but there is no reason to suppose that its closing years
+were less eventful or less prosperous than the earlier. Thûtmosis III.,
+when conscious of failing powers, may have delegated the direction of
+his armies to his sons or to his generals, but it is also quite possible
+that he kept the supreme command in his own hands to the end of his
+days. Even when old age approached and threatened to abate his vigour,
+he was upheld by the belief that his father Amon was ever at hand to
+guide him with his counsel and assist him in battle. “I give to thee,
+declared the god, the rebels that they may fall beneath thy sandals,
+that thou mayest crush the rebellious, for I grant to thee by decree the
+earth in its length and breadth. The tribes of the West and those of the
+East are under the place of thy countenance, and when thou goest up
+into all the strange lands with a joyous heart, there is none who
+will withstand Thy Majesty, for I am thy guide when thou treadest them
+underfoot. Thou hast crossed the water of the great curve of Naharaim*
+in thy strength and in thy power, and I have commanded thee to let them
+hear thy roaring which shall enter their dens, I have deprived their
+nostrils of the breath of life, I have granted to thee that thy deeds
+shall sink into their hearts, that my uraeus which is upon thy head may
+burn them, that it may bring prisoners in long files from the peoples of
+Qodi, that it may consume with its flame those who are in the marshes,**
+that it may cut off the heads of the Asiatics without one of them being
+able to escape from its clutch. I grant to thee that thy conquests may
+embrace all lands, that the urseus which shines upon my forehead may be
+thy vassal, so that in all the compass of the heaven there may not be
+one to rise against thee, but that the people may come bearing their
+tribute on their backs and bending before Thy Majesty according to my
+behest; I ordain that all aggressors arising in thy time shall fail
+before thee, their heart burning within them, their limbs trembling!”
+
+     * The Euphrates, in the great curve described by it across
+     Naharaim, after issuing from the mountains of Cilicia.
+
+     ** The meaning is doubtful. The word signifies pools,
+     marshes, the provinces situated beyond Egyptian territory,
+     and consequently the distant parts of the world--those which
+     are nearest the ocean which encircles the earth, and which
+     was considered as fed by the stagnant waters of the
+     celestial Nile, just as the extremities of Egypt were
+     watered by those of the terrestrial Nile.
+
+[Illustration: 006.jpg A PROCESSION OF NEGROES]
+
+“I.--I am come that I may grant unto thee to crush the great ones of
+Zahi, I throw them under thy feet across their mountains,--I grant to
+thee that they shall see Thy Majesty as a lord of shining splendour when
+thou shinest before them in my likeness!
+
+“II.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush those of the
+country of Asia, to break the heads of the people of Lotanû,--I grant
+thee that they may see Thy Majesty, clothed in thy panoply, when thou
+seizest thy arms, in thy war-chariot.
+
+“III.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the land of the
+East, and invade those who dwell in the provinces of Tonûtir,--I grant
+that they may see Thy Majesty as the comet which rains down the heat of
+its flame and sheds its dew.
+
+“IV.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the land of the
+West, so that Kafîti and Cyprus shall be in fear of thee,--I grant that
+they may see Thy Majesty like the young bull, stout of heart, armed with
+horns which none may resist.
+
+“V.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush those who are in
+their marshes, so that the countries of Mitanni may tremble for fear of
+thee,--I grant that they may see Thy Majesty like the crocodile, lord of
+terrors, in the midst of the water, which none can approach.
+
+“VI.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush those who are in
+the isles, so that the people who live in the midst of the Very-Green
+may be reached by thy roaring,--I grant that they may see Thy Majesty
+like an avenger who stands on the back of his victim.
+
+“VII.--I am come, to grant that thou mayest crush the Tihonu, so that
+the isles of the Utanâtiû may be in the power of thy souls,--I grant
+that they may see Thy Majesty like a spell-weaving lion, and that thou
+mayest make corpses of them in the midst of their own valleys.*
+
+“VIII.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the ends of the
+earth, so that the circle which surrounds the ocean may be grasped in
+thy fist,--I grant that they may see Thy Majesty as the sparrow-hawk,
+lord of the wing, who sees at a glance all that he desires.
+
+“IX.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the peoples who
+are in their “duars,” so that thou mayest bring the Hirû-shâîtû into
+captivity,--I grant that they may see Thy Majesty like the jackal of the
+south, lord of swiftness, the runner who prowls through the two lands.
+
+“X.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the nomads, so that
+the Nubians as far as the land of Pidît are in thy grasp,--I grant that
+they may see Thy Majesty like unto thy two brothers Horus and Sit, whose
+arms I have joined in order to establish thy power.”
+
+     * The name of the people associated with the Tihonu was read
+     at first Tanau, and identified with the Danai of the Greeks.
+     Chabas was inclined to read Ûtena, and Brugsch, Ûthent, more
+     correctly Utanâtiû, utanâti, the people of Uatanit. The
+     juxtaposition of this name with that of the Libyans compels
+     us to look towards the west for the site of this people: may
+     we assign to them the Ionian Islands, or even those in the
+     western Mediterranean.
+
+The poem became celebrated. When Seti I., two centuries later, commanded
+the Poet Laureates of his court to celebrate his victories in verse,
+the latter, despairing of producing anything better, borrowed the finest
+strophes from this hymn to Thûtmosis IIL, merely changing the name of
+the hero. The composition, unlike so many other triumphal inscriptions,
+is not a mere piece of official rhetoric, in which the poverty of the
+subject is concealed by a multitude of common-places whether historical
+or mythological. Egypt indeed ruled the world, either directly or
+through her vassals, and from the mountains of Abyssinia to those
+of Cilicia her armies held the nations in awe with the threat of the
+Pharaoh.
+
+The conqueror, as a rule, did not retain any part of their territory. He
+confined himself to the appropriation of the revenue of certain domains
+for the benefit of his gods.* Amon of Karnak thus became possessor of
+seven Syrian towns which he owed to the generosity of the victorious
+Pharaohs.**
+
+     * The seven towns which Amon possessed in Syria are
+     mentioned, in the time of Ramses III., in the list of the
+     domains and revenues of the god.
+
+     ** In the year XXIII., on his return from his first
+     campaign, Thûtmosis III. provided offerings, guaranteed from
+     the three towns Anaûgasa, Inûâmû, and Hûrnikarû, for his
+     father Amonrâ.
+
+Certain cities, like Tunipa, even begged for statues of Thûtmosis
+for which they built a temple and instituted a cultus. Amon and his
+fellow-gods too were adored there, side by side with the sovereign the
+inhabitants had chosen to represent them here below.* These rites were
+at once a sign of servitude, and a proof of gratitude for services
+rendered, or privileges which had been confirmed. The princes of
+neighbouring regions repaired annually to these temples to renew their
+oaths of allegiance, and to bring their tributes “before the face of the
+king.” Taking everything into account, the condition of the Pharaoh’s
+subjects might have been a pleasant one, had they been able to accept
+their lot without any mental reservation. They retained their own laws,
+their dynasties, and their frontiers, and paid a tax only in proportion
+to their resources, while the hostages given were answerable for their
+obedience. These hostages were as a rule taken by Thûtmosis from among
+the sons or the brothers of the enemy’s chief. They were carried to
+Thebes, where a suitable establishment was assigned to them,** the
+younger members receiving an education which practically made them
+Egyptians.
+
+     * The statues of Thûtmosis III. and of the gods of Egypt
+     erected at Tunipa are mentioned in a letter from the
+     inhabitants of that town to Amenôthes III. Later, Ramses
+     II., speaking of the two towns in the country of the Khâti
+     in which were two statues of His Majesty, mentions Tunipa as
+     one of them.
+
+     ** The various titles of the lists of Thûtmosis III. at
+     Thebes show us “the children of the Syrian chiefs conducted
+     as prisoners” into the town of Sûhanû, which is elsewhere
+     mentioned as the depot, the prison of the temple of Anion.
+     W. Max Mullcr was the first to remark the historical value
+     of this indication, but without sufficiently insisting on
+     it; the name indicates, perhaps, as he says, a great prison,
+     but a prison like those where the princes of the family of
+     the Ottoman sultans were confined by the reigning monarch--
+     a palace usually provided with all the comforts of Oriental
+     life.
+
+As soon as a vacancy occurred in the succession either in Syria or in
+Ethiopia, the Pharaoh would choose from among the members of the family
+whom he held in reserve, that prince on whose loyalty he could best
+count, and placed him upon the throne.* The method of procedure was not
+always successful, since these princes, whom one would have supposed
+from their training to have been the least likely to have asserted
+themselves against the man to whom they owed their elevation, often gave
+more trouble than others. The sense of the supreme power of Egypt, which
+had been inculcated in them during their exile, seemed to be weakened
+after their return to their native country, and to give place to a
+sense of their own importance. Their hearts misgave them as the time
+approached for them to send their own children as pledges to their
+suzerain, and also when called upon to transfer a considerable part of
+their revenue to his treasury. They found, moreover, among their own
+cities and kinsfolk, those who were adverse to the foreign yoke, and
+secretly urged their countrymen to revolt, or else competitors for the
+throne who took advantage of the popular discontent to pose as champions
+of national independence, and it was difficult for the vassal prince to
+counteract the intrigues of these adversaries without openly declaring
+himself hostile to his foreign master.**
+
+     * Among the Tel el-Amarna tablets there is a letter of a
+     petty Syrian king, Adadnirari, whose father was enthroned
+     after a fashion in Nûkhassi by Thûtmosis III.
+
+     ** Thus, in the Tel el-Amarna correspondence, Zimrida,
+     governor of Sidon, gives information to Amenôthes III. on
+     the intrigues which the notables of the town were concocting
+     against Egyptian authority. Ribaddû relates in one of these
+     despatches that the notables of Byblos and the women of his
+     harem were urging him to revolt; later, a letter of Amûnirâ
+     to the King of Egypt informs us that Ribaddû had been driven
+     from Byblos by his own brother.
+
+A time quickly came when a vestige of fear alone constrained them to
+conceal their wish for liberty; the most trivial incident then sufficed
+to give them the necessary encouragement, and decided them to throw
+off the mask, a repulse or the report of a repulse suffered by the
+Egyptians, the news of a popular rising in some neighbouring state, the
+passing visit of a Chaldæan emissary who left behind him the hope
+of support and perhaps of subsidies from Babylon, and the unexpected
+arrival of a troop of mercenaries whose services might be hired for
+the occasion.* A rising of this sort usually brought about the most
+disastrous results. The native prince or the town itself could keep back
+the tribute and own allegiance to no one during the few months required
+to convince Pharaoh of their defection and to allow him to prepare the
+necessary means of vengeance; the advent of the Egyptians followed, and
+the work of repression was systematically set in hand. They destroyed
+the harvests, whether green or ready for the sickle, they cut down the
+palms and olive trees, they tore up the vines, seized on the flocks,
+dismantled the strongholds, and took the inhabitants prisoners.**
+
+     * Bûrnabûriash, King of Babylon, speaks of Syrian agents who
+     had come to ask for support from his father, Kûrigalzû, and
+     adds that the latter had counselled submission. In one of
+     the letters preserved in the British Museum, Azîrû defends
+     himself for having received an emissary of the King of the
+     Khâti.
+
+     ** Cf. the raiding, for instance, of the regions of Arvad
+     and of the Zahi by Thûtmosis III., described in the Annals,
+     11. 4, 5. We are still in possession of the threats which
+     the messenger Khâni made against the rebellious chief of a
+     province of the Zahi--possibly Aziru.
+
+The rebellious prince had to deliver up his silver and gold, the
+contents of his palace, even his children,* and when he had finally
+obtained peace by means of endless sacrifices, he found himself a vassal
+as before, but with an empty treasury, a wasted country, and a decimated
+people.
+
+     * See, in the accounts of the campaigns of Thûtmosis, the
+     record of the spoils, as well as the mention of the children
+     of the chiefs brought as prisoners into Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: 015.jpg A SYRIAN TOWN AND ITS OUTSKIRTS AFTER AN EGYPTIAN
+ARMY HAD PASSED THROUGH IT]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Gayet.
+
+In spite of all this, some head-strong native princes never relinquished
+the hope of freedom, and no sooner had they made good the breaches in
+their walls as far as they were able, than they entered once more
+on this unequal contest, though at the risk of bringing irreparable
+disaster on their country. The majority of them, after one such
+struggle, resigned themselves to the inevitable, and fulfilled their
+feudal obligations regularly. They paid their fixed contribution,
+furnished rations and stores to the army when passing through their
+territory, and informed the ministers at Thebes of any intrigues among
+their neighbours.* Years elapsed before they could so far forget the
+failure of their first attempt to regain independence, as to venture to
+make a second, and expose themselves to fresh reverses.
+
+The administration of so vast an empire entailed but a small
+expenditure on the Egyptians, and required the offices of merely a few
+functionaries.** The garrisons which they kept up in foreign provinces
+lived on the country, and were composed mainly of light troops, archers,
+a certain proportion of heavy infantry, and a few minor detachments of
+chariotry dispersed among the principal fortresses.***
+
+     * We find in the _Annals_, in addition to the enumeration of
+     the tributes, the mention of the foraging arrangements which
+     the chiefs were compelled to make for the army on its
+     passage. We find among the tablets letters from Aziru
+     denouncing the intrigues of the Khâti; letters also of
+     Ribaddu pointing out the misdeeds of Abdashirti, and other
+     communications of the same nature, which demonstrate the
+     supervision exercised by the petty Syrian princes over each
+     other.
+
+     ** Under Thûtmosis III. we have among others “Mir,” or “Nasi
+     sîtû mihâtîtû,” “governors of the northern countries,” the
+     Thûtîi who became afterwards a hero of romance. The
+     individuals who bore this title held a middle rank in the
+     Egyptian hierarchy.
+
+     *** The archers--_pidâtid, pidâti, pidâte_--and the
+     chariotry quartered in Syria are often mentioned in the Tel
+     el-Amarna correspondence. Steindorff has recognised the term
+     -ddû aûîtû, meaning infantry, in the word ûeû, ûiû, of the
+     Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+
+The officers in command had orders to interfere as little as possible
+in local affairs, and to leave the natives to dispute or even to fight
+among themselves unhindered, so long as their quarrels did not threaten
+the security of the Pharaoh.* It was never part of the policy of Egypt
+to insist on her foreign subjects keeping an unbroken peace among
+themselves. If, theoretically, she did not recognise the right of
+private warfare, she at all events tolerated its practice. It mattered
+little to her whether some particular province passed out of the
+possession of a certain Eibaddû into that of a certain Azîru, or _vice
+versa_, so long as both Eibaddû and Azîru remained her faithful slaves.
+She never sought to repress their incessant quarrelling until such time
+as it threatened to take the form of an insurrection against her own
+power. Then alone did she throw off her neutrality; taking the side of
+one or other of the dissentients, she would grant him, as a pledge of
+help, ten, twenty, thirty, or even more archers.**
+
+     * A half at least of the Tel el-Amarna correspondence treats
+     of provincial wars between the kings of towns and countries
+     subject to Egypt--wars of Abdashirti and his son Azîru
+     against the cities of the Phoenician coast, wars of
+     Abdikhiba, or Abdi-Tabba, King of Jerusalem, against the
+     chiefs of the neighbouring cities.
+
+     ** Abimilki (Abisharri) demands on one occasion from the
+     King of Egypt ten men to defend Tyre, on another occasion
+     twenty; the town of Gula requisitioned thirty or forty to
+     guard it. Delattre thinks that these are rhetorical
+     expressions answering to a general word, just as if we
+     should say “a handful of men”; the difference of value in
+     the figures is to me a proof of their reality.
+
+No doubt the discipline and personal courage of these veterans exercised
+a certain influence on the turn of events, but they were after all a
+mere handful of men, and their individual action in the combat would
+scarcely ever have been sufficient to decide the result; the actual
+importance of their support, in spite of their numerical inferiority,
+lay in the moral weight they brought to the side on which they fought,
+since they represented the whole army of the Pharaoh which lay behind
+them, and their presence in a camp always ensured final success. The
+vanquished party had the right of appeal to the sovereign, through whom
+he might obtain a mitigation of the lot which his successful adversary
+had prepared for him; it was to the interest of Egypt to keep the
+balance of power as evenly as possible between the various states which
+looked to her, and when she prevented one or other of the princes from
+completely crushing his rivals, she was minimising the danger which
+might soon arise from the vassal whom she had allowed to extend his
+territory at the expense of others.
+
+These relations gave rise to a perpetual exchange of letters and
+petitions between the court of Thebes and the northern and southern
+provinces, in which all the petty kings of Africa and Asia, of whatever
+colour or race, set forth, either openly or covertly, their ambitions
+and their fears, imploring a favour or begging for a subsidy, revealing
+the real or suspected intrigues of their fellow-chiefs, and while loudly
+proclaiming their own loyalty, denouncing the perfidy and the secret
+projects of their neighbours. As the Ethiopian peoples did not,
+apparently, possess an alphabet of their own, half of the correspondence
+which concerned them was carried on in Egyptian, and written on papyrus.
+In Syria, however, where Babylonian civilization maintained itself
+in spite of its conquest by Thûtmosis, cuneiform writing was still
+employed, and tablets of dried clay.* It had, therefore, been found
+necessary to establish in the Pharaoh’s palace a department for this
+service, in which the scribes should be competent to decipher the
+Chaldæan character. Dictionaries and easy mythological texts had been
+procured for their instruction, by means of which they had learned the
+meaning of words and the construction of sentences. Having once mastered
+the mechanism of the syllabary, they set to work to translate the
+despatches, marking on the back of each the date and the place from
+whence it came, and if necessary making a draft of the reply.** In these
+the Pharaoh does not appear, as a rule, to have insisted on the endless
+titles which we find so lavishly used in his inscriptions, but the
+shortened protocol employed shows that the theory of his divinity was
+as fully acknowledged by strangers as it was by his own subjects. They
+greet him as their sun, the god before whom they prostrate themselves
+seven times seven, while they are his slaves, his dogs, and the dust
+beneath his feet.***
+
+     * A discovery made by the fellahîn, in 1887, at Tel el-
+     Arnarna, in the rums of the palace of Khûniaton, brought to
+     light a portion of the correspondence between Asiatic
+     monarchs, whether vassals or independent of Egypt, with the
+     officers of Amenôthes III. and IV., and with these Pharaohs
+     themselves.
+
+     ** Several of these registrations are still to be read on
+     the backs of the tablets at Berlin, London, and Gîzeh.
+
+     ***The protocols of the letters of Abdashirti may be taken
+     as an example, or those of Abimilki to Pharaoh, sometimes
+     there is a development of the protocol which assumes
+     panegyrical features similar to those met with in Egypt.
+
+The runners to whom these documents were entrusted, and who delivered
+them with their own hand, were not, as a rule, persons of any
+consideration; but for missions of grave importance “the king’s
+messengers” were employed, whose functions in time became extended to
+a remarkable degree. Those who were restricted to a limited sphere
+of activity were called “the king’s messengers for the regions of
+the south,” or “the king’s messengers for the regions of the north,”
+ according to their proficiency in the idiom and customs of Africa or of
+Asia. Others were deemed capable of undertaking missions wherever they
+might be required, and were, therefore, designated by the bold title of
+“the king’s messengers for all lands.” In this case extended powers were
+conferred upon them, and they were permitted to cut short the disputes
+between two cities in some province they had to inspect, to excuse from
+tribute, to receive presents and hostages, and even princesses destined
+for the harem of the Pharaoh, and also to grant the support of troops
+to such as could give adequate reason for seeking it.* Their tasks were
+always of a delicate and not infrequently of a perilous nature, and
+constantly exposed them to the danger of being robbed by highwaymen or
+maltreated by some insubordinate vassal, at times even running the risk
+of mutilation or assassination by the way.**
+
+     * The Tel el-Amarna correspondence shows the messengers in
+     the time of Amenôthes III. and IV. as receiving tribute, as
+     bringing an army to the succour of a chief in difficulties,
+     as threatening with the anger of the Pharaoh the princes o£
+     doubtful loyalty, as giving to a faithful vassal compliments
+     and honours from his suzerain, as charged with the
+     conveyance of a gift of slaves, or of escorting a princess
+     to the harem of the Pharaoh.
+
+     ** A letter of Ribaddu, in the time of Amenôthes III.,
+     represents a royal messenger as blockaded in By bios by the
+     rebels.
+
+They were obliged to brave the dangers of the forests of Lebanon and of
+the Taurus, the solitudes of Mesopotamia, the marshes of Chaldoa, the
+voyages to Pûanît and Asia Minor. Some took their way towards Assyria
+and Babylon, while others embarked at Tyre or Sidon for the islands of
+the Ægean Archipelago.* The endurance of all these officers, whether
+governors or messengers, their courage, their tact, the ready wit they
+were obliged to summon to help them out of the difficulties into which
+their calling frequently brought them, all tended to enlist the public
+sympathy in their favour.**
+
+     * We hear from the tablets of several messengers to Babylon,
+     and the Mitanni, Rasi, Mani, Khamassi. The royal messenger
+     Thûtîi, who governed the countries of the north, speaks of
+     having satisfied the heart of the king in “the isles which
+     are in the midst of the sea.” This was not, as some think, a
+     case of hyperbole, for the messengers could embark on
+     Phoenician vessels; they had a less distance to cover in
+     order to reach the Ægean than the royal messenger of Queen
+     Hâtshopsîtû had before arriving at the country of the
+     Somalis and the “Ladders of Incense.”
+
+     ** The hero of the _Anastasi Papyrus_, No. 1, with whom
+     Chabas made us acquainted in his _Voyage d’un Égyptien_, is
+     probably a type of the “messenger” or the time of Ramses
+     II.; in any case, his itinerary and adventures are natural
+     to a “royal messenger” compelled to traverse Syria alone.
+
+Many of them achieved a reputation, and were made the heroes of popular
+romance. More than three centuries after it was still related how one
+of them, by name Thûtîi, had reduced and humbled Jaffa, whose chief had
+refused to come to terms. Thûtîi set about his task by feigning to throw
+off his allegiance to Thûtmosis III., and withdrew from the Egyptian
+service, having first stolen the great magic wand of his lord; he then
+invited the rebellious chief into his camp, under pretence of showing
+him this formidable talisman, and killed him after they had drunk
+together. The cunning envoy then packed five hundred of his soldiers
+into jars, and caused them to be carried on the backs of asses before
+the gates of the town, where he made the herald of the murdered prince
+proclaim that the Egyptians had been defeated, and that the pack train
+which accompanied him contained the spoil, among which was Thûtîi
+himself. The officer in charge of the city gate was deceived by this
+harangue, the asses were admitted within the walls, where the soldiers
+quitted their jars, massacred the garrison, and made themselves masters
+of the town. The tale is, in the main, the story of Ali Baba and the
+forty thieves.
+
+The frontier was continually shifting, and Thûtmosis III., like
+Thûtmosis I., vainly endeavoured to give it a fixed character by
+erecting stelas along the banks of the Euphrates, at those points
+where he contended it had run formerly. While Kharu and Phoenicia were
+completely in the hands of the conqueror, his suzerainty became more
+uncertain as it extended northwards in the direction of the Taurus.
+Beyond Qodshû, it could only be maintained by means of constant
+supervision, and in Naharaim its duration was coextensive with the
+sojourn of the conqueror in the locality during his campaign, for it
+vanished of itself as soon as he had set out on his return to Africa.
+It will be thus seen that, on the continent of Asia, Egypt possessed a
+nucleus of territories, so far securely under her rule that they might
+be actually reckoned as provinces; beyond this immediate domain there
+was a zone of waning influence, whose area varied with each reign, and
+even under one king depended largely on the activity which he personally
+displayed.
+
+This was always the case when the rulers of Egypt attempted to carry
+their supremacy beyond the isthmus; whether under the Ptolemies or the
+native kings, the distance to which her influence extended was always
+practically the same, and the teaching of history enables us to note its
+limits on the map with relative accuracy.*
+
+     * The development of the Egyptian navy enabled the Ptolemies
+     to exercise authority over the coasts of Asia Minor and of
+     Thrace, but this extension of their power beyond the
+     indicated limits only hastened the exhaustion of their
+     empire. This instance, like that of Mehemet Ali, thus
+     confirms the position taken up in the text.
+
+The coast towns, which were in maritime communication with the ports of
+the Delta, submitted to the Egyptian yoke more readily than those of the
+interior. But this submission could not be reckoned on beyond Berytus,
+on the banks of the Lykos, though occasionally it stretched a little
+further north as far as Byblos and Arvad; even then it did not extend
+inland, and the curve marking its limits traverses Coele-Syria from
+north-west to south-east, terminating at Mount Hermon. Damascus,
+securely entrenched behind Anti-Lebanon, almost always lay outside this
+limit. The rulers of Egypt generally succeeded without much difficulty
+in keeping possession of the countries lying to the south of this line;
+it demanded merely a slight effort, and this could be furnished for
+several centuries without encroaching seriously on the resources of the
+country, or endangering its prosperity. When, however, some province
+ventured to break away from the control of Egypt, the whole mechanism
+of the government was put into operation to provide soldiers and the
+necessary means for an expedition. Each stage of the advance beyond the
+frontier demanded a greater expenditure of energy, which, with prolonged
+distances, would naturally become exhausted. The expedition would
+scarcely have reached the Taurus or the Euphrates, before the force
+of circumstances would bring about its recall homewards, leaving but a
+slight bond of vassalage between the recently subdued countries and the
+conqueror, which would speedily be cast off or give place to relations
+dictated by interest or courtesy. Thûtmosis III. had to submit to this
+sort of necessary law; a further extension of territory had hardly
+been gained when his dominion began to shrink within the frontiers that
+appeared to have been prescribed by nature for an empire like that
+of Egypt. Kharû and Phoenicia proper paid him their tithes with due
+regularity; the cities of the Amurru and of Zahi, of Damascus, Qodshû,
+Hamath, and even of Tunipa, lying on the outskirts of these two subject
+nations, formed an ill-defined borderland, kept in a state of perpetual
+disturbance by the secret intrigues or open rebellions of the native
+princes. The kings of Alasia, Naharaim, and Mitanni preserved their
+independence in spite of repeated reverses, and they treated with the
+conqueror on equal terms.*
+
+     * The difference of tone between the letters of these kings
+     and those of the other princes, as well as the consequences
+     arising from it, has been clearly defined by Delattre.
+
+The tone of their letters to the Pharaoh, the polite formulas with which
+they addressed him, the special protocol which the Egyptian ministry had
+drawn up for their reply, all differ widely from those which we see in
+the despatches coming from commanders of garrisons or actual vassals. In
+the former it is no longer a slave or a feudatory addressing his master
+and awaiting his orders, but equals holding courteous communication
+with each other, the brother of Alasia or of Mitanni with his brother of
+Egypt. They inform him of their good health, and then, before entering
+on business, they express their good wishes for himself, his wives, his
+sons, the lords of his court, his brave soldiers, and for his horses.
+They were careful never to forget that with a single word their
+correspondent could let loose upon them a whirlwind of chariots and
+archers without number, but the respect they felt for his formidable
+power never degenerated into a fear which would humiliate them before
+him with their faces in the dust.
+
+This interchange of diplomatic compliments was called for by a variety
+of exigencies, such as incidents arising on the frontier, secret
+intrigues, personal alliances, and questions of general politics. The
+kings of Mesopotamia and of Northern Syria, even those of Assyria and
+Chaldæa, who were preserved by distance from the dangers of a direct
+invasion, were in constant fear of an unexpected war, and heartily
+desired the downfall of Egypt; they endeavoured meanwhile to occupy the
+Pharaoh so fully at home that he had no leisure to attack them. Even if
+they did not venture to give open encouragement to the disposition in
+his subjects to revolt, they at least experienced no scruple in hiring
+emissaries who secretly fanned the flame of discontent. The Pharaoh,
+aroused to indignation by such plotting, reminded them of their
+former oaths and treaties. The king in question would thereupon deny
+everything, would speak of his tried friendship, and recall the fact
+that he had refused to help a rebel against his beloved brother.* These
+protestations of innocence were usually accompanied by presents, and
+produced a twofold effect. They soothed the anger of the offended party,
+and suggested not only a courteous answer, but the sending of still more
+valuable gifts. Oriental etiquette, even in those early times, demanded
+that the present of a less rich or powerful friend should place the
+recipient under the obligation of sending back a gift of still greater
+worth. Every one, therefore, whether great or little, was obliged to
+regulate his liberality according to the estimation in which he held
+himself, or to the opinion which others formed of him, and a personage
+of such opulence as the King of Egypt was constrained by the laws of
+common civility to display an almost boundless generosity: was he not
+free to work the mines of the Divine Land or the diggings of the Upper
+Nile; and as for gold, “was it not as the dust of his country”?**
+
+     * See the letter of Amenôthes III. to Kallimmasin of
+     Babylon, where the King of Egypt complains of the inimical
+     designs which the Babylonian messengers had planned against
+     him, and of the intrigues they had connected on their return
+     to their own country; see also the letter from Burnaburiash
+     to Amenôthes IV., in which he defends himself from the
+     accusation of having plotted against the King of Egypt at
+     any time, and recalls the circumstance that his father
+     Kurigalzu had refused to encourage the rebellion of one of
+     the Syrian tribes, subjects of Amenôthes III.
+
+     ** See the letter of Dushratta, King of Mitanni, to the
+     Pharaoh Amenôthes IV.
+
+He would have desired nothing better than to exhibit such liberality,
+had not the repeated calls on his purse at last constrained him to
+parsimony; he would have been ruined, and Egypt with him, had he given
+all that was expected of him. Except in a few extraordinary cases,
+the gifts sent never realised the expectations of the recipients; for
+instance, when twenty or thirty pounds of precious metal were looked
+for, the amount despatched would be merely two or three. The indignation
+of these disappointed beggars and their recriminations were then most
+amusing: “From the time when my father and thine entered into friendly
+relations, they loaded each other with presents, and never waited to be
+asked to exchange amenities;* and now my brother sends me two minas of
+gold as a gift! Send me abundance of gold, as much as thy father sent,
+and even, for so it must be, more than thy father.” ** Pretexts
+were never wanting to give reasonable weight to such demands: one
+correspondent had begun to build a temple or a palace in one of his
+capitals,*** another was reserving his fairest daughter for the Pharaoh,
+and he gave him to understand that anything he might receive would help
+to complete the bride’s trousseau.****
+
+     * Burnaburiash complains that the king’s messengers had only
+     brought him on one occasion two minas of gold, on another
+     occasion twenty minas; moreover, that the quality of the
+     metal was so bad that hardly five minas of pure gold could
+     be extracted from it.
+
+     ** Literally, “and they would never make each other a fair
+     request.” The meaning I propose is doubtful, but it appears
+     to be required by the context. The letter from which this
+     passage was taken is from Burnaburiash, King of Babylon, to
+     Amenôthes IV.
+
+     *** This is the pretext advanced by Burnaburiash in the
+     letter just cited.
+
+     **** This seems to have been the motive in a somewhat
+     embarrassing letter which Dushratta, King of Mitanni, wrote
+     to the Pharaoh Amenôthes III. on the occasion of his fixing
+     the dowry of his daughter.
+
+The princesses thus sent from Babylon or Mitanni to the court of Thebes
+enjoyed on their arrival a more honourable welcome, and were assigned
+a more exalted rank than those who came from Kharû and Phoenicia. As a
+matter of fact, they were not hostages given over to the conqueror to be
+disposed of at will, but queens who were united in legal marriage to an
+ally.* Once admitted to the Pharaoh’s court, they retained their full
+rights as his wife, as well as their own fortune and mode of life. Some
+would bring to their betrothed chests of jewels, utensils, and stuffs,
+the enumeration of which would cover both sides of a large tablet;
+others would arrive escorted by several hundred slaves or matrons as
+personal attendants.** A few of them preserved their original name,***
+many assumed an Egyptian designation,**** and so far adapted themselves
+to the costumes, manners, and language of their adopted country, that
+they dropped all intercourse with their native land, and became regular
+Egyptians.
+
+     * The daughter of the King of the Khâti, wife of Ramses IL,
+     was treated, as we see from the monuments, with as much
+     honour as would have been accorded to Egyptian princesses of
+     pure blood.
+
+     ** Gilukhipa, who was sent to Egypt to become the wife of
+     Amenôthes III., took with her a company of three hundred and
+     seventy women for her service. She was a daughter of
+     Sutarna, King of Mitanni, and is mentioned several times in
+     the Tel el-Amarna correspondence.
+
+     *** For example, Gilukhipa, whose name is transcribed
+     Kilagîpa in Egyptian, and another princess of Mitanni, niece
+     of Gilukhipa, called Tadu-khîpa, daughter of Dushratta and
+     wife of Amenôthes IV.
+
+     **** The prince of the Khâti’s daughter who married Ramses
+     II. is an example; we know her only by her Egyptian name
+     Mâîtnofîrûrî. The wife of Ramses III. added to the Egyptian
+     name of Isis her original name, Humazarati.
+
+When, after several years, an ambassador arrived with greetings from
+their father or brother, he would be puzzled by the changed appearance
+of these ladies, and would almost doubt their identity: indeed, those
+only who had been about them in childhood were in such cases able
+to recognise them.* These princesses all adopted the gods of their
+husbands,** though without necessarily renouncing their own. From time
+to time their parents would send them, with much pomp, a statue of one
+of their national divinities--Ishtar, for example--which, accompanied by
+native priests, would remain for some months at the court.***
+
+     * This was the case with the daughter of Kallimmasin, King
+     of Babylon, married to Amenôthes III.; her father’s
+     ambassador did not recognise her.
+
+     ** The daughter of the King of the Khâti, wife of Ramses
+     II., is represented in an attitude of worship before her
+     deified husband and two Egyptian gods.
+
+     *** Dushratta of Mitanni, sending a statue of Ishtar to his
+     daughter, wife of Amenôthes III., reminds her that the same
+     statue had already made the voyage to Egypt in the time of
+     his father Sutarna.
+
+The children of these queens ranked next in order to those whose mothers
+belonged to the solar race, but nothing prevented them marrying their
+brothers or sisters of pure descent, and being eventually raised to
+the throne. The members of their families who remained in Asia were
+naturally proud of these bonds of close affinity with the Pharaoh, and
+they rarely missed an opportunity of reminding him in their letters that
+they stood to him in the relationship of brother-in-law, or one of his
+fathers-in-law; their vanity stood them in good stead, since it afforded
+them another claim on the favours which they were perpetually asking of
+him.*
+
+     * Dushratta of Mitanni never loses an opportunity of calling
+     Aoienôthes III., husband of his sister Gilukhîpa, and of one
+     of his daughters, “akhiya,” my brother, and “khatani-ya,” my
+     son-in-law.
+
+These foreign wives had often to interfere in some of the contentions
+which were bound to arise between two States whose subjects were in
+constant intercourse with one another. Invasions or provincial wars may
+have affected or even temporarily suspended the passage to and from of
+caravans between the countries of the Tigris and those of the Nile; but
+as soon as peace was re-established, even though it were the insecure
+peace of those distant ages, the desert traffic was again resumed and
+carried on with renewed vigour. The Egyptian traders who penetrated
+into regions beyond the Euphrates, carried with them, and almost
+unconsciously disseminated along the whole extent of their route, the
+numberless products of Egyptian industry, hitherto but little known
+outside their own country, and rendered expensive owing to the
+difficulty of transmission or the greed of the merchants. The Syrians
+now saw for the first time in great quantities, objects which had been
+known to them hitherto merely through the few rare specimens which made
+their way across the frontier: arms, stuffs, metal implements, household
+utensils--in fine, all the objects which ministered to daily needs or to
+luxury. These were now offered to them at reasonable prices, either
+by the hawkers who accompanied the army or by the soldiers themselves,
+always ready, as soldiers are, to part with their possessions in order
+to procure a few extra pleasures in the intervals of fighting.
+
+[Illustration: 031.jpg THE LOTANÛ AND THE GOLDSMITHS’WORK CONSTITUTING
+THEIR TRIBUTE]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger. The scene
+     here reproduced occurs in most of the Theban tombs of the
+     XVIIII. dynasty.
+
+On the other hand, whole convoys of spoil were despatched to Egypt
+after every successful campaign, and their contents were distributed in
+varying proportions among all classes of society, from the militiaman
+belonging to some feudal contingent, who received, as a reward of his
+valour, some half-dozen necklaces or bracelets, to the great lord of
+ancient family or the Crown Prince, who carried off waggon-loads of
+booty in their train. These distributions must have stimulated a passion
+for all Syrian goods, and as the spoil was insufficient to satisfy the
+increasing demands of the consumer, the waning commerce which had been
+carried on from early times was once more revived and extended, till
+every route, whether by land or water, between Thebes, Memphis, and the
+Asiatic cities, was thronged by those engaged in its pursuit. It would
+take too long to enumerate the various objects of merchandise brought
+in almost daily to the marts on the Nile by Phoenician vessels or the
+owners of caravans. They comprised slaves destined for the workshop or
+the harem,* Hittite bulls and stallions, horses from Singar, oxen from
+Alasia, rare and curious animals such as elephants from Nîi, and
+brown bears from the Lebanon,** smoked and salted fish, live birds of
+many-coloured plumage, goldsmiths’work*** and precious stones, of which
+lapis-lazuli was the chief.
+
+     * Syrian slaves are mentioned along with Ethiopian in the
+     _Anastasi Papyrus_, No. 1, and there is mention in the Tel
+     el-Amarna correspondence of Hittite slaves whom Dushratta of
+     Mitanni brought to Amenôthes III., and of other presents of
+     the same kind made by the King of Alasia as a testimony of
+     his grateful homage.
+
+     ** The elephant and the bear are represented on the tomb of
+     liakhmirî among the articles of tribute brought into Egypt.
+
+     *** The _Annals of Thutmosis III_. make a record in each
+     campaign of the importation of gold and silver vases,
+     objects in lapis-lazuli and crystal, or of blocks of the
+     same materials; the Theban tombs of this period afford
+     examples of the vases and blocks brought by the Syrians. The
+     Tel el-Amarna letters also mention vessels of gold or blocks
+     of precious stone sent as presents or as objects of exchange
+     to the Pharaoh by the King of Babylon, by the King of
+     Mitanni, by the King of the Hittites, and by other princes.
+     The lapis-lazuli of Babylon, which probably came from
+     Persia, was that which was most prized by the Egyptians on
+     account of the golden sparks in it, which enhanced the blue
+     colour; this is, perhaps, the Uknu of the cuneiform
+     inscriptions, which has been read for a long time as
+     “crystal.”
+
+[Illustration: 032b.jpg PAINTED TABLETS IN THE HALL OF HARPS]
+
+Wood for building or for ornamental work--pine,cypress, yew, cedar,
+and oak,* musical instruments,** helmets, leathern jerkins covered with
+metal scales, weapons of bronze and iron,*** chariots,**** dyed and
+embroidered stuffs,^ perfumes,^^ dried cakes, oil, wines of Kharû,
+liqueurs from Alasia, Khâti, Singar, Naharaim, Amurru, and beer from
+Qodi.^^^
+
+     * Building and ornamental woods are often mentioned in the
+     inscriptions of Thûtmosis III. A scene at Karnak represents
+     Seti I. causing building-wood to be cut in the region of the
+     Lebanon. A letter of the King of Alasia speaks of
+     contributions of wood which several of his subjects had to
+     make to the King of Egypt.
+
+     ** Some stringed instruments of music, and two or three
+     kinds of flutes and flageolets, are designated in Egyptian
+     by names borrowed from some Semitic tongue--a fact which
+     proves that they were imported; the wooden framework of the
+     harp, decorated with sculptured heads of Astartô, figures
+     among the objects coming from Syria in the temple of the
+     Theban Anion.
+
+     *** Several names of arms borrowed from some Semitic dialect
+     have been noticed in the texts of this period. The objects
+     as well as the words must have been imported into Egypt,
+     e.g. the quiver, the sword and javelins used by the
+     charioteers. Cuirasses and leathern jerkins are mentioned in
+     the inscriptions of Thûtmosis III.
+
+     **** Chariots plated with gold and silver figure frequently
+     among the spoils of Thûtmosis III.: the Anastasi Papyrus,
+     No. 1, contains a detailed description of Syrian chariots--
+     Markabûti--with a reference to the localities whore certain
+     parts of them were made;--the country of the Amurru, that of
+     Aûpa, the town of Pahira. The Tel el-Amarna correspondence
+     mentions very frequently chariots sent to the Pharaoh by the
+     King of Babylon, either as presents or to be sold in Egypt;
+     others sent by the King of Alasia and by the King of
+     Mitanni.
+
+     ^ Some linen, cotton, or woollen stuffs are mentioned in the
+     _Anastasi Papyrus_, No. 4, and elsewhere as coming from
+     Syria. The Egyptian love of white linen always prevented
+     their estimating highly the coloured and brocaded stuffs of
+     Asia; and one sees nowhere, in the representations, any
+     examples of stuffs of such origin, except on furniture or in
+     ships equipped with something of the kind in the form of
+     sails.
+
+     ^^ The perfumed oils of Syria are mentioned in a general way
+     in the _Anastasi Papyrus_, No. 1; the King of Alasia speaks
+     of essences which he is sending to Amenôthes III.; the King
+     of Mitanni refers to bottles of oil which he is forwarding
+     to Gilukhîpa and to Tii.
+
+     ^^^ A list of cakes of Syrian origin is found in the
+     _Anastasi Papyrus_, No. 1; also a reference to balsamic oils
+     from Naharaim, and to various oils which had arrived in the
+     ports of the Delta, to the wines of Syria, to palm wine and
+     various liqueurs manufactured in Alasia, in Singar, among
+     the Khâti, Amorites, and the people of. Tikhisa; finally, to
+     the beer of Qodi.
+
+[Illustration: 034.jpg. THE BEAR AND ELEPHANT BROUGHT AS TRIBUTE IN THE
+TOMB OF RAKHMIRI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph of Prisse
+     d’Avennes’ sketch.
+
+On arriving at the frontier, whether by sea or by land, the majority of
+these objects had to pay the custom dues which were rigorously collected
+by the officers of the Pharaoh. This, no doubt, was a reprisal tariff,
+since independent sovereigns, such as those of Mitanni, Assyria, and
+Babylon, were accustomed to impose a similar duty on all the products
+of Egypt. The latter, indeed, supplied more than she received, for many
+articles which reached her in their raw condition were, by means of
+native industry, worked up and exported as ornaments, vases, and highly
+decorated weapons, which, in the course of international traffic, were
+dispersed to all four corners of the earth. The merchants of Babylon and
+Assyria had little to fear as long as they kept within the domains of
+their own sovereign or in those of the Pharaoh; but no sooner did they
+venture within the borders of those turbulent states which separated
+the two great powers, than they were exposed to dangers at every turn.
+Safe-conducts were of little use if they had not taken the additional
+precaution of providing a strong escort and carefully guarding their
+caravan, for the Shaûsû concealed in the depths of the Lebanon or the
+needy sheikhs of Kharû could never resist the temptation to rob the
+passing traveller.*
+
+     * The scribe who in the reign of Ramses II. composed the
+     _Travels of an Egyptian_, speaks in several places of
+     marauding tribes and robbers, who infested the roads
+     followed by the hero. The Tel el-Amarna correspondence
+     contains a letter from the King of Alasia, who exculpates
+     himself from being implicated in the harsh treatment certain
+     Egyptians had received in passing through his territory; and
+     another letter in which the King of Babylon complains that
+     Chaldoan merchants had been robbed at Khinnatun, in Galilee,
+     by the Prince of Akku (Acre) and his accomplices: one of
+     them had his feet cut off, and the other was still a
+     prisoner in Akku, and Burnaburiash demands from Amenôthes
+     IV. the death of the guilty persons.
+
+The victims complained to their king, who felt no hesitation in passing
+on their woes to the sovereign under whose rule the pillagers were
+supposed to live. He demanded their punishment, but his request was not
+always granted, owing to the difficulties of finding out and seizing the
+offenders. An indemnity, however, could be obtained which would nearly
+compensate the merchants for the loss sustained. In many cases justice
+had but little to do with the negotiations, in which self-interest was
+the chief motive; but repeated refusals would have discouraged traders,
+and by lessening the facilities of transit, have diminished the revenue
+which the state drew from its foreign commerce.
+
+The question became a more delicate one when it concerned the rights of
+subjects residing out of their native country. Foreigners, as a rule,
+were well received in Egypt; the whole country was open to them;
+they could marry, they could acquire houses and lands, they enjoyed
+permission to follow their own religion unhindered, they were eligible
+for public honours, and more than one of the officers of the crown
+whose tombs we see at Thebes were themselves Syrians, or born of Syrian
+parents on the banks of the Nile.*
+
+     * In a letter from the King of Alasia, there is question of
+     a merchant who had died in Egypt. Among other monuments
+     proving the presence of Syrians about the Pharaoh, is the
+     stele of Ben-Azana, of the town of Zairabizana, surnamed
+     Ramses-Empirî: he was surrounded with Semites like himself.
+
+Hence, those who settled in Egypt without any intention of returning to
+their own country enjoyed all the advantages possessed by the natives,
+whereas those who took up a merely temporary abode there were more
+limited in their privileges. They were granted the permission to hold
+property in the country, and also the right to buy and sell there, but
+they were not allowed to transmit their possessions at will, and if by
+chance they died on Egyptian soil, their goods lapsed as a forfeit to
+the crown. The heirs remaining in the native country of the dead man,
+who were ruined by this confiscation, sometimes petitioned the king to
+interfere in their favour with a view of obtaining restitution. If the
+Pharaoh consented to waive his right of forfeiture, and made over
+the confiscated objects or their equivalent to the relatives of the
+deceased, it was solely by an act of mercy, and as an example to foreign
+governments to treat Egyptians with a like clemency should they chance
+to proffer a similar request.*
+
+     * All this seems to result from a letter in which the King
+     of Alasia demands from Amenôthes III. the restitution of the
+     goods of one of his subjects who had died in Egypt; the tone
+     of the letter is that of one asking a favour, and on the
+     supposition that the King of Egypt had a right to keep the
+     property of a foreigner dying on his territory.
+
+It is also not improbable that the sovereigns themselves had a personal
+interest in more than one commercial undertaking, and that they were
+the partners, or, at any rate, interested in the enterprises, of many
+of their subjects, so that any loss sustained by one of the latter
+would eventually fall upon themselves. They had, in fact, reserved to
+themselves the privilege of carrying on several lucrative industries,
+and of disposing of the products to foreign buyers, either to those who
+purchased them out and out, or else through the medium of agents, to
+whom they intrusted certain quantities of the goods for warehousing.
+The King of Babylon, taking advantage of the fashion which prompted
+the Egyptians to acquire objects of Chaldæan goldsmiths’ and
+cabinet-makers’ art, caused ingots of gold to be sent to him by the
+Pharaoh, which he returned worked up into vases, ornaments, household
+utensils, and plated chariots. He further fixed the value of all
+such objects, and took a considerable commission for having acted as
+intermediary in the transaction.* In Alasia, which was the land of
+metals, the king appears to have held a monopoly of the bronze. Whether
+he smelted it in the country, or received it from more distant regions
+ready prepared, we cannot say, but he claimed and retained for himself
+the payment for all that the Pharaoh deigned to order of him.**
+
+     * Letter of Burnaburiash to Amenôthes IV.
+
+     ** Letter from the King of Alasia to Amenôthes III., where,
+     whilst pretending to have nothing else in view than making a
+     present to his royal brother, he proposes to make an
+     exchange of some bronze for the products of Egypt,
+     especially for gold.
+
+From such instances we can well understand the jealous, watch which
+these sovereigns exercised, lest any individual connected with
+corporations of workmen should leave the kingdom and establish himself
+in another country without special permission. Any emigrant who opened
+a workshop and initiated his new compatriots in the technique or
+professional secrets of his craft, was regarded by the authorities as
+the most dangerous of all evil-doers. By thus introducing his trade into
+a rival state, he deprived his own people of a good customer, and thus
+rendered himself liable to the penalties inflicted on those who were
+guilty of treason. His savings were confiscated, his house razed to the
+ground, and his whole family--parents, wives, and children--treated
+as partakers in his crime. As for himself, if justice succeeded in
+overtaking him, he was punished with death, or at least with mutilation,
+such as the loss of eyes and ears, or amputation of the feet. This
+severity did not prevent the frequent occurrence of such cases, and
+it was found necessary to deal with them by the insertion of a special
+extradition clause in treaties of peace and other alliances. The two
+contracting parties decided against conceding the right of habitation
+to skilled workmen who should take refuge with either party on the
+territory of the other, and they agreed to seize such workmen forthwith,
+and mutually restore them, but under the express condition that neither
+they nor any of their belongings should incur any penalty for the
+desertion of their country. It would be curious to know if all the
+arrangements agreed to by the kings of those times were sanctioned,
+as in the above instance, by properly drawn up agreements. Certain
+expressions occur in their correspondence which seem to prove that this
+was the case, and that the relations between them, of which we can catch
+traces, resulted not merely from a state of things which, according
+to their ideas, did not necessitate any diplomatic sanction, but from
+conventions agreed to after some war, or entered on without any previous
+struggle, when there was no question at issue between the two states.*
+
+     * The treaty of Ramses II. with the King of the Khâti, the
+     only one which has come down to us, was a renewal of other
+     treaties effected one after the other between the fathers
+     and grandfathers of the two contracting sovereigns. Some of
+     the Tel el-Amarna letters probably refer to treaties of this
+     kind; e.g. that of Burnaburiash of Babylon, who says that
+     since the time of Karaîndash there had been an exchange of
+     ambassadors and friendship between the sovereigns of Chaldoa
+     and of Egypt, and also that of Dushratta of Mitanni, who
+     reminds Queen Tîi of the secret negotiations which had taken
+     place between him and Amenôthes III.
+
+When once the Syrian conquest had been effected, Egypt gave permanency
+to its results by means of a series of international decrees, which
+officially established the constitution of her empire, and brought about
+her concerted action with the Asiatic powers.
+
+[Illustration: 040.jpg THE MUMMY OF THUTMOSIS III.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Emil
+     Brugsch-Bey.
+
+She already occupied an important position among them, when Thûtmosis
+III. died, on the last day of Phamenoth, in the IVth year of his reign.*
+He was buried, probably, at Deîr el-Baharî, in the family tomb wherein
+the most illustrious members of his house had been laid to rest since
+the time of Thûtmosis I. His mummy was not securely hidden away, for
+towards the close of the XXth dynasty it was torn out of the coffin by
+robbers, who stripped it and rifled it of the jewels with which it was
+covered, injuring it in their haste to carry away the spoil. It was
+subsequently re-interred, and has remained undisturbed until the
+present day; but before re-burial some renovation of the wrappings was
+necessary, and as portions of the body had become loose, the restorers,
+in order to give the mummy the necessary firmness, compressed it between
+four oar-shaped slips of wood, painted white, and placed, three inside
+the wrappings and one outside, under the bands which confined the
+winding-sheet.
+
+     * Dr. Mahler has, with great precision, fixed the date of
+     the accession of Thûtmosis III, as the 20th of March, 1503,
+     and that of his death as the 14th of February, 1449 b.c. I
+     do not think that the data furnished to Dr. Mahler by
+     Brugsch will admit of such exact conclusions being drawn
+     from them, and I should fix the fifty-four years of the
+     reign of Thûtmosis III. in a less decided manner, between
+     1550 and 1490 b.c., allowing, as I have said before, for an
+     error of half a century more or less in the dates which go
+     back to the time of the second Theban empire.
+
+[Illustration: 041.jpg HEAD OF THE MUMMY OF THÛTMOSIS III.]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph lent by M. Grébaut,
+     taken by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+Happily the face, which had been plastered over with pitch at the time
+of embalming, did not suffer at all from this rough treatment, and
+appeared intact when the protecting mask was removed. Its appearance
+does not answer to our ideal of the conqueror. His statues, though
+not representing him as a type of manly beauty, yet give him refined,
+intelligent features, but a comparison with the mummy shows that the
+artists have idealised their model. The forehead is abnormally low, the
+eyes deeply sunk, the jaw heavy, the lips thick, and the cheek-bones
+extremely prominent; the whole recalling the physiognomy of Thûtmosis
+II., though with a greater show of energy. Thûtmosis III. is a fellah of
+the old stock, squat, thickset, vulgar in character and expression, but
+not lacking in firmness and vigour.* Amenôthes II., who succeeded him,
+must have closely resembled him, if we may trust his official portraits.
+He was the son of a princess of the blood, Hâtshopsîtû II., daughter of
+the great Hâtshopsîtû,** and consequently he came into his inheritance
+with stronger claims to it than any other Pharaoh since the time of
+Amenôthes I. Possibly his father may have associated him with himself on
+the throne as soon as the young prince attained his majority;*** at any
+rate, his accession aroused no appreciable opposition in the country,
+and if any difficulties were made, they must have come from outside.
+
+     * The restored remains allow us to estimate the height at
+     about 5 ft. 3 in.
+
+     ** His parentage is proved by the pictures preserved in the
+     tomb of his foster-father, where he is represented in
+     company with the _royal mother_, Marîtrî. Hâtshopsîtû.
+
+     *** It is thus that Wiedemann explains his presence by the
+     side of Thûtmosis III. on certain bas-reliefs in the temple
+     of Amada.
+
+It is always a dangerous moment in the existence of a newly formed
+empire when its founder having passed away, and the conquered people
+not having yet become accustomed to a subject condition, they are called
+upon to submit to a successor of whom they know little or nothing. It
+is always problematical whether the new sovereign will display as great
+activity and be as successful as the old one; whether he will be capable
+of turning to good account the armies which his predecessor commanded
+with such skill, and led so bravely against the enemy; whether, again,
+he will have sufficient tact to estimate correctly the burden of
+taxation which each province is capable of bearing, and to lighten it
+when there is a risk of its becoming too heavy. If he does not show from
+the first that it is his purpose to maintain his patrimony intact at all
+costs, or if his officers, no longer controlled by a strong hand, betray
+any indecision in command, his subjects will become unruly, and the
+change of monarch will soon furnish a pretext for widespread rebellion.
+The beginning of the reign of Amenôthes II. was marked by a revolt of
+the Libyans inhabiting the Theban Oasis, but this rising was soon
+put down by that Amenemhabî who had so distinguished himself under
+Thûtmosis.* Soon after, fresh troubles broke out in different parts of
+Syria, in Galilee, in the country of the Amurru, and among the peoples
+of Naharaim. The king’s prompt action, however, prevented their
+resulting in a general war.** He marched in person against the
+malcontents, reduced the town of Shamshiaduma, fell upon the Lamnaniu,
+and attacked their chief, slaying him with his own hand, and carrying
+off numbers of captives.
+
+     * Brugsch and Wiedemann place this expedition at the time
+     when Amenôthes IL was either hereditary prince or associated
+     with his father the inscription of Amenemhabî places it
+     explicitly after the death of Thûtmosis III., and this
+     evidence outweighs every other consideration until further
+     discoveries are made.
+
+     ** The campaigns of Amenôthes II. were related on a granite
+     stele, which was placed against the second of the southern
+     pylons at Karnak. The date of this monument is almost
+     certainly the year II.; there is strong evidence in favour
+     of this, if it is compared with the inscription of Amada,
+     where Amenôthes II. relates that in the year III. he
+     sacrificed the prisoners whom he had taken in the country of
+     Tikhisa.
+
+[Illustration: 044.jpg AMENÔTHES II., FROM THE STATUE AT TURIN]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin.
+
+He crossed the Orontes on the 26th of Pachons, in the year II., and
+seeing some mounted troops in the distance, rushed upon them and
+overthrew them; they proved to be the advanced guard of the enemy’s
+force, which he encountered shortly afterwards and routed, collecting
+in the pursuit considerable booty. He finally reached Naharaim, where he
+experienced in the main but a feeble resistance. Nîi surrendered without
+resistance on the 10th of Epiphi, and its inhabitants, both men
+and women, with censers in their hands, assembled on the walls and
+prostrated themselves before the conqueror. At Akaîti, where the
+partisans of the Egyptian government had suffered persecution from a
+considerable section of the natives, order was at once reestablished as
+soon as the king’s approach was made known. No doubt the rapidity of
+his marches and the vigour of his attacks, while putting an end to
+the hostile attitude of the smaller vassal states, were effectual in
+inducing the sovereigns of Alasia, of Mitanni,* and of the Hittites to
+renew with Amenôthes the friendly relations which they had established
+with his father.**
+
+     * Amenôthes II. mentions tribute from Mitanni on one of the
+     columns which he decorated at Karnak, in the Hall of the
+     Caryatides, close to the pillars finished by his
+     predecessors.
+
+     ** The cartouches on the pedestal of the throne of Amenôthes
+     IL, in the tomb of one of his officers at Sheîkh-Abd-el-
+     Qûrneh, represent--together with the inhabitants of the
+     Oasis, Libya, and Kush--the Kefatiû, the people of Naharaim,
+     and the Upper Lotanû, that is to say, the entire dominion of
+     Thûtmosis III., besides the people of Manûs, probably
+     Mallos, in the Cilician plain.
+
+This one campaign, which lasted three or four months, secured a lasting
+peace in the north, but in the south a disturbance again broke out among
+the Barbarians of the Upper Nile. Amenôthes suppressed it, and, in order
+to prevent a repetition of it, was guilty of an act of cruel severity
+quite in accordance with the manners of the time. He had taken prisoner
+seven chiefs in the country of Tikhisa, and had brought them, chained,
+in triumph to Thebes, on the forecastle of his ship. He sacrificed six
+of them himself before Amon, and exposed their heads and hands on the
+façade of the temple of Karnak; the seventh was subjected to a similar
+fate at Napata at the beginning of his third year, and thenceforth
+the sheîkhs of Kush thought twice before defying the authority of the
+Pharaoh.*
+
+     * In an inscription in the temple of Amada, it is there said
+     that the king offered this sacrifice on his return from his
+     first expedition into Asia, and for this reason I have
+     connected the facts thus related with those known to us
+     through the stele of Karnak.
+
+Amenôthes’reign was a short one, lasting ten years at most, and the end
+of it seems to have been darkened by the open or secret rivalries which
+the question of the succession usually stirred up among the kings’ sons.
+The king had daughters only by his marriage with one of his full
+sisters, who like himself possessed all the rights of sovereignty; those
+of his sons who did not die young were the children of princesses of
+inferior rank or of concubines, and it was a subject of anxiety among
+these princes which of them would be chosen to inherit the crown and be
+united in marriage with the king’s heiresses, Khûît and Mûtemûaû.
+
+[Illustration: 046.jpg THE GREAT SPHINX AND THE CHAPEL OF THUTMOSIS IV.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the photograph taken in 1887 by
+     Émil Brugsch-Bey
+
+[Illustration: 047.jpg THE SIMOOM. SPHINX AND PYRAMIDS AT GIZEH]
+
+One of his sons, named Thûtmosis, who resided at the “White Wall,” was
+in the habit of betaking himself frequently to the Libyan desert to
+practise with the javelin, or to pursue the hunt of lions and gazelles
+in his chariot. On these occasions it was his pleasure to preserve the
+strictest incognito, and he was accompanied by two discreet servants
+only. One day, when chance had brought him into the neighbourhood of the
+Great Pyramid, he lay down for his accustomed siesta in the shade cast
+by the Sphinx, the miraculous image of Khopri the most powerful, the
+god to whom all men in Memphis and the neighbouring towns raised adoring
+hands filled with offerings. The gigantic statue was at that time more
+than half buried, and its head alone was seen above the sand. As soon
+as the prince was asleep it spoke gently to him, as a father to his
+son: “Behold me, gaze on me, O my son Thûtmosis, for I, thy father
+Harmakhis-Khopri-Tûmû, grant thee sovereignty over the two countries, in
+both the South and the North, and thou shalt wear both the white and the
+red crown on the throne of Sibû, the sovereign, possessing the earth in
+its length and breadth; the flashing eye of the lord of all shall cause
+to rain on thee the possessions of Egypt, vast tribute from all foreign
+countries, and a long life for, many years as one chosen by the Sun,
+for my countenance is thine, my heart is thine, no other than thyself is
+mine! Nor am I covered by the sand of the mountain on which I rest,
+and have given thee this prize that thou mayest do for me what my heart
+desires, for I know that thou art my son, my defender; draw nigh, I am
+with thee, I am thy well-beloved father.” The prince understood that the
+god promised him the kingdom on condition of his swearing to clear the
+sand from the statue. He was, in fact, chosen to be the husband of the
+queens, and immediately after his accession he fulfilled his oath; he
+removed the sand, built a chapel between the paws, and erected against
+the breast of the statue a stele of red granite, on which he related
+his adventure. His reign was as short as that of Amenôthes, and his
+campaigns both in Asia and Ethiopia were unimportant.*
+
+     * The latest date of his reign at present known is that of
+     the year VII., on the rocks of Konosso, and on a stele of
+     Sarbût el-Khâdîm. There is an allusion to his wars against
+     the Ethiopians in an inscription of Amada, and to his
+     campaigns against the peoples of the North and South on the
+     stele of Nofirhaît.
+
+[Illustration: 050.jpg THE STELE OF THE SPHINX OF GIZER]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+He had succeeded to an empire so firmly established from Naharaim to
+Kari,* that, apparently, no rebellion could disturb its peace. One of
+the two heiress-princesses, Kûît, the daughter, sister, and wife of a
+king, had no living male offspring, but her companion Mûtemûaû had at
+least one son, named Amenôthes. In his case, again, the noble birth
+of the mother atoned for the defects of the paternal origin. Moreover,
+according to tradition, Amon-Ka himself had intervened to renew the
+blood of his descendants: he appeared in the person of Thûtmosis IV.,
+and under this guise became the father of the heir of the Pharaohs.**
+
+     * The peoples of Naharaim and of Northern Syria are
+     represented bringing him tribute, in a tomb at Sheîkh-Abd-
+     el-Qûrneh. The inscription published by Mariette, speaks of
+     the first expedition of Thûtmosis IV. to the land of
+     [Naharai]na, and of the gifts which he lavished on this
+     occasion on the temple of Anion.
+
+     ** It was at first thought that Mûtemûaû was an Ethiopian,
+     afterwards that she was a Syrian, who had changed her name
+     on arriving at the court of her husband. The manner in which
+     she is represented at Luxor, and in all the texts where she
+     figures, proves not only that she was of Egyptian race, but
+     that she was the daughter of Amenôthes II., and born of the
+     marriage of that prince with one of his sisters, who was
+     herself an hereditary princess.
+
+Like Queen Ahmasis in the bas-reliefs of Deîr el-Baharî, Mûtemûaû
+is shown on those of Luxor in the arms of her divine lover, and
+subsequently greeted by him with the title of mother; in another
+bas-relief we see the queen led to her couch by the goddesses who
+preside over the birth of children; her son Amenôthes, on coming into
+the world with his double, is placed in the hands of the two Niles, to
+receive the nourishment and the education meet for the children of the
+gods. He profited fully by them, for he remained in power forty years,
+and his reign was one of the most prosperous ever witnessed by Egypt
+during the Theban dynasties.
+
+[Illustration: 052.jpg QUEEN MUTEMÛAU.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Daniel Héron.
+
+Amenôthes III. had spent but little of his time in war. He had
+undertaken the usual raids in the South against the negroes and the
+tribes of the Upper Nile. In his fifth year, a general defection of the
+sheikhs obliged him to invade the province of Abhaît, near Semneh, which
+he devastated at the head of the troops collected by Mari-ifi mosû, the
+Prince of Kûsh; the punishment was salutary, the booty considerable, and
+a lengthy peace was re-established. The object of his rare expeditions
+into Naharaim was not so much to add new provinces to his empire, as to
+prevent disturbances in the old ones. The kings of Alasia, of the Khâti,
+of Mitanni, of Singar,* of Assyria, and of Babylon did not dare to
+provoke so powerful a neighbour.**
+
+     * Amenôthes entitles himself on a scarabæus “he who takes
+     prisoner the country of Singar;” no other document has yet
+     been discovered to show whether this is hyperbole, or
+     whether he really reached this distant region.
+
+     ** The lists of the time of Amenôthes III. contain the names
+     of Phoenicia, Naharaim, Singar, Qodshu, Tunipa, Patina,
+     Carchomish, and Assur; that is to say, of all the subject or
+     allied nations mentioned in the correspondence of Tel el-
+     Amarna. Certain episodes of these expeditions had been
+     engraved on the exterior face of the pylon constructed by
+     the king for the temple of Amon at Karnak; at the present
+     time they are concealed by the wall at the lower end of the
+     Hypostyle Hall. The tribute of the Lotanû was represented on
+     the tomb of Hûi, at Sheîkh-Abd-el-Qûrneh.
+
+[Illustration: 052b.jpg Amenothes III. Colossal Head in the British
+Museum]
+
+[Illustration: 052b-text.jpg]
+
+The remembrance of the victories of Thûtmosis III. was still fresh in
+their memories, and, even had their hands been free, would have
+made them cautious in dealing with his great-grandson; but they were
+incessantly engaged in internecine quarrels, and had recourse to
+Pharaoh merely to enlist his support, or at any rate make sure of his
+neutrality, and prevent him from joining their adversaries.
+
+[Illustration: 053.jpg AMENOTHES III. FROM THE TOMB OF KHAMHAIT]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Daniel Héron.
+
+Whatever might have been the nature of their private sentiments, they
+professed to be anxious to maintain, for their mutual interests, the
+relations with Egypt entered on half a century before, and as the surest
+method of attaining their object was by a good marriage, they would each
+seek an Egyptian wife for himself, or would offer Amenôthes a princess
+of one of their own royal families. The Egyptian king was, however, firm
+in refusing to bestow a princess of the solar blood even on the most
+powerful of the foreign kings; his pride rebelled at the thought that
+she might one day be consigned to a place among the inferior wives
+or concubines, but he gladly accepted, and even sought for wives for
+himself, from among the Syrian and Chaldæan princesses. Kallimmasin of
+Babylon gave Amenôthes first his sister, and when age had deprived this
+princess of her beauty, then his daughter Irtabi in marriage.*
+
+     * Letter from Amenôthes III. to Kallimmasin, concerning a
+     sister of the latter, who was married to the King of Egypt,
+     but of whom there are no further records remaining at
+     Babylon, and also one of his daughters whom Amenôthes had
+     demanded in marriage; and letters from Kallimmasin,
+     consenting to bestow his daughter Irtabi on the Pharaoh, and
+     proposing to give to Amenothes whichever one he might choose
+     of the daughters of his house.
+
+Sutarna of Mitanni had in the same way given the Pharaoh his daughter
+Gilukhîpa; indeed, most of the kings of that period had one or two
+relations in the harem at Thebes. This connexion usually proved a
+support to Asiatic sovereigns, such alliances being a safeguard against
+the rivalries of their brothers or cousins. At times, however, they were
+the means of exposing them to serious dangers. When Sutarna died he was
+succeeded by his son Dushratta, but a numerous party put forward another
+prince, named Artassumara, who was probably Gilukhîpa’s brother, on the
+mother’s side;* a Hittite king of the name of Pirkhi espoused the cause
+of the pretender, and a civil war broke out.
+
+     * Her exact relationship is not explicitly expressed, but is
+     implied in the facts, for there seems no reason why
+     Gilukhîpa should have taken the part of one brother rather
+     than another, unless Artassumara had been nearer to her than
+     Dushratta; that is to say, her brother on the mother’s side
+     as well as on the father’s.
+
+Dushratta was victorious, and caused his brother to be strangled, but
+was not without anxiety as to the consequences which might follow this
+execution should Gilukhîpa desire to avenge the victim, and to this end
+stir up the anger of the suzerain against him. Dushratta, therefore,
+wrote a humble epistle, showing that he had received provocation, and
+that he had found it necessary to strike a decisive blow to save his own
+life; the tablet was accompanied by various presents to the royal pair,
+comprising horses, slaves, jewels, and perfumes. Gilukhîpa, however,
+bore Dushratta no ill-will, and the latter’s anxieties were allayed.
+The so-called expeditions of Amenôthes to the Syrian provinces
+must constantly have been merely visits of inspection, during which
+amusements, and especially the chase, occupied nearly as important
+a place as war and politics. Amenôthes III. took to heart that
+pre-eminently royal duty of ridding the country of wild beasts, and
+fulfilled it more conscientiously than any of his predecessors. He had
+killed 112 lions during the first ten years of his reign, and as it was
+an exploit of which he was remarkably proud, he perpetuated the memory
+of it in a special inscription, which he caused to be engraved on
+numbers of large scarabs of fine green enamel. Egypt prospered under his
+peaceful government, and if the king made no great efforts to extend
+her frontiers, he spared no pains to enrich the country by developing
+industry and agriculture, and also endeavoured to perfect the military
+organisation which had rendered the conquest of the East so easy a
+matter.
+
+A census, undertaken by his minister Amenôthes, the son of Hâpi,
+ensured a more correct assessment of the taxes, and a regular scheme of
+recruiting for the army.
+
+[Illustration: 056.jpg SCARAB OF THE HUNT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the photograph published in
+     Mariette.
+
+Whole tribes of slaves were brought into the country by means of the
+border raids which were always taking place, and their opportune arrival
+helped to fill up the vacancies which repeated wars had caused among
+the rural and urban population; such a strong impetus to agriculture
+was also given by this importation, that when, towards the middle of the
+reign, the minister Khâmhâîfc presented the tax-gathers at court, he
+was able to boast that he had stored in the State granaries a larger
+quantity of corn than had been gathered in for thirty years. The traffic
+carried on between Asia and the Delta by means of both Egyptian and
+foreign ships was controlled by customhouses erected at the mouths of
+the Nile, the coast being protected by cruising vessels against the
+attacks of pirates. The fortresses of the isthmus and of the Libyan
+border, having been restored or rebuilt, constituted a check on the
+turbulence of the nomad tribes, while garrisons posted at intervals
+at the entrance to the Wadys leading to the desert restrained the
+plunderers scattered between the Nile and the Red Sea, and between the
+chain of Oases and the unexplored regions of the Sahara.* Egypt was at
+once the most powerful as well as the most prosperous kingdom in the
+world, being able to command more labour and more precious metals for
+the embellishment of her towns and the construction of her monuments
+than any other.
+
+     All this information is gathered from the inscription on the
+          statue of Amenôthes, the son of Hâpi.
+
+Public works had been carried on briskly under Thûtmosis III. and his
+successors. The taste for building, thwarted at first by the necessity
+of financial reforms, and then by that of defraying the heavy expenses
+incurred through the expulsion of the Hyksôs and the earlier foreign
+wars, had free scope as soon as spoil from the Syrian victories began to
+pour in year by year. While the treasure seized from the enemy provided
+the money, the majority of the prisoners were used as workmen, so that
+temples, palaces, and citadels began to rise as if by magic from one end
+of the valley to the other.*
+
+     * For this use of prisoners of war, cf. the picture from the
+     tomb of Rakhmirî on p. 58 of the present work, in which most
+     of the earlier Egyptologists believed they recognised the
+     Hebrews, condemned by Pharaoh to build the cities of Ramses
+     and Pithom in the Delta.
+
+Nubia, divided into provinces, formed merely an extension of the
+ancient feudal Egypt--at any rate as far as the neighbourhood of the
+Tacazzeh--though the Egyptian religion had here assumed a peculiar
+character.
+
+[Illustration: 058.jpg A GANG Of SYRIAN PRISONERS MAKING BRICK FOR THE
+TEMPLE OF AMON]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the chromolithograph in Lepsius.
+
+The conquest of Nubia having been almost entirely the work of the Theban
+dynasties, the Theban triad, Amon, Maût, and Montû, and their immediate
+followers were paramount in this region, while in the north, in witness
+of the ancient Elephantinite colonisation, we find Khnûmû of the
+cataract being worshipped, in connexion with Didûn, father of
+the indigenous Nubians. The worship of Amon had been the means of
+introducing that of Eâ and of Horus, and Osiris as lord of the dead,
+while Phtah, Sokhît, Atûmû, and the Memphite and Heliopolitan gods were
+worshipped only in isolated parts of the province. A being, however,
+of less exalted rank shared with the lords of heaven the favour of the
+people. This was the Pharaoh, who as the son of Amon was foreordained to
+receive divine honours, sometimes figuring, as at Bohani, as the third
+member of a triad, at other times as head of the Ennead. Ûsirtasen
+III. had had his chapels at Semneh and at Kûmmeh, they were restored by
+Thûtmosis III., who claimed a share of the worship offered in them,
+and whose son, Amenôthes II., also assumed the symbols and functions of
+divinity.
+
+[Illustration: 059.jpg ONE OF THE RAMS OF AMENÔTHES III]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Mons. de Mertens.
+
+Amenôthes I. was venerated in the province of Kari, and Amenôthes III.,
+when founding the fortress Hâît-Khâmmâît* in the neighbourhood of a
+Nubian village, on a spot now known as Soleb, built a temple there, of
+which he himself was the protecting genius.**
+
+     * The name signifies literally “the Citadel of Khâmmâît,”
+      and it is formed, as Lepsius recognised from the first, from
+     the name of the Sparrow-hawk Khâmmâît, “Mait rising as
+     Goddess,” which Amenôthes had assumed on his accession.
+
+     ** Lepsius recognised the nature of the divinity worshipped
+     in this temple; the deified statue of the king, “his living
+     statue on earth,” which represented the god of the temple,
+     is there named “Nibmâûrî, lord of Nubia.” Thûtmosis III. had
+     already worked at Soleb.
+
+The edifice was of considerable size, and the columns and walls
+remaining reveal an art as perfect as that shown in the best monuments
+at Thebes. It was approached by an avenue of ram-headed sphinxes, while
+colossal statues of lions and hawks, the sacred animals of the district,
+adorned the building. The sovereign condescended to preside in person
+at its dedication on one of his journeys to the southern part of his
+empire, and the mutilated pictures still visible on the façade show the
+order and detail of the ceremony observed on this occasion. The king,
+with the crown upon his head, stood before the centre gate, accompanied
+by the queen and his minister Amenôthes, the son of Hâpi, who was better
+acquainted than any other man of his time with the mysteries of the
+ritual.*
+
+     * On Amenôthes, the son of Hâpi, see p. 56 of the present
+     volume; it will be seen in the following chapter, in
+     connection with the Egyptian accounts of the Exodus, what
+     tradition made of him.
+
+The king then struck the door twelve times with his mace of white stone,
+and when the approach to the first hall was opened, he repeated the
+operation at the threshold of the sanctuary previous to entering and
+placing his statue there. He deposited it on the painted and gilded
+wooden platform on which the gods were exhibited on feast-days,
+and enthroned beside it the other images which were thenceforth to
+constitute the local Ennead, after which he kindled the sacred fire
+before them. The queen, with the priests and nobles, all bearing
+torches, then passed through the halls, stopping from time to time
+to perform acts of purification, or to recite formulas to dispel evil
+spirits and pernicious influences; finally, a triumphal procession was
+formed, and the whole _cortege_ returned to the palace, where a banquet
+brought the day’s festivities to a close.* It was Amenôthes III.
+himself, or rather one of his statues animated by his double, who
+occupied the chief place in the new building. Indeed, wherever we come
+across a temple in Nubia dedicated to a king, we find the homage of the
+inhabitants always offered to the image of the founder, which spoke to
+them in oracles. All the southern part of the country beyond the
+second cataract is full of traces of Amenôthes, and the evidence of
+the veneration shown to him would lead us to conclude that he played an
+important part in the organisation of the country. Sedeinga possessed
+a small temple under the patronage of his wife Tîi. The ruins of a
+sanctuary which he dedicated to Anion, the Sun-god, have been discovered
+at Gebel-Barkal; Amenôthes seems to have been the first to perceive the
+advantages offered by the site, and to have endeavoured to transform
+the barbarian village of Napata into a large Egyptian city. Some of the
+monuments with which he adorned Soleb were transported, in later times,
+to Gebel-Barkal, among them some rams and lions of rare beauty. They lie
+at rest with their paws crossed, the head erect, and their expression
+suggesting both power and repose.** As we descend the Nile, traces of
+the work of this king are less frequent, and their place is taken by
+those of his predecessors, as at Sai, at Semneh, at Wady Haifa, at
+Amada, at Ibrîm, and at Dakkeh. Distant traces of Amenôthes again
+appear in the neighbourhood of the first cataract, and in the island of
+Elephantine, which he endeavoured to restore to its ancient splendour.
+
+     * Thus the small temple of Sarrah, to the north of Wady
+     Haifa, is dedicated to “the living statue of Ramses II. in
+     the land of Nubia,” a statue to which his Majesty gave the
+     name of “Usirmârî Zosir-Shâfi.”
+
+     ** One of the rams was removed from Gebel-Barkal by Lepsius,
+     and is now in the Berlin Museum, as well as the pedestal of
+     one of the hawks. Prisse has shown that these two monuments
+     originally adorned the temple of Soleb, and that they were
+     afterwards transported to Napata by an Ethiopian king, who
+     engraved his name on the pedestal of one of them.
+
+[Illustration: 062.jpg ONE OF THE LIONS OF GEBEL-BARKAL]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from one of the two lions of Gebel-
+     Barkal in the British Museum
+
+Two of the small buildings which he there dedicated to Khnûmû, the local
+god, were still in existence at the beginning of the present century.
+That least damaged, on the south side of the island, consisted of
+a single chamber nearly forty feet in length. The sandstone walls,
+terminating in a curved cornice, rested on a hollow substructure
+raised rather more than six feet above the ground, and surrounded by
+a breast-high parapet. A portico ran round the building, having seven
+square pillars on each of its two sides, while at each end stood two
+columns having lotus-shaped capitals; a flight of ten or twelve steps
+between two walls of the same height as the basement, projected in
+front, and afforded access to the cella. The two columns of the façade
+were further apart than those at the opposite end of the building, and
+showed a glimpse of a richly decorated door, while a second door opened
+under the peristyle at the further extremity. The walls were covered
+with the half-brutish profile of the good Khnûmû, and those of his
+two companions, Anûkît and Satît, the spirits of stormy waters. The
+treatment of these figures was broad and simple, the style free, light,
+and graceful, the colouring soft; and the harmonious beauty of the whole
+is unsurpassed by anything at Thebes itself. It was, in fact, a kind of
+oratory, built on a scale to suit the capacities of a decaying town, but
+the design was so delicately conceived in its miniature proportions that
+nothing more graceful can be imagined.*
+
+     * Amenôthes II. erected some small obelisks at Elephantine,
+     one of which is at present in England. The two buildings of
+     Amenôthes III. at Elephantine were still in existence at the
+     beginning of the present century. They have been described
+     and drawn by French scholars; between 1822 and 1825 they
+     were destroyed, and the materials used for building barracks
+     and magazines at Syene.
+
+Ancient Egypt and its feudal cities, Ombos, Edfû,* Nekhabît, Esneh,**
+Medamôt,*** Coptos,**** Denderah, Abydos, Memphis,^ and Heliopolis,
+profited largely by the generosity of the Pharaohs.
+
+     * The works undertaken by Thûtmosis III. in the temple of
+     Edfû are mentioned in an inscription of the Ptolemaic
+     period; some portions are still to be seen among the ruins
+     of the town.
+
+     ** An inscription of the Roman period attributes the
+     rebuilding of the great temple of Esneh to Thûtmosis III.
+     Grébaut discovered some fragments of it in the quay of the
+     modern town.
+
+     *** Amenôthes II. appears to have built the existing temple.
+
+     **** The temple of Hâthor was built by Thûtmosis III. Some
+     fragments found in the Ptolemaic masonry bear the cartouche
+     of Thûtmosis IV.
+
+     ^ Amenôthes II. certainly carried on works at Memphis, for
+     he opened a new quarry at Tûrah, in the year IV. Amenôthes
+     III. also worked limestone quarries, and built at Saqqârah
+     the earliest chapels of the Serapeum which are at present
+     known to us.
+
+Since the close of the XIIth dynasty these cities had depended entirely
+on their own resources, and their public buildings were either in ruins,
+or quite inadequate to the needs of the population, but now gold from
+Syria and Kûsh furnished them with the means of restoration. The Delta
+itself shared in this architectural revival, but it had suffered too
+severely under the struggle between the Theban kings and the Shepherds
+to recover itself as quickly as the remainder of the country. All
+effort was concentrated on those of its nomes which lay on the Eastern
+frontier, or which were crossed by the Pharaohs in their journeys into
+Asia, such as the Bubastite and Athribite nomes; the rest remained sunk
+in their ancient torpor.*
+
+* Mariette and E. de Rougé, attribute this torpor, at least as far as
+Tanis is concerned, to the aversion felt by the Pharaohs of Egyptian
+blood for the Hyksôs capital, and for the provinces where the invaders
+had formerly established themselves in large numbers.
+
+Beyond the Red Sea the mines were actively worked, and even the oases of
+the Libyan desert took part in the national revival, and buildings rose
+in their midst of a size proportionate to their slender revenues. Thebes
+naturally came in for the largest share of the spoils of war. Although
+her kings had become the rulers of the world, they had not, like the
+Pharaohs of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties, forsaken her for some more
+illustrious city: here they had their ordinary residence as well as
+their seat of government, hither they returned after each campaign to
+celebrate their victory, and hither they sent the prisoners and the
+spoil which they had reserved for their own royal use. In the course
+of one or two generations Thebes had spread in every direction, and had
+enclosed within her circuit the neighbouring villages of Ashîrû, the
+fief of Maiit, and Apît-rîsîfc, the southern Thebes, which lay at the
+confluence of the Nile with one of the largest of the canals which
+watered the plain. The monuments in these two new quarters of the town
+were unworthy of the city of which they now formed part, and Amenôthes
+III. consequently bestowed much pains on improving them. He entirely
+rebuilt the sanctuary of Maût, enlarged the sacred lake, and collected
+within one of the courts of the temple several hundred statues in black
+granite of the Memphite divinity, the lioness-headed Sokhît, whom he
+identified with his Theban goddess. The statues were crowded together so
+closely that they were in actual contact with each other in places, and
+must have presented something of the appearance of a regiment drawn up
+in battle array. The succeeding Pharaohs soon came to look upon this
+temple as a kind of storehouse, whence they might provide themselves
+with ready-made figures to decorate their buildings either at Thebes or
+in other royal cities. About a hundred of them, however, still remain,
+most of them without feet, arms, or head; some over-turned on the
+ground, others considerably out of the perpendicular, from the earth
+having given way beneath them, and a small number only still perfect and
+in situ.
+
+[Illustration: 065.jpg THE TEMPLE AT ELEPHANTINE, AS IT WAS IN 1799]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the _Description de l’Egypte,
+     Ant_., vol. i p. 35. A good restoration of it, made from
+     the statements in the _Description_, is to be found in
+     Pekrot-Cuipiez, _Histoire de l’Art dans l’Antiquité_, vol.
+     i. pp. 402, 403.
+
+[Illustration: 066.jpg THE GREAT COURT OF THE TEMPLE OF LUXOR DURING THE
+INUNDATION]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+[Illustration: 067.jpg PART OF THE AVENUE OF RAMS, BETWEEN THE TEMPLES
+OF AMON AND MAÛT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+At Luxor Amenôthes demolished the small temple with which the sovereigns
+of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties had been satisfied, and replaced it by
+a structure which is still one of the finest yet remaining of the times
+of the Pharaohs. The naos rose sheer above the waters of the Nile,
+indeed its cornices projected over the river, and a staircase at the
+south side allowed the priests and devotees to embark directly from
+the rear of the building. The sanctuary was a single chamber, with an
+opening on its side, but so completely shut out from the daylight by the
+long dark hall at whose extremity it was placed as to be in perpetual
+obscurity. It was flanked by narrow, dimly lightly chambers, and was
+approached through a pronaos with four rows of columns, a vast court
+surrounded with porticoes occupying the foreground. At the present time
+the thick walls which enclosed the entire building are nearly level
+with the ground, half the ceilings have crumbled away, air and light
+penetrate into every nook, and during the inundation the water flowing
+into the courts, transformed them until recently into lakes, whither the
+flocks and herds of the village resorted in the heat of the day to bathe
+or quench their thirst. Pictures of mysterious events never meant for
+the public gaze now display their secrets in the light of the sun, and
+reveal to the eyes of the profane the supernatural events which preceded
+the birth of the king. On the northern side an avenue of sphinxes and
+crio-sphinxes led to the gates of old Thebes. At present most of these
+creatures are buried under the ruins of the modern town, or covered by
+the earth which overlies the ancient road; but a few are still visible,
+broken and shapeless from barbarous usage, and hardly retaining any
+traces of the inscriptions in which Amenôthes claimed them boastingly as
+his work.
+
+[Illustration: 069.jpg THE PYLONS OF THÛTMOSIS III. AND HARMHABÎ AT
+KAKNAK]
+
+Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+Triumphal processions passing along this route from Luxor to Karnak
+would at length reach the great court before the temple of Amon, or, by
+turning a little to the right after passing the temple of Maût, would
+arrive in front of the southern façade, near the two gilded obelisks
+whose splendour once rejoiced the heart of the famous Hâtshopsîtû.
+Thûtmosis III. was also determined on his part to spare no expense to
+make the temple of his god of proportions suitable to the patron of
+so vast an empire. Not only did he complete those portions which his
+predecessors had merely sketched out, but on the south side towards
+Ashîrû he also built a long row of pylons, now half ruined, on which he
+engraved, according to custom, the list of nations and cities which he
+had subdued in Asia and Africa. To the east of the temple he rebuilt
+some ancient structures, the largest of which served as a halting-place
+for processions, and he enclosed the whole with a stone rampart. The
+outline of the sacred lake, on which the mystic boats were launched on
+the nights of festivals, was also made more symmetrical, and its margin
+edged with masonry.
+
+[Illustration: 070.jpg SACRED LAKE AKD THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE TEMPLE
+OF KARNAK.]
+
+     Drawn by Boucher, from a photograph by Boato: the building
+     near the centre of the picture is the covered walk
+     constructed by Thûtmosis III.
+
+By these alterations the harmonious proportion between the main
+buildings and the façade had been destroyed, and the exterior wall was
+now too wide for the pylon at the entrance. Amenôthes III. remedied this
+defect by erecting in front a fourth pylon, which was loftier, larger,
+and in all respects more worthy to stand before the enlarged temple.
+Its walls were partially covered with battle-scenes, which informed all
+beholders of the glory of the conqueror.*
+
+     * Portions of the military bas-reliefs which covered the
+     exterior face of the pylon are still to be seen through the
+     gaps in the wall at the end of the great Hall of Pillars
+     built by Seti I. and Ramses II.
+
+Progress had been no less marked on the left bank of the river. As long
+as Thebes had been merely a small provincial town, its cemeteries had
+covered but a moderate area, including the sandy plain and low mounds
+opposite Karnak and the valley of Deîr el-Baharî beyond; but now that
+the city had more than doubled its extent, the space required for the
+dead was proportionately greater. The tombs of private persons began to
+spread towards the south, and soon reached the slopes of the Assassîf,
+the hill of Sheikh-Abd-el-Qurnah and the district of Qûrnet-Mûrraî--in
+fact, all that part which the people of the country called the “Brow”
+ of Thebes. On the borders of the cultivated land a row of chapels and
+mastabas with pyramidal roofs sheltered the remains of the princes and
+princesses of the royal family. The Pharaohs themselves were buried
+either separately under their respective brick pyramids or in groups in
+a temple, as was the case with the first three Thûtmosis and Hâtshopsîtû
+at Deîr el-Baharî. Amenôthes II. and Thûtmosis IV. could doubtless have
+found room in this crowded necropolis,* although the space was becoming
+limited, but the pride of the Pharaohs began to rebel against this
+promiscuous burial side by side with their subjects. Amenôthes III.
+sought for a site, therefore, where he would have ample room to display
+his magnificence, far from the vulgar crowd, and found what he desired
+at the farther end of the valley which opens out behind the village of
+Qurnah. Here, an hour’s journey from the bank of the Nile, he cut for
+himself a magnificent rock-tomb with galleries, halls, and deep pits,
+the walls being decorated with representations of the Voyage of the Sun
+through the regions which he traverses during the twelve hours of his
+nocturnal course.
+
+     * The generally received opinion is that these sovereigns of
+     the XVIIIth dynasty were buried in the Bibân el-Molûk, but I
+     have made several examinations of this valley, and cannot
+     think that this was the case. On the contrary, the scattered
+     notices in the fragments of papyrus preserved at Turin seem
+     to me to indicate that Amenôthes II. and Thûtmosis IV. must
+     have been buried in the neighbourhood of the Assassîf or of
+     Deîr el-Baharî.
+
+A sarcophagus of red granite received his mummy, and _Ushabti’s_ of
+extraordinary dimensions and admirable workmanship mounted guard around
+him, so as to release him from the corvée in the fields of Ialû.
+The chapel usually attached to such tombs is not to be found in the
+neighbourhood. As the road to the funeral valley was a difficult one,
+and as it would be unreasonable to condemn an entire priesthood to live
+in solitude, the king decided to separate the component parts which had
+hitherto been united in every tomb since the Memphite period, and
+to place the vault for the mummy and the passages leading to it some
+distance away in the mountains, while the necessary buildings for
+the cultus of the statue and the accommodation of the priests were
+transferred to the plain, and were built at the southern extremity of
+the lands which were at that time held by private persons. The divine
+character of Amenôthes, ascribed to him on account of his solar origin
+and the co-operation of Amon-Râ at his birth, was, owing to this
+separation of the funerary constituents, brought into further
+prominence. When once the body which he had animated while on earth
+was removed and hidden from sight, the people soon became accustomed
+to think only of his Double enthroned in the recesses of the sanctuary:
+seeing him receive there the same honours as the gods themselves, they
+came naturally to regard him as a deity himself.
+
+[Illustration: 073.jpg THE TWO COLOSSI OF MEMNON IN THE PLAIN OF THEBES]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato. The
+     “Vocal Statue of Memon” is that on the right-hand side of
+     the illustration.
+
+The arrangement of his temple differed in no way from those in which
+Amon, Maût, and Montû were worshipped, while it surpassed in size and
+splendour most of the sanctuaries dedicated to the patron gods of the
+chief towns of the nomes. It contained, moreover, colossal statues,
+objects which are never found associated with the heavenly gods. Several
+of these figures have been broken to pieces, and only a few scattered
+fragments of them remain, but two of them still maintain their positions
+on each side of the entrance, with their faces towards the east. They
+are each formed of a single block of red breccia from Syenê,* and are
+fifty-three feet high, but the more northerly one was shattered in the
+earthquake which completed the ruin of Thebes in the year 27 B.C. The
+upper part toppled over with the shock, and was dashed to pieces on the
+floor of the court, while the lower half remained in its place. Soon
+after the disaster it began to be rumoured that sounds like those
+produced by the breaking of a harp-string proceeded from the pedestal at
+sunrise, whereupon travellers flocked to witness the miracle, and legend
+soon began to take possession of the giant who spoke in this marvellous
+way. In vain did the Egyptians of the neighbourhood declare that the
+statue represented the Pharaoh Amenôthes; the Greeks refused to believe
+them, and forthwith recognised in the colossus an image of Memnon the
+Ethiopian, son of Tithonus and Aurora, slain by their own Achilles
+beneath the walls of Troy--maintaining that the music heard every
+morning was the clear and harmonious voice of the hero saluting his
+mother.
+
+     * It is often asserted that they are made of rose granite,
+     but Jollois and Devilliers describe them as being of “a
+     species of sandstone breccia, composed of a mass of agate
+     flint, conglomerated together by a remarkably hard cement.
+     This material, being very dense and of a heterogeneous
+     composition, presents to the sculptor perhaps greater
+     difficulties than even granite.”
+
+Towards the middle of the second century of our era, Hadrian undertook a
+journey to Upper Egypt, and heard the wonderful song; sixty years later,
+Septimus Severus restored the statue by the employment of courses of
+stones, which were so arranged as to form a rough representation of a
+human head and shoulders. His piety, however, was not rewarded as he
+expected, for Memnon became silent, and his oracle fell into oblivion.
+The temple no longer exists, and a few ridges alone mark the spot where
+it rose; but the two colossi remain at their post, in the same condition
+in which they were left by the Roman Cæsar: the features are quite
+obliterated, and the legs and the supporting female figures on either
+side are scored all over with Greek and Latin inscriptions expressing
+the appreciation of ancient tourists. Although the statues tower high
+above the fields of corn and _bersîm_ which surround them, our first
+view of them, owing to the scale of proportion observed in their
+construction, so different from that to which we are accustomed, gives
+us the impression that they are smaller than they really are, and it
+is only when we stand close to one of them and notice the insignificant
+appearance of the crowd of sightseers clustered on its pedestal that we
+realize the immensity of the colossi.
+
+The descendants of Ahmosis had by their energy won for Thebes not only
+the supremacy over the peoples of Egypt and of the known world, but had
+also secured for the Theban deities pre-eminence over all their rivals.
+The booty collected both in Syria and Ethiopia went to enrich the god
+Amon as much as it did the kings themselves; every victory brought him
+the tenth part of the spoil gathered on the field of battle, of the
+tribute levied on vassals, and of the prisoners taken as slaves. When
+Thûtmosis IIL, after having reduced Megiddo, organised a systematic
+plundering of the surrounding country, it was for the benefit of Amon-Eâ
+that he reaped the fields and sent their harvest into Egypt; if during
+his journeys he collected useful plants or rare animals, it was that he
+might dispose of them in the groves or gardens of Amon as well as in his
+own, and he never retained for his personal use the whole of what he won
+by arms, but always reserved some portion for the sacred treasury.
+
+[Illustration: 076.jpg A PARTY OF TOURISTS AT THE FOOT OF THE VOCAL
+STATUE OF MEMNOK]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+His successors acted in a similar manner, and in the reigns of Amenôthes
+II., Thût-mosis IV., and Amenôthes III., the patrimony of the Theban
+priesthood continued to increase. The Pharaohs, perpetually called upon
+as they were to recompense one or other of their servants, were never
+able to retain for long their share of the spoils of war. Gold and
+silver, lands, jewels, and slaves passed as quickly out of their hands
+as they had fallen into them, and although then fortune was continually
+having additions made to it in every fresh campaign, yet the increase
+was rarely in proportion to the trouble expended. The god, on the
+contrary, received what he got for all time, and gave back nothing in
+return: fresh accumulations of precious metals were continually being
+added to his store, his meadows were enriched by the addition of
+vineyards, and with his palm forests he combined fish-ponds full of
+fish; he added farms and villages to those he already possessed, and
+each reign saw the list of his possessions increase. He had his own
+labourers, his own tradespeople, his own fishermen, soldiers, and
+scribes, and, presiding over all these, a learned hierarchy of divines,
+priests, and prophets, who administered everything. This immense domain,
+which was a kind of State within the State, was ruled over by a single
+high priest, chosen by the sovereign from among the prophets. He was the
+irresponsible head of it, and his spiritual ambition had increased
+step by step with the extension of his material resources. As the human
+Pharaoh showed himself entitled to homage from the lords of the earth,
+the priests came at length to the conclusion that Amon had a right
+to the allegiance of the lords of heaven, and that he was the Supreme
+Being, in respect of whom the others were of little or no account, and
+as he was the only god who was everywhere victorious, he came at length
+to be regarded by them as the only god in existence. It was impossible
+that the kings could see this rapid development of sacerdotal power
+without anxiety, and with all their devotion to the patron of their
+city, solicitude for their own authority compelled them to seek
+elsewhere for another divinity, whose influence might in some degree
+counterbalance that of Amon. The only one who could vie with him at
+Thebes, either for the antiquity of his worship or for the rank which he
+occupied in the public esteem, was the Sun-lord of Heliopolis, head of
+the first Ennead. Thûtmosis IV. owed his crown to him, and ‘displayed
+his gratitude in clearing away the sand from the Sphinx, in which
+the spirit of Harmakhis was considered to dwell; and Amenôthes
+III., although claiming to be the son of Amon himself, inherited the
+disposition shown by Thûtmosis in favour of the Heliopolitan religions,
+but instead of attaching himself to the forms most venerated by
+theologians, he bestowed his affection on a more popular deity--Atonû,
+the fiery disk. He may have been influenced in his choice by private
+reasons. Like his predecessors, he had taken, while still very young,
+wives from among his own family, but neither these reasonable ties, nor
+his numerous diplomatic alliances with foreign princesses, were enough
+for him. From the very beginning of his reign he had loved a maiden who
+was not of the blood of the Pharaohs, Tîi, the daughter of Iûîa and his
+wife Tûîa.*
+
+* For the last thirty years Queen Tîi has been the subject of many
+hypotheses and of much confusion. The scarabasi engraved under Amenôthes
+III. say explicitly that she was the daughter of two personages, Iûîa
+and Tûîa, but these names are not accompanied by any of the signs which
+are characteristic of foreign names, and were considered Egyptian by
+contemporaries. Hincks was the first who seems to have believed her
+to be a Syrian; he compares her father’s name with that of Levi, and
+attributes the religious revolution which followed to the influence of
+her foreign education. This theory has continued to predominate; some
+prefer a Libyan origin to the Asiatic one, and latterly there has
+been an attempt to recognise in Tîi one of the princesses of Mitanni
+mentioned in the correspondence of Tel el-Amarna. As long ago as 1877, I
+showed that Tîi was an Egyptian of middle rank, probably of Heliopolitan
+origin.
+
+Connexions of this kind had been frequently formed by his ancestors,
+but the Egyptian women of inferior rank whom they had brought into their
+harems had always remained in the background, and if the sons of these
+concubines were ever fortunate enough to come to the throne, it was in
+default of heirs of pure blood. Amenôthes III. married Tîi, gave her
+for her dowry the town of Zâlû in Lower Egypt, and raised her to the
+position of queen, in spite of her low extraction. She busied herself
+in the affairs of State, took precedence of the princesses of the solar
+family, and appeared at her husband’s side in public ceremonies, and was
+so figured on the monuments. If, as there is reason to believe, she was
+born near Heliopolis, it is easy to understand how her influence may
+have led Amenôthes to pay special honour to a Heliopolitan divinity.
+He had built, at an early period of his reign, a sanctuary to Atonû at
+Memphis, and in the Xth year he constructed for him a chapel at Thebes
+itself,* to the south of the last pylon of ïhûtmosis III., and endowed
+this deity with property at the expense of Anion.
+
+     * This temple seems to have been raised on the site of the
+     building which is usually attributed to Amenôthes II. and
+     Amenôthes III. The blocks bearing the name of Amenôthes II.
+     had been used previously, like most of those which bear the
+     cartouches of Amenôthes III. The temple of Atonû, which was
+     demolished by Harmhabî or one of the Ramses, was
+     subsequently rebuilt with the remains of earlier edifices,
+     and dedicated to Amon.
+
+[Illustration: 079.jpg MARRIAGE SCARABÆUS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph of the scarabaeus
+     preserved at Gîzeh.
+
+He had several sons;* but the one who succeeded him, and who, like
+him, was named Amenôthes, was the most paradoxical of all the Egyptian
+sovereigns of ancient times.**
+
+     * One of them, Thûtmosis, was high priest of Phtah, and we
+     possess several monuments erected by him in the temple of
+     Memphis; another, Tûtonkhamon, subsequently became king. He
+     also had several daughters by Tîi--Sîtamon.
+
+     ** The absence of any cartouches of Amenôthes IV. or his
+     successors in the table of Abydos prevented Champollion and
+     Rosellini from classifying these sovereigns with any
+     precision. Nestor L’hôte tried to recognise in the first of
+     them, whom he called _Bakhen-Balchnan_, a king belonging to
+     the very ancient dynasties, perhaps the Hyksôs Apakhnan, but
+     Lepsius and Hincks showed that he must be placed between
+     Amenôthes III. and Harmhabî, that he was first called
+     Amenôthes like his father, but that he afterwards took the
+     name of Baknaten, which is now read Khûnaten or Khûniaton.
+     His singular aspect made it difficult to decide at first
+     whether a man or a woman was represented. Mariette, while
+     pronouncing him to be a man, thought that he had perhaps
+     been taken prisoner in the Sudan and mutilated, which would
+     have explained his effeminate appearance, almost like that
+     of an eunuch. Recent attempts have been made to prove that
+     Amenôthes IV. and Khûniaton were two distinct persons, or
+     that Khûniaton was a queen; but they have hitherto been
+     rejected by Egyptologists.
+
+He made up for the inferiority of his birth on account of the plebeian
+origin of his mother Tîî,* by his marriage with Nofrîtîti, a princess
+of the pure solar race.** Tîi, long accustomed to the management of
+affairs, exerted her influence over him even more than she had done over
+her husband. Without officially assuming the rank, she certainly for
+several years possessed the power, of regent, and gave a definite
+Oriental impress to her son’s religious policy. No outward changes were
+made at first; Amenôthes, although showing his preference for Heliopolis
+by inscribing in his protocol the title of prophet of Harmakhis,
+which he may, however, have borne before his accession, maintained his
+residence at Thebes, as his father had done before him, continued to
+sacrifice to the Theban divinities, and to follow the ancient paths and
+the conventional practices.***
+
+     * The filiation of Amenôthes IV. and Tîi has given rise to
+     more than one controversy. The Egyptian texts do not define
+     it explicitly, and the title borne by Tîi has been
+     considered by some to prove that Amenôthes IV. was her son,
+     and by others that she was the mother of Queen Nofrîtîti.
+     The Tel el-Amarna correspondence solves the question,
+     however, as it gives a letter from Dushratta to Khûniaton,
+     in which Tîi is called “thy mother.”
+
+     ** Nofrîtîti, the wife of Amenôthes IV., like all the
+     princesses of that time, has been supposed to be of Syrian
+     origin, and to have changed her name on her arrival in
+     Egypt. The place which she holds beside her husband is the
+     same as that which belongs to legitimate queens, like
+     Nofritari, Ahmosis, and Hâtshopsîtû, and the example of
+     these princesses is enough to show us what was her real
+     position; she was most probably a daughter of one of the
+     princesses of the solar blood, perhaps of one of the sisters
+     of Amenôthes III., and Amenôthes IV. married her so as to
+     obtain through her the rights which were wanting to him
+     through his mother Tîi.
+
+     *** The tomb of Ramses, governor of Thebes and priest of
+     Mâît, shows us in one part of it the king, still faithful to
+     his name of Amenôthes, paying homage to the god Amon, lord
+     of Karnak, while everywhere else the worship of Atonû
+     predominates. The cartouches on the tomb of Pari, read by
+     Bouriant Akhopîrûrî, and by Scheil more correctly
+     Nofirkhopîrûrî, seem to me to represent a transitional form
+     of the protocol of Amenôthes IV., and not the name of a new
+     Pharaoh; the inscription in which they are to be found bears
+     the date of his third year.
+
+He either built a temple to the Theban god, or enlarged the one which
+his father had constructed at Karnak, and even opened new quarries at
+Syene and Silsileh for providing granite and sandstone for the adornment
+of this monument. His devotion to the invincible Disk, however, soon
+began to assert itself, and rendered more and more irksome to him the
+religious observances which he had constrained himself to follow. There
+was nothing and no one to hinder him from giving free course to his
+inclinations, and the nobles and priests were too well trained in
+obedience to venture to censure anything he might do, even were it to
+result in putting the whole population into motion, from Elephantine to
+the sea-coast, to prepare for the intruded deity a dwelling which should
+eclipse in magnificence the splendour of the great temple. A few
+of those around him had become converted of their own accord to his
+favourite worship, but these formed a very small minority. Thebes had
+belonged to Amon so long that the king could never hope to bring it
+to regard Atonû as anything but a being of inferior rank. Each
+city belonged to some god, to whom was attributed its origin, its
+development, and its prosperity, and whom it could not forsake without
+renouncing its very existence. If Thebes became separated from Amon it
+would be Thebes no longer, and of this Amenôthes was so well aware that
+he never attempted to induce it to renounce its patron. His residence
+among surroundings which he detested at length became so intolerable,
+that he resolved to leave the place and create a new capital elsewhere.
+The choice of a new abode would have presented no difficulty to him had
+he been able to make up his mind to relegate Atonû to the second rank of
+divinities; Memphis, Heracleopolis, Siût, Khmûnû, and, in fact, all the
+towns of the valley would have deemed themselves fortunate in securing
+the inheritance of their rival, but not one of them would be false to
+its convictions or accept the degradation of its own divine founder,
+whether Phtah, Harshafîtû, Anubis, or Thot. A newly promoted god
+demanded a new city; Amenôthes, therefore, made selection of a broad
+plain extending on the right bank of the Nile, in the eastern part of
+the Hermopolitan nome, to which he removed with all his court about the
+fourth or fifth year of his reign.*
+
+     * The last date with the name of Amenôthes is that of the
+     year V., on a papyrus from the Payilm; elsewhere we find
+     from the year VI. the name of Khûniaton, by the side of
+     monuments with the cartouche of Amenôthes; we may conclude
+     from this that the foundation of the town dates from the
+     year IV. or V. at the latest, when the prince, having
+     renounced the worship of Amon, left Thebes that he might be
+     able to celebrate freely that of Atonû.
+
+He found here several obscure villages without any historical or
+religious traditions, and but thinly populated; Amenôthes chose one
+of them, the Et-Tel of the present day, and built there a palace
+for himself and a temple for his god. The temple, like that of Eâ at
+Heliopolis, was named _Haît-Banbonû_, the Mansion of the Obelisk. It
+covered an immense area, of which the sanctuary, however, occupied an
+inconsiderable part; it was flanked by brick storehouses, and the whole
+was surrounded by a thick wall. The remains show that the temple was
+built of white limestone, of fine quality, but that it was almost
+devoid of ornament, for there was no time to cover it with the usual
+decorations.*
+
+     * The opinion of Brugsch, that the arrangement of the
+     various parts differed from that of other temples, and was
+     the effect of foreign influence, has not been borne out by
+     the excavations of Prof. Pétrie, the little which he has
+     brought to light being entirely of Egyptian character. The
+     temple is represented on the tomb of the high priest Mariri.
+
+[Illustration: 084.jpg Map]
+
+The palace was built of brick; it was approached by a colossal gateway,
+and contained vast halls, interspersed with small apartments for the
+accommodation of the household, and storehouses for the necessary
+provisions, besides gardens which had been hastily planted with rare
+shrubs and sycamores. Fragments of furniture and of the roughest of the
+utensils contained in the different chambers are still unearthed from
+among the heaps of rubbish, and the cellars especially are full of
+potsherds and cracked jars, on which we can still see written an
+indication of the reign and the year when the wine they once contained
+was made. Altars of massive masonry rose in the midst of the courts,
+on which the king or one of his ministers heaped offerings and burnt
+incense morning, noon, and evening, in honour of the three decisive
+moments in the life of Atonû.*
+
+     * Naville discovered at Deîr el-Baharî a similar altar,
+     nearly intact. No other example was before known in any of
+     the ruined towns or temples, and no one had any idea of the
+     dimensions to which these altars, attained.
+
+A few painted and gilded columns supported the roofs of the principal
+apartments in which the Pharaoh held his audiences, but elsewhere the
+walls and pillars were coated with cream-coloured stucco or whitewash,
+on which scenes of private life were depicted in colours. The pavement,
+like the walls, was also decorated. In one of the halls which seems to
+have belonged to the harem, there is still to be seen distinctly
+the picture of a rectangular piece of water containing fish and
+lotus-flowers in full bloom; the edge is adorned with water-plants and
+flowering shrubs, among which birds fly and calves graze and gambol; on
+the right and left were depicted rows of stands laden with fruit, while
+at each end of the room were seen the grinning faces of a gang of negro
+and Syrian prisoners, separated from each other by gigantic arches. The
+tone of colouring is bright and cheerful, and the animals are treated
+with great freedom and facility. The Pharaoh, had collected about him
+several of the best artists then to be found at Thebes, placing
+them under the direction of Baûki, the chief of the corporation
+of sculptors,* and probably others subsequently joined these from
+provincial studios.
+
+     * Baûki belonged to a family of artists, and his father Mani
+     had filled before him the post of chief of the sculptors.
+     The part played by these personages was first defined by
+     Brugsch, with perhaps some exaggeration of their artistic
+     merit and originality of talent.
+
+Work for them was not lacking, for houses had to be built for all the
+courtiers and government officials who had been obliged to follow the
+king, and in a few years a large town had sprung up, which was called
+Khûîtatonû, or the “Horizon of the Disk.” It was built on a regular
+plan, with straight streets and open spaces, and divided into two
+separate quarters, interspersed with orchards and shady trellises.
+Workmen soon began to flock to the new city--metal-founders,
+glass-founders, weavers; in fine, all who followed any trade
+indispensable to the luxury of a capital. The king appropriated a
+territory for it from the ancient nome of the Hare, thus compelling the
+god Thot to contribute to the fortune of Atonû; he fixed its limits by
+means of stelæ placed in the mountains, from Gebel-Tûnah to Deshlûît on
+the west, and from Sheikh-Said to El-Hauata on the eastern bank;* it was
+a new nome improvised for the divine _parvenu_.
+
+     * We know at present of fourteen of these stelæ. A certain
+     number must still remain to be discovered on both banks of
+     the Nile.
+
+[Illustration: 082.jpg THE DECORATED PAVEMENT OF THE PALACE]
+
+Atonû was one of the forms of the Sun, and perhaps the most material one
+of all those devised by the Egyptians. He was defined as “the good god
+who rejoices in truth, the lord of the solar course, the lord of the
+disk, the lord of heaven, the lord of earth, the living disk which
+lights up the two worlds, the living Harmakhis who rises on the horizon
+bearing his name of Shû, which is disk, the eternal infuser of life.”
+ His priests exercised the same functions as those of Heliopolis, and his
+high priest was called “Oîrimaû,” like the high priest of Râ in Aunû.
+This functionary was a certain Marirl, upon whom the king showered his
+favours, and he was for some time the chief authority in the State after
+the Pharaoh himself. Atonû was represented sometimes by the ordinary
+figure of Horus,* sometimes by the solar disk, but a disk whose rays
+were prolonged towards the earth, like so many arms ready to lay
+hold with their little hands of the offerings of the faithful, or to
+distribute to mortals the _crux ansata_, the symbol of life. The other
+gods, except Amon, were sharers with humanity in his benefits. Atonû
+proscribed him, and tolerated him only at Thebes; he required, moreover,
+that the name of Amon should be effaced wherever it occurred, but he
+respected Râ and Horus and Harmakhis--all, in fact, but Amon: he was
+content with being regarded as their king, and he strove rather to
+become their chief than their destroyer.**
+
+     * It was probably this form of Horus which had, in the
+     temple at Thebes, the statue called “the red image of Atonû
+     in Paatoml.”
+
+     ** Prisse d’Avennes has found at Karnak, on fragments of the
+     temple, the names of other divinities than Atonû worshipped
+     by Khûniatonû.
+
+His nature, moreover, had nothing in it of the mysterious or ambiguous;
+he was the glorious torch which gave light to humanity, and which
+was seen every day to flame in the heavens without ever losing its
+brilliance or becoming weaker. When he hides himself “the world rests in
+darkness, like those dead who lie in their rock-tombs, with their heads
+swathed, their nostrils stuffed up, their eyes sightless, and whose
+whole property might be stolen from them, even that which they have
+under their head, without their knowing it; the lion issues from his
+lair, the serpent roams ready to bite, it is as obscure as in a dark
+room, the earth is silent whilst he who creates everything dwells in his
+horizon.” He has hardly arisen when “Egypt becomes festal, one awakens,
+one rises on one’s feet; when thou hast caused men to clothe themselves,
+they adore thee with outstretched hands, and the whole earth attends
+to its work, the animals betake themselves to their herbage, trees
+and green crops abound, birds fly to their marshy thickets with wings
+outstretched in adoration of thy double, the cattle skip, all the birds
+which were in their nests shake themselves when thou risest for them;
+the boats come and go, for every way is open at thy appearance, the
+fish of the river leap before thee as soon as thy rays descend upon the
+ocean.” It is not without reason that all living things thus rejoice at
+his advent; all of them owe their existence to him, for “he creates the
+female germ, he gives virility to men, and furnishes life to the infant
+in its mother’s womb; he calms and stills its weeping, he nourishes it
+in the maternal womb, giving forth the breathings which animate all that
+he creates, and when the infant escapes from the womb on the day of
+its birth, thou openest his mouth for speech, and thou satisfiest his
+necessities. When the chick is in the egg, a cackle in a stone, thou
+givest to it air while within to keep it alive; when thou hast caused
+it to be developed in the egg to the point of being able to break it, it
+goes forth proclaiming its existence by its cackling, and walks on its
+feet from the moment of its leaving the egg.” Atonû presides over the
+universe and arranges within it the lot of human beings, both Egyptians
+and foreigners. The celestial Nile springs up in Hades far away in the
+north; he makes its current run down to earth, and spreads its waters
+over the fields during the inundation in order to nourish his creatures.
+He rules the seasons, winter and summer; he constructed the far-off sky
+in order to display himself therein, and to look down upon his works
+below. From the moment that he reveals himself there, “cities, towns,
+tribes, routes, rivers--all eyes are lifted to him, for he is the
+disk of the day upon the earth.” * The sanctuary in which he is invoked
+contains only his divine shadow;** for he himself never leaves the
+firmament.
+
+     * These extracts are taken from the hymns of Tel el-Amarna.
+
+     ** In one of the tombs at Tel el-Amarna the king is depicted
+     leading his mother Tîi to the temple of Atonû in order to
+     see “the Shadow of Râ,” and it was thought with some reason
+     that “the Shadow of Râ” was one of the names of the temple.
+     I think that this designation applied also to the statue or
+     symbol of the god; the _shadow_ of a god was attached to the
+     statue in the same manner as the “double,” and transformed
+     it into an animated body.
+
+His worship assumes none of the severe and gloomy forms of the Theban
+cults: songs resound therein, and hymns accompanied by the harp or
+flute; bread, cakes, vegetables, fruits, and flowers are associated
+with his rites, and only on very rare occasions one of those bloody
+sacrifices in which the other gods delight. The king made himself
+supreme pontiff of Atonu, and took precedence of the high priest. He
+himself celebrated the rites at the altar of the god, and we see him
+there standing erect, his hands outstretched, offering incense and
+invoking blessings from on high.* Like the Caliph Hakim of a later age,
+he formed a school to propagate his new doctrines, and preached them
+before his courtiers: if they wished to please him, they had to accept
+his teaching, and show that they had profited by it. The renunciation of
+the traditional religious observances of the solar house involved also
+the rejection of such personal names as implied an ardent devotion to
+the banished god; in place of Amenôthes, “he to whom Amon is united,”
+ the king assumed after a time the name of Khûniatonû, “the Glory of the
+Disk,” and all the members of his family, as well as his adherents
+at court, whose appellations involved the name of the same god, soon
+followed his example. The proscription of Amon extended to inscriptions,
+so that while his name or figure, wherever either could be got at, was
+chiselled out, the vulture, the emblem of Mût, which expressed the idea
+of mother, was also avoided.**
+
+     * The altar on which the king stands upright is one of those
+     cubes of masonry of which Naville discovered such a fine
+     example in the temple of Hâtshopsîtû at Deîr el-Baharî.
+
+     ** We find, however, some instances where the draughtsman,
+     either from custom or design, had used the vulture to
+     express the word mailt, “the mother,” without troubling
+     himself to think whether it answered to the name of the
+     goddess.
+
+The king would have nothing about him to suggest to eye or ear the
+remembrance of the gods or doctrines of Thebes. It would consequently
+have been fatal to them and their pretensions to the primacy of Egypt
+if the reign of the young king had continued as long as might naturally
+have been expected. After having been for nearly two centuries almost
+the national head of Africa, Amon was degraded by a single blow to the
+secondary rank and languishing existence in which he had lived before
+the expulsion of the Hyksôs. He had surrendered his sceptre as king of
+heaven and earth, not to any of his rivals who in old times had enjoyed
+the highest rank, but to an individual of a lower order, a sort of
+demigod, while he himself had thus become merely a local deity, confined
+to the corner of the Said in which he had had his origin. There was not
+even left to him the peaceful possession of this restricted domain,
+for he was obliged to act as host to the enemy who had deposed him:
+the temple of Atonû was erected at the door of his own sanctuary, and
+without leaving their courts the priests of Amon could hear at the hours
+of worship the chants intoned by hundreds of heretics in the temple of
+the Disk. Amon’s priests saw, moreover, the royal gifts flowing into
+other treasuries, and the gold of Syria and Ethiopia no longer came
+into their hands. Should they stifle their complaints, and bow to this
+insulting oppression, or should they raise a protest against the action
+which had condemned them to obscurity and a restricted existence? If
+they had given indications of resistance, they would have been obliged
+to submit to prompt repression, but we see no sign of this. The bulk
+of the people--clerical as well as lay--accepted the deposition with
+complacency, and the nobles hastened to offer their adherence to that
+which afterwards became the official confession of faith of the Lord
+King.* The lord of Thebes itself, a certain Ramses, bowed his head to
+the new cult, and the bas-reliefs of his tomb display to our eyes the
+proofs of his apostasy: on the right-hand side Amon is the only subject
+of his devotion, while on the left he declares himself an adherent of
+Atonû. Religious formularies, divine appellations, the representations
+of the costume, expression, and demeanour of the figures are at issue
+with each other in the scenes on the two sides of the door, and if we
+were to trust to appearances only, one would think that the two pictures
+belonged to two separate reigns, and were concerned with two individuals
+strangers to each other.**
+
+     * The political character of this reaction against the
+     growing power of the high priests and the town of Amon was
+     pointed out for the first time by Masporo in 1878. Ed. Meyer
+     and Tiele blond with the political idea a monotheistic
+     conception which does not seem to me to be fully justified,
+     at least at present, by anything in the materials we
+     possess.
+
+     ** His tomb was discovered in 1878 by Villiers-Stuart.
+
+The rupture between the past and the present was so complete, in
+fact, that the sovereign was obliged to change, if not his face and
+expression, at least the mode in which they were represented.
+
+[Illustration: 095.jpg THE MASK OF KIHÛNIATONÛ]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie. Petrie
+     thinks that the monument discovered by him, which is of fine
+     plaster, is a cast of the dead king, executed possibly to
+     enable the sculptors to make _Ushabtu_, “Respondents,” for
+     him.
+
+The name and personality of an Egyptian were so closely allied that
+interference with one implied interference with the other. Khûniatonû
+could not continue to be such as he was when Amenôthes, and, in fact,
+their respective portraits differ from each other to that degree that
+there is some doubt at moments as to their identity. Amenôthes is
+hardly to be distinguished from his father: he has the same regular and
+somewhat heavy features, the same idealised body and conventional shape
+as those which we find in the orthodox Pharaohs. Khûniatonû affects a
+long and narrow head, conical at the top, with a retreating forehead,
+a large aquiline and pointed nose, a small mouth, an enormous chin
+projecting in front, the whole being supported by a long, thin neck.
+
+His shoulders are narrow, with little display of muscle, but his breasts
+are so full, his abdomen so prominent, and his hips so large, that one
+would think they belonged to a woman. Etiquette required the attendants
+upon the king, and those who aspired to his favour, to be portrayed in
+the bas-reliefs of temples or tombs in all points, both as regards face
+and demeanour, like the king himself. Hence it is that the majority of
+his contemporaries, after having borne the likeness of Amenôthes,
+came to adopt, without a break, that of Khûniatonû. The scenes at Tel
+el-Amarna contain, therefore, nothing but angular profiles, pointed
+skulls, ample breasts, flowing figures, and swelling stomachs. The
+outline of these is one that lends itself readily to caricature, and the
+artists have exaggerated the various details with the intention, it
+may be, of rendering the representations grotesque. There was nothing
+ridiculous, however, in the king, their model, and several of his
+statues attribute to him a languid, almost valetudinarian grace, which
+is by no means lacking in dignity.
+
+[Illustration: 096.jpg AMENÔTHES IV., FROM THE STATUETTE IN THE LOUVRE.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a drawing by Petrie.
+
+[Illustration: 097.jpg Page Image]
+
+He was a good and affectionate man, and was passionately fond of his
+wife, Nofrîtîti, associating her with himself in his sovereign acts. If
+he set out to visit the temple, she followed him in a chariot; if he was
+about to reward one of his faithful subjects, she stood beside him and
+helped to distribute the golden necklaces. She joined him in his prayers
+to the Solar Disk; she ministered to him in domestic life, when, having
+broken away from the worries of his public duties, he sought relaxation
+in his harem; and their union was so tender, that we find her on one
+occasion, at least, seated in a coaxing attitude on her husband’s
+knees--a unique instance of such affection among all the representations
+on the monuments of Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: 098.jpg KHÛNIATONÛ AND HIS WIFE REWARDING ONE OF THE
+GREAT OFFICERS OF THE COURT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+They had six daughters, whom they brought up to live with them on
+terms of the closest intimacy: they accompanied their father and mother
+everywhere, and are exhibited as playing around the throne while their
+parents are engaged in performing the duties of their office. The
+gentleness and gaiety of the king were reflected in the life of his
+subjects: all the scenes which they have left us consist entirely of
+processions, cavalcades, banquets, and entertainments. Khûniatonû was
+prodigal in the gifts of gold and the eulogies which he bestowed on
+Marirî, the chief priest: the people dance around him while he is
+receiving from the king the just recompense of his activity. When Hûîa,
+who came back from Syria in the XIIth year of the king’s reign, brought
+solemnly before him the tribute he had collected, the king, borne in
+his jolting palanquin on the shoulders of his officers, proceeded to the
+temple to return thanks to his god, to the accompaniment of chants and
+the waving of the great fans. When the divine father Aï had married the
+governess of one of the king’s daughters, the whole city gave itself
+up to enjoyment, and wine flowed freely during the wedding feast.
+Notwithstanding the frequent festivals, the king found time to watch
+jealously over the ordinary progress of government and foreign affairs.
+The architects, too, were not allowed to stand idle, and without taking
+into account the repairs of existing buildings, had plenty to do in
+constructing edifices in honour of Atonû in the principal towns of the
+Nile valley, at Memphis, Heliopolis, Hermopolis, Hermonthis, and in
+the Fayûm. The provinces in Ethiopia remained practically in the
+same condition as in the time of Amenôthes III.;* Kûsh was pacified,
+notwithstanding the raids which the tribes of the desert were accustomed
+to make from time to time, only to receive on each occasion rigorous
+chastisement from the king’s viceroy.
+
+     * The name and the figure of Khûniatonû are met with on the
+     gate of the temple of Soleb, and he received in his
+     XIIth year the tributes of Kûsh, as well as those of Syria.
+
+The sudden degradation of Amon had not brought about any coldness
+between the Pharaoh and his princely allies in Asia. The aged Amenôthes
+had, towards the end of his reign, asked the hand of Dushratta’s
+daughter in marriage, and the Mitannian king, highly flattered by the
+request, saw his opportunity and took advantage of it in the interest
+of his treasury. He discussed the amount of the dowry, demanded a
+considerable sum of gold, and when the affair had been finally arranged
+to his satisfaction, he despatched the princess to the banks of the
+Nile. On her arrival she found her affianced husband was dead, or, at
+all events, dying. Amenôthes IV., however, stepped into his father’s
+place, and inherited his bride with his crown.
+
+[Illustration: 100.jpg THE DOOR OF A TOMB AT TEL EL-AMARNA]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+The new king’s relations with other foreign princes were no less
+friendly; the chief of the Khâti (Hittites) complimented him on his
+accession, the King of Alasia wrote to him to express his earnest desire
+for a continuance of peace between the two states. Burnaburiash of
+Babylon had, it is true, hoped to obtain an Egyptian princess in
+marriage for his son, and being disappointed, had endeavoured to pick a
+quarrel over the value of the presents which had been sent him, together
+with the notice of the accession of the new sovereign. But his kingdom
+lay too far away to make his ill-will of much consequence, and his
+complaints passed unheeded. In Coele-Syria and Phoenicia the situation
+remained unchanged. The vassal cities were in a perpetual state
+of disturbance, though not more so than in the past. Azîru, son of
+Abdashirti, chief of the country of the Amorites, had always, even
+during the lifetime of Amenôthes III., been the most turbulent of
+vassals. The smaller states of the Orontes and of the coast about Arvad
+had been laid waste by his repeated incursions and troubled by his
+intrigues. He had taken and pillaged twenty towns, among which were
+Simyra, Sini, Irqata, and Qodshû, and he was already threatening Byblos,
+Berytus, and Sidon. It was useless to complain of him, for he always
+managed to exculpate himself to the royal messengers. Khaî, Dûdû,
+Amenemaûpît had in turn all pronounced him innocent. Pharaoh himself,
+after citing him to appear in Egypt to give an explanation of his
+conduct, had allowed himself to be won over by his fair speaking, and
+had dismissed him uncondemned. Other princes, who lacked his cleverness
+and power, tried to imitate him, and from north to south the whole of
+Syria could only be compared to some great arena, in which fighting
+was continually carried on between one tribe or town and another--Tyre
+against Sidon, Sidon against Byblos, Jerusalem against Lachish. All
+of them appealed to Khûniatonû, and endeavoured to enlist him on their
+side. Their despatches arrived by scores, and the perusal of them at
+the present day would lead us to imagine that Egypt had all but lost
+her supremacy. The Egyptian ministers, however, were entirely unmoved
+by them, and continued to refuse material support to any of the numerous
+rivals, except in a few rare cases, where a too prolonged indifference
+would have provoked an open revolt in some part of the country.
+
+Khûniatonû died young, about the XVIIIth year of his reign.* He was
+buried in the depths of a ravine in the mountain-side to the east of
+the town, and his tomb remained unknown till within the last few years.
+Although one of his daughters who died before her father had been
+interred there, the place seems to have been entirely unprepared for the
+reception of the king’s body. The funeral chamber and the passages
+are scarcely even rough-hewn, and the reception halls show a mere
+commencement of decoration.** The other tombs of the locality are
+divided into two groups, separated by the ravine reserved for the
+burying-place of the royal house. The noble families possessed each
+their own tomb on the slopes of the hillside; the common people were
+laid to rest in pits lower down, almost on the level of the plain.
+The cutting and decoration of all these tombs had been entrusted to a
+company of contractors, who had executed them according to two or three
+stereotyped plans, without any variation, except in size. Nearly all the
+walls are bare, or present but few inscriptions; those tombs only are
+completed whose occupants died before the Pharaoh.
+
+     * The length of Khûniatonû’s reign was fixed by Griffith
+     with almost absolute certainty by means of the dates written
+     in ink on the jars of wine and preserves found in the ruins
+     of the palace.
+
+     ** The tomb has been found, as I anticipated, in the ravine
+     which separates the northern after the southern group of
+     burying-places. The Arabs opened it in 1891, and Grébaut has
+     since completely excavated it. The scenes depicted in it are
+     connected with the death and funeral of the Princess
+     Mâqîtatonû.
+
+[Illustration: 103.jpg INTERIOR OF A TOMB AT TEL EL-AMARNA]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, after a photograph by Insinger.
+
+The façades of the tombs are cut in the rock, and contain, for the most
+part, but one door, the jambs of which are covered on both sides by
+several lines of hieroglyphs; and it is just possible to distinguish
+traces of the adoration of the radiant Disk on the lintels, together
+with the cartouches containing the names of the king and god. The chapel
+is a large rectangular chamber, from one end of which opens the inclined
+passage leading to the coffin. The roof is sometimes supported by
+columns, having capitals decorated with designs of flowers or of geese
+hung from the abacus by their feet with their heads turned upwards.
+
+The religious teaching at Tel el-Amarna presents no difference in the
+main from that which prevailed in other parts of Egypt.* The Double
+of Osiris was supposed to reside in the tomb, or else to take wing to
+heaven and embark with Atonû, as elsewhere he would embark with Eâ. The
+same funerary furniture is needed for the deceased as in other local
+cults--ornaments of vitreous paste, amulets, and _Ushabtiu_, or
+“Respondents,” to labour for the dead man in the fields of Ialû. Those
+of Khûniatonû were, like those of Amenôthes III., actual statuettes in
+granite of admirable workmanship. The dead who reached the divine abode,
+retained the same rank in life that they had possessed here below, and
+in order to ensure the enjoyment of it, they related, or caused to be
+depicted in their tombs, the events of their earthly career.
+
+     * The peculiar treatment of the two extremities of the sign
+     for the sky, which surmounts the great scene on the tomb of
+     Ahmosis, shows that there had been no change in the ideas
+     concerning the two horizons or the divine tree found in
+     them: the aspirations for the soul of Marirî, the high
+     priest of Atonû, or for that of the sculptor Baûkû, are the
+     same as those usually found, and the formula on the funerary
+     stelae differs only in the name of the god from that on the
+     ordinary stelae of the same kind.
+
+A citizen of Khûîtatonû would naturally represent the manners and
+customs of his native town, and this would account for the local
+colouring of the scenes in which we see him taking part.
+
+They bear no resemblance to the traditional pictures of the buildings
+and gardens of Thebes with which we are familiar; we have instead the
+palaces, colonnades, and pylons of the rising city, its courts planted
+with sycomores, its treasuries, and its storehouses. The sun’s disk
+hovers above and darts its prehensile rays over every object; its hands
+present the _crux ansata_ to the nostrils of the various members of the
+family, they touch caressingly the queen and her daughters, they handle
+the offerings of bread and cakes, they extend even into the government
+warehouses to pilfer or to bless. Throughout all these scenes Khûniatonû
+and the ladies of his harem seem to be ubiquitous: here he visits one of
+the officers, there he repairs to the temple for the dedication of its
+sanctuary. His chariot, followed at a little distance by that of the
+princesses, makes its way peaceably through the streets. The police of
+the city and the soldiers of the guard, whether Egyptians or foreigners,
+run before him and clear a path among the crowd, the high priest Marirî
+stands at the gate to receive him, and the ceremony is brought to a
+close by a distribution of gold necklaces or rings, while the populace
+dance with delight before the sovereign. Meantime the slaves have
+cooked the repast, the dancers and musicians within their chambers have
+rehearsed for the evening’s festival, and the inmates of the house carry
+on animated dialogues during their meal. The style and the technique of
+these wall-paintings differ in no way from those in the necropolis of
+the preceding period, and there can be no doubt that the artists who
+decorated these monuments were trained in the schools of Thebes. Their
+drawing is often very refined, and there is great freedom in their
+composition; the perspective of some of the bas-reliefs almost comes
+up to our own, and the movement of animated crowds is indicated with
+perfect accuracy. It is, however, not safe to conclude from these
+examples that the artists who executed them would have developed
+Egyptian art in a new direction, had not subsequent events caused a
+reaction against the worship of Atonû and his followers.
+
+[Illustration: 104.jpg PROFILE OF HEAD OF MUMMY (THEBES TOMBS.)]
+
+[Illustration: 106.jpg TWO OF THE DAUGHTERS OF KHÛHI ATONÛ]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie.
+
+Although the tombs in which they worked differ from the generality
+of Egyptian burying-places, their originality does not arise from any
+effort, either conscious or otherwise, to break through the ordinary
+routine of the art of the time; it is rather the result of the
+extraordinary appearance of the sovereign whose features they were
+called on to portray, and the novelty of several of the subjects which
+they had to treat. That artist among them who first gave concrete form
+to the ideas circulated by the priests of Atonû, and drew the model
+cartoons, evidently possessed a master-hand, and was endowed with
+undeniable originality and power. No other Egyptian draughtsman ever
+expressed a child’s grace as he did, and the portraits which he sketched
+of the daughters of Khûniatonû playing undressed at their mother’s side,
+are examples of a reserved and delicate grace. But these models, when
+once composed and finished even to the smallest details, were entrusted
+for execution to workmen of mediocre powers, who were recruited not only
+from Thebes, but from the neighbouring cities of Hermopolis and Siût.
+These estimable people, with a praiseworthy patience, traced bit by bit
+the cartoons confided to them, omitting or adding individuals or groups
+according to the extent of the wall-space they had to cover, or to the
+number of relatives and servants whom the proprietor of the tomb desired
+should share in his future happiness. The style of these draughtsmen
+betrays the influence of the second-rate schools in which they had
+learned their craft, and the clumsiness of their work would often repel
+us, were it not that the interest of the episodes portrayed redeems it
+in the eyes of the Egyptologist.
+
+Khûniatonû left no son to succeed him; two of his sons-in-law
+successively occupied the throne--Sâakerî, who had married his eldest
+daughter Marîtatonû, and Tûtankhamon, the husband of Ankhnasaton. The
+first had been associated in the sovereignty by his father-in-law;* he
+showed himself a zealous partisan of the “Disk,” and he continued to
+reside in the new capital during the few years of his sole reign.** The
+second son-in-law was a son of Amenôthes III., probably by a concubine.
+He returned to the religion of Amon, and his wife, abjuring the creed
+of her father, changed her name from Ankhnasaton to that of Ankhnasamon.
+Her husband abandoned Khûitatonû*** at the end of two or three years,
+and after his departure the town fell into decadence as quickly as it
+had arisen. The streets were unfrequented, the palaces and temples stood
+empty, the tombs remained unfinished and unoccupied, and its patron god
+returned to his former state, and was relegated to the third or fourth
+rank in the Egyptian Pantheon.
+
+     * He and his wife are represented by the side of Khûniatonû,
+     with the protocol and the attributes of royalty. Pétrie
+     assigns to this double reign those minor objects on which
+     the king’s prenomen Ankhkhopîrûri is followed by the epithet
+     beloved of Uânirâ, which formed part of the name of
+     Khûniatonû.
+
+     ** Pétrie thinks, on the testimony of the lists of Manetho,
+     which give twelve years to Akenkheres, daughter of Horos,
+     that Sâakerî reigned twelve years, and only two or three
+     years as sole monarch without his father-in-law. I think
+     these two or three years a probable maximum length of his
+     reign, whatever may be the value we should here assign to
+     the lists of Manetho.
+
+     *** Pétrie, judging from the number of minor objects which
+     he has found in his excavations at Tel el-Amarna, believes
+     that he can fix the length of Tûtankhamon’s sojourn at
+     Khûîtatonû at six years, and that of his whole reign at nine
+     years.
+
+The town struggled for a short time against its adverse fate, which
+was no doubt retarded owing to the various industries founded in it by
+Khûniatonû, the manufactories of enamel and coloured glass requiring the
+presence of many workmen; but the latter emigrated ere long to Thebes
+or the neighbouring city of Hermopolis, and the “Horizon of Atonû”
+ disappeared from the list of nomes, leaving of what might have been the
+capital of the Egyptian empire, merely a mound of crumbling bricks with
+two or three fellahîn villages scattered on the eastern bank of the
+Nile.*
+
+     * Pétrie thinks that the temples and palaces were
+     systematically destroyed by Harmhabî, and the ruins used by
+     him in the buildings which he erected at different places in
+     Egypt. But there is no need for this theory: the beauty of
+     the limestone which Khûniatonû had used sufficiently
+     accounts for the rapid disappearance of the deserted
+     edifices.
+
+Thebes, whose influence and population had meanwhile never lessened,
+resumed her supremacy undisturbed. If, out of respect for the past,
+Tûtankhamon continued the decoration of the temple of Atonû at Karnak,
+he placed in every other locality the name and figure of Amon; a little
+stucco spread over the parts which had been mutilated, enabled the
+outlines to be restored to their original purity, and the alteration was
+rendered invisible by a few coats of colour. Tûtankhamon was succeeded
+by the divine father Aï, whom Khûniatonû had assigned as husband to one
+of his relatives named Tîi, so called after the widow of Amenôthes
+III. Aï laboured no less diligently than his predecessor to keep up
+the traditions which had been temporarily interrupted. He had been
+a faithful worshipper of the Disk, and had given orders for the
+construction of two funerary chapels for himself in the mountain-side
+above Tel el-Amarna, the paintings in which indicate a complete
+adherence to the faith of the reigning king. But on becoming Pharaoh,
+he was proportionally zealous in his submission to the gods of Thebes,
+and in order to mark more fully his return to the ancient belief, he
+chose for his royal burying-place a site close to that in which rested
+the body of Amenôthes III.*
+
+     * The first tomb seems to have been dug before his marriage,
+     at the time when he had no definite ambitions; the second
+     was prepared for him and his wife Tîi.
+
+His sarcophagus, a large oblong of carved rose granite, still lies open
+and broken on the spot.
+
+[Illustration: 111.jpg SARCOPHAGUS OF THE PHARAOH AÎ]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after the drawing of Prisse d’Avenues.
+
+Figures of goddesses stand at the four angles and extend their winged
+arms along its sides, as if to embrace the mummy of the sovereign.
+Tûtankhamon and Aï were obeyed from one end of Egypt to the other, from
+Napata to the shores of the Mediterranean. The peoples of Syria raised
+no disturbances during their reigns, and paid their accustomed tribute
+regularly;* if their rule was short, it was at least happy. It would
+appear, however, that after their deaths, troubles arose in the state.
+The lists of Manetho give two or three princes--Râthôtis, Khebres, and
+Akherres--whose names are not found on the monuments.** It is possible
+that we ought not to regard them as historical personages, but merely
+as heroes of popular romance, of the same type as those introduced so
+freely into the history of the preceding dynasties by the chroniclers
+of the Saite and Greek periods. They were, perhaps, merely short-lived
+pretenders who were overthrown one by the other before either had
+succeeded in establishing himself on the seat of Horus. Be that as it
+may, the XVIIIth dynasty drew to its close amid strife and quarreling,
+without our being able to discover the cause of its overthrow, or the
+name of the last of its sovereigns.***
+
+     * Tûtankhamon receives the tribute of the Kûshites as well
+     as that of the Syrians; Aï is represented at Shataûi in
+     Nubia as accompanied by Paûîrû, the prince of Kûsh.
+
+     ** Wiedemann has collected six royal names which, with much
+     hesitation, he places about this time.
+
+     *** The list of kings who make up the XVIIIth dynasty can be
+     established with certainty, with the exception of the order
+     of the three last sovereigns who succeed Khûniatonû. It is
+     here given in its authentic form, as the monuments have
+     permitted us to reconstruct it, and in its Greek form as it
+     is found in the lists of Manetho:
+
+     [Illustration: 112.jpg Table]
+
+     Manetho’s list, as we have it, is a very ill-made extract,
+     wherein the official kings are mixed up with the legitimate
+     queens, as well as, at least towards the end, with persons
+     of doubtful authenticity. Several kings, between Khûniatonû
+     and Harmhabi, are sometimes added at the end of the list;
+     some of these I think, belonged to previous dynasties, e.g.
+     Teti to the VIth, Râhotpû to the XVIIth; several are heroes
+     of romance, as Mernebphtah or Merkhopirphtah, while the
+     names of the others are either variants from the cartouche
+     names of known princes, or else are nicknames, such as was
+     Sesû, Sestûrî for Ramses II. Dr. Mahler believes that he can
+     fix, within a few days, the date of the kings of whom the
+     list is composed, from Ahmosis I. to Aî. I hold to the
+     approximate date which I have given in vol. iv. p. 153 of
+     this History, and I give the years 1600 to 1350 as the
+     period of the dynasty, with a possible error of about fifty
+     years, more or less.
+
+Scarcely half a century had elapsed between the moment when the XVIII’s
+dynasty reached the height of its power under Amenôthes III. and that of
+its downfall. It is impossible to introduce with impunity changes of any
+kind into the constitution or working of so complicated a machine as an
+empire founded on conquest. When the parts of the mechanism have been
+once put together and set in motion, and have become accustomed to
+work harmoniously at a proper pace, interference with it must not be
+attempted except to replace such parts as are broken or worn out, by
+others exactly like them. To make alterations while the machine is in
+motion, or to introduce new combinations, however ingenious, into any
+part of the original plan, might produce an accident or a breakage of
+the gearing when perhaps it would be least expected. When the devout
+Khûniatonû exchanged one city and one god for another, he thought
+that he was merely transposing equivalents, and that the safety of the
+commonwealth was not concerned in the operation. Whether it was Amon or
+Atonu who presided over the destinies of his people, or whether Thebes
+or Tel el-Amarna were the centre of impulse, was, in his opinion, merely
+a question of internal arrangement which could not affect the economy
+of the whole. But events soon showed that he was mistaken in his
+calculations. It is probable that if, on the expulsion of the Hyksôs,
+the earlier princes of the dynasty had attempted an alteration in the
+national religion, or had moved the capital to any other city they might
+select, the remainder of the kingdom would not have been affected by the
+change. But after several centuries of faithful adherence to Amon in
+his city of Thebes, the governing power would find it no easy matter
+to accomplish such a resolution. During three centuries the dynasty had
+become wedded to the city and to its patron deity, and the locality had
+become so closely associated with the dynasty, that any blow aimed at
+the god could not fail to destroy the dynasty with it; indeed, had the
+experiment of Khûniatonû been prolonged beyond a few years, it might
+have entailed the ruin of the whole country. All who came into contact
+with Egypt, or were under her rule, whether Asiatics or Africans,
+were quick to detect any change in her administration, and to remark a
+falling away from the traditional systems of the times of Thûtmosis III.
+and Amenothes II. The successors of the heretic king had the sense to
+perceive at once the first symptoms of disorder, and to refrain from
+persevering in his errors; but however quick they were to undo his work,
+they could not foresee its serious consequences. His immediate followers
+were powerless to maintain their dynasty, and their posterity had to
+make way for a family who had not incurred the hatred of Amon, or rather
+that of his priests. If those who followed them were able by their tact
+and energy to set Egypt on her feet again, they were at the same time
+unable to restore her former prosperity or her boundless confidence in
+herself.
+
+[Illustration: 114.jpg Tailpiece]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II--THE REACTION AGAINST EGYPT
+
+
+_THE XIth DYNASTY: HARMHABÎ--THE HITTITE EMPIRE IN SYRIA AND IN ASIA
+MINOR--SETI I. AND RAMSES II.--THE PEOPLE OF THE SEA: MÎNEPHTAH AND THE
+ISRAELITE EXODUS._
+
+_The birth and antecedents of Harmhabî, his youth, his enthronement--The
+final triumph of Amon and his priests--Harmhabî infuses order into the
+government: his wars against the Ethiopians and Asiatics--The Khâti,
+their civilization, religion; their political and military constitution;
+the extension of their empire towards the north--The countries and
+populations of Asia Minor; commercial routes between the Euphrates and
+the Ægean Sea--The treaty concluded between Harmhabî and Sapalulu._
+
+_Ramses I. and the uncertainties as to his origin--Seti I. and
+the campaign against Syria in the 1st year of his reign; the
+re-establishment of the Egyptian empire--Working of the gold-mines at
+Etaï--The monuments constructed by Seti I. in Nubia, at Karnak, Luxor,
+and Abydos--The valley of the kings and tomb of Seti I. at Thebes._
+
+_Ramses II., his infancy, his association in the Government, his début
+in Ethiopia: he builds a residence in the Delta--His campaign against
+the Khâti in the 5th year of his reign--The talcing of Qodshu, the
+victory of Ramses II. and the truce established with Khâtusaru: the poem
+of Pentaûîrît--His treaty with the Khâti in the 21st year of his reign:
+the balance of power in Syria: the marriage of Ramses II. with a Hittite
+princess--Public works: the Speos at Abu-Simbel; Luxor, Karnak, the
+Eamesseum, the monuments in the Delta--The regency of Khamoîsît and
+Mînephtah, the legend of Sesostris, the coffin and mummy of Ramses II._
+
+_Minephtah--The kingdom of Libya, the people of the sea--The first
+invasion of Libya: the Egyptian victory at Piriû; the triumph of
+Minephtah--Seti II., Amenmeses, Siphtah-Minephtah--The foreign captives
+in Egypt; the Exodus of the Hebrews and their march to Sinai--An
+Egyptian romance of the Exodus: Amenophis, son of Pa-apis._
+
+[Illustration: 117.jpg Page Image]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II--THE REACTION AGAINST EGYPT
+
+
+_The XIXth dynasty: Harmhabî--The Hittite empire in Syria and in Asia
+Minor--Seti I. and Ramses II.--The people of the sea: Minephtah and the
+Israelite Exodus._
+
+While none of these ephemeral Pharaohs left behind them a, either
+legitimate or illegitimate, son there was no lack of princesses, any of
+which, having on her accession to the throne to choose a consort after
+her own heart, might thus become the founder of a new dynasty. By such a
+chance alliance Harmhabî, who was himself descended from Thûtmosis III.,
+was raised to the kingly office.* His mother, Mûtnozmît, was of the
+royal line, and one of the most beautiful statues in the Gîzeh Museum
+probably represents her. The body is mutilated, but the head is charming
+in its intelligent and animated expression, in its full eyes and
+somewhat large, but finely modelled, mouth. The material of the statue
+is a finegrained limestone, and its milky whiteness tends to soften the
+malign character of her look and smile. It is possible that Mûtnozmît
+was the daughter of Amenôthes III. by his marriage with one of
+his sisters: it was from her, at any rate, and not from his
+great-grandfather, that Harmhabî derived his indisputable claims to
+royalty.**
+
+     * A fragment of an inscription at Karnak calls Thûtmosis
+     III. “the father of his fathers.” Champollion called him
+     Hornemnob, Rosellini, Hôr-hemheb, Hôr-em-hbai, and both
+     identified him with the Hôros of Manetho, hence the custom
+     among Egyptologists for a long time to designate him by the
+     name Horus. Dévéria was the first to show that the name
+     corresponded with the Armais of the lists of Manetho, and,
+     in fact, Armais is the Greek transcription of the group
+     Harmhabî in the bilingual texts of the Ptolemaic period.
+
+     ** Mûtnozmît was at first considered the daughter and
+     successor of Harmhabî, or his wife. Birch showed that the
+     monuments did not confirm these hypotheses, and he was
+     inclined to think that she was Harmhabî’s mother. As far as
+     I can see for the present, it is the only solution which
+     agrees with the evidence on the principal monument which has
+     made known her existence.
+
+He was born, probably, in the last years of Amenôthes, when Tîi was the
+exclusive favourite of the sovereign; but it was alleged later on, when
+Harmhabî had emerged from obscurity, that Amon, destining him for the
+throne, had condescended to become his father by Mûtnozmît--a customary
+procedure with the god when his race on earth threatened to become
+debased.* It was he who had rocked the newly born infant to sleep, and,
+while Harsiesis was strengthening his limbs with protective amulets, had
+spread over the child’s skin the freshness and brilliance which are the
+peculiar privilege of the immortals. While still in the nursery, the
+great and the insignificant alike prostrated themselves before Harmhabî,
+making him liberal offerings. Every one recognised in him, even when
+still a lad and incapable of reflection, the carriage and complexion
+of a god, and Horus of Cynopolis was accustomed to follow his steps,
+knowing that the time of his advancement was near. After having called
+the attention of the Egyptians to Harmhabî, Amon was anxious, in fact,
+to hasten the coming of the day when he might confer upon him supreme
+rank, and for this purpose inclined the heart of the reigning Pharaoh
+towards him. Aï proclaimed him his heir over the whole land.**
+
+     * All that we know of the youth of Harmhabî is contained in
+     the texts on a group preserved in the Turin Museum, and
+     pointed out by Champollion, translated and published
+     subsequently by Birch and by Brugsch. The first lines of the
+     inscription seem to me to contain an account of the union of
+     Amon with the queen, analogous to those at Deîr el-Baharî
+     treating of the birth of Hâtshopsîtû, and to those at Luxor
+     bearing upon Amenôthes III. (cf. vol. iv. pp. 342, 343; and
+     p. 51 of the present volume), and to prove for certain that
+     Harmhabî’s mother was a princess of the royal line by right.
+
+     ** The king is not named in the inscription. It cannot have
+     been Amenôthes IV., for an individual of the importance of
+     Harmhabî, living alongside this king, would at least have
+     had a tomb begun for him at. Tel el-Amarna. We may hesitate
+     between Aï and Tûtankhamon; but the inscription seems to say
+     definitely that Harmhabî succeeded directly to the king
+     under whom he had held important offices for many years, and
+     this compels us to fix upon Aï, who, as we have said at p.
+     108, et seq., of the present volume, was, to all
+     appearances, the last of the so-called heretical sovereigns.
+
+He never gave cause for any dissatisfaction when called to court, and
+when he was asked questions by the monarch he replied always in fit
+terms, in such words as were calculated to produce serenity, and thus
+gained for himself a reputation as the incarnation of wisdom, all his
+plans and intentions appearing to have been conceived by Thot the
+Ibis himself. For many years he held a place of confidence with the
+sovereign. The nobles, from the moment he appeared at the gate of the
+palace, bowed their backs before him; the barbaric chiefs from the north
+or south stretched out their arms as soon as they approached him, and
+gave him the adoration they would bestow upon a god. His favourite
+residence was Memphis, his preference for it arising from his having
+possibly been born there, or from its having been assigned to him for
+his abode. Here he constructed for himself a magnificent tomb, the
+bas-reliefs of which exhibit him as already king, with the sceptre in
+his hand and the uraaus on his brow, while the adjoining cartouche does
+not as yet contain his name.*
+
+     * This part of the account is based upon, a study of a
+     certain number of texts and representations all coming from
+     Harmhabî’s tomb at Saqqârah, and now scattered among the
+     various museums--at Gîzeh, Leyden, London, and Alexandria.
+     Birch was the first to assign those monuments to the Pharaoh
+     Harmhabî, supposing at the same time that he had been
+     dethroned by Ramses I., and had lived at Memphis in an
+     intermediate position between that of a prince and that of a
+     private individual; this opinion was adopted by Ed. Meyer,
+     rejected by Wiedemann and by myself. After full examination,
+     I think the Harmhabî of the tomb at Saqqârah and the Pharaoh
+     Harmhabî are one and the same person; Harmhabî, sufficiently
+     high placed to warrant his wearing the uraius, but not high
+     enough to have his name inscribed in a cartouche, must have
+     had his tomb constructed at Saqqârah, as Aï and possibly
+     Ramses I. had theirs built for them at Tel el-Amarna.
+
+He was the mighty of the mighty, the great among the great, the general
+of generals, the messenger who ran to convey orders to the people of
+Asia and Ethiopia, the indispensable companion in council or on the
+field of battle,* at the time when Horus of Cynopolis resolved to
+seat him upon his eternal throne. Aï no longer occupied it. Horus took
+Harmhabî with him to Thebes, escorted him thither amid expressions of
+general joy, and led him to Amon in order that the god might bestow upon
+him the right to reign. The reception took place in the temple of
+Luxor, which served as a kind of private chapel for the descendants of
+Amenôthes. Amon rejoiced to see Harmhabî, the heir of the two worlds;
+he took him with him to the royal palace, introduced him into the
+apartments of his august daughter, Mûtnozmît; then, after she had
+recognised her child and had pressed him to her bosom, all the gods
+broke out into acclamations, and their cries ascended up to heaven.**
+
+     * The fragments of the tomb preserved at Leyden show him
+     leading to the Pharaoh Asiatics and Ethiopians, burthened
+     with tribute. The expressions and titles given above are
+     borrowed from the fragments at Gîzeh.
+
+     ** Owing to a gap, the text cannot be accurately translated
+     at this point. The reading can be made out that Amon “betook
+     himself to the palace, placing the prince before him, as far
+     as the sanctuary of his (Amon’s) daughter, the very
+     august...; she poured water on his hands, she embraced the
+     beauties (of the prince), she placed herself before him.” It
+     will be seen that the name of the daughter of Amon is
+     wanting, and Birch thought that a terrestrial princess whom
+     Harmhabî had married was in question, Miifcnozmît, according
+     to Brugsch. If the reference is not to a goddess, who along
+     with Amon took part in the ceremonies, but to Mûtnozmît, we
+     must come to the conclusion that she, as heir and queen by
+     birth, must have ceded her rights by some ritual to her son
+     before he could be crowned.
+
+“Behold, Amon arrives with his son before him, at the palace, in order
+to put upon his head the diadem, and to prolong the length of his life!
+We install him, therefore, in his office, we give to him the insignia of
+Eâ, we pray Amon for him whom he has brought as our protector: may he as
+king have the festivals of Eâ and the years of Horus; may he accomplish
+his good pleasure in Thebes, in Heliopolis, in Memphis, and may he
+add to the veneration with which these cities are invested.” And
+they immediately decided that the new Pharaoh should be called
+Horus-sturdy-bull, mighty in wise projects, lord of the Vulture and of
+the very marvellous Urseus in Thebes, the conquering Horus who takes
+pleasure in the truth, and who maintains the two lands, the lord of the
+south and north, Sozir Khopîrûrî chosen of Eâ, the offspring of the Sun,
+Harmhabî Mîamûn, giver of life. The _cortege_ came afterwards to the
+palace, the king walking before Amon: there the god embraced his son,
+placed the diadems upon his head, delivered to him the rule of the whole
+world, over foreign populations as well as those of Egypt, inasmuch as
+he possessed this power as the sovereign of the universe.
+
+This is the customary subject of the records of enthronement. Pharaoh is
+the son of a god, chosen by his father, from among all those who might
+have a claim to it, to occupy for a time the throne of Horus; and as he
+became king only by a divine decree, he had publicly to express, at the
+moment of his elevation, his debt of gratitude to, and his boundless
+respect for, the deity, who had made him what he was. In this case,
+however, the protocol embodied something more than the traditional
+formality, and its hackneyed phrases borrowed a special meaning from the
+circumstances of the moment. Amon, who had been insulted and proscribed
+by Khûniatonû, had not fully recovered his prestige under the rule of
+the immediate successors of his enemy.
+
+[Illustration: 123.jpg THE FIRST PYLON OF HARMHABÎ AT KARNAK]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Beato.
+
+They had restored to him his privileges and his worship, they had become
+reconciled to him, and avowed themselves his faithful ones, but all this
+was as much an act of political necessity as a matter of religion:
+they still continued to tolerate, if not to favour, the rival doctrinal
+system, and the temple of the hateful Disk still dishonoured by its
+vicinity the sanctuary of Karnak. Harmhabî, on the other hand, was
+devoted to Amon, who had moulded him in embryo, and had trained him from
+his birth to worship none but him. Harmhabî’s triumph marked the end
+of the evil days, and inaugurated a new era, in which Amon saw
+himself again master of Thebes and of the world. Immediately after his
+enthronement Harmhabî rivalled the first Amen-ôthes in his zeal for the
+interests of his divine father: he overturned the obelisks of Atonû and
+the building before which they stood; then, that no trace of them might
+remain, he worked up the stones into the masonry of two pylons, which he
+set up upon the site, to the south of the gates of Thûtmosis III. They
+remained concealed in the new fabric for centuries, but in the year
+27 B.C. a great earthquake brought them abruptly to light. We find
+everywhere among the ruins, at the foot of the dislocated gates, or at
+the bases of the headless colossal figures, heaps of blocks detached
+from the structure, on which can be made out remnants of prayers
+addressed to the Disk, scenes of worship, and cartouches of Amenôfches
+IV., Aï, and Tûtankhamon. The work begun by Harmhabî at Thebes
+was continued with unabated zeal through the length of the whole
+river-valley. “He restored the sanctuaries from the marshes of Athû even
+to Nubia; he repaired their sculptures so that they were better than
+before, not to speak of the fine things he did in them, rejoicing the
+eyes of Râ. That which he had found injured he put into its original
+condition, erecting a hundred statues, carefully formed of valuable
+stone, for every one which was lacking. He inspected the ruined towns of
+the gods in the land, and made them such as they had been in the time
+of the first Ennead, and he allotted to them estates and offerings
+for every day, as well as a set of sacred vessels entirely of gold and
+silver; he settled priests in them, bookmen, carefully chosen soldiers,
+and assigned to them fields, cattle, all the necessary material to
+make prayers to Râ every morning.” These measures were inspired by
+consideration for the ancient deities; but he added to them others,
+which tended to secure the welfare of the people and the stability of
+the government. Up to this time the officials and the Egyptian soldiers
+had displayed a tendency to oppress the fellahîn, without taking into
+consideration the injury to the treasury occasioned by their rapacity.
+Constant supervision was the only means of restraining them, for even
+the best-served Pharaohs, Thûtmosis, and Amenôthes III. themselves, were
+obliged to have frequent recourse to the rigour of the law to keep the
+scandalous depredations of the officials within bounds.*
+
+     * Harmhabî refers to the edicts of Thûtmosis III.
+
+The religious disputes of the preceding years, in enfeebling the
+authority of the central power, had given a free hand to these
+oppressors. The scribes and tax-collectors were accustomed to exact
+contributions for the public service from the ships, whether laden or
+not, of those who were in a small way of business, and once they had
+laid their hands upon them, they did not readily let them go. The poor
+fellow falling into their clutches lost his cargo, and he was at his
+wits’ end to know how to deliver at the royal storehouses the various
+wares with which he calculated to pay his taxes. No sooner had the
+Court arrived at some place than the servants scoured the neighbourhood,
+confiscating the land produce, and seizing upon slaves, under pretence
+that they were acting for the king, while they had only their personal
+ends in view. Soldiers appropriated all the hides of animals with the
+object, doubtless, of making from them leather jackets and helmets, or
+of duplicating their shields, with the result that when the treasury
+made its claim for leather, none was to be found. It was hardly
+possible, moreover, to bring the culprits to justice, for the chief men
+of the towns and villages, the prophets, and all those who ought to
+have looked after the interests of the taxpayer, took money from the
+criminals for protecting them from justice, and compelled the innocent
+victims also to purchase their protection. Harmhabî, who was continually
+looking for opportunities to put down injustice and to punish deceit,
+at length decided to pro-mulgate a very severe edict against the
+magistrates and the double-dealing officials: any of them who was found
+to have neglected his duty was to have his nose cut off, and was to
+be sent into perpetual exile to Zalu, on the eastern frontier. His
+commands, faithfully carried out, soon produced a salutary effect, and
+as he would on no account relax the severity of the sentence, exactions
+were no longer heard of, to the advantage of the revenue of the State.
+On the last day of each month the gates of his palace were open to every
+one.
+
+[Illustration: 127.jpg AMENOTHES IV. FROM A FRAGMENT USED AGAIN BY
+HARMHABI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Prisse d’Avennes.
+
+Any one on giving his name to the guard could enter the court of honour,
+where he would find food in abundance to satisfy his hunger while he was
+awaiting an audience. The king all the while was seated in the sight
+of all at the tribune, whence he would throw among his faithful friends
+necklaces and bracelets of gold: he inquired into complaints one after
+another, heard every case, announced his judgments in brief words, and
+dismissed his subjects, who went away proud and happy at having had
+their affairs dealt with by the sovereign himself.*
+
+     * All these details are taken from a stele discovered in
+     1882. The text is so mutilated that it is impossible to give
+     a literal rendering of it in all its parts, but the sense is
+     sufficiently clear to warrant our rilling up the whole with
+     considerable certainty.
+
+The portraits of Harmhabî which have come down to us give us the
+impression of a character at once energetic and agreeable. The most
+beautiful of these is little more than a fragment broken off a
+black granite statue. Its mournful expression is not pleasing to the
+spectator, and at the first view alienates his sympathy. The face, which
+is still youthful, breathes an air of melancholy, an expression which
+is somewhat rare among the Pharaohs of the best period: the thin and
+straight nose is well set on the face, the elongated eyes have somewhat
+heavy lids; the large, fleshy lips, slightly contracted at the corners
+of the mouth, are cut with a sharpness that gives them singular vigour,
+and the firm and finely modelled chin loses little of its form from the
+false beard depending from it. Every detail is treated with such freedom
+that one would think the sculptor must have had some soft material to
+work upon, rather than a rock almost hard enough to defy the chisel;
+the command over it is so complete that the difficulty of the work is
+forgotten in the perfection of the result. The dreamy expression of his
+face, however, did not prevent Harmhabî from displaying beyond Egypt, as
+within it, singular activity.
+
+[Illustration: 128.jpg HARMHABI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a Autograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+Although Egypt had never given up its claims to dominion over the whole
+river-valley, as far as the plains of Sennar, yet since the time of
+Amenôthes III. no sovereign had condescended, it would I appear, to
+conduct in person the expeditions directed against the tribes of! the
+Upper Nile. Harmhabî was anxious to revive the custom which imposed
+upon the Pharaohs the obligation to make their first essay in arms in
+Ethiopia, as Horus, son of Isis, had done of yore, and he seized the
+pretext of the occurrence of certain raids there to lead a body of
+troops himself into the heart of the negro country.
+
+[Illustration: 129.jpg THE VAULTED PASSAGE OF THE ROCK-TOMB AT GEBEL
+SILSILEH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+He had just ordered at this time the construction of the two southern
+pylons at Karnak, and there was great activity in the quarries of
+Silsileh. A commemorative chapel also was in course of excavation here
+in the sandstone rock, and he had dedicated it to his father, Amon-Ba of
+Thebes, coupling with him the local divinities, Hapî the Nile, and Sobkû
+the patron of Ombos. The sanctuary is excavated somewhat deeply into
+the hillside, and the dark rooms within it are decorated with the usual
+scenes of worship, but the vaulted approach to them displays upon its
+western wall the victory of the king. We see here a figure receiving
+from Amon the assurance of a long and happy life, and another letting
+fly his arrows at a host of fleeing enemies; Ethiopians raise their
+heads to him in suppliant gesture; soldiers march past with their
+captives; above one of the doors we see twelve military leaders marching
+and carrying the king aloft upon their shoulders, while a group of
+priests and nobles salute him, offering incense.*
+
+     * The significance of the monument was pointed out first by
+     Champollion. The series of races conquered was represented
+     at Karnak on the internal face of one of the pylons built by
+     Harmhabi; it appears to have been “usurped” by Ramses II.
+
+At this period Egyptian ships were ploughing the Red Sea, and their
+captains were renewing official relations with Pûanît. Somali chiefs
+were paying visits to the palace, as in the time of Thûtmosis III. The
+wars of Amon had, in fact, begun again. The god, having suffered neglect
+for half a century, had a greater need than ever of gold and silver
+to fill his coffers; he required masons for his buildings, slaves and
+cattle for his farms, perfumed essences and incense for his daily rites.
+His resources had gradually become exhausted, and his treasury would
+soon be empty if he did not employ the usual means to replenish it. He
+incited Harmhabi to proceed against the countries from which, in olden
+times he had enriched himself--to the south in the first place, and
+then, having decreed victory there, and having naturally taken for
+himself the greater part of the spoils, he turned his attention to Asia.
+
+[Illustration: 131.jpg THE TRIUMPH OP HARMHABÎ IN THE SANCTUARY OF GEBEL
+SILSILEH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Daniel Heron.
+     The black spots are due to the torches of the fellahîn of
+     the neighbourhood who have visited the rock tomb in bygone
+     years.
+
+In the latter campaign the Egyptian troops took once more the route
+through Coele-Syria, and if the expedition experienced here more
+difficulties than on the banks of the Upper Nile, it was, nevertheless,
+brought to an equally triumphant conclusion. Those of their adversaries
+who had offered an obstinate resistance were transported into other
+lands, and the rebel cities were either razed to the ground or given to
+the flames: the inhabitants having taken refuge in the mountains, where
+they were in danger of perishing from hunger, made supplications for
+peace, which was granted to them on the usual conditions of doing homage
+and paying tribute.*
+
+     * These details are taken from the fragment of an
+     inscription now in the museum at Vienna; Bergmann, and also
+     Erman, think that we have in this text the indication of an
+     immigration into Egypt of a tribe of the Monâtiu.
+
+We do not exactly know how far he penetrated into the country; the
+list of the towns and nations over which he boasts of having triumphed
+contains, along with names unknown to us, some already famous or soon to
+become so--Arvad, Pibukhu, the Khâti, and possibly Alasia. The Haui-Nibu
+themselves must have felt the effects of the campaign, for several of
+their chiefs associated, doubtless, with the Phoenicians, presented
+themselves before the Pharaoh at Thebes. Egypt was maintaining,
+therefore, its ascendency, or at least appearing to maintain it in
+those regions where the kings of the XVIIIth dynasty had ruled after
+the campaigns of Thûtmosis I., Thûtmosis III., and Amenothes II. Its
+influence, nevertheless, was not so undisputed as in former days; not
+that the Egyptian soldiers were less valiant, but owing to the fact
+that another power had risen up alongside them whose armies were strong
+enough to encounter them on the field of battle and to obtain a victory
+over them.
+
+Beyond Naharaim, in the deep recesses of the Amanus and Taurus, there
+had lived, for no one knows how many centuries, the rude and warlike
+tribes of the Khâti, related not so, much to the Semites of the Syrian
+plain as to the populations of doubtful race and language who occupied
+the upper basins of the Halys and Euphrates.* The Chaldæan conquest
+had barely touched them; the Egyptian campaign had not more effect, and
+Thûtmosis III. himself, after having crossed their frontiers and sacked
+several of their towns, made no serious pretence to reckon them among
+his subjects. Their chiefs were accustomed, like their neighbours, to
+use, for correspondence with other countries, the cuneiform mode of
+writing; they had among them, therefore, for this purpose, a host of
+scribes, interpreters, and official registrars of events, such as we
+find to have accompanied the sovereigns of Assyria and Babylon.**
+These chiefs were accustomed to send from time to time a present to the
+Pharaoh, which the latter was pleased to regard as a tribute,*** or
+they would offer, perhaps, one of their daughters in marriage to the
+king at Thebes, and after the marriage show themselves anxious to
+maintain good faith with their son-in-law.
+
+     * Halévy asserts that the Khâti were Semites, and bases his
+     assertion on materials of the Assyrian period. Thés Khâti,
+     absorbed in Syria by the Semites, with whom they were
+     blended, appear to have been by origin a non-Semitic people.
+
+     ** A letter from the King of the Khâti to the Pharaoh
+     Amenothes IV. is written in cuneiform writing and in a
+     Semitic language. It has been thought that other documents,
+     drawn up in a non-Semitic language and coming from Mitanni
+     and Arzapi, contain a dialect of the Hittite speech or that
+     language itself. A “writer of books,” attached to the person
+     of the Hittite King Khatusaru, is named amongst the dead
+     found on the field of battle at Qodshû.
+
+     *** It is thus perhaps we must understand the mention of
+     tribute from the Khâti in the _Annals of Thûtmosis III._, 1.
+     26, in the year XXXIII., also in the year XL. One of the Tel
+     el-Amarna letters refers to presents of this kind, which the
+     King of Khâti addresses to Amenôthes IV. to celebrate his
+     enthronement, and to ask him to maintain with himself the
+     traditional good relations of their two families.
+
+They had, moreover, commercial relations with Egypt, and furnished it
+with cattle, chariots, and those splendid Cappadocian horses whose breed
+was celebrated down to the Greek period.* They were already, indeed,
+people of consideration; their territory was so extensive that the
+contemporaries of Thutmosis III. called them the Greater Khâti; and the
+epithet “vile,” which the chancellors of the Pharaohs added to their
+name, only shows by its virulence the impression which they had produced
+upon the mind of their adversaries.**
+
+     * The horses of the Khâti were called _abarî_, strong,
+     vigorous, as also their bulls. The King of Alasia, while
+     offering to Amenôthes III. a profitable speculation, advises
+     him to have nothing to do with the King of the Khâti or with
+     the King of Sangar, and thus furnishes proof that the
+     Egyptians held constant commercial relations with the Khâti.
+
+     ** M. de Rougé suggested that Khâti “the Little” was the
+     name of the Hittites of Hebron. The expression, “Khâti the
+     Great,” has been compared with that of Khanirabbat, “Khani
+     the Great,” which in the Assyrian texts would seem to
+     designate a part of Cappadocia, in which the province of
+     Miliddi occurs, and the identification of the two has found
+     an ardent defender in W. Max Millier. Until further light is
+     thrown upon it, the most probable reading of the word is not
+     Khani-_ra_bat, but Khani-_gal_bat. The name Khani-Galbat is
+     possibly preserved in Julbat, which the Arab geographers
+     applied in the Middle Ages to a province situated in Lesser
+     Armenia.
+
+Their type of face distinguishes them clearly from the nations
+conterminous with them on the south. The Egyptian draughtsmen
+represented them as squat and short in stature, though vigorous,
+strong-limbed, and with broad and full shoulders in youth, but as
+inclined frequently to obesity in old age. The head is long and heavy,
+the forehead flattened, the chin moderate in size, the nose prominent,
+the eyebrows and cheeks projecting, the eyes small, oblique, and
+deep-set, the mouth fleshy, and usually framed in by two deep wrinkles;
+the flesh colour is a yellowish or reddish white, but clearer than that
+of the Phoenicians or the Amurru.
+
+[Illustration: 135.jpg THREE HEADS OF HITTITE SOLDIERS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+Their ordinary costume consisted, sometimes of a shirt with short
+sleeves, sometimes of a sort of loin-cloth, more or less ample according
+to the rank of the individual wearing it, and bound round the waist by
+a belt. To these they added a scanty mantle, red or blue, fringed like
+that of the Chaldæans, which they passed over the left shoulder and
+brought back under the right, so as to leave the latter exposed. They
+wore shoes with thick soles, turning up distinctly at the toes,* and
+they encased their hands in gloves, reaching halfway up the arm.
+
+     * This characteristic is found on the majority of the
+     monuments which the peoples of Asia Minor have left to us,
+     and it is one of the most striking indications of the
+     northern origin of the Khâti. The Egyptian artists and
+     modern draughtsmen have often neglected it, and the majority
+     of them have represented the Khâti without shoes.
+
+They shaved off both moustache and beard, but gave free growth to their
+hair, which they divided into two or three locks, and allowed to
+fall upon their backs and breasts. The king’s head-dress, which was
+distinctive of royalty, was a tall pointed hat, resembling to some
+extent the white crown of the Pharaohs. The dress of the people, taken
+all together, was of better and thicker material than that of the
+Syrians or Egyptians. The mountains and elevated plateaus which they
+inhabited were subject to extraordinary vicissitudes of heat and cold.
+If the summer burnt up everything, the winter reigned here with an
+extreme rigour, and dragged on for months: clothing and footgear had
+to be seen to, if the snow and the icy winds of December were to be
+resisted. The character of their towns, and the domestic life of their
+nobles and the common people, can only be guessed at. Some, at least,
+of the peasants must have sheltered themselves in villages half
+underground, similar to those which are still to be found in this
+region. The town-folk and the nobles had adopted for the most part the
+Chaldæan or Egyptian manners and customs in use among the Semites of
+Syria. As to their religion, they reverenced a number of secondary
+deities who had their abode in the tempest, in the clouds, the sea, the
+rivers, the springs, the mountains, and the forests. Above this crowd
+there were several sovereign divinities of the thunder or the air,
+sun-gods and moon-gods, of which the chief was called Khâti, and was
+considered to be the father of the nation. They ascribed to all their
+deities a warlike and savage character. The Egyptians pictured some of
+them as a kind of Râ,* others as representing Sit, or rather Sûtkhû,
+that patron of the Hyksôs which was identified by them with Sit: every
+town had its tutelary heroes, of whom they were accustomed to speak as
+if of its Sûtkhû--Sûtkhû of Paliqa, Sûtkhû of Khissapa, Sûtkhû of Sarsu,
+Sûtkhû of Salpina. The goddesses in their eyes also became Astartés, and
+this one fact suggests that these deities were, like their Phoenician
+and Canaanite sisters, of a double nature--in one aspect chaste, fierce,
+and warlike, and in another lascivious and pacific. One god was called
+Mauru, another Targu, others Qaui and Khepa.**
+
+     * The Cilician inscriptions of the Græco-Roman period reveal
+     the existence in this region of a god, Rho, Rhos. Did this
+     god exist among the Khâti, and did the similarity of the
+     pronunciation of it to that of the god Râ suggest to the
+     Egyptians the existence of a similar god among these people,
+     or did they simply translate into their language the name of
+     the Hittite god representing the sun?
+
+     ** The names Mauru and Qaui are deduced from the forms
+     Maurusaru and Qauisaru, which were borne by the Khâti: Qaui
+     was probably the eponymous hero of the Qui people, as Khâti
+     was of the Khâti. Tarku and Tisubu appear to me to be
+     contained in the names Targanunasa, Targazatas, and
+     Tartisubu; Tisubu is probably the Têssupas mentioned in the
+     letter from Dushratta written in Mitannian, and identical
+     with the Tushupu of another letter from the same king, and
+     in a despatch from Tarkondaraush. Targu, Targa, Targanu,
+     resemble the god Tarkhu, which is known to us from the
+     proper names of these regions preserved in attributes
+     covered by each of these divine names, and as to the forms
+     with which they were invested.
+
+[Illustration: 138.jpg A HITTITE KING.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a picture in Lepsius.
+     Khatusaru, King of the Khâti, who was for thirty years a
+     contemporary of Ramses II.
+
+Tishubu, the Rammân of the Assyrians, was doubtless lord of the tempest
+and of the atmosphere; Shausbe answered to Shala and to Ishtar the queen
+of love;* but we are frequently in ignorance as to the Assyrian and
+Greek inscriptions. Kheba, Khepa, Khîpa, is said to be a denomination
+of Rammân; we find it in the names of the princesses Tadu-khîpa,
+Gilu-khîpa, Puu-khîpa.
+
+The majority of them, both male and female, were of gigantic stature,
+and were arrayed in the vesture of earthly kings and queens: they
+brandished their arms, displayed the insignia of their authority, such
+as a flower or bunch of grapes, and while receiving the offerings of
+the people were seated on a chair before an altar, or stood each on
+the animal representing him--such as a lion, a stag, or wild goat. The
+temples of their towns have disappeared, but they could never have been,
+it would seem, either-large or magnificent: the favourite places of
+worship were the tops of mountains, in the vicinity of springs, or the
+depths of mysterious grottoes, where the deity revealed himself to his
+priests, and received the faithful at the solemn festivals celebrated
+several times a year.*
+
+     * The association of Tushupu, Tessupas, Tisubu, with Rammânu
+     is made out from an Assyrian tablet published by Bezold: it
+     was reserved for Say ce and Jensen to determine the nature
+     of the god. Shausbe has been identified with Ishtar or Shala
+     by Jensen.
+
+We know as little about their political organisation as about their
+religion.* We may believe, however, that it was feudal in character, and
+that every clan had its hereditary chief and its proper gods: the
+clans collectively rendered obedience to a common king, whose effective
+authority depended upon his character and age.**
+
+     * The religious cities and the festivals of the Greek epoch
+     are described by Strabo; these festivals were very ancient,
+     and their institution, if not the method of celebrating
+     them, may go back to the time of the Hittite empire.
+
+     ** The description of the battle of Qodshû in the time of
+     Ramses II. shows us the King of the Khâti surrounded by his
+     vassals. The evidence of the existence of a similar feudal
+     organisation from the time of the XVIIIth dynasty is
+     furnished by a letter of Dushratta, King of Mitanni, where
+     he relates to Amenôthes IV. the revolt of his brother
+     Artassumara, and speaks of the help which one of the
+     neighbouring chiefs, Pirkhi, and all the Khâti had given to
+     the rebel.
+
+The various contingents which the sovereign could collect together and
+lead would, if he were an incapable general, be of little avail against
+the well-officered and veteran troops of Egypt. Still they were not to
+be despised, and contained the elements of an excellent army, superior
+both in quality and quantity to any which Syria had ever been able
+to put into the field. The infantry consisted of a limited number of
+archers or slingers. They had usually neither shield nor cuirass, but
+merely, in the way of protective armour, a padded head-dress, ornamented
+with a tuft. The bulk of the army carried short lances and broad-bladed
+choppers, or more generally, short thin-handled swords with flat
+two-edged blades, very broad at the base and terminating in a point.
+
+[Illustration: 140.jpg A HITTITE CHARIOT WITH ITS THREE OCCUPANTS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Champollion.
+
+Their mode of attack was in close phalanxes, whose shock must have
+been hard to bear, for the soldiers forming them were in part at least
+recruited from among the strong and hardy mountaineers of the Taurus.
+The chariotry comprised the nobles and the _élite_ of the army, but it
+was differently constituted from that of the Egyptians, and employed
+other tactics.
+
+The Hittite chariots were heavier, and the framework, instead of being a
+mere skeleton, was pannelled on the sides, the contour at the top being
+sometimes quite square, at other times rudely curved. It was bound
+together in the front by two disks of metal, and strengthened by strips
+of copper or bronze, which were sometimes plated with silver or gold.
+There were no quiver-cases as in Egyptian chariots, for the Hittite
+charioteers rarely resorted to the bow and arrow. The occupants of
+a chariot were three in number--the driver; the shield-bearer, whose
+office it was to protect his companions by means of a shield, sometimes
+of a round form, with a segment taken out on each side, and sometimes
+square; and finally, the warrior, with his sword and lance. The Hittite
+princes whom fortune had brought into relations with Thûtmosîs III. and
+Amenôthes II. were not able to avail themselves properly of the latent
+forces around them. It was owing probably to the feebleness of their
+character or to the turbulence of their barons that we must ascribe the
+poor part they played in the revolutions of the Eastern world at this
+time. The establishment of a strong military power on their southern
+frontier was certain, moreover, to be anything but pleasing to them; if
+they preferred not to risk everything by entering into a great struggle
+with the invaders, they could, without compromising themselves too
+much, harass them with sudden attacks, and intrigue in an underhand way
+against them to their own profit. Pharaoh’s generals were accustomed
+to punish, one after the other, these bands of invading tribes, and the
+sculptors duly recorded their names on a pylon at Thebes among those
+of the conquered nations, but these disasters had little effect in
+restraining the Hittites. They continued, in spite of them, to march
+southward, and the letters from the Egyptian governors record their
+progress year after year. They had a hand in all the plots which were
+being hatched among the Syrians, and all the disaffected who wished
+to be free from foreign oppression--such as Abdashirti and his son
+Azîru--addressed themselves to them for help in the way of chariots and
+men.*
+
+     * Azîru defends himself in one of his letters against the
+     accusation of having received four messengers from the King
+     of the Khâti, while he refused to receive those from Egypt.
+     The complicity of Aziru with the Khâti is denounced in an
+     appeal from the inhabitants of Tunipa. In a mutilated
+     letter, an unknown person calls attention to the
+     negotiations which a petty-Syrian prince had entered into
+     with the King of the Khâti.
+
+Even inthe time of Amenôfches III. they had endeavoured to reap profit
+from the discords of Mitanni, and had asserted their supremacy over it.
+Dushratta, however, was able to defeat one of their chiefs. Repulsed on
+this side, they fell back upon that part of Naharaim lying between the
+Euphrates and Orontes, and made themselves masters of one town after
+another in spite of the despairing appeals of the conquered to the
+Theban king. From the accession of Khûniatonû, they set to work to annex
+the countries of Nukhassi, Nîi, Tunipa, and Zinzauru: they looked with
+covetous eyes upon Phoenicia, and were already menacing Coele-Syria. The
+religious confusion in Egypt under Tûtankhamon and Aî left them a free
+field for their ambitions, and when Harmhabî ventured to cross to the
+east of the isthmus, he found them definitely installed in the region
+stretching from the Mediterranean and the Lebanon to the Euphrates.
+Their then reigning prince, Sapalulu, appeared to have been the founder
+of a new dynasty: he united the forces of the country in a solid body,
+and was within a little of making a single state out of all Northern
+Syria.*
+
+
+* Sapalulu has the same name as that wo meet with later on in the
+country of Patin, in the time of Salmanasar III., viz. Sapalulme. It is
+known to us only from a treaty with the Khâti, which makes him coeval
+with Ramses I.: it was with him probably that Harmhabî had to deal
+in his Syrian campaigns. The limit of his empire towards the south is
+gathered in a measure from what we know of the wars of Seti I. with the
+Khâti.
+
+All Naharaim had submitted to him: Zahi, Alasia, and the Amurru had
+passed under his government from that of the Pharaohs; Carchemish,
+Tunipa, Nîi, Hamath, figured among his royal cities, and Qodshû was the
+defence of his southern frontier. His progress towards the east was
+not less considerable. Mitanni, Arzapi, and the principalities of the
+Euphrates as far as the Balikh, possibly even to the Khabur,* paid him
+homage: beyond this, Assyria and Chaldæa barred his way. Here, as on
+his other frontiers, fortune brought him face to face with the most
+formidable powers of the Asiatic world.
+
+     * The text of the poem of Pentaûîrît mentions, among the
+     countries confederate with the Khâti, all Naharaim; that is
+     to say, the country on either side of the Euphrates,
+     embracing Mitanni and the principalities named in the Amarna
+     correspondence, and in addition some provinces whose sites
+     have not yet been discovered, but which may be placed
+     without much risk of error to the north of the Taurus.
+
+The latter prince was obliged to capture Qodshû, and to conquer the
+people of the Lebanon. Had he sufficient forces at his disposal to
+triumph over them, or only enough to hold his ground? Both hypotheses
+could have been answered in the affirmative if each one of these great
+powers, confiding in its own resources, had attacked him separately.
+The Amorites, the people of Zahi, Alasia, and Naharaim, together with
+recruits from Hittite tribes, would then have put him in a position
+to resist, and even to carry off victory with a high hand in the final
+struggle. But an alliance between Assyria or Babylon and Thebes was
+always possible. There had been such things before, in the time of
+Thut-mosis IV. and in that of Amenôthes III., but they were lukewarm
+agreements, and their effect was not much to boast of, for the two
+parties to the covenant had then no common enemy to deal with, and their
+mutual interests were not, therefore, bound up with their united action.
+The circumstances were very different now. The rapid growth of a nascent
+kingdom, the restless spirit of its people, its trespasses on domains in
+which the older powers had been accustomed to hold the upper hand,--did
+not all this tend to transform the convention, more commercial than
+military, with which up to this time they had been content, into an
+offensive and defensive treaty? If they decided to act in concert, how
+could Sapalulu or his successors, seeing that he was obliged to defend
+himself on two frontiers at the same moment, muster sufficient resources
+to withstand the double assault? The Hittites, as we know them more
+especially from the hieroglyphic inscriptions, might be regarded as the
+lords only of Northern Syria, and their power be measured merely by the
+extent of territory which they occupied to the south of the Taurus and
+on the two banks of the Middle Euphrates. But this does not by any means
+represent the real facts. This was but the half of their empire; the
+rest extended to the westward and northward, beyond the mountains into
+that region, known afterwards as Asia Minor, in which Egyptian tradition
+had from ancient times confused some twenty nations under the common
+vague epithet of Haûî-nîbû. Official language still employed it as a
+convenient and comprehensive term, but the voyages of the Phoenicians
+and the travels of the “Royal Messengers,” as well as, probably, the
+maritime commerce of the merchants of the Delta, had taught the scribes
+for more than a century and a half to make distinctions among these
+nations which they had previously summed up in one. The Lufeu* were to
+be found there, as well as the Danauna,** the Shardana,*** and others
+besides, who lay behind one another on the coast. Of the second line of
+populations behind the region of the coast tribes, we have up to
+the present no means of knowing anything with certainty. Asia Minor,
+furthermore, is divided into two regions, so distinctly separated by
+nature as well as by races that one would be almost inclined to regard
+them as two countries foreign to each other.
+
+     * The Luku, Luka, are mentioned in the Amarna correspondence
+     under the form Lukki as pirates and highway robbers. The
+     identity of these people with the Lycians I hold as well
+     established.
+
+     ** The Danauna are mentioned along with the Luku in the
+     Amarna correspondence. The termination, _-auna, -ana_ of
+     this word appears to be the ending in -aon found in Asiatic
+     names like Lykaôn by the side of Lykos, Kataôn by the side
+     of Kêtis and Kat-patuka; while the form of the name Danaos
+     is preserved in Greek legend, Danaôn is found only on
+     Oriental monuments. The Danauna came “from their islands,”
+      that is to say, from the coasts of Asia Minor, or from
+     Greece, the term not being pressed too literally, as the
+     Egyptians were inclined to call all distant lands situated
+     to the north beyond the Mediterranean Sea “islands.”
+
+     *** E. de Rougé and Chabas were inclined to identify the
+     Shardana with the Sardes and the island of Sardinia. Unger
+     made them out to be the Khartanoi of Libya, and was followed
+     by Brugsch. W. Max Müller revived the hypotheses of De Rougé
+     and Chabas, and saw in them bands from the Italian island. I
+     am still persuaded, as I was twenty-five years ago, that
+     they were Asiatics--the Mæonian tribe which gave its name
+     to Sardis. The Serdani or Shardana are mentioned as serving
+     in the Egyptian Army in the Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+
+In its centre it consists of a well-defined undulating plain, having a
+gentle slope towards the Black Sea, and of the shape of a kind of convex
+trapezium, clearly bounded towards the north by the highlands of Pontus,
+and on the south by the tortuous chain of the Taurus. A line of low
+hills fringes the country on the west, from the Olympus of Mysia to the
+Taurus of Pisidia. Towards the east it is bounded by broken chains of
+mountains of unequal height, to which the name Anti-Taurus is not very
+appropriately applied. An immense volcanic cone, Mount Argseus, looks
+down from a height of some 13,000 feet over the wide isthmus which
+connects the country with the lands of the Euphrates. This volcano
+is now extinct, but it still preserved in old days something of its
+languishing energy, throwing out flames at intervals above the sacred
+forests which clothed its slopes. The rivers having their sources in the
+region just described, have not all succeeded in piercing the obstacles
+which separate them from the sea, but the Pyramus and the Sarus find
+their way into the Mediterranean and the Iris, Halys and Sangarios into
+the Euxine. The others flow into the lowlands, forming meres, marshes,
+and lakes of fluctuating extent. The largest of these lakes, called
+Tatta, is salt, and its superficial extent varies with the season. In
+brief, the plateau of this region is nothing but an extension of the
+highlands of Central Asia, and has the same vegetation, fauna, and
+climate, the same extremes of temperature, the same aridity, and the
+same wretched and poverty-stricken character as the latter. The maritime
+portions are of an entirely different aspect.
+
+[Illustration: 146.jpg Map]
+
+The western coast which stretches into the Ægean is furrowed by deep
+valleys, opening out as they reach the sea, and the rivers--the Caicus,
+the Hermos, the Cayster, and Meander--which flow through them are
+effective makers of soil, bringing down with them, as they do, a
+continual supply of alluvium, which, deposited at their mouths, causes
+the land to encroach there upon the sea. The littoral is penetrated here
+and there by deep creeks, and is fringed with beautiful islands--Lesbos,
+Chios, Samos, Cos, Rhodes--of which the majority are near enough to the
+continent to act as defences of the seaboard, and to guard the mouths of
+the rivers, while they are far enough away to be secure from the effects
+of any violent disturbances which might arise in the mainland. The
+Cyclades, distributed in two lines, are scattered, as it were, at hazard
+between Asia and Europe, like great blocks which have fallen around the
+piers of a broken bridge. The passage from one to the other is an easy
+matter, and owing to them, the sea rather serves to bring together the
+two continents than to divide them. Two groups of heights, imperfectly
+connected with the central plateau, tower above the Ægean slope--wooded
+Ida on the north, veiled in cloud, rich in the flocks and herds upon
+its sides, and in the metals within its bosom; and on the south, the
+volcanic bastions of Lycia, where tradition was wont to place the
+fire-breathing Chimaera. A rocky and irregularly broken coast stretches
+to the west of Lycia, in a line almost parallel with the Taurus, through
+which, at intervals, torrents leaping from the heights make their way
+into the sea. At the extreme eastern point of the coast, almost at the
+angle where the Cilician littoral meets that of Syria, the Pyramus and
+the Sarus have brought down between them sufficient material to form an
+alluvial plain, which the classical geographers designated by the name
+of the Level Cilicia, to distinguish it from the rough region of the
+interior, Gilicia Trachea.
+
+The populations dwelling in this peninsula belong to very varied races.
+On the south and south-west certain Semites had found an abode--the
+mysterious inhabitants of Solyma, and especially the Phoenicians in
+their scattered trading-stations. On the north-east, beside the Khâti,
+distributed throughout the valleys of the Anti-Taurus, between
+the Euphrates and Mount Argseus, there were tribes allied to the
+Khâti*--possibly at this time the Tabal and the Mushkâ--and, on the
+shores of the Black Sea, those workers in metal, which, following the
+Greeks, we may call, for want of a better designation, the Chalybes.
+
+
+     * A certain number of these tribes or of their towns are to
+     be found in the list contained in the treaty of Ramses II.
+     with the Khâti.
+
+We are at a loss to know the distribution of tribes in the centre and
+in the north-west, but the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, we may rest
+assured, never formed an ethnographical frontier. The continents on
+either side of them appear at this point to form the banks of a river,
+or the two slopes of a single valley, whose bottom lies buried beneath
+the waters. The barbarians of the Balkans had forced their way across at
+several points. Dardanians were to be encountered in the neighbourhood
+of Mount Ida, as well as on the banks of the Axios, from early times,
+and the Kebrenes of Macedonia had colonised a district of the Troad near
+Ilion, while the great nation of the Mysians had issued, like them,
+from the European populations of the Hebrus and the Strymon. The hero
+Dardanos, according to legend, had at first founded, under the auspices
+of the Idasan Zeus, the town of Dardania; and afterwards a portion
+of his progeny followed the course of the Scamander, and entrenched
+themselves upon a precipitous hill, from the top of which they could
+look far and wide over the plain and sea. The most ancient Ilion, at
+first a village, abandoned on more than one occasion in the course of
+centuries, was rebuilt and transformed, earlier than the XVth century
+before Christ, into an important citadel, the capital of a warlike
+and prosperous kingdom. The ruins on the spot prove the existence of
+a primitive civilization analogous to that of the islands of the
+Archipelago before the arrival of the Phoenician navigators. We find
+that among both, at the outset, flint and bone, clay, baked and unbaked,
+formed the only materials for their utensils and furniture; metals were
+afterwards introduced, and we can trace their progressive employment
+to the gradual exclusion of the older implements. These ancient Trojans
+used copper, and we encounter only rarely a kind of bronze, in which the
+proportion of tin was too slight to give the requisite hardness to the
+alloy, and we find still fewer examples of iron and lead. They were
+fairly adroit workers in silver, electrum, and especially in gold. The
+amulets, cups, necklaces, and jewellery discovered in their tombs or in
+the ruins of their houses, are sometimes of a not ungraceful form. Their
+pottery was made by hand, and was not painted or varnished, but they
+often gave to it a fine lustre by means of a stone-polisher. Other
+peoples of uncertain origin, but who had attained a civilization as
+advanced as that of the Trojans, were the Maeonians, the Leleges, and
+the Carians who had their abode to the south of Troy and of the Mysians.
+The Maeonians held sway in the fertile valleys of the Hermos, Cayster,
+and Maaander. They were divided into several branches, such as the
+Lydians, the Tyrseni, the Torrhebi, and the Shardana, but their most
+ancient traditions looked back with pride to a flourishing state to
+which, as they alleged, they had all belonged long ago on the slopes of
+Mount Sipylos, between the valley of the Hermos and the Gulf of Smyrna.
+The traditional capital of this kingdom was Magnesia, the most ancient
+of cities, the residence of Tantalus, the father of Niobe and the
+Pelopidae. The Leleges rise up before us from many points at the same
+time, but always connected with the most ancient memories of Greece and
+Asia. The majority of the strongholds on the Trojan coast belonged to
+them--such as Antandros and Gargara--and Pedasos on the Satniois boasted
+of having been one of their colonies, while several other towns of the
+same name, but very distant from each other, enable us to form some idea
+of the extent of their migrations.*
+
+     * According to the scholiast on Nicander, the word “Pedasos”
+      signified “mountain,” probably in the language of the
+     Leleges. We know up to the present of four Pedasi, or
+     Pedasa: the first in Messenia, which later on took the name
+     of Methône; the second in the Troad, on the banks of the
+     Satniois; the third in the neighbourhood of Cyzicus; and the
+     fourth in Caria.
+
+In the time of Strabo, ruined tombs and deserted sites of cities were
+shown in Caria which the natives regarded as Lelegia--that is, abode
+of the Leleges. The Carians were dominant in the southern angle of the
+peninsula and in the Ægean Islands; and the Lycians lay next them on the
+east, and were sometimes confounded with them. One of the most powerful
+tribes of the Carians, the Tremilse, were in the eyes of the Greeks
+hardly to be separated from the mountainous district which they knew
+as Lycia proper; while other tribes extended as far as the Halys. A
+district of the Troad, to the south of Mount Ida, was called Lycia, and
+there was a Lycaonia on both sides of the Middle Taurus; while Attica
+had its Lycia, and Crete its Lycians. These three nations--the Lycians,
+Carians, and Leleges--were so entangled together from their origin, that
+no one would venture now to trace the lines of demarcation between
+them, and we are often obliged to apply to them collectively what can be
+appropriately ascribed to only one.
+
+How far the Hittite power extended in the first years of its expansion
+we have now hardly the means of knowing. It would appear that it
+took within its scope, on the south-west, the Cilician plain, and the
+undulating region bordering on it--that of Qodi: the prince of the
+latter district, if not his vassal, was at least the colleague of the
+King of the Khâti, and he acted in concert with him in peace as well as
+in war.*
+
+     * The country of Qidi, Qadi, Qodi, has been connected by
+     Chabas with Galilee, and Brugsch adopted the identification.
+     W. Max Müller identified it with Phoenicia. I think the
+     name served to designate the Cilician coast and plain from
+     the mouth of the Orontes, and the country which was known in
+     the Græco-Roman period by the name Kêtis and Kataonia.
+
+It embraced also the upper basin of the Pyramos and its affluents, as
+well as the regions situated between the Euphrates and the Halys, but
+its frontier in this direction was continually fluctuating, and our
+researches fail to follow it. It is somewhat probable that it extended
+considerably towards the west and north-west in the direction of the
+Ægean Sea. The forests and escarpments of Lycaonia, and the desolate
+steppes of the central plateau, have always presented a barrier
+difficult to surmount by any invader from the east. If the Khâti at that
+period attacked it in front, or by a flank movement, the assault must
+rather have been of the nature of a hurried reconnaissance, or of a
+raid, than of a methodically conducted campaign.*
+
+     * The idea of a Hittite empire extending over almost all
+     Asia Minor was advanced by Sayce.
+
+They must have preferred to obtain possession of the valleys of the
+Thermodon and the Iris, which were rich in mineral wealth, and from
+which they could have secured an inexhaustible revenue. The extraction
+and working of metals in this region had attracted thither from time
+immemorial merchants from neighbouring and distant countries--at first
+from the south to supply the needs of Syria, Chaldæa, and Egypt, then
+from the west for the necessities of the countries on the Ægean. The
+roads, which, starting from the archipelago on the one hand, or the
+Euphrates on the other, met at this point, fell naturally into one, and
+thus formed a continuous route, along which the caravans of commerce, as
+well as warlike expeditions, might henceforward pass. Starting from the
+cultivated regions of Mæonia, the road proceeded up the valley of the
+Hermos from west to east; then, scaling the heights of the central
+plateau and taking a direction more and more to the north-east, it
+reached the fords of the Halys. Crossing this river twice--for the first
+time at a point about two-thirds the length of its course, and for
+the second at a short distance from its source--it made an abrupt turn
+towards the Taurus, and joined, at Melitene, the routes leading to the
+Upper Tigris, to Nisibis, to Singara, and to Old Assur, and connecting
+further down beyond the mountainous region, under the walls of
+Carchemish, with the roads which led to the Nile and to the river-side
+cities on the Persian Gulf.*
+
+     * The very early existence of this road, which partly
+     coincides with the royal route of the Persian Achemenids,
+     was proved by Kiepert.
+
+There were other and shorter routes, if we think only of the number of
+miles, from the Hermos in Pisidia or Lycaonia, across the central
+steppe and through the Cilician Gates, to the meeting of the ways at
+Carchemish; but they led through wretched regions, without industries,
+almost without tillage, and inhospitable alike to man and beast, and
+they were ventured on only by those who aimed at trafficking among the
+populations who lived in their neighbourhood. The Khâti, from the time
+even when they were enclosed among the fastnesses of the Taurus, had
+within their control the most important section of the great land route
+which served to maintain regular relations between the ancient kingdoms
+of the east and the rising states of the Ægean, and whosoever would pass
+through their country had to pay them toll. The conquest of Naharaim, in
+giving them control of a new section, placed almost at their discretion
+the whole traffic between Chaldæa and Egypt. From the time of Thûtmosis
+III. caravans employed in this traffic accomplished the greater part
+of their journey in territories depending upon Babylon, Assyria, or
+Memphis, and enjoyed thus a relative security; the terror of the Pharaoh
+protected the travellers even when they were no longer in his domains,
+and he saved them from the flagrant exactions made upon them by princes
+who called themselves his brothers, or were actually his vassals. But
+the time had now come when merchants had to encounter, between Qodshu
+and the banks of the Khabur, a sovereign owing no allegiance to any one,
+and who would tolerate no foreign interference in his territory. From
+the outbreak of hostilities with the Khâti, Egypt could communicate
+with the cities of the Lower Euphrates only by the Wadys of the Arabian
+Desert, which were always dangerous and difficult for large convoys; and
+its commercial relations with Chaldæa were practically brought thus to a
+standstill, and, as a consequence, the manufactures which fed this trade
+being reduced to a limited production, the fiscal receipts arising from
+it experienced a sensible diminution. When peace was restored, matters
+fell again into their old groove, with certain reservations to the Khâti
+of some common privileges: Egypt, which had formerly possessed these to
+her own advantage, now bore the burden of them, and the indirect tribute
+which she paid in this manner to her rivals furnished them with arms
+to fight her in case she should endeavour to free herself from the
+imposition. All the semi-barbaric peoples of the peninsula of Asia Minor
+were of an adventurous and warlike temperament. They were always willing
+to set out on an expedition, under the leadership of some chief of noble
+family or renowned for valour; sometimes by sea in their light craft,
+which would bring them unexpectedly to the nearest point of the Syrian
+coast, sometimes by land in companies of foot-soldiers and charioteers.
+They were frequently fortunate enough to secure plenty of booty, and
+return with it to their homes safe and sound; but as frequently they
+would meet with reverses by falling into some ambuscade: in such a case
+their conqueror would not put them to the sword or sell them as slaves,
+but would promptly incorporate them into his army, thus making his
+captives into his soldiers. The King of the Khâti was able to make use
+of them without difficulty, for his empire was conterminous on the
+west and north with some of their native lands, and he had often whole
+regiments of them in his army--Mysians, Lycians, people of Augarît,* of
+Ilion,** and of Pedasos.***
+
+     * The country of Augarît, Ugarît, is mentioned on several
+     occasions in the Tel el-Amarna correspondence. The name has
+     been wrongly associated with Caria; it has been placed by W.
+     Max Miiller well within Naharaim, to the east of the
+     Orontes, between Khalybôn (Aleppo) and Apamoea, the writer
+     confusing it with Akaiti, named in the campaign of Amenôthes
+     II. I am not sure about the site, but its association in the
+     Amarna letters with Gugu and Khanigalbat inclines me to
+     place it beyond the northern slopes of the Taurus, possibly
+     on the banks of the Halys or of the Upper Euphrates.
+
+     ** The name of this people was read Eiûna by Champollion,
+     who identified it with the Ionians; this reading and
+     identification were adopted by Lenormant and by W. Max
+     Müller. Chabas hesitates between Eiûna and Maiûna, Ionia and
+     Moonia and Brugsch read it Malunna. The reading Iriûna,
+     Iliûna, seems to me the only possible one, and the
+     identification with Ilion as well.
+
+     *** Owing to its association with the Dardanians, Mysians,
+     and Ilion, I think it answers to the Pedasos on the Satniois
+     near Troy.
+
+The revenue of the provinces taken from Egypt, and the products of his
+tolls, furnished him with abundance of means for obtaining recruits from
+among them.*
+
+All these things contributed to make the power of the Khâti so
+considerable, that Harmhabî, when he had once tested it, judged it
+prudent not to join issues with them. He concluded with Sapalulu
+a treaty of peace and friendship, which, leaving the two powers in
+possession respectively of the territory each then occupied, gave legal
+sanction to the extension of the sphere of the Khâti at the expense
+of Egypt.** Syria continued to consist of two almost equal parts,
+stretching from Byblos to the sources of the Jordan and Damascus:
+the northern portion, formerly tributary to Egypt, became a Hittite
+possession; while the southern, consisting of Phoenicia and Canaan,***
+which the Pharaoh had held for a long time with a more effective
+authority, and had more fully occupied, was retained for Egypt.
+
+     * E. de Rougé and the Egyptologists who followed him thought
+     at first that the troops designated in the Egyptian texts as
+     Lycians, Mysians, Dardanians, were the national armies of
+     these nations, each one commanded by its king, who had
+     hastened from Asia Minor to succour their ally the King of
+     the Khâti. I now think that those were bands of adventurers,
+     consisting of soldiers belonging to these nations, who came
+     to put themselves at the service of civilized monarchs, as
+     the Oarians, Ionians, and the Greeks of various cities did
+     later on: the individuals whom the texts mention as their
+     princes were not the kings of these nations, but the warrior
+     chiefs to which each band gave obedience.
+
+     ** It is not certain that Harmhabî was the Pharaoh with whom
+     Sapalulu entered into treaty, and it might be insisted with
+     some reason that Ramses I. was the party to it on the side
+     of Egypt; but this hypothesis is rendered less probable by
+     the fact of the extremely short reign of the latter Pharaoh.
+     I am inclined to think, as W. Max Miiller has supposed, that
+     the passage in the _Treaty of Ramses II. with the Prince of
+     the Khâti,_ which speaks of a treaty concluded with
+     Sapalulu, looks back to the time of Ramses II.’s
+     predecessor, Harmhabî.
+
+     *** This follows from the situation of the two empires, as
+     indicated in the account of the campaign of Seti I. in his
+     first year. The king, after having defeated the nomads of
+     the Arabian desert, passed on without further fighting into
+     the country of the Amûrrû and the regions of the Lebanon,
+     which fact seems to imply the submission of Kharû. W. Max
+     Miiller was the first to* discern clearly this part of the
+     history of Egyptian conquest; he appears, however, to have
+     circumscribed somewhat too strictly the dominion of Harmhabî
+     in assigning Carmel as its limit. The list of the nations of
+     the north who yielded, or are alleged to have yielded,
+     submission to Harmhabî, were traced on the first pylon of
+     this monarch at Karnak, and on its adjoining walls. Among
+     others, the names of the Khâti and of Arvad are to be read
+     there.
+
+This could have been but a provisional arrangement: if Thebes had
+not altogether renounced the hope of repossessing some day the lost
+conquests of Thûtmosis III., the Khâti, drawn by the same instinct which
+had urged them to cross their frontiers towards the south, were not
+likely to be content with less than the expulsion of the Egyptians
+from Syria, and the absorption of the whole country into the Hittite
+dominion. Peace was maintained during Harmhabî’s lifetime. We know
+nothing of Egyptian affairs during the last years of his reign. His rule
+may have come to an end owing to some court intrigue, or he may have had
+no male heir to follow him.* Ramses, who succeeded him, did not belong
+to the royal line, or was only remotely connected with it.**
+
+     * It would appear, from an Ostracon in the British Museum,
+     that the year XXI. follows after the year VII. of Harmhabî’s
+     reign; it is possible that the year XXI. may belong to one
+     of Harmhabî’s successors, Seti I. or Ramses II., for
+     example.
+
+     ** The efforts to connect Ramses I. with a family of Semitic
+     origin, possibly the Shepherd-kings themselves, have not
+     been successful. Everything goes to prove that the Ramses
+     family was, and considered itself to be, of Egyptian origin.
+     Brugsch and Ed. Meyer were inclined to see in Ramses I. a
+     younger brother of Harmhabî. This hypothesis has nothing
+     either for Or against it up to the present.
+
+He was already an old man when he ascended the throne, and we ought
+perhaps to identify him with one or other of the Ramses who flourished
+under the last Pharaohs of the XVIIIth dynasty, perhaps the one who
+governed Thebes under Khûniatonû, or another, who began but never
+finished his tomb in the hillside above Tel el-Amarna, in the
+burying-place of the worshippers of the Disk.
+
+[Illustration: 160.jpg RAMSES I.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch in Rosellini.
+
+He had held important offices under Harmhabî,* and had obtained in
+marriage for his son Seti the hand of Tuîa, who, of all the royal
+family, possessed the strongest rights to the crown.**
+
+     * This Tel el-Amarna Ramses is, perhaps, identical with the
+     Theban one: he may have followed his master to his new
+     capital, and have had a tomb dug for himself there, which he
+     subsequently abandoned, on the death of Khûniatonû, in order
+     to return to Thebes with Tûtankhamon and Aï.
+
+     ** The fact that the marriage was celebrated under the
+     auspices of Harmhabî, and that, consequently, Ramses must
+     have occupied an important position at the court of that
+     prince, is proved by the appearance of Ramses II., son of
+     Tuîa, as early as the first year of Seti, among the ranks of
+     the combatants in the war carried on by that prince against
+     the Tihonû; even granting that he was then ten years old, we
+     are forced to admit that he must have been born before his
+     grandfather came to the throne. There is in the Vatican a
+     statue of Tuîa; other statues have been discovered at San.
+
+Ramses reigned only six or seven years, and associated Seti with himself
+in the government from his second year. He undertook a short military
+expedition into Ethiopia, and perhaps a raid into Syria; and we find
+remains of his monuments in Nubia, at Bohani near Wady Haifa, and at
+Thebes, in the temple of Amon.*
+
+     * He began the great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak; E. de Rougé
+     thinks that the idea of building this was first conceived
+     under the XVIIIth dynasty.
+
+He displayed little activity, his advanced age preventing him from
+entering on any serious undertaking: but his accession nevertheless
+marks an important date in the history of Egypt. Although Harmhabî was
+distantly connected with the line of the Ahmessides, it is difficult
+at the present day to know what position to assign him in the Pharaonic
+lists: while some regard him as the last of the XVIIIth dynasty, others
+prefer to place him at the head of the XIXth. No such hesitation,
+however, exists with regard to Ramses I., who was undoubtedly the
+founder of a new family. The old familiar names of Thûtmosis and
+Amenôthes henceforward disappear from the royal lists, and are replaced
+by others, such as Seti, Mînephtah, and, especially, Ramses, which now
+figure in them for the first time. The princes who bore these names
+showed themselves worthy successors of those who had raised Egypt to the
+zenith of her power; like them they were successful on the battle-field,
+and like them they devoted the best of the spoil to building innumerable
+monuments. No sooner had Seti celebrated his father’s obsequies, than he
+assembled his army and set out for war.
+
+It would appear that Southern Syria was then in open revolt. “Word had
+been brought to His Majesty: ‘The vile Shaûsû have plotted rebellion;
+the chiefs of their tribes, assembled in one place on the confines of
+Kharû, have been smitten with blindness and with the spirit of violence;
+every one cutteth his neighbour’s throat.” * It was imperative to send
+succour to the few tribes who remained faithful, to prevent them from
+succumbing to the repeated attacks of the insurgents. Seti crossed the
+frontier at Zalu, but instead of pursuing his way along the coast, he
+marched due east in order to attack the Shaûsû in the very heart of the
+desert. The road ran through wide wadys, tolerably well supplied
+with water, and the length of the stages necessarily depended on the
+distances between the wells. This route was one frequented in early
+times, and its security was ensured by a number of fortresses and
+isolated towers built along it, such as “The House of the Lion “--_ta
+ait pa maû_--near the pool of the same name, the Migdol of the springs
+of Huzîna, the fortress of Uazît, the Tower of the Brave, and the Migdol
+of Seti at the pools of Absakaba. The Bedawîn, disconcerted by the
+rapidity of this movement, offered no serious resistance. Their flocks
+were carried off, their trees cut down, their harvests destroyed, and
+they surrendered their strongholds at discretion. Pushing on from
+one halting-place to another, the conqueror soon reached Babbîti, and
+finally Pakanâna.**
+
+     * The pictures of this campaign and the inscriptions which
+     explain them were engraved by Seti I., on the outside of the
+     north wall of the great hypostyle hall at Karnak.
+
+     ** The site of Pakanâna has, with much probability, been
+     fixed at El-Kenân or Khurbet-Kanâan, to the south of Hebron.
+     Brugsch had previously taken this name to indicate the
+     country of Canaan, but Chabas rightly contested this view.
+     W. Max Millier took up the matter afresh: he perceived that
+     we have here an allusion to the first town encountered by
+     Seti I. in the country of Canaan to the south-west of
+     Raphia, the name of which is not mentioned by the Egyptian
+     sculptor; it seems to me that this name should be Pakanâna,
+     and that the town bore the same name as the country.
+
+The latter town occupied a splendid position on the slope of a rocky
+hill, close to a small lake, and defended the approaches to the vale
+of Hebron. It surrendered at the first attack, and by its fall the
+Egyptians became possessed of one of the richest provinces in the
+southern part of Kharû. This result having been achieved, Seti took
+the caravan road to his left, on the further side of Gaza, and pushed
+forward at full speed towards the Hittite frontier.
+
+[Illustration: 163.jpg THE RETURN OF THE NORTH WALL OF THE HYPOSTYLE
+HALL AT KARNAK, WHERE SETI I. REPRESENTS SOME EPISODES IN HIS FIRST
+CAMPAIGN]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph, by Émil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+It was probably unprotected by any troops, and the Hittite king was
+absent in some other part of his empire. Seti pillaged the Amurru,
+seized Ianuâmu and Qodshû by a sudden attack, marched in an oblique
+direction towards the Mediterranean, forcing the inhabitants of the
+Lebanon to cut timber from their mountains for the additions which he
+was premeditating in the temple of the Theban Amon, and finally returned
+by the coast road, receiving, as he passed through their territory, the
+homage of the Phoenicians. His entry into Egypt was celebrated by solemn
+festivities. The nobles, priests, and princes of both south and north
+hastened to meet him at the bridge of Zalû, and welcomed, with their
+chants, both the king and the troops of captives whom he was bringing
+back for the service of his father Amon at Karnak. The delight of his
+subjects was but natural, since for many years the Egyptians bad not
+witnessed such a triumph, and they no doubt believed that the prosperous
+era of Thûtmosis III. was about to return, and that the wealth of
+Naharaim would once more flow into Thebes as of old. Their illusion
+was short-lived, for this initial victory was followed by no other.
+Maurusaru, King of the Khâti, and subsequently his son Mautallu,
+withstood the Pharaoh with such resolution that he was forced to treat
+with them. A new alliance was concluded on the same conditions as the
+old one, and the boundaries of the two kingdoms remained the same as
+under Harmhabî, a proof that neither sovereign had gained any advantage
+over his rival. Hence the campaign did not in any way restore Egyptian
+supremacy, as had been hoped at the moment; it merely served to
+strengthen her authority in those provinces which the Khâti had failed
+to take from Egypt. The Phoenicians of Tyre and Sidon had too many
+commercial interests on the banks of the Nile to dream of breaking
+the slender tie which held them to the Pharaoh, since independence,
+or submission to another sovereign, might have ruined their trade. The
+Kharû and the Bedawîn, vanquished wherever they had ventured to oppose
+the Pharaoh’s troops, were less than ever capable of throwing off the
+Egyptian yoke. Syria fell back into its former state. The local princes
+once more resumed their intrigues and quarrels, varied at intervals by
+appeals to their suzerain for justice or succour. The “Royal Messengers”
+ appeared from time to time with their escorts of archers and chariots
+to claim tribute, levy taxes, to make peace between quarrelsome vassals,
+or, if the case required it, to supersede some insubordinate chief by a
+governor of undoubted loyalty; in fine, the entire administration of the
+empire was a continuation of that of the preceding century. The peoples
+of Kûsh meanwhile had remained quiet during the campaign in Syria, and
+on the western frontier the Tihonû had suffered so severe a defeat that
+they were not likely to recover from it for some time.* The bands of
+pirates, Shardana and others, who infested the Delta, were hunted down,
+and the prisoners taken from among them were incorporated into the royal
+guard.**
+
+     * This war is represented at Karnak, and Ramses II. figures
+     there among the children of Seti I.
+
+     ** We gather this from passages in the inscriptions from the
+     year V. onwards, in which Ramses II. boasts that he has a
+     number of Shardana prisoners in his guard; Rouge was,
+     perhaps, mistaken in magnifying these piratical raids into a
+     war of invasion.
+
+[Illustration: 166.jpg REPRESENTATION OF SETI I. VANQUISHING THE LIBYANS
+AND ASIATICS ON THE WALLS, KARNAK]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Ernil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+Seti, however, does not appear to have had a confirmed taste for war.
+He showed energy when occasion required it, and he knew how to lead his
+soldiers, as the expedition of his first year amply proved; but when the
+necessity was over, he remained on the defensive, and made no further
+attempt at conquest. By his own choice he was “the jackal who prowls
+about the country to protect it,” rather than “the wizard lion marauding
+abroad by hidden paths,” * and Egypt enjoyed a profound peace in
+consequence of his ceaseless vigilance.
+
+     * These phrases are taken direct from the inscriptions of
+     Seti I.
+
+A peaceful policy of this kind did not, of course, produce the amount
+of spoil and the endless relays of captives which had enabled his
+predecessors to raise temples and live in great luxury without
+overburdening their subjects with taxes. Seti was, therefore, the more
+anxious to do all in his power to develop the internal wealth of the
+country. The mining colonies of the Sinaitic Peninsula had never ceased
+working since operations had been resumed there under Hâtshopsîtû and
+Thûtmosis III., but the output had lessened during the troubles under
+the heretic kings. Seti sent inspectors thither, and endeavoured to
+stimulate the workmen to their former activity, but apparently with no
+great success. We are not able to ascertain if he continued the revival
+of trade with Pûanît inaugurated by Harmhabî; but at any rate he
+concentrated his attention on the regions bordering the Red Sea and the
+gold-mines which they contained. Those of Btbaï, which had been worked
+as early as the XIIth dynasty, did not yield as much as they had done
+formerly; not that they were exhausted, but owing to the lack of water
+in their neighbourhood and along the routes leading to them, they were
+nearly deserted. It was well known that they contained great wealth,
+but operations could not be carried on, as the workmen were in danger
+of dying of thirst. Seti despatched engineers to the spot to explore the
+surrounding wadys, to clear the ancient cisterns or cut others, and
+to establish victualling stations at regular intervals for the use of
+merchants supplying the gangs of miners with commodities. These stations
+generally consisted of square or rectangular enclosures, built of
+stones without mortar, and capable of resisting a prolonged attack. The
+entrance was by a narrow doorway of stone slabs, and in the interior
+were a few huts and one or two reservoirs for catching rain or storing
+the water of neighbouring springs. Sometimes a chapel was built close at
+hand, consecrated to the divinities of the desert, or to their compeers,
+Mînû of Coptos, Horus, Maut, or Isis. One of these, founded by Seti,
+still exists near the modern town of Redesieh, at the entrance to one of
+the valleys which furrow this gold region.
+
+[Illustration: 168.jpg A FORTIFIED STATION ON THE ROUTE BETWEEN THE NILE
+AND THE RED SEA.
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Bock
+
+It is built against, and partly excavated in, a wall of rock, the
+face of which has been roughly squared, and it is entered through a
+four-columned portico, giving access to two dark chambers, whose walls
+are covered with scenes of adoration and a lengthy inscription. In this
+latter the sovereign relates how, in the IXth year of his reign, he
+was moved to inspect the roads of the desert; he completed the work in
+honour of Amon-Râ, of Phtah of Memphis, and of Harmakhis, and he states
+that travellers were at a loss to express their gratitude and thanks for
+what he had done. “They repeated from mouth to mouth: ‘May Amon give him
+an endless existence, and may he prolong for him the length of eternity!
+O ye gods of fountains, attribute to him your life, for he has rendered
+back to us accessible roads, and he has opened that which was closed to
+us. Henceforth we can take our way in peace, and reach our destination
+alive; now that the difficult paths are open and the road has become
+good, gold can be brought back, as our lord and master has commanded.’”
+ Plans were drawn on papyrus of the configuration of the district, of the
+beds of precious metal, and of the position of the stations.
+
+[Illustration: 169.jpg THE TEMPLE OF SETI I. AT REDESIEH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Golénischeff.
+
+One of these plans has come down to us, in which the districts are
+coloured bright red, the mountains dull ochre, the roads dotted
+over with footmarks to show the direction to be taken, while the
+superscriptions give the local names, and inform us that the map
+represents the Bukhni mountain and a fortress and stele of Seti. The
+whole thing is executed in a rough and naive manner, with an almost
+childish minuteness which provokes a smile; we should, however, not
+despise it, for it is the oldest map in the world.
+
+[Illustration: 170.jpg FRAGMENT OF THE MAP OF THE GOLD-MINES]
+
+     Facsimile by Faucher-Gudin of coloured chalk-drawing by Chabas.
+
+The gold extracted from these regions, together with that brought
+from Ethiopia, and, better still, the regular payment of taxes and
+custom-house duties, went to make up for the lack of foreign spoil all
+the more opportunely, for, although the sovereign did not share the
+military enthusiasm of Thûtmosis III., he had inherited from him the
+passion for expensive temple-building.
+
+[Illustration: 171.jpg THE THREE STANDING COLUMNS OF THE TEMPLE OF
+SESEBI]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+He did not neglect Nubia in this respect, but repaired several of
+the monuments at which the XVIIIth dynasty had worked--among others,
+Kalabsheh, Dakkeh, and Amada, besides founding a temple at Sesebi, of
+which three columns are still standing.*
+
+     * In Lepsius’s time there were still four columns standing;
+     Insinger shows us only three.
+
+The outline of these columns is not graceful, and the decoration of them
+is very poor, for art degenerated rapidly in these distant provinces of
+the empire, and only succeeded in maintaining its vigour and spirit in
+the immediate neighbourhood of the Pharaoh, as at Abydos, Memphis, and
+above all at Thebes. Seti’s predecessor Ramses, desirous of obliterating
+all traces of the misfortunes lately brought about by the changes
+effected by the heretic kings, had contemplated building at Karnak,
+in front of the pylon of Amenôthes III., an enormous hall for the
+ceremonies connected with the cult of Amon, where the immense numbers of
+priests and worshippers at festival times could be accommodated without
+inconvenience. It devolved on Seti to carry out what had been merely an
+ambitious dream of his father’s.*
+
+     * The great hypostyle hall was cleared and the columns were
+     strengthened in the winter of 1895-6, as far, at least, as
+     it was possible to carry out the work of restoration without
+     imperilling the stability of the whole.
+
+We long to know who was the architect possessed of such confidence in
+his powers that he ventured to design, and was able to carry out, this
+almost superhuman undertaking. His name would be held up to almost
+universal admiration beside those of the greatest masters that we are
+familiar with, for no one in Greece or Italy has left us any work which
+surpasses it, or which with such simple means could produce a similar
+impression of boldness and immensity. It is almost impossible to convey
+by words to those who have not seen it, the impression which it makes on
+the spectator. Failing description, the dimensions speak for themselves.
+The hall measures one hundred and sixty-two feet in length, by three
+hundred and twenty-five in breadth. A row of twelve columns, the largest
+ever placed inside a building, runs up the centre, having capitals in
+the form of inverted bells.
+
+[Illustration: 173 AN AVENUE OF ONE OF THE AISLES OF THE HYPOSTYLE HALL
+AT KARNAK]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+One hundred and twenty-two columns with lotiform capitals fill
+the aisles, in rows of nine each. The roof of the central bay is
+seventy-four feet above the ground, and the cornice of the two towers
+rises sixty-three feet higher. The building was dimly lighted from the
+roof of the central colonnade by means of stone gratings, through
+which the air and the sun’s rays entered sparingly. The daylight, as it
+penetrated into the hall, was rendered more and more obscure by the rows
+of columns; indeed, at the further end a perpetual twilight must have
+reigned, pierced by narrow shafts of light falling from the ventilation
+holes which were placed at intervals in the roof.
+
+[Illustration: 174.jpg THE GRATINGS OF THE CENTRAL COLONNADE IN THE
+HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato. In the
+     background, on the right, may be seen a column which for
+     several centuries has been retained in a half-fallen
+     position by the weight of its architrave.
+
+The whole building now lies open to the sky, and the sunshine which
+floods it, pitilessly reveals the mutilations which it has suffered in
+the course of ages; but the general effect, though less mysterious, is
+none the less overwhelming. It is the only monument in which the first
+_coup d’oil_ surpasses the expectations of the spectator instead of
+disappointing him. The size is immense, and we realise its immensity the
+more fully as we search our memory in vain to find anything with which
+to compare it. Seti may have entertained the project of building a
+_replica_ of this hall in Southern Thebes. Amenôthes III. had left his
+temple at Luxor unfinished. The sanctuary and its surrounding buildings
+were used for purposes of worship, but the court of the customary pylon
+was wanting, and merely a thin wall concealed the mysteries from the
+sight of the vulgar. Seti resolved to extend the building in a northerly
+direction, without interfering with the thin screen which had satisfied
+his predecessors. Starting from the entrance in this wall, he planned an
+avenue of giant columns rivalling those of Karnak, which he destined to
+become the central colonnade of a hypostyle hall as vast as that of
+the sister temple. Either money or time was lacking to carry out his
+intention. He died before the aisles on either side were even begun. At
+Abydos, however, he was more successful. We do not know the reason
+of Seti’s particular affection for this town; it is possible that his
+family held some fief there, or it may be that he desired to show the
+peculiar estimation in which he held its local god, and intended, by the
+homage that he lavished on him, to cause the fact to be forgotten that
+he bore the name of Sit the accursed.
+
+[Illustration: 176.jpg ONE OF THE COLONNADES OF THE HYPOSTYLE HALL IN
+THE TEMPLE OF SETI I. AT ABYDOS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+The king selected a favourable site for his temple to the south of the
+town, on the slope of a sandhill bordering the canal, and he marked
+out in the hardened soil a ground plan of considerable originality. The
+building was approached through two pylons, the remains of which are now
+hidden under the houses of Aarabat el-Madfuneh.
+
+[Illustration: 176b.jpg THE FACADE OF THE TEMPLE OF SETI]
+
+A fairly large courtyard, bordered by two crumbling walls, lies between
+the second pylon and the temple façade, which was composed of a portico
+resting on square pillars. Passing between these, we reach two halls
+supported by-columns of graceful outline, beyond which are eight chapels
+arranged in a line, side by side, in front of two chambers built in
+to the hillside, and destined for the reception of Osiris. The holy
+of holies in ordinary temples is surrounded by chambers of lesser
+importance, but here it is concealed behind them. The building-material
+mainly employed here was the white limestone of Tûrah, but of a most
+beautiful quality, which lent itself to the execution of bas-reliefs
+of great delicacy, perhaps the finest in ancient Egypt. The artists who
+carved and painted them belonged to the Theban school, and while their
+subjects betray a remarkable similarity to those of the monuments
+dedicated by Amenôthes III., the execution surpasses them in freedom and
+perfection of modelling; we can, in fact, trace in them the influence of
+the artists who furnished the drawings for the scenes at Tel el-Amarna.
+They have represented the gods and goddesses with the same type
+of profile as that of the king--a type of face of much purity and
+gentleness, with its aquiline nose, its decided mouth, almond-shaped
+eyes, and melancholy smile. When the decoration of the temple was
+completed, Seti regarded the building as too small for its divine
+inmate, and accordingly added to it a new wing, which he built along
+the whole length of the southern wall; but he was unable to finish
+it completely. Several parts of it are lined with religious
+representations, but in others the subjects have been merely sketched
+out in black ink with corrections in red, while elsewhere the walls
+are bare, except for a few inscriptions, scribbled over them after an
+interval of twenty centuries by the monks who turned the temple chambers
+into a convent. This new wing was connected with the second hypostyle
+hall of the original building by a passage, on one of the walls of which
+is a list of seventy-five royal names, representing the ancestors of the
+sovereign traced back to Mini. The whole temple must be regarded as a
+vast funerary chapel, and no one who has studied the religion of Egypt
+can entertain a doubt as to its purpose. Abydos was the place where the
+dead assembled before passing into the other world. It was here, at the
+mouth of the “Cleft,” that they received the provisions and offerings
+of their relatives and friends who remained on this earth. As the dead
+flocked hither from all quarters of the world, they collected round the
+tomb of Osiris, and there waited till the moment came to embark on the
+Boat of the Sun. Seti did not wish his soul to associate with those of
+the common crowd of his vassals, and prepared this temple for himself,
+as a separate resting-place, close to the mouth of Hades. After having
+dwelt within it for a short time subsequent to his funeral, his soul
+could repair thither whenever it desired, certain of always finding
+within it the incense and the nourishment of which it stood in need.
+
+Thebes possessed this king’s actual tomb. The chapel was at Qurnah, a
+little to the north of the group of pyramids in which the Pharaohs of
+the XIth dynasty lay side by side with those of the XIIIth and XVIIth.
+Ramses had begun to build it, and Seti continued the work, dedicating
+it to the cult of his father and of himself. Its pylon has altogether
+disappeared, but the façade with lotus-bud columns is nearly perfect,
+together with several of the chambers in front of the sanctuary. The
+decoration is as carefully carried out and the execution as delicate as
+that in the work at Abydos; we are tempted to believe from one or two
+examples of it that the same hands have worked at both buildings.
+
+[Illustration: 181.jpg THE TEMPLE OF QURNAH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+The rock-cut tomb is some distance away up in the mountain, but not
+in the same ravine as that in which Amenôthes III., Aï, and probably
+Tûtankhamon and Harmhabî, are buried.*
+
+     * There are, in fact, close to those of Aï and Amenôthes
+     III., three other tombs, two at least of which have been
+     decorated with paintings, now completely obliterated, and
+     which may have served as the burying-places of Tûtankhamon
+     and Harmhabî: the earlier Egyptologists believed them to
+     have been dug by the first kings of the XVIIIth dynasty.
+
+There then existed, behind the rock amphitheatre of Deîr el-Baharî, a
+kind of enclosed basin, which could be reached from the plain only by
+dangerous paths above the temple of Hâtshopsîtû. This basin is divided
+into two parts, one of which runs in a south-easterly direction,
+while the other trends to the south-west, and is subdivided into minor
+branches. To the east rises a barren peak, the outline of which is not
+unlike that of the step-pyramid of Saqqâra, reproduced on a colossal
+scale. No spot could be more appropriate to serve as a cemetery for a
+family of kings. The difficulty of reaching it and of conveying thither
+the heavy accessories and of providing for the endless processions of
+the Pharaonic funerals, prevented any attempt being made to cut tombs
+in it during the Ancient and Middle Empires. About the beginning of the
+XIXth dynasty, however, some engineers, in search of suitable burial
+sites, at length noticed that this basin was only separated from the
+wady issuing to the north of Qurnah by a rocky barrier barely five
+hundred cubits in width. This presented no formidable obstacle to such
+skilful engineers as the Egyptians. They cut a trench into the living
+rock some fifty or sixty cubits in depth, at the bottom of which they
+tunnelled a narrow passage giving access to the valley.*
+
+     * French scholars recognised from the beginning of this
+     century that the passage in question had been made by human
+     agency. I attribute the execution of this work to Ramses I.,
+     as I believe Harmhabî to have been buried in the eastern
+     valley, near Amenôthes III.
+
+It is not known whether this herculean work was accomplished during the
+reign of Harnhabî or in that of Ramses I. The latter was the first of
+the Pharaohs to honour the spot by his presence. His tomb is simple,
+almost coarse in its workmanship, and comprises a gentle inclined
+passage, a vault and a sarcophagus of rough stone. That of Seti, on the
+contrary, is a veritable palace, extending to a distance of 325 feet
+into the mountain-side. It is entered by a wide and lofty door, which
+opens on to a staircase of twenty-seven steps, leading to an inclined
+corridor; other staircases of shallow steps follow with their landings;
+then come successively a hypostyle hall, and, at the extreme end, a
+vaulted chamber, all of which are decorated with mysterious scenes
+and covered with inscriptions. This is, however, but the first storey,
+containing the antechambers of the dead, but not their living-rooms. A
+passage and steps, concealed under a slab to the left of the hall, lead
+to the real vault, which held the mummy and its funerary furniture.
+As we penetrate further and further by the light of torches into this
+subterranean abode, we see that the walls are covered with pictures and
+formulae, setting forth the voyages of the soul through the twelve hours
+of the night, its trials, its judgment, its reception by the departed,
+and its apotheosis--all depicted on the rock with the same perfection
+as that which characterises the bas-reliefs on the finest slabs of Tûrah
+stone at Qurnah and Abydos. A gallery leading out of the last of
+these chambers extends a few feet further and then stops abruptly; the
+engineers had contemplated the excavation of a third storey to the tomb,
+when the death of their master obliged them to suspend their task.
+The king’s sarcophagus consists of a block of alabaster, hollowed
+out, polished, and carved with figures and hieroglyphs, with all the
+minuteness which we associate with the cutting of a gem.
+
+[Illustration: 184.jpg ONE OF THE PILLARS OF THE TOMB OF SETI I.]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger, taken in
+     1884.
+
+It contained a wooden coffin, shaped to the human figure and painted
+white, the features picked out in black, and enamel eyes inserted in
+a mounting of bronze. The mummy is that of a thin elderly man, well
+preserved; the face was covered by a mask made of linen smeared with
+pitch, but when this was raised by means of a chisel, the fine kingly
+head was exposed to view. It was a masterpiece of the art of the
+embalmer, and the expression of the face was that of one who had only
+a few hours previously breathed his last. Death had slightly drawn
+the nostrils and contracted the lips, the pressure of the bandages had
+flattened the nose a little, and the skin was darkened by the pitch; but
+a calm and gentle smile still played over the mouth, and the half-opened
+eyelids allowed a glimpse to be seen from under their lashes of an
+apparently moist and glistening line,--the reflection from the white
+porcelain eyes let in to the orbit at the time of burial.
+
+Seti had had several children by his wife Tuîa, and the eldest had
+already reached manhood when his father ascended the throne, for he had
+accompanied him on his Syrian campaign. The young prince died, however,
+soon after his return, and his right to the crown devolved on his
+younger brother, who, like his grandfather, bore the name of Ramses.
+The prince was still very young,* but Seti did not on that account delay
+enthroning with great pomp this son who had a better right to the throne
+than himself.
+
+     * The history of the youth and the accession of Ramses II.
+     is known to us from the narrative given by himself in the
+     temple of Seti I. at Abydos. The bulk of the narrative is
+     confirmed by the evidence of the Kubân inscription,
+     especially as to the extreme youth of Ramses at the time
+     when he was first associated with the crown.
+
+“From the time that I was in the egg,” Ramses writes later on, “the
+great ones sniffed the earth before me; when I attained to the rank of
+eldest son and heir upon the throne of Sibû, I dealt with affairs, I
+commanded as chief the foot-soldiers and the chariots. My father having
+appeared before the people, when I was but a very little boy in his
+arms, said to me: ‘I shall have him crowned king, that I may see him
+in all his splendour while I am still on this earth!’ The nobles of the
+court having drawn near to place the pschent upon my head: ‘Place the
+diadem upon his forehead!’ said he.” As Ramses increased in years,
+Seti delighted to confer upon him, one after the other, the principal
+attributes of power; “while he was still upon this earth, regulating
+everything in the land, defending its frontiers, and watching over the
+welfare of its inhabitants, he cried: ‘Let him reign!’ because of the
+love he had for me.” Seti also chose for him wives, beautiful “as are
+those of his palace,” and he gave him in marriage his sisters Nofrîtari
+II. Mîmût and Isîtnofrît, who, like Ramses himself, had claims to the
+throne. Ramses was allowed to attend the State councils at the age
+of ten; he commanded armies, and he administered justice under the
+direction of his father and his viziers. Seti, however, although making
+use of his son’s youth and activity, did not in any sense retire in his
+favour; if he permitted Ramses to adopt the insignia of royalty--the
+cartouches, the pschent, the bulbous-shaped helmet, and the various
+sceptres--he still remained to the day of his death the principal State
+official, and he reckoned all the years of this dual sovereignty as
+those of his sole reign.*
+
+     * Brugsoh is wrong in reckoning the reign of Ramses II. from
+     the time of his association in the crown; the great
+     inscription of Abydos, which has been translated by Brugsch
+     himself, dates events which immediately followed the death
+     of Seti I. as belonging to the first year of Ramses II.
+
+Ramses repulsed the incursions of the Tihonû, and put to the sword
+such of their hordes as had ventured to invade Egyptian territory.
+He exercised the functions of viceroy of Ethiopia, and had on several
+occasions to chastise the pillaging negroes. We see him at Beît-Wally
+and at Abu Simbel charging them in his chariot: in vain they flee in
+confusion before him; their flight, however swift, cannot save them from
+captivity and destruction.
+
+[Illustration: 187.jpg RAMSES II. PUTS THE NEGROES TO FLIGHT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+He was engaged in Ethiopia when the death of Seti recalled him to
+Thebes.*
+
+     * We do not know how long Seti I. reigned; the last date is
+     that of his IXth year at Redesieh and at Aswan, and that of
+     the year XXVII. sometimes attributed to him belongs to one
+     of the later Ramessides. I had at first supposed his reign
+     to have been a long one, merely on the evidence afforded by
+     Manetho’s lists, but the presence of Ramses II. as a
+     stripling, in the campaign of Seti’s 1st year, forces us to
+     limit its duration to fifteen or twenty years at most,
+     possibly to only twelve or fifteen.
+
+He at once returned to the capital, celebrated the king’s funeral
+obsequies with suitable pomp, and after keeping the festival of Amon,
+set out for the north in order to make his authority felt in that part
+of his domains. He stopped on his way at Abydos to give the necessary
+orders for completing the decoration of the principal chambers of the
+resting-place built by his father, and chose a site some 320 feet to
+the north-west of it for a similar Memnonium for himself. He granted
+cultivated fields and meadows in the Thinite name for the maintenance
+of these two mausolea, founded a college of priests and soothsayers in
+connexion with them, for which he provided endowments, and also assigned
+them considerable fiefs in all parts of the valley of the Nile. The
+Delta next occupied his attention. The increasing importance of the
+Syrian provinces in the eyes of Egypt, the growth of the Hittite
+monarchy, and the migrations of the peoples of the Mediterranean,
+had obliged the last princes of the preceding dynasty to reside more
+frequently at Memphis than Amenôthes I. or Thûtmosis III. had done.
+Amenôthes III. had set to work to restore certain cities which had been
+abandoned since the days of the Shepherds, and Bubastis, Athribis, and
+perhaps Tanis, had, thanks to his efforts, revived from their decayed
+condition. The Pharaohs, indeed, felt that at Thebes they were too far
+removed from the battle-fields of Asia; distance made it difficult for
+them to counteract the intrigues in which their vassals in Kharû and the
+lords of Naharaim were perpetually implicated, and a revolt which might
+have been easily anticipated or crushed had they been advised of
+it within a few days, gained time to increase and extend during the
+interval occupied by the couriers in travelling to and from the capital.
+Ramses felt the importance of possessing a town close to the Isthmus
+where he could reside in security, and he therefore built close to Zalû,
+in a fertile and healthy locality, a stronghold to which he gave his own
+name,* and of which the poets of the time have left us an enthusiastic
+description. “It extends,” they say, “between Zahi and Egypt--and is
+filled with provisions and victuals.--It resembles Hermonthis,--it is
+strong like Memphis,--and the sun rises--and sets in it--so that men
+quit their villages and establish themselves in its territory.”--“The
+dwellers on the coasts bring conger eels and fish in homage,--they
+pay it the tribute of their marshes.--The inhabitants don their festal
+garments every day,--perfumed oil is on their heads and new wigs;--they
+stand at their doors, their hands full of bunches of flowers,--green
+branches from the village of Pihâthor,--garlands of Pahûrû,--on the day
+when Pharaoh makes his entry.--Joy then reigns and spreads, and nothing
+can stay it,--O Usirmarî-sotpûnirî, thou who art Montû in the two
+lands,--Ramses-Mîamûn, the god.” The town acted as an advance post,
+from whence the king could keep watch against all intriguing
+adversaries,--whether on the banks of the Orontes or the coast of the
+Mediterranean.
+
+     * An allusion to the foundation of this residence occurs in
+     an inscription at Abu Simbel, dated in his XXVth year.
+
+Nothing appeared for the moment to threaten the peace of the empire.
+The Asiatic vassals had raised no disturbance on hearing of the king’s
+accession, and Mautallu continued to observe the conditions of
+the treaty which he had signed with Seti. Two military expeditions
+undertaken beyond the isthmus in the IInd and IVth years of the new
+sovereign were accomplished almost without fighting. He repressed by the
+way the marauding Shaûsû, and on reaching the Nahr el-Kelb, which then
+formed the northern frontier of his empire, he inscribed at the turn
+of the road, on the rocks which overhang the mouth of the river, two
+triumphal stelæ in which he related his successes.* Towards the end
+of his IVth year a rebellion broke out among the Khâti, which caused a
+rupture of relations between the two kingdoms and led to some irregular
+fighting. Khâtusaru, a younger brother of Maurusaru, murdered the latter
+and made himself king in his stead.** It is not certain whether the
+Egyptians took up arms against him, or whether he judged it wise to
+oppose them in order to divert the attention of his subjects from his
+crime.
+
+     * The stelæ are all in a very bad condition; in the last of
+     them the date is no longer legible.
+
+     ** In the _Treaty of Harrises II. with the Prince of Khâti_,
+     the writer is content to use a discreet euphemism, and
+     states that Mautallu succumbed “to his destiny.” The name of
+     the Prince of the Khâti is found later on under the form
+     Khatusharu, in that of a chief defeated by Tiglath-pileser
+     I. in the country of Kummukh, though this name has generally
+     been read Khatukhi.
+
+At all events, he convoked his Syrian vassals and collected his
+mercenaries; the whole of Naharaim, Khalupu, Carchemish, and Arvad sent
+their quota, while bands of Dardanians, Mysians, Trojans, and Lycians,
+together with the people of Pedasos and Girgasha,* furnished further
+contingents, drawn from an area extending from the most distant coasts
+of the Mediterranean to the mountains of Cilicia. Ramses, informed of
+the enemy’s movement by his generals and the governors of places on the
+frontier, resolved to anticipate the attack. He assembled an army almost
+as incongruous in its component elements as that of his adversary:
+besides Egyptians of unmixed race, divided into four corps bearing
+the names of Amon, Phtah, Harmakhis and Sûtkhû, it contained Ethiopian
+auxiliaries, Libyans, Mazaiu, and Shardana.**
+
+     * The name of this nation is written Karkisha, Kalkisha, or
+     Kashkisha, by one of those changes of _sh_ into _r-l_ which
+     occur so frequently in Assyro-Chaldæan before a dental; the
+     two different spellings seem to show that the writers of the
+     inscriptions bearing on this war had before them a list of
+     the allies of Khâtusaru, written in cuneiform characters. If
+     we may identify the nation with the Kashki or Kashku of the
+     Assyrian texts, the ancestors of the people of Colchis of
+     classical times, the termination _-isha_ of the Egyptian
+     word would be the inflexion _-ash_ or _-ush_ of the Eastern-
+     Asiatic tongues which we find in so many race-names, e.g.
+     Adaush, Saradaush, Ammaush. Rouge and Brugsch identified
+     them with the Girgashites of the Bible. Brugsch, adopting
+     the spelling Kashki, endeavoured to connect them with
+     Casiotis; later on he identified them with the people of
+     Gergis in Troas. Ramsay recognises in them the Kisldsos of
+     Cilicia.
+
+     ** In the account of the campaign the Shardana only are
+     mentioned; but we learn from a list in the _Anastasi Papyrus
+     I_, that the army of Ramses II. included, in ordinary
+     circumstances, in addition to the Shardana, a contingent of
+     Mashauasha, Kahaka, and other Libyan and negro mercenaries.
+
+When preparations were completed, the force crossed the canal at Zalû,
+on the 9th of Payni in his Vth year, marched rapidly across Canaan till
+they reached the valley of the Litâny, along which they took their way,
+and then followed up that of the Orontes. They encamped for a few days
+at Shabtuna, to the south-west of Qodshû,* in the midst of the Amorite
+country, sending out scouts and endeavouring to discover the position of
+the enemy, of whose movements they possessed but vague information.
+
+     * Shabtuna had been placed on the Nahr es-Sebta, on the site
+     now occupied by Kalaat el-Hosn, a conjecture approved by
+     Mariette; it was more probably a town situated in the plain,
+     to the south of Bahr el-Kades, a little to the south-west of
+     Tell Keby Mindoh which represents Qodshû, and close to some
+     forests which at that time covered the slopes of Lebanon,
+     and, extending as they did to the bottom of the valley,
+     concealed the position of the Khâti from the Egyptians.
+
+Khâtusaru lay concealed in the wooded valleys of the Lebanon; he was
+kept well posted by his spies, and only waited an opportunity to take
+the field; as an occasion did not immediately present itself, he had
+recourse to a ruse with which the generals of the time were familiar.
+Ramses, at length uneasy at not falling in with the enemy, advanced to
+the south of Shabtuna, where he endeavoured to obtain information from
+two Bedawîn. “Our brethren,” said they, “who are the chiefs of
+the tribes united under the vile Prince of Khâti, send us to give
+information to your Majesty: We desire to serve the Pharaoh. We are
+deserting the vile Prince of the Khâti; he is close to Khalupu (Aleppo),
+to the north of the city of Tunipa, whither he has rapidly retired from
+fear of the Pharaoh.” This story had every appearance of probability;
+and the distance--Khalupu was at least forty leagues away--explained why
+the reconnoitring parties of the Egyptians had not fallen in with any of
+the enemy. The Pharaoh, with this information, could not decide whether
+to lay siege to Qodshû and wait until the Hittites were forced to
+succour the town, or to push on towards the Euphrates and there seek the
+engagement which his adversary seemed anxious to avoid.
+
+[Illustration: 193.jpg THE SHARDANA GUARD OF RAMSES II.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+He chose the latter of the two alternatives. He sent forward the legions
+of Anion, Phrâ, Phtah, and Sutkhu, which constituted the main body of
+his troops, and prepared to follow them with his household chariotry. At
+the very moment when this division was being effected, the Hittites, who
+had been represented by the spies as being far distant, were secretly
+massing their forces to the north-east of Qodshu, ready to make an
+attack upon the Pharaoh’s flank as soon as he should set out on his
+march towards Khalupu. The enemy had considerable forces at their
+disposal, and on the day of the engagement they placed 18,000 to 20,000
+picked soldiers in the field.* Besides a well-disciplined infantry, they
+possessed 2500 to 3000 chariots, containing, as was the Asiatic custom,
+three men in each.**
+
+     * An army corps is reckoned as containing 9000 men on the
+     wall scenes at Luxor, and 8000 at the Eamesseum; the 3000
+     chariots were manned by 9000 men. In allowing four to five
+     thousand men for the rest of the soldiers engaged, we are
+     not likely to be far wrong, and shall thus obtain the modest
+     total mentioned in the text, contrary to the opinion current
+     among historians.
+
+     * The mercenaries are included in these figures, as is shown
+     by the reckoning of the Lycian, Dardanian, and Pedasian
+     chiefs who were in command of the chariots during the
+     charges against Ramses II.
+
+The Egyptian camp was not entirely broken up, when the scouts brought
+in two spies whom they had seized--Asiatics in long blue robes arranged
+diagonally over one shoulder, leaving the other bare. The king, who was
+seated on his throne delivering his final commands, ordered them to
+be beaten till the truth should be extracted from them. They at last
+confessed that they had been despatched to watch the departure of the
+Egyptians, and admitted that the enemy was concealed in ambush behind
+the town. Ramses hastily called a council of war and laid the situation
+before his generals, not without severely reprimanding them for the
+bad organisation of the intelligence department. The officers excused
+themselves as best they could, and threw the blame on the provincial
+governors, who had not been able to discover what was going on. The king
+cut short these useless recriminations, sent swift messengers to recall
+the divisions which had started early that morning, and gave orders
+that all those remaining in camp should hold themselves in readiness to
+attack. The council were still deliberating when news was brought that
+the Hittites were in sight.
+
+[Illustration: 195.jpg TWO HITTITE SPIES BEATEN BY THE EGYPTIAN
+SOLDIERS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the picture in the temple at
+     Abu Simbel.
+
+Their first onslaught was so violent that they threw down one side of
+the camp wall, and penetrated into the enclosure. Ramses charged them at
+the head of his household troops. Eight times he engaged the chariotry
+which threatened to surround him, and each time he broke their ranks.
+Once he found himself alone with Manna, his shield-bearer, in the midst
+of a knot of warriors who were bent on his destruction, and he escaped
+solely by his coolness and bravery. The tame lion which accompanied him
+on his expeditions did terrible work by his side, and felled many an
+Asiatic with his teeth and claws.*
+
+     * The lion is represented and named in the battle-scenes at
+     Abu Simbel, at Dorr, and at Luxor, where we see it in camp
+     on the eve of the battle, with its two front paws tied, and
+     its keeper threatening it.
+
+[Illustration: 196.jpg THE EGYPTIAN CAMP AND THE COUNCIL OF WAR ON THE
+MORNING OF THE BATTLE OF QODSHÛ]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato of the west
+     front of the Eamesseum.
+
+The soldiers, fired by the king’s example, stood their ground resolutely
+during the long hours of the afternoon; at length, as night was drawing
+on, the legions of Phrâ and Sûtkhû, who had hastily retraced their
+steps, arrived on the scene of action. A large body of Khâfci, who were
+hemmed in in that part of the camp which they had taken in the morning,
+were at once killed or made prisoners, not a man of them escaping.
+Khâtusaru, disconcerted by this sudden reinforcement of the enemy, beat
+a retreat, and nightfall suspended the struggle. It was recommenced at
+dawn the following morning with unabated fury, and terminated in the
+rout of the confederates. Garbatusa, the shield-bearer of the Hittite
+prince, the generals in command of his infantry and chariotry, and
+Khalupsaru, the “writer of books,” fell during the action. The chariots,
+driven back to the Orontes, rushed into the river in the hope of fording
+it, but in so doing many lives were lost. Mazraîma, the Prince of
+Khâti’s brother, reached the opposite bank in safety, but the Chief of
+Tonisa was drowned, and the lord of Khalupu was dragged out of the water
+more dead than alive, and had to be held head downwards to disgorge the
+water he had swallowed before he could be restored to consciousness.
+
+[Illustration: 198.jpg THE GARRISON OF QODSHÛ ISSUING FORTH TO HELP THE
+PRINCE OF KHÂTI.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Bénédite.
+
+Khâtusaru himself was on the point of perishing, when the troops which
+had been shut up in Qodshû, together with the inhabitants, made a
+general sortie; the Egyptians were for a moment held in check, and
+the fugitives meanwhile were able to enter the town. Either there was
+insufficient provision for so many mouths, or the enemy had lost all
+heart from the disaster; at any rate, further resistance appeared
+useless. The next morning Khâtusaru sent to propose a truce or peace to
+the victorious Pharaoh. The Egyptians had probably suffered at least
+as much as their adversaries, and perhaps regarded the eventuality of
+a siege with no small distaste; Ramses, therefore, accepted the offers
+made to him and prepared to return to Egypt. The fame of his exploits
+had gone before him, and he himself was not a little proud of the energy
+he had displayed on the day of battle. His predecessors had always shown
+themselves to be skilful generals and brave soldiers, but none of them
+had ever before borne, or all but borne, single-handed the brunt of an
+attack. Ramses loaded his shield-bearer Manna with rewards for having
+stood by him in the hour of danger, and ordered abundant provender and
+sumptuous harness for the good horses--“Strength-in-Thebaid” and “Nûrît
+the satisfied”--who had drawn his chariot.*
+
+     * A gold ring in the Louvre bears in relief on its bezel two
+     little horses; which are probably “Strength-in-Thebaid” and
+     “Nûrît satisfied.”
+
+He determined that the most characteristic episodes of the campaign--the
+beating of the spies, the surprise of the camp, the king’s repeated
+charges, the arrival of his veterans, the flight of the Syrians, and the
+surrender of Qodshû--should be represented on the walls and pylons of
+the temples. A poem in rhymed strophes in every case accompanies
+these records of his glory, whether at Luxor, at the Eamesseum, at the
+Memnonium of Abydos, or in the heart of Nubia at Abu Simbel. The author
+of the poem must have been present during the campaign, or must have had
+the account of it from the lips of his sovereign, for his work bears no
+traces of the coldness of official reports, and a warlike strain runs
+through it from one end to the other, so as still to invest it with life
+after a lapse of more than thirty centuries.*
+
+     * The author is unknown: Pentaûr, or rather Pentaûîrît, to
+     whom E. de Rougé attributed the poem, is merely the
+     transcriber of the copy we possess on papyrus.
+
+But little pains are bestowed on the introduction, and the poet does not
+give free vent to his enthusiasm until the moment when he describes
+his hero, left almost alone, charging the enemy in the sight of his
+followers. The Pharaoh was surrounded by two thousand five hundred
+chariots, and his retreat was cut off by the warriors of the “perverse”
+ Khâti and of the other nations who accompanied them--the peoples of
+Arvad, Mysia, and Pedasos; each of their chariots contained three men,
+and the ranks were so serried that they formed but one dense mass. “No
+other prince was with me, no general officers, no one in command of the
+archers or chariots. My foot-soldiers deserted me, my charioteers
+fled before the foe, and not one of them stood firm beside me to fight
+against them.” Then said His Majesty: “Who art thou, then, my father
+Amon? A father who forgets his son? Or have I committed aught against
+thee? Have I not marched and halted according to thy command? When he
+does not violate thy orders, the lord of Egypt is indeed great, and he
+overthrows the barbarians in his path! What are these Asiatics to
+thy heart? Amon will humiliate those who know not the god. Have I
+not consecrated innumerable offerings to thee? Filling thy holy
+dwelling-place with my prisoners, I build thee a temple for millions of
+years, I lavish all my goods on thy storehouses, I offer thee the whole
+world to enrich thy domains.... A miserable fate indeed awaits him who
+sets himself against thy will, but happy is he who finds favour with
+thee by deeds done for thee with a loving heart. I invoke thee, O my
+father Amon! Here am I in the midst of people so numerous that it cannot
+be known who are the nations joined together against me, and I am alone
+among them, none other is with me. My many soldiers have forsaken me,
+none of my charioteers looked towards me when I called them, not one of
+them heard my voice when I cried to them. But I find that Amon is more
+to me than a million soldiers, than a hundred thousand charioteers, than
+a myriad of brothers or young sons, joined all together, for the number
+of men is as nothing, Amon is greater than all of them. Each time I have
+accomplished these things, Amon, by the counsel of thy mouth, as I do
+not transgress thy orders, I rendered thee glory even to the ends of the
+earth.” So calm an invocation in the thick of the battle would appear
+misplaced in the mouth of an ordinary man, but Pharaoh was a god, and
+the son of a god, and his actions and speeches cannot be measured by
+the same standard as that of a common mortal. He was possessed by the
+religious spirit in the hour of danger, and while his body continued
+to fight, his soul took wing to the throne of Amon. He contemplates the
+lord of heaven face to face, reminds him of the benefits which he had
+received from him, and summons him to his aid with an imperiousness
+which betrays the sense of his own divine origin. The expected help was
+not delayed. “While the voice resounds in Hermonthis, Amon arises at my
+behest, he stretches out his hand to me, and I cry out with joy when he
+hails me from behind: ‘Face to face with thee, face to face with thee,
+Ramses Miamun, I am with thee! It is I, thy father! My hand is with
+thee, and I am worth more to thee than hundreds of thousands. I am the
+strong one who loves valour; I have beheld in thee a courageous heart,
+and my heart is satisfied; my will is about to be accomplished!’ I am
+like Montû; from the right I shoot with the dart, from the left I seize
+the enemy. I am like Baal in his hour, before them; I have encountered
+two thousand five hundred chariots, and as soon as I am in their midst,
+they are overthrown before my mares. Not one of all these people has
+found a hand wherewith to fight; their hearts sink within their breasts,
+fear paralyses their limbs; they know not how to throw their darts, they
+have no strength to hold their lances. I precipitate them into the water
+like as the crocodile plunges therein; they are prostrate face to the
+earth, one upon the other, and I slay in the midst of them, for I have
+willed that not one should look behind him, nor that one should return;
+he who falls rises not again.” This sudden descent of the god has, even
+at the present day, an effect upon the reader, prepared though he is
+by his education to consider it as a literary artifice; but on the
+Egyptian, brought up to regard Amon with boundless reverence, its
+influence was irresistible. The Prince of the Khâti, repulsed at the
+very moment when he was certain of victory, “recoiled with terror. He
+sends against the enemy the various chiefs, followed by their chariots
+and skilled warriors,--the chiefs of Arvad, Lycia, and Ilion, the
+leaders of the Lycians and Dardanians, the lords of Carchemish, of the
+Girgashites, and of Khalupu; these allies of the Khâti, all together,
+comprised three thousand chariots.” Their efforts, however, were in
+vain. “I fell upon them like Montû, my hand devoured them in the space
+of a moment, in the midst of them I hewed down and slew. They said one
+to another: ‘This is no man who is amongst us; it is Sûtkhû the great
+warrior, it is Baal incarnate! These are not human actions which he
+accomplishes: alone, by himself, he repulses hundreds of thousands,
+without leaders or men. Up, let us flee before him, let us seek to save
+our lives, and let us breathe again!’” When at last, towards evening,
+the army again rallies round the king, and finds the enemy completely
+defeated, the men hang their heads with mingled shame and admiration as
+the Pharaoh reproaches them: “What will the whole earth say when it is
+known that you left me alone, and without any to succour me? that not a
+prince, not a charioteer, not a captain of archers, was found to place
+his hand in mine? I fought, I repulsed millions of people by myself
+alone. ‘Victory-in-Thebes’ and ‘Nûrît satisfied’ were my glorious
+horses; it was they that I found under my hand when I was alone in the
+midst of the quaking foe. I myself will cause them to take their food
+before me, each day, when I shall be in my palace, for I was with them
+when I was in the midst of the enemy, along with the Prince Manna my
+shield-bearer, and with the officers of my house who accompanied me, and
+who are my witnesses for the combat; these are those whom I was with.
+I have returned after a victorious struggle, and I have smitten with my
+sword the assembled multitudes.”
+
+The ordeal was a terrible one for the Khâti; but when the first moment
+of defeat was over, they again took courage and resumed the campaign.
+This single effort had not exhausted their resources, and they rapidly
+filled up the gaps which had been made in their ranks. The plains of
+Naharaim and the mountains of Cilicia supplied them with fresh chariots
+and foot-soldiers in the place of those they had lost, and bands of
+mercenaries were furnished from the table-lands of Asia Minor, so that
+when Ramses II. reappeared in Syria, he found himself confronted by a
+completely fresh army. Khâtusaru, having profited by experience, did not
+again attempt a general engagement, but contented himself with disputing
+step by step the upper valleys of the Litany and Orontes. Meantime his
+emissaries spread themselves over Phoenicia and Kharû, sowing the seeds
+of rebellion, often only too successfully. In the king’s VIIIth year
+there was a general rising in Galilee, and its towns--Galaput in the
+hill-country of Bît-Aniti, Merorn, Shalama, Dapur, and Anamaîm*--had to
+be reduced one after another.
+
+     * Episodes from this war are represented at Karnak. The list
+     of the towns taken, now much mutilated, comprised twenty-
+     four names, which proves the importance of the revolt.
+
+Dapur was the hardest to carry. It crowned the top of a rocky eminence,
+and was protected by a double wall, which followed the irregularities of
+the hillside. It formed a rallying-point for a large force, which had to
+be overcome in the open country before the investment of the town could
+be attempted. The siege was at last brought to a conclusion, after
+a series of skirmishes, and the town taken by scaling, four Egyptian
+princes having been employed in conducting the attack. In the Pharaoh’s
+IXth year a revolt broke out on the Egyptian frontier, in the Shephelah,
+and the king placed himself at the head of his troops to crush it.
+Ascalon, in which the peasantry and their families had found, as they
+hoped, a safe refuge, opened its gates to the Pharaoh, and its fall
+brought about the submission of several neighbouring places. This, it
+appears, was the first time since the beginning of the conquests in
+Syria that the inhabitants of these regions attempted to take up arms,
+and we may well ask what could have induced them thus to renounce their
+ancient loyalty. Their defection reduced Egypt for the moment almost to
+her natural frontiers. Peace had scarcely been resumed when war again
+broke out with fresh violence in Coele-Syria, and one year it reached
+even to Naharaim, and raged around Tunipa as in the days of Thûtmosis
+III. “Pharaoh assembled his foot-soldiers and chariots, and he commanded
+his foot-soldiers and his chariots to attack the perverse Khâti who were
+in the neighbourhood of Tunipa, and he put on his armour and mounted his
+chariot, and he waged battle against the town of the perverse Khâti at
+the head of his foot-soldiers and his chariots, covered with his armour;”
+ the fortress, however, did not yield till the second attack. Ramses
+carried his arms still further afield, and with such results, that,
+to judge merely from the triumphal lists engraved on the walls of the
+temple of Karnak, the inhabitants on the banks of the Euphrates, those
+in Carchemish, Mitanni, Singar, Assyria, and Mannus found themselves
+once more at the mercy of the Egyptian battalions. These victories,
+however brilliant, were not decisive; if after any one of them the
+princes of Assyria and Singar may have sent presents to the Pharaoh, the
+Hittites, on the other hand, did not consider themselves beaten, and it
+was only after fifteen campaigns that they were at length sufficiently
+subdued to propose a treaty. At last, in the Egyptian king’s XXIst year,
+on the 21st of the month Tybi, when the Pharaoh, then residing in his
+good town of Anakhîtû, was returning from the temple where he had been
+offering prayers to his father Amon-Eâ, to Harmakhis of Heliopolis,
+to Phtah, and to Sûtkhû the valiant son of Nûît, Eamses, one of the
+“messengers” who filled the office of lieutenant for the king in Asia,
+arrived at the palace and presented to him Tartisubu, who was authorised
+to make peace with Egypt in the name of Khâtusaru.* Tartisubu carried
+in his hand a tablet of silver, on which his master had prescribed the
+conditions which appeared to him just and equitable. A short preamble
+recalling the alliances made between the ancestors of both parties, was
+followed by a declaration of friendship, and a reciprocal obligation to
+avoid in future all grounds of hostility.
+
+     * The treaty of Ramses II. with the Prince of the Khâti was
+     sculptured at Karnak.
+
+Not only was a perpetual truce declared between both peoples, but they
+agreed to help each other at the first demand. “Should some enemy march
+against the countries subject to the great King of Egypt, and should he
+send to the great Prince of the Khâti, saying: ‘Come, bring me forces
+against them,’ the great Prince of the Khâti shall do as he is asked by
+the great King of Egypt, and the great Prince of the Khâti shall destroy
+his enemies. And if the great Prince of the Khâti shall prefer not to
+come himself, he shall send his archers and his chariots to the great
+King of Egypt to destroy his enemies.” A similar clause ensured aid
+in return from Ramses to Khâtusaru, “his brother,” while two articles
+couched in identical terms made provision against the possibility of any
+town or tribe dependent on either of the two sovereigns withdrawing its
+allegiance and placing it in the hands of the other party. In this case
+the Egyptians as well as the Hittites engaged not to receive, or at
+least not to accept, such offers, but to refer them at once to the
+legitimate lord. The whole treaty was placed under the guarantee of the
+gods both, of Egypt and of the Khâti, whose names were given at length:
+“Whoever shall fail to observe the stipulations, let the thousand gods
+of Khâti and the thousand gods of Egypt strike his house, his land, and
+his servants. But he who shall observe the stipulations engraved on the
+tablet of silver, whether he belong to the Hittite people or whether
+he belong to the people of Egypt, as he has not neglected them, may the
+thousand gods of Khâti and the thousand gods of Egypt give him health,
+and grant that he may prosper, himself, the people of his house, and
+also his land and his servants.” The treaty itself ends by a description
+of the plaque of silver on which it was engraved. It was, in fact, a
+facsimile in metal of one of those clay tablets on which the Chaldæans
+inscribed their contracts. The preliminary articles occupied the upper
+part in closely written lines of cuneiform characters, while in the
+middle, in a space left free for the purpose, was the impress of
+two seals, that of the Prince of the Khâti and of his wife Pûûkhîpa.
+Khâtusaru was represented on them as standing upright in the arms of
+Sûtkhû, while around the two figures ran the inscription, “Seal of
+Sûtkhû, the sovereign of heaven.” Pûûkhîpa leaned on the breast of a
+god, the patron of her native town of Aranna in Qaauadana, and the
+legend stated that this was the seal of the Sun of the town of Àranna,
+the regent of the earth. The text of the treaty was continued beneath,
+and probably extended to the other side of the tablet. The original
+draft had terminated after the description of the seals, but, to
+satisfy the Pharaoh, certain additional articles were appended for the
+protection of the commerce and industry of the two countries, for the
+prevention of the emigration of artisans, and for ensuring that steps
+taken against them should be more effectual and less cruel. Any criminal
+attempting to evade the laws of his country, and taking refuge in that
+of the other party to the agreement, was to be expelled without delay
+and consigned to the officers of his lord; any fugitive not a criminal,
+any subject carried off or detained by force, any able artisan quitting
+either territory to take up permanent residence in the other, was to be
+conducted to the frontier, but his act of folly was not to expose him
+to judicial condemnation. “He who shall thus act, his fault shall not
+be brought up against him; his house shall not be touched, nor his wife,
+nor his children; he shall not have his throat cut, nor shall his eyes
+be touched, nor his mouth, nor his feet; no criminal accusation shall be
+made against him.”
+
+This treaty is the most ancient of all those of which the text has
+come down to us; its principal conditions were--perfect equality
+and reciprocity between the contracting sovereigns, an offensive and
+defensive alliance, and the extradition of criminals and refugees. The
+original was drawn up in Chaldæan script by the scribes of Khâtusaru,
+probably on the model of former conventions between the Pharaohs and
+the Asiatic courts, and to this the Egyptian ministers had added a few
+clauses relative to the pardon of emigrants delivered up by one or other
+of the contracting parties. When, therefore, Tartisubu arrived in the
+city of Eamses, the acceptance of the treaty was merely a matter of
+form, and peace was virtually concluded. It did not confer on the
+conqueror the advantages which we might have expected from his
+successful campaigns: it enjoined, on the contrary, the definite
+renunciation of those countries, Mitanni, Naharaim, Alasia, and Amurru,
+over which Thûtmosis III. and his immediate successors had formerly
+exercised an effective sovereignty. Sixteen years of victories had left
+matters in the same state as they were after the expedition of Harmhabî,
+and, like his predecessor, Ramses was able to retain merely those
+Asiatic provinces which were within the immediate influence of Egypt,
+such as the Phoenician coast proper, Kharû, Persea beyond Jordan, the
+oases of the Arabian desert, and the peninsula of Sinai.*
+
+     * The _Anastasi Papyrus I_. mentions a place called _Zaru of
+     Sesostris_, in the neighbourhood of Aleppo, in a part of
+     Syria which was not in Egyptian territory: the frontier in
+     this locality must have passed between Arvad and Byblos on
+     the coast, and between Qodshû and Hazor from Merom inland.
+     Egyptian rule on the other side of the Jordan seems to be
+     proved by the monument discovered a few years ago in the
+     Haurân, and known under the name of the “Stone of Job” by
+     the Bedawîn of the neighbourhood.
+
+This apparently unsatisfactory result, after such supreme efforts, was,
+however, upon closer examination, not so disappointing. For more than
+half a century at least, since the Hittite kingdom had been developed
+and established under the impulse given to it by Sapalulu, everything
+had been in its favour. The campaign of Seti had opposed merely a
+passing obstacle to its expansion, and had not succeeded in discouraging
+its ambitions, for its rulers still nursed the hope of being able
+one day to conquer Syria as far as the isthmus. The check received at
+Qodshû, the abortive attempts to foment rebellion in Galilee and the
+Shephelah, the obstinate persistence with which Ramses and his army
+returned year after year to the attack, the presence of the enemy at
+Tunipa, on the banks of the Euphrates, and in the provinces then forming
+the very centre of the Hittite kingdom--in short, all the incidents of
+this long struggle--at length convinced Khâtusaru that he was powerless
+to extend his rule in this direction at the expense of Egypt. Moreover,
+we have no knowledge of the events which occupied him on the other
+frontiers of his kingdom, where he may have been engaged at the same
+time in a conflict with Assyria, or in repelling an incursion of the
+tribes on the Black Sea. The treaty with Pharaoh, if made in good faith
+and likely to be lasting, would protect the southern extremities of his
+kingdom, and allow of his removing the main body of his forces to the
+north and east in case of attack from either of these quarters. The
+security which such an alliance would ensure made it, therefore, worth
+his while to sue for peace, even if the Egyptians should construe his
+overtures as an acknowledgment of exhausted supplies or of inferiority
+of strength. Ramses doubtless took it as such, and openly displayed
+on the walls at Karnak and in the Eamesseum a copy of the treaty so
+flattering to his pride, but the indomitable resistance which he had
+encountered had doubtless given rise to reflections resembling those of
+Khâtusaru, and he had come to realise that it was his own interest not
+to lightly forego the good will of the Khâti. Egypt had neighbours
+in Africa who were troublesome though not dangerous: the Timihû, the
+Tihonu, the Mashûasha, the negroes of Kûsh and of Pûanît, might be a
+continual source of annoyance and disturbance, even though they were
+incapable of disturbing her supremacy. The coast of the Delta, it is
+true, was exposed to the piracy of northern nations, but up to that time
+this had been merely a local trouble, easy to meet if not to obviate
+altogether. The only real danger was on the Asiatic side, arising
+from empires of ancient constitution like Chaldæa, or from hordes who,
+arriving at irregular intervals from the north, and carrying all before
+them, threatened, after the example of the Hyksôs, to enter the Delta.
+The Hittite kingdom acted as a kind of buffer between the Nile valley
+and these nations, both civilized and barbarous; it was a strongly armed
+force on the route of the invaders, and would henceforth serve as a
+protecting barrier, through which if the enemy were able to pass
+it would only be with his strength broken or weakened by a previous
+encounter. The sovereigns loyally observed the peace which they had
+sworn to each other, and in his XXXIVth year the marriage of Ramses with
+the eldest daughter of Khâtusaru strengthened their friendly relations.
+
+[Illustration: 214.jpg KHÂTUSARU, PRINCE OF KHÂTI, AND HIS DAUGHTER]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the plate in Lepsius; the triad
+     worshipped by Khâtusaru and his daughter is composed of
+     Ramses II., seated between Amon-Râ and Phtah-Totûnen.
+
+Pharaoh was not a little proud of this union, and he has left us a naive
+record of the manner in which it came about. The inscription is engraved
+on the face of the rock at Abu Simbel in Nubia; and Ramses begins by
+boasting, in a heroic strain, of his own energy and exploits, of the
+fear with which his victories inspired the whole world, and of the
+anxiety of the Syrian kinglets to fulfil his least wishes. The Prince of
+the Khâti had sent him sumptuous presents at every opportunity, and,
+not knowing how further to make himself agreeable to the Pharaoh, had
+finally addressed the great lords of his court, and reminded them how
+their country had formerly been ruined by war, how their master Sûtkhû
+had taken part against them, and how they had been delivered from their
+ills by the clemency of the Sun of Egypt. “Let us therefore take our
+goods, and placing my eldest daughter at the head of them, let us
+repair to the domains of the great god, so that the King Sesostris may
+recognise us.” He accordingly did as he had proposed, and the embassy
+set out with gold and silver, valuable horses, and an escort of
+soldiers, together with cattle and provisions to supply them with food
+by the way. When they reached the borders of Khâru, the governor wrote
+immediately to the Pharaoh as follows: “Here is the Prince of the Khâti,
+who brings his eldest daughter with a number of presents of every kind;
+and now this princess and the chief of the country of the Khâti, after
+having crossed many mountains and undertaken a difficult journey from
+distant parts, have arrived at the frontiers of His Majesty. May we be
+instructed how we ought to act with regard to them.” The king was
+then in residence at Ramses. When the news reached him, he officially
+expressed his great joy at the event, since it was a thing unheard of
+in the annals of the country that so powerful a prince should go to such
+personal inconvenience in order to marry his daughter to an ally. The
+Pharaoh, therefore, despatched his nobles and an army to receive them,
+but he was careful to conceal the anxiety which he felt all the while,
+and, according to custom, took counsel of his patron god Sûtkhû: “Who
+are these people who come with a message at this time to the country of
+Zahi?” The oracle, however, reassured him as to their intentions, and
+he thereupon hastened to prepare for their proper reception. The embassy
+made a triumphal entry into the city, the princess at its head, escorted
+by the Egyptian troops told off for the purpose, together with the
+foot-soldiers and charioteers of the Khâti, comprising the flower of
+their army and militia. A solemn festival was held in their honour, in
+which food and drink were served without stint, and was concluded by the
+celebration of the marriage in the presence of the Egyptian lords and of
+the princes of the whole earth.*
+
+     * The fact of the marriage is known to us by the decree of
+     Phtah Totûnen at Abu Simbel in the XXXVth year of the king’s
+     reign. The account of it in the text is taken from the stele
+     at Abu Simbel. The last lines are so mutilated that I have
+     been obliged to paraphrase them. The stele of the Princess
+     of Bakhtan has preserved the romantic version of this
+     marriage, such as was current about the Saite period. The
+     King of the Khâti must have taken advantage of the
+     expedition which the Pharaoh made into Asia to send him
+     presents by an embassy, at the head of which he placed his
+     eldest daughter: the princess found favour with Ramses, who
+     married her.
+
+Ramses, unwilling to relegate a princess of such noble birth to the
+companionship of his ordinary concubines, granted her the title of
+queen, as if she were of solar blood, and with the cartouche gave her
+the new name of Ûirimaûnofîrurî--“She who sees the beauties of the Sun.”
+ She figures henceforth in the ceremonies and on the monuments in the
+place usually occupied by women of Egyptian race only, and these unusual
+honours may have compensated, in the eyes of the young princess, for the
+disproportion in age between herself and a veteran more than sixty years
+old. The friendly relations between the two courts became so intimate
+that the Pharaoh invited his father-in-law to visit him in his own
+country. “The great Prince of Khâti informed the Prince of Qodi:
+‘Prepare thyself that we may go down into Egypt. The word of the king
+has gone forth, let us obey Sesostris. He gives the breath of life to
+those who love him; hence all the earth loves him, and Khâti forms but
+one with him.’” They were received with pomp at Ramses-Anakhîtû, and
+perhaps at Thebes. It was with a mixture of joy and astonishment that
+Egypt beheld her bitterest foe become her most faithful ally, “and the
+men of Qimît having but one heart with the chiefs of the Khâti, a thing
+which had not happened since the ages of Pa.”
+
+The half-century following the conclusion of this alliance was a period
+of world-wide prosperity. Syria was once more able to breathe freely,
+her commerce being under the combined protection of the two powers who
+shared her territory. Not only caravans, but isolated travellers, were
+able to pass through the country from north to south without incurring
+any risks beyond those occasioned by an untrustworthy guide or a few
+highwaymen. It became in time a common task in the schools of Thebes to
+describe the typical Syrian tour of some soldier or functionary, and we
+still possess one of these imaginative stories in which the scribe takes
+his hero from Qodshû across the Lebanon to Byblos, Berytus, Tyre, and
+Sidon, “the fish” of which latter place “are more numerous than the
+grains of sand;” he then makes him cross Galilee and the forest of
+oaks to Jaffa, climb the mountains of the Dead Sea, and following the
+maritime route by Raphia, reach Pelusium. The Egyptian galleys thronged
+the Phoenician ports, while those of Phoenicia visited Egypt. The latter
+drew so little water that they had no difficulty in coming up the Nile,
+and the paintings in one of the tombs represent them at the moment of
+their reaching Thebes. The hull of these vessels was similar to that
+of the Nile boats, but the bow and stern were terminated by structures
+which rose at right angles, and respectively gave support to a sort of
+small platform. Upon this the pilot maintained his position by one of
+those wondrous feats of equilibrium of which the Orientals were masters.
+
+[Illustration: 218.jpg PHOENICIAN BOATS LANDING AT THEBES]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from the photograph published by Daressy.
+
+An open rail ran round the sides of the vessel, so as to prevent goods
+stowed upon the deck from falling into the sea when the vessel lurched.
+Voyages to Pûanît were undertaken more frequently in quest of incense
+and precious metals. The working of the mines of Akiti had been the
+source of considerable outlay at the beginning of the reign. The
+measures taken by Seti to render the approaches to them practicable at
+all seasons had not produced the desired results; as far back as the
+IIIrd year of Ramses the overseers of the south had been forced to
+acknowledge that the managers of the convoys could no longer use any of
+the cisterns which had been hewn and built at such great expense. “Half
+of them die of thirst, together with their asses, for they have no means
+of carrying a sufficient number of skins of water to last during the
+journey there and back.” The friends and officers whose advice had been
+called in, did not doubt for a moment that the king would be willing to
+complete the work which his father had merely initiated. “If thou sayest
+to the water, ‘Come upon the mountain,’ the heavenly waters will spring
+out at the word of thy mouth, for thou art Râ incarnate, Khopri
+visibly created, thou art the living image of thy father Tûmû, the
+Heliopolitan.”--“If thou thyself sayest to thy father the Nile, father
+of the gods,” added the Viceroy of Ethiopia, “‘Raise the water up to the
+mountain,’ he will do all that thou hast said, for so it has been with
+all thy projects which have been accomplished in our presence, of which
+the like has never been heard, even in the songs of the poets.” The
+cisterns and wells were thereupon put into such a condition that the
+transport of gold was rendered easy for years to come. The war with the
+Khâti had not suspended building and other works of public utility;
+and now, owing to the establishment of peace, the sovereign was able
+to devote himself entirely to them. He deepened the canal at Zalû; he
+repaired the walls and the fortified places which protected the frontier
+on the side of the Sinaitic Peninsula, and he built or enlarged the
+strongholds along the Nile at those points most frequently threatened
+by the incursions of nomad tribes. Ramses was the royal builder _par
+excellence_, and we may say without fear of contradiction that, from the
+second cataract to the mouths of the Nile, there is scarcely an edifice
+on whose ruins we do not find his name. In Nubia, where the desert
+approaches close to the Nile, he confined himself to cutting in the
+solid rock the monuments which, for want of space, he could not build in
+the open. The idea of the cave-temple must have occurred very early
+to the Egyptians; they were accustomed to house their dead in the
+mountain-side, why then should they not house their gods in the same
+manner? The oldest forms of speos, those near to Beni-Hasan, at Deîr
+el-Baharî, at Bl-Kab, and at Gebel Silsileh, however, do not date
+further back than the time of the XVIIIth dynasty. All the forms of
+architectural plan observed in isolated temples were utilised by Ramses
+and applied to rock-cut buildings with more or less modification,
+according to the nature of the stratum in which he had to work. Where
+space permitted, a part only of the temple was cut in the rock, and the
+approaches to it were built in the open air with blocks brought to
+the spot, so that the completed speos became only in part a grotto--a
+hemi-speos of varied construction. It was in this manner that the
+architects of Ramses arranged the court and pylon at Beît-Wally, the
+hypostyle hall, rectangular court and pylon at Gerf-Hosseîn, and the
+avenue of sphinxes at Wady es-Sebuah, where the entrance to the
+avenue was guarded by two statues overlooking the river. The pylon
+at Gerf-Hosseîn has been demolished, and merely a few traces of the
+foundations appear here and there above the soil, but a portion of the
+portico which surrounded the court is still standing, together with its
+massive architraves and statues, which stand with their backs against
+the pillars.
+
+[Illustration: 221.jpg THE PROJECTING COLUMNS OF THE SPEOS OF
+GERF-HOSSEÎN]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+The sanctuary itself comprised an antechamber, supported by two columns
+and flanked by two oblong recesses; this led into the Holy of Holies,
+which was a narrow niche with a low ceiling, placed between two lateral
+chapels. A hall, nearly square in shape, connected these mysterious
+chambers with the propylæa, which were open to the sky and faced with
+Osiride caryatides.
+
+[Illustration: 221.jpg THE CARYATIDES OF GERF-HOSSEÎN]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger and
+     Daniel Héron.
+
+These appear to keep rigid and solemn watch over the approaches to the
+tabernacle, and their faces, half hidden in the shadow, still
+present such a stern appearance that the semi-barbaric Nubians of the
+neighbouring villages believe them to be possessed by implacable genii.
+They are supposed to move from their places during the hours of night,
+and the fire which flashes from their eyes destroys or fascinates
+whoever is rash enough to watch them.
+
+Other kings before Ramses had constructed buildings in these spots, and
+their memory would naturally become associated with his in the future;
+he wished, therefore, to find a site where he would be without a rival,
+and to this end he transformed the cliff at Abu Simbel into a monument
+of his greatness. The rocks here project into the Nile and form
+a gigantic conical promontory, the face of which was covered with
+triumphal stelæ, on which the sailors or troops going up or down the
+river could spell out as they passed the praises of the king and his
+exploits. A few feet of shore on the northern side, covered with dry and
+knotty bushes, affords in winter a landing-place for tourists. At the
+spot where the beach ends near the point of the promontory, sit four
+colossi, with their feet nearly touching the water, their backs leaning
+against a sloping wall of rock, which takes the likeness of a pylon. A
+band of hieroglyphs runs above their heads underneath the usual cornice,
+over which again is a row of crouching cynocephali looking straight
+before them, their hands resting upon their knees, and above this line
+of sacred images rises the steep and naked rock. One of the colossi is
+broken, and the bust of the statue, which must have been detached by
+some great shock, has fallen to the ground; the others rise to the
+height of 63 feet, and appear to look across the Nile as if watching the
+wadys leading to the gold-mines.
+
+[Illustration 224.jpg THE TWO COLOSSI OF ABU SIMBEL TO THE SOUTH OF THE
+DOORWAY]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger and
+     Daniel Héron.
+
+The pschent crown surmounts their foreheads, and the two ends of the
+head-dress fall behind their ears; their features are of a noble type,
+calm and serious; the nose slightly aquiline, the under lip projecting
+above a square, but rather heavy, chin. Of such a type we may picture
+Ramses, after the conclusion of the peace with the Khâti, in the full
+vigour of his manhood and at the height of his power.
+
+[Illustration: 225.jpg THE INTERIOR OF THE SPEOS OF ABU SIMBEL]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger and Daniel
+     Héron.
+
+The doorway of the temple is in the centre of the façade, and rises
+nearly to a level with the elbows of the colossi; above the lintel,
+and facing the river, stands a figure of the god Râ, represented with a
+human body and the head of a sparrow-hawk, while two images of the king
+in profile, one on each side of the god, offer him a figure of Truth.
+The first hall, 130 feet long by 58 feet broad, takes the place of the
+court surrounded by a colonnade which in other temples usually follows
+the pylon. Her eight Osiride figures, standing against as many square
+pillars, appear to support the weight of the superincumbent rock. Their
+profile catches the light as it enters through the open doorway, and
+in the early morning, when the rising sun casts a ruddy ray over their
+features, their faces become marvellously life-like. We are almost
+tempted to think that a smile plays over their lips as the first beams
+touch them. The remaining chambers consist of a hypostyle hall nearly
+square in shape, the sanctuary itself being between two smaller
+apartments, and of eight subterranean chambers excavated at a lower
+level than the rest of the temple. The whole measures 178 feet from the
+threshold to the far end of the Holy of Holies. The walls are covered
+with bas-reliefs in which the Pharaoh has vividly depicted the wars
+which he carried on in the four corners of his kingdom; here we see
+raids against the negroes, there the war with the Khâti, and further
+on an encounter with some Libyan tribe. Ramses, flushed by the heat of
+victory, is seen attacking two Timihu chiefs: one has already fallen
+to the ground and is being trodden underfoot; the other, after vainly
+letting fly his arrows, is about to perish from a blow of the conqueror.
+
+[Illustration: 228.jpg THE FACE OF THE ROCK AT ABU SIMGEL]
+
+His knees give way beneath him, his head falls heavily backwards, and
+the features are contracted in his death-agony. Pharaoh with his left
+hand has seized him by the arm, while with his right he points his
+lance against his enemy’s breast, and is about to pierce him through
+the heart. As a rule, this type of bas-relief is executed with a
+conventional grace which leaves the spectator unmoved, and free to
+consider the scene merely from its historical point of view, forgetful
+of the artist.
+
+[Illustration: 229.jpg RAMSES II. PIERCES a Libyan chief with his lance]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Mons. do Bock.
+
+An examination of most of the other wall-decorations of the speos will
+furnish several examples of this type: we see Ramses with a suitable
+gesture brandishing his weapon above a group of prisoners, and the
+composition furnishes us with a fair example of official sculpture,
+correct, conventional, but devoid of interest. Here, on the contrary,
+the drawing is so full of energy that it carries the imagination hack to
+the time and scene of those far-off battles.
+
+[Illustration: 230.jpg RAMSES II. STRIKES A GROUP OF PRISONERS]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+The indistinct light in which it is seen helps the illusion, and we
+almost forget that it is a picture we are beholding, and not the action
+itself as it took place some three thousand years ago. A small speos,
+situated at some hundred feet further north, is decorated with standing
+colossi of smaller size, four of which represent Ramses, and two of them
+his wife, Isit Nofrîtari. This speos possesses neither peristyle
+nor crypt, and the chapels are placed at the two extremities of the
+transverse passage, instead of being in a parallel line with the
+sanctuary; on the other hand, the hypostyle hall rests on six pillars
+with Hathor-headed capitals of fine proportions.
+
+[Illustration: 231.jpg THE FAÇADE OF THE LITTLE SPEOS OF HAUTHOR AT ABU
+SIMBEL]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the plates in Champollion.
+
+A third excavated grotto of modest dimensions served as an accessory
+chamber to the two others. An inexhaustible stream of yellow sand
+poured over the great temple from the summit of the cliff, and partially
+covered it every year. No sooner were the efforts to remove it relaxed,
+than it spreads into the chambers, concealing the feet of the colossi,
+and slowly creeping upwards to their knees, breasts, and necks; at the
+beginning of this century they were entirely hidden. In spite of all
+that was done to divert it, it ceaselessly reappeared, and in a few
+summers regained all the ground which had been previously cleared.
+It would seem as if the desert, powerless to destroy the work of the
+conqueror, was seeking nevertheless to hide it from the admiration of
+posterity.*
+
+     * The English engineers have succeeded in barring out the
+     sand, and have prevented it from pouring over the cliff any
+     more.--Ed.
+
+Seti had worked indefatigably at Thebes, but the shortness of his reign
+prevented him from completing the buildings he had begun there. There
+existed everywhere, at Luxor, at Karnak, and on the left bank of the
+Nile, the remains of his unfinished works; sanctuaries partially roofed
+in, porticoes incomplete, columns raised to merely half their height,
+halls as yet imperfect with blank walls, here and there covered with
+only the outlines in red and black ink of their future bas-reliefs,
+and statues hardly blocked out, or awaiting the final touch of the
+polisher.*
+
+     * This is the description which Ramses gave of the condition
+     in which he found the Memnonium of Abydos. An examination of
+     the inscriptions existing in the Theban temples which Seti
+     I. had constructed, shows that it must have applied also to
+     the appearance of certain portions of Qurneh, Luxor, and
+     Karnak in the time of Ramses II.
+
+Ramses took up the work where his father had relinquished it. At Luxor
+there was not enough space to give to the hypostyle hall the extension
+which the original plans proposed, and the great colonnade has an
+unfinished appearance.
+
+[Illustration: 230.jpg COLUMNS OF TEMPLE AT LUXOR]
+
+The Nile, in one of its capricious floods, had carried away the land
+upon which the architects had intended to erect the side aisles; and if
+they wished to add to the existing structure a great court and a pylon,
+without which no temple was considered complete, it was necessary to
+turn the axis of the building towards the east.
+
+[Illustration: 233.jpg THE CHAPEL OF THUTMOSIS III. AND ONE OF THE
+PYLONS OF RAMSES II. AT LUXOR]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+In their operations the architects came upon a beautiful little edifice
+of rose granite, which had been either erected or restored by Thûtmosis
+III. at a time when the town was an independent municipality and was
+only beginning to extend its suburban dwellings to meet those of Karnak.
+They took care to make no change in this structure, but set to work to
+incorporate it into their final plans. It still stands at the north-west
+corner of the court, and the elegance of its somewhat slender little
+columns contrasts happily with the heaviness of the structure to which
+it is attached. A portion of its portico is hidden by the brickwork of
+the mosque of Abu’l Haggag: the part brought to light in the course of
+the excavations contains between each row of columns a colossal statue
+of Ramses II. We are accustomed to hear on all sides of the degeneracy
+of the sculptor’s art at this time, and of its having fallen into
+irreparable neglect. Nothing can be further from the truth than this
+sweeping statement. There are doubtless many statues and bas-reliefs of
+this epoch which shock us by their crudity and ugliness, but these owed
+their origin for the most part to provincial workshops which had been
+at all times of mediocre repute, and where the artists did not receive
+orders enough to enable them to correct by practice the defects of their
+education. We find but few productions of the Theban school exhibiting
+bad technique, and if we had only this one monument of Luxor from which
+to form our opinion of its merits, it would be sufficient to prove that
+the sculptors of Ramses II. were not a whit behind those of Harmham or
+Seti I. Adroitness in cutting the granite or hard sandstone had in no
+wise been lost, and the same may be said of the skill in bringing
+out the contour and life-like action of the figure, and of the art of
+infusing into the features and demeanour of the Pharaoh something of
+the superhuman majesty with which the Egyptian people were accustomed to
+invest their monarchs. If the statues of Ramses II. in the portico are
+not perfect models of sculpture, they have many good points, and their
+bold treatment makes them effectively decorative.
+
+[Illustration: 235.jpg THE COLONNADE OF SETI I. AND THE THREE COLOSSAL
+STATUES OF RAMSES II. AT LUXOR]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+Eight other statues of Ramses are arranged along the base of the
+façade, and two obelisks--one of which has been at Paris for half a
+century*--stood on either side of the entrance.
+
+     * The colonnade and the little temple of Thûtmosis III. were
+     concealed under the houses of the village; they were first
+     brought to light in the excavations of 1884-86.
+
+The whole structure lacks unity, and there is nothing corresponding to
+it in this respect anywhere else in Egypt. The northern half does
+not join on to the southern, but seems to belong to quite a distinct
+structure, or the two parts might be regarded as having once formed
+a single edifice which had become divided by an accident, which the
+architect had endeavoured to unite together again by a line of columns
+running between two walls. The masonry of the hypostyle hall at Karnak
+was squared and dressed, but the walls had been left undecorated, as
+was also the case with the majority of the shafts of the columns and the
+surface of the architraves. Ramses covered the whole with a series of
+sculptured and painted scenes which had a rich ornamental effect; he
+then decorated the pylon, and inscribed on the outer wall to the south
+the list of cities which he had captured. The temple of Amon then
+assumed the aspect which it preserved henceforward for centuries. The
+Ramessides and their successors occupied themselves in filling it with
+furniture, and in taking steps for the repair of any damage that might
+accrue to the hall or pillars; they had their cartouches or inscriptions
+placed in vacant spaces, but they did not dare to modify its
+arrangement. It was reserved for the Ethiopian and Greek Pharaohs, in
+presence of the hypostyle and pylon of the XIXth dynasty, to conceive of
+others on a still vaster scale.
+
+[Illustration: 236.jpg PAINTINGS OF CHAIRS]
+
+Ramses, having completed the funerary chapel of Seti at Qurneh upon the
+left bank of the river, then began to think of preparing the edifice
+destined for the cult of his “double”--that Eamesseum whose majestic
+ruins still stand at a short distance to the north of the giants of
+Amenôthes. Did these colossal statues stimulate his spirit of emulation
+to do something yet more marvellous? He erected here, at any rate,
+a still more colossal figure. The earthquake which shattered Memnon
+brought it to the ground, and fragments of it still strew the soil where
+they fell some nineteen centuries ago. There are so many of them that the
+spectator would think himself in the middle of a granite quarry.*
+
+     * The ear measures 3 feet 4 inches (feet ?) in length; the
+          statue is 58 feet high from the top of the head to the
+          sole of the foot, and the weight of the whole has been
+          estimated at over a thousand tons.
+
+[Illustration: 237.jpg THE REMAINS OF THE COLOSSAL STATUE OF RAMSES II.
+AT THE RAMESSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato
+
+The portions forming the breast, arms, and thighs are in detached
+pieces, but they are still recognisable where they lie close to each
+other. The head has lost nothing of its characteristic expression, and
+its proportions are so enormous, that a man could sleep crouched up
+in the hollow of one of its ears as if on a sofa. Behind the court
+overlooked by this colossal statue lay a second court, surrounded by a
+row of square pillars, each having a figure of Osiris attached to it.
+The god is represented as a mummy, the swathings throwing the body and
+limbs into relief.
+
+[Illustration: 238.jpg THE RAMESSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato; the great
+     blocks in the foreground are the fragments of the colossal
+     statue of Ramses II.
+
+His hands are freed from the bandages and are crossed on the breast, and
+hold respectively the flail and crook; the smiling face is surmounted by
+an enormous head-dress. The sanctuary with the buildings attached to
+it has perished, but enormous brick structures extend round the ruins,
+forming an enclosure of storehouses. Here the priests of the “double”
+ were accustomed to dwell with their wives and slaves, and here they
+stored up the products of their domains--meat, vegetables, corn, fowls
+dried or preserved in fat, and wines procured from all the vineyards of
+Egypt.
+
+These were merely the principal monuments put up by Ramses II. at Thebes
+during the sixty-seven years of his rule. There would be no end to the
+enumeration of his works if we were to mention all the other edifices
+which he constructed in the necropolis or among the dwellings of the
+living, all those which he restored, or those which he merely repaired
+or inscribed with his cartouches. These are often cut over the name of
+the original founder, and his usurpations of monuments are so numerous
+that he might be justly accused of having striven to blot out the memory
+of his predecessors, and of claiming for himself the entire work of the
+whole line of Pharaohs. It would seem as if, in his opinion, the glory
+of Egypt began with him, or at least with his father, and that no
+victorious campaigns had been ever heard of before those which he
+conducted against the Libyans and the Hittites.
+
+The battle of Qodshû, with its attendant episodes--the flogging of the
+spies, the assault upon the camp, the charge of the chariots, the flight
+of the Syrians--is the favourite subject of his inscriptions; and the
+poem of Pentaûîrît adds to the bas-reliefs a description worthy of the
+acts represented. This epic reappears everywhere, in Nubia and in the
+Said, at Abu Simbel, at Beît-Wally, at Derr, at Luxor, at Karnak, and
+on the Eamesseum, and the same battle-scenes, with the same accompanying
+texts, reappear in the Memnonium, whose half-ruined walls still crown
+the necropolis of Abydos.
+
+[Illustration: 240.jpg THE RUINS OF THE MEMNONIUM OF RAMSES II. AT
+ABYDOS]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+He had decided upon the erection of this latter monument at the very
+beginning of his reign, and the artisans who had worked at the similar
+structure of Seti I. were employed to cover its walls with admirable
+bas-reliefs. Ramses also laid claim to have his own resting-place at
+“the Cleft;” in this privilege he associated all the Pharaohs, from whom
+he imagined himself to be descended, and the same list of their names,
+which we find engraved in the chapel of his father, appears on his
+building also. Some ruins, lying beyond Abydos, are too formless to do
+more than indicate the site of some of his structures. He enlarged
+the temple of Harshafîtû and that of Osiris at Heracleopolis, and, to
+accomplish these works the more promptly, his workmen had recourse
+for material to the royal towns of the IVth and XIIth dynasties; the
+pyramids of Usirtasen II. and Snofrûi at Medûm suffered accordingly the
+loss of the best part of their covering. He finished the mausoleum at
+Memphis, and dedicated the statue which Seti had merely blocked out;
+he then set to work to fill the city with buildings of his own
+device--granite and sandstone chambers to the east of the Sacred Lake,*
+monumental gateways to the south,** and before one of them a fine
+colossal figure in granite.*** It lay not long ago at the bottom of a
+hole among the palm trees, and was covered by the inundation every year;
+it has now been so raised as to be safe from the waters. Ramses could
+hardly infuse new life into all the provinces which had been devastated
+years before by the Shepherd-kings; but Heliopolis,**** Bubastes,
+Athribis, Patûmû, Mendis, Tell Moqdam, and all the cities of the eastern
+corner of the Delta, constitute a museum of his monuments, every object
+within them testifying to his activity.
+
+     * Partly excavated and published by Mariette, and partly by
+     M. de Morgan. This is probably the temple mentioned in the
+     _Great Inscription of Abu Simbel_.
+
+     ** These are probably those mentioned by Herodotus, when he
+     says that Sesostris constructed a propylon in the temple of
+     Hephaistos.
+
+     *** This is Abu-1-hôl of the Arabs.
+
+     **** Ruins of the temple of Râ bear the cartouche of Ramses
+     II. “Cleopatra’s Needle,” transported to Alexandria by one
+     of the Ptolemies, had been set up by Ramses at Heliopolis;
+     it is probably one of the four obelisks which the
+     traditional Sesostris is said to have erected in that city,
+     according to Pliny.
+
+He colonised these towns with his prisoners, rebuilt them, and set to
+work to rouse them from the torpor into which they had fallen after
+their capture by Ahmosis. He made a third capital of Tanis, which
+rivalled both Memphis and Thebes.
+
+[Illustration: 242.jpg THE COLOSSAL STATUE OF RAMSES II. AT MITRAHINEH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph brought back by
+     Bénédite.
+
+Before this it had been little more than a deserted ruin: he cleared
+out the _débris_, brought a population to the place; rebuilt the temple,
+enlarging it by aisles which extended its area threefold; and here he
+enthroned, along with the local divinities, a triad, in which Amonrâ and
+Sûtkhû sat side by side with his own deified “double.” The ruined
+walls, the overturned stelæ, the obelisks recumbent in the dust, and
+the statues of his usurped predecessors, all bear his name. His colossal
+figure of statuary sandstone, in a sitting attitude like that at the
+Eamesseum, projected from the chief court, and seemed to look down upon
+the confused ruin of his works.*
+
+     * The fragments of the colossus were employed in the Græco-
+     Roman period as building material, and used in the masonry
+     of a boundary wall.
+
+We do not know how many wives he had in his harem, but one of the lists
+of his children which has come down to us enumerates, although mutilated
+at the end, one hundred and eleven sons, while of his daughters we know
+of fifty-five.*
+
+     * The list of Abydos enumerates thirty-three of his sons and
+     thirty-two of his daughters, that of Wady-Sebua one hundred
+     and eleven of his sons and fifty-one of his daughters; both
+     lists are mutilated. The remaining lists for the most part
+     record only some of the children living at the time they
+     were drawn up, at Derr, at the Eamesseum, and at Abu Simbel.
+
+The majority of these were the offspring of mere concubines or foreign
+princesses, and possessed but a secondary rank in comparison with
+himself; but by his union with his sisters Nofrîtari Marîtmût and
+Isîtnofrît, he had at least half a dozen sons and daughters who might
+aspire to the throne. Death robbed him of several of these before
+an opportunity was open to them to succeed him, and among them
+Amenhikhopshûf, Amenhiunamif, and Ramses, who had distinguished
+themselves in the campaign against the Khâti; and some of his
+daughters--Bitanîti, Marîtamon, Nibîttaûi--by becoming his wives lost
+their right to the throne. About the XXXth year of his reign, when he
+was close upon sixty, he began to think of an associate, and his choice
+rested on the eldest surviving son of his queen Isîtnofrît, who was
+called Khâmoîsît. This prince was born before the succession of his
+father, and had exhibited distinguished bravery under the walls of
+Qodshu and at Ascalon. When he was still very young he had been invested
+with the office of high priest of the Memphite Phtah, and thus had
+secured to him the revenues of the possessions of the god, which were
+the largest in all Egypt after those of the Theban Anion. He had a great
+reputation for his knowledge of abstruse theological questions and of
+the science of magic--a later age attributing to him the composition of
+several books on magic giving directions for the invocation of spirits
+belonging to this world and the world beyond. He became the hero also of
+fantastic romances, in which it was related of him how, in consequence
+of his having stolen from the mummy of an old wizard the books of
+Thot, he became the victim of possession by a sort of lascivious and
+sanguinary ghoul. Ramses relieved himself of the cares of state by
+handing over to Khâmoîsîfc the government of the country, without,
+however, conferring upon him the titles and insignia of royalty. The
+chief concern of Khâmoîsît was to secure the scrupulous observance
+of the divine laws. He celebrated at Silsilis the festivals of the
+inundation; he presided at the commemoration of his father’s apotheosis,
+and at the funeral rites of the Apis who died in the XXXth year of the
+king’s reign. Before his time each sacred bull had its separate tomb
+in a quarter of the Memphite Necropolis known to the Greeks as the
+Serapeion. The tomb was a small cone-roofed building erected on a square
+base, and containing only one chamber. Khâmoîsît substituted for this a
+rock-tomb similar to those used by ordinary individuals. He had a tunnel
+cut in the solid rock to a depth of about a hundred yards, and on either
+side of this a chamber was prepared for each Apis on its death, the
+masons closing up the wall after the installation of the mummy. His
+regency had lasted for nearly a quarter of a century, when, the burden
+of government becoming too much for him, he was succeeded in the LVth
+year of Ramses by his younger brother Mînephtah, who was like himself
+a son of Isîtnofrît.* Mînephtah acted, during the first twelve years of
+his rule, for his father, who, having now almost attained the age of
+a hundred, passed peacefully away at Thebes in the LXVIII year of his
+reign, full of days and sated with glory.** He became the subject of
+legend almost before he had closed his eyes upon the world.
+
+     * Mînephtah was in the order of birth the thirteenth son of
+     Ramses II.
+
+     ** A passage on a stele of Ramses IV. formally attributes to
+     him a reign of sixty-seven years. I procured at Koptos a
+     stele of his year LXVI.
+
+[Illustration: 245.jpg THE CHAPEL OF THE APIS OF AMEKÔTHES III.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Mariette.
+
+He had obtained brilliant successes during his life, and the scenes
+describing them were depicted in scores of places. Popular fancy
+believed everything which he had related of himself, and added to
+this all that it knew of other kings, thus making him the Pharaoh of
+Pharaohs--the embodiment of all preceding monarchs. Legend preferred to
+recall him by the name Sesûsû, Sesûstûrî--a designation which had been
+applied to him by his contemporaries, and he thus became better known to
+moderns as Sesostris than by his proper name Ramses Mîamûn.*
+
+     * This designation, which is met with at Medinet-Habu and in
+     the Anmtasi Papyrus I., was shown by E. de Rougé to refer to
+     Ramses II.; the various readings Sesû, Sesûsû, Sesûstûrî,
+     explain the different forms Sesosis, Sesoosis, Sesostris.
+     Wiedemann saw in this name the mention of a king of the
+     XVIIIth dynasty not yet classified.
+
+According to tradition, he was at first sent to Ethiopia with a fleet
+of four hundred ships, by which he succeeded in conquering the coasts
+of the Red Sea as far as the Indus. In later times several stelæ in the
+cinnamon country were ascribed to him. He is credited after this with
+having led into the east a great army, with which he conquered Syria,
+Media, Persia, Bactriana, and India as far as the ocean; and with having
+on his return journey through the deserts of Scythia reached the Don
+[Tanais], where, on the shore of the Masotic Sea, he left a number of
+his soldiers, whose descendants afterwards peopled Colchis. It was
+even alleged that he had ventured into Europe, but that the lack of
+provisions and the inclemency of the climate had prevented him from
+advancing further than Thrace.
+
+[Illustration: 246.jpg STATUE OF KHAMOISIT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a statue in the British Museum.
+
+He returned to Egypt after an absence of nine years, and after
+having set up on his homeward journey statues and stelæ everywhere in
+commemoration of his victories. Herodotus asserts that he himself had
+seen several of these monuments in his travels in Syria and Ionia. Some
+of these are of genuine Egyptian manufacture, and are to be attributed
+to our Ramses; they are to be found near Tyre, and on the banks of the
+Nahr el-Kelb, where they mark the frontier to which his empire extended
+in this direction. Others have but little resemblance to Egyptian
+monuments, and were really the work of the Asiatic peoples among whom
+they were found. The two figures referred to long ago by Herodotus,
+which have been discovered near Ninfi between Sardis and Smyrna, are
+instances of the latter.
+
+[Illustration: 247.jpg STELE OF THE NAHR EL-KELB]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+The shoes of the figures are turned up at the toe, and the head-dress
+has more resemblance to the high hats of the people of Asia Minor
+than to the double crown of Egypt, while the lower garment is striped
+horizontally in place of vertically. The inscription, moreover, is in an
+Asiatic form of writing, and has nothing Egyptian about it. Ramses
+II. in his youth was the handsomest man of his time. He was tall and
+straight; his figure was well moulded--the shoulders broad, the arms
+full and vigorous, the legs muscular; the face was oval, with a firm and
+smiling mouth, a thin aquiline nose, and large open eyes.
+
+[Illustration: 248.jpg THE BAS-BELIEF OF NINFI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+[Illustration: 249.jpg THE COFFIN AND MUMMY OF RAMSES II]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph taken from the mummy
+     itself, by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+There may be seen below the cartouche the lines of the official report
+of inspection written during the XXIst dynasty. Old age and death did
+not succeed in marring the face sufficiently to disfigure it. The coffin
+containing his body is not the same as that in which his children placed
+him on the day of his obsequies; it is another substituted for it by one
+of the Ramessides, and the mask upon it has but a distant resemblance
+to the face of the victorious Pharaoh. The mummy is thin, much shrunken,
+and light; the bones are brittle, and the muscles atrophied, as one
+would expect in the case of a man who had attained the age of a hundred;
+but the figure is still tall and of perfect proportions.*
+
+
+* Even after the coalescence of the vertebrae and the shrinkage produced
+by mummification, the body of Ramses II. still measures over 5 feet 8
+inches.
+
+The head, which is bald on the top, is somewhat long, and small in
+relation to the bulk of the body; there is but little hair on the
+forehead, but at the back of the head it is thick, and in smooth stiff
+locks, still preserving its white colour beneath the yellow balsams
+of his last toilet. The forehead is low, the supra-orbital ridges
+accentuated, the eyebrows thick, the eyes small and set close to the
+nose, the temples hollow, the cheek-bones prominent; the ears, finely
+moulded, stand out from the head, and are pierced, like those of a
+woman, for the usual ornaments pendant from the lobe. A strong jaw and
+square chin, together, with a large thick-lipped mouth, which reveals
+through the black paste within it a few much-worn but sound teeth, make
+up the features of the mummied king. His moustache and beard, which were
+closely shaven in his lifetime, had grown somewhat in his last sickness
+or after his death; the coarse and thick hairs in them, white like those
+of the head and eyebrows, attain a length of two or three millimetres.
+The skin shows an ochreous yellow colour under the black bituminous
+plaster. The mask of the mummy, in fact, gives a fair idea of that of
+the living king; the somewhat unintelligent expression, slightly brutish
+perhaps, but haughty and firm of purpose, displays itself with an air
+of royal majesty beneath the sombre materials used by the embalmer.
+The disappearance of the old hero did not produce many changes in the
+position of affairs in Egypt: Mînephtah from this time forth possessed
+as Pharaoh the power which he had previously wielded as regent. He was
+now no longer young. Born somewhere about the beginning of the reign of
+Ramses II., he was now sixty, possibly seventy, years old; thus an old
+man succeeded another old man at a moment when Egypt must have needed
+more than ever an active and vigorous ruler. The danger to the country
+did not on this occasion rise from the side of Asia, for the relations
+of the Pharaoh with his Kharu subjects continued friendly, and, during a
+famine which desolated Syria,* he sent wheat to his Hittite allies.
+
+     * A document preserved in the _Anastasi Papyrus III._ shows
+     how regular the relations with Syria had become. It is the
+     journal of a custom-house officer, or of a scribe placed at
+     one of the frontier posts, who notes from day to day the
+     letters, messengers, officers, and troops which passed from
+     the 15th to the 25th of Pachons, in the IIIrd year of the
+     reign.
+
+The nations, however, to the north and east, in Libya and in the
+Mediterranean islands, had for some time past been in a restless
+condition, which boded little good to the empires of the old world. The
+Tirnihû, some of them tributaries from the XIIth, and others from the
+first years of the XVIIIth dynasty, had always been troublesome, but
+never really dangerous neighbours. From time to time it was necessary
+to send light troops against them, who, sailing along the coast or
+following the caravan routes, would enter their territory, force them
+from their retreats, destroy their palm groves, carry off their cattle,
+and place garrisons in the principal oases--even in Sîwah itself.
+For more than a century, however, it would seem that more active and
+numerically stronger populations had entered upon the stage. A current
+of invasion, having its origin in the region of the Atlas, or possibly
+even in Europe, was setting towards the Nile, forcing before it the
+scattered tribes of the Sudan. Who were these invaders? Were they
+connected with the race which had planted its dolmens over the plains of
+the Maghreb? Whatever the answer to this question may be, we know that
+a certain number of Berber tribes*--the Labû and Mashaûasha--who had
+occupied a middle position between Egypt and the people behind them,
+and who had only irregular communications with the Nile valley, were now
+pushed to the front and forced to descend upon it.**
+
+     * The nationality of these tribes is evidenced by the names
+     of their chiefs, which recall exactly those of the
+     Numidians--Massyla, Massinissa, Massiva.
+
+     ** The Labû, Laûbû, Lobû, are mentioned for the first time
+     under Ramses II.; these are the Libyans of classical
+     geographers. The Mashaûasha answer to the Maxycs of
+     Herodotus; they furnished mercenaries to the armies of
+     Ramses II.
+
+They were men tall of stature and large of limb, with fair skins, light
+hair, and blue eyes; everything, in fact, indicating their northern
+origin. They took pleasure in tattooing the skin, just as the Tuaregs
+and Kabyles are now accustomed to do, and some, if not all, of them
+practised circumcision, like a portion of the Egyptians and Semites. In
+the arrangement of the hair, a curl fell upon the shoulder, while the
+remainder was arranged in small frizzled locks. Their chiefs and braves
+wore on their heads two flowering plumes. A loin-cloth, a wild-beast’s
+skin thrown over the back, a mantle, or rather a covering of woollen
+or dyed cloth, fringed and ornamented with many-coloured needlework,
+falling from the left shoulder with no attachment in front, so as to
+leave the body unimpeded in walking,--these constituted the ordinary
+costume of the people. Their arms were similar to those of the
+Egyptians, consisting of the lance, the mace, the iron or copper dagger,
+the boomerang, the bow and arrow, and the sling.
+
+[Illustration: 253.jpg A LIBYAN]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+They also employed horses and chariots. Their bravery made them a foe
+not to be despised, in spite of their ignorance of tactics and their
+want of discipline. When they were afterwards formed into regiments and
+conducted by experienced generals, they became the best auxiliary troops
+which Egypt could boast of. The Labû from this time forward were the
+most energetic of the tribes, and their chiefs prided themselves upon
+possessing the leadership over all the other clans in this region of the
+world.*
+
+     * This was the case in the wars of Mînephtah and Ramses
+     III., in which the Labû and their kings took the command of
+     the confederate armies assembled against Egypt.
+
+The Labû might very well have gained the mastery over the other
+inhabitants of the desert at this period, who had become enfeebled
+by the frequent defeats which they had sustained at the hands of the
+Egyptians. At the moment when Mînephtah ascended the throne, their king,
+Mâraîû, son of Didi, ruled over the immense territory lying between the
+Fayûm and the two Syrtes: the Timihu, the Kahaka, and the Mashaûasha
+rendered him the same obedience as his own people. A revolution had
+thus occurred in Africa similar to that which had taken place a century
+previously in Naharaim, when Sapalulu founded the Hittite empire. A
+great kingdom rose into being where no state capable of disturbing
+Egyptian control had existed before. The danger was serious. The
+Hittites, separated from the Nile by the whole breadth of Kharu, could
+not directly threaten any of the Egyptian cities; but the Libyans, lords
+of the desert, were in contact with the Delta, and could in a few days
+fall upon any point in the valley they chose. Mînephtah, therefore,
+hastened to resist the assault of the westerns, as his father had
+formerly done that of the easterns, and, strange as it may seem, he
+found among the troops of his new enemies some of the adversaries with
+whom the Egyptians had fought under the walls of Qodshû sixty years
+before. The Shardana, Lycians, and others, having left the coasts of the
+Delta and the Phoenician seaports owing to the vigilant watch kept by
+the Egyptians over their waters, had betaken themselves to the Libyan
+littoral, where they met with a favourable reception. Whether they had
+settled in some places, and formed there those colonies of which a Greek
+tradition of a recent age speaks, we cannot say. They certainly followed
+the occupation of mercenary soldiers, and many of them hired out their
+services to the native princes, while others were enrolled among the
+troops of the King of the Khâti or of the Pharaoh himself. Mâraîû
+brought with him Achæans, Shardana, Tûrsha, Shagalasha,* and Lycians
+in considerable numbers when he resolved to begin the strife.** This was
+not one of those conventional little wars which aimed at nothing further
+than the imposition of the payment of a tribute upon the conquered, or
+the conquest of one of their provinces. Mâraîû had nothing less in view
+than the transport of his whole people into the Nile valley, to settle
+permanently there as the Hyksôs had done before him.
+
+     * The Shakalasha, Shagalasha, identified with the Sicilians
+     by E. de Rougé, were a people of Asia Minor whose position
+     there is approximately indicated by the site of the town
+     Sagalassos, named after them.
+
+     ** The _Inscription of Mînephtah_ distinguishes the Libyans
+     of Mâraîû from “the people of the Sea.”
+
+He set out on his march towards the end of the IVth year of the
+Pharaoh’s reign, or the beginning of his Vth, surrounded by the elite
+of his troops, “the first choice from among all the soldiers and all the
+heroes in each land.” The announcement of their approach spread terror
+among the Egyptians. The peace which they had enjoyed for fifty years
+had cooled their warlike ardour, and the machinery of their military
+organisation had become somewhat rusty. The standing army had almost
+melted away; the regiments of archers and charioteers were no longer
+effective, and the neglected fortresses were not strong enough to
+protect the frontier. As a consequence, the oases of Farafrah and of the
+Natron lakes fell into the hands of the enemy at the first attack, and
+the eastern provinces of the Delta became the possession of the invader
+before any steps could be taken for their defence. Memphis, which
+realised the imminent danger, broke out into open murmurs against the
+negligent rulers who had given no heed to the country’s ramparts, and
+had allowed the garrisons of its fortresses to dwindle away. Fortunately
+Syria remained quiet. The Khâti, in return for the aid afforded them
+by Mînephtah during the famine, observed a friendly attitude, and
+the Pharaoh was thus enabled to withdraw the troops from his Asiatic
+provinces. He could with perfect security take the necessary measures
+for ensuring “Heliopolis, the city of Tûmû,” against surprise, “for
+arming Memphis, the citadel of Phtah-Tonen, and for restoring all things
+which were in disorder: he fortified Pibalîsît, in the neighbourhood of
+the Shakana canal, on a branch of that of Heliopolis,” and he rapidly
+concentrated his forces behind these quickly organised lines.*
+
+     * Chabas would identify Pibalîsît with Bubastis; I agree
+     with Brugsch in placing it at Belbeîs.
+
+Mâraîû, however, continued to advance; in the early months of the summer
+he had crossed the Canopic branch of the Nile, and was now about to
+encamp not far from the town of Pirici. When the king heard of this “he
+became furious against them as a lion that fascinates its victim; he
+called his officers together and addressed them: ‘I am about to make you
+hear the words of your master, and to teach you this: I am the sovereign
+shepherd who feeds you; I pass my days in seeking out that which is
+useful for you: I am your father; is there among you a father like me
+who makes his children live? You are trembling like geese, you do not
+know what is good to do: no one gives an answer to the enemy, and
+our desolated land is abandoned to the incursions of all nations. The
+barbarians harass the frontier, rebels violate it every day, every one
+robs it, enemies devastate our seaports, they penetrate into the fields
+of Egypt; if there is an arm of a river they halt there, they stay for
+days, for months; they come as numerous as reptiles, and no one is able
+to sweep them back, these wretches who love death and hate life, whose
+hearts meditate the consummation of our ruin. Behold, they arrive with
+their chief; they pass their time on the land which they attack in
+filling their stomachs every day; this is the reason why they come to
+the land of Egypt, to seek their sustenance, and their intention is to
+install themselves there; mine is to catch them like fish upon their
+bellies. Their chief is a dog, a poor devil, a madman; he shall never
+sit down again in his place.’” He then announced that on the 14th of
+Epiphi he would himself conduct the troops against the enemy.
+
+These were brave words, but we may fancy the figure that this king of
+more than sixty years of age would have presented in a chariot in the
+middle of the fray, and his competence to lead an effective charge
+against the enemy. On the other hand, his absence in such a critical
+position of affairs would have endangered the _morale_ of his soldiers
+and possibly compromised the issue of the battle. A dream settled the
+whole question.*
+
+     * Ed. Meyer sees in this nothing but a customary rhetorical
+     expression, and thinks that the god spoke in order to
+     encourage the king to defend himself vigorously.
+
+While Mînephtah was asleep one night, he saw a gigantic figure of Phtah
+standing before him, and forbidding him to advance. “‘Stay,’ cried
+the god to him, while handing him the curved khopesh: ‘put away
+discouragement from thee!’ His Majesty said to him: ‘But what am I to do
+then?’ And Phtah answered him: ‘Despatch thy infantry, and send before
+it numerous chariots to the confines of the territory of Piriû.’”**
+
+     * This name was read Pa-ari by E. de Rougé, Pa-ali by Lauth,
+     and was transcribed Pa-ari-shop by Brugsch, who identified
+     with Prosopitis. The orthography of the text at Athribis
+     shows that we ought to read Piri, Pirû, Piriû; possibly the
+     name is identical with that of larû which is mentioned in
+     the Pyramid-texts.
+
+The Pharaoh obeyed the command, and did not stir from his position.
+Mâraîû had, in the mean time, arranged his attack for the 1st of Epiphi,
+at the rising of the sun: it did not take place, however, until the 3rd.
+“The archers of His Majesty made havoc of the barbarians for six
+hours; they were cut off by the edge of the sword.” When Mâraîû saw
+the carnage, “he was afraid, his heart failed him; he betook himself
+to flight as fast as his feet could bear him to save his life, so
+successfully that his bow and arrows remained behind him in his
+precipitation, as well as everything else he had upon him.” His
+treasure, his arms, his wife, together with the cattle which he had
+brought with him for his use, became the prey of the conqueror; “he tore
+out the feathers from his head-dress, and took flight with such of those
+wretched Libyans as escaped the massacre, but the officers who had the
+care of His Majesty’s team of horses followed in their steps” and put
+most of them to the sword. Mâraîû succeeded, however, in escaping in the
+darkness, and regained his own country without water or provisions, and
+almost without escort. The conquering troops returned to the camp laden
+with booty, and driving before them asses carrying, as bloody tokens of
+victory, quantities of hands and phalli cut from the dead bodies of the
+slain. The bodies of six generals and of 6359 Libyan soldiers were found
+upon the field of battle, together with 222 Shagalasha, 724 Tursha, and
+some hundreds of Shardana and Achæans: several thousands of prisoners
+passed in procession before the Pharaoh, and were distributed among such
+of his soldiers as had distinguished themselves. These numbers show the
+gravity of the danger from which Egypt had escaped: the announcement
+of the victory filled the country with enthusiasm, all the more sincere
+because of the reality of the panic which had preceded it. The fellahîn,
+intoxicated with joy, addressed each other: “‘Come, and let us go a long
+distance on the road, for there is now no fear in the hearts of
+men.’The fortified posts may at last be left; the citadels are now open;
+messengers stand at the foot of the walls and wait in the shade for the
+guard to awake after their siesta, to give them entrance. The military
+police sleep on their accustomed rounds, and the people of the marshes
+once more drive their herds to pasture without fear of raids, for there
+are no longer marauders near at hand to cross the river; the cry of the
+sentinels is heard no more in the night: ‘Halt, thou that comest, thou
+that comest under a name which is not thine own--sheer off!’ and men no
+longer exclaim on the following morning: ‘Such or such a thing has been
+stolen;’ but the towns fall once more into their usual daily routine,
+and he who works in the hope of the harvest, will nourish himself upon
+that which he shall have reaped.” The return from Memphis to Thebes was
+a triumphal march.
+
+[Illustration: 260.jpg STATUE OF MÎNEPHTAH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Dévéria.
+
+“He is very strong, Binrî Mînephtah,” sang the court poets, “very
+wise are his projects--his words have as beneficial effect as those of
+Thot--everything which he does is completed to the end.--When he is like
+a guide at the head of his armies--his voice penetrates the fortress
+walls.--Very friendly to those who bow their backs--before Mîamun--his
+valiant soldiers spare him who humbles himself--before his courage
+and before his strength;--they fall upon the Libyans--they consume the
+Syrian;--the Shardana whom thou hast brought back by thy
+sword--make prisoners of their own tribes.--Very happy thy return to
+Thebes--victorious! Thy chariot is drawn by hand--the conquered chiefs
+march backwards before thee--whilst thou leadest them to thy venerable
+father--Amon, husband of his mother.” And the poets amuse themselves
+with summoning Mâraîû to appear in Egypt, pursued as he was by his own
+people and obliged to hide himself from them. “He is nothing any longer
+but a beaten man, and has become a proverb among the Labû, and his
+chiefs repeat to themselves: ‘Nothing of the kind has occurred since the
+time of Râ.’ The old men say each one to his children: ‘Misfortune
+to the Labû! it is all over with them! No one can any longer pass
+peacefully across the country; but the power of going out of our
+land has been taken from us in a single day, and the Tihonu have been
+withered up in a single year; Sûtkhû has ceased to be their chief, and
+he devastates their “duars;” there is nothing left but to conceal one’s
+self, and one feels nowhere secure except in a fortress.’” The news of
+the victory was carried throughout Asia, and served to discourage the
+tendencies to revolt which were beginning to make themselves manifest
+there. “The chiefs gave there their salutations of peace, and none among
+the nomads raised his head after the crushing defeat of the Libyans;
+Khâti is at peace, Canaan is a prisoner as far as the disaffected are
+concerned, the inhabitant of Ascalon is led away, Gezer is carried into
+captivity, Ianuâmîm is brought to nothing, the Israîlû are destroyed and
+have no longer seed, Kharu is like a widow of the land of Egypt.” *
+
+     * This passage is taken from a stele discovered by Petrie in
+     1896, on the site of the Amenophium at Thebes. The mention
+     of the Israîlû immediately calls to mind the place-names
+     Yushaph-îlu, Yakob-îlu, on lists of Thûtmosis III. which
+     have been compared with the names Jacob and Joseph.
+
+Mînephtah ought to have followed up his opportunity to the end, but he
+had no such intention, and his inaction gave Mâraîû time to breathe.
+Perhaps the effort which he had made had exhausted his resources,
+perhaps old age prevented him from prosecuting his success; he was
+content, in any case, to station bodies of pickets on the frontier,
+and to fortify a few new positions to the east of the Delta. The Libyan
+kingdom was now in the same position as that in which the Hittite had
+been after the campaign of Seti I.: its power had been checked for the
+moment, but it remained intact on the Egyptian frontier, awaiting its
+opportunity.
+
+Mînephtah lived for some time after this memorable year* and the number
+of monuments which belong to this period show that he reigned in peace.
+We can see that he carried out works in the same places as his father
+before him; at Tanis as well as Thebes, in Nubia as well as in the
+Delta. He worked the sandstone quarries for his building materials,
+and continued the custom of celebrating the feasts of the inundation at
+Silsileh. One at least of the stelae which he set up on the occasion of
+these feasts is really a chapel, with its architraves and columns, and
+still, excites the admiration of the traveller on account both of its
+form and of its picturesque appearance.
+
+     * The last known year of his reign is the year VIII. The
+     lists of Manetho assign to him a reign of from twenty to
+     forty years; Brugsch makes it out to have been thirty-four
+     years, from 1300 to 1266 B.C., which is evidently too much,
+     but we may attribute to him without risk of serious error a
+     reign of about twenty years.
+
+The last years of his life were troubled by the intrigues of princes who
+aspired to the throne, and by the ambition of the ministers to whom he
+was obliged to delegate his authority.
+
+[Illustration: 263.jpg THE CHAPELS OF RAMSES II. AND MINEPHTAH AT
+SISILEH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+One of the latter, a man of Semite origin, named Ben-Azana, of
+Zor-bisana, who had assumed the appellation of his first patron,
+ramsesûpirnirî, appears to have acted for him as regent. Mînephtah
+was succeeded, apparently, by one of his sons, called Seti, after his
+great-grandfather.* Seti II. had doubtless reached middle age at the
+time of his accession, but his portraits represent him, nevertheless,
+with the face and figure of a young man.** The expression in these is
+gentle, refined, haughty, and somewhat melancholic. MU It is the type
+of Seti I. and Ramses II., but enfeebled and, as it were, saddened. An
+inscription of his second year attributes to him victories in Asia,***
+but others of the same period indicate the existence of disturbances
+similar to those which had troubled the last years of his father.
+
+     * E. de Rougé introduced Amenmeses and Siphtah between
+     Mînephtah and Seti II., and I had up to the present followed
+     his example; I have come back to the position of Chabas,
+     making Seti II. the immediate successor of Mînephtah, which
+     is also the view of Brugsch, Wiedemann, and Ed. Meyer. The
+     succession as it is now given does not seem to me to be free
+     from difficulties; the solution generally adopted has only
+     the merit of being preferable to that of E. de Rougé, which
+     I previously supported.
+
+     ** The last date known of his reign is the year II. which is
+     found at Silsilis; Chabas was, nevertheless, of the opinion
+     that he reigned a considerable time.
+
+     *** The expressions employed in this document do not vary
+     much from the usual protocol of all kings of this period.
+     The triumphal chant of Seti II. preserved in the _Anastasi
+     Papyrus IV_. is a copy of the triumphal chant of Mînephtah,
+     which is in the same Papyrus.
+
+[Illustration: 264.jpg STATUE OF SETI II.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+These were occasioned by a certain Aiari, who was high priest of Phtah,
+and who had usurped titles belonged ordinarily to the Pharaoh or his
+eldest son, in the house of Sibû, “heir and hereditary prince of the two
+lands.” Seti died, it would seem, without having had time to finish his
+tomb. We do not know whether he left any legitimate children, but two
+sovereigns succeeded him who were not directly connected with him, but
+were probably the grandsons of the Amenmesis and the Siphtah, whom we
+meet with among the children of Ramses. The first of these was also
+called Amenmesis,* and he held sway for several years over the whole of
+Egypt, and over its foreign possessions.
+
+     * Graffiti of this sovereign have been found at the second
+     cataract. Certain expressions have induced E. de Rougé to
+     believe that he, as well as Siphtah, came originally from
+     Khibît in the Aphroditopolite nome. This was an allusion, as
+     Chabas had seen, to the myth of Horus, similar to that
+     relating to Thûtmosis III., and which we more usually meet
+     with in the cases of those kings who were not marked out
+     from their birth onwards for the throne.
+
+[Illustration: 265.jpg SETI II.]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The second, who was named Siphtah-Mînephtah, ascended “the throne of his
+father” thanks to the devotion of his minister Baî,* but in a greater
+degree to his marriage with a certain princess called Tausirît. He
+maintained himself in this position for at least six years, during which
+he made an expedition into Ethiopia, and received in audience at
+Thebes messengers from all foreign nations. He kept up so zealously the
+appearance of universal dominion, that to judge from his inscriptions
+he must have been the equal of the most powerful of his predecessors at
+Thebes.
+
+Egypt, nevertheless, was proceeding at a quick pace towards its
+downfall. No sooner had this monarch disappeared than it began to break
+up.** There were no doubt many claimants for the crown, but none of them
+succeeded in disposing of the claims of his rivals, and anarchy reigned
+supreme from one end of the Nile valley to the other. The land of Qîmît
+began to drift away, and the people within it had no longer a sovereign,
+and this, too, for many years, until other times came; for “the land of
+Qîmît was in the hands of the princes ruling over the nomes, and they
+put each other to death, both great and small.
+
+     * Baî has left two inscriptions behind him, one at Silsilis
+     and the other at Sehêl, and the titles he assumes on both
+     monuments show the position he occupied at the Theban court
+     during the reign of Siphtah-Mînephtah. Chabas thought that
+     Baî had succeeded in maintaining his rights to the crown
+     against the claims of Amenmesis.
+
+     ** The little that we know about this period of anarchy has
+     been obtained from the _Harris Papyrus_.
+
+Other times came afterwards, during years of nothingness, in which
+Arisu, a Syrian,* was chief among them, and the whole country paid
+tribute before him; every one plotted with his neighbour to steal the
+goods of others, and it was the same with regard to the gods as with
+regard to men, offerings were no longer made in the temples.”
+
+     * The name of this individual was deciphered by Chabas;
+     Lauth, and after him Krall, were inclined to read it as Ket,
+     Ketesh, in order to identify it with the Ketes of Diodorus
+     Siculus. A form of the name Arisai in the Bible may be its
+     original, or that of Arish which is found in Phoenician,
+     especially Punic, inscriptions.
+
+This was in truth the revenge of the feudal system upon Pharaoh. The
+barons, kept in check by Ahmosis and Amenôthes I., restricted by the
+successors of these sovereigns to the position of simple officers of the
+king, profited by the general laxity to recover as many as possible of
+their ancient privileges. For half a century and more, fortune had given
+them as masters only aged princes, not capable of maintaining continuous
+vigilance and firmness. The invasions of the peoples of the sea, the
+rivalry of the claimants to the throne, and the intrigues of ministers
+had, one after the other, served to break the bonds which fettered them,
+and in one generation they were able to regain that liberty of action
+of which they had been deprived for centuries. To this state of
+things Egypt had been drifting from the earliest times. Unity could be
+maintained only by a continuous effort, and once this became relaxed,
+the ties which bound the whole country together were soon broken. There
+was another danger threatening the country beside that arising from
+the weakening of the hands of the sovereign, and the turbulence of the
+barons. For some three centuries the Theban Pharaohs were accustomed to
+bring into the country after each victorious campaign many thousands of
+captives. The number of foreigners around them had, therefore, increased
+in a striking manner. The majority of these strangers either died
+without issue, or their posterity became assimilated to the indigenous
+inhabitants. In many places, however, they had accumulated in such
+proportions that they were able to retain among themselves the
+remembrance of their origin, their religion, and their customs, and with
+these the natural desire to leave the country of their exile for their
+former fatherland. As long as a strict watch was kept over them they
+remained peaceful subjects, but as soon as this vigilance was relaxed
+rebellion was likely to break out, especially amongst those who worked
+in the quarries. Traditions of the Greek period contain certain romantic
+episodes in the history of these captives. Some Babylonian prisoners
+brought back by Sesostris, these traditions tell us, unable to endure
+any longer the fatiguing work to which they were condemned, broke out
+into open revolt.
+
+[Illustration: 268.jpg AMENMESIS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after a picture in Rosellini.
+
+They made themselves masters of a position almost opposite Memphis, and
+commanding the river, and held their ground there with such obstinacy
+that it was found necessary to give up to them the province which they
+occupied: they built here a town, which they afterwards called Babylon.
+A similar legend attributes the building of the neighbouring village of
+Troîû to captives from Troy.*
+
+The scattered barbarian tribes of the Delta, whether Hebrews or the
+remnant of the ïïyksôs, had endured there a miserable lot ever since the
+accession of the Ramessides. The rebuilding of the cities which had
+been destroyed there during the wars with the Hyksôs had restricted the
+extent of territory on which they could pasture their herds. Ramses II.
+treated them as slaves of the treasury,** and the Hebrews were not long
+under his rule before they began to look back with regret on the time of
+the monarchs “who knew Joseph.” **
+
+     * The name Babylon comes probably from _Banbonu, Barbonu,
+     Babonu_--a term which, under the form _Hât-Banbonu,_ served
+     to designate a quarter of Heliopolis, or rather a suburban
+     village of that city. Troja was, as we have seen, the
+     ancient city of Troîû, now Tûrah, celebrated for its
+     quarries of fine limestone. The narratives collected by the
+     historians whom Diodorus consulted were products of the
+     Saite period, and intended to explain to Greeks the
+     existence on Egyptian territory of names recalling those of
+     Babylon in Chaldæa and of Homeric Troy.
+
+     ** A very ancient tradition identifies Ramses II. with the
+     Pharaoh “who knew not Joseph” (_Exod._ i. 8). Recent
+     excavations showing that the great works in the east of the
+     Delta began under this king, or under Seti II. at the
+     earliest, confirm in a general way the accuracy of the
+     traditional view: I have, therefore, accepted it in part,
+     and placed the Exodus after the death of Ramses II. Other
+     authorities place it further back, and Lieblein in 1863 was
+     inclined to put it under Amenôthes III.
+
+The Egyptians set over them taskmasters to afflict them with their
+burdens. And they built for Pharaoh treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses.
+But the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied and grew.
+And they were “grieved because of the children of Israel.” * A secondary
+version of the same narrative gives a more detailed account of their
+condition: “They made their lives bitter with hard bondage, in mortar
+and in brick, and in all manner of service in the field.” ** The
+unfortunate slaves awaited only an opportunity to escape from the
+cruelty of their persecutors.
+
+     * _Exod_. i. 11, 12. Excavations made by Naville have
+     brought to light near Tel el-Maskhutah the ruins of one of
+     the towns which the Hebrews of the Alexandrine period
+     identified with the cities constructed by their ancestors in
+     Egypt: the town excavated by Naville is Pitûmû, and
+     consequently the Pithom of the Biblical account, and at the
+     same time also the Succoth of Exod. xii. 37, xiii. 20, the
+     first station of the Bnê-Israel after leaving Ramses.
+
+     ** _Exod,_ i. 13, 14.
+
+The national traditions of the Hebrews inform us that the king, in
+displeasure at seeing them increase so mightily notwithstanding his
+repression, commanded the midwives to strangle henceforward their male
+children at their birth. A woman of the house of Levi, after having
+concealed her infant for three months, put him in an ark of bulrushes
+and consigned him to the Nile, at a place where the daughter of Pharaoh
+was accustomed to bathe. The princess on perceiving the child had
+compassion on him, adopted him, called him Moses--saved from the
+waters--and had him instructed in all the knowledge of the Egyptians.
+Moses had already attained forty years of age, when he one day
+encountered an Egyptian smiting a Hebrew, and slew him in his anger,
+shortly afterwards fleeing into the land of Midian. Here he found an
+asylum, and Jethro the priest gave him one of his daughters in marriage.
+After forty years of exile, God, appearing to him in a burning bush,
+sent him to deliver His people. The old Pharaoh was dead, but Moses and
+his brother Aaron betook themselves to the court of the new Pharaoh, and
+demanded from him permission for the Hebrews to sacrifice in the desert
+of Arabia. They obtained it, as we know, only after the infliction
+of the ten plagues, and after the firstborn of the Egyptians had been
+stricken.* The emigrants started from Ramses; as they were pursued by a
+body of troops, the Sea parted its waters to give them passage over the
+dry ground, and closing up afterwards on the Egyptian hosts, overwhelmed
+them to a man. Thereupon Moses and the children of Israel sang this song
+unto Jahveh, saying: “Jahveh is my strength and song--and He has become
+my salvation.--This is my God, and I will praise Him,--my father’s God,
+and I will exalt Him.--The Lord is a man of war,--and Jahveh is His
+name.--Pharaoh’s chariots and his hosts hath He cast into the sea,
+--and his chosen captains are sunk in the sea of weeds.--The deeps cover
+them--they went down into the depths like a stone.... The enemy said: ‘I
+will pursue, I will overtake--I will divide the spoil--my lust shall
+be satiated upon them--I will draw my sword--my hand shall destroy
+them.’--Thou didst blow with Thy wind--the sea covered them--they sank
+as lead in the mighty waters.” **
+
+     * _Exod._ ii.-xiii. I have limited myself here to a summary
+     of the Biblical narrative, without entering into a criticism
+     of the text, which I leave to others.
+
+     ** _Exod._ xv. 1-10 (R.V.)
+
+From this narrative we see that the Hebrews, or at least those of them
+who dwelt in the Delta, made their escape from their oppressors, and
+took refuge in the solitudes of Arabia. According to the opinion of
+accredited historians, this Exodus took place in the reign of Mînephtah,
+and the evidence of the triumphal inscription, lately discovered by
+Prof. Petrie, seems to confirm this view, in relating that the people of
+Israîlû were destroyed, and had no longer a seed. The context indicates
+pretty clearly that these ill-treated Israîlû were then somewhere south
+of Syria, possibly in the neighbourhood of Ascalon and Glezer. If it is
+the Biblical Israelites who are here mentioned for the first time on an
+Egyptian monument, one might suppose that they had just quitted the land
+of slavery to begin their wanderings through the desert. Although the
+peoples of the sea and the Libyans did not succeed in reaching their
+settlements in the land of Goshen, the Israelites must have profited
+both by the disorder into which the Egyptians were thrown by the
+invaders, and by the consequent withdrawal to Memphis of the troops
+previously stationed on the east of the Delta, to break away from their
+servitude and cross the frontier. If, on the other hand, the Israîlû of
+Mînephtah are regarded as a tribe still dwelling among the mountains of
+Canaan, while the greater part of the race had emigrated to the banks
+of the Nile, there is no need to seek long after Mînephtah for a date
+suiting the circumstances of the Exodus. The years following the reign
+of Seti II. offer favourable conditions for such a dangerous enterprise:
+the break-up of the monarchy, the discords of the barons, the revolts
+among the captives, and the supremacy of a Semite over the other chiefs,
+must have minimised the risk. We can readily understand how, in the
+midst of national disorders, a tribe of foreigners weary of its lot
+might escape from its settlements and betake itself towards Asia without
+meeting with strenous opposition from the Pharaoh, who would naturally
+be too much preoccupied with his own pressing necessities to trouble
+himself much over the escape of a band of serfs.
+
+Having crossed the Red Sea, the Israelites pursued their course to
+the north-east on the usual road leading into Syria, and then turning
+towards the south, at length arrived at Sinai. It was a moment when
+the nations of Asia were stirring. To proceed straight to Canaan by
+the beaten track would have been to run the risk of encountering their
+moving hordes, or of jostling against the Egyptian troops, who still
+garrisoned the strongholds of the She-phelah. The fugitives had,
+therefore, to shun the great military roads if they were to avoid coming
+into murderous conflict with the barbarians, or running into the teeth
+of Pharaoh’s pursuing army. The desert offered an appropriate asylum to
+people of nomadic inclinations like themselves; they betook themselves
+to it as if by instinct, and spent there a wandering life for several
+generations.*
+
+     * This explanation of the wanderings of the Israelites has
+     been doubted by most historians: it has a cogency, once we
+     admit the reality of the sojourn in Egypt and the Exodus.
+
+The traditions collected in their sacred books described at length their
+marches and their halting-places, the great sufferings they endured, and
+the striking miracles which God performed on their behalf.*
+
+     * The itinerary of the Hebrew people through the desert
+     contains a very small number of names which were not
+     actually in use. They represent possibly either the stations
+     at which the caravans of the merchants put up, or the
+     localities where the Bedawin and their herds were accustomed
+     to sojourn. The majority of them cannot be identified, but
+     enough can still be made out to give us a general idea of
+     the march of the emigrants.
+
+Moses conducted them through all these experiences, continually troubled
+by their murmurings and seditions, but always ready to help them out of
+the difficulties into which they were led, on every occasion, by their
+want of faith. He taught them, under God’s direction, how to correct the
+bitterness of brackish waters by applying to them the wood of a certain
+tree.* When they began to look back with regret to the “flesh-pots
+of Egypt” and the abundance of food there, another signal miracle was
+performed for them. “At even the quails came up and covered the camp,
+and in the morning the dew lay round about the host; and when the dew
+that lay was gone up, behold, upon the face of the wilderness there lay
+a small round thing, as small as the hoar frost on the ground. And when
+the children of Israel saw it, they said one to another, ‘What is it?
+‘for they wist not what it was. And Moses said unto them, ‘It is the
+bread which the Lord hath given you to eat.’”**
+
+     * _Exod._ xv. 23-25. The station Marah, “the bitter waters,”
+      is identified by modern tradition with Ain Howarah. There is
+     a similar way of rendering waters potable still in use among
+     the Bedawin of these regions.
+
+     ** _Exod._ xvi. 13-15.
+
+“And the house of Israel called the name thereof ‘manna: ‘and it was
+like coriander seed, white; and the taste of it was like wafers made
+with honey.” * “And the children of Israel did eat the manna forty years,
+until they came to a land inhabited; they did eat the manna until they
+came unto the borders of the land of Canaan.” ** Further on, at Eephidim,
+the water failed: Moses struck the rocks at Horeb, and a spring gushed
+out.*** The Amalekites, in the meantime, began to oppose their
+passage; and one might naturally doubt the power of a rabble of slaves,
+unaccustomed to war, to break through such an obstacle. Joshua was made
+their general, “and Moses, Aaron, and Hur went up to the top of the
+hill: and it came to pass, when Moses held up his hand, that Israel
+prevailed, and when he let down his hand, Amalek prevailed. But
+Moses’ hands were heavy; and they took a stone, and put it under him, and
+he sat thereon; and Aaron and Hur stayed up his hands, the one on the
+one side, and the other on the other side, and his hands were steady
+until the going down of the sun. And Joshua discomfited Amalek and his
+people with the edge of the sword.” ****
+
+     * _Exod._ xvi. 31. Prom early times the manna of the Hebrews
+     had been identified with the mann-es-sama, “the gift of
+     heaven,” of the Arabs, which exudes in small quantities from
+     the leaves of the tamarisk after being pricked by insects:
+     the question, however, is still under discussion whether
+     another species of vegetable manna may not be meant.
+
+     ** _Exod._ xvi. 35.
+
+     *** _Exod._ xvii. 1-7. There is a general agreement as to
+     the identification of Rephidim with the Wady Peîrân, the
+     village of Pharan of the Græco-Roman geographers.
+
+     **** Exod. xvii. 8-13.
+
+Three months after the departure of the Israelites from Egypt they
+encamped at the foot of Sinai, and “the Lord called unto Moses out of
+the mountain, saying, ‘Thus shalt thou say to the house of Jacob, and
+tell the children of Israel: Ye have seen what I did unto the Egyptians,
+and how I bare you on eagles’ wings, and brought you unto Myself. Now
+therefore, if ye will obey My voice indeed, and keep My covenant, then
+ye shall be a peculiar treasure unto Me from among all peoples: for all
+the earth is Mine: and ye shall be unto Me a kingdom of priests, and an
+holy nation.’ The people answered together and said, ‘All that the Lord
+hath spoken we will do.’ And the Lord said unto Moses, ‘Lo, I come unto
+thee in a thick cloud, that the people may hear when I speak with thee,
+and may also believe thee for ever.’” “On the third day, when it was
+morning, there were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the
+mount, and the voice of a trumpet exceeding loud; and all the people
+that were in the camp trembled. And Moses brought forth the people
+out of the camp to meet God; and they stood at the nether part of the
+mountain. And Mount Sinai was altogether on smoke, because the Lord
+descended upon it in fire: and the smoke thereof ascended as the smoke
+of a furnace, and the whole mount quaked greatly. And when the voice of
+the trumpet waxed louder and louder, Moses spake, and God answered him
+by a voice.” *
+
+     * _Exod._ xix. 3-6, 9, 16-19.
+
+Then followed the giving of the supreme law, the conditions of the
+covenant which the Lord Himself deigned to promulgate directly to His
+people. It was engraved on two tables of stone, and contained, in ten
+concise statements, the commandments which the Creator of the Universe
+imposed upon the people of His choice.
+
+“I. I am Jahveh, which brought thee out of the land of Egypt. Thou shalt
+have none other gods before Me.
+
+II. Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image, etc.
+
+III. Thou shalt not take the name of Jahveh thy God in vain.
+
+IV. Remember the sabbath day to keep it holy.
+
+V. Honour thy father and thy mother.
+
+VI. Thou shalt do no murder.
+
+VII. Thou shalt not commit adultery.
+
+VIII. Thou shalt not steal.
+
+IX. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour.
+
+X. Thou shalt not covet.” *
+
+     * We have two forms of the Decalogue--one in _Exod._ xx. 2-
+     17, and the other in _Deut._ v. 6-18.
+
+“And all the people saw the thunderings, and the lightnings, and the
+voice of the trumpet, and the mountain smoking: and when the people saw
+it, they trembled, and stood afar off. And they said unto Moses, ‘Speak
+thou with us, and we will hear: but let not God speak with us, lest
+we die.’”* God gave His commandments to Moses in instalments as the
+circumstances required them: on one occasion the rites of sacrifice,
+the details of the sacerdotal vestments, the mode of consecrating the
+priests, the composition of the oil and the incense for the altar; later
+on, the observance of the three annual festivals, and the orders as to
+absolute rest on the seventh day, as to the distinctions between clean
+and unclean animals, as to drink, as to the purification of women, and
+lawful and unlawful marriages.**
+
+     * _Exod._ xx. 18, 19.
+
+     ** This legislation and the history of the circumstances on
+     which it was promulgated are contained in four of the books
+     of the Pentateuch, viz. _Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
+     Deuteronomy_. Any one of the numerous text-books published
+     in Germany will be found to contain an analysis of these
+     books, and the prevalent opinions as to the date of the
+     documents which it [the Hexateuch] contains. I confine
+     myself here and afterwards only to such results as may fitly
+     be used in a general history.
+
+The people waited from week to week until Jahveh had completed the
+revelation of His commands, and in their impatience broke the new law
+more than once. On one occasion, when “Moses delayed to come out of the
+mount,” they believed themselves abandoned by heaven, and obliged Aaron,
+the high priest, to make for them a golden calf, before which they
+offered burnt offerings. The sojourn of the people at the foot of Sinai
+lasted eleven months. At the end of this period they set out once more
+on their slow marches to the Promised Land, guided during the day by
+a cloud, and during the night by a pillar of fire, which moved before
+them. This is a general summary of what we find in the sacred writings.
+
+The Israelites, when they set out from Egypt, were not yet a nation.
+They were but a confused horde, flying with their herds from their
+pursuers; with no resources, badly armed, and unfit to sustain the
+attack of regular troops. After leaving Sinai, they wandered for some
+time among the solitudes of Arabia Petraea in search of some uninhabited
+country where they could fix their tents, and at length settled on
+the borders of Idumaea, in the mountainous region surrounding
+Kadesh-Barnea.* Kadesh had from ancient times a reputation for sanctity
+among the Bedawin of the neighbourhood: it rejoiced in the possession
+of a wonderful well--the Well of Judgment--to which visits were made
+for the purpose of worship, and for obtaining the “judgment” of God. The
+country is a poor one, arid and burnt up, but it contains wells which
+never fail, and wadys suitable for the culture of wheat and for the
+rearing of cattle. The tribe which became possessed of a region in
+which there was a perennial supply of water was fortunate indeed, and
+a fragment of the psalmody of Israel at the time of their sojourn here
+still echoes in a measure the transports of joy which the people gave
+way to at the discovery of a new spring: “Spring up, O well; sing ye
+unto it: the well which the princes digged, which the nobles of the
+people delved with the sceptre and with their staves.” **
+
+     * The site of Kadesh-Barnea appears to have been fixed with
+     certainty at Ain-Qadis by C. Trumbull.
+
+     ** _Numb._ xxi. 17, 18. The context makes it certain that
+     this song was sung at Beer, beyond the Arnon, in the land of
+     Moab. It has long been recognised that it had a special
+     reference, and that it refers to an incident in the
+     wanderings of the people through the desert.
+
+The wanderers took possession of this region after some successful
+brushes with the enemy, and settled there, without being further
+troubled by their neighbours or by their former masters. The Egyptians,
+indeed, absorbed in their civil discords, or in wars with foreign
+nations, soon forgot their escaped slaves, and never troubled themselves
+for centuries over what had become of the poor wretches, until in the
+reign of the Ptolemies, when they had learned from the Bible something
+of the people of God, they began to seek in their own annals for traces
+of their sojourn in Egypt and of their departure from the country. A
+new version of the Exodus was the result, in which Hebrew tradition was
+clumsily blended with the materials of a semi-historical romance, of
+which Amenôthes III. was the hero. His minister and namesake, Amenôthes,
+son of Hâpû, left ineffaceable impressions on the minds of the
+inhabitants of Thebes: he not only erected the colossal figures in the
+Amenophium, but he constructed the chapel at Deîr el-Medineh, which was
+afterwards restored in Ptolemaic times, and where he continued to be
+worshipped as long as the Egyptian religion lasted. Profound knowledge
+of the mysteries of magic were attributed to him, as in later times to
+Prince Khâmoîsît, son of Ramses II. On this subject he wrote certain
+works which maintained their reputation for more than a thousand years
+after his death,* and all that was known about him marked him out for
+the important part he came to play in those romantic stories so popular
+among the Egyptians.
+
+     * One of these books, which is mentioned in several
+     religious texts, is preserved in the _Louvre Papyrus_.
+
+The Pharaoh in whose good graces he lived had a desire, we are informed,
+to behold the gods, after the example of his ancestor Horus. The son of
+Hâpû, or Pa-Apis, informed him that he could not succeed in his design
+until he had expelled from the country all the lepers and unclean
+persons who contaminated it. Acting on this information, he brought
+together all those who suffered from physical defects, and confined
+them, to the number of eighty thousand, in the quarries of Tûrah. There
+were priests among them, and the gods became wrathful at the treatment
+to which their servants were exposed; the soothsayer, therefore, fearing
+the divine anger, predicted that certain people would shortly arise who,
+forming an alliance with the Unclean, would, together with them, hold
+sway in Egypt for thirteen years. He then committed suicide, but the
+king nevertheless had compassion on the outcasts, and granted to them,
+for their exclusive use, the town of Avaris, which had been deserted
+since the time of Ahmosis. The outcasts formed themselves into a nation
+under the rule of a Heliopolitan priest called Osarsyph, or Moses,
+who gave them laws, mobilised them, and joined his forces with the
+descendants of the Shepherds at Jerusalem. The Pharaoh Amenôphis, taken
+by surprise at this revolt, and remembering the words of his minister
+Amenôthes, took flight into Ethiopia. The shepherds, in league with the
+Unclean, burned the towns, sacked the temples, and broke in pieces the
+statues of the gods: they forced the Egyptian priests to slaughter even
+their sacred animals, to cut them up and cook them for their foes, who
+ate them derisively in their accustomed feasts. Amenôphis returned from
+Ethiopia, together with his son Ramses, at the end of thirteen years,
+defeated the enemy, driving them back into Syria, where the remainder of
+them became later on the Jewish nation.*
+
+     * A list of the Pharaohs after Aï, as far as it is possible
+     to make them out, is here given:
+
+[Illustration: 281.jpg Table]
+
+This is but a romance, in which a very little history is mingled with a
+great deal of fable: the scribes as well as the people were acquainted
+with the fact that Egypt had been in danger of dissolution at the time
+when the Hebrews left the banks of the Nile, but they were ignorant
+of the details, of the precise date and of the name of the reigning
+Pharaoh. A certain similarity in sound suggested to them the idea
+of assimilating the prince whom the Chroniclers called Menepthes or
+Amenepthes with Amen-ôthes, i.e. Amenophis III.; and they gave to the
+Pharaoh of the XIXth dynasty the minister who had served under a king of
+the XVIIIth: they metamorphosed at the same time the Hebrews into lepers
+allied with the Shepherds. From this strange combination there resulted
+a narrative which at once fell in with the tastes of the lovers of the
+marvellous, and was a sufficient substitute for the truth which had
+long since been forgotten. As in the case of the Egyptians of the Greek
+period, we can see only through a fog what took place after the deaths
+of Mînephtah and Seti II. We know only for certain that the chiefs of
+the nomes were in perpetual strife with each other, and that a foreign
+power was dominant in the country as in the time of Apôphis. The days of
+the empire would have Harmhabî himself belonged to the XVIIIth dynasty,
+for he modelled the form of his cartouches on those of the Ahmesside
+Pharaohs: the XIXth dynasty began only, in all probability, with Ramses
+I., but the course of the history has compelled me to separate Harmhabî
+from his predecessors. Not knowing the length of the reigns, we cannot
+determine the total duration of the dynasty: we shall not, however, be
+far wrong in assigning to it a length of 130 years or thereabouts, i.e.
+from 1350 to somewhere near 1220 B.C. been numbered if a deliverer had
+not promptly made his appearance. The direct line of Ramses II. was
+extinct, but his innumerable sons by innumerable concubines had left a
+posterity out of which some at least might have the requisite ability
+and zeal, if not to save the empire, at least to lengthen its duration,
+and once more give to Thebes days of glorious prosperity. Egypt had set
+out some five centuries before this for the conquest of the world, and
+fortune had at first smiled upon her enterprise. Thûtmosis I., Thûtmosis
+III., and the several Pharaohs bearing the name of Amenôthes had marched
+with their armies from the upper waters of the Nile to the banks of the
+Euphrates, and no power had been able to withstand them. New nations,
+however, soon rose up to oppose her, and the Hittites in Asia and the
+Libyans of the Sudan together curbed her ambition. Neither the triumphs
+of Ramses II. nor the victory of Mînephtah had been able to restore her
+prestige, or the lands of which her rivals had robbed her beyond her
+ancient frontier. Now her own territory itself was threatened, and her
+own well-being was in question; she was compelled to consider, not
+how to rule other tribes, great or small, but how to keep her own
+possessions intact and independent: in short, her very existence was at
+stake.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III--THE CLOSE OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE
+
+
+_RAMSES III.--THE THEBAN CITY UNDER THE RAMESSIDES--MANNERS AND
+CUSTOMS._
+
+_Nalthtâsît and Ramses III.: the decline of the military spirit in
+Egypt--The reorganisation of the army and fleet by Ramses--The second
+Libyan invasion--The Asiatic peoples, the Pulasati, the Zakleala, and
+the Tyrseni: their incursions into Syria and their defeat--The campaign
+of the year XL and the fall of the Libyan kingdom--Cruising on the Red
+Sea--The buildings at Medinet-Habû--The conspiracy of Pentaûîrît--The
+mummy of Ramses III._
+
+_The sons and immediate successors of Ramses III.--Thebes and the
+Egyptian population: the transformation of the people and of the great
+lords: the feudal system from being military becomes religious--The
+wealth of precious metals, jewellery, furniture, costume--Literary
+education, and the influence of the Semitic language on the Egyptian:
+romantic stories, the historical novel, fables, caricatures and satires,
+collections of maxims and moral dialogues, love-poems._
+
+[Illustration: 287.jpg Page Image]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III--THE CLOSE OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE
+
+
+_Ramses III.--The Theban city under the Ramessides--Manners and
+customs._
+
+
+As in a former crisis, Egypt once more owed her salvation to a scion
+of the old Theban race. A descendant of Seti I. or Ramses II., named
+Nakhtûsît, rallied round him the forces of the southern nomes, and
+succeeded, though not without difficulty, in dispossessing the Syrian
+Arisû. “When he arose, he was like Sûtkhû, providing for all the
+necessities of the country which, for feebleness, could not stand,
+killing the rebels which were in the Delta, purifying the great throne
+of Egypt; he was regent of the two lands in the place of Tûmû, setting
+himself to reorganise that which had been overthrown, to such good
+purpose, that each one recognised as brethren those who had been
+separated from him as by a wall for so long a time, strengthening
+the temples by pious gifts, so that the traditional rites could be
+celebrated at the divine cycles.” *
+
+     * The exact relationship between Nakhtûsît and Ramses II. is
+     not known; he was probably the grandson or great-grandson of
+     that sovereign, though Ed. Meyer thinks he was perhaps the
+     son of Seti II. The name should be read either Nakhîtsît,
+     with the singular of the first word composing it, or
+     Nakhîtûsît, Nakhtûsît, with the plural, as in the analogous
+     name of the king of the XXXth dynasty, Nectanebo.
+
+Many were the difficulties that he had to encounter before he could
+restore to his country that peace and wealth which she had enjoyed under
+the long reign of Sesostris. It seems probable that his advancing years
+made him feel unequal to the task, or that he desired to guard against
+the possibility of disturbances in the event of his sudden death; at
+all events, he associated with himself on the throne his eldest son
+Ramses--not, however, as a Pharaoh who had full rights to the crown,
+like the coadjutors of the Amenemhâîts and Usirtasens, but as a prince
+invested with extraordinary powers, after the example of the sons of the
+Pharaohs Thûtmosis and Seti I. Ramses recalls with pride, towards the
+close of his life, how his father “had promoted him to the dignity of
+heir-presumptive to the throne of Sibû,” and how he had been acclaimed
+as “the supreme head of Qimît for the administration of the whole earth
+united together.” * This constituted the rise of a new dynasty on the
+ruins of the old--the last, however, which was able to retain the
+supremacy of Egypt over the Oriental world. We are unable to ascertain
+how long this double reign lasted.
+
+     * The only certain monument that we as yet possess of this
+     double reign is a large stele cut on the rock behind
+     Medinet-Habû.
+
+[Illustration: 289.jpg NAKHTÛSÎT.]
+
+Nakhtûsît, fully occupied by enemies within the country, had no leisure
+either to build or to restore any monuments;* on his death, as no tomb
+had been prepared for him, his mummy was buried in that of the usurper
+Siphtah and the Queen Tausirît.
+
+     * Wiedemann attributes to him the construction of one of the
+     doors of the temple of Mût at Karnak; it would appear that
+     there is a confusion in his notes between the prenomen of
+     this sovereign and that of Seti II., who actually did
+     decorate one of the doorways of that temple. Nakhûsît must
+     have also worked on the temple of Phtah at Memphis. His
+     cartouche is met with on a statue originally dedicated by a
+     Pharaoh of the XIIth dynasty, discovered at Tell-Nebêsheh.
+
+He was soon forgotten, and but few traces of his services survived him;
+his name was subsequently removed from the official list of the kings,
+while others not so deserving as he--as, for instance, Siphtah-Minephtah
+and Amenmesis--were honourably inscribed in it. The memory of his son
+overshadowed his own, and the series of the legitimate kings who formed
+the XXth dynasty did not include him. Ramses III. took for his hero his
+namesake, Ramses the Great, and endeavoured to rival him in everything.
+This spirit of imitation was at times the means of leading him to commit
+somewhat puerile acts, as, for example, when he copied certain
+triumphal inscriptions word for word, merely changing the dates and
+the cartouches,* or when he assumed the prenomen of Usirmârî, and
+distributed among his male children the names and dignities of the sons
+of Sesostris. We see, moreover, at his court another high priest of
+Phtah at Memphis bearing the name of Khâmoîsît, and Marîtûmû, another
+supreme pontiff of Râ in Heliopolis. However, this ambition to resemble
+his ancestor at once instigated him to noble deeds, and gave him the
+necessary determination to accomplish them.
+
+     * Thus the great decree of Phtah-Totûnen, carved by Ramses
+     II. in the year XXXV. on the rocks of Abu Simbel, was copied
+     by Ramses III. at Medinet-Habû in the year XII.
+
+He began by restoring order in the administration of affairs; “he
+established truth, crushed error, purified the temple from all crime,”
+ and made his authority felt not only in the length and breadth of the
+Nile valley, but in what was still left of the Asiatic provinces.
+The disturbances of the preceding years had weakened the prestige of
+Amon-Râ, and the king’s supremacy would have been seriously endangered,
+had any one arisen in Syria of sufficient energy to take advantage of
+the existing state of affairs. But since the death of Khâtusaru, the
+power of the Khâti had considerably declined, and they retained their
+position merely through their former prestige; they were in as much need
+of peace, or even more so, than the Egyptians, for the same discords
+which had harassed the reigns of Seti II. and his successors had
+doubtless brought trouble to their own sovereigns. They had made no
+serious efforts to extend their dominion over any of those countries
+which had been the objects of the cupidity of their forefathers, while
+the peoples of Kharu and Phoenicia, thrown back on their own resources,
+had not ventured to take up arms against the Pharaoh. The yoke lay
+lightly upon them, and in no way hampered their internal liberty; they
+governed as they liked, they exchanged one prince or chief for another,
+they waged petty wars as of old, without, as a rule, exposing themselves
+to interference from the Egyptian troops occupying the country, or from
+the “royal messengers.” These vassal provinces had probably ceased to
+pay tribute, or had done so irregularly, during the years of anarchy
+following the death of Siphtah, but they had taken no concerted action,
+nor attempted any revolt, so that when Ramses III. ascended the throne
+he was spared the trouble of reconquering them. He had merely to claim
+allegiance to have it at once rendered him--an allegiance which included
+the populations in the neighbourhood of Qodshû and on the banks of the
+Nahr el-Kelb. The empire, which had threatened to fall to pieces amid
+the civil wars, and which would indeed have succumbed had they continued
+a few years longer, again revived now that an energetic prince had been
+found to resume the direction of affairs, and to weld together those
+elements which had been on the point of disintegration.
+
+One state alone appeared to regret the revival of the Imperial power;
+this was the kingdom of Libya. It had continued to increase in size
+since the days of Mînephtah, and its population had been swelled by the
+annexation of several strange tribes inhabiting the vast area of the
+Sahara. One of these, the Mashaûasha, acquired the ascendency among
+these desert races owing to their numbers and valour, and together with
+the other tribes--the Sabati, the Kaiakasha, the Shaîû, the Hasa, the
+Bikana, and the Qahaka*--formed a confederacy, which now threatened
+Egypt on the west. This federation was conducted by Didi, Mashaknû,
+and Mâraîû, all children of that Mâraîû who had led the first Libyan
+invasion, and also by Zamarû and Zaûtmarû, two princes of less important
+tribes.** Their combined forces had attacked Egypt for the second time
+during the years of anarchy, and had gained possession one after another
+of all the towns in the west of the Delta, from the neighbourhood of
+Memphis to the town of Qarbîna: the Canopic branch of the Nile now
+formed the limit of their dominion, and they often crossed it to
+devastate the central provinces.***
+
+     * This enumeration is furnished by the summary of the
+     campaigns of Ramses III. in _The Great Harris Papyrus_. The
+     Sabati of this text are probably identical with the people
+     of the Sapudiu or Spudi (Asbytse), mentioned on one of the
+     pylons of Medinet-Habû.
+
+     ** The relationship is nowhere stated, but it is thought to
+     be probable from the names of Didi and Mâraîû, repeated in
+     both series of inscriptions.
+
+     *** The town of Qarbîna has been identified with the Canopus
+     of the Greeks, and also with the modern Korbani; and the
+     district of Gautu, which adjoined it, with the territory of
+     the modern town of Edkô. Spiegel-berg throws doubt on the
+     identification of Qarbu or Qarbîna, with Canopus. Révillout
+     prefers to connect Qarbîna with Heracleopolis Parva in Lower
+     Egypt.
+
+Nakhtûsîti had been unable to drive them out, and Ramses had not
+ventured on the task immediately after his accession. The military
+institutions of the country had become totally disorganised after the
+death of Mînephtah, and that part of the community responsible for
+furnishing the army with recruits had been so weakened by the late
+troubles, that they were in a worse condition than before the first
+Libyan invasion. The losses they had suffered since Egypt began its
+foreign conquests had not been repaired by the introduction of fresh
+elements, and the hope of spoil was now insufficient to induce members
+of the upper classes to enter the army. There was no difficulty in
+filling the ranks from the fellahîn, but the middle class and the
+aristocracy, accustomed to ease and wealth, no longer came forward in
+large numbers, and disdained the military profession. It was the fashion
+in the schools to contrast the calling of a scribe with that of a
+foot-soldier or a charioteer, and to make as merry over the discomforts
+of a military occupation as it had formerly been the fashion to extol
+its glory and profitableness. These scholastic exercises represented the
+future officer dragged as a child to the barracks, “the side-lock over
+his ear.--He is beaten and his sides are covered with scars,--he is
+beaten and his two eyebrows are marked with wounds,--he is beaten and
+his head is broken by a badly aimed blow; he is stretched on the ground”
+ for the slightest fault, “and blows fall on him as on a papyrus,--and
+he is broken by the stick.” His education finished, he is sent away to
+a distance, to Syria or Ethiopia, and fresh troubles overtake him. “His
+victuals and his supply of water are about his neck like the burden of
+an ass,--and his neck and throat suffer like those of an ass,--so that
+the joints of his spine are broken.--He drinks putrid water, keeping
+perpetual guard the while.” His fatigues soon tell upon his health
+and vigour: “Should he reach the enemy,--he is like a bird which
+trembles.--Should he return to Egypt,--he is like a piece of old
+worm-eaten wood.--He is sick and must lie down, he is carried on an
+ass,--while thieves steal his linen,--and his slaves escape.” The
+charioteer is not spared either. He, doubtless, has a moment of
+vain-glory and of flattered vanity when he receives, according to
+regulations, a new chariot and two horses, with which he drives at a
+gallop before his parents and his fellow-villagers; but once having
+joined his regiment, he is perhaps worse off than the foot-soldier.
+“He is thrown to the ground among thorns:--a scorpion wounds him in
+the foot, and his heel is pierced by its sting.--When his kit is
+examined,--his misery is at its height.” No sooner has the fact been
+notified that his arms are in a bad condition, or that some article has
+disappeared, than “he is stretched on the ground--and overpowered with
+blows from a stick.” This decline of the warlike spirit in all classes
+of society had entailed serious modifications in the organisation of
+both army and navy. The native element no longer predominated in most
+battalions and on the majority of vessels, as it had done under the
+XVIIIth dynasty; it still furnished those formidable companies of
+archers--the terror of both Africans and Asiatics--and also the most
+important part, if not the whole, of the chariotry, but the main body
+of the infantry was composed almost exclusively of mercenaries,
+particularly of the Shardana and the Qahaka. Ramses began his reforms
+by rebuilding the fleet, which, in a country like Egypt, was always
+an artificial creation, liable to fall into decay, unless a strong
+and persistent effort were made to keep it in an efficient condition.
+Shipbuilding had made considerable progress in the last few centuries,
+perhaps from the impulse received through Phoenicia, and the vessels
+turned out of the dockyards were far superior to those constructed under
+Hâtshopsîtû. The general outlines of the hull remained the same, but
+the stem and stern were finer, and not so high out of the water; the
+bow ended, moreover, in a lion’s head of metal, which rose above
+the cut-water. A wooden structure running between the forecastle and
+quarter-deck protected the rowers during the fight, their heads alone
+being exposed. The mast had only one curved yard, to which the sail was
+fastened; this was run up from the deck by halyards when the sailors
+wanted to make sail, and thus differed from the Egyptian arrangement,
+where the sail was fastened to a fixed upper yard. At least half of the
+crews consisted of Libyan prisoners, who were branded with a hot iron
+like cattle, to prevent desertion; the remaining half was drawn from
+the Syrian or Asiatic coast, or else were natives of Egypt. In order
+to bring the army into better condition, Ramses revived the system of
+classes, which empowered him to compel all Egyptians of unmixed race to
+take personal service, while he hired mercenaries from Libya, Phoenicia,
+Asia Minor, and wherever he could get them, and divided them into
+regular regiments, according to their extraction and the arms that they
+bore. In the field, the archers always headed the column, to meet the
+advance of the foe with their arrows; they were followed by the Egyptian
+lancers--the Shardana and the Tyrseni with their short spears and heavy
+bronze swords--while a corps of veterans, armed with heavy maces,
+brought up the rear.* In an engagement, these various troops formed
+three lines of infantry disposed one behind the other--the light brigade
+in front to engage the adversary, the swordsmen and lancers who were to
+come into close quarters with the foe, and the mace-bearers in reserve,
+ready to advance on any threatened point, or to await the critical
+moment when their intervention would decide the victory: as in the times
+of Thûtmosis and Ramses II. the chariotry covered the two wings.
+
+     * This is the order of march represented during the Syrian
+     campaign, as gathered from the arrangement observed in the
+     pictures at Medinet-Habu.
+
+It was well for Ramses that on ascending the throne he had devoted
+himself to the task of recruiting the Egyptian army, and of personally
+and carefully superintending the instruction and equipment of his men;
+for it was thanks to these precautions that, when the confederated
+Libyans attacked the country about the Vth year of his reign, he was
+enabled to repulse them with complete success. “Didi, Mashaknû, Maraîû,
+together with Zamarû and Zaûtmarû, had strongly urged them to
+attack Egypt and to carry fire before them from one end of it to the
+other.”--“Their warriors confided to each other in their counsels,
+and their hearts were full: ‘We will be drunk!’ and their princes said
+within their breasts: ‘We will fill our hearts with violence!’ But their
+plans were overthrown, thwarted, broken against the heart of the god,
+and the prayer of their chief, which their lips repeated, was
+not granted by the god.” They met the Egyptians at a place called
+“Kamsisû-Khasfi-Timihû” (“Ramses repulses the Timihû”), but their attack
+was broken by the latter, who were ably led and displayed considerable
+valour. “They bleated like goats surprised by a bull who stamps its
+foot, who pushes forward its horn and shakes the mountains, charging
+whoever seeks to annoy it.” They fled afar, howling with fear, and
+many of them, in endeavouring to escape their pursuers, perished in the
+canals. “It is,” said they, “the breaking of our spines which threatens
+us in the land of Egypt, and its lord destroys our souls for ever and
+ever. Woe be upon them! for they have seen their dances changed into
+carnage, Sokhît is behind them, fear weighs upon them. We march no
+longer upon roads where we can walk, but we run across fields, all the
+fields! And their soldiers did not even need to measure arms with us in
+the struggle! Pharaoh alone was our destruction, a fire against us every
+time that he willed it, and no sooner did we approach than the flame
+curled round us, and no water could quench it on us.” The victory was a
+brilliant one; the victors counted 12,535 of the enemy killed,* and
+many more who surrendered at discretion. The latter were formed into
+a brigade, and were distributed throughout the valley of the Nile in
+military settlements. They submitted to their fate with that resignation
+which we know to have been a characteristic of the vanquished at that
+date.
+
+     * The number of the dead is calculated from that of the
+     hands and phalli brought in by the soldiers after the
+     victory, the heaps of which are represented at Medinet-Habu.
+
+They regarded their defeat as a judgment from God against which there
+was no appeal; when their fate had been once pronounced, nothing
+remained to the condemned except to submit to it humbly, and to
+accommodate themselves to the master to whom they were now bound by a
+decree from on high. The prisoners of one day became on the next the
+devoted soldiers of the prince against whom they had formerly fought
+resolutely, and they were employed against their own tribes, their
+employers having no fear of their deserting to the other side during
+the engagement. They were lodged in the barracks at Thebes, or in the
+provinces under the feudal lords and governors of the Pharaoh, and
+were encouraged to retain their savage customs and warlike spirit. They
+intermarried either with the fellahîn or with women of their own tribes,
+and were reinforced at intervals by fresh prisoners or volunteers.
+Drafted principally into the Delta and the cities of Middle Egypt, they
+thus ended by constituting a semi-foreign population, destined by nature
+and training to the calling of arms, and forming a sort of warrior
+caste, differing widely from the militia of former times, and known for
+many generations by their national name of Mashaûasha. As early as the
+XIIth dynasty, the Pharaohs had, in a similar way, imported the Mazaîû
+from Nubia, and had used them as a military police; Ramses III. now
+resolved to naturalise the Libyans for much the same purpose. His
+victory did not bear the immediate fruits that we might have expected
+from his own account of it; the memory of the exploits of Ramses II.
+haunted him, and, stimulated by the example of his ancestor at Qodshû,
+he doubtless desired to have the sole credit of the victory over the
+Libyans. He certainly did overcome their kings, and arrested their
+invasion; we may go so far as to allow that he wrested from them the
+provinces which they had occupied on the left bank of the Canopic
+branch, from Marea to the Natron Lakes, but he did not conquer them,
+and their power still remained as formidable as ever. He had gained a
+respite at the point of the sword, but he had not delivered Egypt from
+their future attacks.
+
+[Illustration: 299.jpg one of the Libyan chiefs VANQUISHED BY RAMSES
+III.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Champollion.
+
+He might perhaps have been tempted to follow up his success and assume
+the offensive, had not affairs in Asia at this juncture demanded the
+whole of his attention. The movement of great masses of European tribes
+in a southerly and easterly direction was beginning to be felt by the
+inhabitants of the Balkans, who were forced to set out in a double
+stream of emigration--one crossing the Bosphorus and the Propontis
+towards the centre of Asia Minor, while the other made for what was
+later known as Greece Proper, by way of the passes over Olympus and
+Pindus. The nations who had hitherto inhabited these regions, now found
+themselves thrust forward by the pressure of invading hordes, and were
+constrained to move towards the south and east by every avenue which
+presented itself. It was probably the irruption of the Phrygians into
+the high table-land which gave rise to the general exodus of these
+various nations--the Pulasati, the Zakkala, the Shagalasha, the Danauna,
+and the Uashasha--some of whom had already made their way into Syria and
+taken part in campaigns there, while others had as yet never measured
+strength with the Egyptians. The main body of these migrating tribes
+chose the overland route, keeping within easy distance of the coast,
+from Pamphylia as far as the confines of Naharaim.
+
+[Illustration: 300.jpg THE WAGGONS OF THE PULASATI AND THEIR
+CONFEDERATES]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Champollion.
+
+They were accompanied by their families, who must have been mercilessly
+jolted in the ox-drawn square waggons with solid wheels in which they
+travelled. The body of the vehicle was built either of roughly squared
+planks, or else of something resembling wicker-work. The round axletree
+was kept in its place by means of a rude pin, and four oxen were
+harnessed abreast to the whole structure. The children wore no clothes,
+and had, for the most part, their hair tied into a tuft on the top of
+their heads; the women affected a closely fitting cap, and were wrapped
+in large blue or red garments drawn close to the body.* The men’s attire
+varied according to the tribe to which they belonged. The Pulasati
+undoubtedly held the chief place; they were both soldiers and sailors,
+and we must recognise in them the foremost of those tribes known to the
+Greeks of classical times as the Oarians, who infested the coasts of
+Asia Minor as well as those of Greece and the Ægean islands.**
+
+     * These details are taken from the battle-scenes at Medinet-
+     Habu.
+
+     ** The Pulasati have been connected with the Philistines by
+     Champollion, and subsequently by the early English
+     Egyptologists, who thought they recognised in them the
+     inhabitants of the Shephelah. Chabas was the first to
+     identify them with the Pelasgi; Unger and Brugsch prefer to
+     attribute to them a Libyan origin, but the latter finally
+     returns to the Pelasgic and Philistine hypothesis. They were
+     without doubt the Philistines, but in their migratory state,
+     before they settled on the coast of Palestine.
+
+[Illustration: 301.jpg PULASATI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+Crete was at this time the seat of a maritime empire, whose chiefs were
+perpetually cruising the seas and harassing the civilized states of
+the Eastern Mediterranean. These sea-rovers had grown wealthy through
+piracy, and contact with the merchants of Syria and Egypt had awakened
+in them a taste for a certain luxury and refinement, of which we find
+no traces in the remains of their civilization anterior to this period.
+Some of the symbols in the inscriptions found on their monuments recall
+certain of the Egyptian characters, while others present an original
+aspect and seem to be of Ægean origin. We find in them, arranged in
+juxtaposition, signs representing flowers, birds, fish, quadrupeds
+of various kinds, members of the human body, and boats and household
+implements. From the little which is known of this script we are
+inclined to derive it from a similar source to that which has furnished
+those we meet with in several parts of Asia Minor and Northern Syria.
+It would appear that in ancient times, somewhere in the centre of the
+Peninsula--but under what influence or during what period we know not--a
+syllabary was developed, of which varieties were handed on from tribe
+to tribe, spreading on the one side to the Hittites, Cilicians, and
+the peoples on the borders of Syria and Egypt, and on the other to the
+Trojans, to the people of the Cyclades, and into Crete and Greece. It
+is easy to distinguish the Pulasati by the felt helmet which they wore
+fastened under the chin by two straps and surmounted by a crest of
+feathers. The upper part of their bodies was covered by bands of leather
+or some thick material, below which hung a simple loin-cloth, while
+their feet were bare or shod with short sandals. They carried each a
+round buckler with two handles, and the stout bronze sword common to
+the northern races, suspended by a cross belt passing over the left
+shoulder, and were further armed with two daggers and two javelins.
+They hurled the latter from a short distance while attacking, and then
+drawing their sword or daggers, fell upon the enemy; we find among them
+a few chariots of the Hittite type, each manned by a driver and two
+fighting men. The Tyrseni appear to have been the most numerous after
+the Pulasati, next to whom came the Zakkala. The latter are thought to
+have been a branch of the Siculo-Pelasgi whom Greek tradition represents
+as scattered at this period among the Cyclades and along the coast of
+the Hellespont;* they wore a casque surmounted with plumes like that
+of the Pulasati. The Tyrseni may be distinguished by their feathered
+head-dress, but the Shaga-lasha affected a long ample woollen cap
+falling on the neck behind, an article of apparel which is still worn by
+the sailors of the Archipelago; otherwise they were equipped in much the
+same manner as their allies. The other members of the confederation,
+the Shardana, the Danauna, and the Nashasha, each furnished an
+inconsiderable contingent, and, taken all together, formed but a small
+item of the united force.**
+
+     * The Zakkara, or Zakkala, have been identified with the
+     Teucrians by Lauth, Chabas, and Fr. Lenormant, with the
+     Zygritse of Libya by linger and Brugsch, who subsequently
+     returned to the Teucrian hypothesis; W. Max Millier regards
+     them as an Asiatic nation probably of the Lydian family. The
+     identification with the Siculo-Pelasgi of the Ægean Sea was
+     proposed by Maspero.
+
+     ** The form of the word shows that it is of Asiatic origin,
+     Uasasos, Uassos, which refers us to Caria or Lycia.
+
+Their fleet sailed along the coast and kept within sight of the force on
+land. The squadrons depicted on the monuments are without doubt those of
+the two peoples, the Pulasati and Zakkala. Their ships resembled in many
+respects those of Egypt, except in the fact that they had no cut-water.
+The bow and stern rose up straight like the neck of a goose or swan; two
+structures for fighting purposes were erected above the dock, while a
+rail running round the sides of the vessel protected the bodies of the
+rowers. An upper yard curved in shape hung from the single mast, which
+terminated in a top for the look-out during a battle. The upper yard was
+not made to lower, and the top-men managed the sail in the same manner
+as the Egyptian sailors. The resemblance between this fleet and that
+of Ramses is easily explained. The dwellers on the Ægean, owing to
+the knowledge they had acquired of the Phoenician galleys, which
+were accustomed to cruise annually in their waters, became experts in
+shipbuilding.
+
+[Illustration: 304.jpg A SIHAGALASHA CHIEF]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie.
+
+They copied the lines of the Phoenician craft, imitated the rigging, and
+learned to manoeuvre their vessels so well, both on ordinary occasions
+and in a battle, that they could now oppose to the skilled eastern
+navigators ships as well fitted out and commanded by captains as
+experienced as those of Egypt or Asia.
+
+There had been a general movement among all these peoples at the very
+time when Ramses was repelling the attack of the Libyans; “the isles had
+quivered, and had vomited forth their people at once.” *
+
+     * This campaign is mentioned in the inscription of Medinet-
+     Habu. We find some information about the war in the _Great
+     Harris Papyrus_, also in the inscription of Medinet-Habu
+     which describes the campaign of the year V., and in other
+     shorter texts of the same temple.
+
+They were subjected to one of those irresistible impulses such as had
+driven the Shepherds into Egypt; or again, in later times, had carried
+away the Cimmerians and the Scyths to the pillage of Asia Minor: “no
+country could hold out against their arms, neither Khâti, nor Qodi, nor
+Carchemish, nor Arvad, nor Alasia, without being brought to nothing.”
+ The ancient kingdoms of Sapalulu and Khâtusaru, already tottering,
+crumbled to pieces under the shock, and were broken up into their
+primitive elements. The barbarians, unable to carry the towns by
+assault, and too impatient to resort to a lengthened siege, spread
+over the valley of the Orontes, burning and devastating the country
+everywhere. Having reached the frontiers of the empire, in the country
+of the Amorites, they came to a halt, and constructing an entrenched
+camp, installed within it their women and the booty they had acquired.
+Some of their predatory bands, having ravaged the Bekâa, ended by
+attacking the subjects of the Pharaoh himself, and their chiefs dreamed
+of an invasion of Egypt. Ramses, informed of their design by the
+despatches of his officers and vassals, resolved to prevent its
+accomplishment. He summoned his troops together, both indigenous
+and mercenary, in his own person looked after their armament and
+commissariat, and in the VIIIth year of his reign crossed the frontier
+near Zalu. He advanced by forced marches to meet the enemy, whom
+he encountered somewhere in Southern Syria, on the borders of the
+Shephelah,* and after a stubbornly contested campaign obtained the
+victory. He carried off from the field, in addition to the treasures of
+the confederate tribes, some of the chariots which had been used for the
+transport of their families. The survivors made their way hastily to the
+north-west, in the direction of the sea, in order to receive the support
+of their navy, but the king followed them step by step.
+
+     * No site is given for these battles. E. de Rougé placed the
+     theatre of war in Syria, and his opinion was accepted by
+     Brugsch. Chabas referred it to the mouth of the Nile near
+     Pelusium, and his authority has prevailed up to the present.
+     The remarks of W. Max Müller have brought me back to the
+     opinion of the earlier Egyptologists; but I differ from him
+     in looking for the locality further south, and not to the
+     mouth of Nahr el-Kelb as the site of the naval battle. It
+     seems to me that the fact that the Zakkala were prisoners at
+     Dor, and the Pulasati in the Shephelah, is enough to assign
+     the campaign to the regions I have mentioned in the text.
+
+It is recorded that he occupied himself with lion-hunting _en route_
+after the example of the victors of the XVIIIth dynasty, and that he
+killed three of these animals in the long grass on one occasion on the
+banks of some river. He rejoined his ships, probably at Jaffa, and made
+straight for the enemy. The latter were encamped on the level shore, at
+the head of a bay wide enough to offer to their ships a commodious
+space for naval evolutions--possibly the mouth of the Belos, in the
+neighbourhood of Magadîl. The king drove their foot-soldiers into the
+water at the same moment that his admirals attacked the combined fleet
+of the Pulasati and Zakkala.
+
+[Illustration: 307.jpg THE ARMY OP RAMSES III. ON THE MARCH, AND THE
+LION-HUNT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+Some of the Ægean galleys were capsized and sank when the Egyptian
+vessels rammed them with their sharp stems, and the crews, in
+endeavouring to escape to land by swimming, were picked off by the
+arrows of the archers of the guard who were commanded by Ramses and his
+sons; they perished in the waves, or only escaped through the compassion
+of the victors. “I had fortified,” said the Pharaoh, “my frontier at
+Zahi; I had drawn up before these people my generals, my provincial
+governors, the vassal princes, and the best of my soldiers. The mouths
+of the river seemed to be a mighty rampart of galleys, barques, and
+vessels of all kinds, equipped from the bow to the stern with valiant
+armed men. The infantry, the flower of Egypt, were as lions roaring
+on the mountains; the charioteers, selected from among the most rapid
+warriors, had for their captains only officers confident in themselves;
+the horses quivered in all their limbs, and were burning to trample the
+nations underfoot. As for me, I was like the warlike Montû: I stood up
+before them and they saw the vigour of my arms. I, King Ramses, I was as
+a hero who is conscious of his valour, and who stretches his hands over
+the people in the day of battle. Those who have violated my frontier
+will never more garner harvests from this earth: the period of their
+soul has been fixed for ever. My forces were drawn up before them on
+the ‘Very Green,’ a devouring flame approached them at the river mouth,
+annihilation embraced them on every side. Those who were on the strand
+I laid low on the seashore, slaughtered like victims of the butcher.
+I made their vessels to capsize, and their riches fell into the sea.”
+ Those who had not fallen in the fight were caught, as it were, in
+the cast of a net. A rapid cruiser of the fleet carried the Egyptian
+standard along the coast as far as the regions of the Orontes and
+Saros. The land troops, on the other hand, following on the heels of the
+defeated enemy, pushed through Coele-Syria, and in their first burst of
+zeal succeeded in reaching the plains of the Euphrates. A century had
+elapsed since a Pharaoh had planted his standard in this region, and the
+country must have seemed as novel to the soldiers of Ramses III. as to
+those of his predecessor Thûtmosis.
+
+[Illustration: 308.jpg THE DEFEAT OF THE PEOPLES OF THE SEA]
+
+The Khâti were still its masters; and all enfeebled as they were by
+the ravages of the invading barbarians, were nevertheless not slow in
+preparing to resist their ancient enemies. The majority of the citadels
+shut their gates in the face of Ramses, who, wishing to lose no time,
+did not attempt to besiege them: he treated their territory with the
+usual severity, devastating their open towns, destroying their harvests,
+breaking down their fruit trees, and cutting away their forests. He was
+able, moreover, without arresting his march, to carry by assault several
+of their fortified towns, Alaza among the number, the destruction of
+which is represented in the scenes of his victories. The spoils were
+considerable, and came very opportunely to reward the soldiers or to
+provide funds for the erection of monuments. The last battalion of
+troops, however, had hardly recrossed the isthmus when Lotanû became
+again its own master, and Egyptian rule was once more limited to its
+traditional provinces of Kharû and Phoenicia. The King of the Khâti
+appears among the prisoners whom the Pharaoh is represented as bringing
+to his father Amon; Carchemish, Tunipa, Khalabu, Katna, Pabukhu, Arvad,
+Mitanni, Mannus, Asi, and a score of other famous towns of this period
+appear in the list of the subjugated nations, recalling the triumphs
+of Thûtmosis III. and Amenothes II. Ramses did not allow himself to
+be deceived into thinking that his success was final. He accepted the
+protestations of obedience which were spontaneously offered him, but he
+undertook no further expedition of importance either to restrain or to
+provoke his enemies: the restricted rule which satisfied his exemplar
+Ramses II. ought, he thought, to be sufficient for his own ambition.
+
+Egypt breathed freely once more on the announcement of the victory;
+henceforward she was “as a bed without anguish.” “Let each woman now go
+to and fro according to her will,” cried the sovereign, in describing
+the campaign, “her ornaments upon her, and directing her steps to any
+place she likes!” And in order to provide still further guarantees of
+public security, he converted his Asiatic captives, as he previously
+had his African prisoners, into a bulwark against the barbarians, and
+a safeguard of the frontier. The war must, doubtless, have decimated
+Southern Syria; and he planted along its coast what remained of the
+defeated tribes--the Philistines in the Shephelah, and the Zakkala on
+the borders of the great oak forest stretching from Oarmel to Dor.*
+
+     * It is in this region that we find henceforward the Hebrews
+     in contact with the Philistines: at the end of the XXIst
+     Egyptian dynasty a scribe makes Dor a town of the Zakkala.
+
+Watch-towers were erected for the supervision of this region, and for
+rallying-points in case of internal revolts or attacks from without. One
+of these, the Migdol of Ramses III., was erected, not far from the scene
+of the decisive battle, on the spot where the spoils had been divided.
+This living barrier, so to speak, stood between the Nile valley and the
+dangers which threatened it from Asia, and it was not long before
+its value was put to the proof. The Libyans, who had been saved from
+destruction by the diversion created in their favour on the eastern side
+of the empire, having now recovered their courage, set about collecting
+their hordes together for a fresh invasion. They returned to the attack
+in the XIth year of Ramses, under the leadership of Kapur, a prince of
+the Mashauasha.*
+
+     * The second campaign against the Libyans is known to us
+     from the inscriptions of the year XI. at Medinet-Habu.
+
+[Illustration: 313.jpg THE CAPTIVE CHIEFS OF RAMSES III. AT
+MEDINET-IHABU]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato. The first
+     prisoner on the left is the Prince of the Khâti (cf. the cut
+     on p. 318 of the present work), the second is the Prince of
+     the Amâuru [Amoritos], the third the Prince of the Zakkala,
+     the fourth that of the Shardana, the fifth that of the
+     Shakalasha (see the cut on p. 304 of this work), and the
+     sixth that of the Tursha [Tyrseni].
+
+Their soul had said to them for the second time that “they would end
+their lives in the nomes of Egypt, that they would till its valleys and
+its plains as their own land.” The issue did not correspond with their
+intentions. “Death fell upon them within Egypt, for they had hastened
+with their feet to the furnace which consumes corruption, under the
+fire of the valour of the king who rages like Baal from the heights of
+heaven. All his limbs are invested with victorious strength; with his
+right hand he lays hold of the multitudes, his left extends to those who
+are against him, like a cloud of arrows directed upon them to destroy
+them, and his sword cuts like that of Montû. Kapur, who had come to
+demand homage, blind with fear, threw down his arms, and his troops did
+the same. He sent up to heaven a suppliant cry, and his son [Mashashalu]
+arrested his foot and his hand; for, behold, there rises beside him the
+god who knows what he has in his heart: His Majesty falls upon their
+heads as a mountain of granite and crushes them, the earth drinks up
+their blood as if it had been water...; their army was slaughtered,
+slaughtered their soldiers,” near a fortress situated on the borders
+of the desert called the “Castle of Usirmarî-Miamon.” They were seized,
+“they were stricken, their arms bound, like geese piled up in the bottom
+of a boat, under the feet of His Majesty.” * The fugitives were pursued
+at the sword’s point from the _Castle of Usirmarî-Miamon_ to the _Castle
+of the Sands_, a distance of over thirty miles.**
+
+     * The name of the son of Kapur, Mashashalu, Masesyla, which
+     is wanting in this inscription, is supplied from a parallel
+     inscription.
+
+     * The Castle of Usirmarî-Miamon was “on the mountain of the
+     horn of the world,” which induces me to believe that we must
+     seek its site on the borders of the Libyan desert. The royal
+     title entering into its name being liable to change with
+     every reign, it is possible that we have an earlier
+     reference to this stronghold in a mutilated passage of the
+     Athribis Stele, which relates to the campaigns of Mînephtah;
+     it must have commanded one of the most frequented routes
+     leading to the oasis of Amon.
+
+[Illustration: 314.jpg RAMSES III. BINDS THE CHIEFS OF THE LIBYANS]
+
+     From a photograph by Beato.
+
+Two thousand and seventy-five Libyans were left upon the ground that
+day, two thousand and fifty-two perished in other engagements, while
+two thousand and thirty-two, both male and female, were made prisoners.
+These were almost irreparable losses for a people of necessarily small
+numbers, and if we add the number of those who had succumbed in the
+disaster of six years before, we can readily realise how discouraged
+the invaders must have been, and how little likely they were to try the
+fortune of war once more. Their power dwindled and vanished almost as
+quickly as it had arisen; the provisional cohesion given to their forces
+by a few ambitious chiefs broke up after their repeated defeats, and
+the rudiments of an empire which had struck terror into the Pharaohs,
+resolved itself into its primitive elements, a number of tribes
+scattered over the desert. They were driven back beyond the Libyan
+mountains; fortresses* guarded the routes they had previously followed,
+and they were obliged henceforward to renounce any hope of an invasion
+_en masse_, and to content themselves with a few raiding expeditions
+into the fertile plain of the Delta, where they had formerly found a
+transitory halting-place. Counter-raids organised by the local troops
+or by the mercenaries who garrisoned the principal towns in the
+neighbourhood of Memphis--Hermopolis and Thinisl--inflicted punishment
+upon them when they became too audacious. Their tribes, henceforward,
+as far as Egypt was concerned, formed a kind of reserve from which the
+Pharaoh could raise soldiers every year, and draw sufficient materials
+to bring his army up to fighting strength when internal revolt or an
+invasion from without called for military activity.
+
+     * _The Great Harris Papyrus_ speaks of fortifications
+     erected in the towns of Anhûri-Shû, possibly Thinis, and of
+     Thot, possibly Hermopolis, in order to repel the tribes of
+     the Tihonu who were ceaselessly harassing the frontier.
+
+[Illustration: 318.jpg THE PRINCE OF THE KHATI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken at Medinet-
+     Habu.
+
+The campaign of the XIth year brought to an end the great military
+expeditions of Ramses III. Henceforward he never took the lead in any
+more serious military enterprise than that of repressing the Bedawin of
+Seîr for acts of brigandage,* or the Ethiopians for some similar
+reason. He confined his attention to the maintenance of commercial and
+industrial relations with manufacturing countries, and with the
+markets of Asia and Africa. He strengthened the garrisons of Sinai, and
+encouraged the working of the ancient mines in that region. He sent a
+colony of quarry-men and of smelters to the land of Atika, in order to
+work the veins of silver which were alleged to exist there.**
+
+     *The Sâîrû of the Egyptian texts have been identified with
+     the Bedawin of Seîr.
+
+     ** This is the Gebel-Ataka of our day. All this district is
+     imperfectly explored, but we know that it contains mines and
+     quarries some of which were worked as late as in the time of
+     the Mameluk Sultans.
+
+He launched a fleet on the Red Sea, and sent it to the countries of
+fragrant spices. “The captains of the sailors were there, together with
+the chiefs of the _corvée_ and accountants, to provide provision” for
+the people of the Divine Lands “from the innumerable products of Egypt;
+and these products were counted by myriads. Sailing through the great
+sea of Qodi, they arrived at Pûântt without mishap, and there collected
+cargoes for their galleys and ships, consisting of all the unknown
+marvels of Tonûtir, as well as considerable quantities of the perfumes
+of Pûâtîn, which they stowed on board by tens of thousands without
+number. The sons of the princes of Tonûtir came themselves into Qîmit
+with their tributes. They reached the region of Coptos safe and sound,
+and disembarked there in peace with their riches.” It was somewhere
+about Sau and Tuau that the merchants and royal officers landed,
+following the example of the expeditions of the XIIth and XVIIIth
+dynasties. Here they organised caravans of asses and slaves, which
+taking the shortest route across the mountain--that of the valley of
+Rahanû--carried the precious commodities to Coptos, whence they were
+transferred to boats and distributed along the river. The erection
+of public buildings, which had been interrupted since the time of
+Mînephtah, began again with renewed activity. The captives in the recent
+victories furnished the requisite labour, while the mines, the voyages
+to the Somali coast, and the tributes of vassals provided the necessary
+money. Syria was not lost sight of in this resumption of peaceful
+occupations. The overthrow of the Khâti secured Egyptian rule in this
+region, and promised a long tranquillity within its borders. One temple
+at least was erected in the country--that of Pa-kanâna--where the
+princes of Kharu were to assemble to offer worship to the Pharaoh, and
+to pay each one his quota of the general tribute. The Pulasati were
+employed to protect the caravan routes, and a vast reservoir was
+erected near Aîna to provide a store of water for the irrigation of the
+neighbouring country. The Delta absorbed the greater part of the royal
+subsidies; it had suffered so much from the Libyan incursions, that the
+majority of the towns within it had fallen into a condition as
+miserable as that in which they were at the time of the expulsion of the
+Shepherds. Heliopolis, Bubastis, Thmuis, Amû, and Tanis still preserved
+some remains of the buildings which had already been erected in them
+by Ramses; he constructed also, at the place at present called Tel
+el-Yahûdîyeh, a royal palace of limestone, granite, and alabaster, of
+which the type is unique amongst all the structures hitherto discovered.
+Its walls and columns were not ornamented with the usual sculptures
+incised in stone, but the whole of the decorations--scenes as well
+as inscriptions--consisted of plaques of enamelled terra-cotta set
+in cement. The forms of men and animals and the lines of hieroglyphs,
+standing out in slight relief from a glazed and warm-coloured
+background, constitute an immense mosaic-work of many hues. The few
+remains of the work show great purity of design and an extraordinary
+delicacy of tone.
+
+[Illustration: 320.jpg SIGNS, ARMS AND INSTRUMENTS]
+
+All the knowledge of the Egyptian painters, and all the technical skill
+of their artificers in ceramic, must have been employed to compose such
+harmoniously balanced decorations, with their free handling of line and
+colour, and their thousands of rosettes, squares, stars, and buttons of
+varicoloured pastes.*
+
+     * This temple has been known since the beginning of the
+     nineteenth century, and the Louvre is in possession of some
+     fragments from it which came from Salt’s collection; it was
+     rediscovered in 1870, and some portions of it were
+     transferred by Mariette to the Boulaq Museum. The remainder
+     was destroyed by the fellahîn, at the instigation of the
+     enlightened amateurs of Cairo, and fragments of it have
+     passed into various private collections. The decoration has
+     been attributed to Chaldoan influence, but it is a work
+     purely Egyptian, both in style and in technique.
+
+[Illustration: 321.jpg THE COLOSSAL OSIRIAN FIGURES in THE FIRST COURT
+AT MEDINET-HABU]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+The difficulties to overcome were so appalling, that when the marvellous
+work was once accomplished, no subsequent attempt was made to construct
+a second like it: all the remaining structures of Ramses III., whether
+at Memphis, in the neighbourhood of Abydos, or at Karnak, were in the
+conventional style of the Pharaohs. He determined, nevertheless, to give
+to the exterior of the Memnonium, which he built near Medinet-Habu for
+the worship of himself, the proportions and appearance of an Asiatic
+“Migdol,” influenced probably by his remembrance of similar structures
+which he had seen during his Syrian campaign. The chapel itself is of
+the ordinary type, with its gigantic pylons, its courts surrounded by
+columns--each supporting a colossal Osirian statue--its hypostyle
+hall, and its mysterious cells for the deposit of spoils taken from the
+peoples of the sea and the cities of Asia. His tomb was concealed at a
+distant spot in the Biban-el-Moluk, and we see depicted on its walls the
+same scenes that we find in the last resting-place of Seti I. or Ramses
+II., and in addition to them, in a series of supplementary chambers, the
+arms of the sovereign, his standards, his treasure, his kitchen, and the
+preparation of offerings which were to be made to him. His sarcophagus,
+cut out of an enormous block of granite, was brought for sale to Europe
+at the beginning of this century, and Cambridge obtained possession of
+its cover, while the Louvre secured the receptacle itself.
+
+These were years of profound tranquillity. The Pharaoh intended that
+absolute order should reign throughout his realm, and that justice
+should be dispensed impartially within it.
+
+[Illustration: 322.jpg THE FIRST PYLON OF THE TEMPLE]
+
+There were to be no more exactions, no more crying iniquities: whoever
+was discovered oppressing the people, no matter whether he were court
+official or feudal lord--was instantly deprived of his functions,
+and replaced by an administrator of tried integrity. Ramses boasts,
+moreover, in an idyllic manner, of having planted trees everywhere, and
+of having built arbours wherein the people might sit in the shade in the
+open air; while women might go to and fro where they would in security,
+no one daring to insult them on the way. The Shardanian and Libyan
+mercenaries were restricted to the castles which they garrisoned, and
+were subjected to such a severe discipline that no one had any cause of
+complaint against these armed barbarians settled in the heart of Egypt.
+“I have,” continues the king, “lifted up every miserable one out of his
+misfortune, I have granted life to him, I have saved him from the mighty
+who were oppressing him, and have secured rest for every one in his own
+town.” The details of the description are exaggerated, but the general
+import of it is true. Egypt had recovered the peace and prosperity of
+which it had been deprived for at least half a century, that is, since
+the death of Mînephtah. The king, however, was not in such a happy
+condition as his people, and court intrigues embittered the later years
+of his life. One of his sons, whose name is unknown to us, but who is
+designated in the official records by the nickname of Pentaûîrît, formed
+a conspiracy against him. His mother, Tîi, who was a woman of secondary
+rank, took it into her head to secure the crown for him, to the
+detriment of the children of Queen Isît. An extensive plot was hatched
+in which scribes, officers of the guard, priests, and officials in
+high place, both natives and foreigners, were involved. A resort to
+the supernatural was at first attempted, and the superintendent of the
+Herds, a certain Panhûibaûnû, who was deeply versed in magic, undertook
+to cast a spell upon the Pharaoh, if he could only procure certain
+conjuring books of which he was not possessed. These were found to be
+in the royal library. He managed to introduce himself under cover of the
+night into the harem, where he manufactured certain waxen figures, of
+which some were to excite the hate of his wives against their husband,
+while others would cause him to waste away and finally perish. A traitor
+betrayed several of the conspirators, who, being subjected to the
+torture, informed upon others, and these at length brought the matter
+home to Pentaûîrît and his immediate accomplices. All were brought
+before a commission of twelve members, summoned expressly to try the
+case, and the result was the condemnation and execution of six women and
+some forty men. The extreme penalty of the Egyptian code was reserved
+for Pentaûîrît, and for the most culpable,--“they died of themselves,”
+ and the meaning of this phrase is indicated, I believe, by the
+appearance of one of the mummies disinterred at Deîr el-Baharî.* The
+coffin in which it was placed was very plain, painted white and without
+inscription; the customary removal of entrails had not been effected,
+but the body was covered with a thick layer of natron, which was applied
+even to the skin itself and secured by wrappings.
+
+     * The translations by Dévéria, Lepage-Renouf, and Erman
+     agree in making it a case of judicial suicide: there was
+     left to the condemned a choice of his mode of death, in
+     order to avoid the scandal of a public execution. It is also
+     possible to make it a condemnation to death in person, which
+     did not allow of the substitution of a proxy willing, for a
+     payment to his family, to undergo death in place of the
+     condemned; but, unfortunately, no other text is to be found
+     supporting the existence of such a practice in Egypt.
+
+It makes one’s flesh creep to look at it: the hands and feet are tied
+by strong bands, and are curled up as if under an intolerable pain;
+the abdomen is drawn up, the stomach projects like a ball, the chest is
+contracted, the head is thrown back, the face is contorted in a hideous
+grimace, the retracted lips expose the teeth, and the mouth is open as
+if to give utterance to a last despairing cry. The conviction is
+borne in upon us that the man was invested while still alive with the
+wrappings of the dead. Is this the mummy of Pentaûîrît, or of some
+other prince as culpable as he was, and condemned to this frightful
+punishment? In order to prevent the recurrence of such wicked plots,
+Pharaoh resolved to share his throne with that one of his sons who had
+most right to it. In the XXXIInd year of his reign he called together
+his military and civil chiefs, the generals of the foreign mercenaries,
+the Shardana, the priests, and the nobles of the court, and presented
+to them, according to custom, his heir-designate, who was also called
+Ramses. He placed the double crown upon his brow, and seated him beside
+himself upon the throne of Horus. This was an occasion for the Pharaoh
+to bring to remembrance all the great exploits he had performed during
+his reign--his triumphs over the Libyans and over the peoples of the
+sea, and the riches he had lavished upon the gods: at the end of the
+enumeration he exhorted those who were present to observe the same
+fidelity towards the son which they had observed towards the father, and
+to serve the new sovereign as valiantly as they had served himself.
+
+[Illustration: 327.jpg THE MUMMY OF RAMSES III.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a, photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+
+The joint reign lasted for only four years. Ramses III. was not
+much over sixty years of age when he died. He was still vigorous and
+muscular, but he had become stout and heavy. The fatty matter of the
+body having been dissolved by the natron in the process of embalming,
+the skin distended during life has gathered up into enormous loose
+folds, especially about the nape of the neck, under the chin, on the
+hips, and at the articulations of the limbs. The closely shaven head and
+cheeks present no trace of hair or beard. The forehead, although neither
+broad nor high, is better proportioned than that of Ramses II.; the
+supra-orbital ridges are less accentuated than his, the cheek-bones not
+so prominent, the nose not so arched, and the chin and jaw less massive.
+The eyes were perhaps larger, but no opinion can be offered on this
+point, for the eyelids have been cut away, and the cleared-out cavities
+have been filled with rags. The ears do not stand out so far from the
+head as those of Ramses II., but they have been pierced for ear-rings.
+The mouth, large by nature, has been still further widened in the
+process of embalming, owing to the awkwardness of the operator, who
+has cut into the cheeks at the side. The thin lips allow the white and
+regular teeth to be seen; the first molar on the right has been either
+broken in half, or has worn away more rapidly than the rest. Ramses III.
+seems, on the whole, to have been a sort of reduced copy, a little
+more delicate in make, of Ramses II.; his face shows more subtlety
+of expression and intelligence, though less nobility than that of the
+latter, while his figure is not so upright, his shoulders not so
+broad, and his general muscular vigour less. What has been said of
+his personality may be extended to his reign; it was evidently and
+designedly an imitation of the reign of Ramses IL, but fell short of its
+model owing to the insufficiency of his resources in men and money. If
+Ramses III. did not succeed in becoming one of the most powerful of the
+Theban Pharaohs, it was not for lack of energy or ability; the depressed
+condition of Egypt at the time limited the success of his endeavours and
+caused them to fall short of his intentions. The work accomplished by
+him was not on this account less glorious. At his accession Egypt was
+in a wretched state, invaded on the west, threatened by a flood
+of barbarians on the east, without an army or a fleet, and with no
+resources in the treasury. In fifteen years he had disposed of his
+inconvenient neighbours, organised an army, constructed a fleet,
+re-established his authority abroad, and settled the administration
+at home on so firm a basis, that the country owed the peace which it
+enjoyed for several centuries to the institutions and prestige which
+he had given it. His associate in the government, Ramses IV., barely
+survived him. Then followed a series of _rois fainéants_ bearing the
+name of Ramses, but in an order not yet clearly determined. It is
+generally assumed that Ramses V., brother of Ramses III., succeeded
+Ramses IV. by supplanting his nephews--who, however, appear to have
+soon re-established their claim to the throne, and to have followed each
+other in rapid succession as Ramses VI., Ramses VIL, Ramses VIII., and
+Maritûmû.* Others endeavour to make out that Ramses V. was the son of
+Ramses IV., and that the prince called Ramses VI. never succeeded to the
+throne at all. At any rate, his son, who is styled Ramses VIL, but who
+is asserted by some to have been a son of Ramses III., is considered to
+have succeeded Ramses V., and to have become the ancestor from whom the
+later Ramessides traced their descent.**
+
+     * The order of the Ramessides was first made out by
+     Champollion the younger and by Rosellini. Bunsen and Lepsius
+     reckon in it thirteen kings; E. de Rougé puts the number at
+     fifteen or sixteen; Maspero makes the number to be twelve,
+     which was reduced still further by Setho. Erman thinks that
+     Ramses IX. and Ramses X. were also possibly sons of Ramses
+     III.; he consequently declines to recognise King Maritûmû as
+     a son of that sovereign, as Brugsch would make out.
+
+     * The monuments of these later Ramessides are so rare and so
+     doubtful that I cannot yet see my way to a solution of the
+     questions which they raise.
+
+The short reigns of these Pharaohs were marked by no events which would
+cast lustre on their names; one might say that they had nothing else to
+do than to enjoy peacefully the riches accumulated by their forefather.
+Ramses IV. was anxious to profit by the commercial relations which
+had been again established between Egypt and Puanît, and, in order to
+facilitate the transit between Coptos and Kosseir, founded a station,
+and a temple dedicated to Isis, in the mountain of Bakhni; by this
+route, we learn, more than eight thousand men had passed under the
+auspices of the high priest of Amon, Nakh-tû-ramses. This is the only
+undertaking of public utility which we can attribute to any of these
+kings. As we see them in their statues and portraits, they are heavy
+and squat and without refinement, with protruding eyes, thick lips,
+flattened and commonplace noses, round and expressionless faces. Their
+work was confined to the engraving of their cartouches on the blank
+spaces of the temples at Karnak and Medinet-Habu, and the addition of a
+few stones to the buildings at Memphis, Abydos, and Heliopolis. Whatever
+energy and means they possessed were expended on the construction of
+their magnificent tombs.
+
+[Illustration: 331.jpg A RAMSES OF THE XXth DYNASTY]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey. This is the Ramses VI. of the series now generally
+     adopted.
+
+These may still be seen in the Biban el-Moluk, and no visitor can
+refrain from admiring them for their magnitude and decoration. As to
+funerary chapels, owing to the shortness of the reigns of these kings,
+there was not time to construct them, and they therefore made up for
+this want by appropriating the chapel of their father, which was at
+Medinet-Habu, and it was here consequently that their worship was
+maintained. The last of the sons of Ramses III. was succeeded by another
+and equally ephemeral Ramses; after whom came Ramses X. and Ramses XI.,
+who re-established the tradition of more lasting reigns. There was
+now no need of expeditions against Kharu or Libya, for these enfeebled
+countries no longer disputed, from the force of custom, the authority of
+Egypt. From time to time an embassy from these countries would arrive at
+Thebes, bringing presents, which were pompously recorded as representing
+so much tribute.* If it is true that a people which has no history
+is happy, then Egypt ought to be reckoned as more fortunate under the
+feebler descendants of Ramses III. than it had ever been under the most
+famous Pharaohs.
+
+     * The mention of a tribute, for instance, in the time of
+     Ramses IV. from the Lotanu.
+
+Thebes continued to be the favourite royal residence. Here in its temple
+the kings were crowned, and in its palaces they passed the greater part
+of their lives, and here in its valley of sepulchres they were laid
+to rest when their reigns and lives were ended. The small city of the
+beginning of the XVIIIth dynasty had long encroached upon the plain, and
+was now transformed into an immense town, with magnificent monuments,
+and a motley population, having absorbed in its extension the villages
+of Ashirû,* and Madit, and even the southern Apît, which we now call
+Luxor. But their walls could still be seen, rising up in the middle of
+modern constructions, a memorial of the heroic ages, when the power of
+the Theban princes was trembling in the balance, and when conflicts with
+the neighbouring barons or with the legitimate king were on the point of
+breaking out at every moment.**
+
+     * The village of Ashirû was situated to the south of the
+     temple of Karnak, close to the temple of Mût. Its ruins,
+     containing the statues of Sokhît collected by Amenôthes III.,
+     extend around the remains marked X in Mariette’s plan.
+
+     * These are the walls which are generally regarded as
+     marking the sacred enclosure of the temples: an examination
+     of the ruins of Thebes shows us that, during the XXth and
+     XXIst dynasties, brick-built houses lay against these walls
+     both on the inner and outer sides, so that they must have
+     been half hidden by buildings, as are the ancient walls of
+     Paris at the present day.
+
+The inhabitants of Apît retained their walls, which coincided almost
+exactly with the boundary of Nsîttauî, the great sanctuary of Amon;
+Ashirû sheltered behind its ramparts the temple of Mût, while Apît-rîsît
+clustered around a building consecrated by Amenôthes III. to his divine
+father, the lord of Thebes. Within the boundary walls of Thebes extended
+whole suburbs, more or less densely populated and prosperous, through
+which ran avenues of sphinxes connecting together the three chief
+boroughs of which the sovereign city was composed. On every side might
+have been seen the same collections of low grey huts, separated from
+each other by some muddy pool where the cattle were wont to drink
+and the women to draw water; long streets lined with high houses,
+irregularly shaped open spaces, bazaars, gardens, courtyards, and
+shabby-looking palaces which, while presenting a plain and unadorned
+exterior, contained within them the refinements of luxury and the
+comforts of wealth. The population did not exceed a hundred thousand
+souls,* reckoning a large proportion of foreigners attracted hither by
+commerce or held as slaves.
+
+     * Letronne, after having shown that we have no authentic
+     ancient document giving us the population, fixes it at
+     200,000 souls. My estimate, which is, if anything,
+     exaggerated, is based on the comparison of the area of
+     ancient Thebes and that of such modern towns as Shit, Girgeh
+     and Qina, whose populations are known for the last fifty
+     years from the census.
+
+[Illustration: 334.jpg MAP: THEBES IN THE XXTH DYNASTY]
+
+The court of the Pharaoh drew to the city numerous provincials, who,
+coming thither to seek their fortune, took up their abode there,
+planting in the capital of Southern Egypt types from the north and
+the centre of the country, as well as from Nubia and the Oases; such a
+continuous infusion of foreign material into the ancient Theban stock
+gave rise to families of a highly mixed character, in which all the
+various races of Egypt were blended in the most capricious fashion. In
+every twenty officers, and in the same number of ordinary officials,
+about half would be either Syrians, or recently naturalised Nubians, or
+the descendants of both, and among the citizens such names as Pakhari
+the Syrian, Palamnanî the native of the Lebanon, Pinahsî the negro,
+Palasiaî the Alasian, preserved the indications of foreign origin.*
+A similar mixture of races was found in other cities, and Memphis,
+Bubastis, Tanis, and Siût must have presented as striking an aspect
+in this respect as Thebes.** At Memphis there were regular colonies of
+Phoenician, Canaanite, and Amorite merchants sufficiently prosperous
+to have temples there to their national gods, and influential enough to
+gain adherents to their religion from the indigenous inhabitants. They
+worshipped Baal, Anîti. Baal-Zaphuna, and Ashtoreth, side by side with
+Phtah, Nofîrtûmû, and Sokhit,*** and this condition of things at Memphis
+was possibly paralleled elsewhere--as at Tanis and Bubastis.
+
+     * Among the forty-three individuals compromised in the
+     conspiracy against Ramses III. whose names have been
+     examined by Dévéria, nine are foreigners, chiefly Semites,
+     and were so recognised by the Egyptians themselves--Adiram,
+     Balmahara, Garapusa, lunîni the Libyan, Paiarisalama,
+     possibly the Jerusalemite, Nanaiu, possibly the Ninevite,
+     Palulca the Lycian, Qadendena, and Uarana or Naramu.
+
+     ** An examination of the stelæ of Abydos shows the extent of
+     foreign influence in this city in the middle of the
+     XVIIIth dynasty.
+
+     *** These gods are mentioned in the preamble of a letter
+     written on the _verso_ of the _Sallier Papyrus_. From the
+     mode in which they are introduced we may rightly infer that
+     they had, like the Egyptian gods who are mentioned with
+     them, their chapels at Memphis. A place in Memphis is called
+     “the district called the district of the Khâtiû” is an
+     inscription of the IIIth year of Aï, and shows that Hittites
+     were there by the side of Canaanites.
+
+This blending of races was probably not so extensive in the country
+districts, except in places where mercenaries were employed as
+garrisons; but Sudanese or Hittite slaves, brought back by the soldiers
+of the ranks, had introduced Ethiopian and Asiatic elements into many a
+family of the fellahîn.*
+
+     * One of the letters in the Great Bologna Papyrus treats of
+     a Syrian slave, employed as a cultivator at Hermopolis, who
+     had run away from his master.
+
+We have only to examine in any of our museums the statues of the
+Memphite and Theban periods respectively, to see the contrast between
+the individuals represented in them as far as regards stature and
+appearance. Some members of the courts of the Ramessides stand out as
+genuine Semites notwithstanding the disguise of their Egyptian names;
+and in the times of Kheops and Ûsirtasen they would have been regarded
+as barbarians. Many of them exhibit on their faces a blending of the
+distinctive features of one or other of the predominant Oriental races
+of the time. Additional evidence of a mixture of races is forthcoming
+when we examine with an unbiased mind the mummies of the period, and
+the complexity of the new elements introduced among the people by the
+political movements of the later centuries is thus strongly confirmed.
+The new-comers had all been absorbed and assimilated by the country, but
+the generations which arose from this continual cross-breeding, while
+representing externally the Egyptians of older epochs, in manners,
+language, and religion, were at bottom something different, and
+the difference became the more accentuated as the foreign elements
+increased. The people were thus gradually divested of the character
+which had distinguished them before the conquest of Syria; the
+dispositions and defects imported from without counteracted to such
+an extent their own native dispositions and defects that all marks of
+individuality were effaced and nullified. The race tended to become more
+and more what it long continued to be afterwards,--a lifeless and inert
+mass, without individual energy--endowed, it is true, with patience,
+endurance, cheerfulness of temperament, and good nature, but with little
+power of self-government, and thus forced to submit to foreign masters
+who made use of it and oppressed it without pity.
+
+The upper classes had degenerated as much as the masses. The feudal
+nobles who had expelled the Shepherds, and carried the frontiers of
+the empire to the banks of the Euphrates, seemed to have expended their
+energies in the effort, and to have almost ceased to exist. As long as
+Egypt was restricted to the Nile valley, there was no such disproportion
+between the power of the Pharaoh and that of his feudatories as to
+prevent the latter from maintaining their privileges beside, and, when
+occasion arose, even against the monarch. The conquest of Asia, while it
+compelled them either to take up arms themselves or to send their
+troops to a distance, accustomed them and their soldiers to a passive
+obedience. The maintenance of a strict discipline in the army was the
+first condition of successful campaigning at great distances from the
+mother country and in the midst of hostile people, and the unquestioning
+respect which they had to pay to the orders of their general prepared
+them for abject submission to the will of their sovereign. To their
+bravery, moveover, they owed not only money and slaves, but also
+necklaces and bracelets of honour, and distinctions and offices in
+the Pharaonic administration. The king, in addition, neglected no
+opportunity for securing their devotion to himself. He gave to them
+in marriage his sisters, his daughters, his cousins, and any of the
+princesses whom he was not compelled by law to make his own wives. He
+selected from their harems nursing-mothers for his own sons, and this
+choice established between him and them a foster relationship, which
+was as binding among the Egyptians and other Oriental peoples as one of
+blood. It was not even necessary for the establishment of this relation
+that the foster-mother’s connexion with the Pharaoh’s son should be
+durable or even effective: the woman had only to offer her breast to
+the child for a moment, and this symbol was quite enough to make her his
+nurse--his true _monâît_. This fictitious fosterage was carried so far,
+that it was even made use of in the case of youths and persons of mature
+age. When an Egyptian woman wished to adopt an adult, the law prescribed
+that she should offer him the breast, and from that moment he became her
+son. A similar ceremony was prescribed in the case of men who wished to
+assume the quality of male nurse--_monâî_--or even, indeed, of female
+nurse--_monâît_--like that of their wives; according to which they were
+to place, it would seem, the end of one of their fingers in the mouth
+of the child.* Once this affinity was established, the fidelity of these
+feudal lords was established beyond question; and their official duties
+to the sovereign were not considered as accomplished when they had
+fulfilled their military obligations, for they continued to serve him in
+the palace as they had served him on the field. Wherever the necessities
+of the government called them--at Memphis, at Ramses, or elsewhere--they
+assembled around the Pharaoh; like him they had their palaces at Thebes,
+and when they died they were anxious to be buried there beside him.**
+
+     * These symbolical modes of adoption were first pointed out
+     by Maspero. Legend has given examples of them: as, for
+     instance, where Isis fosters the child of Malkander, King of
+     Byblos, by inserting the tip of her finger in its mouth.
+
+     ** The tomb of a prince of Tobûî, the lesser Aphroditopolis,
+     was discovered at Thebes by Maspero. The rock-out tombs of
+     two Thinite princes were noted in the same necropolis. These
+     two were of the time of Thûtmosis III. I have remarked in
+     tombs not yet made public the mention of princes of El-Kab,
+     who played an important part about the person of the
+     Pharaohs down to the beginning of the XXth dynasty.
+
+Many of the old houses had become extinct, while others, owing to
+marriages, were absorbed into the royal family; the fiefs conceded to
+the relations or favourites of the Pharaoh continued to exist, indeed,
+as of old, but the ancient distrustful and turbulent feudality had given
+place to an aristocracy of courtiers, who lived oftener in attendance on
+the monarch than on their own estates, and whose authority continued to
+diminish to the profit of the absolute rule of the king. There would
+be nothing astonishing in the “count” becoming nothing more than a
+governor, hereditary or otherwise, in Thebes itself; he could hardly be
+anything higher in the capital of the empire.* But the same restriction
+of authority was evidenced in all the provinces: the recruiting of
+soldiers, the receipt of taxes, most of the offices associated with the
+civil or military administration, became more and more affairs of the
+State, and passed from the hands of the feudal lord into those of the
+functionaries of the Crown. The few barons who still lived on their
+estates, while they were thus dispossessed of the greater part of their
+prerogatives, obtained some compensation, on the other hand, on the side
+of religion. From early times they had been by birth the heads of the
+local cults, and their protocol had contained, together with those
+titles which justified their possession of the temporalities of the
+nome, others which attributed to them spiritual supremacy. The sacred
+character with which they were invested became more and more prominent
+in proportion as their political influence became curtailed, and we find
+scions of the old warlike families or representatives of a new lineage
+at Thinis, at Akhmîm,** in the nome of Baalû, at Hierâconpolis,***
+at El-Kab,**** and in every place where we have information from the
+monuments as to their position, bestowing more concern upon their
+sacerdotal than on their other duties.
+
+     * Rakhmirî and his son Manakhpirsonbû were both “counts “of
+     Thebes under Thûtmosis III., and there is nothing to show
+     that there was any other person among them invested with the
+     same functions and belonging to a different family.
+
+     ** For example, the tomb of Anhûrimôsû, high priest of
+     Anhuri-Shû and prince of Thinis, under Mînephtah, where the
+     sacerdotal character is almost exclusively prominent. The
+     same is the case with the tombs of the princes of Akhmîm in
+     the time of Khûniatonû and his successors: the few still
+     existing in 1884-5 have not been published. The stelæ
+     belonging to them are at Paris and Berlin.
+
+     *** Horimôsû, Prince of Hierâconpolis under Thûtmosis III.,
+     is, above everything else, a prophet of the local Horus.
+
+     **** The princes of El-Kab during the XIXth and XXth
+     dynasties were, before everything, priests of Nekhabit, as
+     appears from an examination of their tombs, which, lying in
+     a side valley, far away from the tomb of Pihirî, are rarely
+     visited.
+
+This transfiguration of the functions of the barons, which had been
+completed under the XIXth and XXth dynasties, corresponded with a
+more general movement by which the Pharaohs themselves were driven to
+accentuate their official position as high priests, and to assign to
+their sons sacerdotal functions in relation to the principal deities.
+This rekindling of religious fervour would not, doubtless, have
+restrained military zeal in case of war;* but if it did not tend to
+suppress entirely individual bravery, it discouraged the taste for arms
+and for the bold adventures which had characterised the old feudality.
+
+     * The sons of Ramses II., Khâmoîsît and Marîtùmû, were bravo
+     warriors in spite of their being high priests of Phtah at
+     Memphis, and of Râ at Heliopolis.
+
+The duties of sacrificing, of offering prayer, of celebrating the sacred
+rites according to the prescribed forms, and rendering due homage to the
+gods in the manner they demanded, were of such an exactingly scrupulous
+and complex character that the Pharaohs and the lords of earlier times
+had to assign them to men specially fitted for, and appointed to, the
+task; now that they had assumed these absorbing functions themselves,
+they were obliged to delegate to others an increasingly greater
+proportion of their civil and military duties. Thus, while the king
+and his great vassals were devoutly occupying themselves in matters of
+worship and theology, generals by profession were relieving them of
+the care of commanding their armies; and as these individuals were
+frequently the chiefs of Ethiopian, Asiatic, and especially of Libyan
+bands, military authority, and, with it, predominant influence in the
+State were quickly passing into the hands of the barbarians. A sort of
+aristocracy of veterans, notably of Shardana or Mashauasha, entirely
+devoted to arms, grew up and increased gradually side by side with the
+ancient noble families, now by preference devoted to the priesthood.*
+
+     * This military aristocracy was fully developed in the XXIst
+     and XXIInd dynasties, but it began to take shape after
+     Ramses III. had planted the Shardana and Qahaka in certain
+     towns as garrisons.
+
+The barons, whether of ancient or modern lineage, were possessed of
+immense wealth, especially those of priestly families. The tribute and
+spoil of Asia and Africa, when once it had reached Egypt, hardly ever
+left it: they were distributed among the population in proportion to the
+position occupied by the recipients in the social scale. The commanders
+of the troops, the attendants on the king, the administrators of the
+palace and temples, absorbed the greater part, but the distribution
+was carried down to the private soldier and his relations in town or
+country, who received some of the crumbs. When we remember for a moment
+the four centuries and more during which Egypt had been reaping the
+fruits of her foreign conquest, we cannot think without amazement of
+the quantities of gold and other precious metals which must have been
+brought in divers forms into the valley of the Nile.* Every fresh
+expedition made additions to these riches, and one is at a loss to know
+whence in the intervals between two defeats the conquered could procure
+so much wealth, and why the sources were never exhausted nor became
+impoverished. This flow of metals had an influence upon commercial
+transactions, for although trade was still mainly carried on by barter,
+the mode of operation was becoming changed appreciably. In exchanging
+commodities, frequent use was now made of rings and ingots of a certain
+prescribed weight in _tabonû_; and it became more and more the custom
+to pay for goods by a certain number of _tabonû_ of gold, silver, or
+copper, rather than by other commodities: it was the practice even
+to note down in invoices or in the official receipts, alongside the
+products or manufactured articles with which payments were made, the
+value of the same in weighed metal.**
+
+     * The quantity of gold in ingots or rings, mentioned in the
+     _Annals of Tkutmosis III._, represents altogether a weight
+     of nearly a ton and a quarter, or in value some £140,000 of
+     our money. And this is far from being the whole of the metal
+     obtained from the enemy, for a large portion of the
+     inscription has disappeared, and the unrecorded amount might
+     be taken, without much risk of error, at as much as that of
+     which we have evidence--say, some two and a half tons,
+     which Thûtmosis had received or brought back between the
+     years XXIII. and XLII. of his reign--an estimation rather
+     under than over the reality. These figures, moreover, take
+     no account of the vessels and statues, or of the furniture
+     and arms plated with gold. Silver was not received in such
+     large quantities, but it was of great value, and the like
+     may be said of copper and lead.
+
+     * The facts justifying this position were observed and put
+     together for the first time by Chabas: a translation is
+     given in his memoir of a register of the XXth or XXIst
+     dynasty, which gives the price of butcher’s meat, both in
+     gold and silver, at this date. Fresh examples have been
+     since collected by Spiegelberg, who has succeeded in drawing
+     up a kind of tariff for the period between the XVIIIth and
+     XXth dynasties.
+
+This custom, although not yet widely extended, placed at the disposal
+of trade enormous masses of metal, which were preserved in the form of
+ingots or bricks, except the portion which went to the manufacture of
+rings, jewellery, or valuable vessels.*
+
+     * There are depicted on the monuments bags or heaps of gold
+     dust, ingots in the shape of bricks, rings, and vases,
+     arranged alongside each other.
+
+The general prosperity encouraged a passion for goldsmith’s work, and
+the use of bracelets, necklaces, and chains became common among classes
+of the people who were not previously accustomed to wear them. There was
+henceforward no scribe or merchant, however poor he might be, who had
+not his seal made of gold or silver, or at any rate of copper gilt. The
+stone was sometimes fixed, but frequently arranged so as to turn round
+on a pivot; while among people of superior rank it had some emblem
+or device upon it, such as a scorpion, a sparrow-hawk, a lion, or
+a cynocephalous monkey. Chains occupied the same position among the
+ornaments of Egyptian women as rings among men; they were indispensable
+decorations. Examples of silver chains are known of some five feet
+in length, while others do not exceed two to three inches. There are
+specimens in gold of all sizes, single, double, and triple, with large
+or small links, some thick and heavy, while others are as slight and
+flexible as the finest Venetian lace. The poorest peasant woman, alike
+with the lady of the court, could boast of the possession of a chain,
+and she must have been in dire poverty who had not some other ornament
+in her jewel-case. The jewellery of Queen Âhhotpû shows to what degree
+of excellence the work of the Egyptian goldsmiths had attained at the
+time of the expulsion of the Nyksôs: they had not only preserved the
+good traditions of the best workmen of the XIIth dynasty, but they had
+perfected the technical details, and had learned to combine form and
+colour with a greater skill. The pectorals of Prince Khâmoîsît and the
+Lord Psaru,now in the Louvre, but which were originally placed in the
+tomb of the Apis in the time of Ramses II., are splendid examples.
+
+[Illustration: 345.jpg PECTORAL OF RAMSES II.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the jewel in the Louvre.
+
+The most common form of these represents in miniature the front of a
+temple with a moulded or flat border, surmounted by a curved cornice.
+In one of them, which was doubtless a present from the king himself, the
+cartouche, containing the first name of the Pharaoh-Usirmari, appears
+just below the frieze, and serves as a centre for the design within the
+frame. The wings of the ram-headed sparrow-hawk, the emblem of Amonrâ,
+are so displayed as to support it, while a large urseus and a vulture
+beneath embracing both the sparrow-hawk and the cartouche with outspread
+wings give the idea of divine protection. Two _didû_, each of them
+filling one of the lower corners, symbolise duration. The framework of
+the design is made up of divisions marked out in gold, and filled either
+with coloured enamels or pieces of polished stone. The general effect is
+one of elegance, refinement, and harmony, the three principal elements
+of the design becoming enlarged from the top downwards in a deftly
+adjusted gradation. The dead-gold of the cartouche in the upper centre
+is set off below by the brightly variegated and slightly undulating band
+of colours of the sparrow-hawk, while the urseus and vulture, associated
+together with one pair of wings, envelope the upper portions in a
+half-circle of enamels, of which the shades pass from red through
+green to a dull blue, with a freedom of handling and a skill in the
+manipulation of colour which do honour to the artist. It was not his
+fault if there is still an element of stiffness in the appearance of the
+pectoral as a whole, for the form which religious tradition had imposed
+upon the jewel was so rigid that no artifice could completely get over
+this defect. It is a type which arose out of the same mental concepts
+as had given birth to Egyptian architecture and sculpture--monumental in
+character, and appearing often as if designed for colossal rather than
+ordinary beings. The dimensions, too overpowering for the decoration of
+normal men or women, would find an appropriate place only on the breasts
+of gigantic statues: the enormous size of the stone figures to which
+alone they are adapted would relieve them, and show them in their proper
+proportions. The artists of the second Theban empire tried all they
+could, however, to get rid of the square framework in which the sacred
+bird is enclosed, and we find examples among the pectorals in the Louvre
+of the sparrow-hawk only with curved wings, or of the ram-headed hawk
+with the wings extended; but in both of them there is displayed the same
+brilliancy, the same purity of line, as in the square-shaped jewels,
+while the design, freed from the trammels of the hampering enamelled
+frame, takes on a more graceful form, and becomes more suitable for
+personal decoration.
+
+[Illustration: 347.jpg THE RAM-HEADED SPARROW-HAWK IN THE LOUVRE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a jewel in the Louvre.
+
+The ram’s head in the second case excels in the beauty of its
+workmanship anything to be found elsewhere in the museums of Europe or
+Egypt. It is of the finest gold, but its value does not depend upon the
+precious material: the ancient engraver knew how to model it with a bold
+and free hand, and he has managed to invest it with as much dignity
+as if he had been carving his subject in heroic size out of a block of
+granite or limestone. It is not an example of pure industrial art, but
+of an art for which a designation is lacking. Other examples, although
+more carefully executed and of more costly materials, do not approach it
+in value: such, for instance, are the earrings of Ramses XII. at
+Gîzeh, which are made up of an ostentatious combination of disks,
+filigree-work, chains, beads, and hanging figures of the urseus.
+
+To get an idea of the character of the plate on the royal sideboards, we
+must have recourse to the sculptures in the temples, or to the paintings
+on the tombs: the engraved gold or silver centrepieces, dishes, bowls,
+cups, and amphoras, if valued by weight only, were too precious to
+escape the avarice of the impoverished generations which followed the
+era of Theban prosperity. In the fabrication of these we can trace
+foreign influences, but not to the extent of a predominance over native
+art: even if the subject to be dealt with by the artist happened to be a
+Phoenician god or an Asiatic prisoner, he was not content with slavishly
+copying his model; he translated it and interpreted it, so as to give it
+an Egyptian character.
+
+The household furniture was in keeping with these precious objects.
+Beds and armchairs in valuable woods, inlaid with ivory, carved, gilt,
+painted in subdued and bright colours, upholstered with mattresses
+and cushions of many-hued Asiatic stuffs, or of home-made materials,
+fashioned after Chaldæan patterns, were in use among the well-to-do,
+while people of moderate means had to be content with old-fashioned
+furniture of the ancient regime.
+
+[Illustration: 348.jpg DECORATED ARMCHAIR]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from one of these objects in the
+     tomb of Ramses III.
+
+The Theban dwelling-house was indeed more sumptuously furnished than the
+earliest Memphite, but we find the same general arrangements in both,
+which provided, in addition to quarters for the masters, a similar
+number of rooms intended for the slaves, for granaries, storehouses, and
+stables. While the outward decoration of life was subject to change,
+the inward element remained unaltered. Costume was a more complex
+matter than in former times: the dresses and lower garments were more
+gauffered, had more embroidery and stripes; the wigs were larger and
+longer, and rose up in capricious arrangements of curls and plaits.
+
+[Illustration: 349.jpg EGYPTIAN WIG]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Mertens.
+
+The use of the chariot had now become a matter of daily custom, and
+the number of domestics, already formidable, was increased by fresh
+additions in the shape of coachmen, grooms, and _saises_, who ran before
+their master to clear a way for the horses through the crowded streets
+of the city.*
+
+     * The pictures at Tel el-Amarna exhibit the king, queen, and
+     princesses driving in their chariots with escorts of
+     soldiers and runners. We often find in the tomb-paintings
+     the chariot and coachman of some dignitary, waiting while
+     their master inspects a field or a workshop, or while he is
+     making a visit to the palace for some reward.
+
+As material, existence became more complex, intellectual life partook of
+the same movement, and, without deviating much from the lines prescribed
+for it by the learned and the scribes of the Memphite age, literature
+had become in the mean time larger, more complicated, more exacting,
+and more difficult to grapple with and to master. It had its classical
+authors, whose writings were committed to memory and taught in the
+schools. These were truly masterpieces, for if some felt that they
+understood and enjoyed them, others found them almost beyond their
+comprehension, and complained bitterly of their obscurity. The later
+writers followed them pretty closely, in taking pains, on the one hand
+to express fresh ideas in the forms consecrated by approved and ancient
+usage, or when they failed to find adequate vehicles to convey new
+thoughts, resorting in their lack of imagination to the foreigner for the
+requisite expressions. The necessity of knowing at least superficially,
+something of the dialect and writings of Asia compelled the Egyptian
+scribes to study to some degree the literature of Phonecia and of
+Chaldæa.
+
+[Illustration: 350.jpg Page Image with Furniture]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from photographs of the objects in
+     the Museums of Berlin and Gîzeh.
+
+From these sources they had borrowed certain formulae and incantation,
+medical recipes, and devout legends, in which the deities of Assyria
+and especially Astartê played the chief part. They appropriated in
+this manner a certain number of words and phrases with which they were
+accustomed to interlard their discourses and writings. They thought it
+polite to call a door no longer by the word _ro_, but the term _tira_,
+and to accompany themselves no longer with the harp _bordt_, but with
+the same instrument under its new name _kinnôr_, and to make the _salâm_
+in saluting the sovereign in place of crying before him, _aaû_. They
+were thorough-going Semiticisers; but one is less offended by their
+affectation when one considers that the number of captives in the
+country, and the intermarriages with Canaanite women, had familiarised a
+portion of the community from childhood with the sounds and ideas of the
+languages from which the scribes were accustomed to borrow unblushingly.
+This artifice, if it served to infuse an appearance of originality into
+their writings, had no influence upon their method of composition. Their
+poetical ideal remained what it had been in the time of their ancestors,
+but seeing that we are now unable to determine the characteristic
+cadence of sentences or the mental attitude which marked each generation
+of literary men, it is often difficult for us to find out the qualities
+in their writings which gave them popularity. A complete library of one
+of the learned in the Ramesside period must have contained a strange
+mixture of works, embracing, in addition to books of devotion, which
+were indispensable to those who were solicitous about their souls,*
+collections of hymns, romances, war and love songs, moral and
+philosophical treatises, letters, and legal documents.
+
+     * There are found in the rubrics of many religious books,
+     for example that dealing with the unseen world, promises of
+     health and prosperity to the soul which, “while still on
+     earth,” had read and learned them. A similar formula appears
+     at the end of several important chapters of the _Book of the
+     Dead._
+
+It would have been similar in character to the literary-possessions of
+an Egyptian of the Memphite period,* but the language in which it was
+written would not have been so stiff and dry, but would have flowed more
+easily, and been more sustained and better balanced.
+
+     * The composition of these libraries may be gathered from
+     the collections of papyri which have turned up from time to
+     time, and have been sold by the Arabs to Europeans buyers;
+     e.g. the Sallier Collection, the Anastasi Collections, and
+     that of Harris. They have found their way eventually into
+     the British Museum or the Museum at Leyden, and have been
+     published in the _Select Papyri_ of the former, or in the
+     _Monuments Égyptiens_ of the latter.
+
+The great odes to the deities which we find in the Theban _papyri_ are
+better fitted, perhaps, than the profane compositions of the period,
+to give us an idea of the advance which Egyptian genius had made in the
+width and richness of its modes of expression, while still maintaining
+almost the same dead-level of idea which had characterised it from the
+outset. Among these, one dedicated to Harmakhis, the sovereign sun, is
+no longer restricted to a bare enumeration of the acts and virtues of
+the “Disk,” but ventures to treat of his daily course and his final
+triumphs in terms which might have been used in describing the
+victorious campaigns or the apotheosis of a Pharaoh. It begins with his
+awakening, at the moment when he has torn himself away from the embraces
+of night. Standing upright in the cabin of the divine bark, “the fair
+boat of millions of years,” with the coils of the serpent Mihni around
+him, he glides in silence on the eternal current of the celestial
+waters, guided and protected by those battalions of secondary deities
+with whose odd forms the monuments have made us familiar. “Heaven is
+in delight, the earth is in joy, gods and men are making festival, to
+render glory to Phrâ-Harmakhis, when they see him arise in his bark,
+having overturned his enemies in his own time!” They accompany him from
+hour to hour, they fight the good fight with him against Apopi, they
+shout aloud as he inflicts each fresh wound upon the monster: they
+do not even abandon him when the west has swallowed him up in its
+darkness.* Some parts of the hymn remind us, in the definiteness of
+the imagery and in the abundance of detail, of a portion of the poem
+of Pentaûîrît, or one of those inscriptions of Ramses III. wherein he
+celebrates the defeat of hordes of Asiatics or Libyans.
+
+     * The remains of Egyptian romantic literature have been
+     collected and translated into French by Maspero, and
+     subsequently into English by Flinders Petrie.
+
+The Egyptians took a delight in listening to stories. They preferred
+tales which dealt with the marvellous and excited their imagination,
+introducing speaking animals, gods in disguise, ghosts and magic. One
+of them tells of a king who was distressed because he had no heir, and
+had no sooner obtained the favour he desired from the gods, than the
+Seven Hathors, the mistresses of Fate, destroyed his happiness by
+predicting that the child would meet with his death by a serpent, a dog,
+or a crocodile. Efforts were made to provide against such a fatality by
+shutting him up in a tower; but no sooner had he grown to man’s estate,
+than he procured himself a dog, went off to wander through the world,
+and married the daughter of the Prince of Naharaim. His fate meets him
+first under the form of a serpent, which is killed by his wife; he is
+next assailed by a crocodile, and the dog kills the crocodile, but as
+the oracles must be fulfilled, the brute turns and despatches his master
+without further consideration. Another story describes two brothers,
+Anûpû and Bitiû, who live happily together on their farm till the wife
+of the elder falls in love with the younger, and on his repulsing her
+advances, she accuses him to her husband of having offered her violence.
+The virtue of the younger brother would not have availed him much,
+had not his animals warned him of danger, and had not Phrâ-Harmakhis
+surrounded him at the critical moment with a stream teeming with
+crocodiles. He mutilates himself to prove his innocence, and announces
+that henceforth he will lead a mysterious existence far from mankind; he
+will retire to the Valley of the Acacia, place his heart on the topmost
+flower of the tree, and no one will be able with impunity to steal it
+from him. The gods, however, who frequent this earth take pity on his
+loneliness, and create for him a wife of such beauty that the Nile falls
+in love with her, and steals a lock of her hair, which is carried by its
+waters down into Egypt. Pharaoh finds the lock, and, intoxicated by
+its scent, commands his people to go in quest of the owner. Having
+discovered the lady, Pharaoh marries her, and ascertaining from her
+who she is, he sends men to cut down the Acacia, but no sooner has the
+flower touched the earth, than Bitiû droops and dies. The elder brother
+is made immediately acquainted with the fact by means of various
+prodigies. The wine poured out to him becomes troubled, his beer leaves
+a deposit. He seizes his shoes and staff and sets out to find the heart.
+
+After a search of seven years he discovers it, and reviving it in a vase
+of water, he puts it into the mouth of the corpse, which at once returns
+to life. Bitiû, from this moment, seeks only to be revenged. He changes
+himself into the bull Apis, and, on being led to court, he reproaches
+the queen with the crime she has committed against him. The queen causes
+his throat to be cut; two drops of his blood fall in front of the gate
+of the palace, and produce in the night two splendid “Persea” trees,
+which renew the accusation in a loud voice. The queen has them cut down,
+but a chip from one of them flies into her mouth, and ere long she gives
+birth to a child who is none other than a reincarnation of Bitiû. When
+the child succeeds to the Pharaoh, he assembles his council, reveals
+himself to them, and punishes with death her who was first his wife
+and subsequently his mother. The hero moves throughout the tale without
+exhibiting any surprise at the strange incidents in which he takes
+part, and, as a matter of fact, they did not seriously outrage the
+probabilities of contemporary life. In every town sorcerers could be
+found who knew how to transform themselves into animals or raise
+the dead to life: we have seen how the accomplices of Pentaûîrît had
+recourse to spells in order to gain admission to the royal palace when
+they desired to rid themselves of Ramses III. The most extravagant
+romances differed from real life merely in collecting within a dozen
+pages more miracles than were customarily supposed to take place in the
+same number of years; it was merely the multiplicity of events, and
+not the events themselves, that gave to the narrative its romantic and
+improbable character. The rank of the heroes alone raised the tale
+out of the region of ordinary life; they are always the sons of kings,
+Syrian princes, or Pharaohs; sometimes we come across a vague and
+undefined Pharaoh, who figures under the title of Pîrûîâûi or Prûîti,
+but more often it is a well-known and illustrious Pharaoh who is
+mentioned by name. It is related how, one day, Kheops, suffering from
+_ennui_ within his palace, assembled his sons in the hope of learning
+from them something which he did not already know. They described to him
+one after another the prodigies performed by celebrated magicians under
+Kanibri and Snofrûi; and at length Mykerinos assured him that there
+was a certain Didi, living then not far from Meîdum, who was capable of
+repeating all the marvels done by former wizards. Most of the Egyptian
+sovereigns were, in the same way, subjects of more or less wonderful
+legends--Sesostris, Amenôthes III., Thûfcmosis III., Amenemhâît I.,
+Khîti, Sahûrî, Usirkaf, and Kakiû. These stories were put into literary
+shape by the learned, recited by public story-tellers, and received by
+the people as authentic history; they finally filtered into the writings
+of the chroniclers, who, in introducing them into the annals, filled
+up with their extraordinary details the lacunæ of authentic tradition.
+Sometimes the narrative assumed a briefer form, and became an apologue.
+In one of them the members of the body were supposed to have combined
+against the head, and disputed its supremacy before a jury; the parties
+all pleaded their cause in turn, and judgment was given in due form.*
+
+     * This version of the _Fable of the Members and the Stomach_
+     was discovered upon a schoolboy’s tablet at Turin.
+
+Animals also had their place in this universal comedy. The passions or
+the weaknesses of humanity were attributed to them, and the narrator
+makes the lion, rat, or jackal to utter sentiments from which he draws
+some short practical moral. La Fontaine had predecessors on the banks of
+the Nile of whose existence he little dreamed.
+
+[Illustration: 357.jpg THE CAT AND THE JACKAL GO OFF TO THE FIELDS WITH
+THEIR FLOCKS]
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Lepsius.
+
+As La Fontaine found an illustrator in Granville, so, too, in Egypt
+the draughtsman brought his reed to the aid of the fabulist, and by his
+cleverly executed sketches gave greater point to the sarcasm of story
+than mere words could have conveyed. Where the author had briefly
+mentioned that the jackal and the cat had cunningly forced their
+services on the animals whom they wished to devour at their leisure, the
+artist would depict the jackal and the cat equipped as peasants, with
+wallets on their backs, and sticks over their shoulders, marching behind
+a troup of gazelles or a flock of fat geese: it was easy to foretell the
+fate of their unfortunate charges. Elsewhere it is an ox who brings
+up before his master a cat who has cheated him, and his proverbial
+stupidity would incline us to think that he will end by being punished
+himself for the misdeeds of which he had accused the other. Puss’s sly
+and artful expression, the ass-headed and important-looking judge, with
+the wand and costume of a high and mighty dignitary, give pungency to
+the story, and recall the daily scenes at the judgment-seat of the lord
+of Thebes. In another place we see a donkey, a lion, a crocodile, and a
+monkey giving an instrumental and vocal concert.
+
+[Illustration: 358.jpg THE CAT BEFORE ITS JUDGE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Lepsius.
+
+A lion and a gazelle play a game of chess. A cat of fashion, with a
+flower in her hair, has a disagreement with a goose: they have come to
+blows, and the excitable puss, who fears she will come off worst in the
+struggle, falls backwards in a fright. The draughtsmen having once found
+vent for their satire, stopped at nothing, and even royalty itself did
+not escape their attacks. While the writers of the day made fun of the
+military calling, both in prose and verse, the caricaturists parodied
+the combats and triumphal scenes of the Ramses or Thutmosis of the
+day depicted on the walls of the pylons. The Pharaoh of all the rats,
+perched upon a chariot drawn by dogs, bravely charges an army of cats;
+standing in the heroic attitude of a conqueror, he pierces them with
+his darts, while his horses tread the fallen underfoot; his legions
+meanwhile in advance of him attack a fort defended by tomcats, with the
+same ardour that the Egyptian battalions would display in assaulting a
+Syrian stronghold.
+
+[Illustration: 359.jpg A CONCERT OF ANIMALS DEVOTED TO MUSIC]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Lepsius.
+
+This treatment of ethics did not prevent the Egyptian writers from
+giving way to their natural inclinations, and composing large volumes
+on this subject after the manner of Kaqîmni or Phtahhotpû. One of their
+books, in which the aged Ani inscribes his Instructions to his son,
+Khonshotpû, is compiled in the form of a dialogue, and contains the
+usual commonplaces upon virtue, temperance, piety, the respect due to
+parents from children, or to the great ones of this world from
+their inferiors. The language in which it is written is ingenious,
+picturesque, and at times eloquent; the work explains much that is
+obscure in Egyptian life, and upon which the monuments have thrown no
+light. “Beware of the woman who goes out surreptitiously in her town, do
+not follow her or any like her, do not expose thyself to the experience
+of what it costs a man to face an Ocean of which the bounds are
+unknown.* The wife whose husband is far from home sends thee letters,
+and invites thee to come to her daily when she has no witnesses; if
+she succeeds in entangling thee in her net, it is a crime which is
+punishable by death as soon as it is known, even if no wicked act has
+taken place, for men will commit every sort of crime when under this
+temptation alone.”
+
+     * I have been obliged to paraphrase the sentence
+     considerably to render it intelligible to the modern reader.
+     The Egyptian text says briefly: “Do not know the man who
+     braves the water of the Ocean whose bounds are unknown.”_To
+     know the man_ means here _know the state of the man_ who
+     does an action.
+
+“Be not quarrelsome in breweries, for fear that thou mayest be denounced
+forthwith for words which have proceeded from thy mouth, and of having
+spoken that of which thou art no longer conscious. Thou fallest,
+thy members helpless, and no one holds out a hand to thee, but thy
+boon-companions around thee say: ‘Away with the drunkard!’ Thou art
+wanted for some business, and thou art found rolling on the ground like
+an infant.” In speaking of what a man owes to his mother, Ani waxes
+eloquent: “When she bore thee as all have to bear, she had in thee a
+heavy burden without being able to call on thee to share it. When thou
+wert born, after thy months were fulfilled, she placed herself under a
+yoke in earnest, her breast was in thy mouth for three years; in spite
+of the increasing dirtiness of thy habits, her heart felt no disgust,
+and she never said: ‘What is that I do here?’ When thou didst go to
+school to be instructed in writing, she followed thee every day with
+bread and beer from thy house. Now thou art a full-grown man, thou hast
+taken a wife, thou hast provided thyself with a house; bear always in
+mind the pains of thy birth and the care for thy education that thy
+mother lavished on thee, that her anger may not rise up against thee,
+and that she lift not her hands to God, for he will hear her complaint!”
+ The whole of the book does not rise to this level, but we find in it
+several maxims which appear to be popular proverbs, as for instance: “He
+who hates idleness will come without being called;” “A good walker comes
+to his journey’s end without needing to hasten;” or, “The ox which
+goes at the head of the flock and leads the others to pasture is but an
+animal like his fellows.” Towards the end, the son Khonshotpû, weary of
+such a lengthy exhortation to wisdom, interrupts his father roughly:
+“Do not everlastingly speak of thy merits, I have heard enough of thy
+deeds;” whereupon Ani resignedly restrains himself from further speech,
+and a final parable gives us the motive of his resignation: “This is the
+likeness of the man who knows the strength of his arm. The nursling who
+is in the arms of his mother cares only for being suckled; but no sooner
+has he found his mouth than he cries: ‘Give me bread!’”
+
+It is, perhaps, difficult for us to imagine an Egyptian in love
+repeating madrigals to his mistress,* for we cannot easily realise that
+the hard and blackened bodies we see in our museums have once been men
+and women loving and beloved in their own day.
+
+     * The remains of Egyptian amatory literature have been
+     collected, translated, and commentated on by Maspero. They
+     have been preserved in two papyri, one of which is at Turin,
+     the other in the British Museum. The first of these appears
+     to be a sort of dialogue in which the trees of a garden
+     boast one after another of the beauty of a woman, and
+     discourse of the love-scenes which took place under their
+     shadow.
+
+The feeling which they entertained one for another had none of the
+reticence or delicacy of our love: they went straight to the point, and
+the language in which, they expressed themselves is sometimes too coarse
+for our taste. The manners and customs of daily life among the Egyptians
+tended to blunt in them the feelings of modesty and refinement to which
+our civilization has accustomed us. Their children went about without
+clothes, or, at any rate, wore none until the age of puberty. Owing to
+the climate, both men and women left the upper part of the body more or
+less uncovered, or wore fabrics of a transparent nature. In the towns,
+the servants who moved about their masters or his guests had merely
+a narrow loin-cloth tied round their hips; while in the country, the
+peasants dispensed with even this covering, and the women tucked up
+their garments when at work so as to move more freely. The religious
+teaching and the ceremonies connected with their worship drew the
+attention of the faithful to the unveiled human form of their gods, and
+the hieroglyphs themselves contained pictures which shock our sense of
+propriety. Hence it came about that the young girl who was demanded in
+marriage had no idea, like the maiden of to-day, of the vague delights
+of an ideal union. The physical side was impressed upon her mind,
+and she was well aware of the full meaning of her consent. Her lover,
+separated from her by her disapproving parents, thus expresses the grief
+which overwhelms him: “I desire to lie down in my chamber,--for I am
+sick on thy account,--and the neighbours come to visit me.--Ah! if my
+sister but came with them,--she would show the physicians what ailed
+me,--for she knows my sickness!” Even while he thus complains, he sees
+her in his imagination, and his spirit visits the places she frequents:
+“The villa of my sister,--(a pool is before the house),--the door opens
+suddenly,--and my sister passes out in wrath.--Ah! why am I not the
+porter,--that she might give me her orders!--I should at least hear
+her voice, even were she angry,--and I, like a little boy, full of fear
+before her!” Meantime the young girl sighs in vain for “her brother, the
+beloved of her heart,” and all that charmed her before has now ceased to
+please her. “I went to prepare my snare, my cage and the covert for
+my trap--for all the birds of Puânît alight upon Egypt, redolent with
+perfume;--he who flies foremost of the flock is attracted by my worm,
+bringing odours from Puânît,--its claws full of incense.--But my heart
+is with thee, and desires that we should trap them together,--I with
+thee, alone, and that thou shouldest be able to hear the sad cry of
+my perfumed bird,--there near to me, close to me, I will make ready
+my trap,--O my beautiful friend, thou who goest to the field of the
+well-beloved!” The latter, however, is slow to appear, the day passes
+away, the evening comes on: “The cry of the goose resounds--which is
+caught by the worm-bait,--but thy love removes me far from the bird, and
+I am unable to deliver myself from it; I will carry off my net, and what
+shall I say to my mother,--when I shall have returned to her?--Every day
+I come back laden with spoil,--but to-day I have not been able to set
+my trap,--for thy love makes me its prisoner!” “The goose flies away,
+alights,--it has greeted the barns with its cry;--the flock of birds
+increases on the river, but I leave them alone and think only of thy
+love,--for my heart is bound to thy heart--and I cannot tear myself
+away from thy beauty.” Her mother probably gave her a scolding, but she
+hardly minds it, and in the retirement of her chamber never wearies
+of thinking of her brother, and of passionately crying for him: “O my
+beautiful friend! I yearn to be with thee as thy wife--and that thou
+shouldest go whither thou wishest with thine arm upon my arm,--for then
+I will repeat to my heart, which is in thy breast, my supplications.--If
+my great brother does not come to-night,--I am as those who lie in the
+tomb--for thou, art thou not health and life,--he who transfers the joys
+of thy health to my heart which seeks thee?” The hours pass away and
+he does not come, and already “the voice of the turtle-dove speaks,--it
+says: ‘Behold, the dawn is here, alas! what is to become of me?’ Thou,
+thou art the bird, thou callest me,--and I find my brother in his
+chamber,--and my heart is rejoiced to see him!--I will never go away
+again, my hand will remain in thy hand,--and when I wander forth, I will
+go with thee into the most beautiful places,--happy in that he makes me
+the foremost of women--and that he does not break my heart.” We should
+like to quote the whole of it, but the text is mutilated, and we are
+unable to fill in the blanks. It is, nevertheless, one of those products
+of the Egyptian mind which it would have been easy for us to appreciate
+from beginning to end, without effort and almost without explanation.
+The passion in it finds expression in such sincere and simple language
+as to render rhetorical ornament needless, and one can trace in it,
+therefore, nothing of the artificial colouring which would limit it to
+a particular place or time. It translates a universal sentiment into the
+common language of humanity, and the hieroglyphic groups need only to be
+put into the corresponding words of any modern tongue to bring home
+to the reader their full force and intensity. We might compare it with
+those popular songs which are now being collected in our provinces
+before the peasantry have forgotten them altogether: the artlessness of
+some of the expressions, the boldness of the imagery, the awkwardness
+and somewhat abrupt character of some of the passages, communicate to
+both that wild charm which we miss in the most perfect specimens of our
+modern love-poets.
+
+END OF VOL. V.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 5 (of 12), by G. Maspero
+
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+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?>
+
+<!DOCTYPE html
+   PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+   "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" >
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en">
+  <head>
+    <title>
+      History of Egypt, by Maspero, Volume 5
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve">
+
+    body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify}
+    P { text-indent: 2em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; }
+    H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; }
+    hr  { width: 50%; text-align: center;}
+    .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; }
+    blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+    .mynote    {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;}
+    .toc       { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;}
+    .toc2      { margin-left: 20%;}
+    .figleft   {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;}
+    .figright  {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;}
+    div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; }
+    pre     { font-family: Times; font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;}
+
+</style>
+  </head>
+  <body>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 5 (of 12), by G. Maspero
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 5 (of 12)
+
+Author: G. Maspero
+
+Editor: A.H. Sayce
+
+Translator: M.L. McClure
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2005 [EBook #17325]
+Last Updated: September 7, 2016
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT, CHALDÆA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Widger
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+    <p>
+      <br /> <a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/spines.jpg" width="100%" alt="Spines " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/cover.jpg" width="100%" alt="Cover " />
+    </div>
+    <h1>
+      HISTORY OF EGYPT <br /><br /> CHALDEA, SYRIA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA
+    </h1>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      By G. MASPERO, <br /><br /> Honorable Doctor of Civil Laws, and Fellow of
+      Queen&rsquo;s College, <br /> Oxford; Member of the Institute and Professor at
+      the College of France
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      Edited by A. H. SAYCE, <br /> Professor of Assyriology, Oxford
+    </h3>
+    <h4>
+      Translated by M. L. McCLURE, <br /> Member of the Committee of the Egypt
+      Exploration Fund
+    </h4>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      CONTAINING OVER TWELVE HUNDRED COLORED PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      Volume V.
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      LONDON <br /> THE GROLIER SOCIETY <br /> PUBLISHERS
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="100%" alt="Frontispiece " />
+    </div>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="frontis-text (6K)" src="images/frontis-text.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="100%" alt="Titlepage " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="001 (109K)" src="images/001.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="002 (70K)" src="images/002.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY&mdash;(continued)
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>THÛTMOSIS III.: THE ORGANISATION OF THE SYRIAN PROVINCES&mdash;AMENÔTHES
+      III.: THE WORSHIPPERS OF ATONÛ.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Thutmosis III.: the talcing of Qodshâ in the 42nd year of his reign&mdash;The
+      tribute of the south&mdash;The triumph-song of Amon.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The constitution of the Egyptian empire&mdash;The Grown vassals and
+      their relations with the Pharaoh&mdash;The king&rsquo;s messengers&mdash;The
+      allied states&mdash;Royal presents and marriages; the status of foreigners
+      in the royal harem&mdash;Commerce with Asia, its resources and its risks;
+      protection granted to the national industries, and treaties of
+      extradition.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Amenôthes II, his campaigns in Syria and Nubia&mdash;Thûtmosis IV.; his
+      dream under the shadow of the Sphinx and his marriage&mdash;Amenôthes III.
+      and his peaceful reign&mdash;The great building works&mdash;The temples of
+      Nubia: Soleb and his sanctuary built by Amenôthes III, Gebel Barkal,
+      Elephantine&mdash;The beautifying of Thebes: the temple of Mat, the
+      temples of Amon at Luxor and at Karnak, the tomb of Amenôthes III, the
+      chapel and the colossi of Memnon.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The increasing importance of Anion and his priests: preference shown by
+      Amenôthes III. for the Heliopolitan gods, his marriage with Tii&mdash;The
+      influence of Tii over Amenôthes IV.: the decadence of Amon and of Thebes,
+      Atonû and Khûîtniatonû&mdash;Change of physiognomy in Khûniaton, his
+      character, his government, his relations with Asia: the tombs of Tel
+      el-Amarna and the art of the period&mdash;Tutanlchamon, At: the return of
+      the Pharaohs to Thebes and the close of the XVIIIth dynasty.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <blockquote>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <br />
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I&mdash;THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY&mdash;(continued)
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkB2HCH0001"> CHAPTER II&mdash;THE REACTION AGAINST EGYPT
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkC2HCH0001"> CHAPTER III&mdash;THE CLOSE OF THE THEBAN
+        EMPIRE </a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <br /> <br />
+      </p>
+      <hr />
+      <p>
+        <br /> <br />
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <big><b>List of Illustrations</b></big>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <br />
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0001"> Spines </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0002"> Cover </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0003"> Frontispiece </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0004"> Titlepage </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0005"> 006.jpg a Procession of Negroes </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0006"> 015.jpg a Syrian Town and Its Outskirts After
+        an Egyptian Army Had Passed Through It </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0007"> 030.jpg the LotanÛ and The Goldsmiths&rsquo;work
+        Constituting Their Tribute </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0008"> 032b.jpg Painted Tablets in the Hall of Harps
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0009"> 034.jpg. The Bear and Elephant Brought As
+        Tribute in The Tomb of Rakhmiri </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0010"> 040.jpg the Mummy of Thutmosis Iii. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0011"> 041.jpg Head of the Mummy Of ThÛtmosis Iii.
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0012"> 044.jpg AmenÔthes Ii., from the Statue at
+        Turin </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0013"> 046.jpg the Great Sphinx and The Chapel of
+        Thutmosis Iv. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0014"> 047.jpg the Simoom. Sphinx and Pyramids at
+        Gizeh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0015"> 050.jpg the Stele of The Sphinx Of Gizer </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0016"> 052.jpg Queen MutemÛau. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0017"> 052b.jpg Amenothes Iii. Colossal Head in the
+        British Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0018"> 052b-text.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0019"> 053.jpg Amenothes Iii. From the Tomb of
+        Khamhait </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0020"> 056.jpg Scarab of the Hunt </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0021"> 058.jpg a Gang of Syrian Prisoners Making
+        Brick for The Temple of Amon </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0022"> 059.jpg One of the Rams Of AmenÔthes Iii </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0023"> 062.jpg One of the Lions Of Gebel-barkal </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0024"> 065.jpg the Temple at Elephantine, As It Was
+        in 1799 </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0025"> 066.jpg the Great Court of The Temple Of
+        Luxor During The Inundation </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0026"> 067.jpg Part of the Avenue Of Rams, Between
+        The Temples Of Amon and MaÛt </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0027"> 069.jpg the Pylons of ThÛtmosis Iii. And
+        HarmhabÎ At Kaknak </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0028"> 070.jpg Sacred Lake Akd the Southern Part of
+        The Temple Of Karnak. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0029"> 073.jpg the Two Colossi of Memnon in The
+        Plain Of Thebes </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0030"> 076.jpg a Party of Tourists at the Foot Of
+        The Vocal Statue of Memnok </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0031"> 079.jpg Marriage ScarabÆus </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0032"> 084.jpg Map </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0033"> 087.jpg the Decorated Pavement of The Palace
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0034"> 095.jpg the Mask of KihÛniatonÛ </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0035"> 096.jpg AmenÔthes Iv., from the Statuette in
+        The Louvre. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0036"> 097.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0037"> 098.jpg KhÛniatonÛ and his Wife Rewarding One
+        of The Great Officers of the Court </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0038"> 100.jpg the Door of a Tomb at Tel El-amarna
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0039"> 103.jpg Interior of a Tomb at Tel El-amarna
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0040"> 104.jpg Profile of Head Of Mummy (thebes
+        Tombs.) </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0041"> 106.jpg Two of the Daughters Of KhÛhi AtonÛ
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0042"> 111.jpg Sarcophagus of the Pharaoh AÎ </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0043"> 114.jpg Tailpiece </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0005"> 117.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0006"> 123.jpg the First Pylon of HarmhabÎ at
+        Karnak </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0007"> 127.jpg Amenothes IV. From a Fragment Used
+        Again By Harmhabi </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0008"> 128.jpg Harmhabi </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0009"> 129.jpg the Vaulted Passage of The Rock-tomb
+        at Gebel Silsileh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0010"> 131.jpg the Triumph Of HarmhabÎ in The
+        Sanctuary of Gebel Silsileh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0011"> 135.jpg Three Heads of Hittite Soldiers </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0012"> 138.jpg a Hittite King. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0013"> 140.jpg a Hittite Chariot With Its Three
+        Occupants </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0014"> 146.jpg Map </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0015"> 160.jpg Ramses I. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0016"> 163.jpg the Return of The North Wall Of The
+        Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, Where Seti I. Represents Some Episodes in his
+        First Campaign </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0017"> 166.jpg Representation of Seti I.
+        Vanquishing the Libyans And Asiatics on the Walls, Karnak </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0018"> 168.jpg a Fortified Station on the Route
+        Between The Nile And the Red Sea. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0019"> 169.jpg the Temple of Seti I. At Redesieh
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0020"> 170.jpg Fragment of the Map Of The
+        Gold-mines </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0021"> 171.jpg the Three Standing Columns of The
+        Temple Of Sesebi </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0022"> 173 an Avenue of One Of the Aisles Of The
+        Hypostyle Hall At Karnak </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0023"> 174.jpg the Gratings of The Central
+        Colonnade in The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0024"> 176.jpg One of the Colonnades Of The
+        Hypostyle Hall In The Temple of Seti I. At Abydos </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0025"> 176b.jpg the Facade of The Temple Of Seti
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0026"> 181.jpg the Temple of Qurnah </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0027"> 184.jpg One of the Pillars Of The Tomb Of
+        Seti I. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0028"> 187.jpg Ramses II. Puts the Negroes to
+        Flight </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0029"> 193.jpg the Shardana Guard of Ramses II.
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0030"> 195.jpg Two Hittite Spies Beaten by the
+        Egyptian Soldiers </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0031"> 196.jpg the Egyptian Camp and The Council of
+        War on The Morning of the Battle Of QodshÛ </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0032"> 198.jpg the Garrison of QodshÛ Issuing Forth
+        to Help The Prince of KhÂti. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0033"> 214.jpg KhÂtusaru, Prince of KhÂti, and his
+        Daughter </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0034"> 218.jpg Phoenician Boats Landing at Thebes
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0035"> 221.jpg the Projecting Columns of The Speos
+        Of Gerf-hosseÎn </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0036"> 221.jpg the Caryatides of Gerf-hosseÎn </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0037"> 224.jpg the Two Colossi of Abu Simbel to The
+        South Of The Doorway </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0038"> 225.jpg the Interior of The Speos Of Abu
+        Simbel </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0039"> 228.jpg the Face of The Rock at Abu Simgel
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0040"> 229.jpg Ramses Ii. Pierces a Libyan Chief
+        With his Lance </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0041"> 230.jpg Ramses Ii. Strikes a Group of
+        Prisoners </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0042"> 231.jpg the Façade of The Little Speos Of
+        Hauthor at Abu Simbel </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0043"> 232.jpg Columns of Temple at Luxor </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0044"> 233.jpg the Chapel of Thutmosis III. And One
+        Of The Pylons of Ramses Ii. At Luxor </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0045"> 235.jpg the Colonnade of Seti I. And The
+        Three Colossal Statues of Ramses II. At Luxor </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0046"> 236.jpg Paintings of Chairs </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0047"> 237.jpg the Remains of The Colossal Statue
+        Of Ramses Ii. At the Ramesseum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0048"> 238.jpg the Ramesseum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0049"> 240.jpg the Ruins of The Memnonium Of Ramses
+        Ii. At Abydos </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0050"> 242.jpg the Colossal Statue of Ramses II. At
+        Mitrahineh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0051"> 245.jpg the Chapel of The Apis Of AmekÔthes
+        III. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0052"> 246.jpg Statue of Khamoisit </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0053"> 247.jpg Stele of the Nahr El-kelb </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0054"> 248.jpg the Bas-belief of Ninfi </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0055"> 249.jpg the Coffin and Mummy of Ramses II
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0056"> 253.jpg a Libyan </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0057"> 260.jpg Statue of MÎnephtah </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0058"> 263.jpg the Chapels of Ramses II. And
+        Minephtah At Sisileh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0059"> 264.jpg Statue of Seti II. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0060"> 265.jpg Seti II. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0061"> 268.jpg Amenmesis </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0062"> 281.jpg Table </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0005"> 287.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0006"> 289.jpg NakhtÛsÎt. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0007"> 299.jpg One of the Libyan Chiefs Vanquished
+        by Ramses Iii. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0008"> 300.jpg the Waggons of The Pulasati and
+        Their Confederates </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0009"> 301.jpg Pulasati </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0010"> 304.jpg a Sihagalasha Chief </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0011"> 307.jpg the Army Op Ramses III. On The
+        March, and The Lion-hunt </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0012"> 308.jpg the Defeat of The Peoples Of The Sea
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0013"> 313.jpg the Captive Chiefs of Ramses Iii. At
+        Medinet-ihabu </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0014"> 314.jpg Ramses III. Binds the Chiefs of The
+        Libyans </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0015"> 318.jpg the Prince of The Khati </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0016"> 320.jpg Signs, Arms and Instruments </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0017"> 321.jpg the Colossal Osirian Figures in The
+        First Court At Medinet-habu </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0018"> 322.jpg the First Pylon of The Temple </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0019"> 327.jpg the Mummy of Ramses III. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0020"> 331.jpg a Ramses of the Xxth Dynasty </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0021"> 334.jpg Map: Thebes in the Xxth Dynasty </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0022"> 345.jpg Pectoral of Ramses II. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0023"> 347.jpg the Ram-headed Sparrow-hawk in The
+        Louvre </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0024"> 348.jpg Decorated Armchair </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0025"> 349.jpg Egyptian Wig </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0026"> 350.jpg Page Image With Furniture </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0027"> 357.jpg the Cat and The Jackal Go off to The
+        Fields With Their Flocks Drawn by Faucher-gudin, from Lepsius. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0028"> 358.jpg the Cat Before Its Judge </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0029"> 359.jpg a Concert of Animals Devoted to
+        Music </a>
+      </p>
+    </blockquote>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="003 (139K)" src="images/003.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER I&mdash;THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY&mdash;(continued)
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Thutmosis III.: the organisation of the Syrian provinces&mdash;Amenothes
+      III.: the royal worshippers of Atonû.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the year XXXIV. the Egyptians reappeared in Zahi. The people of
+      Anaugasa having revolted, two of their towns were taken, a third
+      surrendered, while the chiefs of the Lotanû hastened to meet their lord
+      with their usual tribute. Advantage was taken of the encampment being at
+      the foot of the Lebanon to procure wood for building purposes, such as
+      beams and planks, masts and yards for vessels, which were all shipped by
+      the Kefâtiu at Byblos for exportation to the Delta. This expedition was,
+      indeed, little more than a military march through the country. It would
+      appear that the Syrians soon accustomed themselves to the presence of the
+      Egyptians in their midst, and their obedience henceforward could be fairly
+      relied on. We are unable to ascertain what were the circumstances or the
+      intrigues which, in the year XXXV., led to a sudden outbreak among the
+      tribes settled on the Euphrates and the Orontes. The King of Mitanni
+      rallied round him the princes of Naharaim, and awaited the attack of the
+      Egyptians near Aruna. Thûtmosis displayed great personal courage, and the
+      victory was at once decisive. We find mention of only ten prisoners, one
+      hundred and eighty mares, and sixty chariots in the lists of the spoil.
+      Anaugasa again revolted, and was subdued afresh in the year XXXVIII.; the
+      Shaûsû rebelled in the year XXXIX., and the Lotanû or some of the tribes
+      connected with them two years later. The campaign of the year XLII. proved
+      more serious. Troubles had arisen in the neighbourhood of Arvad.
+      Thûtmosis, instead of following the usual caravan route, marched along the
+      coast-road by way of Phoenicia. He destroyed Arka in the Lebanon and the
+      surrounding strongholds, which were the haunts of robbers who lurked in
+      the mountains; then turning to the northeast, he took Tunipa and extorted
+      the usual tribute from the inhabitants of Naharaim. On the other hand, the
+      Prince of Qodshû, trusting to the strength of his walled city, refused to
+      do homage to the Pharaoh, and a deadly struggle took place under the
+      ramparts, in which each side availed themselves of all the artifices which
+      the strategic warfare of the times allowed. On a day when the assailants
+      and besieged were about to come to close quarters, the Amorites let loose
+      a mare among the chariotry of Thûtmosis. The Egyptian horses threatened to
+      become unmanageable, and had begun to break through the ranks, when
+      Amenemhabî, an officer of the guard, leaped to the ground, and, running up
+      to the creature, disembowelled it with a thrust of his sword; this done,
+      he cut off its tail and presented it to the king. The besieged were
+      eventually obliged to shut themselves within their newly built walls,
+      hoping by this means to tire out the patience of their assailants; but a
+      picked body of men, led by the same brave Amenemhabî who had killed the
+      mare, succeeded in making a breach and forcing an entrance into the town.
+      Even the numerous successful campaigns we have mentioned, form but a part,
+      though indeed an important part, of the wars undertaken by Thûtmosis to
+      &ldquo;fix his frontiers in the ends of the earth.&rdquo; Scarcely a year elapsed
+      without the viceroy of Ethiopia having a conflict with one or other of the
+      tribes of the Upper Nile; little merit as he might gain in triumphing over
+      such foes, the spoil taken from them formed a considerable adjunct to the
+      treasure collected in Syria, while the tributes from the people of Kûsh
+      and the Uaûaîû were paid with as great regularity as the taxes levied on
+      the Egyptians themselves. It comprised gold both from the mines and from
+      the rivers, feathers, oxen with curiously trained horns, giraffes, lions,
+      leopards, and slaves of all ages. The distant regions explored by
+      Hâtshopsîtû continued to pay a tribute at intervals. A fleet went to
+      Pûanît to fetch large cargoes of incense, and from time to time some Ilîm
+      chief would feel himself honoured by having one of his daughters accepted
+      as an inmate of the harem of the great king. After the year XLII. we have
+      no further records of the reign, but there is no reason to suppose that
+      its closing years were less eventful or less prosperous than the earlier.
+      Thûtmosis III., when conscious of failing powers, may have delegated the
+      direction of his armies to his sons or to his generals, but it is also
+      quite possible that he kept the supreme command in his own hands to the
+      end of his days. Even when old age approached and threatened to abate his
+      vigour, he was upheld by the belief that his father Amon was ever at hand
+      to guide him with his counsel and assist him in battle. &ldquo;I give to thee,
+      declared the god, the rebels that they may fall beneath thy sandals, that
+      thou mayest crush the rebellious, for I grant to thee by decree the earth
+      in its length and breadth. The tribes of the West and those of the East
+      are under the place of thy countenance, and when thou goest up into all
+      the strange lands with a joyous heart, there is none who will withstand
+      Thy Majesty, for I am thy guide when thou treadest them underfoot. Thou
+      hast crossed the water of the great curve of Naharaim* in thy strength and
+      in thy power, and I have commanded thee to let them hear thy roaring which
+      shall enter their dens, I have deprived their nostrils of the breath of
+      life, I have granted to thee that thy deeds shall sink into their hearts,
+      that my uraeus which is upon thy head may burn them, that it may bring
+      prisoners in long files from the peoples of Qodi, that it may consume with
+      its flame those who are in the marshes,** that it may cut off the heads of
+      the Asiatics without one of them being able to escape from its clutch. I
+      grant to thee that thy conquests may embrace all lands, that the urseus
+      which shines upon my forehead may be thy vassal, so that in all the
+      compass of the heaven there may not be one to rise against thee, but that
+      the people may come bearing their tribute on their backs and bending
+      before Thy Majesty according to my behest; I ordain that all aggressors
+      arising in thy time shall fail before thee, their heart burning within
+      them, their limbs trembling!&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Euphrates, in the great curve described by it across
+     Naharaim, after issuing from the mountains of Cilicia.
+
+     ** The meaning is doubtful. The word signifies pools,
+     marshes, the provinces situated beyond Egyptian territory,
+     and consequently the distant parts of the world&mdash;those which
+     are nearest the ocean which encircles the earth, and which
+     was considered as fed by the stagnant waters of the
+     celestial Nile, just as the extremities of Egypt were
+     watered by those of the terrestrial Nile.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/006.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="006.jpg a Procession of Negroes " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;I.&mdash;I am come that I may grant unto thee to crush the great ones of
+      Zahi, I throw them under thy feet across their mountains,&mdash;I grant to
+      thee that they shall see Thy Majesty as a lord of shining splendour when
+      thou shinest before them in my likeness!
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;II.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush those of the
+      country of Asia, to break the heads of the people of Lotanû,&mdash;I grant
+      thee that they may see Thy Majesty, clothed in thy panoply, when thou
+      seizest thy arms, in thy war-chariot.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;III.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the land of
+      the East, and invade those who dwell in the provinces of Tonûtir,&mdash;I
+      grant that they may see Thy Majesty as the comet which rains down the heat
+      of its flame and sheds its dew.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;IV.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the land of the
+      West, so that Kafîti and Cyprus shall be in fear of thee,&mdash;I grant
+      that they may see Thy Majesty like the young bull, stout of heart, armed
+      with horns which none may resist.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;V.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush those who are in
+      their marshes, so that the countries of Mitanni may tremble for fear of
+      thee,&mdash;I grant that they may see Thy Majesty like the crocodile, lord
+      of terrors, in the midst of the water, which none can approach.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;VI.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush those who are
+      in the isles, so that the people who live in the midst of the Very-Green
+      may be reached by thy roaring,&mdash;I grant that they may see Thy Majesty
+      like an avenger who stands on the back of his victim.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;VII.&mdash;I am come, to grant that thou mayest crush the Tihonu, so that
+      the isles of the Utanâtiû may be in the power of thy souls,&mdash;I grant
+      that they may see Thy Majesty like a spell-weaving lion, and that thou
+      mayest make corpses of them in the midst of their own valleys.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;VIII.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the ends of
+      the earth, so that the circle which surrounds the ocean may be grasped in
+      thy fist,&mdash;I grant that they may see Thy Majesty as the sparrow-hawk,
+      lord of the wing, who sees at a glance all that he desires.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;IX.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the peoples who
+      are in their &ldquo;duars,&rdquo; so that thou mayest bring the Hirû-shâîtû into
+      captivity,&mdash;I grant that they may see Thy Majesty like the jackal of
+      the south, lord of swiftness, the runner who prowls through the two lands.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;X.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the nomads, so
+      that the Nubians as far as the land of Pidît are in thy grasp,&mdash;I
+      grant that they may see Thy Majesty like unto thy two brothers Horus and
+      Sit, whose arms I have joined in order to establish thy power.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of the people associated with the Tihonu was read
+     at first Tanau, and identified with the Danai of the Greeks.
+     Chabas was inclined to read Ûtena, and Brugsch, Ûthent, more
+     correctly Utanâtiû, utanâti, the people of Uatanit. The
+     juxtaposition of this name with that of the Libyans compels
+     us to look towards the west for the site of this people: may
+     we assign to them the Ionian Islands, or even those in the
+     western Mediterranean.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The poem became celebrated. When Seti I., two centuries later, commanded
+      the Poet Laureates of his court to celebrate his victories in verse, the
+      latter, despairing of producing anything better, borrowed the finest
+      strophes from this hymn to Thûtmosis IIL, merely changing the name of the
+      hero. The composition, unlike so many other triumphal inscriptions, is not
+      a mere piece of official rhetoric, in which the poverty of the subject is
+      concealed by a multitude of common-places whether historical or
+      mythological. Egypt indeed ruled the world, either directly or through her
+      vassals, and from the mountains of Abyssinia to those of Cilicia her
+      armies held the nations in awe with the threat of the Pharaoh.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The conqueror, as a rule, did not retain any part of their territory. He
+      confined himself to the appropriation of the revenue of certain domains
+      for the benefit of his gods.* Amon of Karnak thus became possessor of
+      seven Syrian towns which he owed to the generosity of the victorious
+      Pharaohs.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The seven towns which Amon possessed in Syria are
+     mentioned, in the time of Ramses III., in the list of the
+     domains and revenues of the god.
+
+     ** In the year XXIII., on his return from his first
+     campaign, Thûtmosis III. provided offerings, guaranteed from
+     the three towns Anaûgasa, Inûâmû, and Hûrnikarû, for his
+     father Amonrâ.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Certain cities, like Tunipa, even begged for statues of Thûtmosis for
+      which they built a temple and instituted a cultus. Amon and his
+      fellow-gods too were adored there, side by side with the sovereign the
+      inhabitants had chosen to represent them here below.* These rites were at
+      once a sign of servitude, and a proof of gratitude for services rendered,
+      or privileges which had been confirmed. The princes of neighbouring
+      regions repaired annually to these temples to renew their oaths of
+      allegiance, and to bring their tributes &ldquo;before the face of the king.&rdquo;
+       Taking everything into account, the condition of the Pharaoh&rsquo;s subjects
+      might have been a pleasant one, had they been able to accept their lot
+      without any mental reservation. They retained their own laws, their
+      dynasties, and their frontiers, and paid a tax only in proportion to their
+      resources, while the hostages given were answerable for their obedience.
+      These hostages were as a rule taken by Thûtmosis from among the sons or
+      the brothers of the enemy&rsquo;s chief. They were carried to Thebes, where a
+      suitable establishment was assigned to them,** the younger members
+      receiving an education which practically made them Egyptians.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The statues of Thûtmosis III. and of the gods of Egypt
+     erected at Tunipa are mentioned in a letter from the
+     inhabitants of that town to Amenôthes III. Later, Ramses
+     II., speaking of the two towns in the country of the Khâti
+     in which were two statues of His Majesty, mentions Tunipa as
+     one of them.
+
+     ** The various titles of the lists of Thûtmosis III. at
+     Thebes show us &ldquo;the children of the Syrian chiefs conducted
+     as prisoners&rdquo; into the town of Sûhanû, which is elsewhere
+     mentioned as the depot, the prison of the temple of Anion.
+     W. Max Mullcr was the first to remark the historical value
+     of this indication, but without sufficiently insisting on
+     it; the name indicates, perhaps, as he says, a great prison,
+     but a prison like those where the princes of the family of
+     the Ottoman sultans were confined by the reigning monarch&mdash;
+     a palace usually provided with all the comforts of Oriental
+     life.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As soon as a vacancy occurred in the succession either in Syria or in
+      Ethiopia, the Pharaoh would choose from among the members of the family
+      whom he held in reserve, that prince on whose loyalty he could best count,
+      and placed him upon the throne.* The method of procedure was not always
+      successful, since these princes, whom one would have supposed from their
+      training to have been the least likely to have asserted themselves against
+      the man to whom they owed their elevation, often gave more trouble than
+      others. The sense of the supreme power of Egypt, which had been inculcated
+      in them during their exile, seemed to be weakened after their return to
+      their native country, and to give place to a sense of their own
+      importance. Their hearts misgave them as the time approached for them to
+      send their own children as pledges to their suzerain, and also when called
+      upon to transfer a considerable part of their revenue to his treasury.
+      They found, moreover, among their own cities and kinsfolk, those who were
+      adverse to the foreign yoke, and secretly urged their countrymen to
+      revolt, or else competitors for the throne who took advantage of the
+      popular discontent to pose as champions of national independence, and it
+      was difficult for the vassal prince to counteract the intrigues of these
+      adversaries without openly declaring himself hostile to his foreign
+      master.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Among the Tel el-Amarna tablets there is a letter of a
+     petty Syrian king, Adadnirari, whose father was enthroned
+     after a fashion in Nûkhassi by Thûtmosis III.
+
+     ** Thus, in the Tel el-Amarna correspondence, Zimrida,
+     governor of Sidon, gives information to Amenôthes III. on
+     the intrigues which the notables of the town were concocting
+     against Egyptian authority. Ribaddû relates in one of these
+     despatches that the notables of Byblos and the women of his
+     harem were urging him to revolt; later, a letter of Amûnirâ
+     to the King of Egypt informs us that Ribaddû had been driven
+     from Byblos by his own brother.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A time quickly came when a vestige of fear alone constrained them to
+      conceal their wish for liberty; the most trivial incident then sufficed to
+      give them the necessary encouragement, and decided them to throw off the
+      mask, a repulse or the report of a repulse suffered by the Egyptians, the
+      news of a popular rising in some neighbouring state, the passing visit of
+      a Chaldæan emissary who left behind him the hope of support and perhaps of
+      subsidies from Babylon, and the unexpected arrival of a troop of
+      mercenaries whose services might be hired for the occasion.* A rising of
+      this sort usually brought about the most disastrous results. The native
+      prince or the town itself could keep back the tribute and own allegiance
+      to no one during the few months required to convince Pharaoh of their
+      defection and to allow him to prepare the necessary means of vengeance;
+      the advent of the Egyptians followed, and the work of repression was
+      systematically set in hand. They destroyed the harvests, whether green or
+      ready for the sickle, they cut down the palms and olive trees, they tore
+      up the vines, seized on the flocks, dismantled the strongholds, and took
+      the inhabitants prisoners.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Bûrnabûriash, King of Babylon, speaks of Syrian agents who
+     had come to ask for support from his father, Kûrigalzû, and
+     adds that the latter had counselled submission. In one of
+     the letters preserved in the British Museum, Azîrû defends
+     himself for having received an emissary of the King of the
+     Khâti.
+
+     ** Cf. the raiding, for instance, of the regions of Arvad
+     and of the Zahi by Thûtmosis III., described in the Annals,
+     11. 4, 5. We are still in possession of the threats which
+     the messenger Khâni made against the rebellious chief of a
+     province of the Zahi&mdash;possibly Aziru.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The rebellious prince had to deliver up his silver and gold, the contents
+      of his palace, even his children,* and when he had finally obtained peace
+      by means of endless sacrifices, he found himself a vassal as before, but
+      with an empty treasury, a wasted country, and a decimated people.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * See, in the accounts of the campaigns of Thûtmosis, the
+     record of the spoils, as well as the mention of the children
+     of the chiefs brought as prisoners into Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/015.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="015.jpg a Syrian Town and Its Outskirts After an Egyptian Army Had Passed Through It " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Gayet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In spite of all this, some head-strong native princes never relinquished
+      the hope of freedom, and no sooner had they made good the breaches in
+      their walls as far as they were able, than they entered once more on this
+      unequal contest, though at the risk of bringing irreparable disaster on
+      their country. The majority of them, after one such struggle, resigned
+      themselves to the inevitable, and fulfilled their feudal obligations
+      regularly. They paid their fixed contribution, furnished rations and
+      stores to the army when passing through their territory, and informed the
+      ministers at Thebes of any intrigues among their neighbours.* Years
+      elapsed before they could so far forget the failure of their first attempt
+      to regain independence, as to venture to make a second, and expose
+      themselves to fresh reverses.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The administration of so vast an empire entailed but a small expenditure
+      on the Egyptians, and required the offices of merely a few
+      functionaries.** The garrisons which they kept up in foreign provinces
+      lived on the country, and were composed mainly of light troops, archers, a
+      certain proportion of heavy infantry, and a few minor detachments of
+      chariotry dispersed among the principal fortresses.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We find in the <i>Annals</i>, in addition to the enumeration of
+     the tributes, the mention of the foraging arrangements which
+     the chiefs were compelled to make for the army on its
+     passage. We find among the tablets letters from Aziru
+     denouncing the intrigues of the Khâti; letters also of
+     Ribaddu pointing out the misdeeds of Abdashirti, and other
+     communications of the same nature, which demonstrate the
+     supervision exercised by the petty Syrian princes over each
+     other.
+
+     ** Under Thûtmosis III. we have among others &ldquo;Mir,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Nasi
+     sîtû mihâtîtû,&rdquo; &ldquo;governors of the northern countries,&rdquo; the
+     Thûtîi who became afterwards a hero of romance. The
+     individuals who bore this title held a middle rank in the
+     Egyptian hierarchy.
+
+     *** The archers&mdash;<i>pidâtid, pidâti, pidâte</i>&mdash;and the
+     chariotry quartered in Syria are often mentioned in the Tel
+     el-Amarna correspondence. Steindorff has recognised the term
+     -ddû aûîtû, meaning infantry, in the word ûeû, ûiû, of the
+     Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The officers in command had orders to interfere as little as possible in
+      local affairs, and to leave the natives to dispute or even to fight among
+      themselves unhindered, so long as their quarrels did not threaten the
+      security of the Pharaoh.* It was never part of the policy of Egypt to
+      insist on her foreign subjects keeping an unbroken peace among themselves.
+      If, theoretically, she did not recognise the right of private warfare, she
+      at all events tolerated its practice. It mattered little to her whether
+      some particular province passed out of the possession of a certain Eibaddû
+      into that of a certain Azîru, or <i>vice versa</i>, so long as both
+      Eibaddû and Azîru remained her faithful slaves. She never sought to
+      repress their incessant quarrelling until such time as it threatened to
+      take the form of an insurrection against her own power. Then alone did she
+      throw off her neutrality; taking the side of one or other of the
+      dissentients, she would grant him, as a pledge of help, ten, twenty,
+      thirty, or even more archers.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A half at least of the Tel el-Amarna correspondence treats
+     of provincial wars between the kings of towns and countries
+     subject to Egypt&mdash;wars of Abdashirti and his son Azîru
+     against the cities of the Phoenician coast, wars of
+     Abdikhiba, or Abdi-Tabba, King of Jerusalem, against the
+     chiefs of the neighbouring cities.
+
+     ** Abimilki (Abisharri) demands on one occasion from the
+     King of Egypt ten men to defend Tyre, on another occasion
+     twenty; the town of Gula requisitioned thirty or forty to
+     guard it. Delattre thinks that these are rhetorical
+     expressions answering to a general word, just as if we
+     should say &ldquo;a handful of men&rdquo;; the difference of value in
+     the figures is to me a proof of their reality.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      No doubt the discipline and personal courage of these veterans exercised a
+      certain influence on the turn of events, but they were after all a mere
+      handful of men, and their individual action in the combat would scarcely
+      ever have been sufficient to decide the result; the actual importance of
+      their support, in spite of their numerical inferiority, lay in the moral
+      weight they brought to the side on which they fought, since they
+      represented the whole army of the Pharaoh which lay behind them, and their
+      presence in a camp always ensured final success. The vanquished party had
+      the right of appeal to the sovereign, through whom he might obtain a
+      mitigation of the lot which his successful adversary had prepared for him;
+      it was to the interest of Egypt to keep the balance of power as evenly as
+      possible between the various states which looked to her, and when she
+      prevented one or other of the princes from completely crushing his rivals,
+      she was minimising the danger which might soon arise from the vassal whom
+      she had allowed to extend his territory at the expense of others.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These relations gave rise to a perpetual exchange of letters and petitions
+      between the court of Thebes and the northern and southern provinces, in
+      which all the petty kings of Africa and Asia, of whatever colour or race,
+      set forth, either openly or covertly, their ambitions and their fears,
+      imploring a favour or begging for a subsidy, revealing the real or
+      suspected intrigues of their fellow-chiefs, and while loudly proclaiming
+      their own loyalty, denouncing the perfidy and the secret projects of their
+      neighbours. As the Ethiopian peoples did not, apparently, possess an
+      alphabet of their own, half of the correspondence which concerned them was
+      carried on in Egyptian, and written on papyrus. In Syria, however, where
+      Babylonian civilization maintained itself in spite of its conquest by
+      Thûtmosis, cuneiform writing was still employed, and tablets of dried
+      clay.* It had, therefore, been found necessary to establish in the
+      Pharaoh&rsquo;s palace a department for this service, in which the scribes
+      should be competent to decipher the Chaldæan character. Dictionaries and
+      easy mythological texts had been procured for their instruction, by means
+      of which they had learned the meaning of words and the construction of
+      sentences. Having once mastered the mechanism of the syllabary, they set
+      to work to translate the despatches, marking on the back of each the date
+      and the place from whence it came, and if necessary making a draft of the
+      reply.** In these the Pharaoh does not appear, as a rule, to have insisted
+      on the endless titles which we find so lavishly used in his inscriptions,
+      but the shortened protocol employed shows that the theory of his divinity
+      was as fully acknowledged by strangers as it was by his own subjects. They
+      greet him as their sun, the god before whom they prostrate themselves
+      seven times seven, while they are his slaves, his dogs, and the dust
+      beneath his feet.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A discovery made by the fellahîn, in 1887, at Tel el-
+     Arnarna, in the rums of the palace of Khûniaton, brought to
+     light a portion of the correspondence between Asiatic
+     monarchs, whether vassals or independent of Egypt, with the
+     officers of Amenôthes III. and IV., and with these Pharaohs
+     themselves.
+
+     ** Several of these registrations are still to be read on
+     the backs of the tablets at Berlin, London, and Gîzeh.
+
+     ***The protocols of the letters of Abdashirti may be taken
+     as an example, or those of Abimilki to Pharaoh, sometimes
+     there is a development of the protocol which assumes
+     panegyrical features similar to those met with in Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The runners to whom these documents were entrusted, and who delivered them
+      with their own hand, were not, as a rule, persons of any consideration;
+      but for missions of grave importance &ldquo;the king&rsquo;s messengers&rdquo; were
+      employed, whose functions in time became extended to a remarkable degree.
+      Those who were restricted to a limited sphere of activity were called &ldquo;the
+      king&rsquo;s messengers for the regions of the south,&rdquo; or &ldquo;the king&rsquo;s messengers
+      for the regions of the north,&rdquo; according to their proficiency in the idiom
+      and customs of Africa or of Asia. Others were deemed capable of
+      undertaking missions wherever they might be required, and were, therefore,
+      designated by the bold title of &ldquo;the king&rsquo;s messengers for all lands.&rdquo; In
+      this case extended powers were conferred upon them, and they were
+      permitted to cut short the disputes between two cities in some province
+      they had to inspect, to excuse from tribute, to receive presents and
+      hostages, and even princesses destined for the harem of the Pharaoh, and
+      also to grant the support of troops to such as could give adequate reason
+      for seeking it.* Their tasks were always of a delicate and not
+      infrequently of a perilous nature, and constantly exposed them to the
+      danger of being robbed by highwaymen or maltreated by some insubordinate
+      vassal, at times even running the risk of mutilation or assassination by
+      the way.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Tel el-Amarna correspondence shows the messengers in
+     the time of Amenôthes III. and IV. as receiving tribute, as
+     bringing an army to the succour of a chief in difficulties,
+     as threatening with the anger of the Pharaoh the princes o£
+     doubtful loyalty, as giving to a faithful vassal compliments
+     and honours from his suzerain, as charged with the
+     conveyance of a gift of slaves, or of escorting a princess
+     to the harem of the Pharaoh.
+
+     ** A letter of Ribaddu, in the time of Amenôthes III.,
+     represents a royal messenger as blockaded in By bios by the
+     rebels.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They were obliged to brave the dangers of the forests of Lebanon and of
+      the Taurus, the solitudes of Mesopotamia, the marshes of Chaldoa, the
+      voyages to Pûanît and Asia Minor. Some took their way towards Assyria and
+      Babylon, while others embarked at Tyre or Sidon for the islands of the
+      Ægean Archipelago.* The endurance of all these officers, whether governors
+      or messengers, their courage, their tact, the ready wit they were obliged
+      to summon to help them out of the difficulties into which their calling
+      frequently brought them, all tended to enlist the public sympathy in their
+      favour.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We hear from the tablets of several messengers to Babylon,
+     and the Mitanni, Rasi, Mani, Khamassi. The royal messenger
+     Thûtîi, who governed the countries of the north, speaks of
+     having satisfied the heart of the king in &ldquo;the isles which
+     are in the midst of the sea.&rdquo; This was not, as some think, a
+     case of hyperbole, for the messengers could embark on
+     Phoenician vessels; they had a less distance to cover in
+     order to reach the Ægean than the royal messenger of Queen
+     Hâtshopsîtû had before arriving at the country of the
+     Somalis and the &ldquo;Ladders of Incense.&rdquo;
+
+     ** The hero of the <i>Anastasi Papyrus</i>, No. 1, with whom
+     Chabas made us acquainted in his <i>Voyage d&rsquo;un Égyptien</i>, is
+     probably a type of the &ldquo;messenger&rdquo; or the time of Ramses
+     II.; in any case, his itinerary and adventures are natural
+     to a &ldquo;royal messenger&rdquo; compelled to traverse Syria alone.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Many of them achieved a reputation, and were made the heroes of popular
+      romance. More than three centuries after it was still related how one of
+      them, by name Thûtîi, had reduced and humbled Jaffa, whose chief had
+      refused to come to terms. Thûtîi set about his task by feigning to throw
+      off his allegiance to Thûtmosis III., and withdrew from the Egyptian
+      service, having first stolen the great magic wand of his lord; he then
+      invited the rebellious chief into his camp, under pretence of showing him
+      this formidable talisman, and killed him after they had drunk together.
+      The cunning envoy then packed five hundred of his soldiers into jars, and
+      caused them to be carried on the backs of asses before the gates of the
+      town, where he made the herald of the murdered prince proclaim that the
+      Egyptians had been defeated, and that the pack train which accompanied him
+      contained the spoil, among which was Thûtîi himself. The officer in charge
+      of the city gate was deceived by this harangue, the asses were admitted
+      within the walls, where the soldiers quitted their jars, massacred the
+      garrison, and made themselves masters of the town. The tale is, in the
+      main, the story of Ali Baba and the forty thieves.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The frontier was continually shifting, and Thûtmosis III., like Thûtmosis
+      I., vainly endeavoured to give it a fixed character by erecting stelas
+      along the banks of the Euphrates, at those points where he contended it
+      had run formerly. While Kharu and Phoenicia were completely in the hands
+      of the conqueror, his suzerainty became more uncertain as it extended
+      northwards in the direction of the Taurus. Beyond Qodshû, it could only be
+      maintained by means of constant supervision, and in Naharaim its duration
+      was coextensive with the sojourn of the conqueror in the locality during
+      his campaign, for it vanished of itself as soon as he had set out on his
+      return to Africa. It will be thus seen that, on the continent of Asia,
+      Egypt possessed a nucleus of territories, so far securely under her rule
+      that they might be actually reckoned as provinces; beyond this immediate
+      domain there was a zone of waning influence, whose area varied with each
+      reign, and even under one king depended largely on the activity which he
+      personally displayed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This was always the case when the rulers of Egypt attempted to carry their
+      supremacy beyond the isthmus; whether under the Ptolemies or the native
+      kings, the distance to which her influence extended was always practically
+      the same, and the teaching of history enables us to note its limits on the
+      map with relative accuracy.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The development of the Egyptian navy enabled the Ptolemies
+     to exercise authority over the coasts of Asia Minor and of
+     Thrace, but this extension of their power beyond the
+     indicated limits only hastened the exhaustion of their
+     empire. This instance, like that of Mehemet Ali, thus
+     confirms the position taken up in the text.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The coast towns, which were in maritime communication with the ports of
+      the Delta, submitted to the Egyptian yoke more readily than those of the
+      interior. But this submission could not be reckoned on beyond Berytus, on
+      the banks of the Lykos, though occasionally it stretched a little further
+      north as far as Byblos and Arvad; even then it did not extend inland, and
+      the curve marking its limits traverses Coele-Syria from north-west to
+      south-east, terminating at Mount Hermon. Damascus, securely entrenched
+      behind Anti-Lebanon, almost always lay outside this limit. The rulers of
+      Egypt generally succeeded without much difficulty in keeping possession of
+      the countries lying to the south of this line; it demanded merely a slight
+      effort, and this could be furnished for several centuries without
+      encroaching seriously on the resources of the country, or endangering its
+      prosperity. When, however, some province ventured to break away from the
+      control of Egypt, the whole mechanism of the government was put into
+      operation to provide soldiers and the necessary means for an expedition.
+      Each stage of the advance beyond the frontier demanded a greater
+      expenditure of energy, which, with prolonged distances, would naturally
+      become exhausted. The expedition would scarcely have reached the Taurus or
+      the Euphrates, before the force of circumstances would bring about its
+      recall homewards, leaving but a slight bond of vassalage between the
+      recently subdued countries and the conqueror, which would speedily be cast
+      off or give place to relations dictated by interest or courtesy. Thûtmosis
+      III. had to submit to this sort of necessary law; a further extension of
+      territory had hardly been gained when his dominion began to shrink within
+      the frontiers that appeared to have been prescribed by nature for an
+      empire like that of Egypt. Kharû and Phoenicia proper paid him their
+      tithes with due regularity; the cities of the Amurru and of Zahi, of
+      Damascus, Qodshû, Hamath, and even of Tunipa, lying on the outskirts of
+      these two subject nations, formed an ill-defined borderland, kept in a
+      state of perpetual disturbance by the secret intrigues or open rebellions
+      of the native princes. The kings of Alasia, Naharaim, and Mitanni
+      preserved their independence in spite of repeated reverses, and they
+      treated with the conqueror on equal terms.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The difference of tone between the letters of these kings
+     and those of the other princes, as well as the consequences
+     arising from it, has been clearly defined by Delattre.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The tone of their letters to the Pharaoh, the polite formulas with which
+      they addressed him, the special protocol which the Egyptian ministry had
+      drawn up for their reply, all differ widely from those which we see in the
+      despatches coming from commanders of garrisons or actual vassals. In the
+      former it is no longer a slave or a feudatory addressing his master and
+      awaiting his orders, but equals holding courteous communication with each
+      other, the brother of Alasia or of Mitanni with his brother of Egypt. They
+      inform him of their good health, and then, before entering on business,
+      they express their good wishes for himself, his wives, his sons, the lords
+      of his court, his brave soldiers, and for his horses. They were careful
+      never to forget that with a single word their correspondent could let
+      loose upon them a whirlwind of chariots and archers without number, but
+      the respect they felt for his formidable power never degenerated into a
+      fear which would humiliate them before him with their faces in the dust.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This interchange of diplomatic compliments was called for by a variety of
+      exigencies, such as incidents arising on the frontier, secret intrigues,
+      personal alliances, and questions of general politics. The kings of
+      Mesopotamia and of Northern Syria, even those of Assyria and Chaldæa, who
+      were preserved by distance from the dangers of a direct invasion, were in
+      constant fear of an unexpected war, and heartily desired the downfall of
+      Egypt; they endeavoured meanwhile to occupy the Pharaoh so fully at home
+      that he had no leisure to attack them. Even if they did not venture to
+      give open encouragement to the disposition in his subjects to revolt, they
+      at least experienced no scruple in hiring emissaries who secretly fanned
+      the flame of discontent. The Pharaoh, aroused to indignation by such
+      plotting, reminded them of their former oaths and treaties. The king in
+      question would thereupon deny everything, would speak of his tried
+      friendship, and recall the fact that he had refused to help a rebel
+      against his beloved brother.* These protestations of innocence were
+      usually accompanied by presents, and produced a twofold effect. They
+      soothed the anger of the offended party, and suggested not only a
+      courteous answer, but the sending of still more valuable gifts. Oriental
+      etiquette, even in those early times, demanded that the present of a less
+      rich or powerful friend should place the recipient under the obligation of
+      sending back a gift of still greater worth. Every one, therefore, whether
+      great or little, was obliged to regulate his liberality according to the
+      estimation in which he held himself, or to the opinion which others formed
+      of him, and a personage of such opulence as the King of Egypt was
+      constrained by the laws of common civility to display an almost boundless
+      generosity: was he not free to work the mines of the Divine Land or the
+      diggings of the Upper Nile; and as for gold, &ldquo;was it not as the dust of
+      his country&rdquo;?**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * See the letter of Amenôthes III. to Kallimmasin of
+     Babylon, where the King of Egypt complains of the inimical
+     designs which the Babylonian messengers had planned against
+     him, and of the intrigues they had connected on their return
+     to their own country; see also the letter from Burnaburiash
+     to Amenôthes IV., in which he defends himself from the
+     accusation of having plotted against the King of Egypt at
+     any time, and recalls the circumstance that his father
+     Kurigalzu had refused to encourage the rebellion of one of
+     the Syrian tribes, subjects of Amenôthes III.
+
+     ** See the letter of Dushratta, King of Mitanni, to the
+     Pharaoh Amenôthes IV.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He would have desired nothing better than to exhibit such liberality, had
+      not the repeated calls on his purse at last constrained him to parsimony;
+      he would have been ruined, and Egypt with him, had he given all that was
+      expected of him. Except in a few extraordinary cases, the gifts sent never
+      realised the expectations of the recipients; for instance, when twenty or
+      thirty pounds of precious metal were looked for, the amount despatched
+      would be merely two or three. The indignation of these disappointed
+      beggars and their recriminations were then most amusing: &ldquo;From the time
+      when my father and thine entered into friendly relations, they loaded each
+      other with presents, and never waited to be asked to exchange amenities;*
+      and now my brother sends me two minas of gold as a gift! Send me abundance
+      of gold, as much as thy father sent, and even, for so it must be, more
+      than thy father.&rdquo; ** Pretexts were never wanting to give reasonable weight
+      to such demands: one correspondent had begun to build a temple or a palace
+      in one of his capitals,*** another was reserving his fairest daughter for
+      the Pharaoh, and he gave him to understand that anything he might receive
+      would help to complete the bride&rsquo;s trousseau.****
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Burnaburiash complains that the king&rsquo;s messengers had only
+     brought him on one occasion two minas of gold, on another
+     occasion twenty minas; moreover, that the quality of the
+     metal was so bad that hardly five minas of pure gold could
+     be extracted from it.
+
+     ** Literally, &ldquo;and they would never make each other a fair
+     request.&rdquo; The meaning I propose is doubtful, but it appears
+     to be required by the context. The letter from which this
+     passage was taken is from Burnaburiash, King of Babylon, to
+     Amenôthes IV.
+
+     *** This is the pretext advanced by Burnaburiash in the
+     letter just cited.
+
+     **** This seems to have been the motive in a somewhat
+     embarrassing letter which Dushratta, King of Mitanni, wrote
+     to the Pharaoh Amenôthes III. on the occasion of his fixing
+     the dowry of his daughter.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The princesses thus sent from Babylon or Mitanni to the court of Thebes
+      enjoyed on their arrival a more honourable welcome, and were assigned a
+      more exalted rank than those who came from Kharû and Phoenicia. As a
+      matter of fact, they were not hostages given over to the conqueror to be
+      disposed of at will, but queens who were united in legal marriage to an
+      ally.* Once admitted to the Pharaoh&rsquo;s court, they retained their full
+      rights as his wife, as well as their own fortune and mode of life. Some
+      would bring to their betrothed chests of jewels, utensils, and stuffs, the
+      enumeration of which would cover both sides of a large tablet; others
+      would arrive escorted by several hundred slaves or matrons as personal
+      attendants.** A few of them preserved their original name,*** many assumed
+      an Egyptian designation,**** and so far adapted themselves to the
+      costumes, manners, and language of their adopted country, that they
+      dropped all intercourse with their native land, and became regular
+      Egyptians.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The daughter of the King of the Khâti, wife of Ramses IL,
+     was treated, as we see from the monuments, with as much
+     honour as would have been accorded to Egyptian princesses of
+     pure blood.
+
+     ** Gilukhipa, who was sent to Egypt to become the wife of
+     Amenôthes III., took with her a company of three hundred and
+     seventy women for her service. She was a daughter of
+     Sutarna, King of Mitanni, and is mentioned several times in
+     the Tel el-Amarna correspondence.
+
+     *** For example, Gilukhipa, whose name is transcribed
+     Kilagîpa in Egyptian, and another princess of Mitanni, niece
+     of Gilukhipa, called Tadu-khîpa, daughter of Dushratta and
+     wife of Amenôthes IV.
+
+     **** The prince of the Khâti&rsquo;s daughter who married Ramses
+     II. is an example; we know her only by her Egyptian name
+     Mâîtnofîrûrî. The wife of Ramses III. added to the Egyptian
+     name of Isis her original name, Humazarati.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      When, after several years, an ambassador arrived with greetings from their
+      father or brother, he would be puzzled by the changed appearance of these
+      ladies, and would almost doubt their identity: indeed, those only who had
+      been about them in childhood were in such cases able to recognise them.*
+      These princesses all adopted the gods of their husbands,** though without
+      necessarily renouncing their own. From time to time their parents would
+      send them, with much pomp, a statue of one of their national divinities&mdash;Ishtar,
+      for example&mdash;which, accompanied by native priests, would remain for
+      some months at the court.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This was the case with the daughter of Kallimmasin, King
+     of Babylon, married to Amenôthes III.; her father&rsquo;s
+     ambassador did not recognise her.
+
+     ** The daughter of the King of the Khâti, wife of Ramses
+     II., is represented in an attitude of worship before her
+     deified husband and two Egyptian gods.
+
+     *** Dushratta of Mitanni, sending a statue of Ishtar to his
+     daughter, wife of Amenôthes III., reminds her that the same
+     statue had already made the voyage to Egypt in the time of
+     his father Sutarna.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The children of these queens ranked next in order to those whose mothers
+      belonged to the solar race, but nothing prevented them marrying their
+      brothers or sisters of pure descent, and being eventually raised to the
+      throne. The members of their families who remained in Asia were naturally
+      proud of these bonds of close affinity with the Pharaoh, and they rarely
+      missed an opportunity of reminding him in their letters that they stood to
+      him in the relationship of brother-in-law, or one of his fathers-in-law;
+      their vanity stood them in good stead, since it afforded them another
+      claim on the favours which they were perpetually asking of him.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Dushratta of Mitanni never loses an opportunity of calling
+     Aoienôthes III., husband of his sister Gilukhîpa, and of one
+     of his daughters, &ldquo;akhiya,&rdquo; my brother, and &ldquo;khatani-ya,&rdquo; my
+     son-in-law.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These foreign wives had often to interfere in some of the contentions
+      which were bound to arise between two States whose subjects were in
+      constant intercourse with one another. Invasions or provincial wars may
+      have affected or even temporarily suspended the passage to and from of
+      caravans between the countries of the Tigris and those of the Nile; but as
+      soon as peace was re-established, even though it were the insecure peace
+      of those distant ages, the desert traffic was again resumed and carried on
+      with renewed vigour. The Egyptian traders who penetrated into regions
+      beyond the Euphrates, carried with them, and almost unconsciously
+      disseminated along the whole extent of their route, the numberless
+      products of Egyptian industry, hitherto but little known outside their own
+      country, and rendered expensive owing to the difficulty of transmission or
+      the greed of the merchants. The Syrians now saw for the first time in
+      great quantities, objects which had been known to them hitherto merely
+      through the few rare specimens which made their way across the frontier:
+      arms, stuffs, metal implements, household utensils&mdash;in fine, all the
+      objects which ministered to daily needs or to luxury. These were now
+      offered to them at reasonable prices, either by the hawkers who
+      accompanied the army or by the soldiers themselves, always ready, as
+      soldiers are, to part with their possessions in order to procure a few
+      extra pleasures in the intervals of fighting.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/030.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="030.jpg the LotanÛ and The Goldsmiths&rsquo;work Constituting Their Tribute " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger. The scene
+     here reproduced occurs in most of the Theban tombs of the
+     XVIIII. dynasty.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      On the other hand, whole convoys of spoil were despatched to Egypt after
+      every successful campaign, and their contents were distributed in varying
+      proportions among all classes of society, from the militiaman belonging to
+      some feudal contingent, who received, as a reward of his valour, some
+      half-dozen necklaces or bracelets, to the great lord of ancient family or
+      the Crown Prince, who carried off waggon-loads of booty in their train.
+      These distributions must have stimulated a passion for all Syrian goods,
+      and as the spoil was insufficient to satisfy the increasing demands of the
+      consumer, the waning commerce which had been carried on from early times
+      was once more revived and extended, till every route, whether by land or
+      water, between Thebes, Memphis, and the Asiatic cities, was thronged by
+      those engaged in its pursuit. It would take too long to enumerate the
+      various objects of merchandise brought in almost daily to the marts on the
+      Nile by Phoenician vessels or the owners of caravans. They comprised
+      slaves destined for the workshop or the harem,* Hittite bulls and
+      stallions, horses from Singar, oxen from Alasia, rare and curious animals
+      such as elephants from Nîi, and brown bears from the Lebanon,** smoked and
+      salted fish, live birds of many-coloured plumage, goldsmiths&rsquo;work*** and
+      precious stones, of which lapis-lazuli was the chief.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Syrian slaves are mentioned along with Ethiopian in the
+     <i>Anastasi Papyrus</i>, No. 1, and there is mention in the Tel
+     el-Amarna correspondence of Hittite slaves whom Dushratta of
+     Mitanni brought to Amenôthes III., and of other presents of
+     the same kind made by the King of Alasia as a testimony of
+     his grateful homage.
+
+     ** The elephant and the bear are represented on the tomb of
+     liakhmirî among the articles of tribute brought into Egypt.
+
+     *** The <i>Annals of Thutmosis III</i>. make a record in each
+     campaign of the importation of gold and silver vases,
+     objects in lapis-lazuli and crystal, or of blocks of the
+     same materials; the Theban tombs of this period afford
+     examples of the vases and blocks brought by the Syrians. The
+     Tel el-Amarna letters also mention vessels of gold or blocks
+     of precious stone sent as presents or as objects of exchange
+     to the Pharaoh by the King of Babylon, by the King of
+     Mitanni, by the King of the Hittites, and by other princes.
+     The lapis-lazuli of Babylon, which probably came from
+     Persia, was that which was most prized by the Egyptians on
+     account of the golden sparks in it, which enhanced the blue
+     colour; this is, perhaps, the Uknu of the cuneiform
+     inscriptions, which has been read for a long time as
+     &ldquo;crystal.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/032b.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="032b.jpg Painted Tablets in the Hall of Harps " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Wood for building or for ornamental work&mdash;pine,cypress, yew, cedar,
+      and oak,* musical instruments,** helmets, leathern jerkins covered with
+      metal scales, weapons of bronze and iron,*** chariots,**** dyed and
+      embroidered stuffs,^ perfumes,^^ dried cakes, oil, wines of Kharû,
+      liqueurs from Alasia, Khâti, Singar, Naharaim, Amurru, and beer from
+      Qodi.^^^
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Building and ornamental woods are often mentioned in the
+     inscriptions of Thûtmosis III. A scene at Karnak represents
+     Seti I. causing building-wood to be cut in the region of the
+     Lebanon. A letter of the King of Alasia speaks of
+     contributions of wood which several of his subjects had to
+     make to the King of Egypt.
+
+     ** Some stringed instruments of music, and two or three
+     kinds of flutes and flageolets, are designated in Egyptian
+     by names borrowed from some Semitic tongue&mdash;a fact which
+     proves that they were imported; the wooden framework of the
+     harp, decorated with sculptured heads of Astartô, figures
+     among the objects coming from Syria in the temple of the
+     Theban Anion.
+
+     *** Several names of arms borrowed from some Semitic dialect
+     have been noticed in the texts of this period. The objects
+     as well as the words must have been imported into Egypt,
+     e.g. the quiver, the sword and javelins used by the
+     charioteers. Cuirasses and leathern jerkins are mentioned in
+     the inscriptions of Thûtmosis III.
+
+     **** Chariots plated with gold and silver figure frequently
+     among the spoils of Thûtmosis III.: the Anastasi Papyrus,
+     No. 1, contains a detailed description of Syrian chariots&mdash;
+     Markabûti&mdash;with a reference to the localities whore certain
+     parts of them were made;&mdash;the country of the Amurru, that of
+     Aûpa, the town of Pahira. The Tel el-Amarna correspondence
+     mentions very frequently chariots sent to the Pharaoh by the
+     King of Babylon, either as presents or to be sold in Egypt;
+     others sent by the King of Alasia and by the King of
+     Mitanni.
+
+     ^ Some linen, cotton, or woollen stuffs are mentioned in the
+     <i>Anastasi Papyrus</i>, No. 4, and elsewhere as coming from
+     Syria. The Egyptian love of white linen always prevented
+     their estimating highly the coloured and brocaded stuffs of
+     Asia; and one sees nowhere, in the representations, any
+     examples of stuffs of such origin, except on furniture or in
+     ships equipped with something of the kind in the form of
+     sails.
+
+     ^^ The perfumed oils of Syria are mentioned in a general way
+     in the <i>Anastasi Papyrus</i>, No. 1; the King of Alasia speaks
+     of essences which he is sending to Amenôthes III.; the King
+     of Mitanni refers to bottles of oil which he is forwarding
+     to Gilukhîpa and to Tii.
+
+     ^^^ A list of cakes of Syrian origin is found in the
+     <i>Anastasi Papyrus</i>, No. 1; also a reference to balsamic oils
+     from Naharaim, and to various oils which had arrived in the
+     ports of the Delta, to the wines of Syria, to palm wine and
+     various liqueurs manufactured in Alasia, in Singar, among
+     the Khâti, Amorites, and the people of. Tikhisa; finally, to
+     the beer of Qodi.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/034.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="034.jpg. The Bear and Elephant Brought As Tribute in The Tomb of Rakhmiri " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph of Prisse
+     d&rsquo;Avennes&rsquo; sketch.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      On arriving at the frontier, whether by sea or by land, the majority of
+      these objects had to pay the custom dues which were rigorously collected
+      by the officers of the Pharaoh. This, no doubt, was a reprisal tariff,
+      since independent sovereigns, such as those of Mitanni, Assyria, and
+      Babylon, were accustomed to impose a similar duty on all the products of
+      Egypt. The latter, indeed, supplied more than she received, for many
+      articles which reached her in their raw condition were, by means of native
+      industry, worked up and exported as ornaments, vases, and highly decorated
+      weapons, which, in the course of international traffic, were dispersed to
+      all four corners of the earth. The merchants of Babylon and Assyria had
+      little to fear as long as they kept within the domains of their own
+      sovereign or in those of the Pharaoh; but no sooner did they venture
+      within the borders of those turbulent states which separated the two great
+      powers, than they were exposed to dangers at every turn. Safe-conducts
+      were of little use if they had not taken the additional precaution of
+      providing a strong escort and carefully guarding their caravan, for the
+      Shaûsû concealed in the depths of the Lebanon or the needy sheikhs of
+      Kharû could never resist the temptation to rob the passing traveller.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The scribe who in the reign of Ramses II. composed the
+     <i>Travels of an Egyptian</i>, speaks in several places of
+     marauding tribes and robbers, who infested the roads
+     followed by the hero. The Tel el-Amarna correspondence
+     contains a letter from the King of Alasia, who exculpates
+     himself from being implicated in the harsh treatment certain
+     Egyptians had received in passing through his territory; and
+     another letter in which the King of Babylon complains that
+     Chaldoan merchants had been robbed at Khinnatun, in Galilee,
+     by the Prince of Akku (Acre) and his accomplices: one of
+     them had his feet cut off, and the other was still a
+     prisoner in Akku, and Burnaburiash demands from Amenôthes
+     IV. the death of the guilty persons.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The victims complained to their king, who felt no hesitation in passing on
+      their woes to the sovereign under whose rule the pillagers were supposed
+      to live. He demanded their punishment, but his request was not always
+      granted, owing to the difficulties of finding out and seizing the
+      offenders. An indemnity, however, could be obtained which would nearly
+      compensate the merchants for the loss sustained. In many cases justice had
+      but little to do with the negotiations, in which self-interest was the
+      chief motive; but repeated refusals would have discouraged traders, and by
+      lessening the facilities of transit, have diminished the revenue which the
+      state drew from its foreign commerce.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The question became a more delicate one when it concerned the rights of
+      subjects residing out of their native country. Foreigners, as a rule, were
+      well received in Egypt; the whole country was open to them; they could
+      marry, they could acquire houses and lands, they enjoyed permission to
+      follow their own religion unhindered, they were eligible for public
+      honours, and more than one of the officers of the crown whose tombs we see
+      at Thebes were themselves Syrians, or born of Syrian parents on the banks
+      of the Nile.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In a letter from the King of Alasia, there is question of
+     a merchant who had died in Egypt. Among other monuments
+     proving the presence of Syrians about the Pharaoh, is the
+     stele of Ben-Azana, of the town of Zairabizana, surnamed
+     Ramses-Empirî: he was surrounded with Semites like himself.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Hence, those who settled in Egypt without any intention of returning to
+      their own country enjoyed all the advantages possessed by the natives,
+      whereas those who took up a merely temporary abode there were more limited
+      in their privileges. They were granted the permission to hold property in
+      the country, and also the right to buy and sell there, but they were not
+      allowed to transmit their possessions at will, and if by chance they died
+      on Egyptian soil, their goods lapsed as a forfeit to the crown. The heirs
+      remaining in the native country of the dead man, who were ruined by this
+      confiscation, sometimes petitioned the king to interfere in their favour
+      with a view of obtaining restitution. If the Pharaoh consented to waive
+      his right of forfeiture, and made over the confiscated objects or their
+      equivalent to the relatives of the deceased, it was solely by an act of
+      mercy, and as an example to foreign governments to treat Egyptians with a
+      like clemency should they chance to proffer a similar request.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * All this seems to result from a letter in which the King
+     of Alasia demands from Amenôthes III. the restitution of the
+     goods of one of his subjects who had died in Egypt; the tone
+     of the letter is that of one asking a favour, and on the
+     supposition that the King of Egypt had a right to keep the
+     property of a foreigner dying on his territory.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is also not improbable that the sovereigns themselves had a personal
+      interest in more than one commercial undertaking, and that they were the
+      partners, or, at any rate, interested in the enterprises, of many of their
+      subjects, so that any loss sustained by one of the latter would eventually
+      fall upon themselves. They had, in fact, reserved to themselves the
+      privilege of carrying on several lucrative industries, and of disposing of
+      the products to foreign buyers, either to those who purchased them out and
+      out, or else through the medium of agents, to whom they intrusted certain
+      quantities of the goods for warehousing. The King of Babylon, taking
+      advantage of the fashion which prompted the Egyptians to acquire objects
+      of Chaldæan goldsmiths&rsquo; and cabinet-makers&rsquo; art, caused ingots of gold to
+      be sent to him by the Pharaoh, which he returned worked up into vases,
+      ornaments, household utensils, and plated chariots. He further fixed the
+      value of all such objects, and took a considerable commission for having
+      acted as intermediary in the transaction.* In Alasia, which was the land
+      of metals, the king appears to have held a monopoly of the bronze. Whether
+      he smelted it in the country, or received it from more distant regions
+      ready prepared, we cannot say, but he claimed and retained for himself the
+      payment for all that the Pharaoh deigned to order of him.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Letter of Burnaburiash to Amenôthes IV.
+
+     ** Letter from the King of Alasia to Amenôthes III., where,
+     whilst pretending to have nothing else in view than making a
+     present to his royal brother, he proposes to make an
+     exchange of some bronze for the products of Egypt,
+     especially for gold.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/040.jpg"
+       alt="040.jpg the Mummy of Thutmosis III. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph
+taken by Emil Brugsch-
+Bey.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      From such instances we can well understand the jealous, watch which these
+      sovereigns exercised, lest any individual connected with corporations of
+      workmen should leave the kingdom and establish himself in another country
+      without special permission. Any emigrant who opened a workshop and
+      initiated his new compatriots in the technique or professional secrets of
+      his craft, was regarded by the authorities as the most dangerous of all
+      evil-doers. By thus introducing his trade into a rival state, he deprived
+      his own people of a good customer, and thus rendered himself liable to the
+      penalties inflicted on those who were guilty of treason. His savings were
+      confiscated, his house razed to the ground, and his whole family&mdash;parents,
+      wives, and children&mdash;treated as partakers in his crime. As for
+      himself, if justice succeeded in overtaking him, he was punished with
+      death, or at least with mutilation, such as the loss of eyes and ears, or
+      amputation of the feet. This severity did not prevent the frequent
+      occurrence of such cases, and it was found necessary to deal with them by
+      the insertion of a special extradition clause in treaties of peace and
+      other alliances. The two contracting parties decided against conceding the
+      right of habitation to skilled workmen who should take refuge with either
+      party on the territory of the other, and they agreed to seize such workmen
+      forthwith, and mutually restore them, but under the express condition that
+      neither they nor any of their belongings should incur any penalty for the
+      desertion of their country. It would be curious to know if all the
+      arrangements agreed to by the kings of those times were sanctioned, as in
+      the above instance, by properly drawn up agreements. Certain expressions
+      occur in their correspondence which seem to prove that this was the case,
+      and that the relations between them, of which we can catch traces,
+      resulted not merely from a state of things which, according to their
+      ideas, did not necessitate any diplomatic sanction, but from conventions
+      agreed to after some war, or entered on without any previous struggle,
+      when there was no question at issue between the two states.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The treaty of Ramses II. with the King of the Khâti, the
+     only one which has come down to us, was a renewal of other
+     treaties effected one after the other between the fathers
+     and grandfathers of the two contracting sovereigns. Some of
+     the Tel el-Amarna letters probably refer to treaties of this
+     kind; e.g. that of Burnaburiash of Babylon, who says that
+     since the time of Karaîndash there had been an exchange of
+     ambassadors and friendship between the sovereigns of Chaldoa
+     and of Egypt, and also that of Dushratta of Mitanni, who
+     reminds Queen Tîi of the secret negotiations which had taken
+     place between him and Amenôthes III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      When once the Syrian conquest had been effected, Egypt gave permanency to
+      its results by means of a series of international decrees, which
+      officially established the constitution of her empire, and brought about
+      her concerted action with the Asiatic powers.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      She already occupied an important position among them, when Thûtmosis III.
+      died, on the last day of Phamenoth, in the IVth year of his reign.* He was
+      buried, probably, at Deîr el-Baharî, in the family tomb wherein the most
+      illustrious members of his house had been laid to rest since the time of
+      Thûtmosis I. His mummy was not securely hidden away, for towards the close
+      of the XXth dynasty it was torn out of the coffin by robbers, who stripped
+      it and rifled it of the jewels with which it was covered, injuring it in
+      their haste to carry away the spoil. It was subsequently re-interred, and
+      has remained undisturbed until the present day; but before re-burial some
+      renovation of the wrappings was necessary, and as portions of the body had
+      become loose, the restorers, in order to give the mummy the necessary
+      firmness, compressed it between four oar-shaped slips of wood, painted
+      white, and placed, three inside the wrappings and one outside, under the
+      bands which confined the winding-sheet.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Dr. Mahler has, with great precision, fixed the date of
+     the accession of Thûtmosis III, as the 20th of March, 1503,
+     and that of his death as the 14th of February, 1449 b.c. I
+     do not think that the data furnished to Dr. Mahler by
+     Brugsch will admit of such exact conclusions being drawn
+     from them, and I should fix the fifty-four years of the
+     reign of Thûtmosis III. in a less decided manner, between
+     1550 and 1490 b.c., allowing, as I have said before, for an
+     error of half a century more or less in the dates which go
+     back to the time of the second Theban empire.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/041.jpg"
+       alt="041.jpg Head of the Mummy Of ThÛtmosis III. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Boudier,
+from a photograph
+lent by M. Grébaut,
+taken by Emil
+Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Happily the face, which had been plastered over with pitch at the time of
+      embalming, did not suffer at all from this rough treatment, and appeared
+      intact when the protecting mask was removed. Its appearance does not
+      answer to our ideal of the conqueror. His statues, though not representing
+      him as a type of manly beauty, yet give him refined, intelligent features,
+      but a comparison with the mummy shows that the artists have idealised
+      their model. The forehead is abnormally low, the eyes deeply sunk, the jaw
+      heavy, the lips thick, and the cheek-bones extremely prominent; the whole
+      recalling the physiognomy of Thûtmosis II., though with a greater show of
+      energy. Thûtmosis III. is a fellah of the old stock, squat, thickset,
+      vulgar in character and expression, but not lacking in firmness and
+      vigour.* Amenôthes II., who succeeded him, must have closely resembled
+      him, if we may trust his official portraits. He was the son of a princess
+      of the blood, Hâtshopsîtû II., daughter of the great Hâtshopsîtû,** and
+      consequently he came into his inheritance with stronger claims to it than
+      any other Pharaoh since the time of Amenôthes I. Possibly his father may
+      have associated him with himself on the throne as soon as the young prince
+      attained his majority;*** at any rate, his accession aroused no
+      appreciable opposition in the country, and if any difficulties were made,
+      they must have come from outside.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+* The restored remains allow us to
+estimate the height at about 5 ft. 3 in.
+
+** His parentage is proved by the
+pictures preserved in the tomb of
+his foster-father, where he is
+represented in company with the
+<i>royal mother</i>, Marîtrî
+Hâtshopsîtû.
+
+*** It is thus that Wiedemann
+explains his presence by the
+side of Thûtmosis III. on
+certain bas-reliefs in the
+temple of Amada.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is always a dangerous moment in the existence of a newly formed empire
+      when its founder having passed away, and the conquered people not having
+      yet become accustomed to a subject condition, they are called upon to
+      submit to a successor of whom they know little or nothing. It is always
+      problematical whether the new sovereign will display as great activity and
+      be as successful as the old one; whether he will be capable of turning to
+      good account the armies which his predecessor commanded with such skill,
+      and led so bravely against the enemy; whether, again, he will have
+      sufficient tact to estimate correctly the burden of taxation which each
+      province is capable of bearing, and to lighten it when there is a risk of
+      its becoming too heavy. If he does not show from the first that it is his
+      purpose to maintain his patrimony intact at all costs, or if his officers,
+      no longer controlled by a strong hand, betray any indecision in command,
+      his subjects will become unruly, and the change of monarch will soon
+      furnish a pretext for widespread rebellion. The beginning of the reign of
+      Amenôthes II. was marked by a revolt of the Libyans inhabiting the Theban
+      Oasis, but this rising was soon put down by that Amenemhabî who had so
+      distinguished himself under Thûtmosis.* Soon after, fresh troubles broke
+      out in different parts of Syria, in Galilee, in the country of the Amurru,
+      and among the peoples of Naharaim. The king&rsquo;s prompt action, however,
+      prevented their resulting in a general war.** He marched in person against
+      the malcontents, reduced the town of Shamshiaduma, fell upon the Lamnaniu,
+      and attacked their chief, slaying him with his own hand, and carrying off
+      numbers of captives.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Brugsch and Wiedemann place this expedition at the time
+     when Amenôthes IL was either hereditary prince or associated
+     with his father the inscription of Amenemhabî places it
+     explicitly after the death of Thûtmosis III., and this
+     evidence outweighs every other consideration until further
+     discoveries are made.
+
+     ** The campaigns of Amenôthes II. were related on a granite
+     stele, which was placed against the second of the southern
+     pylons at Karnak. The date of this monument is almost
+     certainly the year II.; there is strong evidence in favour
+     of this, if it is compared with the inscription of Amada,
+     where Amenôthes II. relates that in the year III. he
+     sacrificed the prisoners whom he had taken in the country of
+     Tikhisa.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0012" id="linkimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/044.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="044.jpg AmenÔthes Ii., from the Statue at Turin " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He crossed the Orontes on the 26th of Pachons, in the year II., and seeing
+      some mounted troops in the distance, rushed upon them and overthrew them;
+      they proved to be the advanced guard of the enemy&rsquo;s force, which he
+      encountered shortly afterwards and routed, collecting in the pursuit
+      considerable booty. He finally reached Naharaim, where he experienced in
+      the main but a feeble resistance. Nîi surrendered without resistance on
+      the 10th of Epiphi, and its inhabitants, both men and women, with censers
+      in their hands, assembled on the walls and prostrated themselves before
+      the conqueror. At Akaîti, where the partisans of the Egyptian government
+      had suffered persecution from a considerable section of the natives, order
+      was at once reestablished as soon as the king&rsquo;s approach was made known.
+      No doubt the rapidity of his marches and the vigour of his attacks, while
+      putting an end to the hostile attitude of the smaller vassal states, were
+      effectual in inducing the sovereigns of Alasia, of Mitanni,* and of the
+      Hittites to renew with Amenôthes the friendly relations which they had
+      established with his father.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Amenôthes II. mentions tribute from Mitanni on one of the
+     columns which he decorated at Karnak, in the Hall of the
+     Caryatides, close to the pillars finished by his
+     predecessors.
+
+     ** The cartouches on the pedestal of the throne of Amenôthes
+     IL, in the tomb of one of his officers at Sheîkh-Abd-el-
+     Qûrneh, represent&mdash;together with the inhabitants of the
+     Oasis, Libya, and Kush&mdash;the Kefatiû, the people of Naharaim,
+     and the Upper Lotanû, that is to say, the entire dominion of
+     Thûtmosis III., besides the people of Manûs, probably
+     Mallos, in the Cilician plain.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This one campaign, which lasted three or four months, secured a lasting
+      peace in the north, but in the south a disturbance again broke out among
+      the Barbarians of the Upper Nile. Amenôthes suppressed it, and, in order
+      to prevent a repetition of it, was guilty of an act of cruel severity
+      quite in accordance with the manners of the time. He had taken prisoner
+      seven chiefs in the country of Tikhisa, and had brought them, chained, in
+      triumph to Thebes, on the forecastle of his ship. He sacrificed six of
+      them himself before Amon, and exposed their heads and hands on the façade
+      of the temple of Karnak; the seventh was subjected to a similar fate at
+      Napata at the beginning of his third year, and thenceforth the sheîkhs of
+      Kush thought twice before defying the authority of the Pharaoh.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In an inscription in the temple of Amada, it is there said
+     that the king offered this sacrifice on his return from his
+     first expedition into Asia, and for this reason I have
+     connected the facts thus related with those known to us
+     through the stele of Karnak.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Amenôthes&rsquo;reign was a short one, lasting ten years at most, and the end of
+      it seems to have been darkened by the open or secret rivalries which the
+      question of the succession usually stirred up among the kings&rsquo; sons. The
+      king had daughters only by his marriage with one of his full sisters, who
+      like himself possessed all the rights of sovereignty; those of his sons
+      who did not die young were the children of princesses of inferior rank or
+      of concubines, and it was a subject of anxiety among these princes which
+      of them would be chosen to inherit the crown and be united in marriage
+      with the king&rsquo;s heiresses, Khûît and Mûtemûaû.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0013" id="linkimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/046.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="046.jpg the Great Sphinx and The Chapel of Thutmosis Iv. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the photograph taken in 1887 by
+     Émil Brugsch-Bey
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0014" id="linkimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/047.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="047.jpg the Simoom. Sphinx and Pyramids at Gizeh " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0016" id="linkimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/052.jpg" alt="052.jpg Queen MutemÛau. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by Daniel Héron.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      One of his sons, named Thûtmosis, who resided at the &ldquo;White Wall,&rdquo; was in
+      the habit of betaking himself frequently to the Libyan desert to practise
+      with the javelin, or to pursue the hunt of lions and gazelles in his
+      chariot. On these occasions it was his pleasure to preserve the strictest
+      incognito, and he was accompanied by two discreet servants only. One day,
+      when chance had brought him into the neighbourhood of the Great Pyramid,
+      he lay down for his accustomed siesta in the shade cast by the Sphinx, the
+      miraculous image of Khopri the most powerful, the god to whom all men in
+      Memphis and the neighbouring towns raised adoring hands filled with
+      offerings. The gigantic statue was at that time more than half buried, and
+      its head alone was seen above the sand. As soon as the prince was asleep
+      it spoke gently to him, as a father to his son: &ldquo;Behold me, gaze on me, O
+      my son Thûtmosis, for I, thy father Harmakhis-Khopri-Tûmû, grant thee
+      sovereignty over the two countries, in both the South and the North, and
+      thou shalt wear both the white and the red crown on the throne of Sibû,
+      the sovereign, possessing the earth in its length and breadth; the
+      flashing eye of the lord of all shall cause to rain on thee the
+      possessions of Egypt, vast tribute from all foreign countries, and a long
+      life for, many years as one chosen by the Sun, for my countenance is
+      thine, my heart is thine, no other than thyself is mine! Nor am I covered
+      by the sand of the mountain on which I rest, and have given thee this
+      prize that thou mayest do for me what my heart desires, for I know that
+      thou art my son, my defender; draw nigh, I am with thee, I am thy
+      well-beloved father.&rdquo; The prince understood that the god promised him the
+      kingdom on condition of his swearing to clear the sand from the statue. He
+      was, in fact, chosen to be the husband of the queens, and immediately
+      after his accession he fulfilled his oath; he removed the sand, built a
+      chapel between the paws, and erected against the breast of the statue a
+      stele of red granite, on which he related his adventure. His reign was as
+      short as that of Amenôthes, and his campaigns both in Asia and Ethiopia
+      were unimportant.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The latest date of his reign at present known is that of
+     the year VII., on the rocks of Konosso, and on a stele of
+     Sarbût el-Khâdîm. There is an allusion to his wars against
+     the Ethiopians in an inscription of Amada, and to his
+     campaigns against the peoples of the North and South on the
+     stele of Nofirhaît.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0015" id="linkimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/050.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="050.jpg the Stele of The Sphinx Of Gizer " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He had succeeded to an empire so firmly established from Naharaim to
+      Kari,* that, apparently, no rebellion could disturb its peace. One of the
+      two heiress-princesses, Kûît, the daughter, sister, and wife of a king,
+      had no living male offspring, but her companion Mûtemûaû had at least one
+      son, named Amenôthes. In his case, again, the noble birth of the mother
+      atoned for the defects of the paternal origin. Moreover, according to
+      tradition, Amon-Ka himself had intervened to renew the blood of his
+      descendants: he appeared in the person of Thûtmosis IV., and under this
+      guise became the father of the heir of the Pharaohs.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The peoples of Naharaim and of Northern Syria are
+     represented bringing him tribute, in a tomb at Sheîkh-Abd-
+     el-Qûrneh. The inscription published by Mariette, speaks of
+     the first expedition of Thûtmosis IV. to the land of
+     [Naharai]na, and of the gifts which he lavished on this
+     occasion on the temple of Anion.
+
+     ** It was at first thought that Mûtemûaû was an Ethiopian,
+     afterwards that she was a Syrian, who had changed her name
+     on arriving at the court of her husband. The manner in which
+     she is represented at Luxor, and in all the texts where she
+     figures, proves not only that she was of Egyptian race, but
+     that she was the daughter of Amenôthes II., and born of the
+     marriage of that prince with one of his sisters, who was
+     herself an hereditary princess.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Like Queen Ahmasis in the bas-reliefs of Deîr el-Baharî, Mûtemûaû is shown
+      on those of Luxor in the arms of her divine lover, and subsequently
+      greeted by him with the title of mother; in another bas-relief we see the
+      queen led to her couch by the goddesses who preside over the birth of
+      children; her son Amenôthes, on coming into the world with his double, is
+      placed in the hands of the two Niles, to receive the nourishment and the
+      education meet for the children of the gods. He profited fully by them,
+      for he remained in power forty years, and his reign was one of the most
+      prosperous ever witnessed by Egypt during the Theban dynasties.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Amenôthes III. had spent but little of his time in war. He had undertaken
+      the usual raids in the South against the negroes and the tribes of the
+      Upper Nile. In his fifth year, a general defection of the sheikhs obliged
+      him to invade the province of Abhaît, near Semneh, which he devastated at
+      the head of the troops collected by Mari-ifi mosû, the Prince of Kûsh; the
+      punishment was salutary, the booty considerable, and a lengthy peace was
+      re-established. The object of his rare expeditions into Naharaim was not
+      so much to add new provinces to his empire, as to prevent disturbances in
+      the old ones. The kings of Alasia, of the Khâti, of Mitanni, of Singar,*
+      of Assyria, and of Babylon did not dare to provoke so powerful a
+      neighbour.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Amenôthes entitles himself on a scarabæus &ldquo;he who takes
+     prisoner the country of Singar;&rdquo; no other document has yet
+     been discovered to show whether this is hyperbole, or
+     whether he really reached this distant region.
+
+     ** The lists of the time of Amenôthes III. contain the names
+     of Phoenicia, Naharaim, Singar, Qodshu, Tunipa, Patina,
+     Carchomish, and Assur; that is to say, of all the subject or
+     allied nations mentioned in the correspondence of Tel el-
+     Amarna. Certain episodes of these expeditions had been
+     engraved on the exterior face of the pylon constructed by
+     the king for the temple of Amon at Karnak; at the present
+     time they are concealed by the wall at the lower end of the
+     Hypostyle Hall. The tribute of the Lotanû was represented on
+     the tomb of Hûi, at Sheîkh-Abd-el-Qûrneh.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0017" id="linkimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/052b.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="047b Amenothes III. Colossal Head in the British Museum"
+       src="images/047b.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <a name="linkimage-0018" id="linkimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/052b-text.jpg" width="100%" alt="052b-text.jpg " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The remembrance of the victories of Thûtmosis III. was still fresh in
+      their memories, and, even had their hands been free, would have made them
+      cautious in dealing with his great-grandson; but they were incessantly
+      engaged in internecine quarrels, and had recourse to Pharaoh merely to
+      enlist his support, or at any rate make sure of his neutrality, and
+      prevent him from joining their adversaries.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0019" id="linkimage-0019">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/053.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="053.jpg Amenothes Iii. From the Tomb of Khamhait " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Daniel Héron.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Whatever might have been the nature of their private sentiments, they
+      professed to be anxious to maintain, for their mutual interests, the
+      relations with Egypt entered on half a century before, and as the surest
+      method of attaining their object was by a good marriage, they would each
+      seek an Egyptian wife for himself, or would offer Amenôthes a princess of
+      one of their own royal families. The Egyptian king was, however, firm in
+      refusing to bestow a princess of the solar blood even on the most powerful
+      of the foreign kings; his pride rebelled at the thought that she might one
+      day be consigned to a place among the inferior wives or concubines, but he
+      gladly accepted, and even sought for wives for himself, from among the
+      Syrian and Chaldæan princesses. Kallimmasin of Babylon gave Amenôthes
+      first his sister, and when age had deprived this princess of her beauty,
+      then his daughter Irtabi in marriage.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Letter from Amenôthes III. to Kallimmasin, concerning a
+     sister of the latter, who was married to the King of Egypt,
+     but of whom there are no further records remaining at
+     Babylon, and also one of his daughters whom Amenôthes had
+     demanded in marriage; and letters from Kallimmasin,
+     consenting to bestow his daughter Irtabi on the Pharaoh, and
+     proposing to give to Amenothes whichever one he might choose
+     of the daughters of his house.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Sutarna of Mitanni had in the same way given the Pharaoh his daughter
+      Gilukhîpa; indeed, most of the kings of that period had one or two
+      relations in the harem at Thebes. This connexion usually proved a support
+      to Asiatic sovereigns, such alliances being a safeguard against the
+      rivalries of their brothers or cousins. At times, however, they were the
+      means of exposing them to serious dangers. When Sutarna died he was
+      succeeded by his son Dushratta, but a numerous party put forward another
+      prince, named Artassumara, who was probably Gilukhîpa&rsquo;s brother, on the
+      mother&rsquo;s side;* a Hittite king of the name of Pirkhi espoused the cause of
+      the pretender, and a civil war broke out.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Her exact relationship is not explicitly expressed, but is
+     implied in the facts, for there seems no reason why
+     Gilukhîpa should have taken the part of one brother rather
+     than another, unless Artassumara had been nearer to her than
+     Dushratta; that is to say, her brother on the mother&rsquo;s side
+     as well as on the father&rsquo;s.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Dushratta was victorious, and caused his brother to be strangled, but was
+      not without anxiety as to the consequences which might follow this
+      execution should Gilukhîpa desire to avenge the victim, and to this end
+      stir up the anger of the suzerain against him. Dushratta, therefore, wrote
+      a humble epistle, showing that he had received provocation, and that he
+      had found it necessary to strike a decisive blow to save his own life; the
+      tablet was accompanied by various presents to the royal pair, comprising
+      horses, slaves, jewels, and perfumes. Gilukhîpa, however, bore Dushratta
+      no ill-will, and the latter&rsquo;s anxieties were allayed. The so-called
+      expeditions of Amenôthes to the Syrian provinces must constantly have been
+      merely visits of inspection, during which amusements, and especially the
+      chase, occupied nearly as important a place as war and politics. Amenôthes
+      III. took to heart that pre-eminently royal duty of ridding the country of
+      wild beasts, and fulfilled it more conscientiously than any of his
+      predecessors. He had killed 112 lions during the first ten years of his
+      reign, and as it was an exploit of which he was remarkably proud, he
+      perpetuated the memory of it in a special inscription, which he caused to
+      be engraved on numbers of large scarabs of fine green enamel. Egypt
+      prospered under his peaceful government, and if the king made no great
+      efforts to extend her frontiers, he spared no pains to enrich the country
+      by developing industry and agriculture, and also endeavoured to perfect
+      the military organisation which had rendered the conquest of the East so
+      easy a matter.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A census, undertaken by his minister Amenôthes, the son of Hâpi, ensured a
+      more correct assessment of the taxes, and a regular scheme of recruiting
+      for the army.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0020" id="linkimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/056.jpg" alt="056.jpg Scarab of the Hunt " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the photograph
+published in Mariette.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Whole tribes of slaves were brought into the country by means of the
+      border raids which were always taking place, and their opportune arrival
+      helped to fill up the vacancies which repeated wars had caused among the
+      rural and urban population; such a strong impetus to agriculture was also
+      given by this importation, that when, towards the middle of the reign, the
+      minister Khâmhâîfc presented the tax-gathers at court, he was able to
+      boast that he had stored in the State granaries a larger quantity of corn
+      than had been gathered in for thirty years. The traffic carried on between
+      Asia and the Delta by means of both Egyptian and foreign ships was
+      controlled by customhouses erected at the mouths of the Nile, the coast
+      being protected by cruising vessels against the attacks of pirates. The
+      fortresses of the isthmus and of the Libyan border, having been restored
+      or rebuilt, constituted a check on the turbulence of the nomad tribes,
+      while garrisons posted at intervals at the entrance to the Wadys leading
+      to the desert restrained the plunderers scattered between the Nile and the
+      Red Sea, and between the chain of Oases and the unexplored regions of the
+      Sahara.* Egypt was at once the most powerful as well as the most
+      prosperous kingdom in the world, being able to command more labour and
+      more precious metals for the embellishment of her towns and the
+      construction of her monuments than any other.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+* All this information is gathered
+from the inscription on the statue
+of Amenôthes, the son of Hâpi.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Public works had been carried on briskly under Thûtmosis III. and his
+      successors. The taste for building, thwarted at first by the necessity of
+      financial reforms, and then by that of defraying the heavy expenses
+      incurred through the expulsion of the Hyksôs and the earlier foreign wars,
+      had free scope as soon as spoil from the Syrian victories began to pour in
+      year by year. While the treasure seized from the enemy provided the money,
+      the majority of the prisoners were used as workmen, so that temples,
+      palaces, and citadels began to rise as if by magic from one end of the
+      valley to the other.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * For this use of prisoners of war, cf. the picture from the
+     tomb of Rakhmirî on p. 58 of the present work, in which most
+     of the earlier Egyptologists believed they recognised the
+     Hebrews, condemned by Pharaoh to build the cities of Ramses
+     and Pithom in the Delta.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nubia, divided into provinces, formed merely an extension of the ancient
+      feudal Egypt&mdash;at any rate as far as the neighbourhood of the Tacazzeh&mdash;though
+      the Egyptian religion had here assumed a peculiar character.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0021" id="linkimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/058.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="058.jpg a Gang of Syrian Prisoners Making Brick for The Temple of Amon " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the chromolithograph in Lepsius.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The conquest of Nubia having been almost entirely the work of the Theban
+      dynasties, the Theban triad, Amon, Maût, and Montû, and their immediate
+      followers were paramount in this region, while in the north, in witness of
+      the ancient Elephantinite colonisation, we find Khnûmû of the cataract
+      being worshipped, in connexion with Didûn, father of the indigenous
+      Nubians. The worship of Amon had been the means of introducing that of Eâ
+      and of Horus, and Osiris as lord of the dead, while Phtah, Sokhît, Atûmû,
+      and the Memphite and Heliopolitan gods were worshipped only in isolated
+      parts of the province. A being, however, of less exalted rank shared with
+      the lords of heaven the favour of the people. This was the Pharaoh, who as
+      the son of Amon was foreordained to receive divine honours, sometimes
+      figuring, as at Bohani, as the third member of a triad, at other times as
+      head of the Ennead. Ûsirtasen III. had had his chapels at Semneh and at
+      Kûmmeh, they were restored by Thûtmosis III., who claimed a share of the
+      worship offered in them, and whose son, Amenôthes II., also assumed the
+      symbols and functions of divinity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0022" id="linkimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/059.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="059.jpg One of the Rams Of AmenÔthes III " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Mons. de Mertens.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Amenôthes I. was venerated in the province of Kari, and Amenôthes III.,
+      when founding the fortress Hâît-Khâmmâît* in the neighbourhood of a Nubian
+      village, on a spot now known as Soleb, built a temple there, of which he
+      himself was the protecting genius.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name signifies literally &ldquo;the Citadel of Khâmmâît,&rdquo;
+      and it is formed, as Lepsius recognised from the first, from
+     the name of the Sparrow-hawk Khâmmâît, &ldquo;Mait rising as
+     Goddess,&rdquo; which Amenôthes had assumed on his accession.
+
+     ** Lepsius recognised the nature of the divinity worshipped
+     in this temple; the deified statue of the king, &ldquo;his living
+     statue on earth,&rdquo; which represented the god of the temple,
+     is there named &ldquo;Nibmâûrî, lord of Nubia.&rdquo; Thûtmosis III. had
+     already worked at Soleb.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The edifice was of considerable size, and the columns and walls remaining
+      reveal an art as perfect as that shown in the best monuments at Thebes. It
+      was approached by an avenue of ram-headed sphinxes, while colossal statues
+      of lions and hawks, the sacred animals of the district, adorned the
+      building. The sovereign condescended to preside in person at its
+      dedication on one of his journeys to the southern part of his empire, and
+      the mutilated pictures still visible on the façade show the order and
+      detail of the ceremony observed on this occasion. The king, with the crown
+      upon his head, stood before the centre gate, accompanied by the queen and
+      his minister Amenôthes, the son of Hâpi, who was better acquainted than
+      any other man of his time with the mysteries of the ritual.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * On Amenôthes, the son of Hâpi, see p. 56 of the present
+     volume; it will be seen in the following chapter, in
+     connection with the Egyptian accounts of the Exodus, what
+     tradition made of him.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The king then struck the door twelve times with his mace of white stone,
+      and when the approach to the first hall was opened, he repeated the
+      operation at the threshold of the sanctuary previous to entering and
+      placing his statue there. He deposited it on the painted and gilded wooden
+      platform on which the gods were exhibited on feast-days, and enthroned
+      beside it the other images which were thenceforth to constitute the local
+      Ennead, after which he kindled the sacred fire before them. The queen,
+      with the priests and nobles, all bearing torches, then passed through the
+      halls, stopping from time to time to perform acts of purification, or to
+      recite formulas to dispel evil spirits and pernicious influences; finally,
+      a triumphal procession was formed, and the whole <i>cortege</i> returned
+      to the palace, where a banquet brought the day&rsquo;s festivities to a close.*
+      It was Amenôthes III. himself, or rather one of his statues animated by
+      his double, who occupied the chief place in the new building. Indeed,
+      wherever we come across a temple in Nubia dedicated to a king, we find the
+      homage of the inhabitants always offered to the image of the founder,
+      which spoke to them in oracles. All the southern part of the country
+      beyond the second cataract is full of traces of Amenôthes, and the
+      evidence of the veneration shown to him would lead us to conclude that he
+      played an important part in the organisation of the country. Sedeinga
+      possessed a small temple under the patronage of his wife Tîi. The ruins of
+      a sanctuary which he dedicated to Anion, the Sun-god, have been discovered
+      at Gebel-Barkal; Amenôthes seems to have been the first to perceive the
+      advantages offered by the site, and to have endeavoured to transform the
+      barbarian village of Napata into a large Egyptian city. Some of the
+      monuments with which he adorned Soleb were transported, in later times, to
+      Gebel-Barkal, among them some rams and lions of rare beauty. They lie at
+      rest with their paws crossed, the head erect, and their expression
+      suggesting both power and repose.** As we descend the Nile, traces of the
+      work of this king are less frequent, and their place is taken by those of
+      his predecessors, as at Sai, at Semneh, at Wady Haifa, at Amada, at Ibrîm,
+      and at Dakkeh. Distant traces of Amenôthes again appear in the
+      neighbourhood of the first cataract, and in the island of Elephantine,
+      which he endeavoured to restore to its ancient splendour.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Thus the small temple of Sarrah, to the north of Wady
+     Haifa, is dedicated to &ldquo;the living statue of Ramses II. in
+     the land of Nubia,&rdquo; a statue to which his Majesty gave the
+     name of &ldquo;Usirmârî Zosir-Shâfi.&rdquo;
+
+     ** One of the rams was removed from Gebel-Barkal by Lepsius,
+     and is now in the Berlin Museum, as well as the pedestal of
+     one of the hawks. Prisse has shown that these two monuments
+     originally adorned the temple of Soleb, and that they were
+     afterwards transported to Napata by an Ethiopian king, who
+     engraved his name on the pedestal of one of them.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0023" id="linkimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/062.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="062.jpg One of the Lions Of Gebel-barkal " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from one of the two lions of Gebel-
+     Barkal in the British Museum
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Two of the small buildings which he there dedicated to Khnûmû, the local
+      god, were still in existence at the beginning of the present century. That
+      least damaged, on the south side of the island, consisted of a single
+      chamber nearly forty feet in length. The sandstone walls, terminating in a
+      curved cornice, rested on a hollow substructure raised rather more than
+      six feet above the ground, and surrounded by a breast-high parapet. A
+      portico ran round the building, having seven square pillars on each of its
+      two sides, while at each end stood two columns having lotus-shaped
+      capitals; a flight of ten or twelve steps between two walls of the same
+      height as the basement, projected in front, and afforded access to the
+      cella. The two columns of the façade were further apart than those at the
+      opposite end of the building, and showed a glimpse of a richly decorated
+      door, while a second door opened under the peristyle at the further
+      extremity. The walls were covered with the half-brutish profile of the
+      good Khnûmû, and those of his two companions, Anûkît and Satît, the
+      spirits of stormy waters. The treatment of these figures was broad and
+      simple, the style free, light, and graceful, the colouring soft; and the
+      harmonious beauty of the whole is unsurpassed by anything at Thebes
+      itself. It was, in fact, a kind of oratory, built on a scale to suit the
+      capacities of a decaying town, but the design was so delicately conceived
+      in its miniature proportions that nothing more graceful can be imagined.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Amenôthes II. erected some small obelisks at Elephantine,
+     one of which is at present in England. The two buildings of
+     Amenôthes III. at Elephantine were still in existence at the
+     beginning of the present century. They have been described
+     and drawn by French scholars; between 1822 and 1825 they
+     were destroyed, and the materials used for building barracks
+     and magazines at Syene.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ancient Egypt and its feudal cities, Ombos, Edfû,* Nekhabît, Esneh,**
+      Medamôt,*** Coptos,**** Denderah, Abydos, Memphis,^ and Heliopolis,
+      profited largely by the generosity of the Pharaohs.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The works undertaken by Thûtmosis III. in the temple of
+     Edfû are mentioned in an inscription of the Ptolemaic
+     period; some portions are still to be seen among the ruins
+     of the town.
+
+     ** An inscription of the Roman period attributes the
+     rebuilding of the great temple of Esneh to Thûtmosis III.
+     Grébaut discovered some fragments of it in the quay of the
+     modern town.
+
+     *** Amenôthes II. appears to have built the existing temple.
+
+     **** The temple of Hâthor was built by Thûtmosis III. Some
+     fragments found in the Ptolemaic masonry bear the cartouche
+     of Thûtmosis IV.
+
+     ^ Amenôthes II. certainly carried on works at Memphis, for
+     he opened a new quarry at Tûrah, in the year IV. Amenôthes
+     III. also worked limestone quarries, and built at Saqqârah
+     the earliest chapels of the Serapeum which are at present
+     known to us.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Since the close of the XIIth dynasty these cities had depended entirely on
+      their own resources, and their public buildings were either in ruins, or
+      quite inadequate to the needs of the population, but now gold from Syria
+      and Kûsh furnished them with the means of restoration. The Delta itself
+      shared in this architectural revival, but it had suffered too severely
+      under the struggle between the Theban kings and the Shepherds to recover
+      itself as quickly as the remainder of the country. All effort was
+      concentrated on those of its nomes which lay on the Eastern frontier, or
+      which were crossed by the Pharaohs in their journeys into Asia, such as
+      the Bubastite and Athribite nomes; the rest remained sunk in their ancient
+      torpor.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      * Mariette and E. de Rougé, attribute this torpor, at least as far as
+      Tanis is concerned, to the aversion felt by the Pharaohs of Egyptian blood
+      for the Hyksôs capital, and for the provinces where the invaders had
+      formerly established themselves in large numbers.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Beyond the Red Sea the mines were actively worked, and even the oases of
+      the Libyan desert took part in the national revival, and buildings rose in
+      their midst of a size proportionate to their slender revenues. Thebes
+      naturally came in for the largest share of the spoils of war. Although her
+      kings had become the rulers of the world, they had not, like the Pharaohs
+      of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties, forsaken her for some more illustrious
+      city: here they had their ordinary residence as well as their seat of
+      government, hither they returned after each campaign to celebrate their
+      victory, and hither they sent the prisoners and the spoil which they had
+      reserved for their own royal use. In the course of one or two generations
+      Thebes had spread in every direction, and had enclosed within her circuit
+      the neighbouring villages of Ashîrû, the fief of Maiit, and Apît-rîsîfc,
+      the southern Thebes, which lay at the confluence of the Nile with one of
+      the largest of the canals which watered the plain. The monuments in these
+      two new quarters of the town were unworthy of the city of which they now
+      formed part, and Amenôthes III. consequently bestowed much pains on
+      improving them. He entirely rebuilt the sanctuary of Maût, enlarged the
+      sacred lake, and collected within one of the courts of the temple several
+      hundred statues in black granite of the Memphite divinity, the
+      lioness-headed Sokhît, whom he identified with his Theban goddess. The
+      statues were crowded together so closely that they were in actual contact
+      with each other in places, and must have presented something of the
+      appearance of a regiment drawn up in battle array. The succeeding Pharaohs
+      soon came to look upon this temple as a kind of storehouse, whence they
+      might provide themselves with ready-made figures to decorate their
+      buildings either at Thebes or in other royal cities. About a hundred of
+      them, however, still remain, most of them without feet, arms, or head;
+      some over-turned on the ground, others considerably out of the
+      perpendicular, from the earth having given way beneath them, and a small
+      number only still perfect and in situ.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0024" id="linkimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/065.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="065.jpg the Temple at Elephantine, As It Was in 1799 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the <i>Description de l&rsquo;Egypte,
+     Ant</i>., vol. i p. 35. A good restoration of it, made from
+     the statements in the <i>Description</i>, is to be found in
+     Pekrot-Cuipiez, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;Art dans l&rsquo;Antiquité</i>, vol.
+     i. pp. 402, 403.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0025" id="linkimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/066.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="066.jpg the Great Court of The Temple Of Luxor During The Inundation " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0026" id="linkimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/067.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="067.jpg Part of the Avenue Of Rams, Between The Temples Of Amon and MaÛt " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At Luxor Amenôthes demolished the small temple with which the sovereigns
+      of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties had been satisfied, and replaced it by a
+      structure which is still one of the finest yet remaining of the times of
+      the Pharaohs. The naos rose sheer above the waters of the Nile, indeed its
+      cornices projected over the river, and a staircase at the south side
+      allowed the priests and devotees to embark directly from the rear of the
+      building. The sanctuary was a single chamber, with an opening on its side,
+      but so completely shut out from the daylight by the long dark hall at
+      whose extremity it was placed as to be in perpetual obscurity. It was
+      flanked by narrow, dimly lightly chambers, and was approached through a
+      pronaos with four rows of columns, a vast court surrounded with porticoes
+      occupying the foreground. At the present time the thick walls which
+      enclosed the entire building are nearly level with the ground, half the
+      ceilings have crumbled away, air and light penetrate into every nook, and
+      during the inundation the water flowing into the courts, transformed them
+      until recently into lakes, whither the flocks and herds of the village
+      resorted in the heat of the day to bathe or quench their thirst. Pictures
+      of mysterious events never meant for the public gaze now display their
+      secrets in the light of the sun, and reveal to the eyes of the profane the
+      supernatural events which preceded the birth of the king. On the northern
+      side an avenue of sphinxes and crio-sphinxes led to the gates of old
+      Thebes. At present most of these creatures are buried under the ruins of
+      the modern town, or covered by the earth which overlies the ancient road;
+      but a few are still visible, broken and shapeless from barbarous usage,
+      and hardly retaining any traces of the inscriptions in which Amenôthes
+      claimed them boastingly as his work.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0027" id="linkimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/069.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="069.jpg the Pylons of ThÛtmosis Iii. And HarmhabÎ At Kaknak " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Triumphal processions passing along this route from Luxor to Karnak would
+      at length reach the great court before the temple of Amon, or, by turning
+      a little to the right after passing the temple of Maût, would arrive in
+      front of the southern façade, near the two gilded obelisks whose splendour
+      once rejoiced the heart of the famous Hâtshopsîtû. Thûtmosis III. was also
+      determined on his part to spare no expense to make the temple of his god
+      of proportions suitable to the patron of so vast an empire. Not only did
+      he complete those portions which his predecessors had merely sketched out,
+      but on the south side towards Ashîrû he also built a long row of pylons,
+      now half ruined, on which he engraved, according to custom, the list of
+      nations and cities which he had subdued in Asia and Africa. To the east of
+      the temple he rebuilt some ancient structures, the largest of which served
+      as a halting-place for processions, and he enclosed the whole with a stone
+      rampart. The outline of the sacred lake, on which the mystic boats were
+      launched on the nights of festivals, was also made more symmetrical, and
+      its margin edged with masonry.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0028" id="linkimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/070.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="070.jpg Sacred Lake Akd the Southern Part of The Temple Of Karnak. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boucher, from a photograph by Boato: the building
+     near the centre of the picture is the covered walk
+     constructed by Thûtmosis III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      By these alterations the harmonious proportion between the main buildings
+      and the façade had been destroyed, and the exterior wall was now too wide
+      for the pylon at the entrance. Amenôthes III. remedied this defect by
+      erecting in front a fourth pylon, which was loftier, larger, and in all
+      respects more worthy to stand before the enlarged temple. Its walls were
+      partially covered with battle-scenes, which informed all beholders of the
+      glory of the conqueror.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Portions of the military bas-reliefs which covered the
+     exterior face of the pylon are still to be seen through the
+     gaps in the wall at the end of the great Hall of Pillars
+     built by Seti I. and Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Progress had been no less marked on the left bank of the river. As long as
+      Thebes had been merely a small provincial town, its cemeteries had covered
+      but a moderate area, including the sandy plain and low mounds opposite
+      Karnak and the valley of Deîr el-Baharî beyond; but now that the city had
+      more than doubled its extent, the space required for the dead was
+      proportionately greater. The tombs of private persons began to spread
+      towards the south, and soon reached the slopes of the Assassîf, the hill
+      of Sheikh-Abd-el-Qurnah and the district of Qûrnet-Mûrraî&mdash;in fact,
+      all that part which the people of the country called the &ldquo;Brow&rdquo; of Thebes.
+      On the borders of the cultivated land a row of chapels and mastabas with
+      pyramidal roofs sheltered the remains of the princes and princesses of the
+      royal family. The Pharaohs themselves were buried either separately under
+      their respective brick pyramids or in groups in a temple, as was the case
+      with the first three Thûtmosis and Hâtshopsîtû at Deîr el-Baharî.
+      Amenôthes II. and Thûtmosis IV. could doubtless have found room in this
+      crowded necropolis,* although the space was becoming limited, but the
+      pride of the Pharaohs began to rebel against this promiscuous burial side
+      by side with their subjects. Amenôthes III. sought for a site, therefore,
+      where he would have ample room to display his magnificence, far from the
+      vulgar crowd, and found what he desired at the farther end of the valley
+      which opens out behind the village of Qurnah. Here, an hour&rsquo;s journey from
+      the bank of the Nile, he cut for himself a magnificent rock-tomb with
+      galleries, halls, and deep pits, the walls being decorated with
+      representations of the Voyage of the Sun through the regions which he
+      traverses during the twelve hours of his nocturnal course.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The generally received opinion is that these sovereigns of
+     the XVIIIth dynasty were buried in the Bibân el-Molûk, but I
+     have made several examinations of this valley, and cannot
+     think that this was the case. On the contrary, the scattered
+     notices in the fragments of papyrus preserved at Turin seem
+     to me to indicate that Amenôthes II. and Thûtmosis IV. must
+     have been buried in the neighbourhood of the Assassîf or of
+     Deîr el-Baharî.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A sarcophagus of red granite received his mummy, and <i>Ushabti&rsquo;s</i> of
+      extraordinary dimensions and admirable workmanship mounted guard around
+      him, so as to release him from the corvée in the fields of Ialû. The
+      chapel usually attached to such tombs is not to be found in the
+      neighbourhood. As the road to the funeral valley was a difficult one, and
+      as it would be unreasonable to condemn an entire priesthood to live in
+      solitude, the king decided to separate the component parts which had
+      hitherto been united in every tomb since the Memphite period, and to place
+      the vault for the mummy and the passages leading to it some distance away
+      in the mountains, while the necessary buildings for the cultus of the
+      statue and the accommodation of the priests were transferred to the plain,
+      and were built at the southern extremity of the lands which were at that
+      time held by private persons. The divine character of Amenôthes, ascribed
+      to him on account of his solar origin and the co-operation of Amon-Râ at
+      his birth, was, owing to this separation of the funerary constituents,
+      brought into further prominence. When once the body which he had animated
+      while on earth was removed and hidden from sight, the people soon became
+      accustomed to think only of his Double enthroned in the recesses of the
+      sanctuary: seeing him receive there the same honours as the gods
+      themselves, they came naturally to regard him as a deity himself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0029" id="linkimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/073.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="073.jpg the Two Colossi of Memnon in The Plain Of Thebes " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato. The
+     &ldquo;Vocal Statue of Memon&rdquo; is that on the right-hand side of
+     the illustration.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The arrangement of his temple differed in no way from those in which Amon,
+      Maût, and Montû were worshipped, while it surpassed in size and splendour
+      most of the sanctuaries dedicated to the patron gods of the chief towns of
+      the nomes. It contained, moreover, colossal statues, objects which are
+      never found associated with the heavenly gods. Several of these figures
+      have been broken to pieces, and only a few scattered fragments of them
+      remain, but two of them still maintain their positions on each side of the
+      entrance, with their faces towards the east. They are each formed of a
+      single block of red breccia from Syenê,* and are fifty-three feet high,
+      but the more northerly one was shattered in the earthquake which completed
+      the ruin of Thebes in the year 27 B.C. The upper part toppled over with
+      the shock, and was dashed to pieces on the floor of the court, while the
+      lower half remained in its place. Soon after the disaster it began to be
+      rumoured that sounds like those produced by the breaking of a harp-string
+      proceeded from the pedestal at sunrise, whereupon travellers flocked to
+      witness the miracle, and legend soon began to take possession of the giant
+      who spoke in this marvellous way. In vain did the Egyptians of the
+      neighbourhood declare that the statue represented the Pharaoh Amenôthes;
+      the Greeks refused to believe them, and forthwith recognised in the
+      colossus an image of Memnon the Ethiopian, son of Tithonus and Aurora,
+      slain by their own Achilles beneath the walls of Troy&mdash;maintaining
+      that the music heard every morning was the clear and harmonious voice of
+      the hero saluting his mother.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It is often asserted that they are made of rose granite,
+     but Jollois and Devilliers describe them as being of &ldquo;a
+     species of sandstone breccia, composed of a mass of agate
+     flint, conglomerated together by a remarkably hard cement.
+     This material, being very dense and of a heterogeneous
+     composition, presents to the sculptor perhaps greater
+     difficulties than even granite.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      Towards the middle of the second century of our era, Hadrian undertook a
+      journey to Upper Egypt, and heard the wonderful song; sixty years later,
+      Septimus Severus restored the statue by the employment of courses of
+      stones, which were so arranged as to form a rough representation of a
+      human head and shoulders. His piety, however, was not rewarded as he
+      expected, for Memnon became silent, and his oracle fell into oblivion. The
+      temple no longer exists, and a few ridges alone mark the spot where it
+      rose; but the two colossi remain at their post, in the same condition in
+      which they were left by the Roman Cæsar: the features are quite
+      obliterated, and the legs and the supporting female figures on either side
+      are scored all over with Greek and Latin inscriptions expressing the
+      appreciation of ancient tourists. Although the statues tower high above
+      the fields of corn and <i>bersîm</i> which surround them, our first view
+      of them, owing to the scale of proportion observed in their construction,
+      so different from that to which we are accustomed, gives us the impression
+      that they are smaller than they really are, and it is only when we stand
+      close to one of them and notice the insignificant appearance of the crowd
+      of sightseers clustered on its pedestal that we realize the immensity of
+      the colossi.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The descendants of Ahmosis had by their energy won for Thebes not only the
+      supremacy over the peoples of Egypt and of the known world, but had also
+      secured for the Theban deities pre-eminence over all their rivals. The
+      booty collected both in Syria and Ethiopia went to enrich the god Amon as
+      much as it did the kings themselves; every victory brought him the tenth
+      part of the spoil gathered on the field of battle, of the tribute levied
+      on vassals, and of the prisoners taken as slaves. When Thûtmosis IIL,
+      after having reduced Megiddo, organised a systematic plundering of the
+      surrounding country, it was for the benefit of Amon-Eâ that he reaped the
+      fields and sent their harvest into Egypt; if during his journeys he
+      collected useful plants or rare animals, it was that he might dispose of
+      them in the groves or gardens of Amon as well as in his own, and he never
+      retained for his personal use the whole of what he won by arms, but always
+      reserved some portion for the sacred treasury.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0030" id="linkimage-0030">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/076.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="076.jpg a Party of Tourists at the Foot Of The Vocal Statue of Memnok " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His successors acted in a similar manner, and in the reigns of Amenôthes
+      II., Thût-mosis IV., and Amenôthes III., the patrimony of the Theban
+      priesthood continued to increase. The Pharaohs, perpetually called upon as
+      they were to recompense one or other of their servants, were never able to
+      retain for long their share of the spoils of war. Gold and silver, lands,
+      jewels, and slaves passed as quickly out of their hands as they had fallen
+      into them, and although then fortune was continually having additions made
+      to it in every fresh campaign, yet the increase was rarely in proportion
+      to the trouble expended. The god, on the contrary, received what he got
+      for all time, and gave back nothing in return: fresh accumulations of
+      precious metals were continually being added to his store, his meadows
+      were enriched by the addition of vineyards, and with his palm forests he
+      combined fish-ponds full of fish; he added farms and villages to those he
+      already possessed, and each reign saw the list of his possessions
+      increase. He had his own labourers, his own tradespeople, his own
+      fishermen, soldiers, and scribes, and, presiding over all these, a learned
+      hierarchy of divines, priests, and prophets, who administered everything.
+      This immense domain, which was a kind of State within the State, was ruled
+      over by a single high priest, chosen by the sovereign from among the
+      prophets. He was the irresponsible head of it, and his spiritual ambition
+      had increased step by step with the extension of his material resources.
+      As the human Pharaoh showed himself entitled to homage from the lords of
+      the earth, the priests came at length to the conclusion that Amon had a
+      right to the allegiance of the lords of heaven, and that he was the
+      Supreme Being, in respect of whom the others were of little or no account,
+      and as he was the only god who was everywhere victorious, he came at
+      length to be regarded by them as the only god in existence. It was
+      impossible that the kings could see this rapid development of sacerdotal
+      power without anxiety, and with all their devotion to the patron of their
+      city, solicitude for their own authority compelled them to seek elsewhere
+      for another divinity, whose influence might in some degree counterbalance
+      that of Amon. The only one who could vie with him at Thebes, either for
+      the antiquity of his worship or for the rank which he occupied in the
+      public esteem, was the Sun-lord of Heliopolis, head of the first Ennead.
+      Thûtmosis IV. owed his crown to him, and &lsquo;displayed his gratitude in
+      clearing away the sand from the Sphinx, in which the spirit of Harmakhis
+      was considered to dwell; and Amenôthes III., although claiming to be the
+      son of Amon himself, inherited the disposition shown by Thûtmosis in
+      favour of the Heliopolitan religions, but instead of attaching himself to
+      the forms most venerated by theologians, he bestowed his affection on a
+      more popular deity&mdash;Atonû, the fiery disk. He may have been
+      influenced in his choice by private reasons. Like his predecessors, he had
+      taken, while still very young, wives from among his own family, but
+      neither these reasonable ties, nor his numerous diplomatic alliances with
+      foreign princesses, were enough for him. From the very beginning of his
+      reign he had loved a maiden who was not of the blood of the Pharaohs, Tîi,
+      the daughter of Iûîa and his wife Tûîa.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      * For the last thirty years Queen Tîi has been the subject of many
+      hypotheses and of much confusion. The scarabasi engraved under Amenôthes
+      III. say explicitly that she was the daughter of two personages, Iûîa and
+      Tûîa, but these names are not accompanied by any of the signs which are
+      characteristic of foreign names, and were considered Egyptian by
+      contemporaries. Hincks was the first who seems to have believed her to be
+      a Syrian; he compares her father&rsquo;s name with that of Levi, and attributes
+      the religious revolution which followed to the influence of her foreign
+      education. This theory has continued to predominate; some prefer a Libyan
+      origin to the Asiatic one, and latterly there has been an attempt to
+      recognise in Tîi one of the princesses of Mitanni mentioned in the
+      correspondence of Tel el-Amarna. As long ago as 1877, I showed that Tîi
+      was an Egyptian of middle rank, probably of Heliopolitan origin.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Connexions of this kind had been frequently formed by his ancestors, but
+      the Egyptian women of inferior rank whom they had brought into their
+      harems had always remained in the background, and if the sons of these
+      concubines were ever fortunate enough to come to the throne, it was in
+      default of heirs of pure blood. Amenôthes III. married Tîi, gave her for
+      her dowry the town of Zâlû in Lower Egypt, and raised her to the position
+      of queen, in spite of her low extraction. She busied herself in the
+      affairs of State, took precedence of the princesses of the solar family,
+      and appeared at her husband&rsquo;s side in public ceremonies, and was so
+      figured on the monuments. If, as there is reason to believe, she was born
+      near Heliopolis, it is easy to understand how her influence may have led
+      Amenôthes to pay special honour to a Heliopolitan divinity. He had built,
+      at an early period of his reign, a sanctuary to Atonû at Memphis, and in
+      the Xth year he constructed for him a chapel at Thebes itself,* to the
+      south of the last pylon of ïhûtmosis III., and endowed this deity with
+      property at the expense of Anion.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This temple seems to have been raised on the site of the
+     building which is usually attributed to Amenôthes II. and
+     Amenôthes III. The blocks bearing the name of Amenôthes II.
+     had been used previously, like most of those which bear the
+     cartouches of Amenôthes III. The temple of Atonû, which was
+     demolished by Harmhabî or one of the Ramses, was
+     subsequently rebuilt with the remains of earlier edifices,
+     and dedicated to Amon.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He had several sons;* but the one who succeeded him, and who, like him,
+      was named Amenôthes, was the most paradoxical of all the Egyptian
+      sovereigns of ancient times.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * One of them, Thûtmosis, was high priest of Phtah, and we
+     possess several monuments erected by him in the temple of
+     Memphis; another, Tûtonkhamon, subsequently became king. He
+     also had several daughters by Tîi&mdash;Sîtamon.
+
+     ** The absence of any cartouches of Amenôthes IV. or his
+     successors in the table of Abydos prevented Champollion and
+     Rosellini from classifying these sovereigns with any
+     precision. Nestor L&rsquo;hôte tried to recognise in the first of
+     them, whom he called <i>Bakhen-Balchnan</i>, a king belonging to
+     the very ancient dynasties, perhaps the Hyksôs Apakhnan, but
+     Lepsius and Hincks showed that he must be placed between
+     Amenôthes III. and Harmhabî, that he was first called
+     Amenôthes like his father, but that he afterwards took the
+     name of Baknaten, which is now read Khûnaten or Khûniaton.
+     His singular aspect made it difficult to decide at first
+     whether a man or a woman was represented. Mariette, while
+     pronouncing him to be a man, thought that he had perhaps
+     been taken prisoner in the Sudan and mutilated, which would
+     have explained his effeminate appearance, almost like that
+     of an eunuch. Recent attempts have been made to prove that
+     Amenôthes IV. and Khûniaton were two distinct persons, or
+     that Khûniaton was a queen; but they have hitherto been
+     rejected by Egyptologists.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He made up for the inferiority of his birth on account of the plebeian
+      origin of his mother Tîî,* by his marriage with Nofrîtîti, a princess of
+      the pure solar race.** Tîi, long accustomed to the management of affairs,
+      exerted her influence over him even more than she had done over her
+      husband. Without officially assuming the rank, she certainly for several
+      years possessed the power, of regent, and gave a definite Oriental impress
+      to her son&rsquo;s religious policy. No outward changes were made at first;
+      Amenôthes, although showing his preference for Heliopolis by inscribing in
+      his protocol the title of prophet of Harmakhis, which he may, however,
+      have borne before his accession, maintained his residence at Thebes, as
+      his father had done before him, continued to sacrifice to the Theban
+      divinities, and to follow the ancient paths and the conventional
+      practices.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The filiation of Amenôthes IV. and Tîi has given rise to
+     more than one controversy. The Egyptian texts do not define
+     it explicitly, and the title borne by Tîi has been
+     considered by some to prove that Amenôthes IV. was her son,
+     and by others that she was the mother of Queen Nofrîtîti.
+     The Tel el-Amarna correspondence solves the question,
+     however, as it gives a letter from Dushratta to Khûniaton,
+     in which Tîi is called &ldquo;thy mother.&rdquo;
+
+     ** Nofrîtîti, the wife of Amenôthes IV., like all the
+     princesses of that time, has been supposed to be of Syrian
+     origin, and to have changed her name on her arrival in
+     Egypt. The place which she holds beside her husband is the
+     same as that which belongs to legitimate queens, like
+     Nofritari, Ahmosis, and Hâtshopsîtû, and the example of
+     these princesses is enough to show us what was her real
+     position; she was most probably a daughter of one of the
+     princesses of the solar blood, perhaps of one of the sisters
+     of Amenôthes III., and Amenôthes IV. married her so as to
+     obtain through her the rights which were wanting to him
+     through his mother Tîi.
+
+     *** The tomb of Ramses, governor of Thebes and priest of
+     Mâît, shows us in one part of it the king, still faithful to
+     his name of Amenôthes, paying homage to the god Amon, lord
+     of Karnak, while everywhere else the worship of Atonû
+     predominates. The cartouches on the tomb of Pari, read by
+     Bouriant Akhopîrûrî, and by Scheil more correctly
+     Nofirkhopîrûrî, seem to me to represent a transitional form
+     of the protocol of Amenôthes IV., and not the name of a new
+     Pharaoh; the inscription in which they are to be found bears
+     the date of his third year.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0031" id="linkimage-0031">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/079.jpg" alt="079.jpg Marriage ScarabÆus " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph of the
+scarabaeus preserved at
+Gîzeh.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He either built a temple to the Theban god, or enlarged the one which his
+      father had constructed at Karnak, and even opened new quarries at Syene
+      and Silsileh for providing granite and sandstone for the adornment of this
+      monument. His devotion to the invincible Disk, however, soon began to
+      assert itself, and rendered more and more irksome to him the religious
+      observances which he had constrained himself to follow. There was nothing
+      and no one to hinder him from giving free course to his inclinations, and
+      the nobles and priests were too well trained in obedience to venture to
+      censure anything he might do, even were it to result in putting the whole
+      population into motion, from Elephantine to the sea-coast, to prepare for
+      the intruded deity a dwelling which should eclipse in magnificence the
+      splendour of the great temple. A few of those around him had become
+      converted of their own accord to his favourite worship, but these formed a
+      very small minority. Thebes had belonged to Amon so long that the king
+      could never hope to bring it to regard Atonû as anything but a being of
+      inferior rank. Each city belonged to some god, to whom was attributed its
+      origin, its development, and its prosperity, and whom it could not forsake
+      without renouncing its very existence. If Thebes became separated from
+      Amon it would be Thebes no longer, and of this Amenôthes was so well aware
+      that he never attempted to induce it to renounce its patron. His residence
+      among surroundings which he detested at length became so intolerable, that
+      he resolved to leave the place and create a new capital elsewhere. The
+      choice of a new abode would have presented no difficulty to him had he
+      been able to make up his mind to relegate Atonû to the second rank of
+      divinities; Memphis, Heracleopolis, Siût, Khmûnû, and, in fact, all the
+      towns of the valley would have deemed themselves fortunate in securing the
+      inheritance of their rival, but not one of them would be false to its
+      convictions or accept the degradation of its own divine founder, whether
+      Phtah, Harshafîtû, Anubis, or Thot. A newly promoted god demanded a new
+      city; Amenôthes, therefore, made selection of a broad plain extending on
+      the right bank of the Nile, in the eastern part of the Hermopolitan nome,
+      to which he removed with all his court about the fourth or fifth year of
+      his reign.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The last date with the name of Amenôthes is that of the
+     year V., on a papyrus from the Payilm; elsewhere we find
+     from the year VI. the name of Khûniaton, by the side of
+     monuments with the cartouche of Amenôthes; we may conclude
+     from this that the foundation of the town dates from the
+     year IV. or V. at the latest, when the prince, having
+     renounced the worship of Amon, left Thebes that he might be
+     able to celebrate freely that of Atonû.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He found here several obscure villages without any historical or religious
+      traditions, and but thinly populated; Amenôthes chose one of them, the
+      Et-Tel of the present day, and built there a palace for himself and a
+      temple for his god. The temple, like that of Eâ at Heliopolis, was named
+      <i>Haît-Banbonû</i>, the Mansion of the Obelisk. It covered an immense
+      area, of which the sanctuary, however, occupied an inconsiderable part; it
+      was flanked by brick storehouses, and the whole was surrounded by a thick
+      wall. The remains show that the temple was built of white limestone, of
+      fine quality, but that it was almost devoid of ornament, for there was no
+      time to cover it with the usual decorations.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The opinion of Brugsch, that the arrangement of the
+     various parts differed from that of other temples, and was
+     the effect of foreign influence, has not been borne out by
+     the excavations of Prof. Pétrie, the little which he has
+     brought to light being entirely of Egyptian character. The
+     temple is represented on the tomb of the high priest Mariri.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0032" id="linkimage-0032">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/084.jpg" width="100%" alt="084.jpg Map " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The palace was built of brick; it was approached by a colossal gateway,
+      and contained vast halls, interspersed with small apartments for the
+      accommodation of the household, and storehouses for the necessary
+      provisions, besides gardens which had been hastily planted with rare
+      shrubs and sycamores. Fragments of furniture and of the roughest of the
+      utensils contained in the different chambers are still unearthed from
+      among the heaps of rubbish, and the cellars especially are full of
+      potsherds and cracked jars, on which we can still see written an
+      indication of the reign and the year when the wine they once contained was
+      made. Altars of massive masonry rose in the midst of the courts, on which
+      the king or one of his ministers heaped offerings and burnt incense
+      morning, noon, and evening, in honour of the three decisive moments in the
+      life of Atonû.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Naville discovered at Deîr el-Baharî a similar altar,
+     nearly intact. No other example was before known in any of
+     the ruined towns or temples, and no one had any idea of the
+     dimensions to which these altars, attained.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A few painted and gilded columns supported the roofs of the principal
+      apartments in which the Pharaoh held his audiences, but elsewhere the
+      walls and pillars were coated with cream-coloured stucco or whitewash, on
+      which scenes of private life were depicted in colours. The pavement, like
+      the walls, was also decorated. In one of the halls which seems to have
+      belonged to the harem, there is still to be seen distinctly the picture of
+      a rectangular piece of water containing fish and lotus-flowers in full
+      bloom; the edge is adorned with water-plants and flowering shrubs, among
+      which birds fly and calves graze and gambol; on the right and left were
+      depicted rows of stands laden with fruit, while at each end of the room
+      were seen the grinning faces of a gang of negro and Syrian prisoners,
+      separated from each other by gigantic arches. The tone of colouring is
+      bright and cheerful, and the animals are treated with great freedom and
+      facility. The Pharaoh, had collected about him several of the best artists
+      then to be found at Thebes, placing them under the direction of Baûki, the
+      chief of the corporation of sculptors,* and probably others subsequently
+      joined these from provincial studios.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Baûki belonged to a family of artists, and his father Mani
+     had filled before him the post of chief of the sculptors.
+     The part played by these personages was first defined by
+     Brugsch, with perhaps some exaggeration of their artistic
+     merit and originality of talent.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Work for them was not lacking, for houses had to be built for all the
+      courtiers and government officials who had been obliged to follow the
+      king, and in a few years a large town had sprung up, which was called
+      Khûîtatonû, or the &ldquo;Horizon of the Disk.&rdquo; It was built on a regular plan,
+      with straight streets and open spaces, and divided into two separate
+      quarters, interspersed with orchards and shady trellises. Workmen soon
+      began to flock to the new city&mdash;metal-founders, glass-founders,
+      weavers; in fine, all who followed any trade indispensable to the luxury
+      of a capital. The king appropriated a territory for it from the ancient
+      nome of the Hare, thus compelling the god Thot to contribute to the
+      fortune of Atonû; he fixed its limits by means of stelæ placed in the
+      mountains, from Gebel-Tûnah to Deshlûît on the west, and from Sheikh-Said
+      to El-Hauata on the eastern bank;* it was a new nome improvised for the
+      divine <i>parvenu</i>.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We know at present of fourteen of these stelæ. A certain
+     number must still remain to be discovered on both banks of
+     the Nile.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0033" id="linkimage-0033">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/087.jpg"
+       alt="087.jpg the Decorated Pavement of The Palace" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Atonû was one of the forms of the Sun, and perhaps the most material one
+      of all those devised by the Egyptians. He was defined as &ldquo;the good god who
+      rejoices in truth, the lord of the solar course, the lord of the disk, the
+      lord of heaven, the lord of earth, the living disk which lights up the two
+      worlds, the living Harmakhis who rises on the horizon bearing his name of
+      Shû, which is disk, the eternal infuser of life.&rdquo; His priests exercised
+      the same functions as those of Heliopolis, and his high priest was called
+      &ldquo;Oîrimaû,&rdquo; like the high priest of Râ in Aunû. This functionary was a
+      certain Marirl, upon whom the king showered his favours, and he was for
+      some time the chief authority in the State after the Pharaoh himself.
+      Atonû was represented sometimes by the ordinary figure of Horus,*
+      sometimes by the solar disk, but a disk whose rays were prolonged towards
+      the earth, like so many arms ready to lay hold with their little hands of
+      the offerings of the faithful, or to distribute to mortals the <i>crux
+      ansata</i>, the symbol of life. The other gods, except Amon, were sharers
+      with humanity in his benefits. Atonû proscribed him, and tolerated him
+      only at Thebes; he required, moreover, that the name of Amon should be
+      effaced wherever it occurred, but he respected Râ and Horus and Harmakhis&mdash;all,
+      in fact, but Amon: he was content with being regarded as their king, and
+      he strove rather to become their chief than their destroyer.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It was probably this form of Horus which had, in the
+     temple at Thebes, the statue called &ldquo;the red image of Atonû
+     in Paatoml.&rdquo;
+
+     ** Prisse d&rsquo;Avennes has found at Karnak, on fragments of the
+     temple, the names of other divinities than Atonû worshipped
+     by Khûniatonû.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His nature, moreover, had nothing in it of the mysterious or ambiguous; he
+      was the glorious torch which gave light to humanity, and which was seen
+      every day to flame in the heavens without ever losing its brilliance or
+      becoming weaker. When he hides himself &ldquo;the world rests in darkness, like
+      those dead who lie in their rock-tombs, with their heads swathed, their
+      nostrils stuffed up, their eyes sightless, and whose whole property might
+      be stolen from them, even that which they have under their head, without
+      their knowing it; the lion issues from his lair, the serpent roams ready
+      to bite, it is as obscure as in a dark room, the earth is silent whilst he
+      who creates everything dwells in his horizon.&rdquo; He has hardly arisen when
+      &ldquo;Egypt becomes festal, one awakens, one rises on one&rsquo;s feet; when thou
+      hast caused men to clothe themselves, they adore thee with outstretched
+      hands, and the whole earth attends to its work, the animals betake
+      themselves to their herbage, trees and green crops abound, birds fly to
+      their marshy thickets with wings outstretched in adoration of thy double,
+      the cattle skip, all the birds which were in their nests shake themselves
+      when thou risest for them; the boats come and go, for every way is open at
+      thy appearance, the fish of the river leap before thee as soon as thy rays
+      descend upon the ocean.&rdquo; It is not without reason that all living things
+      thus rejoice at his advent; all of them owe their existence to him, for
+      &ldquo;he creates the female germ, he gives virility to men, and furnishes life
+      to the infant in its mother&rsquo;s womb; he calms and stills its weeping, he
+      nourishes it in the maternal womb, giving forth the breathings which
+      animate all that he creates, and when the infant escapes from the womb on
+      the day of its birth, thou openest his mouth for speech, and thou
+      satisfiest his necessities. When the chick is in the egg, a cackle in a
+      stone, thou givest to it air while within to keep it alive; when thou hast
+      caused it to be developed in the egg to the point of being able to break
+      it, it goes forth proclaiming its existence by its cackling, and walks on
+      its feet from the moment of its leaving the egg.&rdquo; Atonû presides over the
+      universe and arranges within it the lot of human beings, both Egyptians
+      and foreigners. The celestial Nile springs up in Hades far away in the
+      north; he makes its current run down to earth, and spreads its waters over
+      the fields during the inundation in order to nourish his creatures. He
+      rules the seasons, winter and summer; he constructed the far-off sky in
+      order to display himself therein, and to look down upon his works below.
+      From the moment that he reveals himself there, &ldquo;cities, towns, tribes,
+      routes, rivers&mdash;all eyes are lifted to him, for he is the disk of the
+      day upon the earth.&rdquo; * The sanctuary in which he is invoked contains only
+      his divine shadow;** for he himself never leaves the firmament.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These extracts are taken from the hymns of Tel el-Amarna.
+
+     ** In one of the tombs at Tel el-Amarna the king is depicted
+     leading his mother Tîi to the temple of Atonû in order to
+     see &ldquo;the Shadow of Râ,&rdquo; and it was thought with some reason
+     that &ldquo;the Shadow of Râ&rdquo; was one of the names of the temple.
+     I think that this designation applied also to the statue or
+     symbol of the god; the <i>shadow</i> of a god was attached to the
+     statue in the same manner as the &ldquo;double,&rdquo; and transformed
+     it into an animated body.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His worship assumes none of the severe and gloomy forms of the Theban
+      cults: songs resound therein, and hymns accompanied by the harp or flute;
+      bread, cakes, vegetables, fruits, and flowers are associated with his
+      rites, and only on very rare occasions one of those bloody sacrifices in
+      which the other gods delight. The king made himself supreme pontiff of
+      Atonu, and took precedence of the high priest. He himself celebrated the
+      rites at the altar of the god, and we see him there standing erect, his
+      hands outstretched, offering incense and invoking blessings from on high.*
+      Like the Caliph Hakim of a later age, he formed a school to propagate his
+      new doctrines, and preached them before his courtiers: if they wished to
+      please him, they had to accept his teaching, and show that they had
+      profited by it. The renunciation of the traditional religious observances
+      of the solar house involved also the rejection of such personal names as
+      implied an ardent devotion to the banished god; in place of Amenôthes, &ldquo;he
+      to whom Amon is united,&rdquo; the king assumed after a time the name of
+      Khûniatonû, &ldquo;the Glory of the Disk,&rdquo; and all the members of his family, as
+      well as his adherents at court, whose appellations involved the name of
+      the same god, soon followed his example. The proscription of Amon extended
+      to inscriptions, so that while his name or figure, wherever either could
+      be got at, was chiselled out, the vulture, the emblem of Mût, which
+      expressed the idea of mother, was also avoided.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The altar on which the king stands upright is one of those
+     cubes of masonry of which Naville discovered such a fine
+     example in the temple of Hâtshopsîtû at Deîr el-Baharî.
+
+     ** We find, however, some instances where the draughtsman,
+     either from custom or design, had used the vulture to
+     express the word mailt, &ldquo;the mother,&rdquo; without troubling
+     himself to think whether it answered to the name of the
+     goddess.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The king would have nothing about him to suggest to eye or ear the
+      remembrance of the gods or doctrines of Thebes. It would consequently have
+      been fatal to them and their pretensions to the primacy of Egypt if the
+      reign of the young king had continued as long as might naturally have been
+      expected. After having been for nearly two centuries almost the national
+      head of Africa, Amon was degraded by a single blow to the secondary rank
+      and languishing existence in which he had lived before the expulsion of
+      the Hyksôs. He had surrendered his sceptre as king of heaven and earth,
+      not to any of his rivals who in old times had enjoyed the highest rank,
+      but to an individual of a lower order, a sort of demigod, while he himself
+      had thus become merely a local deity, confined to the corner of the Said
+      in which he had had his origin. There was not even left to him the
+      peaceful possession of this restricted domain, for he was obliged to act
+      as host to the enemy who had deposed him: the temple of Atonû was erected
+      at the door of his own sanctuary, and without leaving their courts the
+      priests of Amon could hear at the hours of worship the chants intoned by
+      hundreds of heretics in the temple of the Disk. Amon&rsquo;s priests saw,
+      moreover, the royal gifts flowing into other treasuries, and the gold of
+      Syria and Ethiopia no longer came into their hands. Should they stifle
+      their complaints, and bow to this insulting oppression, or should they
+      raise a protest against the action which had condemned them to obscurity
+      and a restricted existence? If they had given indications of resistance,
+      they would have been obliged to submit to prompt repression, but we see no
+      sign of this. The bulk of the people&mdash;clerical as well as lay&mdash;accepted
+      the deposition with complacency, and the nobles hastened to offer their
+      adherence to that which afterwards became the official confession of faith
+      of the Lord King.* The lord of Thebes itself, a certain Ramses, bowed his
+      head to the new cult, and the bas-reliefs of his tomb display to our eyes
+      the proofs of his apostasy: on the right-hand side Amon is the only
+      subject of his devotion, while on the left he declares himself an adherent
+      of Atonû. Religious formularies, divine appellations, the representations
+      of the costume, expression, and demeanour of the figures are at issue with
+      each other in the scenes on the two sides of the door, and if we were to
+      trust to appearances only, one would think that the two pictures belonged
+      to two separate reigns, and were concerned with two individuals strangers
+      to each other.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The political character of this reaction against the
+     growing power of the high priests and the town of Amon was
+     pointed out for the first time by Masporo in 1878. Ed. Meyer
+     and Tiele blond with the political idea a monotheistic
+     conception which does not seem to me to be fully justified,
+     at least at present, by anything in the materials we
+     possess.
+
+     ** His tomb was discovered in 1878 by Villiers-Stuart.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The rupture between the past and the present was so complete, in fact,
+      that the sovereign was obliged to change, if not his face and expression,
+      at least the mode in which they were represented.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0034" id="linkimage-0034">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/095.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="095.jpg the Mask of KihÛniatonÛ " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie. Petrie
+     thinks that the monument discovered by him, which is of fine
+     plaster, is a cast of the dead king, executed possibly to
+     enable the sculptors to make <i>Ushabtu</i>, &ldquo;Respondents,&rdquo; for
+     him.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0035" id="linkimage-0035">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/096.jpg"
+       alt="096.jpg AmenÔthes Iv., from the Statuette in The Louvre. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a drawing by Petrie.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The name and personality of an Egyptian were so closely allied that
+      interference with one implied interference with the other. Khûniatonû
+      could not continue to be such as he was when Amenôthes, and, in fact,
+      their respective portraits differ from each other to that degree that
+      there is some doubt at moments as to their identity. Amenôthes is hardly
+      to be distinguished from his father: he has the same regular and somewhat
+      heavy features, the same idealised body and conventional shape as those
+      which we find in the orthodox Pharaohs. Khûniatonû affects a long and
+      narrow head, conical at the top, with a retreating forehead, a large
+      aquiline and pointed nose, a small mouth, an enormous chin projecting in
+      front, the whole being supported by a long, thin neck.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      His shoulders are narrow, with little display of muscle, but his breasts
+      are so full, his abdomen so prominent, and his hips so large, that one
+      would think they belonged to a woman. Etiquette required the attendants
+      upon the king, and those who aspired to his favour, to be portrayed in the
+      bas-reliefs of temples or tombs in all points, both as regards face and
+      demeanour, like the king himself. Hence it is that the majority of his
+      contemporaries, after having borne the likeness of Amenôthes, came to
+      adopt, without a break, that of Khûniatonû. The scenes at Tel el-Amarna
+      contain, therefore, nothing but angular profiles, pointed skulls, ample
+      breasts, flowing figures, and swelling stomachs. The outline of these is
+      one that lends itself readily to caricature, and the artists have
+      exaggerated the various details with the intention, it may be, of
+      rendering the representations grotesque. There was nothing ridiculous,
+      however, in the king, their model, and several of his statues attribute to
+      him a languid, almost valetudinarian grace, which is by no means lacking
+      in dignity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0036" id="linkimage-0036">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/097.jpg" width="100%" alt="097.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He was a good and affectionate man, and was passionately fond of his wife,
+      Nofrîtîti, associating her with himself in his sovereign acts. If he set
+      out to visit the temple, she followed him in a chariot; if he was about to
+      reward one of his faithful subjects, she stood beside him and helped to
+      distribute the golden necklaces. She joined him in his prayers to the
+      Solar Disk; she ministered to him in domestic life, when, having broken
+      away from the worries of his public duties, he sought relaxation in his
+      harem; and their union was so tender, that we find her on one occasion, at
+      least, seated in a coaxing attitude on her husband&rsquo;s knees&mdash;a unique
+      instance of such affection among all the representations on the monuments
+      of Egypt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0037" id="linkimage-0037">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/098.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="098.jpg KhÛniatonÛ and his Wife Rewarding One of The Great Officers of the Court " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They had six daughters, whom they brought up to live with them on terms of
+      the closest intimacy: they accompanied their father and mother everywhere,
+      and are exhibited as playing around the throne while their parents are
+      engaged in performing the duties of their office. The gentleness and
+      gaiety of the king were reflected in the life of his subjects: all the
+      scenes which they have left us consist entirely of processions,
+      cavalcades, banquets, and entertainments. Khûniatonû was prodigal in the
+      gifts of gold and the eulogies which he bestowed on Marirî, the chief
+      priest: the people dance around him while he is receiving from the king
+      the just recompense of his activity. When Hûîa, who came back from Syria
+      in the XIIth year of the king&rsquo;s reign, brought solemnly before him the
+      tribute he had collected, the king, borne in his jolting palanquin on the
+      shoulders of his officers, proceeded to the temple to return thanks to his
+      god, to the accompaniment of chants and the waving of the great fans. When
+      the divine father Aï had married the governess of one of the king&rsquo;s
+      daughters, the whole city gave itself up to enjoyment, and wine flowed
+      freely during the wedding feast. Notwithstanding the frequent festivals,
+      the king found time to watch jealously over the ordinary progress of
+      government and foreign affairs. The architects, too, were not allowed to
+      stand idle, and without taking into account the repairs of existing
+      buildings, had plenty to do in constructing edifices in honour of Atonû in
+      the principal towns of the Nile valley, at Memphis, Heliopolis,
+      Hermopolis, Hermonthis, and in the Fayûm. The provinces in Ethiopia
+      remained practically in the same condition as in the time of Amenôthes
+      III.;* Kûsh was pacified, notwithstanding the raids which the tribes of
+      the desert were accustomed to make from time to time, only to receive on
+      each occasion rigorous chastisement from the king&rsquo;s viceroy.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name and the figure of Khûniatonû are met with on the
+     gate of the temple of Soleb, and he received in his
+     XIIth year the tributes of Kûsh, as well as those of Syria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The sudden degradation of Amon had not brought about any coldness between
+      the Pharaoh and his princely allies in Asia. The aged Amenôthes had,
+      towards the end of his reign, asked the hand of Dushratta&rsquo;s daughter in
+      marriage, and the Mitannian king, highly flattered by the request, saw his
+      opportunity and took advantage of it in the interest of his treasury. He
+      discussed the amount of the dowry, demanded a considerable sum of gold,
+      and when the affair had been finally arranged to his satisfaction, he
+      despatched the princess to the banks of the Nile. On her arrival she found
+      her affianced husband was dead, or, at all events, dying. Amenôthes IV.,
+      however, stepped into his father&rsquo;s place, and inherited his bride with his
+      crown.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0038" id="linkimage-0038">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/100.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="100.jpg the Door of a Tomb at Tel El-amarna " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The new king&rsquo;s relations with other foreign princes were no less friendly;
+      the chief of the Khâti (Hittites) complimented him on his accession, the
+      King of Alasia wrote to him to express his earnest desire for a
+      continuance of peace between the two states. Burnaburiash of Babylon had,
+      it is true, hoped to obtain an Egyptian princess in marriage for his son,
+      and being disappointed, had endeavoured to pick a quarrel over the value
+      of the presents which had been sent him, together with the notice of the
+      accession of the new sovereign. But his kingdom lay too far away to make
+      his ill-will of much consequence, and his complaints passed unheeded. In
+      Coele-Syria and Phoenicia the situation remained unchanged. The vassal
+      cities were in a perpetual state of disturbance, though not more so than
+      in the past. Azîru, son of Abdashirti, chief of the country of the
+      Amorites, had always, even during the lifetime of Amenôthes III., been the
+      most turbulent of vassals. The smaller states of the Orontes and of the
+      coast about Arvad had been laid waste by his repeated incursions and
+      troubled by his intrigues. He had taken and pillaged twenty towns, among
+      which were Simyra, Sini, Irqata, and Qodshû, and he was already
+      threatening Byblos, Berytus, and Sidon. It was useless to complain of him,
+      for he always managed to exculpate himself to the royal messengers. Khaî,
+      Dûdû, Amenemaûpît had in turn all pronounced him innocent. Pharaoh
+      himself, after citing him to appear in Egypt to give an explanation of his
+      conduct, had allowed himself to be won over by his fair speaking, and had
+      dismissed him uncondemned. Other princes, who lacked his cleverness and
+      power, tried to imitate him, and from north to south the whole of Syria
+      could only be compared to some great arena, in which fighting was
+      continually carried on between one tribe or town and another&mdash;Tyre
+      against Sidon, Sidon against Byblos, Jerusalem against Lachish. All of
+      them appealed to Khûniatonû, and endeavoured to enlist him on their side.
+      Their despatches arrived by scores, and the perusal of them at the present
+      day would lead us to imagine that Egypt had all but lost her supremacy.
+      The Egyptian ministers, however, were entirely unmoved by them, and
+      continued to refuse material support to any of the numerous rivals, except
+      in a few rare cases, where a too prolonged indifference would have
+      provoked an open revolt in some part of the country.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Khûniatonû died young, about the XVIIIth year of his reign.* He was buried
+      in the depths of a ravine in the mountain-side to the east of the town,
+      and his tomb remained unknown till within the last few years. Although one
+      of his daughters who died before her father had been interred there, the
+      place seems to have been entirely unprepared for the reception of the
+      king&rsquo;s body. The funeral chamber and the passages are scarcely even
+      rough-hewn, and the reception halls show a mere commencement of
+      decoration.** The other tombs of the locality are divided into two groups,
+      separated by the ravine reserved for the burying-place of the royal house.
+      The noble families possessed each their own tomb on the slopes of the
+      hillside; the common people were laid to rest in pits lower down, almost
+      on the level of the plain. The cutting and decoration of all these tombs
+      had been entrusted to a company of contractors, who had executed them
+      according to two or three stereotyped plans, without any variation, except
+      in size. Nearly all the walls are bare, or present but few inscriptions;
+      those tombs only are completed whose occupants died before the Pharaoh.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The length of Khûniatonû&rsquo;s reign was fixed by Griffith
+     with almost absolute certainty by means of the dates written
+     in ink on the jars of wine and preserves found in the ruins
+     of the palace.
+
+     ** The tomb has been found, as I anticipated, in the ravine
+     which separates the northern after the southern group of
+     burying-places. The Arabs opened it in 1891, and Grébaut has
+     since completely excavated it. The scenes depicted in it are
+     connected with the death and funeral of the Princess
+     Mâqîtatonû.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0039" id="linkimage-0039">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/103.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="103.jpg Interior of a Tomb at Tel El-amarna " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, after a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The façades of the tombs are cut in the rock, and contain, for the most
+      part, but one door, the jambs of which are covered on both sides by
+      several lines of hieroglyphs; and it is just possible to distinguish
+      traces of the adoration of the radiant Disk on the lintels, together with
+      the cartouches containing the names of the king and god. The chapel is a
+      large rectangular chamber, from one end of which opens the inclined
+      passage leading to the coffin. The roof is sometimes supported by columns,
+      having capitals decorated with designs of flowers or of geese hung from
+      the abacus by their feet with their heads turned upwards.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The religious teaching at Tel el-Amarna presents no difference in the main
+      from that which prevailed in other parts of Egypt.* The Double of Osiris
+      was supposed to reside in the tomb, or else to take wing to heaven and
+      embark with Atonû, as elsewhere he would embark with Eâ. The same funerary
+      furniture is needed for the deceased as in other local cults&mdash;ornaments
+      of vitreous paste, amulets, and <i>Ushabtiu</i>, or &ldquo;Respondents,&rdquo; to
+      labour for the dead man in the fields of Ialû. Those of Khûniatonû were,
+      like those of Amenôthes III., actual statuettes in granite of admirable
+      workmanship. The dead who reached the divine abode, retained the same rank
+      in life that they had possessed here below, and in order to ensure the
+      enjoyment of it, they related, or caused to be depicted in their tombs,
+      the events of their earthly career.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The peculiar treatment of the two extremities of the sign
+     for the sky, which surmounts the great scene on the tomb of
+     Ahmosis, shows that there had been no change in the ideas
+     concerning the two horizons or the divine tree found in
+     them: the aspirations for the soul of Marirî, the high
+     priest of Atonû, or for that of the sculptor Baûkû, are the
+     same as those usually found, and the formula on the funerary
+     stelae differs only in the name of the god from that on the
+     ordinary stelae of the same kind.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A citizen of Khûîtatonû would naturally represent the manners and customs
+      of his native town, and this would account for the local colouring of the
+      scenes in which we see him taking part.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      They bear no resemblance to the traditional pictures of the buildings and
+      gardens of Thebes with which we are familiar; we have instead the palaces,
+      colonnades, and pylons of the rising city, its courts planted with
+      sycomores, its treasuries, and its storehouses. The sun&rsquo;s disk hovers
+      above and darts its prehensile rays over every object; its hands present
+      the <i>crux ansata</i> to the nostrils of the various members of the
+      family, they touch caressingly the queen and her daughters, they handle
+      the offerings of bread and cakes, they extend even into the government
+      warehouses to pilfer or to bless. Throughout all these scenes Khûniatonû
+      and the ladies of his harem seem to be ubiquitous: here he visits one of
+      the officers, there he repairs to the temple for the dedication of its
+      sanctuary. His chariot, followed at a little distance by that of the
+      princesses, makes its way peaceably through the streets. The police of the
+      city and the soldiers of the guard, whether Egyptians or foreigners, run
+      before him and clear a path among the crowd, the high priest Marirî stands
+      at the gate to receive him, and the ceremony is brought to a close by a
+      distribution of gold necklaces or rings, while the populace dance with
+      delight before the sovereign. Meantime the slaves have cooked the repast,
+      the dancers and musicians within their chambers have rehearsed for the
+      evening&rsquo;s festival, and the inmates of the house carry on animated
+      dialogues during their meal. The style and the technique of these
+      wall-paintings differ in no way from those in the necropolis of the
+      preceding period, and there can be no doubt that the artists who decorated
+      these monuments were trained in the schools of Thebes. Their drawing is
+      often very refined, and there is great freedom in their composition; the
+      perspective of some of the bas-reliefs almost comes up to our own, and the
+      movement of animated crowds is indicated with perfect accuracy. It is,
+      however, not safe to conclude from these examples that the artists who
+      executed them would have developed Egyptian art in a new direction, had
+      not subsequent events caused a reaction against the worship of Atonû and
+      his followers.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0040" id="linkimage-0040">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/104.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="104.jpg Profile of Head Of Mummy (thebes Tombs.) " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0041" id="linkimage-0041">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/106.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="106.jpg Two of the Daughters Of KhÛhi AtonÛ " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Although the tombs in which they worked differ from the generality of
+      Egyptian burying-places, their originality does not arise from any effort,
+      either conscious or otherwise, to break through the ordinary routine of
+      the art of the time; it is rather the result of the extraordinary
+      appearance of the sovereign whose features they were called on to portray,
+      and the novelty of several of the subjects which they had to treat. That
+      artist among them who first gave concrete form to the ideas circulated by
+      the priests of Atonû, and drew the model cartoons, evidently possessed a
+      master-hand, and was endowed with undeniable originality and power. No
+      other Egyptian draughtsman ever expressed a child&rsquo;s grace as he did, and
+      the portraits which he sketched of the daughters of Khûniatonû playing
+      undressed at their mother&rsquo;s side, are examples of a reserved and delicate
+      grace. But these models, when once composed and finished even to the
+      smallest details, were entrusted for execution to workmen of mediocre
+      powers, who were recruited not only from Thebes, but from the neighbouring
+      cities of Hermopolis and Siût. These estimable people, with a praiseworthy
+      patience, traced bit by bit the cartoons confided to them, omitting or
+      adding individuals or groups according to the extent of the wall-space
+      they had to cover, or to the number of relatives and servants whom the
+      proprietor of the tomb desired should share in his future happiness. The
+      style of these draughtsmen betrays the influence of the second-rate
+      schools in which they had learned their craft, and the clumsiness of their
+      work would often repel us, were it not that the interest of the episodes
+      portrayed redeems it in the eyes of the Egyptologist.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Khûniatonû left no son to succeed him; two of his sons-in-law successively
+      occupied the throne&mdash;Sâakerî, who had married his eldest daughter
+      Marîtatonû, and Tûtankhamon, the husband of Ankhnasaton. The first had
+      been associated in the sovereignty by his father-in-law;* he showed
+      himself a zealous partisan of the &ldquo;Disk,&rdquo; and he continued to reside in
+      the new capital during the few years of his sole reign.** The second
+      son-in-law was a son of Amenôthes III., probably by a concubine. He
+      returned to the religion of Amon, and his wife, abjuring the creed of her
+      father, changed her name from Ankhnasaton to that of Ankhnasamon. Her
+      husband abandoned Khûitatonû*** at the end of two or three years, and
+      after his departure the town fell into decadence as quickly as it had
+      arisen. The streets were unfrequented, the palaces and temples stood
+      empty, the tombs remained unfinished and unoccupied, and its patron god
+      returned to his former state, and was relegated to the third or fourth
+      rank in the Egyptian Pantheon.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * He and his wife are represented by the side of Khûniatonû,
+     with the protocol and the attributes of royalty. Pétrie
+     assigns to this double reign those minor objects on which
+     the king&rsquo;s prenomen Ankhkhopîrûri is followed by the epithet
+     beloved of Uânirâ, which formed part of the name of
+     Khûniatonû.
+
+     ** Pétrie thinks, on the testimony of the lists of Manetho,
+     which give twelve years to Akenkheres, daughter of Horos,
+     that Sâakerî reigned twelve years, and only two or three
+     years as sole monarch without his father-in-law. I think
+     these two or three years a probable maximum length of his
+     reign, whatever may be the value we should here assign to
+     the lists of Manetho.
+
+     *** Pétrie, judging from the number of minor objects which
+     he has found in his excavations at Tel el-Amarna, believes
+     that he can fix the length of Tûtankhamon&rsquo;s sojourn at
+     Khûîtatonû at six years, and that of his whole reign at nine
+     years.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The town struggled for a short time against its adverse fate, which was no
+      doubt retarded owing to the various industries founded in it by
+      Khûniatonû, the manufactories of enamel and coloured glass requiring the
+      presence of many workmen; but the latter emigrated ere long to Thebes or
+      the neighbouring city of Hermopolis, and the &ldquo;Horizon of Atonû&rdquo;
+       disappeared from the list of nomes, leaving of what might have been the
+      capital of the Egyptian empire, merely a mound of crumbling bricks with
+      two or three fellahîn villages scattered on the eastern bank of the Nile.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Pétrie thinks that the temples and palaces were
+     systematically destroyed by Harmhabî, and the ruins used by
+     him in the buildings which he erected at different places in
+     Egypt. But there is no need for this theory: the beauty of
+     the limestone which Khûniatonû had used sufficiently
+     accounts for the rapid disappearance of the deserted
+     edifices.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Thebes, whose influence and population had meanwhile never lessened,
+      resumed her supremacy undisturbed. If, out of respect for the past,
+      Tûtankhamon continued the decoration of the temple of Atonû at Karnak, he
+      placed in every other locality the name and figure of Amon; a little
+      stucco spread over the parts which had been mutilated, enabled the
+      outlines to be restored to their original purity, and the alteration was
+      rendered invisible by a few coats of colour. Tûtankhamon was succeeded by
+      the divine father Aï, whom Khûniatonû had assigned as husband to one of
+      his relatives named Tîi, so called after the widow of Amenôthes III. Aï
+      laboured no less diligently than his predecessor to keep up the traditions
+      which had been temporarily interrupted. He had been a faithful worshipper
+      of the Disk, and had given orders for the construction of two funerary
+      chapels for himself in the mountain-side above Tel el-Amarna, the
+      paintings in which indicate a complete adherence to the faith of the
+      reigning king. But on becoming Pharaoh, he was proportionally zealous in
+      his submission to the gods of Thebes, and in order to mark more fully his
+      return to the ancient belief, he chose for his royal burying-place a site
+      close to that in which rested the body of Amenôthes III.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The first tomb seems to have been dug before his marriage,
+     at the time when he had no definite ambitions; the second
+     was prepared for him and his wife Tîi.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His sarcophagus, a large oblong of carved rose granite, still lies open
+      and broken on the spot.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0042" id="linkimage-0042">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/110.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="111.jpg Sarcophagus of the Pharaoh AÎ " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after the drawing of Prisse d&rsquo;Avenues.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Figures of goddesses stand at the four angles and extend their winged arms
+      along its sides, as if to embrace the mummy of the sovereign. Tûtankhamon
+      and Aï were obeyed from one end of Egypt to the other, from Napata to the
+      shores of the Mediterranean. The peoples of Syria raised no disturbances
+      during their reigns, and paid their accustomed tribute regularly;* if
+      their rule was short, it was at least happy. It would appear, however,
+      that after their deaths, troubles arose in the state. The lists of Manetho
+      give two or three princes&mdash;Râthôtis, Khebres, and Akherres&mdash;whose
+      names are not found on the monuments.** It is possible that we ought not
+      to regard them as historical personages, but merely as heroes of popular
+      romance, of the same type as those introduced so freely into the history
+      of the preceding dynasties by the chroniclers of the Saite and Greek
+      periods. They were, perhaps, merely short-lived pretenders who were
+      overthrown one by the other before either had succeeded in establishing
+      himself on the seat of Horus. Be that as it may, the XVIIIth dynasty drew
+      to its close amid strife and quarreling, without our being able to
+      discover the cause of its overthrow, or the name of the last of its
+      sovereigns.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Tûtankhamon receives the tribute of the Kûshites as well
+     as that of the Syrians; Aï is represented at Shataûi in
+     Nubia as accompanied by Paûîrû, the prince of Kûsh.
+
+     ** Wiedemann has collected six royal names which, with much
+     hesitation, he places about this time.
+
+     *** The list of kings who make up the XVIIIth dynasty can be
+     established with certainty, with the exception of the order
+     of the three last sovereigns who succeed Khûniatonû. It is
+     here given in its authentic form, as the monuments have
+     permitted us to reconstruct it, and in its Greek form as it
+     is found in the lists of Manetho:
+</pre>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="table (55K)" src="images/table.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Manetho&rsquo;s list, as we have it, is a very ill-made extract,
+     wherein the official kings are mixed up with the legitimate
+     queens, as well as, at least towards the end, with persons
+     of doubtful authenticity. Several kings, between Khûniatonû
+     and Harmhabi, are sometimes added at the end of the list;
+     some of these I think, belonged to previous dynasties, e.g.
+     Teti to the VIth, Râhotpû to the XVIIth; several are heroes
+     of romance, as Mernebphtah or Merkhopirphtah, while the
+     names of the others are either variants from the cartouche
+     names of known princes, or else are nicknames, such as was
+     Sesû, Sestûrî for Ramses II. Dr. Mahler believes that he can
+     fix, within a few days, the date of the kings of whom the
+     list is composed, from Ahmosis I. to Aî. I hold to the
+     approximate date which I have given in vol. iv. p. 153 of
+     this History, and I give the years 1600 to 1350 as the
+     period of the dynasty, with a possible error of about fifty
+     years, more or less.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Scarcely half a century had elapsed between the moment when the XVIII&rsquo;s
+      dynasty reached the height of its power under Amenôthes III. and that of
+      its downfall. It is impossible to introduce with impunity changes of any
+      kind into the constitution or working of so complicated a machine as an
+      empire founded on conquest. When the parts of the mechanism have been once
+      put together and set in motion, and have become accustomed to work
+      harmoniously at a proper pace, interference with it must not be attempted
+      except to replace such parts as are broken or worn out, by others exactly
+      like them. To make alterations while the machine is in motion, or to
+      introduce new combinations, however ingenious, into any part of the
+      original plan, might produce an accident or a breakage of the gearing when
+      perhaps it would be least expected. When the devout Khûniatonû exchanged
+      one city and one god for another, he thought that he was merely
+      transposing equivalents, and that the safety of the commonwealth was not
+      concerned in the operation. Whether it was Amon or Atonu who presided over
+      the destinies of his people, or whether Thebes or Tel el-Amarna were the
+      centre of impulse, was, in his opinion, merely a question of internal
+      arrangement which could not affect the economy of the whole. But events
+      soon showed that he was mistaken in his calculations. It is probable that
+      if, on the expulsion of the Hyksôs, the earlier princes of the dynasty had
+      attempted an alteration in the national religion, or had moved the capital
+      to any other city they might select, the remainder of the kingdom would
+      not have been affected by the change. But after several centuries of
+      faithful adherence to Amon in his city of Thebes, the governing power
+      would find it no easy matter to accomplish such a resolution. During three
+      centuries the dynasty had become wedded to the city and to its patron
+      deity, and the locality had become so closely associated with the dynasty,
+      that any blow aimed at the god could not fail to destroy the dynasty with
+      it; indeed, had the experiment of Khûniatonû been prolonged beyond a few
+      years, it might have entailed the ruin of the whole country. All who came
+      into contact with Egypt, or were under her rule, whether Asiatics or
+      Africans, were quick to detect any change in her administration, and to
+      remark a falling away from the traditional systems of the times of
+      Thûtmosis III. and Amenothes II. The successors of the heretic king had
+      the sense to perceive at once the first symptoms of disorder, and to
+      refrain from persevering in his errors; but however quick they were to
+      undo his work, they could not foresee its serious consequences. His
+      immediate followers were powerless to maintain their dynasty, and their
+      posterity had to make way for a family who had not incurred the hatred of
+      Amon, or rather that of his priests. If those who followed them were able
+      by their tact and energy to set Egypt on her feet again, they were at the
+      same time unable to restore her former prosperity or her boundless
+      confidence in herself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0043" id="linkimage-0043">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/114.jpg" width="100%" alt="114.jpg Tailpiece " />
+    </div>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="115 (135K)" src="images/115.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="116 (69K)" src="images/116.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> THE REACTION AGAINST EGYPT
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>THE XIth DYNASTY: HARMHABÎ&mdash;THE HITTITE EMPIRE IN SYRIA AND IN
+      ASIA MINOR&mdash;SETI I. AND RAMSES II.&mdash;THE PEOPLE OF THE SEA:
+      MÎNEPHTAH AND THE ISRAELITE EXODUS.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The birth and antecedents of Harmhabî, his youth, his enthronement&mdash;The
+      final triumph of Amon and his priests&mdash;Harmhabî infuses order into
+      the government: his wars against the Ethiopians and Asiatics&mdash;The
+      Khâti, their civilization, religion; their political and military
+      constitution; the extension of their empire towards the north&mdash;The
+      countries and populations of Asia Minor; commercial routes between the
+      Euphrates and the Ægean Sea&mdash;The treaty concluded between Harmhabî
+      and Sapalulu.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Ramses I. and the uncertainties as to his origin&mdash;Seti I. and the
+      campaign against Syria in the 1st year of his reign; the re-establishment
+      of the Egyptian empire&mdash;Working of the gold-mines at Etaï&mdash;The
+      monuments constructed by Seti I. in Nubia, at Karnak, Luxor, and Abydos&mdash;The
+      valley of the kings and tomb of Seti I. at Thebes.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Ramses II., his infancy, his association in the Government, his début
+      in Ethiopia: he builds a residence in the Delta&mdash;His campaign against
+      the Khâti in the 5th year of his reign&mdash;The talcing of Qodshu, the
+      victory of Ramses II. and the truce established with Khâtusaru: the poem
+      of Pentaûîrît&mdash;His treaty with the Khâti in the 21st year of his
+      reign: the balance of power in Syria: the marriage of Ramses II. with a
+      Hittite princess&mdash;Public works: the Speos at Abu-Simbel; Luxor,
+      Karnak, the Eamesseum, the monuments in the Delta&mdash;The regency of
+      Khamoîsît and Mînephtah, the legend of Sesostris, the coffin and mummy of
+      Ramses II.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Minephtah&mdash;The kingdom of Libya, the people of the sea&mdash;The
+      first invasion of Libya: the Egyptian victory at Piriû; the triumph of
+      Minephtah&mdash;Seti II., Amenmeses, Siphtah-Minephtah&mdash;The foreign
+      captives in Egypt; the Exodus of the Hebrews and their march to Sinai&mdash;An
+      Egyptian romance of the Exodus: Amenophis, son of Pa-apis.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkB2HCH0001" id="linkB2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a> <a name="linkBimage-0005" id="linkBimage-0005">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/117.jpg" width="100%" alt="117.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER II&mdash;THE REACTION AGAINST EGYPT
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The XIXth dynasty: Harmhabî&mdash;The Hittite empire in Syria and in
+      Asia Minor&mdash;Seti I. and Ramses II.&mdash;The people of the sea:
+      Minephtah and the Israelite Exodus.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      While none of these ephemeral Pharaohs left behind them a, either
+      legitimate or illegitimate, son there was no lack of princesses, any of
+      which, having on her accession to the throne to choose a consort after her
+      own heart, might thus become the founder of a new dynasty. By such a
+      chance alliance Harmhabî, who was himself descended from Thûtmosis III.,
+      was raised to the kingly office.* His mother, Mûtnozmît, was of the royal
+      line, and one of the most beautiful statues in the Gîzeh Museum probably
+      represents her. The body is mutilated, but the head is charming in its
+      intelligent and animated expression, in its full eyes and somewhat large,
+      but finely modelled, mouth. The material of the statue is a finegrained
+      limestone, and its milky whiteness tends to soften the malign character of
+      her look and smile. It is possible that Mûtnozmît was the daughter of
+      Amenôthes III. by his marriage with one of his sisters: it was from her,
+      at any rate, and not from his great-grandfather, that Harmhabî derived his
+      indisputable claims to royalty.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A fragment of an inscription at Karnak calls Thûtmosis
+     III. &ldquo;the father of his fathers.&rdquo; Champollion called him
+     Hornemnob, Rosellini, Hôr-hemheb, Hôr-em-hbai, and both
+     identified him with the Hôros of Manetho, hence the custom
+     among Egyptologists for a long time to designate him by the
+     name Horus. Dévéria was the first to show that the name
+     corresponded with the Armais of the lists of Manetho, and,
+     in fact, Armais is the Greek transcription of the group
+     Harmhabî in the bilingual texts of the Ptolemaic period.
+
+     ** Mûtnozmît was at first considered the daughter and
+     successor of Harmhabî, or his wife. Birch showed that the
+     monuments did not confirm these hypotheses, and he was
+     inclined to think that she was Harmhabî&rsquo;s mother. As far as
+     I can see for the present, it is the only solution which
+     agrees with the evidence on the principal monument which has
+     made known her existence.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was born, probably, in the last years of Amenôthes, when Tîi was the
+      exclusive favourite of the sovereign; but it was alleged later on, when
+      Harmhabî had emerged from obscurity, that Amon, destining him for the
+      throne, had condescended to become his father by Mûtnozmît&mdash;a
+      customary procedure with the god when his race on earth threatened to
+      become debased.* It was he who had rocked the newly born infant to sleep,
+      and, while Harsiesis was strengthening his limbs with protective amulets,
+      had spread over the child&rsquo;s skin the freshness and brilliance which are
+      the peculiar privilege of the immortals. While still in the nursery, the
+      great and the insignificant alike prostrated themselves before Harmhabî,
+      making him liberal offerings. Every one recognised in him, even when still
+      a lad and incapable of reflection, the carriage and complexion of a god,
+      and Horus of Cynopolis was accustomed to follow his steps, knowing that
+      the time of his advancement was near. After having called the attention of
+      the Egyptians to Harmhabî, Amon was anxious, in fact, to hasten the coming
+      of the day when he might confer upon him supreme rank, and for this
+      purpose inclined the heart of the reigning Pharaoh towards him. Aï
+      proclaimed him his heir over the whole land.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * All that we know of the youth of Harmhabî is contained in
+     the texts on a group preserved in the Turin Museum, and
+     pointed out by Champollion, translated and published
+     subsequently by Birch and by Brugsch. The first lines of the
+     inscription seem to me to contain an account of the union of
+     Amon with the queen, analogous to those at Deîr el-Baharî
+     treating of the birth of Hâtshopsîtû, and to those at Luxor
+     bearing upon Amenôthes III. (cf. vol. iv. pp. 342, 343; and
+     p. 51 of the present volume), and to prove for certain that
+     Harmhabî&rsquo;s mother was a princess of the royal line by right.
+
+     ** The king is not named in the inscription. It cannot have
+     been Amenôthes IV., for an individual of the importance of
+     Harmhabî, living alongside this king, would at least have
+     had a tomb begun for him at. Tel el-Amarna. We may hesitate
+     between Aï and Tûtankhamon; but the inscription seems to say
+     definitely that Harmhabî succeeded directly to the king
+     under whom he had held important offices for many years, and
+     this compels us to fix upon Aï, who, as we have said at p.
+     108, et seq., of the present volume, was, to all
+     appearances, the last of the so-called heretical sovereigns.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He never gave cause for any dissatisfaction when called to court, and when
+      he was asked questions by the monarch he replied always in fit terms, in
+      such words as were calculated to produce serenity, and thus gained for
+      himself a reputation as the incarnation of wisdom, all his plans and
+      intentions appearing to have been conceived by Thot the Ibis himself. For
+      many years he held a place of confidence with the sovereign. The nobles,
+      from the moment he appeared at the gate of the palace, bowed their backs
+      before him; the barbaric chiefs from the north or south stretched out
+      their arms as soon as they approached him, and gave him the adoration they
+      would bestow upon a god. His favourite residence was Memphis, his
+      preference for it arising from his having possibly been born there, or
+      from its having been assigned to him for his abode. Here he constructed
+      for himself a magnificent tomb, the bas-reliefs of which exhibit him as
+      already king, with the sceptre in his hand and the uraaus on his brow,
+      while the adjoining cartouche does not as yet contain his name.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This part of the account is based upon, a study of a
+     certain number of texts and representations all coming from
+     Harmhabî&rsquo;s tomb at Saqqârah, and now scattered among the
+     various museums&mdash;at Gîzeh, Leyden, London, and Alexandria.
+     Birch was the first to assign those monuments to the Pharaoh
+     Harmhabî, supposing at the same time that he had been
+     dethroned by Ramses I., and had lived at Memphis in an
+     intermediate position between that of a prince and that of a
+     private individual; this opinion was adopted by Ed. Meyer,
+     rejected by Wiedemann and by myself. After full examination,
+     I think the Harmhabî of the tomb at Saqqârah and the Pharaoh
+     Harmhabî are one and the same person; Harmhabî, sufficiently
+     high placed to warrant his wearing the uraius, but not high
+     enough to have his name inscribed in a cartouche, must have
+     had his tomb constructed at Saqqârah, as Aï and possibly
+     Ramses I. had theirs built for them at Tel el-Amarna.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was the mighty of the mighty, the great among the great, the general of
+      generals, the messenger who ran to convey orders to the people of Asia and
+      Ethiopia, the indispensable companion in council or on the field of
+      battle,* at the time when Horus of Cynopolis resolved to seat him upon his
+      eternal throne. Aï no longer occupied it. Horus took Harmhabî with him to
+      Thebes, escorted him thither amid expressions of general joy, and led him
+      to Amon in order that the god might bestow upon him the right to reign.
+      The reception took place in the temple of Luxor, which served as a kind of
+      private chapel for the descendants of Amenôthes. Amon rejoiced to see
+      Harmhabî, the heir of the two worlds; he took him with him to the royal
+      palace, introduced him into the apartments of his august daughter,
+      Mûtnozmît; then, after she had recognised her child and had pressed him to
+      her bosom, all the gods broke out into acclamations, and their cries
+      ascended up to heaven.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The fragments of the tomb preserved at Leyden show him
+     leading to the Pharaoh Asiatics and Ethiopians, burthened
+     with tribute. The expressions and titles given above are
+     borrowed from the fragments at Gîzeh.
+
+     ** Owing to a gap, the text cannot be accurately translated
+     at this point. The reading can be made out that Amon &ldquo;betook
+     himself to the palace, placing the prince before him, as far
+     as the sanctuary of his (Amon&rsquo;s) daughter, the very
+     august...; she poured water on his hands, she embraced the
+     beauties (of the prince), she placed herself before him.&rdquo; It
+     will be seen that the name of the daughter of Amon is
+     wanting, and Birch thought that a terrestrial princess whom
+     Harmhabî had married was in question, Miifcnozmît, according
+     to Brugsch. If the reference is not to a goddess, who along
+     with Amon took part in the ceremonies, but to Mûtnozmît, we
+     must come to the conclusion that she, as heir and queen by
+     birth, must have ceded her rights by some ritual to her son
+     before he could be crowned.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;Behold, Amon arrives with his son before him, at the palace, in order to
+      put upon his head the diadem, and to prolong the length of his life! We
+      install him, therefore, in his office, we give to him the insignia of Eâ,
+      we pray Amon for him whom he has brought as our protector: may he as king
+      have the festivals of Eâ and the years of Horus; may he accomplish his
+      good pleasure in Thebes, in Heliopolis, in Memphis, and may he add to the
+      veneration with which these cities are invested.&rdquo; And they immediately
+      decided that the new Pharaoh should be called Horus-sturdy-bull, mighty in
+      wise projects, lord of the Vulture and of the very marvellous Urseus in
+      Thebes, the conquering Horus who takes pleasure in the truth, and who
+      maintains the two lands, the lord of the south and north, Sozir Khopîrûrî
+      chosen of Eâ, the offspring of the Sun, Harmhabî Mîamûn, giver of life.
+      The <i>cortege</i> came afterwards to the palace, the king walking before
+      Amon: there the god embraced his son, placed the diadems upon his head,
+      delivered to him the rule of the whole world, over foreign populations as
+      well as those of Egypt, inasmuch as he possessed this power as the
+      sovereign of the universe.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This is the customary subject of the records of enthronement. Pharaoh is
+      the son of a god, chosen by his father, from among all those who might
+      have a claim to it, to occupy for a time the throne of Horus; and as he
+      became king only by a divine decree, he had publicly to express, at the
+      moment of his elevation, his debt of gratitude to, and his boundless
+      respect for, the deity, who had made him what he was. In this case,
+      however, the protocol embodied something more than the traditional
+      formality, and its hackneyed phrases borrowed a special meaning from the
+      circumstances of the moment. Amon, who had been insulted and proscribed by
+      Khûniatonû, had not fully recovered his prestige under the rule of the
+      immediate successors of his enemy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0006" id="linkBimage-0006">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/123.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="123.jpg the First Pylon of HarmhabÎ at Karnak " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They had restored to him his privileges and his worship, they had become
+      reconciled to him, and avowed themselves his faithful ones, but all this
+      was as much an act of political necessity as a matter of religion: they
+      still continued to tolerate, if not to favour, the rival doctrinal system,
+      and the temple of the hateful Disk still dishonoured by its vicinity the
+      sanctuary of Karnak. Harmhabî, on the other hand, was devoted to Amon, who
+      had moulded him in embryo, and had trained him from his birth to worship
+      none but him. Harmhabî&rsquo;s triumph marked the end of the evil days, and
+      inaugurated a new era, in which Amon saw himself again master of Thebes
+      and of the world. Immediately after his enthronement Harmhabî rivalled the
+      first Amen-ôthes in his zeal for the interests of his divine father: he
+      overturned the obelisks of Atonû and the building before which they stood;
+      then, that no trace of them might remain, he worked up the stones into the
+      masonry of two pylons, which he set up upon the site, to the south of the
+      gates of Thûtmosis III. They remained concealed in the new fabric for
+      centuries, but in the year 27 B.C. a great earthquake brought them
+      abruptly to light. We find everywhere among the ruins, at the foot of the
+      dislocated gates, or at the bases of the headless colossal figures, heaps
+      of blocks detached from the structure, on which can be made out remnants
+      of prayers addressed to the Disk, scenes of worship, and cartouches of
+      Amenôfches IV., Aï, and Tûtankhamon. The work begun by Harmhabî at Thebes
+      was continued with unabated zeal through the length of the whole
+      river-valley. &ldquo;He restored the sanctuaries from the marshes of Athû even
+      to Nubia; he repaired their sculptures so that they were better than
+      before, not to speak of the fine things he did in them, rejoicing the eyes
+      of Râ. That which he had found injured he put into its original condition,
+      erecting a hundred statues, carefully formed of valuable stone, for every
+      one which was lacking. He inspected the ruined towns of the gods in the
+      land, and made them such as they had been in the time of the first Ennead,
+      and he allotted to them estates and offerings for every day, as well as a
+      set of sacred vessels entirely of gold and silver; he settled priests in
+      them, bookmen, carefully chosen soldiers, and assigned to them fields,
+      cattle, all the necessary material to make prayers to Râ every morning.&rdquo;
+       These measures were inspired by consideration for the ancient deities; but
+      he added to them others, which tended to secure the welfare of the people
+      and the stability of the government. Up to this time the officials and the
+      Egyptian soldiers had displayed a tendency to oppress the fellahîn,
+      without taking into consideration the injury to the treasury occasioned by
+      their rapacity. Constant supervision was the only means of restraining
+      them, for even the best-served Pharaohs, Thûtmosis, and Amenôthes III.
+      themselves, were obliged to have frequent recourse to the rigour of the
+      law to keep the scandalous depredations of the officials within bounds.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Harmhabî refers to the edicts of Thûtmosis III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0007" id="linkBimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/126.jpg"
+       alt="127.jpg Amenothes Iv. From a Fragment Used Again By Harmhabi " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a sketch by
+Prisse d&rsquo;Avennes.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The religious disputes of the preceding years, in enfeebling the authority
+      of the central power, had given a free hand to these oppressors. The
+      scribes and tax-collectors were accustomed to exact contributions for the
+      public service from the ships, whether laden or not, of those who were in
+      a small way of business, and once they had laid their hands upon them,
+      they did not readily let them go. The poor fellow falling into their
+      clutches lost his cargo, and he was at his wits&rsquo; end to know how to
+      deliver at the royal storehouses the various wares with which he
+      calculated to pay his taxes. No sooner had the Court arrived at some place
+      than the servants scoured the neighbourhood, confiscating the land
+      produce, and seizing upon slaves, under pretence that they were acting for
+      the king, while they had only their personal ends in view. Soldiers
+      appropriated all the hides of animals with the object, doubtless, of
+      making from them leather jackets and helmets, or of duplicating their
+      shields, with the result that when the treasury made its claim for
+      leather, none was to be found. It was hardly possible, moreover, to bring
+      the culprits to justice, for the chief men of the towns and villages, the
+      prophets, and all those who ought to have looked after the interests of
+      the taxpayer, took money from the criminals for protecting them from
+      justice, and compelled the innocent victims also to purchase their
+      protection. Harmhabî, who was continually looking for opportunities to put
+      down injustice and to punish deceit, at length decided to pro-mulgate a
+      very severe edict against the magistrates and the double-dealing
+      officials: any of them who was found to have neglected his duty was to
+      have his nose cut off, and was to be sent into perpetual exile to Zalu, on
+      the eastern frontier. His commands, faithfully carried out, soon produced
+      a salutary effect, and as he would on no account relax the severity of the
+      sentence, exactions were no longer heard of, to the advantage of the
+      revenue of the State. On the last day of each month the gates of his
+      palace were open to every one.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Any one on giving his name to the guard could enter the court of honour,
+      where he would find food in abundance to satisfy his hunger while he was
+      awaiting an audience. The king all the while was seated in the sight of
+      all at the tribune, whence he would throw among his faithful friends
+      necklaces and bracelets of gold: he inquired into complaints one after
+      another, heard every case, announced his judgments in brief words, and
+      dismissed his subjects, who went away proud and happy at having had their
+      affairs dealt with by the sovereign himself.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * All these details are taken from a stele discovered in
+     1882. The text is so mutilated that it is impossible to give
+     a literal rendering of it in all its parts, but the sense is
+     sufficiently clear to warrant our rilling up the whole with
+     considerable certainty.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0008" id="linkBimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/128.jpg" alt="128.jpg Harmhabi " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a Autograph by
+Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The portraits of Harmhabî which have come down to us give us the
+      impression of a character at once energetic and agreeable. The most
+      beautiful of these is little more than a fragment broken off a black
+      granite statue. Its mournful expression is not pleasing to the spectator,
+      and at the first view alienates his sympathy. The face, which is still
+      youthful, breathes an air of melancholy, an expression which is somewhat
+      rare among the Pharaohs of the best period: the thin and straight nose is
+      well set on the face, the elongated eyes have somewhat heavy lids; the
+      large, fleshy lips, slightly contracted at the corners of the mouth, are
+      cut with a sharpness that gives them singular vigour, and the firm and
+      finely modelled chin loses little of its form from the false beard
+      depending from it. Every detail is treated with such freedom that one
+      would think the sculptor must have had some soft material to work upon,
+      rather than a rock almost hard enough to defy the chisel; the command over
+      it is so complete that the difficulty of the work is forgotten in the
+      perfection of the result. The dreamy expression of his face, however, did
+      not prevent Harmhabî from displaying beyond Egypt, as within it, singular
+      activity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Although Egypt had never given up its claims to dominion over the whole
+      river-valley, as far as the plains of Sennar, yet since the time of
+      Amenôthes III. no sovereign had condescended, it would I appear, to
+      conduct in person the expeditions directed against the tribes of! the
+      Upper Nile. Harmhabî was anxious to revive the custom which imposed upon
+      the Pharaohs the obligation to make their first essay in arms in Ethiopia,
+      as Horus, son of Isis, had done of yore, and he seized the pretext of the
+      occurrence of certain raids there to lead a body of troops himself into
+      the heart of the negro country.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0009" id="linkBimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/129.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="129.jpg the Vaulted Passage of The Rock-tomb at Gebel Silsileh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He had just ordered at this time the construction of the two southern
+      pylons at Karnak, and there was great activity in the quarries of
+      Silsileh. A commemorative chapel also was in course of excavation here in
+      the sandstone rock, and he had dedicated it to his father, Amon-Ba of
+      Thebes, coupling with him the local divinities, Hapî the Nile, and Sobkû
+      the patron of Ombos. The sanctuary is excavated somewhat deeply into the
+      hillside, and the dark rooms within it are decorated with the usual scenes
+      of worship, but the vaulted approach to them displays upon its western
+      wall the victory of the king. We see here a figure receiving from Amon the
+      assurance of a long and happy life, and another letting fly his arrows at
+      a host of fleeing enemies; Ethiopians raise their heads to him in
+      suppliant gesture; soldiers march past with their captives; above one of
+      the doors we see twelve military leaders marching and carrying the king
+      aloft upon their shoulders, while a group of priests and nobles salute
+      him, offering incense.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The significance of the monument was pointed out first by
+     Champollion. The series of races conquered was represented
+     at Karnak on the internal face of one of the pylons built by
+     Harmhabi; it appears to have been &ldquo;usurped&rdquo; by Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At this period Egyptian ships were ploughing the Red Sea, and their
+      captains were renewing official relations with Pûanît. Somali chiefs were
+      paying visits to the palace, as in the time of Thûtmosis III. The wars of
+      Amon had, in fact, begun again. The god, having suffered neglect for half
+      a century, had a greater need than ever of gold and silver to fill his
+      coffers; he required masons for his buildings, slaves and cattle for his
+      farms, perfumed essences and incense for his daily rites. His resources
+      had gradually become exhausted, and his treasury would soon be empty if he
+      did not employ the usual means to replenish it. He incited Harmhabi to
+      proceed against the countries from which, in olden times he had enriched
+      himself&mdash;to the south in the first place, and then, having decreed
+      victory there, and having naturally taken for himself the greater part of
+      the spoils, he turned his attention to Asia.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0010" id="linkBimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/131.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="131.jpg the Triumph Op HarmhabÎ in The Sanctuary of Gebel Silsileh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Daniel Heron.
+     The black spots are due to the torches of the fellahîn of
+     the neighbourhood who have visited the rock tomb in bygone
+     years.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In the latter campaign the Egyptian troops took once more the route
+      through Coele-Syria, and if the expedition experienced here more
+      difficulties than on the banks of the Upper Nile, it was, nevertheless,
+      brought to an equally triumphant conclusion. Those of their adversaries
+      who had offered an obstinate resistance were transported into other lands,
+      and the rebel cities were either razed to the ground or given to the
+      flames: the inhabitants having taken refuge in the mountains, where they
+      were in danger of perishing from hunger, made supplications for peace,
+      which was granted to them on the usual conditions of doing homage and
+      paying tribute.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These details are taken from the fragment of an
+     inscription now in the museum at Vienna; Bergmann, and also
+     Erman, think that we have in this text the indication of an
+     immigration into Egypt of a tribe of the Monâtiu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We do not exactly know how far he penetrated into the country; the list of
+      the towns and nations over which he boasts of having triumphed contains,
+      along with names unknown to us, some already famous or soon to become so&mdash;Arvad,
+      Pibukhu, the Khâti, and possibly Alasia. The Haui-Nibu themselves must
+      have felt the effects of the campaign, for several of their chiefs
+      associated, doubtless, with the Phoenicians, presented themselves before
+      the Pharaoh at Thebes. Egypt was maintaining, therefore, its ascendency,
+      or at least appearing to maintain it in those regions where the kings of
+      the XVIIIth dynasty had ruled after the campaigns of Thûtmosis I.,
+      Thûtmosis III., and Amenothes II. Its influence, nevertheless, was not so
+      undisputed as in former days; not that the Egyptian soldiers were less
+      valiant, but owing to the fact that another power had risen up alongside
+      them whose armies were strong enough to encounter them on the field of
+      battle and to obtain a victory over them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Beyond Naharaim, in the deep recesses of the Amanus and Taurus, there had
+      lived, for no one knows how many centuries, the rude and warlike tribes of
+      the Khâti, related not so, much to the Semites of the Syrian plain as to
+      the populations of doubtful race and language who occupied the upper
+      basins of the Halys and Euphrates.* The Chaldæan conquest had barely
+      touched them; the Egyptian campaign had not more effect, and Thûtmosis
+      III. himself, after having crossed their frontiers and sacked several of
+      their towns, made no serious pretence to reckon them among his subjects.
+      Their chiefs were accustomed, like their neighbours, to use, for
+      correspondence with other countries, the cuneiform mode of writing; they
+      had among them, therefore, for this purpose, a host of scribes,
+      interpreters, and official registrars of events, such as we find to have
+      accompanied the sovereigns of Assyria and Babylon.** These chiefs were
+      accustomed to send from time to time a present to the Pharaoh, which the
+      latter was pleased to regard as a tribute,*** or they would offer,
+      perhaps, one of their daughters in marriage to the king at Thebes, and
+      after the marriage show themselves anxious to maintain good faith with
+      their son-in-law.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Halévy asserts that the Khâti were Semites, and bases his
+     assertion on materials of the Assyrian period. Thés Khâti,
+     absorbed in Syria by the Semites, with whom they were
+     blended, appear to have been by origin a non-Semitic people.
+
+     ** A letter from the King of the Khâti to the Pharaoh
+     Amenothes IV. is written in cuneiform writing and in a
+     Semitic language. It has been thought that other documents,
+     drawn up in a non-Semitic language and coming from Mitanni
+     and Arzapi, contain a dialect of the Hittite speech or that
+     language itself. A &ldquo;writer of books,&rdquo; attached to the person
+     of the Hittite King Khatusaru, is named amongst the dead
+     found on the field of battle at Qodshû.
+
+     *** It is thus perhaps we must understand the mention of
+     tribute from the Khâti in the <i>Annals of Thûtmosis III.</i>, 1.
+     26, in the year XXXIII., also in the year XL. One of the Tel
+     el-Amarna letters refers to presents of this kind, which the
+     King of Khâti addresses to Amenôthes IV. to celebrate his
+     enthronement, and to ask him to maintain with himself the
+     traditional good relations of their two families.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They had, moreover, commercial relations with Egypt, and furnished it with
+      cattle, chariots, and those splendid Cappadocian horses whose breed was
+      celebrated down to the Greek period.* They were already, indeed, people of
+      consideration; their territory was so extensive that the contemporaries of
+      Thutmosis III. called them the Greater Khâti; and the epithet &ldquo;vile,&rdquo;
+       which the chancellors of the Pharaohs added to their name, only shows by
+      its virulence the impression which they had produced upon the mind of
+      their adversaries.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The horses of the Khâti were called <i>abarî</i>, strong,
+     vigorous, as also their bulls. The King of Alasia, while
+     offering to Amenôthes III. a profitable speculation, advises
+     him to have nothing to do with the King of the Khâti or with
+     the King of Sangar, and thus furnishes proof that the
+     Egyptians held constant commercial relations with the Khâti.
+
+     ** M. de Rougé suggested that Khâti &ldquo;the Little&rdquo; was the
+     name of the Hittites of Hebron. The expression, &ldquo;Khâti the
+     Great,&rdquo; has been compared with that of Khanirabbat, &ldquo;Khani
+     the Great,&rdquo; which in the Assyrian texts would seem to
+     designate a part of Cappadocia, in which the province of
+     Miliddi occurs, and the identification of the two has found
+     an ardent defender in W. Max Millier. Until further light is
+     thrown upon it, the most probable reading of the word is not
+     Khani-<i>ra</i>bat, but Khani-<i>gal</i>bat. The name Khani-Galbat is
+     possibly preserved in Julbat, which the Arab geographers
+     applied in the Middle Ages to a province situated in Lesser
+     Armenia.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their type of face distinguishes them clearly from the nations
+      conterminous with them on the south. The Egyptian draughtsmen represented
+      them as squat and short in stature, though vigorous, strong-limbed, and
+      with broad and full shoulders in youth, but as inclined frequently to
+      obesity in old age. The head is long and heavy, the forehead flattened,
+      the chin moderate in size, the nose prominent, the eyebrows and cheeks
+      projecting, the eyes small, oblique, and deep-set, the mouth fleshy, and
+      usually framed in by two deep wrinkles; the flesh colour is a yellowish or
+      reddish white, but clearer than that of the Phoenicians or the Amurru.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0011" id="linkBimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/135.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="135.jpg Three Heads of Hittite Soldiers " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their ordinary costume consisted, sometimes of a shirt with short sleeves,
+      sometimes of a sort of loin-cloth, more or less ample according to the
+      rank of the individual wearing it, and bound round the waist by a belt. To
+      these they added a scanty mantle, red or blue, fringed like that of the
+      Chaldæans, which they passed over the left shoulder and brought back under
+      the right, so as to leave the latter exposed. They wore shoes with thick
+      soles, turning up distinctly at the toes,* and they encased their hands in
+      gloves, reaching halfway up the arm.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This characteristic is found on the majority of the
+     monuments which the peoples of Asia Minor have left to us,
+     and it is one of the most striking indications of the
+     northern origin of the Khâti. The Egyptian artists and
+     modern draughtsmen have often neglected it, and the majority
+     of them have represented the Khâti without shoes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They shaved off both moustache and beard, but gave free growth to their
+      hair, which they divided into two or three locks, and allowed to fall upon
+      their backs and breasts. The king&rsquo;s head-dress, which was distinctive of
+      royalty, was a tall pointed hat, resembling to some extent the white crown
+      of the Pharaohs. The dress of the people, taken all together, was of
+      better and thicker material than that of the Syrians or Egyptians. The
+      mountains and elevated plateaus which they inhabited were subject to
+      extraordinary vicissitudes of heat and cold. If the summer burnt up
+      everything, the winter reigned here with an extreme rigour, and dragged on
+      for months: clothing and footgear had to be seen to, if the snow and the
+      icy winds of December were to be resisted. The character of their towns,
+      and the domestic life of their nobles and the common people, can only be
+      guessed at. Some, at least, of the peasants must have sheltered themselves
+      in villages half underground, similar to those which are still to be found
+      in this region. The town-folk and the nobles had adopted for the most part
+      the Chaldæan or Egyptian manners and customs in use among the Semites of
+      Syria. As to their religion, they reverenced a number of secondary deities
+      who had their abode in the tempest, in the clouds, the sea, the rivers,
+      the springs, the mountains, and the forests. Above this crowd there were
+      several sovereign divinities of the thunder or the air, sun-gods and
+      moon-gods, of which the chief was called Khâti, and was considered to be
+      the father of the nation. They ascribed to all their deities a warlike and
+      savage character. The Egyptians pictured some of them as a kind of Râ,*
+      others as representing Sit, or rather Sûtkhû, that patron of the Hyksôs
+      which was identified by them with Sit: every town had its tutelary heroes,
+      of whom they were accustomed to speak as if of its Sûtkhû&mdash;Sûtkhû of
+      Paliqa, Sûtkhû of Khissapa, Sûtkhû of Sarsu, Sûtkhû of Salpina. The
+      goddesses in their eyes also became Astartés, and this one fact suggests
+      that these deities were, like their Phoenician and Canaanite sisters, of a
+      double nature&mdash;in one aspect chaste, fierce, and warlike, and in
+      another lascivious and pacific. One god was called Mauru, another Targu,
+      others Qaui and Khepa.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Cilician inscriptions of the Græco-Roman period reveal
+     the existence in this region of a god, Rho, Rhos. Did this
+     god exist among the Khâti, and did the similarity of the
+     pronunciation of it to that of the god Râ suggest to the
+     Egyptians the existence of a similar god among these people,
+     or did they simply translate into their language the name of
+     the Hittite god representing the sun?
+
+     ** The names Mauru and Qaui are deduced from the forms
+     Maurusaru and Qauisaru, which were borne by the Khâti: Qaui
+     was probably the eponymous hero of the Qui people, as Khâti
+     was of the Khâti. Tarku and Tisubu appear to me to be
+     contained in the names Targanunasa, Targazatas, and
+     Tartisubu; Tisubu is probably the Têssupas mentioned in the
+     letter from Dushratta written in Mitannian, and identical
+     with the Tushupu of another letter from the same king, and
+     in a despatch from Tarkondaraush. Targu, Targa, Targanu,
+     resemble the god Tarkhu, which is known to us from the
+     proper names of these regions preserved in attributes
+     covered by each of these divine names, and as to the forms
+     with which they were invested.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0012" id="linkBimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/138.jpg" alt="138.jpg a Hittite King. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-
+Gudin, from a
+picture in Lepsius.
+Khatusaru, King of
+the Khâti,who was
+for thirty years
+a contemporary
+of Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Tishubu, the Rammân of the Assyrians, was doubtless lord of the tempest
+      and of the atmosphere; Shausbe answered to Shala and to Ishtar the queen
+      of love;* but we are frequently in ignorance as to the Assyrian and Greek
+      inscriptions. Kheba, Khepa, Khîpa, is said to be a denomination of Rammân;
+      we find it in the names of the princesses Tadu-khîpa, Gilu-khîpa,
+      Puu-khîpa.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The majority of them, both male and female, were of gigantic stature, and
+      were arrayed in the vesture of earthly kings and queens: they brandished
+      their arms, displayed the insignia of their authority, such as a flower or
+      bunch of grapes, and while receiving the offerings of the people were
+      seated on a chair before an altar, or stood each on the animal
+      representing him&mdash;such as a lion, a stag, or wild goat. The temples
+      of their towns have disappeared, but they could never have been, it would
+      seem, either-large or magnificent: the favourite places of worship were
+      the tops of mountains, in the vicinity of springs, or the depths of
+      mysterious grottoes, where the deity revealed himself to his priests, and
+      received the faithful at the solemn festivals celebrated several times a
+      year.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The association of Tushupu, Tessupas, Tisubu, with Rammânu
+     is made out from an Assyrian tablet published by Bezold: it
+     was reserved for Say ce and Jensen to determine the nature
+     of the god. Shausbe has been identified with Ishtar or Shala
+     by Jensen.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We know as little about their political organisation as about their
+      religion.* We may believe, however, that it was feudal in character, and
+      that every clan had its hereditary chief and its proper gods: the clans
+      collectively rendered obedience to a common king, whose effective
+      authority depended upon his character and age.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The religious cities and the festivals of the Greek epoch
+     are described by Strabo; these festivals were very ancient,
+     and their institution, if not the method of celebrating
+     them, may go back to the time of the Hittite empire.
+
+     ** The description of the battle of Qodshû in the time of
+     Ramses II. shows us the King of the Khâti surrounded by his
+     vassals. The evidence of the existence of a similar feudal
+     organisation from the time of the XVIIIth dynasty is
+     furnished by a letter of Dushratta, King of Mitanni, where
+     he relates to Amenôthes IV. the revolt of his brother
+     Artassumara, and speaks of the help which one of the
+     neighbouring chiefs, Pirkhi, and all the Khâti had given to
+     the rebel.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The various contingents which the sovereign could collect together and
+      lead would, if he were an incapable general, be of little avail against
+      the well-officered and veteran troops of Egypt. Still they were not to be
+      despised, and contained the elements of an excellent army, superior both
+      in quality and quantity to any which Syria had ever been able to put into
+      the field. The infantry consisted of a limited number of archers or
+      slingers. They had usually neither shield nor cuirass, but merely, in the
+      way of protective armour, a padded head-dress, ornamented with a tuft. The
+      bulk of the army carried short lances and broad-bladed choppers, or more
+      generally, short thin-handled swords with flat two-edged blades, very
+      broad at the base and terminating in a point.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0013" id="linkBimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/140.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="140.jpg a Hittite Chariot With Its Three Occupants " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Champollion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their mode of attack was in close phalanxes, whose shock must have been
+      hard to bear, for the soldiers forming them were in part at least
+      recruited from among the strong and hardy mountaineers of the Taurus. The
+      chariotry comprised the nobles and the <i>élite</i> of the army, but it
+      was differently constituted from that of the Egyptians, and employed other
+      tactics.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Hittite chariots were heavier, and the framework, instead of being a
+      mere skeleton, was pannelled on the sides, the contour at the top being
+      sometimes quite square, at other times rudely curved. It was bound
+      together in the front by two disks of metal, and strengthened by strips of
+      copper or bronze, which were sometimes plated with silver or gold. There
+      were no quiver-cases as in Egyptian chariots, for the Hittite charioteers
+      rarely resorted to the bow and arrow. The occupants of a chariot were
+      three in number&mdash;the driver; the shield-bearer, whose office it was
+      to protect his companions by means of a shield, sometimes of a round form,
+      with a segment taken out on each side, and sometimes square; and finally,
+      the warrior, with his sword and lance. The Hittite princes whom fortune
+      had brought into relations with Thûtmosîs III. and Amenôthes II. were not
+      able to avail themselves properly of the latent forces around them. It was
+      owing probably to the feebleness of their character or to the turbulence
+      of their barons that we must ascribe the poor part they played in the
+      revolutions of the Eastern world at this time. The establishment of a
+      strong military power on their southern frontier was certain, moreover, to
+      be anything but pleasing to them; if they preferred not to risk everything
+      by entering into a great struggle with the invaders, they could, without
+      compromising themselves too much, harass them with sudden attacks, and
+      intrigue in an underhand way against them to their own profit. Pharaoh&rsquo;s
+      generals were accustomed to punish, one after the other, these bands of
+      invading tribes, and the sculptors duly recorded their names on a pylon at
+      Thebes among those of the conquered nations, but these disasters had
+      little effect in restraining the Hittites. They continued, in spite of
+      them, to march southward, and the letters from the Egyptian governors
+      record their progress year after year. They had a hand in all the plots
+      which were being hatched among the Syrians, and all the disaffected who
+      wished to be free from foreign oppression&mdash;such as Abdashirti and his
+      son Azîru&mdash;addressed themselves to them for help in the way of
+      chariots and men.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Azîru defends himself in one of his letters against the
+     accusation of having received four messengers from the King
+     of the Khâti, while he refused to receive those from Egypt.
+     The complicity of Aziru with the Khâti is denounced in an
+     appeal from the inhabitants of Tunipa. In a mutilated
+     letter, an unknown person calls attention to the
+     negotiations which a petty-Syrian prince had entered into
+     with the King of the Khâti.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Even inthe time of Amenôfches III. they had endeavoured to reap profit
+      from the discords of Mitanni, and had asserted their supremacy over it.
+      Dushratta, however, was able to defeat one of their chiefs. Repulsed on
+      this side, they fell back upon that part of Naharaim lying between the
+      Euphrates and Orontes, and made themselves masters of one town after
+      another in spite of the despairing appeals of the conquered to the Theban
+      king. From the accession of Khûniatonû, they set to work to annex the
+      countries of Nukhassi, Nîi, Tunipa, and Zinzauru: they looked with
+      covetous eyes upon Phoenicia, and were already menacing Coele-Syria. The
+      religious confusion in Egypt under Tûtankhamon and Aî left them a free
+      field for their ambitions, and when Harmhabî ventured to cross to the east
+      of the isthmus, he found them definitely installed in the region
+      stretching from the Mediterranean and the Lebanon to the Euphrates. Their
+      then reigning prince, Sapalulu, appeared to have been the founder of a new
+      dynasty: he united the forces of the country in a solid body, and was
+      within a little of making a single state out of all Northern Syria.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      * Sapalulu has the same name as that wo meet with later on in the country
+      of Patin, in the time of Salmanasar III., viz. Sapalulme. It is known to
+      us only from a treaty with the Khâti, which makes him coeval with Ramses
+      I.: it was with him probably that Harmhabî had to deal in his Syrian
+      campaigns. The limit of his empire towards the south is gathered in a
+      measure from what we know of the wars of Seti I. with the Khâti.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All Naharaim had submitted to him: Zahi, Alasia, and the Amurru had passed
+      under his government from that of the Pharaohs; Carchemish, Tunipa, Nîi,
+      Hamath, figured among his royal cities, and Qodshû was the defence of his
+      southern frontier. His progress towards the east was not less
+      considerable. Mitanni, Arzapi, and the principalities of the Euphrates as
+      far as the Balikh, possibly even to the Khabur,* paid him homage: beyond
+      this, Assyria and Chaldæa barred his way. Here, as on his other frontiers,
+      fortune brought him face to face with the most formidable powers of the
+      Asiatic world.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The text of the poem of Pentaûîrît mentions, among the
+     countries confederate with the Khâti, all Naharaim; that is
+     to say, the country on either side of the Euphrates,
+     embracing Mitanni and the principalities named in the Amarna
+     correspondence, and in addition some provinces whose sites
+     have not yet been discovered, but which may be placed
+     without much risk of error to the north of the Taurus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The latter prince was obliged to capture Qodshû, and to conquer the people
+      of the Lebanon. Had he sufficient forces at his disposal to triumph over
+      them, or only enough to hold his ground? Both hypotheses could have been
+      answered in the affirmative if each one of these great powers, confiding
+      in its own resources, had attacked him separately. The Amorites, the
+      people of Zahi, Alasia, and Naharaim, together with recruits from Hittite
+      tribes, would then have put him in a position to resist, and even to carry
+      off victory with a high hand in the final struggle. But an alliance
+      between Assyria or Babylon and Thebes was always possible. There had been
+      such things before, in the time of Thut-mosis IV. and in that of Amenôthes
+      III., but they were lukewarm agreements, and their effect was not much to
+      boast of, for the two parties to the covenant had then no common enemy to
+      deal with, and their mutual interests were not, therefore, bound up with
+      their united action. The circumstances were very different now. The rapid
+      growth of a nascent kingdom, the restless spirit of its people, its
+      trespasses on domains in which the older powers had been accustomed to
+      hold the upper hand,&mdash;did not all this tend to transform the
+      convention, more commercial than military, with which up to this time they
+      had been content, into an offensive and defensive treaty? If they decided
+      to act in concert, how could Sapalulu or his successors, seeing that he
+      was obliged to defend himself on two frontiers at the same moment, muster
+      sufficient resources to withstand the double assault? The Hittites, as we
+      know them more especially from the hieroglyphic inscriptions, might be
+      regarded as the lords only of Northern Syria, and their power be measured
+      merely by the extent of territory which they occupied to the south of the
+      Taurus and on the two banks of the Middle Euphrates. But this does not by
+      any means represent the real facts. This was but the half of their empire;
+      the rest extended to the westward and northward, beyond the mountains into
+      that region, known afterwards as Asia Minor, in which Egyptian tradition
+      had from ancient times confused some twenty nations under the common vague
+      epithet of Haûî-nîbû. Official language still employed it as a convenient
+      and comprehensive term, but the voyages of the Phoenicians and the travels
+      of the &ldquo;Royal Messengers,&rdquo; as well as, probably, the maritime commerce of
+      the merchants of the Delta, had taught the scribes for more than a century
+      and a half to make distinctions among these nations which they had
+      previously summed up in one. The Lufeu* were to be found there, as well as
+      the Danauna,** the Shardana,*** and others besides, who lay behind one
+      another on the coast. Of the second line of populations behind the region
+      of the coast tribes, we have up to the present no means of knowing
+      anything with certainty. Asia Minor, furthermore, is divided into two
+      regions, so distinctly separated by nature as well as by races that one
+      would be almost inclined to regard them as two countries foreign to each
+      other.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Luku, Luka, are mentioned in the Amarna correspondence
+     under the form Lukki as pirates and highway robbers. The
+     identity of these people with the Lycians I hold as well
+     established.
+
+     ** The Danauna are mentioned along with the Luku in the
+     Amarna correspondence. The termination, <i>-auna, -ana</i> of
+     this word appears to be the ending in -aon found in Asiatic
+     names like Lykaôn by the side of Lykos, Kataôn by the side
+     of Kêtis and Kat-patuka; while the form of the name Danaos
+     is preserved in Greek legend, Danaôn is found only on
+     Oriental monuments. The Danauna came &ldquo;from their islands,&rdquo;
+      that is to say, from the coasts of Asia Minor, or from
+     Greece, the term not being pressed too literally, as the
+     Egyptians were inclined to call all distant lands situated
+     to the north beyond the Mediterranean Sea &ldquo;islands.&rdquo;
+
+     *** E. de Rougé and Chabas were inclined to identify the
+     Shardana with the Sardes and the island of Sardinia. Unger
+     made them out to be the Khartanoi of Libya, and was followed
+     by Brugsch. W. Max Müller revived the hypotheses of De Rougé
+     and Chabas, and saw in them bands from the Italian island. I
+     am still persuaded, as I was twenty-five years ago, that
+     they were Asiatics&mdash;the Mæonian tribe which gave its name
+     to Sardis. The Serdani or Shardana are mentioned as serving
+     in the Egyptian Army in the Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In its centre it consists of a well-defined undulating plain, having a
+      gentle slope towards the Black Sea, and of the shape of a kind of convex
+      trapezium, clearly bounded towards the north by the highlands of Pontus,
+      and on the south by the tortuous chain of the Taurus. A line of low hills
+      fringes the country on the west, from the Olympus of Mysia to the Taurus
+      of Pisidia. Towards the east it is bounded by broken chains of mountains
+      of unequal height, to which the name Anti-Taurus is not very appropriately
+      applied. An immense volcanic cone, Mount Argseus, looks down from a height
+      of some 13,000 feet over the wide isthmus which connects the country with
+      the lands of the Euphrates. This volcano is now extinct, but it still
+      preserved in old days something of its languishing energy, throwing out
+      flames at intervals above the sacred forests which clothed its slopes. The
+      rivers having their sources in the region just described, have not all
+      succeeded in piercing the obstacles which separate them from the sea, but
+      the Pyramus and the Sarus find their way into the Mediterranean and the
+      Iris, Halys and Sangarios into the Euxine. The others flow into the
+      lowlands, forming meres, marshes, and lakes of fluctuating extent. The
+      largest of these lakes, called Tatta, is salt, and its superficial extent
+      varies with the season. In brief, the plateau of this region is nothing
+      but an extension of the highlands of Central Asia, and has the same
+      vegetation, fauna, and climate, the same extremes of temperature, the same
+      aridity, and the same wretched and poverty-stricken character as the
+      latter. The maritime portions are of an entirely different aspect.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0014" id="linkBimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/146.jpg" width="100%" alt="146.jpg Map " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The western coast which stretches into the Ægean is furrowed by deep
+      valleys, opening out as they reach the sea, and the rivers&mdash;the
+      Caicus, the Hermos, the Cayster, and Meander&mdash;which flow through them
+      are effective makers of soil, bringing down with them, as they do, a
+      continual supply of alluvium, which, deposited at their mouths, causes the
+      land to encroach there upon the sea. The littoral is penetrated here and
+      there by deep creeks, and is fringed with beautiful islands&mdash;Lesbos,
+      Chios, Samos, Cos, Rhodes&mdash;of which the majority are near enough to
+      the continent to act as defences of the seaboard, and to guard the mouths
+      of the rivers, while they are far enough away to be secure from the
+      effects of any violent disturbances which might arise in the mainland. The
+      Cyclades, distributed in two lines, are scattered, as it were, at hazard
+      between Asia and Europe, like great blocks which have fallen around the
+      piers of a broken bridge. The passage from one to the other is an easy
+      matter, and owing to them, the sea rather serves to bring together the two
+      continents than to divide them. Two groups of heights, imperfectly
+      connected with the central plateau, tower above the Ægean slope&mdash;wooded
+      Ida on the north, veiled in cloud, rich in the flocks and herds upon its
+      sides, and in the metals within its bosom; and on the south, the volcanic
+      bastions of Lycia, where tradition was wont to place the fire-breathing
+      Chimaera. A rocky and irregularly broken coast stretches to the west of
+      Lycia, in a line almost parallel with the Taurus, through which, at
+      intervals, torrents leaping from the heights make their way into the sea.
+      At the extreme eastern point of the coast, almost at the angle where the
+      Cilician littoral meets that of Syria, the Pyramus and the Sarus have
+      brought down between them sufficient material to form an alluvial plain,
+      which the classical geographers designated by the name of the Level
+      Cilicia, to distinguish it from the rough region of the interior, Gilicia
+      Trachea.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The populations dwelling in this peninsula belong to very varied races. On
+      the south and south-west certain Semites had found an abode&mdash;the
+      mysterious inhabitants of Solyma, and especially the Phoenicians in their
+      scattered trading-stations. On the north-east, beside the Khâti,
+      distributed throughout the valleys of the Anti-Taurus, between the
+      Euphrates and Mount Argseus, there were tribes allied to the Khâti*&mdash;possibly
+      at this time the Tabal and the Mushkâ&mdash;and, on the shores of the
+      Black Sea, those workers in metal, which, following the Greeks, we may
+      call, for want of a better designation, the Chalybes.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A certain number of these tribes or of their towns are to
+     be found in the list contained in the treaty of Ramses II.
+     with the Khâti.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We are at a loss to know the distribution of tribes in the centre and in
+      the north-west, but the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, we may rest assured,
+      never formed an ethnographical frontier. The continents on either side of
+      them appear at this point to form the banks of a river, or the two slopes
+      of a single valley, whose bottom lies buried beneath the waters. The
+      barbarians of the Balkans had forced their way across at several points.
+      Dardanians were to be encountered in the neighbourhood of Mount Ida, as
+      well as on the banks of the Axios, from early times, and the Kebrenes of
+      Macedonia had colonised a district of the Troad near Ilion, while the
+      great nation of the Mysians had issued, like them, from the European
+      populations of the Hebrus and the Strymon. The hero Dardanos, according to
+      legend, had at first founded, under the auspices of the Idasan Zeus, the
+      town of Dardania; and afterwards a portion of his progeny followed the
+      course of the Scamander, and entrenched themselves upon a precipitous
+      hill, from the top of which they could look far and wide over the plain
+      and sea. The most ancient Ilion, at first a village, abandoned on more
+      than one occasion in the course of centuries, was rebuilt and transformed,
+      earlier than the XVth century before Christ, into an important citadel,
+      the capital of a warlike and prosperous kingdom. The ruins on the spot
+      prove the existence of a primitive civilization analogous to that of the
+      islands of the Archipelago before the arrival of the Phoenician
+      navigators. We find that among both, at the outset, flint and bone, clay,
+      baked and unbaked, formed the only materials for their utensils and
+      furniture; metals were afterwards introduced, and we can trace their
+      progressive employment to the gradual exclusion of the older implements.
+      These ancient Trojans used copper, and we encounter only rarely a kind of
+      bronze, in which the proportion of tin was too slight to give the
+      requisite hardness to the alloy, and we find still fewer examples of iron
+      and lead. They were fairly adroit workers in silver, electrum, and
+      especially in gold. The amulets, cups, necklaces, and jewellery discovered
+      in their tombs or in the ruins of their houses, are sometimes of a not
+      ungraceful form. Their pottery was made by hand, and was not painted or
+      varnished, but they often gave to it a fine lustre by means of a
+      stone-polisher. Other peoples of uncertain origin, but who had attained a
+      civilization as advanced as that of the Trojans, were the Maeonians, the
+      Leleges, and the Carians who had their abode to the south of Troy and of
+      the Mysians. The Maeonians held sway in the fertile valleys of the Hermos,
+      Cayster, and Maaander. They were divided into several branches, such as
+      the Lydians, the Tyrseni, the Torrhebi, and the Shardana, but their most
+      ancient traditions looked back with pride to a flourishing state to which,
+      as they alleged, they had all belonged long ago on the slopes of Mount
+      Sipylos, between the valley of the Hermos and the Gulf of Smyrna. The
+      traditional capital of this kingdom was Magnesia, the most ancient of
+      cities, the residence of Tantalus, the father of Niobe and the Pelopidae.
+      The Leleges rise up before us from many points at the same time, but
+      always connected with the most ancient memories of Greece and Asia. The
+      majority of the strongholds on the Trojan coast belonged to them&mdash;such
+      as Antandros and Gargara&mdash;and Pedasos on the Satniois boasted of
+      having been one of their colonies, while several other towns of the same
+      name, but very distant from each other, enable us to form some idea of the
+      extent of their migrations.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * According to the scholiast on Nicander, the word &ldquo;Pedasos&rdquo;
+      signified &ldquo;mountain,&rdquo; probably in the language of the
+     Leleges. We know up to the present of four Pedasi, or
+     Pedasa: the first in Messenia, which later on took the name
+     of Methône; the second in the Troad, on the banks of the
+     Satniois; the third in the neighbourhood of Cyzicus; and the
+     fourth in Caria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In the time of Strabo, ruined tombs and deserted sites of cities were
+      shown in Caria which the natives regarded as Lelegia&mdash;that is, abode
+      of the Leleges. The Carians were dominant in the southern angle of the
+      peninsula and in the Ægean Islands; and the Lycians lay next them on the
+      east, and were sometimes confounded with them. One of the most powerful
+      tribes of the Carians, the Tremilse, were in the eyes of the Greeks hardly
+      to be separated from the mountainous district which they knew as Lycia
+      proper; while other tribes extended as far as the Halys. A district of the
+      Troad, to the south of Mount Ida, was called Lycia, and there was a
+      Lycaonia on both sides of the Middle Taurus; while Attica had its Lycia,
+      and Crete its Lycians. These three nations&mdash;the Lycians, Carians, and
+      Leleges&mdash;were so entangled together from their origin, that no one
+      would venture now to trace the lines of demarcation between them, and we
+      are often obliged to apply to them collectively what can be appropriately
+      ascribed to only one.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      How far the Hittite power extended in the first years of its expansion we
+      have now hardly the means of knowing. It would appear that it took within
+      its scope, on the south-west, the Cilician plain, and the undulating
+      region bordering on it&mdash;that of Qodi: the prince of the latter
+      district, if not his vassal, was at least the colleague of the King of the
+      Khâti, and he acted in concert with him in peace as well as in war.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The country of Qidi, Qadi, Qodi, has been connected by
+     Chabas with Galilee, and Brugsch adopted the identification.
+     W. Max Müller identified it with Phoenicia. I think the
+     name served to designate the Cilician coast and plain from
+     the mouth of the Orontes, and the country which was known in
+     the Græco-Roman period by the name Kêtis and Kataonia.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It embraced also the upper basin of the Pyramos and its affluents, as well
+      as the regions situated between the Euphrates and the Halys, but its
+      frontier in this direction was continually fluctuating, and our researches
+      fail to follow it. It is somewhat probable that it extended considerably
+      towards the west and north-west in the direction of the Ægean Sea. The
+      forests and escarpments of Lycaonia, and the desolate steppes of the
+      central plateau, have always presented a barrier difficult to surmount by
+      any invader from the east. If the Khâti at that period attacked it in
+      front, or by a flank movement, the assault must rather have been of the
+      nature of a hurried reconnaissance, or of a raid, than of a methodically
+      conducted campaign.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The idea of a Hittite empire extending over almost all
+     Asia Minor was advanced by Sayce.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They must have preferred to obtain possession of the valleys of the
+      Thermodon and the Iris, which were rich in mineral wealth, and from which
+      they could have secured an inexhaustible revenue. The extraction and
+      working of metals in this region had attracted thither from time
+      immemorial merchants from neighbouring and distant countries&mdash;at
+      first from the south to supply the needs of Syria, Chaldæa, and Egypt,
+      then from the west for the necessities of the countries on the Ægean. The
+      roads, which, starting from the archipelago on the one hand, or the
+      Euphrates on the other, met at this point, fell naturally into one, and
+      thus formed a continuous route, along which the caravans of commerce, as
+      well as warlike expeditions, might henceforward pass. Starting from the
+      cultivated regions of Mæonia, the road proceeded up the valley of the
+      Hermos from west to east; then, scaling the heights of the central plateau
+      and taking a direction more and more to the north-east, it reached the
+      fords of the Halys. Crossing this river twice&mdash;for the first time at
+      a point about two-thirds the length of its course, and for the second at a
+      short distance from its source&mdash;it made an abrupt turn towards the
+      Taurus, and joined, at Melitene, the routes leading to the Upper Tigris,
+      to Nisibis, to Singara, and to Old Assur, and connecting further down
+      beyond the mountainous region, under the walls of Carchemish, with the
+      roads which led to the Nile and to the river-side cities on the Persian
+      Gulf.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The very early existence of this road, which partly
+     coincides with the royal route of the Persian Achemenids,
+     was proved by Kiepert.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There were other and shorter routes, if we think only of the number of
+      miles, from the Hermos in Pisidia or Lycaonia, across the central steppe
+      and through the Cilician Gates, to the meeting of the ways at Carchemish;
+      but they led through wretched regions, without industries, almost without
+      tillage, and inhospitable alike to man and beast, and they were ventured
+      on only by those who aimed at trafficking among the populations who lived
+      in their neighbourhood. The Khâti, from the time even when they were
+      enclosed among the fastnesses of the Taurus, had within their control the
+      most important section of the great land route which served to maintain
+      regular relations between the ancient kingdoms of the east and the rising
+      states of the Ægean, and whosoever would pass through their country had to
+      pay them toll. The conquest of Naharaim, in giving them control of a new
+      section, placed almost at their discretion the whole traffic between
+      Chaldæa and Egypt. From the time of Thûtmosis III. caravans employed in
+      this traffic accomplished the greater part of their journey in territories
+      depending upon Babylon, Assyria, or Memphis, and enjoyed thus a relative
+      security; the terror of the Pharaoh protected the travellers even when
+      they were no longer in his domains, and he saved them from the flagrant
+      exactions made upon them by princes who called themselves his brothers, or
+      were actually his vassals. But the time had now come when merchants had to
+      encounter, between Qodshu and the banks of the Khabur, a sovereign owing
+      no allegiance to any one, and who would tolerate no foreign interference
+      in his territory. From the outbreak of hostilities with the Khâti, Egypt
+      could communicate with the cities of the Lower Euphrates only by the Wadys
+      of the Arabian Desert, which were always dangerous and difficult for large
+      convoys; and its commercial relations with Chaldæa were practically
+      brought thus to a standstill, and, as a consequence, the manufactures
+      which fed this trade being reduced to a limited production, the fiscal
+      receipts arising from it experienced a sensible diminution. When peace was
+      restored, matters fell again into their old groove, with certain
+      reservations to the Khâti of some common privileges: Egypt, which had
+      formerly possessed these to her own advantage, now bore the burden of
+      them, and the indirect tribute which she paid in this manner to her rivals
+      furnished them with arms to fight her in case she should endeavour to free
+      herself from the imposition. All the semi-barbaric peoples of the
+      peninsula of Asia Minor were of an adventurous and warlike temperament.
+      They were always willing to set out on an expedition, under the leadership
+      of some chief of noble family or renowned for valour; sometimes by sea in
+      their light craft, which would bring them unexpectedly to the nearest
+      point of the Syrian coast, sometimes by land in companies of foot-soldiers
+      and charioteers. They were frequently fortunate enough to secure plenty of
+      booty, and return with it to their homes safe and sound; but as frequently
+      they would meet with reverses by falling into some ambuscade: in such a
+      case their conqueror would not put them to the sword or sell them as
+      slaves, but would promptly incorporate them into his army, thus making his
+      captives into his soldiers. The King of the Khâti was able to make use of
+      them without difficulty, for his empire was conterminous on the west and
+      north with some of their native lands, and he had often whole regiments of
+      them in his army&mdash;Mysians, Lycians, people of Augarît,* of Ilion,**
+      and of Pedasos.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The country of Augarît, Ugarît, is mentioned on several
+     occasions in the Tel el-Amarna correspondence. The name has
+     been wrongly associated with Caria; it has been placed by W.
+     Max Miiller well within Naharaim, to the east of the
+     Orontes, between Khalybôn (Aleppo) and Apamoea, the writer
+     confusing it with Akaiti, named in the campaign of Amenôthes
+     II. I am not sure about the site, but its association in the
+     Amarna letters with Gugu and Khanigalbat inclines me to
+     place it beyond the northern slopes of the Taurus, possibly
+     on the banks of the Halys or of the Upper Euphrates.
+
+     ** The name of this people was read Eiûna by Champollion,
+     who identified it with the Ionians; this reading and
+     identification were adopted by Lenormant and by W. Max
+     Müller. Chabas hesitates between Eiûna and Maiûna, Ionia and
+     Moonia and Brugsch read it Malunna. The reading Iriûna,
+     Iliûna, seems to me the only possible one, and the
+     identification with Ilion as well.
+
+     *** Owing to its association with the Dardanians, Mysians,
+     and Ilion, I think it answers to the Pedasos on the Satniois
+     near Troy.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The revenue of the provinces taken from Egypt, and the products of his
+      tolls, furnished him with abundance of means for obtaining recruits from
+      among them.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All these things contributed to make the power of the Khâti so
+      considerable, that Harmhabî, when he had once tested it, judged it prudent
+      not to join issues with them. He concluded with Sapalulu a treaty of peace
+      and friendship, which, leaving the two powers in possession respectively
+      of the territory each then occupied, gave legal sanction to the extension
+      of the sphere of the Khâti at the expense of Egypt.** Syria continued to
+      consist of two almost equal parts, stretching from Byblos to the sources
+      of the Jordan and Damascus: the northern portion, formerly tributary to
+      Egypt, became a Hittite possession; while the southern, consisting of
+      Phoenicia and Canaan,*** which the Pharaoh had held for a long time with a
+      more effective authority, and had more fully occupied, was retained for
+      Egypt.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * E. de Rougé and the Egyptologists who followed him thought
+     at first that the troops designated in the Egyptian texts as
+     Lycians, Mysians, Dardanians, were the national armies of
+     these nations, each one commanded by its king, who had
+     hastened from Asia Minor to succour their ally the King of
+     the Khâti. I now think that those were bands of adventurers,
+     consisting of soldiers belonging to these nations, who came
+     to put themselves at the service of civilized monarchs, as
+     the Oarians, Ionians, and the Greeks of various cities did
+     later on: the individuals whom the texts mention as their
+     princes were not the kings of these nations, but the warrior
+     chiefs to which each band gave obedience.
+
+     ** It is not certain that Harmhabî was the Pharaoh with whom
+     Sapalulu entered into treaty, and it might be insisted with
+     some reason that Ramses I. was the party to it on the side
+     of Egypt; but this hypothesis is rendered less probable by
+     the fact of the extremely short reign of the latter Pharaoh.
+     I am inclined to think, as W. Max Miiller has supposed, that
+     the passage in the <i>Treaty of Ramses II. with the Prince of
+     the Khâti,</i> which speaks of a treaty concluded with
+     Sapalulu, looks back to the time of Ramses II.&lsquo;s
+     predecessor, Harmhabî.
+
+     *** This follows from the situation of the two empires, as
+     indicated in the account of the campaign of Seti I. in his
+     first year. The king, after having defeated the nomads of
+     the Arabian desert, passed on without further fighting into
+     the country of the Amûrrû and the regions of the Lebanon,
+     which fact seems to imply the submission of Kharû. W. Max
+     Miiller was the first to* discern clearly this part of the
+     history of Egyptian conquest; he appears, however, to have
+     circumscribed somewhat too strictly the dominion of Harmhabî
+     in assigning Carmel as its limit. The list of the nations of
+     the north who yielded, or are alleged to have yielded,
+     submission to Harmhabî, were traced on the first pylon of
+     this monarch at Karnak, and on its adjoining walls. Among
+     others, the names of the Khâti and of Arvad are to be read
+     there.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This could have been but a provisional arrangement: if Thebes had not
+      altogether renounced the hope of repossessing some day the lost conquests
+      of Thûtmosis III., the Khâti, drawn by the same instinct which had urged
+      them to cross their frontiers towards the south, were not likely to be
+      content with less than the expulsion of the Egyptians from Syria, and the
+      absorption of the whole country into the Hittite dominion. Peace was
+      maintained during Harmhabî&rsquo;s lifetime. We know nothing of Egyptian affairs
+      during the last years of his reign. His rule may have come to an end owing
+      to some court intrigue, or he may have had no male heir to follow him.*
+      Ramses, who succeeded him, did not belong to the royal line, or was only
+      remotely connected with it.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It would appear, from an Ostracon in the British Museum,
+     that the year XXI. follows after the year VII. of Harmhabî&rsquo;s
+     reign; it is possible that the year XXI. may belong to one
+     of Harmhabî&rsquo;s successors, Seti I. or Ramses II., for
+     example.
+
+     ** The efforts to connect Ramses I. with a family of Semitic
+     origin, possibly the Shepherd-kings themselves, have not
+     been successful. Everything goes to prove that the Ramses
+     family was, and considered itself to be, of Egyptian origin.
+     Brugsch and Ed. Meyer were inclined to see in Ramses I. a
+     younger brother of Harmhabî. This hypothesis has nothing
+     either for Or against it up to the present.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was already an old man when he ascended the throne, and we ought
+      perhaps to identify him with one or other of the Ramses who flourished
+      under the last Pharaohs of the XVIIIth dynasty, perhaps the one who
+      governed Thebes under Khûniatonû, or another, who began but never finished
+      his tomb in the hillside above Tel el-Amarna, in the burying-place of the
+      worshippers of the Disk.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0015" id="linkBimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/160.jpg" alt="160.jpg Ramses I. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a sketch in Rosellini.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He had held important offices under Harmhabî,* and had obtained in
+      marriage for his son Seti the hand of Tuîa, who, of all the royal family,
+      possessed the strongest rights to the crown.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This Tel el-Amarna Ramses is, perhaps, identical with the
+     Theban one: he may have followed his master to his new
+     capital, and have had a tomb dug for himself there, which he
+     subsequently abandoned, on the death of Khûniatonû, in order
+     to return to Thebes with Tûtankhamon and Aï.
+
+     ** The fact that the marriage was celebrated under the
+     auspices of Harmhabî, and that, consequently, Ramses must
+     have occupied an important position at the court of that
+     prince, is proved by the appearance of Ramses II., son of
+     Tuîa, as early as the first year of Seti, among the ranks of
+     the combatants in the war carried on by that prince against
+     the Tihonû; even granting that he was then ten years old, we
+     are forced to admit that he must have been born before his
+     grandfather came to the throne. There is in the Vatican a
+     statue of Tuîa; other statues have been discovered at San.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ramses reigned only six or seven years, and associated Seti with himself
+      in the government from his second year. He undertook a short military
+      expedition into Ethiopia, and perhaps a raid into Syria; and we find
+      remains of his monuments in Nubia, at Bohani near Wady Haifa, and at
+      Thebes, in the temple of Amon.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * He began the great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak; E. de Rougé
+     thinks that the idea of building this was first conceived
+     under the XVIIIth dynasty.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He displayed little activity, his advanced age preventing him from
+      entering on any serious undertaking: but his accession nevertheless marks
+      an important date in the history of Egypt. Although Harmhabî was distantly
+      connected with the line of the Ahmessides, it is difficult at the present
+      day to know what position to assign him in the Pharaonic lists: while some
+      regard him as the last of the XVIIIth dynasty, others prefer to place him
+      at the head of the XIXth. No such hesitation, however, exists with regard
+      to Ramses I., who was undoubtedly the founder of a new family. The old
+      familiar names of Thûtmosis and Amenôthes henceforward disappear from the
+      royal lists, and are replaced by others, such as Seti, Mînephtah, and,
+      especially, Ramses, which now figure in them for the first time. The
+      princes who bore these names showed themselves worthy successors of those
+      who had raised Egypt to the zenith of her power; like them they were
+      successful on the battle-field, and like them they devoted the best of the
+      spoil to building innumerable monuments. No sooner had Seti celebrated his
+      father&rsquo;s obsequies, than he assembled his army and set out for war.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It would appear that Southern Syria was then in open revolt. &ldquo;Word had
+      been brought to His Majesty: &lsquo;The vile Shaûsû have plotted rebellion; the
+      chiefs of their tribes, assembled in one place on the confines of Kharû,
+      have been smitten with blindness and with the spirit of violence; every
+      one cutteth his neighbour&rsquo;s throat.&rdquo; * It was imperative to send succour to
+      the few tribes who remained faithful, to prevent them from succumbing to
+      the repeated attacks of the insurgents. Seti crossed the frontier at Zalu,
+      but instead of pursuing his way along the coast, he marched due east in
+      order to attack the Shaûsû in the very heart of the desert. The road ran
+      through wide wadys, tolerably well supplied with water, and the length of
+      the stages necessarily depended on the distances between the wells. This
+      route was one frequented in early times, and its security was ensured by a
+      number of fortresses and isolated towers built along it, such as &ldquo;The
+      House of the Lion &ldquo;&mdash;<i>ta ait pa maû</i>&mdash;near the pool of the
+      same name, the Migdol of the springs of Huzîna, the fortress of Uazît, the
+      Tower of the Brave, and the Migdol of Seti at the pools of Absakaba. The
+      Bedawîn, disconcerted by the rapidity of this movement, offered no serious
+      resistance. Their flocks were carried off, their trees cut down, their
+      harvests destroyed, and they surrendered their strongholds at discretion.
+      Pushing on from one halting-place to another, the conqueror soon reached
+      Babbîti, and finally Pakanâna.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The pictures of this campaign and the inscriptions which
+     explain them were engraved by Seti I., on the outside of the
+     north wall of the great hypostyle hall at Karnak.
+
+     ** The site of Pakanâna has, with much probability, been
+     fixed at El-Kenân or Khurbet-Kanâan, to the south of Hebron.
+     Brugsch had previously taken this name to indicate the
+     country of Canaan, but Chabas rightly contested this view.
+     W. Max Millier took up the matter afresh: he perceived that
+     we have here an allusion to the first town encountered by
+     Seti I. in the country of Canaan to the south-west of
+     Raphia, the name of which is not mentioned by the Egyptian
+     sculptor; it seems to me that this name should be Pakanâna,
+     and that the town bore the same name as the country.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The latter town occupied a splendid position on the slope of a rocky hill,
+      close to a small lake, and defended the approaches to the vale of Hebron.
+      It surrendered at the first attack, and by its fall the Egyptians became
+      possessed of one of the richest provinces in the southern part of Kharû.
+      This result having been achieved, Seti took the caravan road to his left,
+      on the further side of Gaza, and pushed forward at full speed towards the
+      Hittite frontier.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0016" id="linkBimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/163.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="163.jpg the Return of The North Wall Of The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, Where Seti I. Represents Some Episodes in his First Campaign " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph, by Émil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was probably unprotected by any troops, and the Hittite king was absent
+      in some other part of his empire. Seti pillaged the Amurru, seized Ianuâmu
+      and Qodshû by a sudden attack, marched in an oblique direction towards the
+      Mediterranean, forcing the inhabitants of the Lebanon to cut timber from
+      their mountains for the additions which he was premeditating in the temple
+      of the Theban Amon, and finally returned by the coast road, receiving, as
+      he passed through their territory, the homage of the Phoenicians. His
+      entry into Egypt was celebrated by solemn festivities. The nobles,
+      priests, and princes of both south and north hastened to meet him at the
+      bridge of Zalû, and welcomed, with their chants, both the king and the
+      troops of captives whom he was bringing back for the service of his father
+      Amon at Karnak. The delight of his subjects was but natural, since for
+      many years the Egyptians bad not witnessed such a triumph, and they no
+      doubt believed that the prosperous era of Thûtmosis III. was about to
+      return, and that the wealth of Naharaim would once more flow into Thebes
+      as of old. Their illusion was short-lived, for this initial victory was
+      followed by no other. Maurusaru, King of the Khâti, and subsequently his
+      son Mautallu, withstood the Pharaoh with such resolution that he was
+      forced to treat with them. A new alliance was concluded on the same
+      conditions as the old one, and the boundaries of the two kingdoms remained
+      the same as under Harmhabî, a proof that neither sovereign had gained any
+      advantage over his rival. Hence the campaign did not in any way restore
+      Egyptian supremacy, as had been hoped at the moment; it merely served to
+      strengthen her authority in those provinces which the Khâti had failed to
+      take from Egypt. The Phoenicians of Tyre and Sidon had too many commercial
+      interests on the banks of the Nile to dream of breaking the slender tie
+      which held them to the Pharaoh, since independence, or submission to
+      another sovereign, might have ruined their trade. The Kharû and the
+      Bedawîn, vanquished wherever they had ventured to oppose the Pharaoh&rsquo;s
+      troops, were less than ever capable of throwing off the Egyptian yoke.
+      Syria fell back into its former state. The local princes once more resumed
+      their intrigues and quarrels, varied at intervals by appeals to their
+      suzerain for justice or succour. The &ldquo;Royal Messengers&rdquo; appeared from time
+      to time with their escorts of archers and chariots to claim tribute, levy
+      taxes, to make peace between quarrelsome vassals, or, if the case required
+      it, to supersede some insubordinate chief by a governor of undoubted
+      loyalty; in fine, the entire administration of the empire was a
+      continuation of that of the preceding century. The peoples of Kûsh
+      meanwhile had remained quiet during the campaign in Syria, and on the
+      western frontier the Tihonû had suffered so severe a defeat that they were
+      not likely to recover from it for some time.* The bands of pirates,
+      Shardana and others, who infested the Delta, were hunted down, and the
+      prisoners taken from among them were incorporated into the royal guard.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This war is represented at Karnak, and Ramses II. figures
+     there among the children of Seti I.
+
+     ** We gather this from passages in the inscriptions from the
+     year V. onwards, in which Ramses II. boasts that he has a
+     number of Shardana prisoners in his guard; Rouge was,
+     perhaps, mistaken in magnifying these piratical raids into a
+     war of invasion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0017" id="linkBimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/166.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="166.jpg Representation of Seti I. Vanquishing the Libyans And Asiatics on the Walls, Karnak " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Ernil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Seti, however, does not appear to have had a confirmed taste for war. He
+      showed energy when occasion required it, and he knew how to lead his
+      soldiers, as the expedition of his first year amply proved; but when the
+      necessity was over, he remained on the defensive, and made no further
+      attempt at conquest. By his own choice he was &ldquo;the jackal who prowls about
+      the country to protect it,&rdquo; rather than &ldquo;the wizard lion marauding abroad
+      by hidden paths,&rdquo; * and Egypt enjoyed a profound peace in consequence of
+      his ceaseless vigilance.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These phrases are taken direct from the inscriptions of
+     Seti I.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A peaceful policy of this kind did not, of course, produce the amount of
+      spoil and the endless relays of captives which had enabled his
+      predecessors to raise temples and live in great luxury without
+      overburdening their subjects with taxes. Seti was, therefore, the more
+      anxious to do all in his power to develop the internal wealth of the
+      country. The mining colonies of the Sinaitic Peninsula had never ceased
+      working since operations had been resumed there under Hâtshopsîtû and
+      Thûtmosis III., but the output had lessened during the troubles under the
+      heretic kings. Seti sent inspectors thither, and endeavoured to stimulate
+      the workmen to their former activity, but apparently with no great
+      success. We are not able to ascertain if he continued the revival of trade
+      with Pûanît inaugurated by Harmhabî; but at any rate he concentrated his
+      attention on the regions bordering the Red Sea and the gold-mines which
+      they contained. Those of Btbaï, which had been worked as early as the
+      XIIth dynasty, did not yield as much as they had done formerly; not that
+      they were exhausted, but owing to the lack of water in their neighbourhood
+      and along the routes leading to them, they were nearly deserted. It was
+      well known that they contained great wealth, but operations could not be
+      carried on, as the workmen were in danger of dying of thirst. Seti
+      despatched engineers to the spot to explore the surrounding wadys, to
+      clear the ancient cisterns or cut others, and to establish victualling
+      stations at regular intervals for the use of merchants supplying the gangs
+      of miners with commodities. These stations generally consisted of square
+      or rectangular enclosures, built of stones without mortar, and capable of
+      resisting a prolonged attack. The entrance was by a narrow doorway of
+      stone slabs, and in the interior were a few huts and one or two reservoirs
+      for catching rain or storing the water of neighbouring springs. Sometimes
+      a chapel was built close at hand, consecrated to the divinities of the
+      desert, or to their compeers, Mînû of Coptos, Horus, Maut, or Isis. One of
+      these, founded by Seti, still exists near the modern town of Redesieh, at
+      the entrance to one of the valleys which furrow this gold region.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0018" id="linkBimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/168.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="168.jpg a Fortified Station on the Route Between The Nile And the Red Sea. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Bock
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is built against, and partly excavated in, a wall of rock, the face of
+      which has been roughly squared, and it is entered through a four-columned
+      portico, giving access to two dark chambers, whose walls are covered with
+      scenes of adoration and a lengthy inscription. In this latter the
+      sovereign relates how, in the IXth year of his reign, he was moved to
+      inspect the roads of the desert; he completed the work in honour of
+      Amon-Râ, of Phtah of Memphis, and of Harmakhis, and he states that
+      travellers were at a loss to express their gratitude and thanks for what
+      he had done. &ldquo;They repeated from mouth to mouth: &lsquo;May Amon give him an
+      endless existence, and may he prolong for him the length of eternity! O ye
+      gods of fountains, attribute to him your life, for he has rendered back to
+      us accessible roads, and he has opened that which was closed to us.
+      Henceforth we can take our way in peace, and reach our destination alive;
+      now that the difficult paths are open and the road has become good, gold
+      can be brought back, as our lord and master has commanded.&rsquo;&rdquo; Plans were
+      drawn on papyrus of the configuration of the district, of the beds of
+      precious metal, and of the position of the stations.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0019" id="linkBimage-0019">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/169.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="169.jpg the Temple of Seti I. At Redesieh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Golénischeff.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One of these plans has come down to us, in which the districts are
+      coloured bright red, the mountains dull ochre, the roads dotted over with
+      footmarks to show the direction to be taken, while the superscriptions
+      give the local names, and inform us that the map represents the Bukhni
+      mountain and a fortress and stele of Seti. The whole thing is executed in
+      a rough and naive manner, with an almost childish minuteness which
+      provokes a smile; we should, however, not despise it, for it is the oldest
+      map in the world.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0020" id="linkBimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/170.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="170.jpg Fragment of the Map Of The Gold-mines " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Facsimile by Faucher-Gudin of coloured chalk-drawing by Chabas.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The gold extracted from these regions, together with that brought from
+      Ethiopia, and, better still, the regular payment of taxes and custom-house
+      duties, went to make up for the lack of foreign spoil all the more
+      opportunely, for, although the sovereign did not share the military
+      enthusiasm of Thûtmosis III., he had inherited from him the passion for
+      expensive temple-building.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0021" id="linkBimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/171.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="171.jpg the Three Standing Columns of The Temple Of Sesebi " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He did not neglect Nubia in this respect, but repaired several of the
+      monuments at which the XVIIIth dynasty had worked&mdash;among others,
+      Kalabsheh, Dakkeh, and Amada, besides founding a temple at Sesebi, of
+      which three columns are still standing.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In Lepsius&rsquo;s time there were still four columns standing;
+     Insinger shows us only three.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The outline of these columns is not graceful, and the decoration of them
+      is very poor, for art degenerated rapidly in these distant provinces of
+      the empire, and only succeeded in maintaining its vigour and spirit in the
+      immediate neighbourhood of the Pharaoh, as at Abydos, Memphis, and above
+      all at Thebes. Seti&rsquo;s predecessor Ramses, desirous of obliterating all
+      traces of the misfortunes lately brought about by the changes effected by
+      the heretic kings, had contemplated building at Karnak, in front of the
+      pylon of Amenôthes III., an enormous hall for the ceremonies connected
+      with the cult of Amon, where the immense numbers of priests and
+      worshippers at festival times could be accommodated without inconvenience.
+      It devolved on Seti to carry out what had been merely an ambitious dream
+      of his father&rsquo;s.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The great hypostyle hall was cleared and the columns were
+     strengthened in the winter of 1895-6, as far, at least, as
+     it was possible to carry out the work of restoration without
+     imperilling the stability of the whole.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We long to know who was the architect possessed of such confidence in his
+      powers that he ventured to design, and was able to carry out, this almost
+      superhuman undertaking. His name would be held up to almost universal
+      admiration beside those of the greatest masters that we are familiar with,
+      for no one in Greece or Italy has left us any work which surpasses it, or
+      which with such simple means could produce a similar impression of
+      boldness and immensity. It is almost impossible to convey by words to
+      those who have not seen it, the impression which it makes on the
+      spectator. Failing description, the dimensions speak for themselves. The
+      hall measures one hundred and sixty-two feet in length, by three hundred
+      and twenty-five in breadth. A row of twelve columns, the largest ever
+      placed inside a building, runs up the centre, having capitals in the form
+      of inverted bells.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0022" id="linkBimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/173.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="173 an Avenue of One Of the Aisles Of The Hypostyle Hall At Karnak " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One hundred and twenty-two columns with lotiform capitals fill the aisles,
+      in rows of nine each. The roof of the central bay is seventy-four feet
+      above the ground, and the cornice of the two towers rises sixty-three feet
+      higher. The building was dimly lighted from the roof of the central
+      colonnade by means of stone gratings, through which the air and the sun&rsquo;s
+      rays entered sparingly. The daylight, as it penetrated into the hall, was
+      rendered more and more obscure by the rows of columns; indeed, at the
+      further end a perpetual twilight must have reigned, pierced by narrow
+      shafts of light falling from the ventilation holes which were placed at
+      intervals in the roof.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0023" id="linkBimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/174.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="174.jpg the Gratings of The Central Colonnade in The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato. In the
+     background, on the right, may be seen a column which for
+     several centuries has been retained in a half-fallen
+     position by the weight of its architrave.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The whole building now lies open to the sky, and the sunshine which floods
+      it, pitilessly reveals the mutilations which it has suffered in the course
+      of ages; but the general effect, though less mysterious, is none the less
+      overwhelming. It is the only monument in which the first <i>coup d&rsquo;oil</i>
+      surpasses the expectations of the spectator instead of disappointing him.
+      The size is immense, and we realise its immensity the more fully as we
+      search our memory in vain to find anything with which to compare it. Seti
+      may have entertained the project of building a <i>replica</i> of this hall
+      in Southern Thebes. Amenôthes III. had left his temple at Luxor
+      unfinished. The sanctuary and its surrounding buildings were used for
+      purposes of worship, but the court of the customary pylon was wanting, and
+      merely a thin wall concealed the mysteries from the sight of the vulgar.
+      Seti resolved to extend the building in a northerly direction, without
+      interfering with the thin screen which had satisfied his predecessors.
+      Starting from the entrance in this wall, he planned an avenue of giant
+      columns rivalling those of Karnak, which he destined to become the central
+      colonnade of a hypostyle hall as vast as that of the sister temple. Either
+      money or time was lacking to carry out his intention. He died before the
+      aisles on either side were even begun. At Abydos, however, he was more
+      successful. We do not know the reason of Seti&rsquo;s particular affection for
+      this town; it is possible that his family held some fief there, or it may
+      be that he desired to show the peculiar estimation in which he held its
+      local god, and intended, by the homage that he lavished on him, to cause
+      the fact to be forgotten that he bore the name of Sit the accursed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0024" id="linkBimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/176.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="176.jpg One of the Colonnades Of The Hypostyle Hall In The Temple of Seti I. At Abydos " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The king selected a favourable site for his temple to the south of the
+      town, on the slope of a sandhill bordering the canal, and he marked out in
+      the hardened soil a ground plan of considerable originality. The building
+      was approached through two pylons, the remains of which are now hidden
+      under the houses of Aarabat el-Madfuneh.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0025" id="linkBimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/176b.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="176b.jpg the Facade of The Temple Of Seti " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      A fairly large courtyard, bordered by two crumbling walls, lies between
+      the second pylon and the temple façade, which was composed of a portico
+      resting on square pillars. Passing between these, we reach two halls
+      supported by-columns of graceful outline, beyond which are eight chapels
+      arranged in a line, side by side, in front of two chambers built in to the
+      hillside, and destined for the reception of Osiris. The holy of holies in
+      ordinary temples is surrounded by chambers of lesser importance, but here
+      it is concealed behind them. The building-material mainly employed here
+      was the white limestone of Tûrah, but of a most beautiful quality, which
+      lent itself to the execution of bas-reliefs of great delicacy, perhaps the
+      finest in ancient Egypt. The artists who carved and painted them belonged
+      to the Theban school, and while their subjects betray a remarkable
+      similarity to those of the monuments dedicated by Amenôthes III., the
+      execution surpasses them in freedom and perfection of modelling; we can,
+      in fact, trace in them the influence of the artists who furnished the
+      drawings for the scenes at Tel el-Amarna. They have represented the gods
+      and goddesses with the same type of profile as that of the king&mdash;a
+      type of face of much purity and gentleness, with its aquiline nose, its
+      decided mouth, almond-shaped eyes, and melancholy smile. When the
+      decoration of the temple was completed, Seti regarded the building as too
+      small for its divine inmate, and accordingly added to it a new wing, which
+      he built along the whole length of the southern wall; but he was unable to
+      finish it completely. Several parts of it are lined with religious
+      representations, but in others the subjects have been merely sketched out
+      in black ink with corrections in red, while elsewhere the walls are bare,
+      except for a few inscriptions, scribbled over them after an interval of
+      twenty centuries by the monks who turned the temple chambers into a
+      convent. This new wing was connected with the second hypostyle hall of the
+      original building by a passage, on one of the walls of which is a list of
+      seventy-five royal names, representing the ancestors of the sovereign
+      traced back to Mini. The whole temple must be regarded as a vast funerary
+      chapel, and no one who has studied the religion of Egypt can entertain a
+      doubt as to its purpose. Abydos was the place where the dead assembled
+      before passing into the other world. It was here, at the mouth of the
+      &ldquo;Cleft,&rdquo; that they received the provisions and offerings of their
+      relatives and friends who remained on this earth. As the dead flocked
+      hither from all quarters of the world, they collected round the tomb of
+      Osiris, and there waited till the moment came to embark on the Boat of the
+      Sun. Seti did not wish his soul to associate with those of the common
+      crowd of his vassals, and prepared this temple for himself, as a separate
+      resting-place, close to the mouth of Hades. After having dwelt within it
+      for a short time subsequent to his funeral, his soul could repair thither
+      whenever it desired, certain of always finding within it the incense and
+      the nourishment of which it stood in need.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thebes possessed this king&rsquo;s actual tomb. The chapel was at Qurnah, a
+      little to the north of the group of pyramids in which the Pharaohs of the
+      XIth dynasty lay side by side with those of the XIIIth and XVIIth. Ramses
+      had begun to build it, and Seti continued the work, dedicating it to the
+      cult of his father and of himself. Its pylon has altogether disappeared,
+      but the façade with lotus-bud columns is nearly perfect, together with
+      several of the chambers in front of the sanctuary. The decoration is as
+      carefully carried out and the execution as delicate as that in the work at
+      Abydos; we are tempted to believe from one or two examples of it that the
+      same hands have worked at both buildings.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0026" id="linkBimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/181.jpg" width="100%" alt="181.jpg the Temple of Qurnah " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The rock-cut tomb is some distance away up in the mountain, but not in the
+      same ravine as that in which Amenôthes III., Aï, and probably Tûtankhamon
+      and Harmhabî, are buried.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * There are, in fact, close to those of Aï and Amenôthes
+     III., three other tombs, two at least of which have been
+     decorated with paintings, now completely obliterated, and
+     which may have served as the burying-places of Tûtankhamon
+     and Harmhabî: the earlier Egyptologists believed them to
+     have been dug by the first kings of the XVIIIth dynasty.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There then existed, behind the rock amphitheatre of Deîr el-Baharî, a kind
+      of enclosed basin, which could be reached from the plain only by dangerous
+      paths above the temple of Hâtshopsîtû. This basin is divided into two
+      parts, one of which runs in a south-easterly direction, while the other
+      trends to the south-west, and is subdivided into minor branches. To the
+      east rises a barren peak, the outline of which is not unlike that of the
+      step-pyramid of Saqqâra, reproduced on a colossal scale. No spot could be
+      more appropriate to serve as a cemetery for a family of kings. The
+      difficulty of reaching it and of conveying thither the heavy accessories
+      and of providing for the endless processions of the Pharaonic funerals,
+      prevented any attempt being made to cut tombs in it during the Ancient and
+      Middle Empires. About the beginning of the XIXth dynasty, however, some
+      engineers, in search of suitable burial sites, at length noticed that this
+      basin was only separated from the wady issuing to the north of Qurnah by a
+      rocky barrier barely five hundred cubits in width. This presented no
+      formidable obstacle to such skilful engineers as the Egyptians. They cut a
+      trench into the living rock some fifty or sixty cubits in depth, at the
+      bottom of which they tunnelled a narrow passage giving access to the
+      valley.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * French scholars recognised from the beginning of this
+     century that the passage in question had been made by human
+     agency. I attribute the execution of this work to Ramses I.,
+     as I believe Harmhabî to have been buried in the eastern
+     valley, near Amenôthes III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is not known whether this herculean work was accomplished during the
+      reign of Harnhabî or in that of Ramses I. The latter was the first of the
+      Pharaohs to honour the spot by his presence. His tomb is simple, almost
+      coarse in its workmanship, and comprises a gentle inclined passage, a
+      vault and a sarcophagus of rough stone. That of Seti, on the contrary, is
+      a veritable palace, extending to a distance of 325 feet into the
+      mountain-side. It is entered by a wide and lofty door, which opens on to a
+      staircase of twenty-seven steps, leading to an inclined corridor; other
+      staircases of shallow steps follow with their landings; then come
+      successively a hypostyle hall, and, at the extreme end, a vaulted chamber,
+      all of which are decorated with mysterious scenes and covered with
+      inscriptions. This is, however, but the first storey, containing the
+      antechambers of the dead, but not their living-rooms. A passage and steps,
+      concealed under a slab to the left of the hall, lead to the real vault,
+      which held the mummy and its funerary furniture. As we penetrate further
+      and further by the light of torches into this subterranean abode, we see
+      that the walls are covered with pictures and formulae, setting forth the
+      voyages of the soul through the twelve hours of the night, its trials, its
+      judgment, its reception by the departed, and its apotheosis&mdash;all
+      depicted on the rock with the same perfection as that which characterises
+      the bas-reliefs on the finest slabs of Tûrah stone at Qurnah and Abydos. A
+      gallery leading out of the last of these chambers extends a few feet
+      further and then stops abruptly; the engineers had contemplated the
+      excavation of a third storey to the tomb, when the death of their master
+      obliged them to suspend their task. The king&rsquo;s sarcophagus consists of a
+      block of alabaster, hollowed out, polished, and carved with figures and
+      hieroglyphs, with all the minuteness which we associate with the cutting
+      of a gem.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0027" id="linkBimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/184.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="184.jpg One of the Pillars Of The Tomb Of Seti I. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger, taken in
+     1884.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It contained a wooden coffin, shaped to the human figure and painted
+      white, the features picked out in black, and enamel eyes inserted in a
+      mounting of bronze. The mummy is that of a thin elderly man, well
+      preserved; the face was covered by a mask made of linen smeared with
+      pitch, but when this was raised by means of a chisel, the fine kingly head
+      was exposed to view. It was a masterpiece of the art of the embalmer, and
+      the expression of the face was that of one who had only a few hours
+      previously breathed his last. Death had slightly drawn the nostrils and
+      contracted the lips, the pressure of the bandages had flattened the nose a
+      little, and the skin was darkened by the pitch; but a calm and gentle
+      smile still played over the mouth, and the half-opened eyelids allowed a
+      glimpse to be seen from under their lashes of an apparently moist and
+      glistening line,&mdash;the reflection from the white porcelain eyes let in
+      to the orbit at the time of burial.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Seti had had several children by his wife Tuîa, and the eldest had already
+      reached manhood when his father ascended the throne, for he had
+      accompanied him on his Syrian campaign. The young prince died, however,
+      soon after his return, and his right to the crown devolved on his younger
+      brother, who, like his grandfather, bore the name of Ramses. The prince
+      was still very young,* but Seti did not on that account delay enthroning
+      with great pomp this son who had a better right to the throne than
+      himself.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The history of the youth and the accession of Ramses II.
+     is known to us from the narrative given by himself in the
+     temple of Seti I. at Abydos. The bulk of the narrative is
+     confirmed by the evidence of the Kubân inscription,
+     especially as to the extreme youth of Ramses at the time
+     when he was first associated with the crown.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;From the time that I was in the egg,&rdquo; Ramses writes later on, &ldquo;the great
+      ones sniffed the earth before me; when I attained to the rank of eldest
+      son and heir upon the throne of Sibû, I dealt with affairs, I commanded as
+      chief the foot-soldiers and the chariots. My father having appeared before
+      the people, when I was but a very little boy in his arms, said to me: &lsquo;I
+      shall have him crowned king, that I may see him in all his splendour while
+      I am still on this earth!&rsquo; The nobles of the court having drawn near to
+      place the pschent upon my head: &lsquo;Place the diadem upon his forehead!&rsquo; said
+      he.&rdquo; As Ramses increased in years, Seti delighted to confer upon him, one
+      after the other, the principal attributes of power; &ldquo;while he was still
+      upon this earth, regulating everything in the land, defending its
+      frontiers, and watching over the welfare of its inhabitants, he cried:
+      &lsquo;Let him reign!&rsquo; because of the love he had for me.&rdquo; Seti also chose for
+      him wives, beautiful &ldquo;as are those of his palace,&rdquo; and he gave him in
+      marriage his sisters Nofrîtari II. Mîmût and Isîtnofrît, who, like Ramses
+      himself, had claims to the throne. Ramses was allowed to attend the State
+      councils at the age of ten; he commanded armies, and he administered
+      justice under the direction of his father and his viziers. Seti, however,
+      although making use of his son&rsquo;s youth and activity, did not in any sense
+      retire in his favour; if he permitted Ramses to adopt the insignia of
+      royalty&mdash;the cartouches, the pschent, the bulbous-shaped helmet, and
+      the various sceptres&mdash;he still remained to the day of his death the
+      principal State official, and he reckoned all the years of this dual
+      sovereignty as those of his sole reign.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Brugsoh is wrong in reckoning the reign of Ramses II. from
+     the time of his association in the crown; the great
+     inscription of Abydos, which has been translated by Brugsch
+     himself, dates events which immediately followed the death
+     of Seti I. as belonging to the first year of Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ramses repulsed the incursions of the Tihonû, and put to the sword such of
+      their hordes as had ventured to invade Egyptian territory. He exercised
+      the functions of viceroy of Ethiopia, and had on several occasions to
+      chastise the pillaging negroes. We see him at Beît-Wally and at Abu Simbel
+      charging them in his chariot: in vain they flee in confusion before him;
+      their flight, however swift, cannot save them from captivity and
+      destruction.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0028" id="linkBimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/187.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="187.jpg Ramses Ii. Puts the Negroes to Flight " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was engaged in Ethiopia when the death of Seti recalled him to Thebes.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We do not know how long Seti I. reigned; the last date is
+     that of his IXth year at Redesieh and at Aswan, and that of
+     the year XXVII. sometimes attributed to him belongs to one
+     of the later Ramessides. I had at first supposed his reign
+     to have been a long one, merely on the evidence afforded by
+     Manetho&rsquo;s lists, but the presence of Ramses II. as a
+     stripling, in the campaign of Seti&rsquo;s 1st year, forces us to
+     limit its duration to fifteen or twenty years at most,
+     possibly to only twelve or fifteen.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He at once returned to the capital, celebrated the king&rsquo;s funeral
+      obsequies with suitable pomp, and after keeping the festival of Amon, set
+      out for the north in order to make his authority felt in that part of his
+      domains. He stopped on his way at Abydos to give the necessary orders for
+      completing the decoration of the principal chambers of the resting-place
+      built by his father, and chose a site some 320 feet to the north-west of
+      it for a similar Memnonium for himself. He granted cultivated fields and
+      meadows in the Thinite name for the maintenance of these two mausolea,
+      founded a college of priests and soothsayers in connexion with them, for
+      which he provided endowments, and also assigned them considerable fiefs in
+      all parts of the valley of the Nile. The Delta next occupied his
+      attention. The increasing importance of the Syrian provinces in the eyes
+      of Egypt, the growth of the Hittite monarchy, and the migrations of the
+      peoples of the Mediterranean, had obliged the last princes of the
+      preceding dynasty to reside more frequently at Memphis than Amenôthes I.
+      or Thûtmosis III. had done. Amenôthes III. had set to work to restore
+      certain cities which had been abandoned since the days of the Shepherds,
+      and Bubastis, Athribis, and perhaps Tanis, had, thanks to his efforts,
+      revived from their decayed condition. The Pharaohs, indeed, felt that at
+      Thebes they were too far removed from the battle-fields of Asia; distance
+      made it difficult for them to counteract the intrigues in which their
+      vassals in Kharû and the lords of Naharaim were perpetually implicated,
+      and a revolt which might have been easily anticipated or crushed had they
+      been advised of it within a few days, gained time to increase and extend
+      during the interval occupied by the couriers in travelling to and from the
+      capital. Ramses felt the importance of possessing a town close to the
+      Isthmus where he could reside in security, and he therefore built close to
+      Zalû, in a fertile and healthy locality, a stronghold to which he gave his
+      own name,* and of which the poets of the time have left us an enthusiastic
+      description. &ldquo;It extends,&rdquo; they say, &ldquo;between Zahi and Egypt&mdash;and is
+      filled with provisions and victuals.&mdash;It resembles Hermonthis,&mdash;it
+      is strong like Memphis,&mdash;and the sun rises&mdash;and sets in it&mdash;so
+      that men quit their villages and establish themselves in its territory.&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;The
+      dwellers on the coasts bring conger eels and fish in homage,&mdash;they
+      pay it the tribute of their marshes.&mdash;The inhabitants don their
+      festal garments every day,&mdash;perfumed oil is on their heads and new
+      wigs;&mdash;they stand at their doors, their hands full of bunches of
+      flowers,&mdash;green branches from the village of Pihâthor,&mdash;garlands
+      of Pahûrû,&mdash;on the day when Pharaoh makes his entry.&mdash;Joy then
+      reigns and spreads, and nothing can stay it,&mdash;O Usirmarî-sotpûnirî,
+      thou who art Montû in the two lands,&mdash;Ramses-Mîamûn, the god.&rdquo; The
+      town acted as an advance post, from whence the king could keep watch
+      against all intriguing adversaries,&mdash;whether on the banks of the
+      Orontes or the coast of the Mediterranean.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * An allusion to the foundation of this residence occurs in
+     an inscription at Abu Simbel, dated in his XXVth year.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nothing appeared for the moment to threaten the peace of the empire. The
+      Asiatic vassals had raised no disturbance on hearing of the king&rsquo;s
+      accession, and Mautallu continued to observe the conditions of the treaty
+      which he had signed with Seti. Two military expeditions undertaken beyond
+      the isthmus in the IInd and IVth years of the new sovereign were
+      accomplished almost without fighting. He repressed by the way the
+      marauding Shaûsû, and on reaching the Nahr el-Kelb, which then formed the
+      northern frontier of his empire, he inscribed at the turn of the road, on
+      the rocks which overhang the mouth of the river, two triumphal stelæ in
+      which he related his successes.* Towards the end of his IVth year a
+      rebellion broke out among the Khâti, which caused a rupture of relations
+      between the two kingdoms and led to some irregular fighting. Khâtusaru, a
+      younger brother of Maurusaru, murdered the latter and made himself king in
+      his stead.** It is not certain whether the Egyptians took up arms against
+      him, or whether he judged it wise to oppose them in order to divert the
+      attention of his subjects from his crime.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The stelæ are all in a very bad condition; in the last of
+     them the date is no longer legible.
+
+     ** In the <i>Treaty of Harrises II. with the Prince of Khâti</i>,
+     the writer is content to use a discreet euphemism, and
+     states that Mautallu succumbed &ldquo;to his destiny.&rdquo; The name of
+     the Prince of the Khâti is found later on under the form
+     Khatusharu, in that of a chief defeated by Tiglath-pileser
+     I. in the country of Kummukh, though this name has generally
+     been read Khatukhi.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At all events, he convoked his Syrian vassals and collected his
+      mercenaries; the whole of Naharaim, Khalupu, Carchemish, and Arvad sent
+      their quota, while bands of Dardanians, Mysians, Trojans, and Lycians,
+      together with the people of Pedasos and Girgasha,* furnished further
+      contingents, drawn from an area extending from the most distant coasts of
+      the Mediterranean to the mountains of Cilicia. Ramses, informed of the
+      enemy&rsquo;s movement by his generals and the governors of places on the
+      frontier, resolved to anticipate the attack. He assembled an army almost
+      as incongruous in its component elements as that of his adversary: besides
+      Egyptians of unmixed race, divided into four corps bearing the names of
+      Amon, Phtah, Harmakhis and Sûtkhû, it contained Ethiopian auxiliaries,
+      Libyans, Mazaiu, and Shardana.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of this nation is written Karkisha, Kalkisha, or
+     Kashkisha, by one of those changes of <i>sh</i> into <i>r-l</i> which
+     occur so frequently in Assyro-Chaldæan before a dental; the
+     two different spellings seem to show that the writers of the
+     inscriptions bearing on this war had before them a list of
+     the allies of Khâtusaru, written in cuneiform characters. If
+     we may identify the nation with the Kashki or Kashku of the
+     Assyrian texts, the ancestors of the people of Colchis of
+     classical times, the termination <i>-isha</i> of the Egyptian
+     word would be the inflexion <i>-ash</i> or <i>-ush</i> of the Eastern-
+     Asiatic tongues which we find in so many race-names, e.g.
+     Adaush, Saradaush, Ammaush. Rouge and Brugsch identified
+     them with the Girgashites of the Bible. Brugsch, adopting
+     the spelling Kashki, endeavoured to connect them with
+     Casiotis; later on he identified them with the people of
+     Gergis in Troas. Ramsay recognises in them the Kisldsos of
+     Cilicia.
+
+     ** In the account of the campaign the Shardana only are
+     mentioned; but we learn from a list in the <i>Anastasi Papyrus
+     I</i>, that the army of Ramses II. included, in ordinary
+     circumstances, in addition to the Shardana, a contingent of
+     Mashauasha, Kahaka, and other Libyan and negro mercenaries.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      When preparations were completed, the force crossed the canal at Zalû, on
+      the 9th of Payni in his Vth year, marched rapidly across Canaan till they
+      reached the valley of the Litâny, along which they took their way, and
+      then followed up that of the Orontes. They encamped for a few days at
+      Shabtuna, to the south-west of Qodshû,* in the midst of the Amorite
+      country, sending out scouts and endeavouring to discover the position of
+      the enemy, of whose movements they possessed but vague information.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Shabtuna had been placed on the Nahr es-Sebta, on the site
+     now occupied by Kalaat el-Hosn, a conjecture approved by
+     Mariette; it was more probably a town situated in the plain,
+     to the south of Bahr el-Kades, a little to the south-west of
+     Tell Keby Mindoh which represents Qodshû, and close to some
+     forests which at that time covered the slopes of Lebanon,
+     and, extending as they did to the bottom of the valley,
+     concealed the position of the Khâti from the Egyptians.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Khâtusaru lay concealed in the wooded valleys of the Lebanon; he was kept
+      well posted by his spies, and only waited an opportunity to take the
+      field; as an occasion did not immediately present itself, he had recourse
+      to a ruse with which the generals of the time were familiar. Ramses, at
+      length uneasy at not falling in with the enemy, advanced to the south of
+      Shabtuna, where he endeavoured to obtain information from two Bedawîn.
+      &ldquo;Our brethren,&rdquo; said they, &ldquo;who are the chiefs of the tribes united under
+      the vile Prince of Khâti, send us to give information to your Majesty: We
+      desire to serve the Pharaoh. We are deserting the vile Prince of the
+      Khâti; he is close to Khalupu (Aleppo), to the north of the city of
+      Tunipa, whither he has rapidly retired from fear of the Pharaoh.&rdquo; This
+      story had every appearance of probability; and the distance&mdash;Khalupu
+      was at least forty leagues away&mdash;explained why the reconnoitring
+      parties of the Egyptians had not fallen in with any of the enemy. The
+      Pharaoh, with this information, could not decide whether to lay siege to
+      Qodshû and wait until the Hittites were forced to succour the town, or to
+      push on towards the Euphrates and there seek the engagement which his
+      adversary seemed anxious to avoid.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0029" id="linkBimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/193.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="193.jpg the Shardana Guard of Ramses Ii. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He chose the latter of the two alternatives. He sent forward the legions
+      of Anion, Phrâ, Phtah, and Sutkhu, which constituted the main body of his
+      troops, and prepared to follow them with his household chariotry. At the
+      very moment when this division was being effected, the Hittites, who had
+      been represented by the spies as being far distant, were secretly massing
+      their forces to the north-east of Qodshu, ready to make an attack upon the
+      Pharaoh&rsquo;s flank as soon as he should set out on his march towards Khalupu.
+      The enemy had considerable forces at their disposal, and on the day of the
+      engagement they placed 18,000 to 20,000 picked soldiers in the field.*
+      Besides a well-disciplined infantry, they possessed 2500 to 3000 chariots,
+      containing, as was the Asiatic custom, three men in each.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * An army corps is reckoned as containing 9000 men on the
+     wall scenes at Luxor, and 8000 at the Eamesseum; the 3000
+     chariots were manned by 9000 men. In allowing four to five
+     thousand men for the rest of the soldiers engaged, we are
+     not likely to be far wrong, and shall thus obtain the modest
+     total mentioned in the text, contrary to the opinion current
+     among historians.
+
+     * The mercenaries are included in these figures, as is shown
+     by the reckoning of the Lycian, Dardanian, and Pedasian
+     chiefs who were in command of the chariots during the
+     charges against Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptian camp was not entirely broken up, when the scouts brought in
+      two spies whom they had seized&mdash;Asiatics in long blue robes arranged
+      diagonally over one shoulder, leaving the other bare. The king, who was
+      seated on his throne delivering his final commands, ordered them to be
+      beaten till the truth should be extracted from them. They at last
+      confessed that they had been despatched to watch the departure of the
+      Egyptians, and admitted that the enemy was concealed in ambush behind the
+      town. Ramses hastily called a council of war and laid the situation before
+      his generals, not without severely reprimanding them for the bad
+      organisation of the intelligence department. The officers excused
+      themselves as best they could, and threw the blame on the provincial
+      governors, who had not been able to discover what was going on. The king
+      cut short these useless recriminations, sent swift messengers to recall
+      the divisions which had started early that morning, and gave orders that
+      all those remaining in camp should hold themselves in readiness to attack.
+      The council were still deliberating when news was brought that the
+      Hittites were in sight.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0030" id="linkBimage-0030">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/195.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="195.jpg Two Hittite Spies Beaten by the Egyptian Soldiers " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the picture in the temple at
+     Abu Simbel.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their first onslaught was so violent that they threw down one side of the
+      camp wall, and penetrated into the enclosure. Ramses charged them at the
+      head of his household troops. Eight times he engaged the chariotry which
+      threatened to surround him, and each time he broke their ranks. Once he
+      found himself alone with Manna, his shield-bearer, in the midst of a knot
+      of warriors who were bent on his destruction, and he escaped solely by his
+      coolness and bravery. The tame lion which accompanied him on his
+      expeditions did terrible work by his side, and felled many an Asiatic with
+      his teeth and claws.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The lion is represented and named in the battle-scenes at
+     Abu Simbel, at Dorr, and at Luxor, where we see it in camp
+     on the eve of the battle, with its two front paws tied, and
+     its keeper threatening it.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0031" id="linkBimage-0031">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/196.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="196.jpg the Egyptian Camp and The Council of War on The Morning of the Battle Of QodshÛ " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato of the west
+     front of the Eamesseum.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The soldiers, fired by the king&rsquo;s example, stood their ground resolutely
+      during the long hours of the afternoon; at length, as night was drawing
+      on, the legions of Phrâ and Sûtkhû, who had hastily retraced their steps,
+      arrived on the scene of action. A large body of Khâfci, who were hemmed in
+      in that part of the camp which they had taken in the morning, were at once
+      killed or made prisoners, not a man of them escaping. Khâtusaru,
+      disconcerted by this sudden reinforcement of the enemy, beat a retreat,
+      and nightfall suspended the struggle. It was recommenced at dawn the
+      following morning with unabated fury, and terminated in the rout of the
+      confederates. Garbatusa, the shield-bearer of the Hittite prince, the
+      generals in command of his infantry and chariotry, and Khalupsaru, the
+      &ldquo;writer of books,&rdquo; fell during the action. The chariots, driven back to
+      the Orontes, rushed into the river in the hope of fording it, but in so
+      doing many lives were lost. Mazraîma, the Prince of Khâti&rsquo;s brother,
+      reached the opposite bank in safety, but the Chief of Tonisa was drowned,
+      and the lord of Khalupu was dragged out of the water more dead than alive,
+      and had to be held head downwards to disgorge the water he had swallowed
+      before he could be restored to consciousness.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0032" id="linkBimage-0032">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/198.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="198.jpg the Garrison of QodshÛ Issuing Forth to Help The Prince of KhÂti. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Bénédite.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Khâtusaru himself was on the point of perishing, when the troops which had
+      been shut up in Qodshû, together with the inhabitants, made a general
+      sortie; the Egyptians were for a moment held in check, and the fugitives
+      meanwhile were able to enter the town. Either there was insufficient
+      provision for so many mouths, or the enemy had lost all heart from the
+      disaster; at any rate, further resistance appeared useless. The next
+      morning Khâtusaru sent to propose a truce or peace to the victorious
+      Pharaoh. The Egyptians had probably suffered at least as much as their
+      adversaries, and perhaps regarded the eventuality of a siege with no small
+      distaste; Ramses, therefore, accepted the offers made to him and prepared
+      to return to Egypt. The fame of his exploits had gone before him, and he
+      himself was not a little proud of the energy he had displayed on the day
+      of battle. His predecessors had always shown themselves to be skilful
+      generals and brave soldiers, but none of them had ever before borne, or
+      all but borne, single-handed the brunt of an attack. Ramses loaded his
+      shield-bearer Manna with rewards for having stood by him in the hour of
+      danger, and ordered abundant provender and sumptuous harness for the good
+      horses&mdash;&ldquo;Strength-in-Thebaid&rdquo; and &ldquo;Nûrît the satisfied&rdquo;&mdash;who had
+      drawn his chariot.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A gold ring in the Louvre bears in relief on its bezel two
+     little horses; which are probably &ldquo;Strength-in-Thebaid&rdquo;and
+     &ldquo;Nûrît satisfied.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      He determined that the most characteristic episodes of the campaign&mdash;the
+      beating of the spies, the surprise of the camp, the king&rsquo;s repeated
+      charges, the arrival of his veterans, the flight of the Syrians, and the
+      surrender of Qodshû&mdash;should be represented on the walls and pylons of
+      the temples. A poem in rhymed strophes in every case accompanies these
+      records of his glory, whether at Luxor, at the Eamesseum, at the Memnonium
+      of Abydos, or in the heart of Nubia at Abu Simbel. The author of the poem
+      must have been present during the campaign, or must have had the account
+      of it from the lips of his sovereign, for his work bears no traces of the
+      coldness of official reports, and a warlike strain runs through it from
+      one end to the other, so as still to invest it with life after a lapse of
+      more than thirty centuries.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The author is unknown: Pentaûr, or rather Pentaûîrît, to
+     whom E. de Rougé attributed the poem, is merely the
+     transcriber of the copy we possess on papyrus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But little pains are bestowed on the introduction, and the poet does not
+      give free vent to his enthusiasm until the moment when he describes his
+      hero, left almost alone, charging the enemy in the sight of his followers.
+      The Pharaoh was surrounded by two thousand five hundred chariots, and his
+      retreat was cut off by the warriors of the &ldquo;perverse&rdquo; Khâti and of the
+      other nations who accompanied them&mdash;the peoples of Arvad, Mysia, and
+      Pedasos; each of their chariots contained three men, and the ranks were so
+      serried that they formed but one dense mass. &ldquo;No other prince was with me,
+      no general officers, no one in command of the archers or chariots. My
+      foot-soldiers deserted me, my charioteers fled before the foe, and not one
+      of them stood firm beside me to fight against them.&rdquo; Then said His
+      Majesty: &ldquo;Who art thou, then, my father Amon? A father who forgets his
+      son? Or have I committed aught against thee? Have I not marched and halted
+      according to thy command? When he does not violate thy orders, the lord of
+      Egypt is indeed great, and he overthrows the barbarians in his path! What
+      are these Asiatics to thy heart? Amon will humiliate those who know not
+      the god. Have I not consecrated innumerable offerings to thee? Filling thy
+      holy dwelling-place with my prisoners, I build thee a temple for millions
+      of years, I lavish all my goods on thy storehouses, I offer thee the whole
+      world to enrich thy domains.... A miserable fate indeed awaits him who
+      sets himself against thy will, but happy is he who finds favour with thee
+      by deeds done for thee with a loving heart. I invoke thee, O my father
+      Amon! Here am I in the midst of people so numerous that it cannot be known
+      who are the nations joined together against me, and I am alone among them,
+      none other is with me. My many soldiers have forsaken me, none of my
+      charioteers looked towards me when I called them, not one of them heard my
+      voice when I cried to them. But I find that Amon is more to me than a
+      million soldiers, than a hundred thousand charioteers, than a myriad of
+      brothers or young sons, joined all together, for the number of men is as
+      nothing, Amon is greater than all of them. Each time I have accomplished
+      these things, Amon, by the counsel of thy mouth, as I do not transgress
+      thy orders, I rendered thee glory even to the ends of the earth.&rdquo; So calm
+      an invocation in the thick of the battle would appear misplaced in the
+      mouth of an ordinary man, but Pharaoh was a god, and the son of a god, and
+      his actions and speeches cannot be measured by the same standard as that
+      of a common mortal. He was possessed by the religious spirit in the hour
+      of danger, and while his body continued to fight, his soul took wing to
+      the throne of Amon. He contemplates the lord of heaven face to face,
+      reminds him of the benefits which he had received from him, and summons
+      him to his aid with an imperiousness which betrays the sense of his own
+      divine origin. The expected help was not delayed. &ldquo;While the voice
+      resounds in Hermonthis, Amon arises at my behest, he stretches out his
+      hand to me, and I cry out with joy when he hails me from behind: &lsquo;Face to
+      face with thee, face to face with thee, Ramses Miamun, I am with thee! It
+      is I, thy father! My hand is with thee, and I am worth more to thee than
+      hundreds of thousands. I am the strong one who loves valour; I have beheld
+      in thee a courageous heart, and my heart is satisfied; my will is about to
+      be accomplished!&rsquo; I am like Montû; from the right I shoot with the dart,
+      from the left I seize the enemy. I am like Baal in his hour, before them;
+      I have encountered two thousand five hundred chariots, and as soon as I am
+      in their midst, they are overthrown before my mares. Not one of all these
+      people has found a hand wherewith to fight; their hearts sink within their
+      breasts, fear paralyses their limbs; they know not how to throw their
+      darts, they have no strength to hold their lances. I precipitate them into
+      the water like as the crocodile plunges therein; they are prostrate face
+      to the earth, one upon the other, and I slay in the midst of them, for I
+      have willed that not one should look behind him, nor that one should
+      return; he who falls rises not again.&rdquo; This sudden descent of the god has,
+      even at the present day, an effect upon the reader, prepared though he is
+      by his education to consider it as a literary artifice; but on the
+      Egyptian, brought up to regard Amon with boundless reverence, its
+      influence was irresistible. The Prince of the Khâti, repulsed at the very
+      moment when he was certain of victory, &ldquo;recoiled with terror. He sends
+      against the enemy the various chiefs, followed by their chariots and
+      skilled warriors,&mdash;the chiefs of Arvad, Lycia, and Ilion, the leaders
+      of the Lycians and Dardanians, the lords of Carchemish, of the
+      Girgashites, and of Khalupu; these allies of the Khâti, all together,
+      comprised three thousand chariots.&rdquo; Their efforts, however, were in vain.
+      &ldquo;I fell upon them like Montû, my hand devoured them in the space of a
+      moment, in the midst of them I hewed down and slew. They said one to
+      another: &lsquo;This is no man who is amongst us; it is Sûtkhû the great
+      warrior, it is Baal incarnate! These are not human actions which he
+      accomplishes: alone, by himself, he repulses hundreds of thousands,
+      without leaders or men. Up, let us flee before him, let us seek to save
+      our lives, and let us breathe again!&rsquo;&rdquo; When at last, towards evening, the
+      army again rallies round the king, and finds the enemy completely
+      defeated, the men hang their heads with mingled shame and admiration as
+      the Pharaoh reproaches them: &ldquo;What will the whole earth say when it is
+      known that you left me alone, and without any to succour me? that not a
+      prince, not a charioteer, not a captain of archers, was found to place his
+      hand in mine? I fought, I repulsed millions of people by myself alone.
+      &lsquo;Victory-in-Thebes&rsquo; and &lsquo;Nûrît satisfied&rsquo; were my glorious horses; it was
+      they that I found under my hand when I was alone in the midst of the
+      quaking foe. I myself will cause them to take their food before me, each
+      day, when I shall be in my palace, for I was with them when I was in the
+      midst of the enemy, along with the Prince Manna my shield-bearer, and with
+      the officers of my house who accompanied me, and who are my witnesses for
+      the combat; these are those whom I was with. I have returned after a
+      victorious struggle, and I have smitten with my sword the assembled
+      multitudes.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+    <p>
+      The ordeal was a terrible one for the Khâti; but when the first moment of
+      defeat was over, they again took courage and resumed the campaign. This
+      single effort had not exhausted their resources, and they rapidly filled
+      up the gaps which had been made in their ranks. The plains of Naharaim and
+      the mountains of Cilicia supplied them with fresh chariots and
+      foot-soldiers in the place of those they had lost, and bands of
+      mercenaries were furnished from the table-lands of Asia Minor, so that
+      when Ramses II. reappeared in Syria, he found himself confronted by a
+      completely fresh army. Khâtusaru, having profited by experience, did not
+      again attempt a general engagement, but contented himself with disputing
+      step by step the upper valleys of the Litany and Orontes. Meantime his
+      emissaries spread themselves over Phoenicia and Kharû, sowing the seeds of
+      rebellion, often only too successfully. In the king&rsquo;s VIIIth year there
+      was a general rising in Galilee, and its towns&mdash;Galaput in the
+      hill-country of Bît-Aniti, Merorn, Shalama, Dapur, and Anamaîm*&mdash;had
+      to be reduced one after another.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Episodes from this war are represented at Karnak. The list
+     of the towns taken, now much mutilated, comprised twenty-
+     four names, which proves the importance of the revolt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Dapur was the hardest to carry. It crowned the top of a rocky eminence,
+      and was protected by a double wall, which followed the irregularities of
+      the hillside. It formed a rallying-point for a large force, which had to
+      be overcome in the open country before the investment of the town could be
+      attempted. The siege was at last brought to a conclusion, after a series
+      of skirmishes, and the town taken by scaling, four Egyptian princes having
+      been employed in conducting the attack. In the Pharaoh&rsquo;s IXth year a
+      revolt broke out on the Egyptian frontier, in the Shephelah, and the king
+      placed himself at the head of his troops to crush it. Ascalon, in which
+      the peasantry and their families had found, as they hoped, a safe refuge,
+      opened its gates to the Pharaoh, and its fall brought about the submission
+      of several neighbouring places. This, it appears, was the first time since
+      the beginning of the conquests in Syria that the inhabitants of these
+      regions attempted to take up arms, and we may well ask what could have
+      induced them thus to renounce their ancient loyalty. Their defection
+      reduced Egypt for the moment almost to her natural frontiers. Peace had
+      scarcely been resumed when war again broke out with fresh violence in
+      Coele-Syria, and one year it reached even to Naharaim, and raged around
+      Tunipa as in the days of Thûtmosis III. &ldquo;Pharaoh assembled his
+      foot-soldiers and chariots, and he commanded his foot-soldiers and his
+      chariots to attack the perverse Khâti who were in the neighbourhood of
+      Tunipa, and he put on his armour and mounted his chariot, and he waged
+      battle against the town of the perverse Khâti at the head of his
+      foot-soldiers and his chariots, covered with his armour;&rdquo; the fortress,
+      however, did not yield till the second attack. Ramses carried his arms
+      still further afield, and with such results, that, to judge merely from
+      the triumphal lists engraved on the walls of the temple of Karnak, the
+      inhabitants on the banks of the Euphrates, those in Carchemish, Mitanni,
+      Singar, Assyria, and Mannus found themselves once more at the mercy of the
+      Egyptian battalions. These victories, however brilliant, were not
+      decisive; if after any one of them the princes of Assyria and Singar may
+      have sent presents to the Pharaoh, the Hittites, on the other hand, did
+      not consider themselves beaten, and it was only after fifteen campaigns
+      that they were at length sufficiently subdued to propose a treaty. At
+      last, in the Egyptian king&rsquo;s XXIst year, on the 21st of the month Tybi,
+      when the Pharaoh, then residing in his good town of Anakhîtû, was
+      returning from the temple where he had been offering prayers to his father
+      Amon-Eâ, to Harmakhis of Heliopolis, to Phtah, and to Sûtkhû the valiant
+      son of Nûît, Eamses, one of the &ldquo;messengers&rdquo; who filled the office of
+      lieutenant for the king in Asia, arrived at the palace and presented to
+      him Tartisubu, who was authorised to make peace with Egypt in the name of
+      Khâtusaru.* Tartisubu carried in his hand a tablet of silver, on which his
+      master had prescribed the conditions which appeared to him just and
+      equitable. A short preamble recalling the alliances made between the
+      ancestors of both parties, was followed by a declaration of friendship,
+      and a reciprocal obligation to avoid in future all grounds of hostility.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The treaty of Ramses II. with the Prince of the Khâti was
+     sculptured at Karnak.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Not only was a perpetual truce declared between both peoples, but they
+      agreed to help each other at the first demand. &ldquo;Should some enemy march
+      against the countries subject to the great King of Egypt, and should he
+      send to the great Prince of the Khâti, saying: &lsquo;Come, bring me forces
+      against them,&rsquo; the great Prince of the Khâti shall do as he is asked by
+      the great King of Egypt, and the great Prince of the Khâti shall destroy
+      his enemies. And if the great Prince of the Khâti shall prefer not to come
+      himself, he shall send his archers and his chariots to the great King of
+      Egypt to destroy his enemies.&rdquo; A similar clause ensured aid in return from
+      Ramses to Khâtusaru, &ldquo;his brother,&rdquo; while two articles couched in
+      identical terms made provision against the possibility of any town or
+      tribe dependent on either of the two sovereigns withdrawing its allegiance
+      and placing it in the hands of the other party. In this case the Egyptians
+      as well as the Hittites engaged not to receive, or at least not to accept,
+      such offers, but to refer them at once to the legitimate lord. The whole
+      treaty was placed under the guarantee of the gods both, of Egypt and of
+      the Khâti, whose names were given at length: &ldquo;Whoever shall fail to
+      observe the stipulations, let the thousand gods of Khâti and the thousand
+      gods of Egypt strike his house, his land, and his servants. But he who
+      shall observe the stipulations engraved on the tablet of silver, whether
+      he belong to the Hittite people or whether he belong to the people of
+      Egypt, as he has not neglected them, may the thousand gods of Khâti and
+      the thousand gods of Egypt give him health, and grant that he may prosper,
+      himself, the people of his house, and also his land and his servants.&rdquo; The
+      treaty itself ends by a description of the plaque of silver on which it
+      was engraved. It was, in fact, a facsimile in metal of one of those clay
+      tablets on which the Chaldæans inscribed their contracts. The preliminary
+      articles occupied the upper part in closely written lines of cuneiform
+      characters, while in the middle, in a space left free for the purpose, was
+      the impress of two seals, that of the Prince of the Khâti and of his wife
+      Pûûkhîpa. Khâtusaru was represented on them as standing upright in the
+      arms of Sûtkhû, while around the two figures ran the inscription, &ldquo;Seal of
+      Sûtkhû, the sovereign of heaven.&rdquo; Pûûkhîpa leaned on the breast of a god,
+      the patron of her native town of Aranna in Qaauadana, and the legend
+      stated that this was the seal of the Sun of the town of Àranna, the regent
+      of the earth. The text of the treaty was continued beneath, and probably
+      extended to the other side of the tablet. The original draft had
+      terminated after the description of the seals, but, to satisfy the
+      Pharaoh, certain additional articles were appended for the protection of
+      the commerce and industry of the two countries, for the prevention of the
+      emigration of artisans, and for ensuring that steps taken against them
+      should be more effectual and less cruel. Any criminal attempting to evade
+      the laws of his country, and taking refuge in that of the other party to
+      the agreement, was to be expelled without delay and consigned to the
+      officers of his lord; any fugitive not a criminal, any subject carried off
+      or detained by force, any able artisan quitting either territory to take
+      up permanent residence in the other, was to be conducted to the frontier,
+      but his act of folly was not to expose him to judicial condemnation. &ldquo;He
+      who shall thus act, his fault shall not be brought up against him; his
+      house shall not be touched, nor his wife, nor his children; he shall not
+      have his throat cut, nor shall his eyes be touched, nor his mouth, nor his
+      feet; no criminal accusation shall be made against him.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+    <p>
+      This treaty is the most ancient of all those of which the text has come
+      down to us; its principal conditions were&mdash;perfect equality and
+      reciprocity between the contracting sovereigns, an offensive and defensive
+      alliance, and the extradition of criminals and refugees. The original was
+      drawn up in Chaldæan script by the scribes of Khâtusaru, probably on the
+      model of former conventions between the Pharaohs and the Asiatic courts,
+      and to this the Egyptian ministers had added a few clauses relative to the
+      pardon of emigrants delivered up by one or other of the contracting
+      parties. When, therefore, Tartisubu arrived in the city of Eamses, the
+      acceptance of the treaty was merely a matter of form, and peace was
+      virtually concluded. It did not confer on the conqueror the advantages
+      which we might have expected from his successful campaigns: it enjoined,
+      on the contrary, the definite renunciation of those countries, Mitanni,
+      Naharaim, Alasia, and Amurru, over which Thûtmosis III. and his immediate
+      successors had formerly exercised an effective sovereignty. Sixteen years
+      of victories had left matters in the same state as they were after the
+      expedition of Harmhabî, and, like his predecessor, Ramses was able to
+      retain merely those Asiatic provinces which were within the immediate
+      influence of Egypt, such as the Phoenician coast proper, Kharû, Persea
+      beyond Jordan, the oases of the Arabian desert, and the peninsula of
+      Sinai.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The <i>Anastasi Papyrus I</i>. mentions a place called <i>Zaru of
+     Sesostris</i>, in the neighbourhood of Aleppo, in a part of
+     Syria which was not in Egyptian territory: the frontier in
+     this locality must have passed between Arvad and Byblos on
+     the coast, and between Qodshû and Hazor from Merom inland.
+     Egyptian rule on the other side of the Jordan seems to be
+     proved by the monument discovered a few years ago in the
+     Haurân, and known under the name of the &ldquo;Stone of Job&rdquo; by
+     the Bedawîn of the neighbourhood.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This apparently unsatisfactory result, after such supreme efforts, was,
+      however, upon closer examination, not so disappointing. For more than half
+      a century at least, since the Hittite kingdom had been developed and
+      established under the impulse given to it by Sapalulu, everything had been
+      in its favour. The campaign of Seti had opposed merely a passing obstacle
+      to its expansion, and had not succeeded in discouraging its ambitions, for
+      its rulers still nursed the hope of being able one day to conquer Syria as
+      far as the isthmus. The check received at Qodshû, the abortive attempts to
+      foment rebellion in Galilee and the Shephelah, the obstinate persistence
+      with which Ramses and his army returned year after year to the attack, the
+      presence of the enemy at Tunipa, on the banks of the Euphrates, and in the
+      provinces then forming the very centre of the Hittite kingdom&mdash;in
+      short, all the incidents of this long struggle&mdash;at length convinced
+      Khâtusaru that he was powerless to extend his rule in this direction at
+      the expense of Egypt. Moreover, we have no knowledge of the events which
+      occupied him on the other frontiers of his kingdom, where he may have been
+      engaged at the same time in a conflict with Assyria, or in repelling an
+      incursion of the tribes on the Black Sea. The treaty with Pharaoh, if made
+      in good faith and likely to be lasting, would protect the southern
+      extremities of his kingdom, and allow of his removing the main body of his
+      forces to the north and east in case of attack from either of these
+      quarters. The security which such an alliance would ensure made it,
+      therefore, worth his while to sue for peace, even if the Egyptians should
+      construe his overtures as an acknowledgment of exhausted supplies or of
+      inferiority of strength. Ramses doubtless took it as such, and openly
+      displayed on the walls at Karnak and in the Eamesseum a copy of the treaty
+      so flattering to his pride, but the indomitable resistance which he had
+      encountered had doubtless given rise to reflections resembling those of
+      Khâtusaru, and he had come to realise that it was his own interest not to
+      lightly forego the good will of the Khâti. Egypt had neighbours in Africa
+      who were troublesome though not dangerous: the Timihû, the Tihonu, the
+      Mashûasha, the negroes of Kûsh and of Pûanît, might be a continual source
+      of annoyance and disturbance, even though they were incapable of
+      disturbing her supremacy. The coast of the Delta, it is true, was exposed
+      to the piracy of northern nations, but up to that time this had been
+      merely a local trouble, easy to meet if not to obviate altogether. The
+      only real danger was on the Asiatic side, arising from empires of ancient
+      constitution like Chaldæa, or from hordes who, arriving at irregular
+      intervals from the north, and carrying all before them, threatened, after
+      the example of the Hyksôs, to enter the Delta. The Hittite kingdom acted
+      as a kind of buffer between the Nile valley and these nations, both
+      civilized and barbarous; it was a strongly armed force on the route of the
+      invaders, and would henceforth serve as a protecting barrier, through
+      which if the enemy were able to pass it would only be with his strength
+      broken or weakened by a previous encounter. The sovereigns loyally
+      observed the peace which they had sworn to each other, and in his XXXIVth
+      year the marriage of Ramses with the eldest daughter of Khâtusaru
+      strengthened their friendly relations.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0033" id="linkBimage-0033">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/214.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="214.jpg KhÂtusaru, Prince of KhÂti, and his Daughter " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the plate in Lepsius; the triad
+     worshipped by Khâtusaru and his daughter is composed of
+     Ramses II., seated between Amon-Râ and Phtah-Totûnen.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Pharaoh was not a little proud of this union, and he has left us a naive
+      record of the manner in which it came about. The inscription is engraved
+      on the face of the rock at Abu Simbel in Nubia; and Ramses begins by
+      boasting, in a heroic strain, of his own energy and exploits, of the fear
+      with which his victories inspired the whole world, and of the anxiety of
+      the Syrian kinglets to fulfil his least wishes. The Prince of the Khâti
+      had sent him sumptuous presents at every opportunity, and, not knowing how
+      further to make himself agreeable to the Pharaoh, had finally addressed
+      the great lords of his court, and reminded them how their country had
+      formerly been ruined by war, how their master Sûtkhû had taken part
+      against them, and how they had been delivered from their ills by the
+      clemency of the Sun of Egypt. &ldquo;Let us therefore take our goods, and
+      placing my eldest daughter at the head of them, let us repair to the
+      domains of the great god, so that the King Sesostris may recognise us.&rdquo; He
+      accordingly did as he had proposed, and the embassy set out with gold and
+      silver, valuable horses, and an escort of soldiers, together with cattle
+      and provisions to supply them with food by the way. When they reached the
+      borders of Khâru, the governor wrote immediately to the Pharaoh as
+      follows: &ldquo;Here is the Prince of the Khâti, who brings his eldest daughter
+      with a number of presents of every kind; and now this princess and the
+      chief of the country of the Khâti, after having crossed many mountains and
+      undertaken a difficult journey from distant parts, have arrived at the
+      frontiers of His Majesty. May we be instructed how we ought to act with
+      regard to them.&rdquo; The king was then in residence at Ramses. When the news
+      reached him, he officially expressed his great joy at the event, since it
+      was a thing unheard of in the annals of the country that so powerful a
+      prince should go to such personal inconvenience in order to marry his
+      daughter to an ally. The Pharaoh, therefore, despatched his nobles and an
+      army to receive them, but he was careful to conceal the anxiety which he
+      felt all the while, and, according to custom, took counsel of his patron
+      god Sûtkhû: &ldquo;Who are these people who come with a message at this time to
+      the country of Zahi?&rdquo; The oracle, however, reassured him as to their
+      intentions, and he thereupon hastened to prepare for their proper
+      reception. The embassy made a triumphal entry into the city, the princess
+      at its head, escorted by the Egyptian troops told off for the purpose,
+      together with the foot-soldiers and charioteers of the Khâti, comprising
+      the flower of their army and militia. A solemn festival was held in their
+      honour, in which food and drink were served without stint, and was
+      concluded by the celebration of the marriage in the presence of the
+      Egyptian lords and of the princes of the whole earth.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The fact of the marriage is known to us by the decree of
+     Phtah Totûnen at Abu Simbel in the XXXVth year of the king&rsquo;s
+     reign. The account of it in the text is taken from the stele
+     at Abu Simbel. The last lines are so mutilated that I have
+     been obliged to paraphrase them. The stele of the Princess
+     of Bakhtan has preserved the romantic version of this
+     marriage, such as was current about the Saite period. The
+     King of the Khâti must have taken advantage of the
+     expedition which the Pharaoh made into Asia to send him
+     presents by an embassy, at the head of which he placed his
+     eldest daughter: the princess found favour with Ramses, who
+     married her.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ramses, unwilling to relegate a princess of such noble birth to the
+      companionship of his ordinary concubines, granted her the title of queen,
+      as if she were of solar blood, and with the cartouche gave her the new
+      name of Ûirimaûnofîrurî&mdash;&ldquo;She who sees the beauties of the Sun.&rdquo; She
+      figures henceforth in the ceremonies and on the monuments in the place
+      usually occupied by women of Egyptian race only, and these unusual honours
+      may have compensated, in the eyes of the young princess, for the
+      disproportion in age between herself and a veteran more than sixty years
+      old. The friendly relations between the two courts became so intimate that
+      the Pharaoh invited his father-in-law to visit him in his own country.
+      &ldquo;The great Prince of Khâti informed the Prince of Qodi: &lsquo;Prepare thyself
+      that we may go down into Egypt. The word of the king has gone forth, let
+      us obey Sesostris. He gives the breath of life to those who love him;
+      hence all the earth loves him, and Khâti forms but one with him.&rsquo;&rdquo; They
+      were received with pomp at Ramses-Anakhîtû, and perhaps at Thebes. It was
+      with a mixture of joy and astonishment that Egypt beheld her bitterest foe
+      become her most faithful ally, &ldquo;and the men of Qimît having but one heart
+      with the chiefs of the Khâti, a thing which had not happened since the
+      ages of Pa.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+    <p>
+      The half-century following the conclusion of this alliance was a period of
+      world-wide prosperity. Syria was once more able to breathe freely, her
+      commerce being under the combined protection of the two powers who shared
+      her territory. Not only caravans, but isolated travellers, were able to
+      pass through the country from north to south without incurring any risks
+      beyond those occasioned by an untrustworthy guide or a few highwaymen. It
+      became in time a common task in the schools of Thebes to describe the
+      typical Syrian tour of some soldier or functionary, and we still possess
+      one of these imaginative stories in which the scribe takes his hero from
+      Qodshû across the Lebanon to Byblos, Berytus, Tyre, and Sidon, &ldquo;the fish&rdquo;
+       of which latter place &ldquo;are more numerous than the grains of sand;&rdquo; he then
+      makes him cross Galilee and the forest of oaks to Jaffa, climb the
+      mountains of the Dead Sea, and following the maritime route by Raphia,
+      reach Pelusium. The Egyptian galleys thronged the Phoenician ports, while
+      those of Phoenicia visited Egypt. The latter drew so little water that
+      they had no difficulty in coming up the Nile, and the paintings in one of
+      the tombs represent them at the moment of their reaching Thebes. The hull
+      of these vessels was similar to that of the Nile boats, but the bow and
+      stern were terminated by structures which rose at right angles, and
+      respectively gave support to a sort of small platform. Upon this the pilot
+      maintained his position by one of those wondrous feats of equilibrium of
+      which the Orientals were masters.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0034" id="linkBimage-0034">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/218.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="218.jpg Phoenician Boats Landing at Thebes " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from the photograph published by Daressy.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      An open rail ran round the sides of the vessel, so as to prevent goods
+      stowed upon the deck from falling into the sea when the vessel lurched.
+      Voyages to Pûanît were undertaken more frequently in quest of incense and
+      precious metals. The working of the mines of Akiti had been the source of
+      considerable outlay at the beginning of the reign. The measures taken by
+      Seti to render the approaches to them practicable at all seasons had not
+      produced the desired results; as far back as the IIIrd year of Ramses the
+      overseers of the south had been forced to acknowledge that the managers of
+      the convoys could no longer use any of the cisterns which had been hewn
+      and built at such great expense. &ldquo;Half of them die of thirst, together
+      with their asses, for they have no means of carrying a sufficient number
+      of skins of water to last during the journey there and back.&rdquo; The friends
+      and officers whose advice had been called in, did not doubt for a moment
+      that the king would be willing to complete the work which his father had
+      merely initiated. &ldquo;If thou sayest to the water, &lsquo;Come upon the mountain,&rsquo;
+      the heavenly waters will spring out at the word of thy mouth, for thou art
+      Râ incarnate, Khopri visibly created, thou art the living image of thy
+      father Tûmû, the Heliopolitan.&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;If thou thyself sayest to thy
+      father the Nile, father of the gods,&rdquo; added the Viceroy of Ethiopia,
+      &ldquo;&lsquo;Raise the water up to the mountain,&rsquo; he will do all that thou hast said,
+      for so it has been with all thy projects which have been accomplished in
+      our presence, of which the like has never been heard, even in the songs of
+      the poets.&rdquo; The cisterns and wells were thereupon put into such a
+      condition that the transport of gold was rendered easy for years to come.
+      The war with the Khâti had not suspended building and other works of
+      public utility; and now, owing to the establishment of peace, the
+      sovereign was able to devote himself entirely to them. He deepened the
+      canal at Zalû; he repaired the walls and the fortified places which
+      protected the frontier on the side of the Sinaitic Peninsula, and he built
+      or enlarged the strongholds along the Nile at those points most frequently
+      threatened by the incursions of nomad tribes. Ramses was the royal builder
+      <i>par excellence</i>, and we may say without fear of contradiction that,
+      from the second cataract to the mouths of the Nile, there is scarcely an
+      edifice on whose ruins we do not find his name. In Nubia, where the desert
+      approaches close to the Nile, he confined himself to cutting in the solid
+      rock the monuments which, for want of space, he could not build in the
+      open. The idea of the cave-temple must have occurred very early to the
+      Egyptians; they were accustomed to house their dead in the mountain-side,
+      why then should they not house their gods in the same manner? The oldest
+      forms of speos, those near to Beni-Hasan, at Deîr el-Baharî, at Bl-Kab,
+      and at Gebel Silsileh, however, do not date further back than the time of
+      the XVIIIth dynasty. All the forms of architectural plan observed in
+      isolated temples were utilised by Ramses and applied to rock-cut buildings
+      with more or less modification, according to the nature of the stratum in
+      which he had to work. Where space permitted, a part only of the temple was
+      cut in the rock, and the approaches to it were built in the open air with
+      blocks brought to the spot, so that the completed speos became only in
+      part a grotto&mdash;a hemi-speos of varied construction. It was in this
+      manner that the architects of Ramses arranged the court and pylon at
+      Beît-Wally, the hypostyle hall, rectangular court and pylon at
+      Gerf-Hosseîn, and the avenue of sphinxes at Wady es-Sebuah, where the
+      entrance to the avenue was guarded by two statues overlooking the river.
+      The pylon at Gerf-Hosseîn has been demolished, and merely a few traces of
+      the foundations appear here and there above the soil, but a portion of the
+      portico which surrounded the court is still standing, together with its
+      massive architraves and statues, which stand with their backs against the
+      pillars.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0035" id="linkBimage-0035">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/221.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="221.jpg the Projecting Columns of The Speos Of Gerf-hosseÎn " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The sanctuary itself comprised an antechamber, supported by two columns
+      and flanked by two oblong recesses; this led into the Holy of Holies,
+      which was a narrow niche with a low ceiling, placed between two lateral
+      chapels. A hall, nearly square in shape, connected these mysterious
+      chambers with the propylæa, which were open to the sky and faced with
+      Osiride caryatides.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0036" id="linkBimage-0036">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/221.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="221.jpg the Caryatides of Gerf-hosseÎn " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger and
+     Daniel Héron.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These appear to keep rigid and solemn watch over the approaches to the
+      tabernacle, and their faces, half hidden in the shadow, still present such
+      a stern appearance that the semi-barbaric Nubians of the neighbouring
+      villages believe them to be possessed by implacable genii. They are
+      supposed to move from their places during the hours of night, and the fire
+      which flashes from their eyes destroys or fascinates whoever is rash
+      enough to watch them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Other kings before Ramses had constructed buildings in these spots, and
+      their memory would naturally become associated with his in the future; he
+      wished, therefore, to find a site where he would be without a rival, and
+      to this end he transformed the cliff at Abu Simbel into a monument of his
+      greatness. The rocks here project into the Nile and form a gigantic
+      conical promontory, the face of which was covered with triumphal stelæ, on
+      which the sailors or troops going up or down the river could spell out as
+      they passed the praises of the king and his exploits. A few feet of shore
+      on the northern side, covered with dry and knotty bushes, affords in
+      winter a landing-place for tourists. At the spot where the beach ends near
+      the point of the promontory, sit four colossi, with their feet nearly
+      touching the water, their backs leaning against a sloping wall of rock,
+      which takes the likeness of a pylon. A band of hieroglyphs runs above
+      their heads underneath the usual cornice, over which again is a row of
+      crouching cynocephali looking straight before them, their hands resting
+      upon their knees, and above this line of sacred images rises the steep and
+      naked rock. One of the colossi is broken, and the bust of the statue,
+      which must have been detached by some great shock, has fallen to the
+      ground; the others rise to the height of 63 feet, and appear to look
+      across the Nile as if watching the wadys leading to the gold-mines.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0037" id="linkBimage-0037">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/224.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="224.jpg the Two Colossi of Abu Simbel to The South Of The Doorway " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger and
+     Daniel Héron.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The pschent crown surmounts their foreheads, and the two ends of the
+      head-dress fall behind their ears; their features are of a noble type,
+      calm and serious; the nose slightly aquiline, the under lip projecting
+      above a square, but rather heavy, chin. Of such a type we may picture
+      Ramses, after the conclusion of the peace with the Khâti, in the full
+      vigour of his manhood and at the height of his power.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0038" id="linkBimage-0038">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/225.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="225.jpg the Interior of The Speos Of Abu Simbel " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger and Daniel
+     Héron.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The doorway of the temple is in the centre of the façade, and rises nearly
+      to a level with the elbows of the colossi; above the lintel, and facing
+      the river, stands a figure of the god Râ, represented with a human body
+      and the head of a sparrow-hawk, while two images of the king in profile,
+      one on each side of the god, offer him a figure of Truth. The first hall,
+      130 feet long by 58 feet broad, takes the place of the court surrounded by
+      a colonnade which in other temples usually follows the pylon. Her eight
+      Osiride figures, standing against as many square pillars, appear to
+      support the weight of the superincumbent rock. Their profile catches the
+      light as it enters through the open doorway, and in the early morning,
+      when the rising sun casts a ruddy ray over their features, their faces
+      become marvellously life-like. We are almost tempted to think that a smile
+      plays over their lips as the first beams touch them. The remaining
+      chambers consist of a hypostyle hall nearly square in shape, the sanctuary
+      itself being between two smaller apartments, and of eight subterranean
+      chambers excavated at a lower level than the rest of the temple. The whole
+      measures 178 feet from the threshold to the far end of the Holy of Holies.
+      The walls are covered with bas-reliefs in which the Pharaoh has vividly
+      depicted the wars which he carried on in the four corners of his kingdom;
+      here we see raids against the negroes, there the war with the Khâti, and
+      further on an encounter with some Libyan tribe. Ramses, flushed by the
+      heat of victory, is seen attacking two Timihu chiefs: one has already
+      fallen to the ground and is being trodden underfoot; the other, after
+      vainly letting fly his arrows, is about to perish from a blow of the
+      conqueror.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0039" id="linkBimage-0039">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/226.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="227.jpg the Face of The Rock at Abu Simgel " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      His knees give way beneath him, his head falls heavily backwards, and the
+      features are contracted in his death-agony. Pharaoh with his left hand has
+      seized him by the arm, while with his right he points his lance against
+      his enemy&rsquo;s breast, and is about to pierce him through the heart. As a
+      rule, this type of bas-relief is executed with a conventional grace which
+      leaves the spectator unmoved, and free to consider the scene merely from
+      its historical point of view, forgetful of the artist.
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="227 (69K)" src="images/227.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkBimage-0040" id="linkBimage-0040">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/229.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="229.jpg Ramses II. Pierces a Libyan Chief With his Lance " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Mons. do Bock.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      An examination of most of the other wall-decorations of the speos will
+      furnish several examples of this type: we see Ramses with a suitable
+      gesture brandishing his weapon above a group of prisoners, and the
+      composition furnishes us with a fair example of official sculpture,
+      correct, conventional, but devoid of interest. Here, on the contrary, the
+      drawing is so full of energy that it carries the imagination hack to the
+      time and scene of those far-off battles.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0041" id="linkBimage-0041">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/230.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="230.jpg Ramses Ii. Strikes a Group of Prisoners " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The indistinct light in which it is seen helps the illusion, and we almost
+      forget that it is a picture we are beholding, and not the action itself as
+      it took place some three thousand years ago. A small speos, situated at
+      some hundred feet further north, is decorated with standing colossi of
+      smaller size, four of which represent Ramses, and two of them his wife,
+      Isit Nofrîtari. This speos possesses neither peristyle nor crypt, and the
+      chapels are placed at the two extremities of the transverse passage,
+      instead of being in a parallel line with the sanctuary; on the other hand,
+      the hypostyle hall rests on six pillars with Hathor-headed capitals of
+      fine proportions.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0042" id="linkBimage-0042">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/231.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="231.jpg the Façade of The Little Speos Of Hauthor at Abu Simbel " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the plates in Champollion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A third excavated grotto of modest dimensions served as an accessory
+      chamber to the two others. An inexhaustible stream of yellow sand poured
+      over the great temple from the summit of the cliff, and partially covered
+      it every year. No sooner were the efforts to remove it relaxed, than it
+      spreads into the chambers, concealing the feet of the colossi, and slowly
+      creeping upwards to their knees, breasts, and necks; at the beginning of
+      this century they were entirely hidden. In spite of all that was done to
+      divert it, it ceaselessly reappeared, and in a few summers regained all
+      the ground which had been previously cleared. It would seem as if the
+      desert, powerless to destroy the work of the conqueror, was seeking
+      nevertheless to hide it from the admiration of posterity.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The English engineers have succeeded in barring out the
+     sand, and have prevented it from pouring over the cliff any
+     more.&mdash;Ed.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Seti had worked indefatigably at Thebes, but the shortness of his reign
+      prevented him from completing the buildings he had begun there. There
+      existed everywhere, at Luxor, at Karnak, and on the left bank of the Nile,
+      the remains of his unfinished works; sanctuaries partially roofed in,
+      porticoes incomplete, columns raised to merely half their height, halls as
+      yet imperfect with blank walls, here and there covered with only the
+      outlines in red and black ink of their future bas-reliefs, and statues
+      hardly blocked out, or awaiting the final touch of the polisher.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is the description which Ramses gave of the condition
+     in which he found the Memnonium of Abydos. An examination of
+     the inscriptions existing in the Theban temples which Seti
+     I. had constructed, shows that it must have applied also to
+     the appearance of certain portions of Qurneh, Luxor, and
+     Karnak in the time of Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ramses took up the work where his father had relinquished it. At Luxor
+      there was not enough space to give to the hypostyle hall the extension
+      which the original plans proposed, and the great colonnade has an
+      unfinished appearance.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0043" id="linkBimage-0043">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/232.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="232.jpg Columns of Temple at Luxor " />
+    </div>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="232-text (5K)" src="images/232-text.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Nile, in one of its capricious floods, had carried away the land upon
+      which the architects had intended to erect the side aisles; and if they
+      wished to add to the existing structure a great court and a pylon, without
+      which no temple was considered complete, it was necessary to turn the axis
+      of the building towards the east.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0044" id="linkBimage-0044">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/233.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="233.jpg the Chapel of Thutmosis Iii. And One Of The Pylons of Ramses Ii. At Luxor " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In their operations the architects came upon a beautiful little edifice of
+      rose granite, which had been either erected or restored by Thûtmosis III.
+      at a time when the town was an independent municipality and was only
+      beginning to extend its suburban dwellings to meet those of Karnak. They
+      took care to make no change in this structure, but set to work to
+      incorporate it into their final plans. It still stands at the north-west
+      corner of the court, and the elegance of its somewhat slender little
+      columns contrasts happily with the heaviness of the structure to which it
+      is attached. A portion of its portico is hidden by the brickwork of the
+      mosque of Abu&rsquo;l Haggag: the part brought to light in the course of the
+      excavations contains between each row of columns a colossal statue of
+      Ramses II. We are accustomed to hear on all sides of the degeneracy of the
+      sculptor&rsquo;s art at this time, and of its having fallen into irreparable
+      neglect. Nothing can be further from the truth than this sweeping
+      statement. There are doubtless many statues and bas-reliefs of this epoch
+      which shock us by their crudity and ugliness, but these owed their origin
+      for the most part to provincial workshops which had been at all times of
+      mediocre repute, and where the artists did not receive orders enough to
+      enable them to correct by practice the defects of their education. We find
+      but few productions of the Theban school exhibiting bad technique, and if
+      we had only this one monument of Luxor from which to form our opinion of
+      its merits, it would be sufficient to prove that the sculptors of Ramses
+      II. were not a whit behind those of Harmham or Seti I. Adroitness in
+      cutting the granite or hard sandstone had in no wise been lost, and the
+      same may be said of the skill in bringing out the contour and life-like
+      action of the figure, and of the art of infusing into the features and
+      demeanour of the Pharaoh something of the superhuman majesty with which
+      the Egyptian people were accustomed to invest their monarchs. If the
+      statues of Ramses II. in the portico are not perfect models of sculpture,
+      they have many good points, and their bold treatment makes them
+      effectively decorative.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0045" id="linkBimage-0045">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/235.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="235.jpg the Colonnade of Seti I. And The Three Colossal Statues of Ramses Ii. At Luxor " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Eight other statues of Ramses are arranged along the base of the façade,
+      and two obelisks&mdash;one of which has been at Paris for half a century*&mdash;stood
+      on either side of the entrance.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The colonnade and the little temple of Thûtmosis III. were
+     concealed under the houses of the village; they were first
+     brought to light in the excavations of 1884-86.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The whole structure lacks unity, and there is nothing corresponding to it
+      in this respect anywhere else in Egypt. The northern half does not join on
+      to the southern, but seems to belong to quite a distinct structure, or the
+      two parts might be regarded as having once formed a single edifice which
+      had become divided by an accident, which the architect had endeavoured to
+      unite together again by a line of columns running between two walls. The
+      masonry of the hypostyle hall at Karnak was squared and dressed, but the
+      walls had been left undecorated, as was also the case with the majority of
+      the shafts of the columns and the surface of the architraves. Ramses
+      covered the whole with a series of sculptured and painted scenes which had
+      a rich ornamental effect; he then decorated the pylon, and inscribed on
+      the outer wall to the south the list of cities which he had captured. The
+      temple of Amon then assumed the aspect which it preserved henceforward for
+      centuries. The Ramessides and their successors occupied themselves in
+      filling it with furniture, and in taking steps for the repair of any
+      damage that might accrue to the hall or pillars; they had their cartouches
+      or inscriptions placed in vacant spaces, but they did not dare to modify
+      its arrangement. It was reserved for the Ethiopian and Greek Pharaohs, in
+      presence of the hypostyle and pylon of the XIXth dynasty, to conceive of
+      others on a still vaster scale.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0046" id="linkBimage-0046">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/236b.jpg" width="100%" alt="236b.jpg Paintings of Chairs " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Ramses, having completed the funerary chapel of Seti at Qurneh upon the
+      left bank of the river, then began to think of preparing the edifice
+      destined for the cult of his &ldquo;double&rdquo;&mdash;that Eamesseum whose majestic
+      ruins still stand at a short distance to the north of the giants of
+      Amenôthes. Did these colossal statues stimulate his spirit of emulation to
+      do something yet more marvellous? He erected here, at any rate, a still
+      more colossal figure. The earthquake which shattered Memnon brought it to
+      the ground, and fragments of it still strew the soil where they fell some
+      nineteen centuries ago. There are so many of them that the spectator would
+      think himself in the middle of a granite quarry.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The ear measures 3 feet 4 inches in length; the
+          statue is 58 feet high from the top of the head to the
+          sole of the foot, and the weight of the whole has been
+          estimated at over a thousand tons.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0047" id="linkBimage-0047">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/237.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="237.jpg the Remains of The Colossal Statue Of Ramses Ii. At the Ramesseum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The portions forming the breast, arms, and thighs are in detached pieces,
+      but they are still recognisable where they lie close to each other. The
+      head has lost nothing of its characteristic expression, and its
+      proportions are so enormous, that a man could sleep crouched up in the
+      hollow of one of its ears as if on a sofa. Behind the court overlooked by
+      this colossal statue lay a second court, surrounded by a row of square
+      pillars, each having a figure of Osiris attached to it. The god is
+      represented as a mummy, the swathings throwing the body and limbs into
+      relief.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0048" id="linkBimage-0048">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/238.jpg" width="100%" alt="238.jpg the Ramesseum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato; the great
+     blocks in the foreground are the fragments of the colossal
+     statue of Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His hands are freed from the bandages and are crossed on the breast, and
+      hold respectively the flail and crook; the smiling face is surmounted by
+      an enormous head-dress. The sanctuary with the buildings attached to it
+      has perished, but enormous brick structures extend round the ruins,
+      forming an enclosure of storehouses. Here the priests of the &ldquo;double&rdquo; were
+      accustomed to dwell with their wives and slaves, and here they stored up
+      the products of their domains&mdash;meat, vegetables, corn, fowls dried or
+      preserved in fat, and wines procured from all the vineyards of Egypt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These were merely the principal monuments put up by Ramses II. at Thebes
+      during the sixty-seven years of his rule. There would be no end to the
+      enumeration of his works if we were to mention all the other edifices
+      which he constructed in the necropolis or among the dwellings of the
+      living, all those which he restored, or those which he merely repaired or
+      inscribed with his cartouches. These are often cut over the name of the
+      original founder, and his usurpations of monuments are so numerous that he
+      might be justly accused of having striven to blot out the memory of his
+      predecessors, and of claiming for himself the entire work of the whole
+      line of Pharaohs. It would seem as if, in his opinion, the glory of Egypt
+      began with him, or at least with his father, and that no victorious
+      campaigns had been ever heard of before those which he conducted against
+      the Libyans and the Hittites.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The battle of Qodshû, with its attendant episodes&mdash;the flogging of
+      the spies, the assault upon the camp, the charge of the chariots, the
+      flight of the Syrians&mdash;is the favourite subject of his inscriptions;
+      and the poem of Pentaûîrît adds to the bas-reliefs a description worthy of
+      the acts represented. This epic reappears everywhere, in Nubia and in the
+      Said, at Abu Simbel, at Beît-Wally, at Derr, at Luxor, at Karnak, and on
+      the Eamesseum, and the same battle-scenes, with the same accompanying
+      texts, reappear in the Memnonium, whose half-ruined walls still crown the
+      necropolis of Abydos.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0049" id="linkBimage-0049">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/240.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="240.jpg the Ruins of The Memnonium Of Ramses Ii. At Abydos " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He had decided upon the erection of this latter monument at the very
+      beginning of his reign, and the artisans who had worked at the similar
+      structure of Seti I. were employed to cover its walls with admirable
+      bas-reliefs. Ramses also laid claim to have his own resting-place at &ldquo;the
+      Cleft;&rdquo; in this privilege he associated all the Pharaohs, from whom he
+      imagined himself to be descended, and the same list of their names, which
+      we find engraved in the chapel of his father, appears on his building
+      also. Some ruins, lying beyond Abydos, are too formless to do more than
+      indicate the site of some of his structures. He enlarged the temple of
+      Harshafîtû and that of Osiris at Heracleopolis, and, to accomplish these
+      works the more promptly, his workmen had recourse for material to the
+      royal towns of the IVth and XIIth dynasties; the pyramids of Usirtasen II.
+      and Snofrûi at Medûm suffered accordingly the loss of the best part of
+      their covering. He finished the mausoleum at Memphis, and dedicated the
+      statue which Seti had merely blocked out; he then set to work to fill the
+      city with buildings of his own device&mdash;granite and sandstone chambers
+      to the east of the Sacred Lake,* monumental gateways to the south,** and
+      before one of them a fine colossal figure in granite.*** It lay not long
+      ago at the bottom of a hole among the palm trees, and was covered by the
+      inundation every year; it has now been so raised as to be safe from the
+      waters. Ramses could hardly infuse new life into all the provinces which
+      had been devastated years before by the Shepherd-kings; but
+      Heliopolis,**** Bubastes, Athribis, Patûmû, Mendis, Tell Moqdam, and all
+      the cities of the eastern corner of the Delta, constitute a museum of his
+      monuments, every object within them testifying to his activity.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Partly excavated and published by Mariette, and partly by
+     M. de Morgan. This is probably the temple mentioned in the
+     <i>Great Inscription of Abu Simbel</i>.
+
+     ** These are probably those mentioned by Herodotus, when he
+     says that Sesostris constructed a propylon in the temple of
+     Hephaistos.
+
+     *** This is Abu-1-hôl of the Arabs.
+
+     **** Ruins of the temple of Râ bear the cartouche of Ramses
+     II. &ldquo;Cleopatra&rsquo;s Needle,&rdquo; transported to Alexandria by one
+     of the Ptolemies, had been set up by Ramses at Heliopolis;
+     it is probably one of the four obelisks which the
+     traditional Sesostris is said to have erected in that city,
+     according to Pliny.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He colonised these towns with his prisoners, rebuilt them, and set to work
+      to rouse them from the torpor into which they had fallen after their
+      capture by Ahmosis. He made a third capital of Tanis, which rivalled both
+      Memphis and Thebes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0050" id="linkBimage-0050">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/242.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="242.jpg the Colossal Statue of Ramses Ii. At Mitrahineh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph brought back by
+     Bénédite.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Before this it had been little more than a deserted ruin: he cleared out
+      the <i>débris</i>, brought a population to the place; rebuilt the temple,
+      enlarging it by aisles which extended its area threefold; and here he
+      enthroned, along with the local divinities, a triad, in which Amonrâ and
+      Sûtkhû sat side by side with his own deified &ldquo;double.&rdquo; The ruined walls,
+      the overturned stelæ, the obelisks recumbent in the dust, and the statues
+      of his usurped predecessors, all bear his name. His colossal figure of
+      statuary sandstone, in a sitting attitude like that at the Eamesseum,
+      projected from the chief court, and seemed to look down upon the confused
+      ruin of his works.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The fragments of the colossus were employed in the Græco-
+     Roman period as building material, and used in the masonry
+     of a boundary wall.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We do not know how many wives he had in his harem, but one of the lists of
+      his children which has come down to us enumerates, although mutilated at
+      the end, one hundred and eleven sons, while of his daughters we know of
+      fifty-five.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The list of Abydos enumerates thirty-three of his sons and
+     thirty-two of his daughters, that of Wady-Sebua one hundred
+     and eleven of his sons and fifty-one of his daughters; both
+     lists are mutilated. The remaining lists for the most part
+     record only some of the children living at the time they
+     were drawn up, at Derr, at the Eamesseum, and at Abu Simbel.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0051" id="linkBimage-0051">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/245.jpg"
+       alt="245.jpg the Chapel of The Apis Of AmekÔthes Iii. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a sketch by Mariette.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The majority of these were the offspring of mere concubines or foreign
+      princesses, and possessed but a secondary rank in comparison with himself;
+      but by his union with his sisters Nofrîtari Marîtmût and Isîtnofrît, he
+      had at least half a dozen sons and daughters who might aspire to the
+      throne. Death robbed him of several of these before an opportunity was
+      open to them to succeed him, and among them Amenhikhopshûf, Amenhiunamif,
+      and Ramses, who had distinguished themselves in the campaign against the
+      Khâti; and some of his daughters&mdash;Bitanîti, Marîtamon, Nibîttaûi&mdash;by
+      becoming his wives lost their right to the throne. About the XXXth year of
+      his reign, when he was close upon sixty, he began to think of an
+      associate, and his choice rested on the eldest surviving son of his queen
+      Isîtnofrît, who was called Khâmoîsît. This prince was born before the
+      succession of his father, and had exhibited distinguished bravery under
+      the walls of Qodshu and at Ascalon. When he was still very young he had
+      been invested with the office of high priest of the Memphite Phtah, and
+      thus had secured to him the revenues of the possessions of the god, which
+      were the largest in all Egypt after those of the Theban Anion. He had a
+      great reputation for his knowledge of abstruse theological questions and
+      of the science of magic&mdash;a later age attributing to him the
+      composition of several books on magic giving directions for the invocation
+      of spirits belonging to this world and the world beyond. He became the
+      hero also of fantastic romances, in which it was related of him how, in
+      consequence of his having stolen from the mummy of an old wizard the books
+      of Thot, he became the victim of possession by a sort of lascivious and
+      sanguinary ghoul. Ramses relieved himself of the cares of state by handing
+      over to Khâmoîsîfc the government of the country, without, however,
+      conferring upon him the titles and insignia of royalty. The chief concern
+      of Khâmoîsît was to secure the scrupulous observance of the divine laws.
+      He celebrated at Silsilis the festivals of the inundation; he presided at
+      the commemoration of his father&rsquo;s apotheosis, and at the funeral rites of
+      the Apis who died in the XXXth year of the king&rsquo;s reign. Before his time
+      each sacred bull had its separate tomb in a quarter of the Memphite
+      Necropolis known to the Greeks as the Serapeion. The tomb was a small
+      cone-roofed building erected on a square base, and containing only one
+      chamber. Khâmoîsît substituted for this a rock-tomb similar to those used
+      by ordinary individuals. He had a tunnel cut in the solid rock to a depth
+      of about a hundred yards, and on either side of this a chamber was
+      prepared for each Apis on its death, the masons closing up the wall after
+      the installation of the mummy. His regency had lasted for nearly a quarter
+      of a century, when, the burden of government becoming too much for him, he
+      was succeeded in the LVth year of Ramses by his younger brother Mînephtah,
+      who was like himself a son of Isîtnofrît.* Mînephtah acted, during the
+      first twelve years of his rule, for his father, who, having now almost
+      attained the age of a hundred, passed peacefully away at Thebes in the
+      LXVIII year of his reign, full of days and sated with glory.** He became
+      the subject of legend almost before he had closed his eyes upon the world.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Mînephtah was in the order of birth the thirteenth son of
+     Ramses II.
+
+     ** A passage on a stele of Ramses IV. formally attributes to
+     him a reign of sixty-seven years. I procured at Koptos a
+     stele of his year LXVI.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He had obtained brilliant successes during his life, and the scenes
+      describing them were depicted in scores of places. Popular fancy believed
+      everything which he had related of himself, and added to this all that it
+      knew of other kings, thus making him the Pharaoh of Pharaohs&mdash;the
+      embodiment of all preceding monarchs. Legend preferred to recall him by
+      the name Sesûsû, Sesûstûrî&mdash;a designation which had been applied to
+      him by his contemporaries, and he thus became better known to moderns as
+      Sesostris than by his proper name Ramses Mîamûn.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This designation, which is met with at Medinet-Habu and in
+     the Anmtasi Papyrus I., was shown by E. de Rougé to refer to
+     Ramses II.; the various readings Sesû, Sesûsû, Sesûstûrî,
+     explain the different forms Sesosis, Sesoosis, Sesostris.
+     Wiedemann saw in this name the mention of a king of the
+     XVIIIth dynasty not yet classified.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      According to tradition, he was at first sent to Ethiopia with a fleet of
+      four hundred ships, by which he succeeded in conquering the coasts of the
+      Red Sea as far as the Indus. In later times several stelæ in the cinnamon
+      country were ascribed to him. He is credited after this with having led
+      into the east a great army, with which he conquered Syria, Media, Persia,
+      Bactriana, and India as far as the ocean; and with having on his return
+      journey through the deserts of Scythia reached the Don [Tanais], where, on
+      the shore of the Masotic Sea, he left a number of his soldiers, whose
+      descendants afterwards peopled Colchis. It was even alleged that he had
+      ventured into Europe, but that the lack of provisions and the inclemency
+      of the climate had prevented him from advancing further than Thrace.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0052" id="linkBimage-0052">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/246.jpg" alt="246.jpg Statue of Khamoisit " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a statue in the
+British Museum.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He returned to Egypt after an absence of nine years, and after having set
+      up on his homeward journey statues and stelæ everywhere in commemoration
+      of his victories. Herodotus asserts that he himself had seen several of
+      these monuments in his travels in Syria and Ionia. Some of these are of
+      genuine Egyptian manufacture, and are to be attributed to our Ramses; they
+      are to be found near Tyre, and on the banks of the Nahr el-Kelb, where
+      they mark the frontier to which his empire extended in this direction.
+      Others have but little resemblance to Egyptian monuments, and were really
+      the work of the Asiatic peoples among whom they were found. The two
+      figures referred to long ago by Herodotus, which have been discovered near
+      Ninfi between Sardis and Smyrna, are instances of the latter.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0053" id="linkBimage-0053">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/247.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="247.jpg Stele of the Nahr El-kelb " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+     from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The shoes of the figures are turned up at the toe, and the head-dress has
+      more resemblance to the high hats of the people of Asia Minor than to the
+      double crown of Egypt, while the lower garment is striped horizontally in
+      place of vertically. The inscription, moreover, is in an Asiatic form of
+      writing, and has nothing Egyptian about it. Ramses II. in his youth was
+      the handsomest man of his time. He was tall and straight; his figure was
+      well moulded&mdash;the shoulders broad, the arms full and vigorous, the
+      legs muscular; the face was oval, with a firm and smiling mouth, a thin
+      aquiline nose, and large open eyes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0054" id="linkBimage-0054">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/248.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="248.jpg the Bas-belief of Ninfi " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0055" id="linkBimage-0055">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/249.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="249.jpg the Coffin and Mummy of Ramses Ii " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph taken from the mummy
+     itself, by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There may be seen below the cartouche the lines of the official report of
+      inspection written during the XXIst dynasty. Old age and death did not
+      succeed in marring the face sufficiently to disfigure it. The coffin
+      containing his body is not the same as that in which his children placed
+      him on the day of his obsequies; it is another substituted for it by one
+      of the Ramessides, and the mask upon it has but a distant resemblance to
+      the face of the victorious Pharaoh. The mummy is thin, much shrunken, and
+      light; the bones are brittle, and the muscles atrophied, as one would
+      expect in the case of a man who had attained the age of a hundred; but the
+      figure is still tall and of perfect proportions.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      * Even after the coalescence of the vertebrae and the shrinkage produced
+      by mummification, the body of Ramses II. still measures over 5 feet 8
+      inches.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The head, which is bald on the top, is somewhat long, and small in
+      relation to the bulk of the body; there is but little hair on the
+      forehead, but at the back of the head it is thick, and in smooth stiff
+      locks, still preserving its white colour beneath the yellow balsams of his
+      last toilet. The forehead is low, the supra-orbital ridges accentuated,
+      the eyebrows thick, the eyes small and set close to the nose, the temples
+      hollow, the cheek-bones prominent; the ears, finely moulded, stand out
+      from the head, and are pierced, like those of a woman, for the usual
+      ornaments pendant from the lobe. A strong jaw and square chin, together,
+      with a large thick-lipped mouth, which reveals through the black paste
+      within it a few much-worn but sound teeth, make up the features of the
+      mummied king. His moustache and beard, which were closely shaven in his
+      lifetime, had grown somewhat in his last sickness or after his death; the
+      coarse and thick hairs in them, white like those of the head and eyebrows,
+      attain a length of two or three millimetres. The skin shows an ochreous
+      yellow colour under the black bituminous plaster. The mask of the mummy,
+      in fact, gives a fair idea of that of the living king; the somewhat
+      unintelligent expression, slightly brutish perhaps, but haughty and firm
+      of purpose, displays itself with an air of royal majesty beneath the
+      sombre materials used by the embalmer. The disappearance of the old hero
+      did not produce many changes in the position of affairs in Egypt:
+      Mînephtah from this time forth possessed as Pharaoh the power which he had
+      previously wielded as regent. He was now no longer young. Born somewhere
+      about the beginning of the reign of Ramses II., he was now sixty, possibly
+      seventy, years old; thus an old man succeeded another old man at a moment
+      when Egypt must have needed more than ever an active and vigorous ruler.
+      The danger to the country did not on this occasion rise from the side of
+      Asia, for the relations of the Pharaoh with his Kharu subjects continued
+      friendly, and, during a famine which desolated Syria,* he sent wheat to
+      his Hittite allies.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A document preserved in the <i>Anastasi Papyrus III.</i> shows
+     how regular the relations with Syria had become. It is the
+     journal of a custom-house officer, or of a scribe placed at
+     one of the frontier posts, who notes from day to day the
+     letters, messengers, officers, and troops which passed from
+     the 15th to the 25th of Pachons, in the IIIrd year of the
+     reign.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The nations, however, to the north and east, in Libya and in the
+      Mediterranean islands, had for some time past been in a restless
+      condition, which boded little good to the empires of the old world. The
+      Tirnihû, some of them tributaries from the XIIth, and others from the
+      first years of the XVIIIth dynasty, had always been troublesome, but never
+      really dangerous neighbours. From time to time it was necessary to send
+      light troops against them, who, sailing along the coast or following the
+      caravan routes, would enter their territory, force them from their
+      retreats, destroy their palm groves, carry off their cattle, and place
+      garrisons in the principal oases&mdash;even in Sîwah itself. For more than
+      a century, however, it would seem that more active and numerically
+      stronger populations had entered upon the stage. A current of invasion,
+      having its origin in the region of the Atlas, or possibly even in Europe,
+      was setting towards the Nile, forcing before it the scattered tribes of
+      the Sudan. Who were these invaders? Were they connected with the race
+      which had planted its dolmens over the plains of the Maghreb? Whatever the
+      answer to this question may be, we know that a certain number of Berber
+      tribes*&mdash;the Labû and Mashaûasha&mdash;who had occupied a middle
+      position between Egypt and the people behind them, and who had only
+      irregular communications with the Nile valley, were now pushed to the
+      front and forced to descend upon it.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The nationality of these tribes is evidenced by the names
+     of their chiefs, which recall exactly those of the
+     Numidians&mdash;Massyla, Massinissa, Massiva.
+
+     ** The Labû, Laûbû, Lobû, are mentioned for the first time
+     under Ramses II.; these are the Libyans of classical
+     geographers. The Mashaûasha answer to the Maxycs of
+     Herodotus; they furnished mercenaries to the armies of
+     Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They were men tall of stature and large of limb, with fair skins, light
+      hair, and blue eyes; everything, in fact, indicating their northern
+      origin. They took pleasure in tattooing the skin, just as the Tuaregs and
+      Kabyles are now accustomed to do, and some, if not all, of them practised
+      circumcision, like a portion of the Egyptians and Semites. In the
+      arrangement of the hair, a curl fell upon the shoulder, while the
+      remainder was arranged in small frizzled locks. Their chiefs and braves
+      wore on their heads two flowering plumes. A loin-cloth, a wild-beast&rsquo;s
+      skin thrown over the back, a mantle, or rather a covering of woollen or
+      dyed cloth, fringed and ornamented with many-coloured needlework, falling
+      from the left shoulder with no attachment in front, so as to leave the
+      body unimpeded in walking,&mdash;these constituted the ordinary costume of
+      the people. Their arms were similar to those of the Egyptians, consisting
+      of the lance, the mace, the iron or copper dagger, the boomerang, the bow
+      and arrow, and the sling.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0056" id="linkBimage-0056">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/253.jpg" width="100%" alt="253.jpg a Libyan " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They also employed horses and chariots. Their bravery made them a foe not
+      to be despised, in spite of their ignorance of tactics and their want of
+      discipline. When they were afterwards formed into regiments and conducted
+      by experienced generals, they became the best auxiliary troops which Egypt
+      could boast of. The Labû from this time forward were the most energetic of
+      the tribes, and their chiefs prided themselves upon possessing the
+      leadership over all the other clans in this region of the world.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This was the case in the wars of Mînephtah and Ramses
+     III., in which the Labû and their kings took the command of
+     the confederate armies assembled against Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Labû might very well have gained the mastery over the other
+      inhabitants of the desert at this period, who had become enfeebled by the
+      frequent defeats which they had sustained at the hands of the Egyptians.
+      At the moment when Mînephtah ascended the throne, their king, Mâraîû, son
+      of Didi, ruled over the immense territory lying between the Fayûm and the
+      two Syrtes: the Timihu, the Kahaka, and the Mashaûasha rendered him the
+      same obedience as his own people. A revolution had thus occurred in Africa
+      similar to that which had taken place a century previously in Naharaim,
+      when Sapalulu founded the Hittite empire. A great kingdom rose into being
+      where no state capable of disturbing Egyptian control had existed before.
+      The danger was serious. The Hittites, separated from the Nile by the whole
+      breadth of Kharu, could not directly threaten any of the Egyptian cities;
+      but the Libyans, lords of the desert, were in contact with the Delta, and
+      could in a few days fall upon any point in the valley they chose.
+      Mînephtah, therefore, hastened to resist the assault of the westerns, as
+      his father had formerly done that of the easterns, and, strange as it may
+      seem, he found among the troops of his new enemies some of the adversaries
+      with whom the Egyptians had fought under the walls of Qodshû sixty years
+      before. The Shardana, Lycians, and others, having left the coasts of the
+      Delta and the Phoenician seaports owing to the vigilant watch kept by the
+      Egyptians over their waters, had betaken themselves to the Libyan
+      littoral, where they met with a favourable reception. Whether they had
+      settled in some places, and formed there those colonies of which a Greek
+      tradition of a recent age speaks, we cannot say. They certainly followed
+      the occupation of mercenary soldiers, and many of them hired out their
+      services to the native princes, while others were enrolled among the
+      troops of the King of the Khâti or of the Pharaoh himself. Mâraîû brought
+      with him Achæans, Shardana, Tûrsha, Shagalasha,* and Lycians in
+      considerable numbers when he resolved to begin the strife.** This was not
+      one of those conventional little wars which aimed at nothing further than
+      the imposition of the payment of a tribute upon the conquered, or the
+      conquest of one of their provinces. Mâraîû had nothing less in view than
+      the transport of his whole people into the Nile valley, to settle
+      permanently there as the Hyksôs had done before him.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Shakalasha, Shagalasha, identified with the Sicilians
+     by E. de Rougé, were a people of Asia Minor whose position
+     there is approximately indicated by the site of the town
+     Sagalassos, named after them.
+
+     ** The <i>Inscription of Mînephtah</i> distinguishes the Libyans
+     of Mâraîû from &ldquo;the people of the Sea.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      He set out on his march towards the end of the IVth year of the Pharaoh&rsquo;s
+      reign, or the beginning of his Vth, surrounded by the elite of his troops,
+      &ldquo;the first choice from among all the soldiers and all the heroes in each
+      land.&rdquo; The announcement of their approach spread terror among the
+      Egyptians. The peace which they had enjoyed for fifty years had cooled
+      their warlike ardour, and the machinery of their military organisation had
+      become somewhat rusty. The standing army had almost melted away; the
+      regiments of archers and charioteers were no longer effective, and the
+      neglected fortresses were not strong enough to protect the frontier. As a
+      consequence, the oases of Farafrah and of the Natron lakes fell into the
+      hands of the enemy at the first attack, and the eastern provinces of the
+      Delta became the possession of the invader before any steps could be taken
+      for their defence. Memphis, which realised the imminent danger, broke out
+      into open murmurs against the negligent rulers who had given no heed to
+      the country&rsquo;s ramparts, and had allowed the garrisons of its fortresses to
+      dwindle away. Fortunately Syria remained quiet. The Khâti, in return for
+      the aid afforded them by Mînephtah during the famine, observed a friendly
+      attitude, and the Pharaoh was thus enabled to withdraw the troops from his
+      Asiatic provinces. He could with perfect security take the necessary
+      measures for ensuring &ldquo;Heliopolis, the city of Tûmû,&rdquo; against surprise,
+      &ldquo;for arming Memphis, the citadel of Phtah-Tonen, and for restoring all
+      things which were in disorder: he fortified Pibalîsît, in the
+      neighbourhood of the Shakana canal, on a branch of that of Heliopolis,&rdquo;
+       and he rapidly concentrated his forces behind these quickly organised
+      lines.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Chabas would identify Pibalîsît with Bubastis; I agree
+     with Brugsch in placing it at Belbeîs.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Mâraîû, however, continued to advance; in the early months of the summer
+      he had crossed the Canopic branch of the Nile, and was now about to encamp
+      not far from the town of Pirici. When the king heard of this &ldquo;he became
+      furious against them as a lion that fascinates its victim; he called his
+      officers together and addressed them: &lsquo;I am about to make you hear the
+      words of your master, and to teach you this: I am the sovereign shepherd
+      who feeds you; I pass my days in seeking out that which is useful for you:
+      I am your father; is there among you a father like me who makes his
+      children live? You are trembling like geese, you do not know what is good
+      to do: no one gives an answer to the enemy, and our desolated land is
+      abandoned to the incursions of all nations. The barbarians harass the
+      frontier, rebels violate it every day, every one robs it, enemies
+      devastate our seaports, they penetrate into the fields of Egypt; if there
+      is an arm of a river they halt there, they stay for days, for months; they
+      come as numerous as reptiles, and no one is able to sweep them back, these
+      wretches who love death and hate life, whose hearts meditate the
+      consummation of our ruin. Behold, they arrive with their chief; they pass
+      their time on the land which they attack in filling their stomachs every
+      day; this is the reason why they come to the land of Egypt, to seek their
+      sustenance, and their intention is to install themselves there; mine is to
+      catch them like fish upon their bellies. Their chief is a dog, a poor
+      devil, a madman; he shall never sit down again in his place.&rsquo;&rdquo; He then
+      announced that on the 14th of Epiphi he would himself conduct the troops
+      against the enemy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These were brave words, but we may fancy the figure that this king of more
+      than sixty years of age would have presented in a chariot in the middle of
+      the fray, and his competence to lead an effective charge against the
+      enemy. On the other hand, his absence in such a critical position of
+      affairs would have endangered the <i>morale</i> of his soldiers and
+      possibly compromised the issue of the battle. A dream settled the whole
+      question.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ed. Meyer sees in this nothing but a customary rhetorical
+     expression, and thinks that the god spoke in order to
+     encourage the king to defend himself vigorously.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      While Mînephtah was asleep one night, he saw a gigantic figure of Phtah
+      standing before him, and forbidding him to advance. &ldquo;&lsquo;Stay,&rsquo; cried the god
+      to him, while handing him the curved khopesh: &lsquo;put away discouragement
+      from thee!&rsquo; His Majesty said to him: &lsquo;But what am I to do then?&rsquo; And Phtah
+      answered him: &lsquo;Despatch thy infantry, and send before it numerous chariots
+      to the confines of the territory of Piriû.&rsquo;&rdquo;**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This name was read Pa-ari by E. de Rougé, Pa-ali by Lauth,
+     and was transcribed Pa-ari-shop by Brugsch, who identified
+     with Prosopitis. The orthography of the text at Athribis
+     shows that we ought to read Piri, Pirû, Piriû; possibly the
+     name is identical with that of larû which is mentioned in
+     the Pyramid-texts.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Pharaoh obeyed the command, and did not stir from his position. Mâraîû
+      had, in the mean time, arranged his attack for the 1st of Epiphi, at the
+      rising of the sun: it did not take place, however, until the 3rd. &ldquo;The
+      archers of His Majesty made havoc of the barbarians for six hours; they
+      were cut off by the edge of the sword.&rdquo; When Mâraîû saw the carnage, &ldquo;he
+      was afraid, his heart failed him; he betook himself to flight as fast as
+      his feet could bear him to save his life, so successfully that his bow and
+      arrows remained behind him in his precipitation, as well as everything
+      else he had upon him.&rdquo; His treasure, his arms, his wife, together with the
+      cattle which he had brought with him for his use, became the prey of the
+      conqueror; &ldquo;he tore out the feathers from his head-dress, and took flight
+      with such of those wretched Libyans as escaped the massacre, but the
+      officers who had the care of His Majesty&rsquo;s team of horses followed in
+      their steps&rdquo; and put most of them to the sword. Mâraîû succeeded, however,
+      in escaping in the darkness, and regained his own country without water or
+      provisions, and almost without escort. The conquering troops returned to
+      the camp laden with booty, and driving before them asses carrying, as
+      bloody tokens of victory, quantities of hands and phalli cut from the dead
+      bodies of the slain. The bodies of six generals and of 6359 Libyan
+      soldiers were found upon the field of battle, together with 222
+      Shagalasha, 724 Tursha, and some hundreds of Shardana and Achæans: several
+      thousands of prisoners passed in procession before the Pharaoh, and were
+      distributed among such of his soldiers as had distinguished themselves.
+      These numbers show the gravity of the danger from which Egypt had escaped:
+      the announcement of the victory filled the country with enthusiasm, all
+      the more sincere because of the reality of the panic which had preceded
+      it. The fellahîn, intoxicated with joy, addressed each other: &ldquo;&lsquo;Come, and
+      let us go a long distance on the road, for there is now no fear in the
+      hearts of men.&lsquo;The fortified posts may at last be left; the citadels are
+      now open; messengers stand at the foot of the walls and wait in the shade
+      for the guard to awake after their siesta, to give them entrance. The
+      military police sleep on their accustomed rounds, and the people of the
+      marshes once more drive their herds to pasture without fear of raids, for
+      there are no longer marauders near at hand to cross the river; the cry of
+      the sentinels is heard no more in the night: &lsquo;Halt, thou that comest, thou
+      that comest under a name which is not thine own&mdash;sheer off!&rsquo; and men
+      no longer exclaim on the following morning: &lsquo;Such or such a thing has been
+      stolen;&rsquo; but the towns fall once more into their usual daily routine, and
+      he who works in the hope of the harvest, will nourish himself upon that
+      which he shall have reaped.&rdquo; The return from Memphis to Thebes was a
+      triumphal march.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0057" id="linkBimage-0057">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:25%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/260.jpg" alt="260.jpg Statue of MÎnephtah " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by Dévéria.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;He is very strong, Binrî Mînephtah,&rdquo; sang the court poets, &ldquo;very wise are
+      his projects&mdash;his words have as beneficial effect as those of Thot&mdash;everything
+      which he does is completed to the end.&mdash;When he is like a guide at
+      the head of his armies&mdash;his voice penetrates the fortress walls.&mdash;Very
+      friendly to those who bow their backs&mdash;before Mîamun&mdash;his
+      valiant soldiers spare him who humbles himself&mdash;before his courage
+      and before his strength;&mdash;they fall upon the Libyans&mdash;they
+      consume the Syrian;&mdash;the Shardana whom thou hast brought back by thy
+      sword&mdash;make prisoners of their own tribes.&mdash;Very happy thy
+      return to Thebes&mdash;victorious! Thy chariot is drawn by hand&mdash;the
+      conquered chiefs march backwards before thee&mdash;whilst thou leadest
+      them to thy venerable father&mdash;Amon, husband of his mother.&rdquo; And the
+      poets amuse themselves with summoning Mâraîû to appear in Egypt, pursued
+      as he was by his own people and obliged to hide himself from them. &ldquo;He is
+      nothing any longer but a beaten man, and has become a proverb among the
+      Labû, and his chiefs repeat to themselves: &lsquo;Nothing of the kind has
+      occurred since the time of Râ.&rsquo; The old men say each one to his children:
+      &lsquo;Misfortune to the Labû! it is all over with them! No one can any longer
+      pass peacefully across the country; but the power of going out of our land
+      has been taken from us in a single day, and the Tihonu have been withered
+      up in a single year; Sûtkhû has ceased to be their chief, and he
+      devastates their &ldquo;duars;&rdquo; there is nothing left but to conceal one&rsquo;s self,
+      and one feels nowhere secure except in a fortress.&rsquo;&rdquo; The news of the
+      victory was carried throughout Asia, and served to discourage the
+      tendencies to revolt which were beginning to make themselves manifest
+      there. &ldquo;The chiefs gave there their salutations of peace, and none among
+      the nomads raised his head after the crushing defeat of the Libyans; Khâti
+      is at peace, Canaan is a prisoner as far as the disaffected are concerned,
+      the inhabitant of Ascalon is led away, Gezer is carried into captivity,
+      Ianuâmîm is brought to nothing, the Israîlû are destroyed and have no
+      longer seed, Kharu is like a widow of the land of Egypt.&rdquo; *
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This passage is taken from a stele discovered by Petrie in
+     1896, on the site of the Amenophium at Thebes. The mention
+     of the Israîlû immediately calls to mind the place-names
+     Yushaph-îlu, Yakob-îlu, on lists of Thûtmosis III. which
+     have been compared with the names Jacob and Joseph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Mînephtah ought to have followed up his opportunity to the end, but he had
+      no such intention, and his inaction gave Mâraîû time to breathe. Perhaps
+      the effort which he had made had exhausted his resources, perhaps old age
+      prevented him from prosecuting his success; he was content, in any case,
+      to station bodies of pickets on the frontier, and to fortify a few new
+      positions to the east of the Delta. The Libyan kingdom was now in the same
+      position as that in which the Hittite had been after the campaign of Seti
+      I.: its power had been checked for the moment, but it remained intact on
+      the Egyptian frontier, awaiting its opportunity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Mînephtah lived for some time after this memorable year* and the number of
+      monuments which belong to this period show that he reigned in peace. We
+      can see that he carried out works in the same places as his father before
+      him; at Tanis as well as Thebes, in Nubia as well as in the Delta. He
+      worked the sandstone quarries for his building materials, and continued
+      the custom of celebrating the feasts of the inundation at Silsileh. One at
+      least of the stelae which he set up on the occasion of these feasts is
+      really a chapel, with its architraves and columns, and still, excites the
+      admiration of the traveller on account both of its form and of its
+      picturesque appearance.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The last known year of his reign is the year VIII. The
+     lists of Manetho assign to him a reign of from twenty to
+     forty years; Brugsch makes it out to have been thirty-four
+     years, from 1300 to 1266 B.C., which is evidently too much,
+     but we may attribute to him without risk of serious error a
+     reign of about twenty years.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The last years of his life were troubled by the intrigues of princes who
+      aspired to the throne, and by the ambition of the ministers to whom he was
+      obliged to delegate his authority.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0058" id="linkBimage-0058">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/263.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="263.jpg the Chapels of Ramses Ii. And Minephtah At Sisileh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One of the latter, a man of Semite origin, named Ben-Azana, of Zor-bisana,
+      who had assumed the appellation of his first patron, ramsesûpirnirî,
+      appears to have acted for him as regent. Mînephtah was succeeded,
+      apparently, by one of his sons, called Seti, after his great-grandfather.*
+      Seti II. had doubtless reached middle age at the time of his accession,
+      but his portraits represent him, nevertheless, with the face and figure of
+      a young man.** The expression in these is gentle, refined, haughty, and
+      somewhat melancholic. MU It is the type of Seti I. and Ramses II., but
+      enfeebled and, as it were, saddened. An inscription of his second year
+      attributes to him victories in Asia,*** but others of the same period
+      indicate the existence of disturbances similar to those which had troubled
+      the last years of his father.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * E. de Rougé introduced Amenmeses and Siphtah between
+     Mînephtah and Seti II., and I had up to the present followed
+     his example; I have come back to the position of Chabas,
+     making Seti II. the immediate successor of Mînephtah, which
+     is also the view of Brugsch, Wiedemann, and Ed. Meyer. The
+     succession as it is now given does not seem to me to be free
+     from difficulties; the solution generally adopted has only
+     the merit of being preferable to that of E. de Rougé, which
+     I previously supported.
+
+     ** The last date known of his reign is the year II. which is
+     found at Silsilis; Chabas was, nevertheless, of the opinion
+     that he reigned a considerable time.
+
+     *** The expressions employed in this document do not vary
+     much from the usual protocol of all kings of this period.
+     The triumphal chant of Seti II. preserved in the <i>Anastasi
+     Papyrus IV</i>. is a copy of the triumphal chant of Mînephtah,
+     which is in the same Papyrus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0059" id="linkBimage-0059">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/264.jpg" width="100%" alt="264.jpg Statue of Seti Ii. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These were occasioned by a certain Aiari, who was high priest of Phtah,
+      and who had usurped titles belonged ordinarily to the Pharaoh or his
+      eldest son, in the house of Sibû, &ldquo;heir and hereditary prince of the two
+      lands.&rdquo; Seti died, it would seem, without having had time to finish his
+      tomb. We do not know whether he left any legitimate children, but two
+      sovereigns succeeded him who were not directly connected with him, but
+      were probably the grandsons of the Amenmesis and the Siphtah, whom we meet
+      with among the children of Ramses. The first of these was also called
+      Amenmesis,* and he held sway for several years over the whole of Egypt,
+      and over its foreign possessions.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Graffiti of this sovereign have been found at the second
+     cataract. Certain expressions have induced E. de Rougé to
+     believe that he, as well as Siphtah, came originally from
+     Khibît in the Aphroditopolite nome. This was an allusion, as
+     Chabas had seen, to the myth of Horus, similar to that
+     relating to Thûtmosis III., and which we more usually meet
+     with in the cases of those kings who were not marked out
+     from their birth onwards for the throne.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0060" id="linkBimage-0060">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/265.jpg" width="100%" alt="265.jpg Seti II. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The second, who was named Siphtah-Mînephtah, ascended &ldquo;the throne of his
+      father&rdquo; thanks to the devotion of his minister Baî,* but in a greater
+      degree to his marriage with a certain princess called Tausirît. He
+      maintained himself in this position for at least six years, during which
+      he made an expedition into Ethiopia, and received in audience at Thebes
+      messengers from all foreign nations. He kept up so zealously the
+      appearance of universal dominion, that to judge from his inscriptions he
+      must have been the equal of the most powerful of his predecessors at
+      Thebes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Egypt, nevertheless, was proceeding at a quick pace towards its downfall.
+      No sooner had this monarch disappeared than it began to break up.** There
+      were no doubt many claimants for the crown, but none of them succeeded in
+      disposing of the claims of his rivals, and anarchy reigned supreme from
+      one end of the Nile valley to the other. The land of Qîmît began to drift
+      away, and the people within it had no longer a sovereign, and this, too,
+      for many years, until other times came; for &ldquo;the land of Qîmît was in the
+      hands of the princes ruling over the nomes, and they put each other to
+      death, both great and small.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Baî has left two inscriptions behind him, one at Silsilis
+     and the other at Sehêl, and the titles he assumes on both
+     monuments show the position he occupied at the Theban court
+     during the reign of Siphtah-Mînephtah. Chabas thought that
+     Baî had succeeded in maintaining his rights to the crown
+     against the claims of Amenmesis.
+
+     ** The little that we know about this period of anarchy has
+     been obtained from the <i>Harris Papyrus</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Other times came afterwards, during years of nothingness, in which Arisu,
+      a Syrian,* was chief among them, and the whole country paid tribute before
+      him; every one plotted with his neighbour to steal the goods of others,
+      and it was the same with regard to the gods as with regard to men,
+      offerings were no longer made in the temples.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of this individual was deciphered by Chabas;
+     Lauth, and after him Krall, were inclined to read it as Ket,
+     Ketesh, in order to identify it with the Ketes of Diodorus
+     Siculus. A form of the name Arisai in the Bible may be its
+     original, or that of Arish which is found in Phoenician,
+     especially Punic, inscriptions.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This was in truth the revenge of the feudal system upon Pharaoh. The
+      barons, kept in check by Ahmosis and Amenôthes I., restricted by the
+      successors of these sovereigns to the position of simple officers of the
+      king, profited by the general laxity to recover as many as possible of
+      their ancient privileges. For half a century and more, fortune had given
+      them as masters only aged princes, not capable of maintaining continuous
+      vigilance and firmness. The invasions of the peoples of the sea, the
+      rivalry of the claimants to the throne, and the intrigues of ministers
+      had, one after the other, served to break the bonds which fettered them,
+      and in one generation they were able to regain that liberty of action of
+      which they had been deprived for centuries. To this state of things Egypt
+      had been drifting from the earliest times. Unity could be maintained only
+      by a continuous effort, and once this became relaxed, the ties which bound
+      the whole country together were soon broken. There was another danger
+      threatening the country beside that arising from the weakening of the
+      hands of the sovereign, and the turbulence of the barons. For some three
+      centuries the Theban Pharaohs were accustomed to bring into the country
+      after each victorious campaign many thousands of captives. The number of
+      foreigners around them had, therefore, increased in a striking manner. The
+      majority of these strangers either died without issue, or their posterity
+      became assimilated to the indigenous inhabitants. In many places, however,
+      they had accumulated in such proportions that they were able to retain
+      among themselves the remembrance of their origin, their religion, and
+      their customs, and with these the natural desire to leave the country of
+      their exile for their former fatherland. As long as a strict watch was
+      kept over them they remained peaceful subjects, but as soon as this
+      vigilance was relaxed rebellion was likely to break out, especially
+      amongst those who worked in the quarries. Traditions of the Greek period
+      contain certain romantic episodes in the history of these captives. Some
+      Babylonian prisoners brought back by Sesostris, these traditions tell us,
+      unable to endure any longer the fatiguing work to which they were
+      condemned, broke out into open revolt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0061" id="linkBimage-0061">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/268.jpg" alt="268.jpg Amenmesis " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+after a picture in
+Rosellini.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      They made themselves masters of a position almost opposite Memphis, and
+      commanding the river, and held their ground there with such obstinacy that
+      it was found necessary to give up to them the province which they
+      occupied: they built here a town, which they afterwards called Babylon. A
+      similar legend attributes the building of the neighbouring village of
+      Troîû to captives from Troy.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The scattered barbarian tribes of the Delta, whether Hebrews or the
+      remnant of the ïïyksôs, had endured there a miserable lot ever since the
+      accession of the Ramessides. The rebuilding of the cities which had been
+      destroyed there during the wars with the Hyksôs had restricted the extent
+      of territory on which they could pasture their herds. Ramses II. treated
+      them as slaves of the treasury,** and the Hebrews were not long under his
+      rule before they began to look back with regret on the time of the
+      monarchs &ldquo;who knew Joseph.&rdquo; **
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name Babylon comes probably from <i>Banbonu, Barbonu,
+     Babonu</i>&mdash;a term which, under the form <i>Hât-Banbonu,</i> served
+     to designate a quarter of Heliopolis, or rather a suburban
+     village of that city. Troja was, as we have seen, the
+     ancient city of Troîû, now Tûrah, celebrated for its
+     quarries of fine limestone. The narratives collected by the
+     historians whom Diodorus consulted were products of the
+     Saite period, and intended to explain to Greeks the
+     existence on Egyptian territory of names recalling those of
+     Babylon in Chaldæa and of Homeric Troy.
+
+     ** A very ancient tradition identifies Ramses II. with the
+     Pharaoh &ldquo;who knew not Joseph&rdquo; (<i>Exod.</i> i. 8). Recent
+     excavations showing that the great works in the east of the
+     Delta began under this king, or under Seti II. at the
+     earliest, confirm in a general way the accuracy of the
+     traditional view: I have, therefore, accepted it in part,
+     and placed the Exodus after the death of Ramses II. Other
+     authorities place it further back, and Lieblein in 1863 was
+     inclined to put it under Amenôthes III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians set over them taskmasters to afflict them with their
+      burdens. And they built for Pharaoh treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses.
+      But the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied and grew. And
+      they were &ldquo;grieved because of the children of Israel.&rdquo; * A secondary
+      version of the same narrative gives a more detailed account of their
+      condition: &ldquo;They made their lives bitter with hard bondage, in mortar and
+      in brick, and in all manner of service in the field.&rdquo; ** The unfortunate
+      slaves awaited only an opportunity to escape from the cruelty of their
+      persecutors.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Exod</i>. i. 11, 12. Excavations made by Naville have
+     brought to light near Tel el-Maskhutah the ruins of one of
+     the towns which the Hebrews of the Alexandrine period
+     identified with the cities constructed by their ancestors in
+     Egypt: the town excavated by Naville is Pitûmû, and
+     consequently the Pithom of the Biblical account, and at the
+     same time also the Succoth of Exod. xii. 37, xiii. 20, the
+     first station of the Bnê-Israel after leaving Ramses.
+
+     ** <i>Exod,</i> i. 13, 14.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The national traditions of the Hebrews inform us that the king, in
+      displeasure at seeing them increase so mightily notwithstanding his
+      repression, commanded the midwives to strangle henceforward their male
+      children at their birth. A woman of the house of Levi, after having
+      concealed her infant for three months, put him in an ark of bulrushes and
+      consigned him to the Nile, at a place where the daughter of Pharaoh was
+      accustomed to bathe. The princess on perceiving the child had compassion
+      on him, adopted him, called him Moses&mdash;saved from the waters&mdash;and
+      had him instructed in all the knowledge of the Egyptians. Moses had
+      already attained forty years of age, when he one day encountered an
+      Egyptian smiting a Hebrew, and slew him in his anger, shortly afterwards
+      fleeing into the land of Midian. Here he found an asylum, and Jethro the
+      priest gave him one of his daughters in marriage. After forty years of
+      exile, God, appearing to him in a burning bush, sent him to deliver His
+      people. The old Pharaoh was dead, but Moses and his brother Aaron betook
+      themselves to the court of the new Pharaoh, and demanded from him
+      permission for the Hebrews to sacrifice in the desert of Arabia. They
+      obtained it, as we know, only after the infliction of the ten plagues, and
+      after the firstborn of the Egyptians had been stricken.* The emigrants
+      started from Ramses; as they were pursued by a body of troops, the Sea
+      parted its waters to give them passage over the dry ground, and closing up
+      afterwards on the Egyptian hosts, overwhelmed them to a man. Thereupon
+      Moses and the children of Israel sang this song unto Jahveh, saying:
+      &ldquo;Jahveh is my strength and song&mdash;and He has become my salvation.&mdash;This
+      is my God, and I will praise Him,&mdash;my father&rsquo;s God, and I will exalt
+      Him.&mdash;The Lord is a man of war,&mdash;and Jahveh is His name.&mdash;Pharaoh&rsquo;s
+      chariots and his hosts hath He cast into the sea, &mdash;and his chosen
+      captains are sunk in the sea of weeds.&mdash;The deeps cover them&mdash;they
+      went down into the depths like a stone.... The enemy said: &lsquo;I will pursue,
+      I will overtake&mdash;I will divide the spoil&mdash;my lust shall be
+      satiated upon them&mdash;I will draw my sword&mdash;my hand shall destroy
+      them.&rsquo;&mdash;Thou didst blow with Thy wind&mdash;the sea covered them&mdash;they
+      sank as lead in the mighty waters.&rdquo; **
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Exod.</i> ii.-xiii. I have limited myself here to a summary
+     of the Biblical narrative, without entering into a criticism
+     of the text, which I leave to others.
+
+     ** <i>Exod.</i> xv. 1-10 (R.V.)
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      From this narrative we see that the Hebrews, or at least those of them who
+      dwelt in the Delta, made their escape from their oppressors, and took
+      refuge in the solitudes of Arabia. According to the opinion of accredited
+      historians, this Exodus took place in the reign of Mînephtah, and the
+      evidence of the triumphal inscription, lately discovered by Prof. Petrie,
+      seems to confirm this view, in relating that the people of Israîlû were
+      destroyed, and had no longer a seed. The context indicates pretty clearly
+      that these ill-treated Israîlû were then somewhere south of Syria,
+      possibly in the neighbourhood of Ascalon and Glezer. If it is the Biblical
+      Israelites who are here mentioned for the first time on an Egyptian
+      monument, one might suppose that they had just quitted the land of slavery
+      to begin their wanderings through the desert. Although the peoples of the
+      sea and the Libyans did not succeed in reaching their settlements in the
+      land of Goshen, the Israelites must have profited both by the disorder
+      into which the Egyptians were thrown by the invaders, and by the
+      consequent withdrawal to Memphis of the troops previously stationed on the
+      east of the Delta, to break away from their servitude and cross the
+      frontier. If, on the other hand, the Israîlû of Mînephtah are regarded as
+      a tribe still dwelling among the mountains of Canaan, while the greater
+      part of the race had emigrated to the banks of the Nile, there is no need
+      to seek long after Mînephtah for a date suiting the circumstances of the
+      Exodus. The years following the reign of Seti II. offer favourable
+      conditions for such a dangerous enterprise: the break-up of the monarchy,
+      the discords of the barons, the revolts among the captives, and the
+      supremacy of a Semite over the other chiefs, must have minimised the risk.
+      We can readily understand how, in the midst of national disorders, a tribe
+      of foreigners weary of its lot might escape from its settlements and
+      betake itself towards Asia without meeting with strenous opposition from
+      the Pharaoh, who would naturally be too much preoccupied with his own
+      pressing necessities to trouble himself much over the escape of a band of
+      serfs.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Having crossed the Red Sea, the Israelites pursued their course to the
+      north-east on the usual road leading into Syria, and then turning towards
+      the south, at length arrived at Sinai. It was a moment when the nations of
+      Asia were stirring. To proceed straight to Canaan by the beaten track
+      would have been to run the risk of encountering their moving hordes, or of
+      jostling against the Egyptian troops, who still garrisoned the strongholds
+      of the She-phelah. The fugitives had, therefore, to shun the great
+      military roads if they were to avoid coming into murderous conflict with
+      the barbarians, or running into the teeth of Pharaoh&rsquo;s pursuing army. The
+      desert offered an appropriate asylum to people of nomadic inclinations
+      like themselves; they betook themselves to it as if by instinct, and spent
+      there a wandering life for several generations.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This explanation of the wanderings of the Israelites has
+     been doubted by most historians: it has a cogency, once we
+     admit the reality of the sojourn in Egypt and the Exodus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The traditions collected in their sacred books described at length their
+      marches and their halting-places, the great sufferings they endured, and
+      the striking miracles which God performed on their behalf.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The itinerary of the Hebrew people through the desert
+     contains a very small number of names which were not
+     actually in use. They represent possibly either the stations
+     at which the caravans of the merchants put up, or the
+     localities where the Bedawin and their herds were accustomed
+     to sojourn. The majority of them cannot be identified, but
+     enough can still be made out to give us a general idea of
+     the march of the emigrants.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Moses conducted them through all these experiences, continually troubled
+      by their murmurings and seditions, but always ready to help them out of
+      the difficulties into which they were led, on every occasion, by their
+      want of faith. He taught them, under God&rsquo;s direction, how to correct the
+      bitterness of brackish waters by applying to them the wood of a certain
+      tree.* When they began to look back with regret to the &ldquo;flesh-pots of
+      Egypt&rdquo; and the abundance of food there, another signal miracle was
+      performed for them. &ldquo;At even the quails came up and covered the camp, and
+      in the morning the dew lay round about the host; and when the dew that lay
+      was gone up, behold, upon the face of the wilderness there lay a small
+      round thing, as small as the hoar frost on the ground. And when the
+      children of Israel saw it, they said one to another, &lsquo;What is it? &lsquo;for
+      they wist not what it was. And Moses said unto them, &lsquo;It is the bread
+      which the Lord hath given you to eat.&rsquo;&rdquo;**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Exod.</i> xv. 23-25. The station Marah, &ldquo;the bitter waters,&rdquo;
+      is identified by modern tradition with Ain Howarah. There is
+     a similar way of rendering waters potable still in use among
+     the Bedawin of these regions.
+
+     ** <i>Exod.</i> xvi. 13-15.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;And the house of Israel called the name thereof &lsquo;manna: &lsquo;and it was like
+      coriander seed, white; and the taste of it was like wafers made with
+      honey.&rdquo; * &ldquo;And the children of Israel did eat the manna forty years, until
+      they came to a land inhabited; they did eat the manna until they came unto
+      the borders of the land of Canaan.&rdquo; ** Further on, at Eephidim, the water
+      failed: Moses struck the rocks at Horeb, and a spring gushed out.*** The
+      Amalekites, in the meantime, began to oppose their passage; and one might
+      naturally doubt the power of a rabble of slaves, unaccustomed to war, to
+      break through such an obstacle. Joshua was made their general, &ldquo;and Moses,
+      Aaron, and Hur went up to the top of the hill: and it came to pass, when
+      Moses held up his hand, that Israel prevailed, and when he let down his
+      hand, Amalek prevailed. But Moses&rsquo; hands were heavy; and they took a
+      stone, and put it under him, and he sat thereon; and Aaron and Hur stayed
+      up his hands, the one on the one side, and the other on the other side,
+      and his hands were steady until the going down of the sun. And Joshua
+      discomfited Amalek and his people with the edge of the sword.&rdquo; ****
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Exod.</i> xvi. 31. Prom early times the manna of the Hebrews
+     had been identified with the mann-es-sama, &ldquo;the gift of
+     heaven,&rdquo; of the Arabs, which exudes in small quantities from
+     the leaves of the tamarisk after being pricked by insects:
+     the question, however, is still under discussion whether
+     another species of vegetable manna may not be meant.
+
+     ** <i>Exod.</i> xvi. 35.
+
+     *** <i>Exod.</i> xvii. 1-7. There is a general agreement as to
+     the identification of Rephidim with the Wady Peîrân, the
+     village of Pharan of the Græco-Roman geographers.
+
+     **** Exod. xvii. 8-13.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Three months after the departure of the Israelites from Egypt they
+      encamped at the foot of Sinai, and &ldquo;the Lord called unto Moses out of the
+      mountain, saying, &lsquo;Thus shalt thou say to the house of Jacob, and tell the
+      children of Israel: Ye have seen what I did unto the Egyptians, and how I
+      bare you on eagles&rsquo; wings, and brought you unto Myself. Now therefore, if
+      ye will obey My voice indeed, and keep My covenant, then ye shall be a
+      peculiar treasure unto Me from among all peoples: for all the earth is
+      Mine: and ye shall be unto Me a kingdom of priests, and an holy nation.&rsquo;
+      The people answered together and said, &lsquo;All that the Lord hath spoken we
+      will do.&rsquo; And the Lord said unto Moses, &lsquo;Lo, I come unto thee in a thick
+      cloud, that the people may hear when I speak with thee, and may also
+      believe thee for ever.&rsquo;&rdquo; &ldquo;On the third day, when it was morning, there
+      were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the mount, and the
+      voice of a trumpet exceeding loud; and all the people that were in the
+      camp trembled. And Moses brought forth the people out of the camp to meet
+      God; and they stood at the nether part of the mountain. And Mount Sinai
+      was altogether on smoke, because the Lord descended upon it in fire: and
+      the smoke thereof ascended as the smoke of a furnace, and the whole mount
+      quaked greatly. And when the voice of the trumpet waxed louder and louder,
+      Moses spake, and God answered him by a voice.&rdquo; *
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Exod.</i> xix. 3-6, 9, 16-19.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Then followed the giving of the supreme law, the conditions of the
+      covenant which the Lord Himself deigned to promulgate directly to His
+      people. It was engraved on two tables of stone, and contained, in ten
+      concise statements, the commandments which the Creator of the Universe
+      imposed upon the people of His choice.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;I. I am Jahveh, which brought thee out of the land of Egypt. Thou shalt
+      have none other gods before Me.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      II. Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image, etc.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      III. Thou shalt not take the name of Jahveh thy God in vain.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      IV. Remember the sabbath day to keep it holy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      V. Honour thy father and thy mother.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      VI. Thou shalt do no murder.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      VII. Thou shalt not commit adultery.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      VIII. Thou shalt not steal.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      IX. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      X. Thou shalt not covet.&rdquo; *
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We have two forms of the Decalogue&mdash;one in <i>Exod.</i> xx. 2-
+     17, and the other in <i>Deut.</i> v. 6-18.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;And all the people saw the thunderings, and the lightnings, and the voice
+      of the trumpet, and the mountain smoking: and when the people saw it, they
+      trembled, and stood afar off. And they said unto Moses, &lsquo;Speak thou with
+      us, and we will hear: but let not God speak with us, lest we die.&rsquo;&rdquo;* God
+      gave His commandments to Moses in instalments as the circumstances
+      required them: on one occasion the rites of sacrifice, the details of the
+      sacerdotal vestments, the mode of consecrating the priests, the
+      composition of the oil and the incense for the altar; later on, the
+      observance of the three annual festivals, and the orders as to absolute
+      rest on the seventh day, as to the distinctions between clean and unclean
+      animals, as to drink, as to the purification of women, and lawful and
+      unlawful marriages.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Exod.</i> xx. 18, 19.
+
+     ** This legislation and the history of the circumstances on
+     which it was promulgated are contained in four of the books
+     of the Pentateuch, viz. <i>Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
+     Deuteronomy</i>. Any one of the numerous text-books published
+     in Germany will be found to contain an analysis of these
+     books, and the prevalent opinions as to the date of the
+     documents which it [the Hexateuch] contains. I confine
+     myself here and afterwards only to such results as may fitly
+     be used in a general history.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The people waited from week to week until Jahveh had completed the
+      revelation of His commands, and in their impatience broke the new law more
+      than once. On one occasion, when &ldquo;Moses delayed to come out of the mount,&rdquo;
+       they believed themselves abandoned by heaven, and obliged Aaron, the high
+      priest, to make for them a golden calf, before which they offered burnt
+      offerings. The sojourn of the people at the foot of Sinai lasted eleven
+      months. At the end of this period they set out once more on their slow
+      marches to the Promised Land, guided during the day by a cloud, and during
+      the night by a pillar of fire, which moved before them. This is a general
+      summary of what we find in the sacred writings.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Israelites, when they set out from Egypt, were not yet a nation. They
+      were but a confused horde, flying with their herds from their pursuers;
+      with no resources, badly armed, and unfit to sustain the attack of regular
+      troops. After leaving Sinai, they wandered for some time among the
+      solitudes of Arabia Petraea in search of some uninhabited country where
+      they could fix their tents, and at length settled on the borders of
+      Idumaea, in the mountainous region surrounding Kadesh-Barnea.* Kadesh had
+      from ancient times a reputation for sanctity among the Bedawin of the
+      neighbourhood: it rejoiced in the possession of a wonderful well&mdash;the
+      Well of Judgment&mdash;to which visits were made for the purpose of
+      worship, and for obtaining the &ldquo;judgment&rdquo; of God. The country is a poor
+      one, arid and burnt up, but it contains wells which never fail, and wadys
+      suitable for the culture of wheat and for the rearing of cattle. The tribe
+      which became possessed of a region in which there was a perennial supply
+      of water was fortunate indeed, and a fragment of the psalmody of Israel at
+      the time of their sojourn here still echoes in a measure the transports of
+      joy which the people gave way to at the discovery of a new spring: &ldquo;Spring
+      up, O well; sing ye unto it: the well which the princes digged, which the
+      nobles of the people delved with the sceptre and with their staves.&rdquo; **
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The site of Kadesh-Barnea appears to have been fixed with
+     certainty at Ain-Qadis by C. Trumbull.
+
+     ** <i>Numb.</i> xxi. 17, 18. The context makes it certain that
+     this song was sung at Beer, beyond the Arnon, in the land of
+     Moab. It has long been recognised that it had a special
+     reference, and that it refers to an incident in the
+     wanderings of the people through the desert.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The wanderers took possession of this region after some successful brushes
+      with the enemy, and settled there, without being further troubled by their
+      neighbours or by their former masters. The Egyptians, indeed, absorbed in
+      their civil discords, or in wars with foreign nations, soon forgot their
+      escaped slaves, and never troubled themselves for centuries over what had
+      become of the poor wretches, until in the reign of the Ptolemies, when
+      they had learned from the Bible something of the people of God, they began
+      to seek in their own annals for traces of their sojourn in Egypt and of
+      their departure from the country. A new version of the Exodus was the
+      result, in which Hebrew tradition was clumsily blended with the materials
+      of a semi-historical romance, of which Amenôthes III. was the hero. His
+      minister and namesake, Amenôthes, son of Hâpû, left ineffaceable
+      impressions on the minds of the inhabitants of Thebes: he not only erected
+      the colossal figures in the Amenophium, but he constructed the chapel at
+      Deîr el-Medineh, which was afterwards restored in Ptolemaic times, and
+      where he continued to be worshipped as long as the Egyptian religion
+      lasted. Profound knowledge of the mysteries of magic were attributed to
+      him, as in later times to Prince Khâmoîsît, son of Ramses II. On this
+      subject he wrote certain works which maintained their reputation for more
+      than a thousand years after his death,* and all that was known about him
+      marked him out for the important part he came to play in those romantic
+      stories so popular among the Egyptians.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * One of these books, which is mentioned in several
+     religious texts, is preserved in the <i>Louvre Papyrus</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Pharaoh in whose good graces he lived had a desire, we are informed,
+      to behold the gods, after the example of his ancestor Horus. The son of
+      Hâpû, or Pa-Apis, informed him that he could not succeed in his design
+      until he had expelled from the country all the lepers and unclean persons
+      who contaminated it. Acting on this information, he brought together all
+      those who suffered from physical defects, and confined them, to the number
+      of eighty thousand, in the quarries of Tûrah. There were priests among
+      them, and the gods became wrathful at the treatment to which their
+      servants were exposed; the soothsayer, therefore, fearing the divine
+      anger, predicted that certain people would shortly arise who, forming an
+      alliance with the Unclean, would, together with them, hold sway in Egypt
+      for thirteen years. He then committed suicide, but the king nevertheless
+      had compassion on the outcasts, and granted to them, for their exclusive
+      use, the town of Avaris, which had been deserted since the time of
+      Ahmosis. The outcasts formed themselves into a nation under the rule of a
+      Heliopolitan priest called Osarsyph, or Moses, who gave them laws,
+      mobilised them, and joined his forces with the descendants of the
+      Shepherds at Jerusalem. The Pharaoh Amenôphis, taken by surprise at this
+      revolt, and remembering the words of his minister Amenôthes, took flight
+      into Ethiopia. The shepherds, in league with the Unclean, burned the
+      towns, sacked the temples, and broke in pieces the statues of the gods:
+      they forced the Egyptian priests to slaughter even their sacred animals,
+      to cut them up and cook them for their foes, who ate them derisively in
+      their accustomed feasts. Amenôphis returned from Ethiopia, together with
+      his son Ramses, at the end of thirteen years, defeated the enemy, driving
+      them back into Syria, where the remainder of them became later on the
+      Jewish nation.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A list of the Pharaohs after Aï, as far as it is possible
+     to make them out, is here given:
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0062" id="linkBimage-0062">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/281.jpg" width="100%" alt="281.jpg Table " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This is but a romance, in which a very little history is mingled with a
+      great deal of fable: the scribes as well as the people were acquainted
+      with the fact that Egypt had been in danger of dissolution at the time
+      when the Hebrews left the banks of the Nile, but they were ignorant of the
+      details, of the precise date and of the name of the reigning Pharaoh. A
+      certain similarity in sound suggested to them the idea of assimilating the
+      prince whom the Chroniclers called Menepthes or Amenepthes with
+      Amen-ôthes, i.e. Amenophis III.; and they gave to the Pharaoh of the XIXth
+      dynasty the minister who had served under a king of the XVIIIth: they
+      metamorphosed at the same time the Hebrews into lepers allied with the
+      Shepherds. From this strange combination there resulted a narrative which
+      at once fell in with the tastes of the lovers of the marvellous, and was a
+      sufficient substitute for the truth which had long since been forgotten.
+      As in the case of the Egyptians of the Greek period, we can see only
+      through a fog what took place after the deaths of Mînephtah and Seti II.
+      We know only for certain that the chiefs of the nomes were in perpetual
+      strife with each other, and that a foreign power was dominant in the
+      country as in the time of Apôphis. The days of the empire would have
+      Harmhabî himself belonged to the XVIIIth dynasty, for he modelled the form
+      of his cartouches on those of the Ahmesside Pharaohs: the XIXth dynasty
+      began only, in all probability, with Ramses I., but the course of the
+      history has compelled me to separate Harmhabî from his predecessors. Not
+      knowing the length of the reigns, we cannot determine the total duration
+      of the dynasty: we shall not, however, be far wrong in assigning to it a
+      length of 130 years or thereabouts, i.e. from 1350 to somewhere near 1220
+      B.C. been numbered if a deliverer had not promptly made his appearance.
+      The direct line of Ramses II. was extinct, but his innumerable sons by
+      innumerable concubines had left a posterity out of which some at least
+      might have the requisite ability and zeal, if not to save the empire, at
+      least to lengthen its duration, and once more give to Thebes days of
+      glorious prosperity. Egypt had set out some five centuries before this for
+      the conquest of the world, and fortune had at first smiled upon her
+      enterprise. Thûtmosis I., Thûtmosis III., and the several Pharaohs bearing
+      the name of Amenôthes had marched with their armies from the upper waters
+      of the Nile to the banks of the Euphrates, and no power had been able to
+      withstand them. New nations, however, soon rose up to oppose her, and the
+      Hittites in Asia and the Libyans of the Sudan together curbed her
+      ambition. Neither the triumphs of Ramses II. nor the victory of Mînephtah
+      had been able to restore her prestige, or the lands of which her rivals
+      had robbed her beyond her ancient frontier. Now her own territory itself
+      was threatened, and her own well-being was in question; she was compelled
+      to consider, not how to rule other tribes, great or small, but how to keep
+      her own possessions intact and independent: in short, her very existence
+      was at stake.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkC2H_4_0001" id="linkC2H_4_0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="285 (96K)" src="images/285.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <i>THE CLOSE OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE</i>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>RAMSES III.&mdash;THE THEBAN CITY UNDER THE RAMESSIDES&mdash;MANNERS
+      AND CUSTOMS.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Nalthtâsît and Ramses III.: the decline of the military spirit in Egypt&mdash;The
+      reorganisation of the army and fleet by Ramses&mdash;The second Libyan
+      invasion&mdash;The Asiatic peoples, the Pulasati, the Zakleala, and the
+      Tyrseni: their incursions into Syria and their defeat&mdash;The campaign
+      of the year XL and the fall of the Libyan kingdom&mdash;Cruising on the
+      Red Sea&mdash;The buildings at Medinet-Habû&mdash;The conspiracy of
+      Pentaûîrît&mdash;The mummy of Ramses III.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The sons and immediate successors of Ramses III.&mdash;Thebes and the
+      Egyptian population: the transformation of the people and of the great
+      lords: the feudal system from being military becomes religious&mdash;The
+      wealth of precious metals, jewellery, furniture, costume&mdash;Literary
+      education, and the influence of the Semitic language on the Egyptian:
+      romantic stories, the historical novel, fables, caricatures and satires,
+      collections of maxims and moral dialogues, love-poems.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkC2HCH0001" id="linkC2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a> <a name="linkCimage-0005" id="linkCimage-0005">
+      <!-- IMG --></a><br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/287.jpg" width="100%" alt="287.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER III&mdash;THE CLOSE OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Ramses III.&mdash;The Theban city under the Ramessides&mdash;Manners
+      and customs.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As in a former crisis, Egypt once more owed her salvation to a scion of
+      the old Theban race. A descendant of Seti I. or Ramses II., named
+      Nakhtûsît, rallied round him the forces of the southern nomes, and
+      succeeded, though not without difficulty, in dispossessing the Syrian
+      Arisû. &ldquo;When he arose, he was like Sûtkhû, providing for all the
+      necessities of the country which, for feebleness, could not stand, killing
+      the rebels which were in the Delta, purifying the great throne of Egypt;
+      he was regent of the two lands in the place of Tûmû, setting himself to
+      reorganise that which had been overthrown, to such good purpose, that each
+      one recognised as brethren those who had been separated from him as by a
+      wall for so long a time, strengthening the temples by pious gifts, so that
+      the traditional rites could be celebrated at the divine cycles.&rdquo; *
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The exact relationship between Nakhtûsît and Ramses II. is
+     not known; he was probably the grandson or great-grandson of
+     that sovereign, though Ed. Meyer thinks he was perhaps the
+     son of Seti II. The name should be read either Nakhîtsît,
+     with the singular of the first word composing it, or
+     Nakhîtûsît, Nakhtûsît, with the plural, as in the analogous
+     name of the king of the XXXth dynasty, Nectanebo.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0006" id="linkCimage-0006">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/289.jpg" alt="289.jpg NakhtÛsÎt. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Many were the difficulties that he had to encounter before he could
+      restore to his country that peace and wealth which she had enjoyed under
+      the long reign of Sesostris. It seems probable that his advancing years
+      made him feel unequal to the task, or that he desired to guard against the
+      possibility of disturbances in the event of his sudden death; at all
+      events, he associated with himself on the throne his eldest son Ramses&mdash;not,
+      however, as a Pharaoh who had full rights to the crown, like the
+      coadjutors of the Amenemhâîts and Usirtasens, but as a prince invested
+      with extraordinary powers, after the example of the sons of the Pharaohs
+      Thûtmosis and Seti I. Ramses recalls with pride, towards the close of his
+      life, how his father &ldquo;had promoted him to the dignity of heir-presumptive
+      to the throne of Sibû,&rdquo; and how he had been acclaimed as &ldquo;the supreme head
+      of Qimît for the administration of the whole earth united together.&rdquo; * This
+      constituted the rise of a new dynasty on the ruins of the old&mdash;the
+      last, however, which was able to retain the supremacy of Egypt over the
+      Oriental world. We are unable to ascertain how long this double reign
+      lasted.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The only certain monument that we as yet possess of this
+     double reign is a large stele cut on the rock behind
+     Medinet-Habû.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nakhtûsît, fully occupied by enemies within the country, had no leisure
+      either to build or to restore any monuments;* on his death, as no tomb had
+      been prepared for him, his mummy was buried in that of the usurper Siphtah
+      and the Queen Tausirît.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Wiedemann attributes to him the construction of one of the
+     doors of the temple of Mût at Karnak; it would appear that
+     there is a confusion in his notes between the prenomen of
+     this sovereign and that of Seti II., who actually did
+     decorate one of the doorways of that temple. Nakhûsît must
+     have also worked on the temple of Phtah at Memphis. His
+     cartouche is met with on a statue originally dedicated by a
+     Pharaoh of the XIIth dynasty, discovered at Tell-Nebêsheh.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was soon forgotten, and but few traces of his services survived him;
+      his name was subsequently removed from the official list of the kings,
+      while others not so deserving as he&mdash;as, for instance,
+      Siphtah-Minephtah and Amenmesis&mdash;were honourably inscribed in it. The
+      memory of his son overshadowed his own, and the series of the legitimate
+      kings who formed the XXth dynasty did not include him. Ramses III. took
+      for his hero his namesake, Ramses the Great, and endeavoured to rival him
+      in everything. This spirit of imitation was at times the means of leading
+      him to commit somewhat puerile acts, as, for example, when he copied
+      certain triumphal inscriptions word for word, merely changing the dates
+      and the cartouches,* or when he assumed the prenomen of Usirmârî, and
+      distributed among his male children the names and dignities of the sons of
+      Sesostris. We see, moreover, at his court another high priest of Phtah at
+      Memphis bearing the name of Khâmoîsît, and Marîtûmû, another supreme
+      pontiff of Râ in Heliopolis. However, this ambition to resemble his
+      ancestor at once instigated him to noble deeds, and gave him the necessary
+      determination to accomplish them.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Thus the great decree of Phtah-Totûnen, carved by Ramses
+     II. in the year XXXV. on the rocks of Abu Simbel, was copied
+     by Ramses III. at Medinet-Habû in the year XII.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He began by restoring order in the administration of affairs; &ldquo;he
+      established truth, crushed error, purified the temple from all crime,&rdquo; and
+      made his authority felt not only in the length and breadth of the Nile
+      valley, but in what was still left of the Asiatic provinces. The
+      disturbances of the preceding years had weakened the prestige of Amon-Râ,
+      and the king&rsquo;s supremacy would have been seriously endangered, had any one
+      arisen in Syria of sufficient energy to take advantage of the existing
+      state of affairs. But since the death of Khâtusaru, the power of the Khâti
+      had considerably declined, and they retained their position merely through
+      their former prestige; they were in as much need of peace, or even more
+      so, than the Egyptians, for the same discords which had harassed the
+      reigns of Seti II. and his successors had doubtless brought trouble to
+      their own sovereigns. They had made no serious efforts to extend their
+      dominion over any of those countries which had been the objects of the
+      cupidity of their forefathers, while the peoples of Kharu and Phoenicia,
+      thrown back on their own resources, had not ventured to take up arms
+      against the Pharaoh. The yoke lay lightly upon them, and in no way
+      hampered their internal liberty; they governed as they liked, they
+      exchanged one prince or chief for another, they waged petty wars as of
+      old, without, as a rule, exposing themselves to interference from the
+      Egyptian troops occupying the country, or from the &ldquo;royal messengers.&rdquo;
+       These vassal provinces had probably ceased to pay tribute, or had done so
+      irregularly, during the years of anarchy following the death of Siphtah,
+      but they had taken no concerted action, nor attempted any revolt, so that
+      when Ramses III. ascended the throne he was spared the trouble of
+      reconquering them. He had merely to claim allegiance to have it at once
+      rendered him&mdash;an allegiance which included the populations in the
+      neighbourhood of Qodshû and on the banks of the Nahr el-Kelb. The empire,
+      which had threatened to fall to pieces amid the civil wars, and which
+      would indeed have succumbed had they continued a few years longer, again
+      revived now that an energetic prince had been found to resume the
+      direction of affairs, and to weld together those elements which had been
+      on the point of disintegration.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      One state alone appeared to regret the revival of the Imperial power; this
+      was the kingdom of Libya. It had continued to increase in size since the
+      days of Mînephtah, and its population had been swelled by the annexation
+      of several strange tribes inhabiting the vast area of the Sahara. One of
+      these, the Mashaûasha, acquired the ascendency among these desert races
+      owing to their numbers and valour, and together with the other tribes&mdash;the
+      Sabati, the Kaiakasha, the Shaîû, the Hasa, the Bikana, and the Qahaka*&mdash;formed
+      a confederacy, which now threatened Egypt on the west. This federation was
+      conducted by Didi, Mashaknû, and Mâraîû, all children of that Mâraîû who
+      had led the first Libyan invasion, and also by Zamarû and Zaûtmarû, two
+      princes of less important tribes.** Their combined forces had attacked
+      Egypt for the second time during the years of anarchy, and had gained
+      possession one after another of all the towns in the west of the Delta,
+      from the neighbourhood of Memphis to the town of Qarbîna: the Canopic
+      branch of the Nile now formed the limit of their dominion, and they often
+      crossed it to devastate the central provinces.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This enumeration is furnished by the summary of the
+     campaigns of Ramses III. in <i>The Great Harris Papyrus</i>. The
+     Sabati of this text are probably identical with the people
+     of the Sapudiu or Spudi (Asbytse), mentioned on one of the
+     pylons of Medinet-Habû.
+
+     ** The relationship is nowhere stated, but it is thought to
+     be probable from the names of Didi and Mâraîû, repeated in
+     both series of inscriptions.
+
+     *** The town of Qarbîna has been identified with the Canopus
+     of the Greeks, and also with the modern Korbani; and the
+     district of Gautu, which adjoined it, with the territory of
+     the modern town of Edkô. Spiegel-berg throws doubt on the
+     identification of Qarbu or Qarbîna, with Canopus. Révillout
+     prefers to connect Qarbîna with Heracleopolis Parva in Lower
+     Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nakhtûsîti had been unable to drive them out, and Ramses had not ventured
+      on the task immediately after his accession. The military institutions of
+      the country had become totally disorganised after the death of Mînephtah,
+      and that part of the community responsible for furnishing the army with
+      recruits had been so weakened by the late troubles, that they were in a
+      worse condition than before the first Libyan invasion. The losses they had
+      suffered since Egypt began its foreign conquests had not been repaired by
+      the introduction of fresh elements, and the hope of spoil was now
+      insufficient to induce members of the upper classes to enter the army.
+      There was no difficulty in filling the ranks from the fellahîn, but the
+      middle class and the aristocracy, accustomed to ease and wealth, no longer
+      came forward in large numbers, and disdained the military profession. It
+      was the fashion in the schools to contrast the calling of a scribe with
+      that of a foot-soldier or a charioteer, and to make as merry over the
+      discomforts of a military occupation as it had formerly been the fashion
+      to extol its glory and profitableness. These scholastic exercises
+      represented the future officer dragged as a child to the barracks, &ldquo;the
+      side-lock over his ear.&mdash;He is beaten and his sides are covered with
+      scars,&mdash;he is beaten and his two eyebrows are marked with wounds,&mdash;he
+      is beaten and his head is broken by a badly aimed blow; he is stretched on
+      the ground&rdquo; for the slightest fault, &ldquo;and blows fall on him as on a
+      papyrus,&mdash;and he is broken by the stick.&rdquo; His education finished, he
+      is sent away to a distance, to Syria or Ethiopia, and fresh troubles
+      overtake him. &ldquo;His victuals and his supply of water are about his neck
+      like the burden of an ass,&mdash;and his neck and throat suffer like those
+      of an ass,&mdash;so that the joints of his spine are broken.&mdash;He
+      drinks putrid water, keeping perpetual guard the while.&rdquo; His fatigues soon
+      tell upon his health and vigour: &ldquo;Should he reach the enemy,&mdash;he is
+      like a bird which trembles.&mdash;Should he return to Egypt,&mdash;he is
+      like a piece of old worm-eaten wood.&mdash;He is sick and must lie down,
+      he is carried on an ass,&mdash;while thieves steal his linen,&mdash;and
+      his slaves escape.&rdquo; The charioteer is not spared either. He, doubtless,
+      has a moment of vain-glory and of flattered vanity when he receives,
+      according to regulations, a new chariot and two horses, with which he
+      drives at a gallop before his parents and his fellow-villagers; but once
+      having joined his regiment, he is perhaps worse off than the foot-soldier.
+      &ldquo;He is thrown to the ground among thorns:&mdash;a scorpion wounds him in
+      the foot, and his heel is pierced by its sting.&mdash;When his kit is
+      examined,&mdash;his misery is at its height.&rdquo; No sooner has the fact been
+      notified that his arms are in a bad condition, or that some article has
+      disappeared, than &ldquo;he is stretched on the ground&mdash;and overpowered
+      with blows from a stick.&rdquo; This decline of the warlike spirit in all
+      classes of society had entailed serious modifications in the organisation
+      of both army and navy. The native element no longer predominated in most
+      battalions and on the majority of vessels, as it had done under the
+      XVIIIth dynasty; it still furnished those formidable companies of archers&mdash;the
+      terror of both Africans and Asiatics&mdash;and also the most important
+      part, if not the whole, of the chariotry, but the main body of the
+      infantry was composed almost exclusively of mercenaries, particularly of
+      the Shardana and the Qahaka. Ramses began his reforms by rebuilding the
+      fleet, which, in a country like Egypt, was always an artificial creation,
+      liable to fall into decay, unless a strong and persistent effort were made
+      to keep it in an efficient condition. Shipbuilding had made considerable
+      progress in the last few centuries, perhaps from the impulse received
+      through Phoenicia, and the vessels turned out of the dockyards were far
+      superior to those constructed under Hâtshopsîtû. The general outlines of
+      the hull remained the same, but the stem and stern were finer, and not so
+      high out of the water; the bow ended, moreover, in a lion&rsquo;s head of metal,
+      which rose above the cut-water. A wooden structure running between the
+      forecastle and quarter-deck protected the rowers during the fight, their
+      heads alone being exposed. The mast had only one curved yard, to which the
+      sail was fastened; this was run up from the deck by halyards when the
+      sailors wanted to make sail, and thus differed from the Egyptian
+      arrangement, where the sail was fastened to a fixed upper yard. At least
+      half of the crews consisted of Libyan prisoners, who were branded with a
+      hot iron like cattle, to prevent desertion; the remaining half was drawn
+      from the Syrian or Asiatic coast, or else were natives of Egypt. In order
+      to bring the army into better condition, Ramses revived the system of
+      classes, which empowered him to compel all Egyptians of unmixed race to
+      take personal service, while he hired mercenaries from Libya, Phoenicia,
+      Asia Minor, and wherever he could get them, and divided them into regular
+      regiments, according to their extraction and the arms that they bore. In
+      the field, the archers always headed the column, to meet the advance of
+      the foe with their arrows; they were followed by the Egyptian lancers&mdash;the
+      Shardana and the Tyrseni with their short spears and heavy bronze swords&mdash;while
+      a corps of veterans, armed with heavy maces, brought up the rear.* In an
+      engagement, these various troops formed three lines of infantry disposed
+      one behind the other&mdash;the light brigade in front to engage the
+      adversary, the swordsmen and lancers who were to come into close quarters
+      with the foe, and the mace-bearers in reserve, ready to advance on any
+      threatened point, or to await the critical moment when their intervention
+      would decide the victory: as in the times of Thûtmosis and Ramses II. the
+      chariotry covered the two wings.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is the order of march represented during the Syrian
+     campaign, as gathered from the arrangement observed in the
+     pictures at Medinet-Habu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was well for Ramses that on ascending the throne he had devoted himself
+      to the task of recruiting the Egyptian army, and of personally and
+      carefully superintending the instruction and equipment of his men; for it
+      was thanks to these precautions that, when the confederated Libyans
+      attacked the country about the Vth year of his reign, he was enabled to
+      repulse them with complete success. &ldquo;Didi, Mashaknû, Maraîû, together with
+      Zamarû and Zaûtmarû, had strongly urged them to attack Egypt and to carry
+      fire before them from one end of it to the other.&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;Their warriors
+      confided to each other in their counsels, and their hearts were full: &lsquo;We
+      will be drunk!&rsquo; and their princes said within their breasts: &lsquo;We will fill
+      our hearts with violence!&rsquo; But their plans were overthrown, thwarted,
+      broken against the heart of the god, and the prayer of their chief, which
+      their lips repeated, was not granted by the god.&rdquo; They met the Egyptians
+      at a place called &ldquo;Kamsisû-Khasfi-Timihû&rdquo; (&ldquo;Ramses repulses the Timihû&rdquo;),
+      but their attack was broken by the latter, who were ably led and displayed
+      considerable valour. &ldquo;They bleated like goats surprised by a bull who
+      stamps its foot, who pushes forward its horn and shakes the mountains,
+      charging whoever seeks to annoy it.&rdquo; They fled afar, howling with fear,
+      and many of them, in endeavouring to escape their pursuers, perished in
+      the canals. &ldquo;It is,&rdquo; said they, &ldquo;the breaking of our spines which
+      threatens us in the land of Egypt, and its lord destroys our souls for
+      ever and ever. Woe be upon them! for they have seen their dances changed
+      into carnage, Sokhît is behind them, fear weighs upon them. We march no
+      longer upon roads where we can walk, but we run across fields, all the
+      fields! And their soldiers did not even need to measure arms with us in
+      the struggle! Pharaoh alone was our destruction, a fire against us every
+      time that he willed it, and no sooner did we approach than the flame
+      curled round us, and no water could quench it on us.&rdquo; The victory was a
+      brilliant one; the victors counted 12,535 of the enemy killed,* and many
+      more who surrendered at discretion. The latter were formed into a brigade,
+      and were distributed throughout the valley of the Nile in military
+      settlements. They submitted to their fate with that resignation which we
+      know to have been a characteristic of the vanquished at that date.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The number of the dead is calculated from that of the
+     hands and phalli brought in by the soldiers after the
+     victory, the heaps of which are represented at Medinet-Habu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0007" id="linkCimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/299.jpg"
+       alt="299.jpg One of the Libyan Chiefs Vanquished by Ramses Iii. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from Champollion.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      They regarded their defeat as a judgment from God against which there was
+      no appeal; when their fate had been once pronounced, nothing remained to
+      the condemned except to submit to it humbly, and to accommodate themselves
+      to the master to whom they were now bound by a decree from on high. The
+      prisoners of one day became on the next the devoted soldiers of the prince
+      against whom they had formerly fought resolutely, and they were employed
+      against their own tribes, their employers having no fear of their
+      deserting to the other side during the engagement. They were lodged in the
+      barracks at Thebes, or in the provinces under the feudal lords and
+      governors of the Pharaoh, and were encouraged to retain their savage
+      customs and warlike spirit. They intermarried either with the fellahîn or
+      with women of their own tribes, and were reinforced at intervals by fresh
+      prisoners or volunteers. Drafted principally into the Delta and the cities
+      of Middle Egypt, they thus ended by constituting a semi-foreign
+      population, destined by nature and training to the calling of arms, and
+      forming a sort of warrior caste, differing widely from the militia of
+      former times, and known for many generations by their national name of
+      Mashaûasha. As early as the XIIth dynasty, the Pharaohs had, in a similar
+      way, imported the Mazaîû from Nubia, and had used them as a military
+      police; Ramses III. now resolved to naturalise the Libyans for much the
+      same purpose. His victory did not bear the immediate fruits that we might
+      have expected from his own account of it; the memory of the exploits of
+      Ramses II. haunted him, and, stimulated by the example of his ancestor at
+      Qodshû, he doubtless desired to have the sole credit of the victory over
+      the Libyans. He certainly did overcome their kings, and arrested their
+      invasion; we may go so far as to allow that he wrested from them the
+      provinces which they had occupied on the left bank of the Canopic branch,
+      from Marea to the Natron Lakes, but he did not conquer them, and their
+      power still remained as formidable as ever. He had gained a respite at the
+      point of the sword, but he had not delivered Egypt from their future
+      attacks.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      He might perhaps have been tempted to follow up his success and assume the
+      offensive, had not affairs in Asia at this juncture demanded the whole of
+      his attention. The movement of great masses of European tribes in a
+      southerly and easterly direction was beginning to be felt by the
+      inhabitants of the Balkans, who were forced to set out in a double stream
+      of emigration&mdash;one crossing the Bosphorus and the Propontis towards
+      the centre of Asia Minor, while the other made for what was later known as
+      Greece Proper, by way of the passes over Olympus and Pindus. The nations
+      who had hitherto inhabited these regions, now found themselves thrust
+      forward by the pressure of invading hordes, and were constrained to move
+      towards the south and east by every avenue which presented itself. It was
+      probably the irruption of the Phrygians into the high table-land which
+      gave rise to the general exodus of these various nations&mdash;the
+      Pulasati, the Zakkala, the Shagalasha, the Danauna, and the Uashasha&mdash;some
+      of whom had already made their way into Syria and taken part in campaigns
+      there, while others had as yet never measured strength with the Egyptians.
+      The main body of these migrating tribes chose the overland route, keeping
+      within easy distance of the coast, from Pamphylia as far as the confines
+      of Naharaim.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0008" id="linkCimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/300.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="300.jpg the Waggons of The Pulasati and Their Confederates " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Champollion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They were accompanied by their families, who must have been mercilessly
+      jolted in the ox-drawn square waggons with solid wheels in which they
+      travelled. The body of the vehicle was built either of roughly squared
+      planks, or else of something resembling wicker-work. The round axletree
+      was kept in its place by means of a rude pin, and four oxen were harnessed
+      abreast to the whole structure. The children wore no clothes, and had, for
+      the most part, their hair tied into a tuft on the top of their heads; the
+      women affected a closely fitting cap, and were wrapped in large blue or
+      red garments drawn close to the body.* The men&rsquo;s attire varied according
+      to the tribe to which they belonged. The Pulasati undoubtedly held the
+      chief place; they were both soldiers and sailors, and we must recognise in
+      them the foremost of those tribes known to the Greeks of classical times
+      as the Oarians, who infested the coasts of Asia Minor as well as those of
+      Greece and the Ægean islands.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These details are taken from the battle-scenes at Medinet-
+     Habu.
+
+     ** The Pulasati have been connected with the Philistines by
+     Champollion, and subsequently by the early English
+     Egyptologists, who thought they recognised in them the
+     inhabitants of the Shephelah. Chabas was the first to
+     identify them with the Pelasgi; Unger and Brugsch prefer to
+     attribute to them a Libyan origin, but the latter finally
+     returns to the Pelasgic and Philistine hypothesis. They were
+     without doubt the Philistines, but in their migratory state,
+     before they settled on the coast of Palestine.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0009" id="linkCimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/301.jpg" alt="301.jpg Pulasati " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Crete was at this time the seat of a maritime empire, whose chiefs were
+      perpetually cruising the seas and harassing the civilized states of the
+      Eastern Mediterranean. These sea-rovers had grown wealthy through piracy,
+      and contact with the merchants of Syria and Egypt had awakened in them a
+      taste for a certain luxury and refinement, of which we find no traces in
+      the remains of their civilization anterior to this period. Some of the
+      symbols in the inscriptions found on their monuments recall certain of the
+      Egyptian characters, while others present an original aspect and seem to
+      be of Ægean origin. We find in them, arranged in juxtaposition, signs
+      representing flowers, birds, fish, quadrupeds of various kinds, members of
+      the human body, and boats and household implements. From the little which
+      is known of this script we are inclined to derive it from a similar source
+      to that which has furnished those we meet with in several parts of Asia
+      Minor and Northern Syria. It would appear that in ancient times, somewhere
+      in the centre of the Peninsula&mdash;but under what influence or during
+      what period we know not&mdash;a syllabary was developed, of which
+      varieties were handed on from tribe to tribe, spreading on the one side to
+      the Hittites, Cilicians, and the peoples on the borders of Syria and
+      Egypt, and on the other to the Trojans, to the people of the Cyclades, and
+      into Crete and Greece. It is easy to distinguish the Pulasati by the felt
+      helmet which they wore fastened under the chin by two straps and
+      surmounted by a crest of feathers. The upper part of their bodies was
+      covered by bands of leather or some thick material, below which hung a
+      simple loin-cloth, while their feet were bare or shod with short sandals.
+      They carried each a round buckler with two handles, and the stout bronze
+      sword common to the northern races, suspended by a cross belt passing over
+      the left shoulder, and were further armed with two daggers and two
+      javelins. They hurled the latter from a short distance while attacking,
+      and then drawing their sword or daggers, fell upon the enemy; we find
+      among them a few chariots of the Hittite type, each manned by a driver and
+      two fighting men. The Tyrseni appear to have been the most numerous after
+      the Pulasati, next to whom came the Zakkala. The latter are thought to
+      have been a branch of the Siculo-Pelasgi whom Greek tradition represents
+      as scattered at this period among the Cyclades and along the coast of the
+      Hellespont;* they wore a casque surmounted with plumes like that of the
+      Pulasati. The Tyrseni may be distinguished by their feathered head-dress,
+      but the Shaga-lasha affected a long ample woollen cap falling on the neck
+      behind, an article of apparel which is still worn by the sailors of the
+      Archipelago; otherwise they were equipped in much the same manner as their
+      allies. The other members of the confederation, the Shardana, the Danauna,
+      and the Nashasha, each furnished an inconsiderable contingent, and, taken
+      all together, formed but a small item of the united force.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Zakkara, or Zakkala, have been identified with the
+     Teucrians by Lauth, Chabas, and Fr. Lenormant, with the
+     Zygritse of Libya by linger and Brugsch, who subsequently
+     returned to the Teucrian hypothesis; W. Max Millier regards
+     them as an Asiatic nation probably of the Lydian family. The
+     identification with the Siculo-Pelasgi of the Ægean Sea was
+     proposed by Maspero.
+
+     ** The form of the word shows that it is of Asiatic origin,
+     Uasasos, Uassos, which refers us to Caria or Lycia.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their fleet sailed along the coast and kept within sight of the force on
+      land. The squadrons depicted on the monuments are without doubt those of
+      the two peoples, the Pulasati and Zakkala. Their ships resembled in many
+      respects those of Egypt, except in the fact that they had no cut-water.
+      The bow and stern rose up straight like the neck of a goose or swan; two
+      structures for fighting purposes were erected above the dock, while a rail
+      running round the sides of the vessel protected the bodies of the rowers.
+      An upper yard curved in shape hung from the single mast, which terminated
+      in a top for the look-out during a battle. The upper yard was not made to
+      lower, and the top-men managed the sail in the same manner as the Egyptian
+      sailors. The resemblance between this fleet and that of Ramses is easily
+      explained. The dwellers on the Ægean, owing to the knowledge they had
+      acquired of the Phoenician galleys, which were accustomed to cruise
+      annually in their waters, became experts in shipbuilding.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0010" id="linkCimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/304.jpg" width="100%" alt="304.jpg a Sihagalasha Chief " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They copied the lines of the Phoenician craft, imitated the rigging, and
+      learned to manoeuvre their vessels so well, both on ordinary occasions and
+      in a battle, that they could now oppose to the skilled eastern navigators
+      ships as well fitted out and commanded by captains as experienced as those
+      of Egypt or Asia.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There had been a general movement among all these peoples at the very time
+      when Ramses was repelling the attack of the Libyans; &ldquo;the isles had
+      quivered, and had vomited forth their people at once.&rdquo; *
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This campaign is mentioned in the inscription of Medinet-
+     Habu. We find some information about the war in the <i>Great
+     Harris Papyrus</i>, also in the inscription of Medinet-Habu
+     which describes the campaign of the year V., and in other
+     shorter texts of the same temple.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They were subjected to one of those irresistible impulses such as had
+      driven the Shepherds into Egypt; or again, in later times, had carried
+      away the Cimmerians and the Scyths to the pillage of Asia Minor: &ldquo;no
+      country could hold out against their arms, neither Khâti, nor Qodi, nor
+      Carchemish, nor Arvad, nor Alasia, without being brought to nothing.&rdquo; The
+      ancient kingdoms of Sapalulu and Khâtusaru, already tottering, crumbled to
+      pieces under the shock, and were broken up into their primitive elements.
+      The barbarians, unable to carry the towns by assault, and too impatient to
+      resort to a lengthened siege, spread over the valley of the Orontes,
+      burning and devastating the country everywhere. Having reached the
+      frontiers of the empire, in the country of the Amorites, they came to a
+      halt, and constructing an entrenched camp, installed within it their women
+      and the booty they had acquired. Some of their predatory bands, having
+      ravaged the Bekâa, ended by attacking the subjects of the Pharaoh himself,
+      and their chiefs dreamed of an invasion of Egypt. Ramses, informed of
+      their design by the despatches of his officers and vassals, resolved to
+      prevent its accomplishment. He summoned his troops together, both
+      indigenous and mercenary, in his own person looked after their armament
+      and commissariat, and in the VIIIth year of his reign crossed the frontier
+      near Zalu. He advanced by forced marches to meet the enemy, whom he
+      encountered somewhere in Southern Syria, on the borders of the Shephelah,*
+      and after a stubbornly contested campaign obtained the victory. He carried
+      off from the field, in addition to the treasures of the confederate
+      tribes, some of the chariots which had been used for the transport of
+      their families. The survivors made their way hastily to the north-west, in
+      the direction of the sea, in order to receive the support of their navy,
+      but the king followed them step by step.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * No site is given for these battles. E. de Rougé placed the
+     theatre of war in Syria, and his opinion was accepted by
+     Brugsch. Chabas referred it to the mouth of the Nile near
+     Pelusium, and his authority has prevailed up to the present.
+     The remarks of W. Max Müller have brought me back to the
+     opinion of the earlier Egyptologists; but I differ from him
+     in looking for the locality further south, and not to the
+     mouth of Nahr el-Kelb as the site of the naval battle. It
+     seems to me that the fact that the Zakkala were prisoners at
+     Dor, and the Pulasati in the Shephelah, is enough to assign
+     the campaign to the regions I have mentioned in the text.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is recorded that he occupied himself with lion-hunting <i>en route</i>
+      after the example of the victors of the XVIIIth dynasty, and that he
+      killed three of these animals in the long grass on one occasion on the
+      banks of some river. He rejoined his ships, probably at Jaffa, and made
+      straight for the enemy. The latter were encamped on the level shore, at
+      the head of a bay wide enough to offer to their ships a commodious space
+      for naval evolutions&mdash;possibly the mouth of the Belos, in the
+      neighbourhood of Magadîl. The king drove their foot-soldiers into the
+      water at the same moment that his admirals attacked the combined fleet of
+      the Pulasati and Zakkala.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0011" id="linkCimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/307.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="307.jpg the Army Op Ramses Iii. On The March, and The Lion-hunt " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Some of the Ægean galleys were capsized and sank when the Egyptian vessels
+      rammed them with their sharp stems, and the crews, in endeavouring to
+      escape to land by swimming, were picked off by the arrows of the archers
+      of the guard who were commanded by Ramses and his sons; they perished in
+      the waves, or only escaped through the compassion of the victors. &ldquo;I had
+      fortified,&rdquo; said the Pharaoh, &ldquo;my frontier at Zahi; I had drawn up before
+      these people my generals, my provincial governors, the vassal princes, and
+      the best of my soldiers. The mouths of the river seemed to be a mighty
+      rampart of galleys, barques, and vessels of all kinds, equipped from the
+      bow to the stern with valiant armed men. The infantry, the flower of
+      Egypt, were as lions roaring on the mountains; the charioteers, selected
+      from among the most rapid warriors, had for their captains only officers
+      confident in themselves; the horses quivered in all their limbs, and were
+      burning to trample the nations underfoot. As for me, I was like the
+      warlike Montû: I stood up before them and they saw the vigour of my arms.
+      I, King Ramses, I was as a hero who is conscious of his valour, and who
+      stretches his hands over the people in the day of battle. Those who have
+      violated my frontier will never more garner harvests from this earth: the
+      period of their soul has been fixed for ever. My forces were drawn up
+      before them on the &lsquo;Very Green,&rsquo; a devouring flame approached them at the
+      river mouth, annihilation embraced them on every side. Those who were on
+      the strand I laid low on the seashore, slaughtered like victims of the
+      butcher. I made their vessels to capsize, and their riches fell into the
+      sea.&rdquo; Those who had not fallen in the fight were caught, as it were, in
+      the cast of a net. A rapid cruiser of the fleet carried the Egyptian
+      standard along the coast as far as the regions of the Orontes and Saros.
+      The land troops, on the other hand, following on the heels of the defeated
+      enemy, pushed through Coele-Syria, and in their first burst of zeal
+      succeeded in reaching the plains of the Euphrates. A century had elapsed
+      since a Pharaoh had planted his standard in this region, and the country
+      must have seemed as novel to the soldiers of Ramses III. as to those of
+      his predecessor Thûtmosis.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0012" id="linkCimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/308.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="308.jpg the Defeat of The Peoples Of The Sea " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Khâti were still its masters; and all enfeebled as they were by the
+      ravages of the invading barbarians, were nevertheless not slow in
+      preparing to resist their ancient enemies. The majority of the citadels
+      shut their gates in the face of Ramses, who, wishing to lose no time, did
+      not attempt to besiege them: he treated their territory with the usual
+      severity, devastating their open towns, destroying their harvests,
+      breaking down their fruit trees, and cutting away their forests. He was
+      able, moreover, without arresting his march, to carry by assault several
+      of their fortified towns, Alaza among the number, the destruction of which
+      is represented in the scenes of his victories. The spoils were
+      considerable, and came very opportunely to reward the soldiers or to
+      provide funds for the erection of monuments. The last battalion of troops,
+      however, had hardly recrossed the isthmus when Lotanû became again its own
+      master, and Egyptian rule was once more limited to its traditional
+      provinces of Kharû and Phoenicia. The King of the Khâti appears among the
+      prisoners whom the Pharaoh is represented as bringing to his father Amon;
+      Carchemish, Tunipa, Khalabu, Katna, Pabukhu, Arvad, Mitanni, Mannus, Asi,
+      and a score of other famous towns of this period appear in the list of the
+      subjugated nations, recalling the triumphs of Thûtmosis III. and Amenothes
+      II. Ramses did not allow himself to be deceived into thinking that his
+      success was final. He accepted the protestations of obedience which were
+      spontaneously offered him, but he undertook no further expedition of
+      importance either to restrain or to provoke his enemies: the restricted
+      rule which satisfied his exemplar Ramses II. ought, he thought, to be
+      sufficient for his own ambition.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Egypt breathed freely once more on the announcement of the victory;
+      henceforward she was &ldquo;as a bed without anguish.&rdquo; &ldquo;Let each woman now go to
+      and fro according to her will,&rdquo; cried the sovereign, in describing the
+      campaign, &ldquo;her ornaments upon her, and directing her steps to any place
+      she likes!&rdquo; And in order to provide still further guarantees of public
+      security, he converted his Asiatic captives, as he previously had his
+      African prisoners, into a bulwark against the barbarians, and a safeguard
+      of the frontier. The war must, doubtless, have decimated Southern Syria;
+      and he planted along its coast what remained of the defeated tribes&mdash;the
+      Philistines in the Shephelah, and the Zakkala on the borders of the great
+      oak forest stretching from Oarmel to Dor.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It is in this region that we find henceforward the Hebrews
+     in contact with the Philistines: at the end of the XXIst
+     Egyptian dynasty a scribe makes Dor a town of the Zakkala.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Watch-towers were erected for the supervision of this region, and for
+      rallying-points in case of internal revolts or attacks from without. One
+      of these, the Migdol of Ramses III., was erected, not far from the scene
+      of the decisive battle, on the spot where the spoils had been divided.
+      This living barrier, so to speak, stood between the Nile valley and the
+      dangers which threatened it from Asia, and it was not long before its
+      value was put to the proof. The Libyans, who had been saved from
+      destruction by the diversion created in their favour on the eastern side
+      of the empire, having now recovered their courage, set about collecting
+      their hordes together for a fresh invasion. They returned to the attack in
+      the XIth year of Ramses, under the leadership of Kapur, a prince of the
+      Mashauasha.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The second campaign against the Libyans is known to us
+     from the inscriptions of the year XI. at Medinet-Habu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0013" id="linkCimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/313.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="313.jpg the Captive Chiefs of Ramses Iii. At Medinet-ihabu " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato. The first
+     prisoner on the left is the Prince of the Khâti (cf. the cut
+     on p. 318 of the present work), the second is the Prince of
+     the Amâuru [Amoritos], the third the Prince of the Zakkala,
+     the fourth that of the Shardana, the fifth that of the
+     Shakalasha (see the cut on p. 304 of this work), and the
+     sixth that of the Tursha [Tyrseni].
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their soul had said to them for the second time that &ldquo;they would end their
+      lives in the nomes of Egypt, that they would till its valleys and its
+      plains as their own land.&rdquo; The issue did not correspond with their
+      intentions. &ldquo;Death fell upon them within Egypt, for they had hastened with
+      their feet to the furnace which consumes corruption, under the fire of the
+      valour of the king who rages like Baal from the heights of heaven. All his
+      limbs are invested with victorious strength; with his right hand he lays
+      hold of the multitudes, his left extends to those who are against him,
+      like a cloud of arrows directed upon them to destroy them, and his sword
+      cuts like that of Montû. Kapur, who had come to demand homage, blind with
+      fear, threw down his arms, and his troops did the same. He sent up to
+      heaven a suppliant cry, and his son [Mashashalu] arrested his foot and his
+      hand; for, behold, there rises beside him the god who knows what he has in
+      his heart: His Majesty falls upon their heads as a mountain of granite and
+      crushes them, the earth drinks up their blood as if it had been water...;
+      their army was slaughtered, slaughtered their soldiers,&rdquo; near a fortress
+      situated on the borders of the desert called the &ldquo;Castle of
+      Usirmarî-Miamon.&rdquo; They were seized, &ldquo;they were stricken, their arms bound,
+      like geese piled up in the bottom of a boat, under the feet of His
+      Majesty.&rdquo; * The fugitives were pursued at the sword&rsquo;s point from the <i>Castle
+      of Usirmarî-Miamon</i> to the <i>Castle of the Sands</i>, a distance of
+      over thirty miles.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of the son of Kapur, Mashashalu, Masesyla, which
+     is wanting in this inscription, is supplied from a parallel
+     inscription.
+
+     * The Castle of Usirmarî-Miamon was &ldquo;on the mountain of the
+     horn of the world,&rdquo; which induces me to believe that we must
+     seek its site on the borders of the Libyan desert. The royal
+     title entering into its name being liable to change with
+     every reign, it is possible that we have an earlier
+     reference to this stronghold in a mutilated passage of the
+     Athribis Stele, which relates to the campaigns of Mînephtah;
+     it must have commanded one of the most frequented routes
+     leading to the oasis of Amon.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0014" id="linkCimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/314.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="314.jpg Ramses Iii. Binds the Chiefs of The Libyans " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     From a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Two thousand and seventy-five Libyans were left upon the ground that day,
+      two thousand and fifty-two perished in other engagements, while two
+      thousand and thirty-two, both male and female, were made prisoners. These
+      were almost irreparable losses for a people of necessarily small numbers,
+      and if we add the number of those who had succumbed in the disaster of six
+      years before, we can readily realise how discouraged the invaders must
+      have been, and how little likely they were to try the fortune of war once
+      more. Their power dwindled and vanished almost as quickly as it had
+      arisen; the provisional cohesion given to their forces by a few ambitious
+      chiefs broke up after their repeated defeats, and the rudiments of an
+      empire which had struck terror into the Pharaohs, resolved itself into its
+      primitive elements, a number of tribes scattered over the desert. They
+      were driven back beyond the Libyan mountains; fortresses* guarded the
+      routes they had previously followed, and they were obliged henceforward to
+      renounce any hope of an invasion <i>en masse</i>, and to content
+      themselves with a few raiding expeditions into the fertile plain of the
+      Delta, where they had formerly found a transitory halting-place.
+      Counter-raids organised by the local troops or by the mercenaries who
+      garrisoned the principal towns in the neighbourhood of Memphis&mdash;Hermopolis
+      and Thinisl&mdash;inflicted punishment upon them when they became too
+      audacious. Their tribes, henceforward, as far as Egypt was concerned,
+      formed a kind of reserve from which the Pharaoh could raise soldiers every
+      year, and draw sufficient materials to bring his army up to fighting
+      strength when internal revolt or an invasion from without called for
+      military activity.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>The Great Harris Papyrus</i> speaks of fortifications
+     erected in the towns of Anhûri-Shû, possibly Thinis, and of
+     Thot, possibly Hermopolis, in order to repel the tribes of
+     the Tihonu who were ceaselessly harassing the frontier.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0015" id="linkCimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/318.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="318.jpg the Prince of The Khati " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken at Medinet-
+     Habu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The campaign of the XIth year brought to an end the great military
+      expeditions of Ramses III. Henceforward he never took the lead in any more
+      serious military enterprise than that of repressing the Bedawin of Seîr
+      for acts of brigandage,* or the Ethiopians for some similar reason. He
+      confined his attention to the maintenance of commercial and industrial
+      relations with manufacturing countries, and with the markets of Asia and
+      Africa. He strengthened the garrisons of Sinai, and encouraged the working
+      of the ancient mines in that region. He sent a colony of quarry-men and of
+      smelters to the land of Atika, in order to work the veins of silver which
+      were alleged to exist there.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *The Sâîrû of the Egyptian texts have been identified with
+     the Bedawin of Seîr.
+
+     ** This is the Gebel-Ataka of our day. All this district is
+     imperfectly explored, but we know that it contains mines and
+     quarries some of which were worked as late as in the time of
+     the Mameluk Sultans.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He launched a fleet on the Red Sea, and sent it to the countries of
+      fragrant spices. &ldquo;The captains of the sailors were there, together with
+      the chiefs of the <i>corvée</i> and accountants, to provide provision&rdquo; for
+      the people of the Divine Lands &ldquo;from the innumerable products of Egypt;
+      and these products were counted by myriads. Sailing through the great sea
+      of Qodi, they arrived at Pûântt without mishap, and there collected
+      cargoes for their galleys and ships, consisting of all the unknown marvels
+      of Tonûtir, as well as considerable quantities of the perfumes of Pûâtîn,
+      which they stowed on board by tens of thousands without number. The sons
+      of the princes of Tonûtir came themselves into Qîmit with their tributes.
+      They reached the region of Coptos safe and sound, and disembarked there in
+      peace with their riches.&rdquo; It was somewhere about Sau and Tuau that the
+      merchants and royal officers landed, following the example of the
+      expeditions of the XIIth and XVIIIth dynasties. Here they organised
+      caravans of asses and slaves, which taking the shortest route across the
+      mountain&mdash;that of the valley of Rahanû&mdash;carried the precious
+      commodities to Coptos, whence they were transferred to boats and
+      distributed along the river. The erection of public buildings, which had
+      been interrupted since the time of Mînephtah, began again with renewed
+      activity. The captives in the recent victories furnished the requisite
+      labour, while the mines, the voyages to the Somali coast, and the tributes
+      of vassals provided the necessary money. Syria was not lost sight of in
+      this resumption of peaceful occupations. The overthrow of the Khâti
+      secured Egyptian rule in this region, and promised a long tranquillity
+      within its borders. One temple at least was erected in the country&mdash;that
+      of Pa-kanâna&mdash;where the princes of Kharu were to assemble to offer
+      worship to the Pharaoh, and to pay each one his quota of the general
+      tribute. The Pulasati were employed to protect the caravan routes, and a
+      vast reservoir was erected near Aîna to provide a store of water for the
+      irrigation of the neighbouring country. The Delta absorbed the greater
+      part of the royal subsidies; it had suffered so much from the Libyan
+      incursions, that the majority of the towns within it had fallen into a
+      condition as miserable as that in which they were at the time of the
+      expulsion of the Shepherds. Heliopolis, Bubastis, Thmuis, Amû, and Tanis
+      still preserved some remains of the buildings which had already been
+      erected in them by Ramses; he constructed also, at the place at present
+      called Tel el-Yahûdîyeh, a royal palace of limestone, granite, and
+      alabaster, of which the type is unique amongst all the structures hitherto
+      discovered. Its walls and columns were not ornamented with the usual
+      sculptures incised in stone, but the whole of the decorations&mdash;scenes
+      as well as inscriptions&mdash;consisted of plaques of enamelled
+      terra-cotta set in cement. The forms of men and animals and the lines of
+      hieroglyphs, standing out in slight relief from a glazed and warm-coloured
+      background, constitute an immense mosaic-work of many hues. The few
+      remains of the work show great purity of design and an extraordinary
+      delicacy of tone.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0016" id="linkCimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/320.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="320.jpg Signs, Arms and Instruments " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      All the knowledge of the Egyptian painters, and all the technical skill of
+      their artificers in ceramic, must have been employed to compose such
+      harmoniously balanced decorations, with their free handling of line and
+      colour, and their thousands of rosettes, squares, stars, and buttons of
+      varicoloured pastes.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This temple has been known since the beginning of the
+     nineteenth century, and the Louvre is in possession of some
+     fragments from it which came from Salt&rsquo;s collection; it was
+     rediscovered in 1870, and some portions of it were
+     transferred by Mariette to the Boulaq Museum. The remainder
+     was destroyed by the fellahîn, at the instigation of the
+     enlightened amateurs of Cairo, and fragments of it have
+     passed into various private collections. The decoration has
+     been attributed to Chaldoan influence, but it is a work
+     purely Egyptian, both in style and in technique.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0017" id="linkCimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/321.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="321.jpg the Colossal Osirian Figures in The First Court At Medinet-habu " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The difficulties to overcome were so appalling, that when the marvellous
+      work was once accomplished, no subsequent attempt was made to construct a
+      second like it: all the remaining structures of Ramses III., whether at
+      Memphis, in the neighbourhood of Abydos, or at Karnak, were in the
+      conventional style of the Pharaohs. He determined, nevertheless, to give
+      to the exterior of the Memnonium, which he built near Medinet-Habu for the
+      worship of himself, the proportions and appearance of an Asiatic &ldquo;Migdol,&rdquo;
+       influenced probably by his remembrance of similar structures which he had
+      seen during his Syrian campaign. The chapel itself is of the ordinary
+      type, with its gigantic pylons, its courts surrounded by columns&mdash;each
+      supporting a colossal Osirian statue&mdash;its hypostyle hall, and its
+      mysterious cells for the deposit of spoils taken from the peoples of the
+      sea and the cities of Asia. His tomb was concealed at a distant spot in
+      the Biban-el-Moluk, and we see depicted on its walls the same scenes that
+      we find in the last resting-place of Seti I. or Ramses II., and in
+      addition to them, in a series of supplementary chambers, the arms of the
+      sovereign, his standards, his treasure, his kitchen, and the preparation
+      of offerings which were to be made to him. His sarcophagus, cut out of an
+      enormous block of granite, was brought for sale to Europe at the beginning
+      of this century, and Cambridge obtained possession of its cover, while the
+      Louvre secured the receptacle itself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These were years of profound tranquillity. The Pharaoh intended that
+      absolute order should reign throughout his realm, and that justice should
+      be dispensed impartially within it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0018" id="linkCimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/322.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="322.jpg the First Pylon of The Temple " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      There were to be no more exactions, no more crying iniquities: whoever was
+      discovered oppressing the people, no matter whether he were court official
+      or feudal lord&mdash;was instantly deprived of his functions, and replaced
+      by an administrator of tried integrity. Ramses boasts, moreover, in an
+      idyllic manner, of having planted trees everywhere, and of having built
+      arbours wherein the people might sit in the shade in the open air; while
+      women might go to and fro where they would in security, no one daring to
+      insult them on the way. The Shardanian and Libyan mercenaries were
+      restricted to the castles which they garrisoned, and were subjected to
+      such a severe discipline that no one had any cause of complaint against
+      these armed barbarians settled in the heart of Egypt. &ldquo;I have,&rdquo; continues
+      the king, &ldquo;lifted up every miserable one out of his misfortune, I have
+      granted life to him, I have saved him from the mighty who were oppressing
+      him, and have secured rest for every one in his own town.&rdquo; The details of
+      the description are exaggerated, but the general import of it is true.
+      Egypt had recovered the peace and prosperity of which it had been deprived
+      for at least half a century, that is, since the death of Mînephtah. The
+      king, however, was not in such a happy condition as his people, and court
+      intrigues embittered the later years of his life. One of his sons, whose
+      name is unknown to us, but who is designated in the official records by
+      the nickname of Pentaûîrît, formed a conspiracy against him. His mother,
+      Tîi, who was a woman of secondary rank, took it into her head to secure
+      the crown for him, to the detriment of the children of Queen Isît. An
+      extensive plot was hatched in which scribes, officers of the guard,
+      priests, and officials in high place, both natives and foreigners, were
+      involved. A resort to the supernatural was at first attempted, and the
+      superintendent of the Herds, a certain Panhûibaûnû, who was deeply versed
+      in magic, undertook to cast a spell upon the Pharaoh, if he could only
+      procure certain conjuring books of which he was not possessed. These were
+      found to be in the royal library. He managed to introduce himself under
+      cover of the night into the harem, where he manufactured certain waxen
+      figures, of which some were to excite the hate of his wives against their
+      husband, while others would cause him to waste away and finally perish. A
+      traitor betrayed several of the conspirators, who, being subjected to the
+      torture, informed upon others, and these at length brought the matter home
+      to Pentaûîrît and his immediate accomplices. All were brought before a
+      commission of twelve members, summoned expressly to try the case, and the
+      result was the condemnation and execution of six women and some forty men.
+      The extreme penalty of the Egyptian code was reserved for Pentaûîrît, and
+      for the most culpable,&mdash;&ldquo;they died of themselves,&rdquo; and the meaning of
+      this phrase is indicated, I believe, by the appearance of one of the
+      mummies disinterred at Deîr el-Baharî.* The coffin in which it was placed
+      was very plain, painted white and without inscription; the customary
+      removal of entrails had not been effected, but the body was covered with a
+      thick layer of natron, which was applied even to the skin itself and
+      secured by wrappings.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The translations by Dévéria, Lepage-Renouf, and Erman
+     agree in making it a case of judicial suicide: there was
+     left to the condemned a choice of his mode of death, in
+     order to avoid the scandal of a public execution. It is also
+     possible to make it a condemnation to death in person, which
+     did not allow of the substitution of a proxy willing, for a
+     payment to his family, to undergo death in place of the
+     condemned; but, unfortunately, no other text is to be found
+     supporting the existence of such a practice in Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It makes one&rsquo;s flesh creep to look at it: the hands and feet are tied by
+      strong bands, and are curled up as if under an intolerable pain; the
+      abdomen is drawn up, the stomach projects like a ball, the chest is
+      contracted, the head is thrown back, the face is contorted in a hideous
+      grimace, the retracted lips expose the teeth, and the mouth is open as if
+      to give utterance to a last despairing cry. The conviction is borne in
+      upon us that the man was invested while still alive with the wrappings of
+      the dead. Is this the mummy of Pentaûîrît, or of some other prince as
+      culpable as he was, and condemned to this frightful punishment? In order
+      to prevent the recurrence of such wicked plots, Pharaoh resolved to share
+      his throne with that one of his sons who had most right to it. In the
+      XXXIInd year of his reign he called together his military and civil
+      chiefs, the generals of the foreign mercenaries, the Shardana, the
+      priests, and the nobles of the court, and presented to them, according to
+      custom, his heir-designate, who was also called Ramses. He placed the
+      double crown upon his brow, and seated him beside himself upon the throne
+      of Horus. This was an occasion for the Pharaoh to bring to remembrance all
+      the great exploits he had performed during his reign&mdash;his triumphs
+      over the Libyans and over the peoples of the sea, and the riches he had
+      lavished upon the gods: at the end of the enumeration he exhorted those
+      who were present to observe the same fidelity towards the son which they
+      had observed towards the father, and to serve the new sovereign as
+      valiantly as they had served himself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0019" id="linkCimage-0019">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:15%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/327.jpg"
+       alt="327.jpg the Mummy of Ramses III. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-
+Gudin, from a,
+photograph by
+Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The joint reign lasted for only four years. Ramses III. was not much over
+      sixty years of age when he died. He was still vigorous and muscular, but
+      he had become stout and heavy. The fatty matter of the body having been
+      dissolved by the natron in the process of embalming, the skin distended
+      during life has gathered up into enormous loose folds, especially about
+      the nape of the neck, under the chin, on the hips, and at the
+      articulations of the limbs. The closely shaven head and cheeks present no
+      trace of hair or beard. The forehead, although neither broad nor high, is
+      better proportioned than that of Ramses II.; the supra-orbital ridges are
+      less accentuated than his, the cheek-bones not so prominent, the nose not
+      so arched, and the chin and jaw less massive. The eyes were perhaps
+      larger, but no opinion can be offered on this point, for the eyelids have
+      been cut away, and the cleared-out cavities have been filled with rags.
+      The ears do not stand out so far from the head as those of Ramses II., but
+      they have been pierced for ear-rings. The mouth, large by nature, has been
+      still further widened in the process of embalming, owing to the
+      awkwardness of the operator, who has cut into the cheeks at the side. The
+      thin lips allow the white and regular teeth to be seen; the first molar on
+      the right has been either broken in half, or has worn away more rapidly
+      than the rest. Ramses III. seems, on the whole, to have been a sort of
+      reduced copy, a little more delicate in make, of Ramses II.; his face
+      shows more subtlety of expression and intelligence, though less nobility
+      than that of the latter, while his figure is not so upright, his shoulders
+      not so broad, and his general muscular vigour less. What has been said of
+      his personality may be extended to his reign; it was evidently and
+      designedly an imitation of the reign of Ramses IL, but fell short of its
+      model owing to the insufficiency of his resources in men and money. If
+      Ramses III. did not succeed in becoming one of the most powerful of the
+      Theban Pharaohs, it was not for lack of energy or ability; the depressed
+      condition of Egypt at the time limited the success of his endeavours and
+      caused them to fall short of his intentions. The work accomplished by him
+      was not on this account less glorious. At his accession Egypt was in a
+      wretched state, invaded on the west, threatened by a flood of barbarians
+      on the east, without an army or a fleet, and with no resources in the
+      treasury. In fifteen years he had disposed of his inconvenient neighbours,
+      organised an army, constructed a fleet, re-established his authority
+      abroad, and settled the administration at home on so firm a basis, that
+      the country owed the peace which it enjoyed for several centuries to the
+      institutions and prestige which he had given it. His associate in the
+      government, Ramses IV., barely survived him. Then followed a series of <i>rois
+      fainéants</i> bearing the name of Ramses, but in an order not yet clearly
+      determined. It is generally assumed that Ramses V., brother of Ramses
+      III., succeeded Ramses IV. by supplanting his nephews&mdash;who, however,
+      appear to have soon re-established their claim to the throne, and to have
+      followed each other in rapid succession as Ramses VI., Ramses VIL, Ramses
+      VIII., and Maritûmû.* Others endeavour to make out that Ramses V. was the
+      son of Ramses IV., and that the prince called Ramses VI. never succeeded
+      to the throne at all. At any rate, his son, who is styled Ramses VIL, but
+      who is asserted by some to have been a son of Ramses III., is considered
+      to have succeeded Ramses V., and to have become the ancestor from whom the
+      later Ramessides traced their descent.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The order of the Ramessides was first made out by
+     Champollion the younger and by Rosellini. Bunsen and Lepsius
+     reckon in it thirteen kings; E. de Rougé puts the number at
+     fifteen or sixteen; Maspero makes the number to be twelve,
+     which was reduced still further by Setho. Erman thinks that
+     Ramses IX. and Ramses X. were also possibly sons of Ramses
+     III.; he consequently declines to recognise King Maritûmû as
+     a son of that sovereign, as Brugsch would make out.
+
+     * The monuments of these later Ramessides are so rare and so
+     doubtful that I cannot yet see my way to a solution of the
+     questions which they raise.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0020" id="linkCimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:35%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/331.jpg"
+       alt="331.jpg a Ramses of the Xxth Dynasty " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by
+Emil Brugsch- Bey.
+This is the Ramses VI.
+of the series now
+generally adopted.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The short reigns of these Pharaohs were marked by no events which would
+      cast lustre on their names; one might say that they had nothing else to do
+      than to enjoy peacefully the riches accumulated by their forefather.
+      Ramses IV. was anxious to profit by the commercial relations which had
+      been again established between Egypt and Puanît, and, in order to
+      facilitate the transit between Coptos and Kosseir, founded a station, and
+      a temple dedicated to Isis, in the mountain of Bakhni; by this route, we
+      learn, more than eight thousand men had passed under the auspices of the
+      high priest of Amon, Nakh-tû-ramses. This is the only undertaking of
+      public utility which we can attribute to any of these kings. As we see
+      them in their statues and portraits, they are heavy and squat and without
+      refinement, with protruding eyes, thick lips, flattened and commonplace
+      noses, round and expressionless faces. Their work was confined to the
+      engraving of their cartouches on the blank spaces of the temples at Karnak
+      and Medinet-Habu, and the addition of a few stones to the buildings at
+      Memphis, Abydos, and Heliopolis. Whatever energy and means they possessed
+      were expended on the construction of their magnificent tombs.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These may still be seen in the Biban el-Moluk, and no visitor can refrain
+      from admiring them for their magnitude and decoration. As to funerary
+      chapels, owing to the shortness of the reigns of these kings, there was
+      not time to construct them, and they therefore made up for this want by
+      appropriating the chapel of their father, which was at Medinet-Habu, and
+      it was here consequently that their worship was maintained. The last of
+      the sons of Ramses III. was succeeded by another and equally ephemeral
+      Ramses; after whom came Ramses X. and Ramses XI., who re-established the
+      tradition of more lasting reigns. There was now no need of expeditions
+      against Kharu or Libya, for these enfeebled countries no longer disputed,
+      from the force of custom, the authority of Egypt. From time to time an
+      embassy from these countries would arrive at Thebes, bringing presents,
+      which were pompously recorded as representing so much tribute.* If it is
+      true that a people which has no history is happy, then Egypt ought to be
+      reckoned as more fortunate under the feebler descendants of Ramses III.
+      than it had ever been under the most famous Pharaohs.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The mention of a tribute, for instance, in the time of
+     Ramses IV. from the Lotanu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Thebes continued to be the favourite royal residence. Here in its temple
+      the kings were crowned, and in its palaces they passed the greater part of
+      their lives, and here in its valley of sepulchres they were laid to rest
+      when their reigns and lives were ended. The small city of the beginning of
+      the XVIIIth dynasty had long encroached upon the plain, and was now
+      transformed into an immense town, with magnificent monuments, and a motley
+      population, having absorbed in its extension the villages of Ashirû,* and
+      Madit, and even the southern Apît, which we now call Luxor. But their
+      walls could still be seen, rising up in the middle of modern
+      constructions, a memorial of the heroic ages, when the power of the Theban
+      princes was trembling in the balance, and when conflicts with the
+      neighbouring barons or with the legitimate king were on the point of
+      breaking out at every moment.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The village of Ashirû was situated to the south of the
+     temple of Karnak, close to the temple of Mût. Its ruins,
+     containing the statues of Sokhît collected by Amenôthes III.,
+     extend around the remains marked X in Mariette&rsquo;s plan.
+
+     * These are the walls which are generally regarded as
+     marking the sacred enclosure of the temples: an examination
+     of the ruins of Thebes shows us that, during the XXth and
+     XXIst dynasties, brick-built houses lay against these walls
+     both on the inner and outer sides, so that they must have
+     been half hidden by buildings, as are the ancient walls of
+     Paris at the present day.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The inhabitants of Apît retained their walls, which coincided almost
+      exactly with the boundary of Nsîttauî, the great sanctuary of Amon; Ashirû
+      sheltered behind its ramparts the temple of Mût, while Apît-rîsît
+      clustered around a building consecrated by Amenôthes III. to his divine
+      father, the lord of Thebes. Within the boundary walls of Thebes extended
+      whole suburbs, more or less densely populated and prosperous, through
+      which ran avenues of sphinxes connecting together the three chief boroughs
+      of which the sovereign city was composed. On every side might have been
+      seen the same collections of low grey huts, separated from each other by
+      some muddy pool where the cattle were wont to drink and the women to draw
+      water; long streets lined with high houses, irregularly shaped open
+      spaces, bazaars, gardens, courtyards, and shabby-looking palaces which,
+      while presenting a plain and unadorned exterior, contained within them the
+      refinements of luxury and the comforts of wealth. The population did not
+      exceed a hundred thousand souls,* reckoning a large proportion of
+      foreigners attracted hither by commerce or held as slaves.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Letronne, after having shown that we have no authentic
+     ancient document giving us the population, fixes it at
+     200,000 souls. My estimate, which is, if anything,
+     exaggerated, is based on the comparison of the area of
+     ancient Thebes and that of such modern towns as Shit, Girgeh
+     and Qina, whose populations are known for the last fifty
+     years from the census.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0021" id="linkCimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/334.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="334.jpg Map: Thebes in the Xxth Dynasty " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The court of the Pharaoh drew to the city numerous provincials, who,
+      coming thither to seek their fortune, took up their abode there, planting
+      in the capital of Southern Egypt types from the north and the centre of
+      the country, as well as from Nubia and the Oases; such a continuous
+      infusion of foreign material into the ancient Theban stock gave rise to
+      families of a highly mixed character, in which all the various races of
+      Egypt were blended in the most capricious fashion. In every twenty
+      officers, and in the same number of ordinary officials, about half would
+      be either Syrians, or recently naturalised Nubians, or the descendants of
+      both, and among the citizens such names as Pakhari the Syrian, Palamnanî
+      the native of the Lebanon, Pinahsî the negro, Palasiaî the Alasian,
+      preserved the indications of foreign origin.* A similar mixture of races
+      was found in other cities, and Memphis, Bubastis, Tanis, and Siût must
+      have presented as striking an aspect in this respect as Thebes.** At
+      Memphis there were regular colonies of Phoenician, Canaanite, and Amorite
+      merchants sufficiently prosperous to have temples there to their national
+      gods, and influential enough to gain adherents to their religion from the
+      indigenous inhabitants. They worshipped Baal, Anîti. Baal-Zaphuna, and
+      Ashtoreth, side by side with Phtah, Nofîrtûmû, and Sokhit,*** and this
+      condition of things at Memphis was possibly paralleled elsewhere&mdash;as
+      at Tanis and Bubastis.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Among the forty-three individuals compromised in the
+     conspiracy against Ramses III. whose names have been
+     examined by Dévéria, nine are foreigners, chiefly Semites,
+     and were so recognised by the Egyptians themselves&mdash;Adiram,
+     Balmahara, Garapusa, lunîni the Libyan, Paiarisalama,
+     possibly the Jerusalemite, Nanaiu, possibly the Ninevite,
+     Palulca the Lycian, Qadendena, and Uarana or Naramu.
+
+     ** An examination of the stelæ of Abydos shows the extent of
+     foreign influence in this city in the middle of the
+     XVIIIth dynasty.
+
+     *** These gods are mentioned in the preamble of a letter
+     written on the <i>verso</i> of the <i>Sallier Papyrus</i>. From the
+     mode in which they are introduced we may rightly infer that
+     they had, like the Egyptian gods who are mentioned with
+     them, their chapels at Memphis. A place in Memphis is called
+     &ldquo;the district called the district of the Khâtiû&rdquo; is an
+     inscription of the IIIth year of Aï, and shows that Hittites
+     were there by the side of Canaanites.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This blending of races was probably not so extensive in the country
+      districts, except in places where mercenaries were employed as garrisons;
+      but Sudanese or Hittite slaves, brought back by the soldiers of the ranks,
+      had introduced Ethiopian and Asiatic elements into many a family of the
+      fellahîn.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * One of the letters in the Great Bologna Papyrus treats of
+     a Syrian slave, employed as a cultivator at Hermopolis, who
+     had run away from his master.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We have only to examine in any of our museums the statues of the Memphite
+      and Theban periods respectively, to see the contrast between the
+      individuals represented in them as far as regards stature and appearance.
+      Some members of the courts of the Ramessides stand out as genuine Semites
+      notwithstanding the disguise of their Egyptian names; and in the times of
+      Kheops and Ûsirtasen they would have been regarded as barbarians. Many of
+      them exhibit on their faces a blending of the distinctive features of one
+      or other of the predominant Oriental races of the time. Additional
+      evidence of a mixture of races is forthcoming when we examine with an
+      unbiased mind the mummies of the period, and the complexity of the new
+      elements introduced among the people by the political movements of the
+      later centuries is thus strongly confirmed. The new-comers had all been
+      absorbed and assimilated by the country, but the generations which arose
+      from this continual cross-breeding, while representing externally the
+      Egyptians of older epochs, in manners, language, and religion, were at
+      bottom something different, and the difference became the more accentuated
+      as the foreign elements increased. The people were thus gradually divested
+      of the character which had distinguished them before the conquest of
+      Syria; the dispositions and defects imported from without counteracted to
+      such an extent their own native dispositions and defects that all marks of
+      individuality were effaced and nullified. The race tended to become more
+      and more what it long continued to be afterwards,&mdash;a lifeless and
+      inert mass, without individual energy&mdash;endowed, it is true, with
+      patience, endurance, cheerfulness of temperament, and good nature, but
+      with little power of self-government, and thus forced to submit to foreign
+      masters who made use of it and oppressed it without pity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The upper classes had degenerated as much as the masses. The feudal nobles
+      who had expelled the Shepherds, and carried the frontiers of the empire to
+      the banks of the Euphrates, seemed to have expended their energies in the
+      effort, and to have almost ceased to exist. As long as Egypt was
+      restricted to the Nile valley, there was no such disproportion between the
+      power of the Pharaoh and that of his feudatories as to prevent the latter
+      from maintaining their privileges beside, and, when occasion arose, even
+      against the monarch. The conquest of Asia, while it compelled them either
+      to take up arms themselves or to send their troops to a distance,
+      accustomed them and their soldiers to a passive obedience. The maintenance
+      of a strict discipline in the army was the first condition of successful
+      campaigning at great distances from the mother country and in the midst of
+      hostile people, and the unquestioning respect which they had to pay to the
+      orders of their general prepared them for abject submission to the will of
+      their sovereign. To their bravery, moveover, they owed not only money and
+      slaves, but also necklaces and bracelets of honour, and distinctions and
+      offices in the Pharaonic administration. The king, in addition, neglected
+      no opportunity for securing their devotion to himself. He gave to them in
+      marriage his sisters, his daughters, his cousins, and any of the
+      princesses whom he was not compelled by law to make his own wives. He
+      selected from their harems nursing-mothers for his own sons, and this
+      choice established between him and them a foster relationship, which was
+      as binding among the Egyptians and other Oriental peoples as one of blood.
+      It was not even necessary for the establishment of this relation that the
+      foster-mother&rsquo;s connexion with the Pharaoh&rsquo;s son should be durable or even
+      effective: the woman had only to offer her breast to the child for a
+      moment, and this symbol was quite enough to make her his nurse&mdash;his
+      true <i>monâît</i>. This fictitious fosterage was carried so far, that it
+      was even made use of in the case of youths and persons of mature age. When
+      an Egyptian woman wished to adopt an adult, the law prescribed that she
+      should offer him the breast, and from that moment he became her son. A
+      similar ceremony was prescribed in the case of men who wished to assume
+      the quality of male nurse&mdash;<i>monâî</i>&mdash;or even, indeed, of
+      female nurse&mdash;<i>monâît</i>&mdash;like that of their wives; according
+      to which they were to place, it would seem, the end of one of their
+      fingers in the mouth of the child.* Once this affinity was established,
+      the fidelity of these feudal lords was established beyond question; and
+      their official duties to the sovereign were not considered as accomplished
+      when they had fulfilled their military obligations, for they continued to
+      serve him in the palace as they had served him on the field. Wherever the
+      necessities of the government called them&mdash;at Memphis, at Ramses, or
+      elsewhere&mdash;they assembled around the Pharaoh; like him they had their
+      palaces at Thebes, and when they died they were anxious to be buried there
+      beside him.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These symbolical modes of adoption were first pointed out
+     by Maspero. Legend has given examples of them: as, for
+     instance, where Isis fosters the child of Malkander, King of
+     Byblos, by inserting the tip of her finger in its mouth.
+
+     ** The tomb of a prince of Tobûî, the lesser Aphroditopolis,
+     was discovered at Thebes by Maspero. The rock-out tombs of
+     two Thinite princes were noted in the same necropolis. These
+     two were of the time of Thûtmosis III. I have remarked in
+     tombs not yet made public the mention of princes of El-Kab,
+     who played an important part about the person of the
+     Pharaohs down to the beginning of the XXth dynasty.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Many of the old houses had become extinct, while others, owing to
+      marriages, were absorbed into the royal family; the fiefs conceded to the
+      relations or favourites of the Pharaoh continued to exist, indeed, as of
+      old, but the ancient distrustful and turbulent feudality had given place
+      to an aristocracy of courtiers, who lived oftener in attendance on the
+      monarch than on their own estates, and whose authority continued to
+      diminish to the profit of the absolute rule of the king. There would be
+      nothing astonishing in the &ldquo;count&rdquo; becoming nothing more than a governor,
+      hereditary or otherwise, in Thebes itself; he could hardly be anything
+      higher in the capital of the empire.* But the same restriction of
+      authority was evidenced in all the provinces: the recruiting of soldiers,
+      the receipt of taxes, most of the offices associated with the civil or
+      military administration, became more and more affairs of the State, and
+      passed from the hands of the feudal lord into those of the functionaries
+      of the Crown. The few barons who still lived on their estates, while they
+      were thus dispossessed of the greater part of their prerogatives, obtained
+      some compensation, on the other hand, on the side of religion. From early
+      times they had been by birth the heads of the local cults, and their
+      protocol had contained, together with those titles which justified their
+      possession of the temporalities of the nome, others which attributed to
+      them spiritual supremacy. The sacred character with which they were
+      invested became more and more prominent in proportion as their political
+      influence became curtailed, and we find scions of the old warlike families
+      or representatives of a new lineage at Thinis, at Akhmîm,** in the nome of
+      Baalû, at Hierâconpolis,*** at El-Kab,**** and in every place where we
+      have information from the monuments as to their position, bestowing more
+      concern upon their sacerdotal than on their other duties.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Rakhmirî and his son Manakhpirsonbû were both &ldquo;counts &ldquo;of
+     Thebes under Thûtmosis III., and there is nothing to show
+     that there was any other person among them invested with the
+     same functions and belonging to a different family.
+
+     ** For example, the tomb of Anhûrimôsû, high priest of
+     Anhuri-Shû and prince of Thinis, under Mînephtah, where the
+     sacerdotal character is almost exclusively prominent. The
+     same is the case with the tombs of the princes of Akhmîm in
+     the time of Khûniatonû and his successors: the few still
+     existing in 1884-5 have not been published. The stelæ
+     belonging to them are at Paris and Berlin.
+
+     *** Horimôsû, Prince of Hierâconpolis under Thûtmosis III.,
+     is, above everything else, a prophet of the local Horus.
+
+     **** The princes of El-Kab during the XIXth and XXth
+     dynasties were, before everything, priests of Nekhabit, as
+     appears from an examination of their tombs, which, lying in
+     a side valley, far away from the tomb of Pihirî, are rarely
+     visited.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This transfiguration of the functions of the barons, which had been
+      completed under the XIXth and XXth dynasties, corresponded with a more
+      general movement by which the Pharaohs themselves were driven to
+      accentuate their official position as high priests, and to assign to their
+      sons sacerdotal functions in relation to the principal deities. This
+      rekindling of religious fervour would not, doubtless, have restrained
+      military zeal in case of war;* but if it did not tend to suppress entirely
+      individual bravery, it discouraged the taste for arms and for the bold
+      adventures which had characterised the old feudality.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The sons of Ramses II., Khâmoîsît and Marîtùmû, were bravo
+     warriors in spite of their being high priests of Phtah at
+     Memphis, and of Râ at Heliopolis.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The duties of sacrificing, of offering prayer, of celebrating the sacred
+      rites according to the prescribed forms, and rendering due homage to the
+      gods in the manner they demanded, were of such an exactingly scrupulous
+      and complex character that the Pharaohs and the lords of earlier times had
+      to assign them to men specially fitted for, and appointed to, the task;
+      now that they had assumed these absorbing functions themselves, they were
+      obliged to delegate to others an increasingly greater proportion of their
+      civil and military duties. Thus, while the king and his great vassals were
+      devoutly occupying themselves in matters of worship and theology, generals
+      by profession were relieving them of the care of commanding their armies;
+      and as these individuals were frequently the chiefs of Ethiopian, Asiatic,
+      and especially of Libyan bands, military authority, and, with it,
+      predominant influence in the State were quickly passing into the hands of
+      the barbarians. A sort of aristocracy of veterans, notably of Shardana or
+      Mashauasha, entirely devoted to arms, grew up and increased gradually side
+      by side with the ancient noble families, now by preference devoted to the
+      priesthood.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This military aristocracy was fully developed in the XXIst
+     and XXIInd dynasties, but it began to take shape after
+     Ramses III. had planted the Shardana and Qahaka in certain
+     towns as garrisons.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The barons, whether of ancient or modern lineage, were possessed of
+      immense wealth, especially those of priestly families. The tribute and
+      spoil of Asia and Africa, when once it had reached Egypt, hardly ever left
+      it: they were distributed among the population in proportion to the
+      position occupied by the recipients in the social scale. The commanders of
+      the troops, the attendants on the king, the administrators of the palace
+      and temples, absorbed the greater part, but the distribution was carried
+      down to the private soldier and his relations in town or country, who
+      received some of the crumbs. When we remember for a moment the four
+      centuries and more during which Egypt had been reaping the fruits of her
+      foreign conquest, we cannot think without amazement of the quantities of
+      gold and other precious metals which must have been brought in divers
+      forms into the valley of the Nile.* Every fresh expedition made additions
+      to these riches, and one is at a loss to know whence in the intervals
+      between two defeats the conquered could procure so much wealth, and why
+      the sources were never exhausted nor became impoverished. This flow of
+      metals had an influence upon commercial transactions, for although trade
+      was still mainly carried on by barter, the mode of operation was becoming
+      changed appreciably. In exchanging commodities, frequent use was now made
+      of rings and ingots of a certain prescribed weight in <i>tabonû</i>; and
+      it became more and more the custom to pay for goods by a certain number of
+      <i>tabonû</i> of gold, silver, or copper, rather than by other
+      commodities: it was the practice even to note down in invoices or in the
+      official receipts, alongside the products or manufactured articles with
+      which payments were made, the value of the same in weighed metal.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The quantity of gold in ingots or rings, mentioned in the
+     <i>Annals of Tkutmosis III.</i>, represents altogether a weight
+     of nearly a ton and a quarter, or in value some £140,000 of
+     our money. And this is far from being the whole of the metal
+     obtained from the enemy, for a large portion of the
+     inscription has disappeared, and the unrecorded amount might
+     be taken, without much risk of error, at as much as that of
+     which we have evidence&mdash;say, some two and a half tons,
+     which Thûtmosis had received or brought back between the
+     years XXIII. and XLII. of his reign&mdash;an estimation rather
+     under than over the reality. These figures, moreover, take
+     no account of the vessels and statues, or of the furniture
+     and arms plated with gold. Silver was not received in such
+     large quantities, but it was of great value, and the like
+     may be said of copper and lead.
+
+     * The facts justifying this position were observed and put
+     together for the first time by Chabas: a translation is
+     given in his memoir of a register of the XXth or XXIst
+     dynasty, which gives the price of butcher&rsquo;s meat, both in
+     gold and silver, at this date. Fresh examples have been
+     since collected by Spiegelberg, who has succeeded in drawing
+     up a kind of tariff for the period between the XVIIIth and
+     XXth dynasties.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This custom, although not yet widely extended, placed at the disposal of
+      trade enormous masses of metal, which were preserved in the form of ingots
+      or bricks, except the portion which went to the manufacture of rings,
+      jewellery, or valuable vessels.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * There are depicted on the monuments bags or heaps of gold
+     dust, ingots in the shape of bricks, rings, and vases,
+     arranged alongside each other.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The general prosperity encouraged a passion for goldsmith&rsquo;s work, and the
+      use of bracelets, necklaces, and chains became common among classes of the
+      people who were not previously accustomed to wear them. There was
+      henceforward no scribe or merchant, however poor he might be, who had not
+      his seal made of gold or silver, or at any rate of copper gilt. The stone
+      was sometimes fixed, but frequently arranged so as to turn round on a
+      pivot; while among people of superior rank it had some emblem or device
+      upon it, such as a scorpion, a sparrow-hawk, a lion, or a cynocephalous
+      monkey. Chains occupied the same position among the ornaments of Egyptian
+      women as rings among men; they were indispensable decorations. Examples of
+      silver chains are known of some five feet in length, while others do not
+      exceed two to three inches. There are specimens in gold of all sizes,
+      single, double, and triple, with large or small links, some thick and
+      heavy, while others are as slight and flexible as the finest Venetian
+      lace. The poorest peasant woman, alike with the lady of the court, could
+      boast of the possession of a chain, and she must have been in dire poverty
+      who had not some other ornament in her jewel-case. The jewellery of Queen
+      Âhhotpû shows to what degree of excellence the work of the Egyptian
+      goldsmiths had attained at the time of the expulsion of the Nyksôs: they
+      had not only preserved the good traditions of the best workmen of the
+      XIIth dynasty, but they had perfected the technical details, and had
+      learned to combine form and colour with a greater skill. The pectorals of
+      Prince Khâmoîsît and the Lord Psaru,now in the Louvre, but which were
+      originally placed in the tomb of the Apis in the time of Ramses II., are
+      splendid examples.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0022" id="linkCimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:35%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/345.jpg"
+       alt="345.jpg Pectoral of Ramses II. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the jewel in the
+Louvre.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The most common form of these represents in miniature the front of a
+      temple with a moulded or flat border, surmounted by a curved cornice. In
+      one of them, which was doubtless a present from the king himself, the
+      cartouche, containing the first name of the Pharaoh-Usirmari, appears just
+      below the frieze, and serves as a centre for the design within the frame.
+      The wings of the ram-headed sparrow-hawk, the emblem of Amonrâ, are so
+      displayed as to support it, while a large urseus and a vulture beneath
+      embracing both the sparrow-hawk and the cartouche with outspread wings
+      give the idea of divine protection. Two <i>didû</i>, each of them filling
+      one of the lower corners, symbolise duration. The framework of the design
+      is made up of divisions marked out in gold, and filled either with
+      coloured enamels or pieces of polished stone. The general effect is one of
+      elegance, refinement, and harmony, the three principal elements of the
+      design becoming enlarged from the top downwards in a deftly adjusted
+      gradation. The dead-gold of the cartouche in the upper centre is set off
+      below by the brightly variegated and slightly undulating band of colours
+      of the sparrow-hawk, while the urseus and vulture, associated together
+      with one pair of wings, envelope the upper portions in a half-circle of
+      enamels, of which the shades pass from red through green to a dull blue,
+      with a freedom of handling and a skill in the manipulation of colour which
+      do honour to the artist. It was not his fault if there is still an element
+      of stiffness in the appearance of the pectoral as a whole, for the form
+      which religious tradition had imposed upon the jewel was so rigid that no
+      artifice could completely get over this defect. It is a type which arose
+      out of the same mental concepts as had given birth to Egyptian
+      architecture and sculpture&mdash;monumental in character, and appearing
+      often as if designed for colossal rather than ordinary beings. The
+      dimensions, too overpowering for the decoration of normal men or women,
+      would find an appropriate place only on the breasts of gigantic statues:
+      the enormous size of the stone figures to which alone they are adapted
+      would relieve them, and show them in their proper proportions. The artists
+      of the second Theban empire tried all they could, however, to get rid of
+      the square framework in which the sacred bird is enclosed, and we find
+      examples among the pectorals in the Louvre of the sparrow-hawk only with
+      curved wings, or of the ram-headed hawk with the wings extended; but in
+      both of them there is displayed the same brilliancy, the same purity of
+      line, as in the square-shaped jewels, while the design, freed from the
+      trammels of the hampering enamelled frame, takes on a more graceful form,
+      and becomes more suitable for personal decoration.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0023" id="linkCimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/347.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="347.jpg the Ram-headed Sparrow-hawk in The Louvre " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a jewel in the Louvre.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0024" id="linkCimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/348.jpg" alt="348.jpg Decorated Armchair " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from one of these
+objects in the
+tomb of Ramses III.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0025" id="linkCimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:15%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/349.jpg" alt="349.jpg Egyptian Wig " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-
+Gudin, from a
+photograph by
+M. de Mertens.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The ram&rsquo;s head in the second case excels in the beauty of its workmanship
+      anything to be found elsewhere in the museums of Europe or Egypt. It is of
+      the finest gold, but its value does not depend upon the precious material:
+      the ancient engraver knew how to model it with a bold and free hand, and
+      he has managed to invest it with as much dignity as if he had been carving
+      his subject in heroic size out of a block of granite or limestone. It is
+      not an example of pure industrial art, but of an art for which a
+      designation is lacking. Other examples, although more carefully executed
+      and of more costly materials, do not approach it in value: such, for
+      instance, are the earrings of Ramses XII. at Gîzeh, which are made up of
+      an ostentatious combination of disks, filigree-work, chains, beads, and
+      hanging figures of the urseus.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To get an idea of the character of the plate on the royal sideboards, we
+      must have recourse to the sculptures in the temples, or to the paintings
+      on the tombs: the engraved gold or silver centrepieces, dishes, bowls,
+      cups, and amphoras, if valued by weight only, were too precious to escape
+      the avarice of the impoverished generations which followed the era of
+      Theban prosperity. In the fabrication of these we can trace foreign
+      influences, but not to the extent of a predominance over native art: even
+      if the subject to be dealt with by the artist happened to be a Phoenician
+      god or an Asiatic prisoner, he was not content with slavishly copying his
+      model; he translated it and interpreted it, so as to give it an Egyptian
+      character.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The household furniture was in keeping with these precious objects. Beds
+      and armchairs in valuable woods, inlaid with ivory, carved, gilt, painted
+      in subdued and bright colours, upholstered with mattresses and cushions of
+      many-hued Asiatic stuffs, or of home-made materials, fashioned after
+      Chaldæan patterns, were in use among the well-to-do, while people of
+      moderate means had to be content with old-fashioned furniture of the
+      ancient regime.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Theban dwelling-house was indeed more sumptuously furnished than the
+      earliest Memphite, but we find the same general arrangements in both,
+      which provided, in addition to quarters for the masters, a similar number
+      of rooms intended for the slaves, for granaries, storehouses, and stables.
+      While the outward decoration of life was subject to change, the inward
+      element remained unaltered. Costume was a more complex matter than in
+      former times: the dresses and lower garments were more gauffered, had more
+      embroidery and stripes; the wigs were larger and longer, and rose up in
+      capricious arrangements of curls and plaits.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The use of the chariot had now become a matter of daily custom, and the
+      number of domestics, already formidable, was increased by fresh additions
+      in the shape of coachmen, grooms, and <i>saises</i>, who ran before their
+      master to clear a way for the horses through the crowded streets of the
+      city.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The pictures at Tel el-Amarna exhibit the king, queen, and
+     princesses driving in their chariots with escorts of
+     soldiers and runners. We often find in the tomb-paintings
+     the chariot and coachman of some dignitary, waiting while
+     their master inspects a field or a workshop, or while he is
+     making a visit to the palace for some reward.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As material, existence became more complex, intellectual life partook of
+      the same movement, and, without deviating much from the lines prescribed
+      for it by the learned and the scribes of the Memphite age, literature had
+      become in the mean time larger, more complicated, more exacting, and more
+      difficult to grapple with and to master. It had its classical authors,
+      whose writings were committed to memory and taught in the schools. These
+      were truly masterpieces, for if some felt that they understood and enjoyed
+      them, others found them almost beyond their comprehension, and complained
+      bitterly of their obscurity. The later writers followed them pretty
+      closely, in taking pains, on the one hand to express fresh ideas in the
+      forms consecrated by approved and ancient usage, or when they failed to
+      find adequate vehicles to convey new thoughts, resorting in their lack of
+      imagination to the foreigner for the requisite expressions. The necessity
+      of knowing at least superficially, something of the dialect and writings
+      of Asia compelled the Egyptian scribes to study to some degree the
+      literature of Phonecia and of Chaldæa.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0026" id="linkCimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/350.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="350.jpg Page Image With Furniture " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from photographs of the objects in
+     the Museums of Berlin and Gîzeh.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      From these sources they had borrowed certain formulae and incantation,
+      medical recipes, and devout legends, in which the deities of Assyria and
+      especially Astartê played the chief part. They appropriated in this manner
+      a certain number of words and phrases with which they were accustomed to
+      interlard their discourses and writings. They thought it polite to call a
+      door no longer by the word <i>ro</i>, but the term <i>tira</i>, and to
+      accompany themselves no longer with the harp <i>bordt</i>, but with the
+      same instrument under its new name <i>kinnôr</i>, and to make the <i>salâm</i>
+      in saluting the sovereign in place of crying before him, <i>aaû</i>. They
+      were thorough-going Semiticisers; but one is less offended by their
+      affectation when one considers that the number of captives in the country,
+      and the intermarriages with Canaanite women, had familiarised a portion of
+      the community from childhood with the sounds and ideas of the languages
+      from which the scribes were accustomed to borrow unblushingly. This
+      artifice, if it served to infuse an appearance of originality into their
+      writings, had no influence upon their method of composition. Their
+      poetical ideal remained what it had been in the time of their ancestors,
+      but seeing that we are now unable to determine the characteristic cadence
+      of sentences or the mental attitude which marked each generation of
+      literary men, it is often difficult for us to find out the qualities in
+      their writings which gave them popularity. A complete library of one of
+      the learned in the Ramesside period must have contained a strange mixture
+      of works, embracing, in addition to books of devotion, which were
+      indispensable to those who were solicitous about their souls,* collections
+      of hymns, romances, war and love songs, moral and philosophical treatises,
+      letters, and legal documents.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * There are found in the rubrics of many religious books,
+     for example that dealing with the unseen world, promises of
+     health and prosperity to the soul which, &ldquo;while still on
+     earth,&rdquo; had read and learned them. A similar formula appears
+     at the end of several important chapters of the <i>Book of the
+     Dead.</i>
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It would have been similar in character to the literary-possessions of an
+      Egyptian of the Memphite period,* but the language in which it was written
+      would not have been so stiff and dry, but would have flowed more easily,
+      and been more sustained and better balanced.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The composition of these libraries may be gathered from
+     the collections of papyri which have turned up from time to
+     time, and have been sold by the Arabs to Europeans buyers;
+     e.g. the Sallier Collection, the Anastasi Collections, and
+     that of Harris. They have found their way eventually into
+     the British Museum or the Museum at Leyden, and have been
+     published in the <i>Select Papyri</i> of the former, or in the
+     <i>Monuments Égyptiens</i> of the latter.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The great odes to the deities which we find in the Theban <i>papyri</i>
+      are better fitted, perhaps, than the profane compositions of the period,
+      to give us an idea of the advance which Egyptian genius had made in the
+      width and richness of its modes of expression, while still maintaining
+      almost the same dead-level of idea which had characterised it from the
+      outset. Among these, one dedicated to Harmakhis, the sovereign sun, is no
+      longer restricted to a bare enumeration of the acts and virtues of the
+      &ldquo;Disk,&rdquo; but ventures to treat of his daily course and his final triumphs
+      in terms which might have been used in describing the victorious campaigns
+      or the apotheosis of a Pharaoh. It begins with his awakening, at the
+      moment when he has torn himself away from the embraces of night. Standing
+      upright in the cabin of the divine bark, &ldquo;the fair boat of millions of
+      years,&rdquo; with the coils of the serpent Mihni around him, he glides in
+      silence on the eternal current of the celestial waters, guided and
+      protected by those battalions of secondary deities with whose odd forms
+      the monuments have made us familiar. &ldquo;Heaven is in delight, the earth is
+      in joy, gods and men are making festival, to render glory to
+      Phrâ-Harmakhis, when they see him arise in his bark, having overturned his
+      enemies in his own time!&rdquo; They accompany him from hour to hour, they fight
+      the good fight with him against Apopi, they shout aloud as he inflicts
+      each fresh wound upon the monster: they do not even abandon him when the
+      west has swallowed him up in its darkness.* Some parts of the hymn remind
+      us, in the definiteness of the imagery and in the abundance of detail, of
+      a portion of the poem of Pentaûîrît, or one of those inscriptions of
+      Ramses III. wherein he celebrates the defeat of hordes of Asiatics or
+      Libyans.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The remains of Egyptian romantic literature have been
+     collected and translated into French by Maspero, and
+     subsequently into English by Flinders Petrie.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians took a delight in listening to stories. They preferred tales
+      which dealt with the marvellous and excited their imagination, introducing
+      speaking animals, gods in disguise, ghosts and magic. One of them tells of
+      a king who was distressed because he had no heir, and had no sooner
+      obtained the favour he desired from the gods, than the Seven Hathors, the
+      mistresses of Fate, destroyed his happiness by predicting that the child
+      would meet with his death by a serpent, a dog, or a crocodile. Efforts
+      were made to provide against such a fatality by shutting him up in a
+      tower; but no sooner had he grown to man&rsquo;s estate, than he procured
+      himself a dog, went off to wander through the world, and married the
+      daughter of the Prince of Naharaim. His fate meets him first under the
+      form of a serpent, which is killed by his wife; he is next assailed by a
+      crocodile, and the dog kills the crocodile, but as the oracles must be
+      fulfilled, the brute turns and despatches his master without further
+      consideration. Another story describes two brothers, Anûpû and Bitiû, who
+      live happily together on their farm till the wife of the elder falls in
+      love with the younger, and on his repulsing her advances, she accuses him
+      to her husband of having offered her violence. The virtue of the younger
+      brother would not have availed him much, had not his animals warned him of
+      danger, and had not Phrâ-Harmakhis surrounded him at the critical moment
+      with a stream teeming with crocodiles. He mutilates himself to prove his
+      innocence, and announces that henceforth he will lead a mysterious
+      existence far from mankind; he will retire to the Valley of the Acacia,
+      place his heart on the topmost flower of the tree, and no one will be able
+      with impunity to steal it from him. The gods, however, who frequent this
+      earth take pity on his loneliness, and create for him a wife of such
+      beauty that the Nile falls in love with her, and steals a lock of her
+      hair, which is carried by its waters down into Egypt. Pharaoh finds the
+      lock, and, intoxicated by its scent, commands his people to go in quest of
+      the owner. Having discovered the lady, Pharaoh marries her, and
+      ascertaining from her who she is, he sends men to cut down the Acacia, but
+      no sooner has the flower touched the earth, than Bitiû droops and dies.
+      The elder brother is made immediately acquainted with the fact by means of
+      various prodigies. The wine poured out to him becomes troubled, his beer
+      leaves a deposit. He seizes his shoes and staff and sets out to find the
+      heart.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      After a search of seven years he discovers it, and reviving it in a vase
+      of water, he puts it into the mouth of the corpse, which at once returns
+      to life. Bitiû, from this moment, seeks only to be revenged. He changes
+      himself into the bull Apis, and, on being led to court, he reproaches the
+      queen with the crime she has committed against him. The queen causes his
+      throat to be cut; two drops of his blood fall in front of the gate of the
+      palace, and produce in the night two splendid &ldquo;Persea&rdquo; trees, which renew
+      the accusation in a loud voice. The queen has them cut down, but a chip
+      from one of them flies into her mouth, and ere long she gives birth to a
+      child who is none other than a reincarnation of Bitiû. When the child
+      succeeds to the Pharaoh, he assembles his council, reveals himself to
+      them, and punishes with death her who was first his wife and subsequently
+      his mother. The hero moves throughout the tale without exhibiting any
+      surprise at the strange incidents in which he takes part, and, as a matter
+      of fact, they did not seriously outrage the probabilities of contemporary
+      life. In every town sorcerers could be found who knew how to transform
+      themselves into animals or raise the dead to life: we have seen how the
+      accomplices of Pentaûîrît had recourse to spells in order to gain
+      admission to the royal palace when they desired to rid themselves of
+      Ramses III. The most extravagant romances differed from real life merely
+      in collecting within a dozen pages more miracles than were customarily
+      supposed to take place in the same number of years; it was merely the
+      multiplicity of events, and not the events themselves, that gave to the
+      narrative its romantic and improbable character. The rank of the heroes
+      alone raised the tale out of the region of ordinary life; they are always
+      the sons of kings, Syrian princes, or Pharaohs; sometimes we come across a
+      vague and undefined Pharaoh, who figures under the title of Pîrûîâûi or
+      Prûîti, but more often it is a well-known and illustrious Pharaoh who is
+      mentioned by name. It is related how, one day, Kheops, suffering from <i>ennui</i>
+      within his palace, assembled his sons in the hope of learning from them
+      something which he did not already know. They described to him one after
+      another the prodigies performed by celebrated magicians under Kanibri and
+      Snofrûi; and at length Mykerinos assured him that there was a certain
+      Didi, living then not far from Meîdum, who was capable of repeating all
+      the marvels done by former wizards. Most of the Egyptian sovereigns were,
+      in the same way, subjects of more or less wonderful legends&mdash;Sesostris,
+      Amenôthes III., Thûfcmosis III., Amenemhâît I., Khîti, Sahûrî, Usirkaf,
+      and Kakiû. These stories were put into literary shape by the learned,
+      recited by public story-tellers, and received by the people as authentic
+      history; they finally filtered into the writings of the chroniclers, who,
+      in introducing them into the annals, filled up with their extraordinary
+      details the lacunæ of authentic tradition. Sometimes the narrative assumed
+      a briefer form, and became an apologue. In one of them the members of the
+      body were supposed to have combined against the head, and disputed its
+      supremacy before a jury; the parties all pleaded their cause in turn, and
+      judgment was given in due form.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This version of the <i>Fable of the Members and the Stomach</i>
+     was discovered upon a schoolboy&rsquo;s tablet at Turin.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Animals also had their place in this universal comedy. The passions or the
+      weaknesses of humanity were attributed to them, and the narrator makes the
+      lion, rat, or jackal to utter sentiments from which he draws some short
+      practical moral. La Fontaine had predecessors on the banks of the Nile of
+      whose existence he little dreamed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0027" id="linkCimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/357.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="357.jpg the Cat and The Jackal Go off to The Fields With Their Flocks Drawn by Faucher-gudin, from Lepsius. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As La Fontaine found an illustrator in Granville, so, too, in Egypt the
+      draughtsman brought his reed to the aid of the fabulist, and by his
+      cleverly executed sketches gave greater point to the sarcasm of story than
+      mere words could have conveyed. Where the author had briefly mentioned
+      that the jackal and the cat had cunningly forced their services on the
+      animals whom they wished to devour at their leisure, the artist would
+      depict the jackal and the cat equipped as peasants, with wallets on their
+      backs, and sticks over their shoulders, marching behind a troup of
+      gazelles or a flock of fat geese: it was easy to foretell the fate of
+      their unfortunate charges. Elsewhere it is an ox who brings up before his
+      master a cat who has cheated him, and his proverbial stupidity would
+      incline us to think that he will end by being punished himself for the
+      misdeeds of which he had accused the other. Puss&rsquo;s sly and artful
+      expression, the ass-headed and important-looking judge, with the wand and
+      costume of a high and mighty dignitary, give pungency to the story, and
+      recall the daily scenes at the judgment-seat of the lord of Thebes. In
+      another place we see a donkey, a lion, a crocodile, and a monkey giving an
+      instrumental and vocal concert.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0028" id="linkCimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/358.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="358.jpg the Cat Before Its Judge " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Lepsius.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A lion and a gazelle play a game of chess. A cat of fashion, with a flower
+      in her hair, has a disagreement with a goose: they have come to blows, and
+      the excitable puss, who fears she will come off worst in the struggle,
+      falls backwards in a fright. The draughtsmen having once found vent for
+      their satire, stopped at nothing, and even royalty itself did not escape
+      their attacks. While the writers of the day made fun of the military
+      calling, both in prose and verse, the caricaturists parodied the combats
+      and triumphal scenes of the Ramses or Thutmosis of the day depicted on the
+      walls of the pylons. The Pharaoh of all the rats, perched upon a chariot
+      drawn by dogs, bravely charges an army of cats; standing in the heroic
+      attitude of a conqueror, he pierces them with his darts, while his horses
+      tread the fallen underfoot; his legions meanwhile in advance of him attack
+      a fort defended by tomcats, with the same ardour that the Egyptian
+      battalions would display in assaulting a Syrian stronghold.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0029" id="linkCimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/359.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="359.jpg a Concert of Animals Devoted to Music " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Lepsius.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This treatment of ethics did not prevent the Egyptian writers from giving
+      way to their natural inclinations, and composing large volumes on this
+      subject after the manner of Kaqîmni or Phtahhotpû. One of their books, in
+      which the aged Ani inscribes his Instructions to his son, Khonshotpû, is
+      compiled in the form of a dialogue, and contains the usual commonplaces
+      upon virtue, temperance, piety, the respect due to parents from children,
+      or to the great ones of this world from their inferiors. The language in
+      which it is written is ingenious, picturesque, and at times eloquent; the
+      work explains much that is obscure in Egyptian life, and upon which the
+      monuments have thrown no light. &ldquo;Beware of the woman who goes out
+      surreptitiously in her town, do not follow her or any like her, do not
+      expose thyself to the experience of what it costs a man to face an Ocean
+      of which the bounds are unknown.* The wife whose husband is far from home
+      sends thee letters, and invites thee to come to her daily when she has no
+      witnesses; if she succeeds in entangling thee in her net, it is a crime
+      which is punishable by death as soon as it is known, even if no wicked act
+      has taken place, for men will commit every sort of crime when under this
+      temptation alone.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * I have been obliged to paraphrase the sentence
+     considerably to render it intelligible to the modern reader.
+     The Egyptian text says briefly: &ldquo;Do not know the man who
+     braves the water of the Ocean whose bounds are unknown.&ldquo;<i>To
+     know the man</i> means here <i>know the state of the man</i> who
+     does an action.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;Be not quarrelsome in breweries, for fear that thou mayest be denounced
+      forthwith for words which have proceeded from thy mouth, and of having
+      spoken that of which thou art no longer conscious. Thou fallest, thy
+      members helpless, and no one holds out a hand to thee, but thy
+      boon-companions around thee say: &lsquo;Away with the drunkard!&rsquo; Thou art wanted
+      for some business, and thou art found rolling on the ground like an
+      infant.&rdquo; In speaking of what a man owes to his mother, Ani waxes eloquent:
+      &ldquo;When she bore thee as all have to bear, she had in thee a heavy burden
+      without being able to call on thee to share it. When thou wert born, after
+      thy months were fulfilled, she placed herself under a yoke in earnest, her
+      breast was in thy mouth for three years; in spite of the increasing
+      dirtiness of thy habits, her heart felt no disgust, and she never said:
+      &lsquo;What is that I do here?&rsquo; When thou didst go to school to be instructed in
+      writing, she followed thee every day with bread and beer from thy house.
+      Now thou art a full-grown man, thou hast taken a wife, thou hast provided
+      thyself with a house; bear always in mind the pains of thy birth and the
+      care for thy education that thy mother lavished on thee, that her anger
+      may not rise up against thee, and that she lift not her hands to God, for
+      he will hear her complaint!&rdquo; The whole of the book does not rise to this
+      level, but we find in it several maxims which appear to be popular
+      proverbs, as for instance: &ldquo;He who hates idleness will come without being
+      called;&rdquo; &ldquo;A good walker comes to his journey&rsquo;s end without needing to
+      hasten;&rdquo; or, &ldquo;The ox which goes at the head of the flock and leads the
+      others to pasture is but an animal like his fellows.&rdquo; Towards the end, the
+      son Khonshotpû, weary of such a lengthy exhortation to wisdom, interrupts
+      his father roughly: &ldquo;Do not everlastingly speak of thy merits, I have
+      heard enough of thy deeds;&rdquo; whereupon Ani resignedly restrains himself
+      from further speech, and a final parable gives us the motive of his
+      resignation: &ldquo;This is the likeness of the man who knows the strength of
+      his arm. The nursling who is in the arms of his mother cares only for
+      being suckled; but no sooner has he found his mouth than he cries: &lsquo;Give
+      me bread!&rsquo;&rdquo;
+     </p>
+    <p>
+      It is, perhaps, difficult for us to imagine an Egyptian in love repeating
+      madrigals to his mistress,* for we cannot easily realise that the hard and
+      blackened bodies we see in our museums have once been men and women loving
+      and beloved in their own day.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The remains of Egyptian amatory literature have been
+     collected, translated, and commentated on by Maspero. They
+     have been preserved in two papyri, one of which is at Turin,
+     the other in the British Museum. The first of these appears
+     to be a sort of dialogue in which the trees of a garden
+     boast one after another of the beauty of a woman, and
+     discourse of the love-scenes which took place under their
+     shadow.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The feeling which they entertained one for another had none of the
+      reticence or delicacy of our love: they went straight to the point, and
+      the language in which, they expressed themselves is sometimes too coarse
+      for our taste. The manners and customs of daily life among the Egyptians
+      tended to blunt in them the feelings of modesty and refinement to which
+      our civilization has accustomed us. Their children went about without
+      clothes, or, at any rate, wore none until the age of puberty. Owing to the
+      climate, both men and women left the upper part of the body more or less
+      uncovered, or wore fabrics of a transparent nature. In the towns, the
+      servants who moved about their masters or his guests had merely a narrow
+      loin-cloth tied round their hips; while in the country, the peasants
+      dispensed with even this covering, and the women tucked up their garments
+      when at work so as to move more freely. The religious teaching and the
+      ceremonies connected with their worship drew the attention of the faithful
+      to the unveiled human form of their gods, and the hieroglyphs themselves
+      contained pictures which shock our sense of propriety. Hence it came about
+      that the young girl who was demanded in marriage had no idea, like the
+      maiden of to-day, of the vague delights of an ideal union. The physical
+      side was impressed upon her mind, and she was well aware of the full
+      meaning of her consent. Her lover, separated from her by her disapproving
+      parents, thus expresses the grief which overwhelms him: &ldquo;I desire to lie
+      down in my chamber,&mdash;for I am sick on thy account,&mdash;and the
+      neighbours come to visit me.&mdash;Ah! if my sister but came with them,&mdash;she
+      would show the physicians what ailed me,&mdash;for she knows my sickness!&rdquo;
+       Even while he thus complains, he sees her in his imagination, and his
+      spirit visits the places she frequents: &ldquo;The villa of my sister,&mdash;(a
+      pool is before the house),&mdash;the door opens suddenly,&mdash;and my
+      sister passes out in wrath.&mdash;Ah! why am I not the porter,&mdash;that
+      she might give me her orders!&mdash;I should at least hear her voice, even
+      were she angry,&mdash;and I, like a little boy, full of fear before her!&rdquo;
+       Meantime the young girl sighs in vain for &ldquo;her brother, the beloved of her
+      heart,&rdquo; and all that charmed her before has now ceased to please her. &ldquo;I
+      went to prepare my snare, my cage and the covert for my trap&mdash;for all
+      the birds of Puânît alight upon Egypt, redolent with perfume;&mdash;he who
+      flies foremost of the flock is attracted by my worm, bringing odours from
+      Puânît,&mdash;its claws full of incense.&mdash;But my heart is with thee,
+      and desires that we should trap them together,&mdash;I with thee, alone,
+      and that thou shouldest be able to hear the sad cry of my perfumed bird,&mdash;there
+      near to me, close to me, I will make ready my trap,&mdash;O my beautiful
+      friend, thou who goest to the field of the well-beloved!&rdquo; The latter,
+      however, is slow to appear, the day passes away, the evening comes on:
+      &ldquo;The cry of the goose resounds&mdash;which is caught by the worm-bait,&mdash;but
+      thy love removes me far from the bird, and I am unable to deliver myself
+      from it; I will carry off my net, and what shall I say to my mother,&mdash;when
+      I shall have returned to her?&mdash;Every day I come back laden with
+      spoil,&mdash;but to-day I have not been able to set my trap,&mdash;for thy
+      love makes me its prisoner!&rdquo; &ldquo;The goose flies away, alights,&mdash;it has
+      greeted the barns with its cry;&mdash;the flock of birds increases on the
+      river, but I leave them alone and think only of thy love,&mdash;for my
+      heart is bound to thy heart&mdash;and I cannot tear myself away from thy
+      beauty.&rdquo; Her mother probably gave her a scolding, but she hardly minds it,
+      and in the retirement of her chamber never wearies of thinking of her
+      brother, and of passionately crying for him: &ldquo;O my beautiful friend! I
+      yearn to be with thee as thy wife&mdash;and that thou shouldest go whither
+      thou wishest with thine arm upon my arm,&mdash;for then I will repeat to
+      my heart, which is in thy breast, my supplications.&mdash;If my great
+      brother does not come to-night,&mdash;I am as those who lie in the tomb&mdash;for
+      thou, art thou not health and life,&mdash;he who transfers the joys of thy
+      health to my heart which seeks thee?&rdquo; The hours pass away and he does not
+      come, and already &ldquo;the voice of the turtle-dove speaks,&mdash;it says:
+      &lsquo;Behold, the dawn is here, alas! what is to become of me?&rsquo; Thou, thou art
+      the bird, thou callest me,&mdash;and I find my brother in his chamber,&mdash;and
+      my heart is rejoiced to see him!&mdash;I will never go away again, my hand
+      will remain in thy hand,&mdash;and when I wander forth, I will go with
+      thee into the most beautiful places,&mdash;happy in that he makes me the
+      foremost of women&mdash;and that he does not break my heart.&rdquo; We should
+      like to quote the whole of it, but the text is mutilated, and we are
+      unable to fill in the blanks. It is, nevertheless, one of those products
+      of the Egyptian mind which it would have been easy for us to appreciate
+      from beginning to end, without effort and almost without explanation. The
+      passion in it finds expression in such sincere and simple language as to
+      render rhetorical ornament needless, and one can trace in it, therefore,
+      nothing of the artificial colouring which would limit it to a particular
+      place or time. It translates a universal sentiment into the common
+      language of humanity, and the hieroglyphic groups need only to be put into
+      the corresponding words of any modern tongue to bring home to the reader
+      their full force and intensity. We might compare it with those popular
+      songs which are now being collected in our provinces before the peasantry
+      have forgotten them altogether: the artlessness of some of the
+      expressions, the boldness of the imagery, the awkwardness and somewhat
+      abrupt character of some of the passages, communicate to both that wild
+      charm which we miss in the most perfect specimens of our modern
+      love-poets.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      END OF VOL. V. <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+
+
+
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+  </body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldaea, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 5 (of 12), by G. Maspero
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History Of Egypt, Chaldaea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 5 (of 12)
+
+Author: G. Maspero
+
+Editor: A.H. Sayce
+
+Translator: M.L. McClure
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2005 [EBook #17325]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT, CHALDAEA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Spines]
+
+[Illustration: Cover]
+
+HISTORY OF EGYPT CHALDEA, SYRIA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA
+
+By G. MASPERO, Honorable Doctor of Civil Laws, and Fellow of Queen's
+College, Oxford; Member of the Institute and Professor at the College of
+France
+
+Edited by A. H. SAYCE, Professor of Assyriology, Oxford
+
+Translated by M. L. McCLURE, Member of the Committee of the Egypt
+Exploration Fund
+
+
+CONTAINING OVER TWELVE HUNDRED COLORED PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+Volume V.
+
+
+LONDON
+
+THE GROLIER SOCIETY
+
+PUBLISHERS
+
+[Illustration: Frontispiece]
+
+[Illustration: Titlepage]
+
+
+THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY--(continued)
+
+_THUTMOSIS III.: THE ORGANISATION OF THE SYRIAN PROVINCES--AMENOTHES
+III.: THE WORSHIPPERS OF ATONU._
+
+_Thutmosis III.: the talcing of Qodsha in the 42nd year of his
+reign--The tribute of the south--The triumph-song of Amon._
+
+_The constitution of the Egyptian empire--The Grown vassals and
+their relations with the Pharaoh--The king's messengers--The allied
+states--Royal presents and marriages; the status of foreigners in the
+royal harem--Commerce with Asia, its resources and its risks; protection
+granted to the national industries, and treaties of extradition._
+
+_Amenothes II, his campaigns in Syria and Nubia--Thutmosis IV.; his
+dream under the shadow of the Sphinx and his marriage--Amenothes III.
+and his peaceful reign--The great building works--The temples of
+Nubia: Soleb and his sanctuary built by Amenothes III, Gebel Barkal,
+Elephantine--The beautifying of Thebes: the temple of Mat, the temples
+of Amon at Luxor and at Karnak, the tomb of Amenothes III, the chapel
+and the colossi of Memnon._
+
+_The increasing importance of Anion and his priests: preference shown
+by Amenothes III. for the Heliopolitan gods, his marriage with Tii--The
+influence of Tii over Amenothes IV.: the decadence of Amon and of
+Thebes, Atonu and Khuitniatonu--Change of physiognomy in Khuniaton, his
+character, his government, his relations with Asia: the tombs of Tel
+el-Amarna and the art of the period--Tutanlchamon, At: the return of the
+Pharaohs to Thebes and the close of the XVIIIth dynasty._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I--THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY--(continued)
+
+
+_Thutmosis III.: the organisation of the Syrian provinces--Amenothes
+III.: the royal worshippers of Atonu._
+
+In the year XXXIV. the Egyptians reappeared in Zahi. The people of
+Anaugasa having revolted, two of their towns were taken, a third
+surrendered, while the chiefs of the Lotanu hastened to meet their lord
+with their usual tribute. Advantage was taken of the encampment being at
+the foot of the Lebanon to procure wood for building purposes, such as
+beams and planks, masts and yards for vessels, which were all shipped by
+the Kefatiu at Byblos for exportation to the Delta. This expedition was,
+indeed, little more than a military march through the country. It would
+appear that the Syrians soon accustomed themselves to the presence of
+the Egyptians in their midst, and their obedience henceforward could be
+fairly relied on. We are unable to ascertain what were the circumstances
+or the intrigues which, in the year XXXV., led to a sudden outbreak
+among the tribes settled on the Euphrates and the Orontes. The King
+of Mitanni rallied round him the princes of Naharaim, and awaited the
+attack of the Egyptians near Aruna. Thutmosis displayed great personal
+courage, and the victory was at once decisive. We find mention of only
+ten prisoners, one hundred and eighty mares, and sixty chariots in the
+lists of the spoil. Anaugasa again revolted, and was subdued afresh
+in the year XXXVIII.; the Shausu rebelled in the year XXXIX., and the
+Lotanu or some of the tribes connected with them two years later. The
+campaign of the year XLII. proved more serious. Troubles had arisen in
+the neighbourhood of Arvad. Thutmosis, instead of following the usual
+caravan route, marched along the coast-road by way of Phoenicia. He
+destroyed Arka in the Lebanon and the surrounding strongholds, which
+were the haunts of robbers who lurked in the mountains; then turning to
+the northeast, he took Tunipa and extorted the usual tribute from
+the inhabitants of Naharaim. On the other hand, the Prince of Qodshu,
+trusting to the strength of his walled city, refused to do homage to the
+Pharaoh, and a deadly struggle took place under the ramparts, in which
+each side availed themselves of all the artifices which the strategic
+warfare of the times allowed. On a day when the assailants and besieged
+were about to come to close quarters, the Amorites let loose a mare
+among the chariotry of Thutmosis. The Egyptian horses threatened to
+become unmanageable, and had begun to break through the ranks, when
+Amenemhabi, an officer of the guard, leaped to the ground, and, running
+up to the creature, disembowelled it with a thrust of his sword; this
+done, he cut off its tail and presented it to the king. The besieged
+were eventually obliged to shut themselves within their newly
+built walls, hoping by this means to tire out the patience of their
+assailants; but a picked body of men, led by the same brave Amenemhabi
+who had killed the mare, succeeded in making a breach and forcing an
+entrance into the town. Even the numerous successful campaigns we have
+mentioned, form but a part, though indeed an important part, of the wars
+undertaken by Thutmosis to "fix his frontiers in the ends of the
+earth." Scarcely a year elapsed without the viceroy of Ethiopia having a
+conflict with one or other of the tribes of the Upper Nile; little merit
+as he might gain in triumphing over such foes, the spoil taken from them
+formed a considerable adjunct to the treasure collected in Syria, while
+the tributes from the people of Kush and the Uauaiu were paid with as
+great regularity as the taxes levied on the Egyptians themselves. It
+comprised gold both from the mines and from the rivers, feathers, oxen
+with curiously trained horns, giraffes, lions, leopards, and slaves of
+all ages. The distant regions explored by Hatshopsitu continued to pay
+a tribute at intervals. A fleet went to Puanit to fetch large cargoes
+of incense, and from time to time some Ilim chief would feel himself
+honoured by having one of his daughters accepted as an inmate of the
+harem of the great king. After the year XLII. we have no further records
+of the reign, but there is no reason to suppose that its closing years
+were less eventful or less prosperous than the earlier. Thutmosis III.,
+when conscious of failing powers, may have delegated the direction of
+his armies to his sons or to his generals, but it is also quite possible
+that he kept the supreme command in his own hands to the end of his
+days. Even when old age approached and threatened to abate his vigour,
+he was upheld by the belief that his father Amon was ever at hand to
+guide him with his counsel and assist him in battle. "I give to thee,
+declared the god, the rebels that they may fall beneath thy sandals,
+that thou mayest crush the rebellious, for I grant to thee by decree the
+earth in its length and breadth. The tribes of the West and those of the
+East are under the place of thy countenance, and when thou goest up
+into all the strange lands with a joyous heart, there is none who
+will withstand Thy Majesty, for I am thy guide when thou treadest them
+underfoot. Thou hast crossed the water of the great curve of Naharaim*
+in thy strength and in thy power, and I have commanded thee to let them
+hear thy roaring which shall enter their dens, I have deprived their
+nostrils of the breath of life, I have granted to thee that thy deeds
+shall sink into their hearts, that my uraeus which is upon thy head may
+burn them, that it may bring prisoners in long files from the peoples of
+Qodi, that it may consume with its flame those who are in the marshes,**
+that it may cut off the heads of the Asiatics without one of them being
+able to escape from its clutch. I grant to thee that thy conquests may
+embrace all lands, that the urseus which shines upon my forehead may be
+thy vassal, so that in all the compass of the heaven there may not be
+one to rise against thee, but that the people may come bearing their
+tribute on their backs and bending before Thy Majesty according to my
+behest; I ordain that all aggressors arising in thy time shall fail
+before thee, their heart burning within them, their limbs trembling!"
+
+     * The Euphrates, in the great curve described by it across
+     Naharaim, after issuing from the mountains of Cilicia.
+
+     ** The meaning is doubtful. The word signifies pools,
+     marshes, the provinces situated beyond Egyptian territory,
+     and consequently the distant parts of the world--those which
+     are nearest the ocean which encircles the earth, and which
+     was considered as fed by the stagnant waters of the
+     celestial Nile, just as the extremities of Egypt were
+     watered by those of the terrestrial Nile.
+
+[Illustration: 006.jpg A PROCESSION OF NEGROES]
+
+"I.--I am come that I may grant unto thee to crush the great ones of
+Zahi, I throw them under thy feet across their mountains,--I grant to
+thee that they shall see Thy Majesty as a lord of shining splendour when
+thou shinest before them in my likeness!
+
+"II.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush those of the
+country of Asia, to break the heads of the people of Lotanu,--I grant
+thee that they may see Thy Majesty, clothed in thy panoply, when thou
+seizest thy arms, in thy war-chariot.
+
+"III.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the land of the
+East, and invade those who dwell in the provinces of Tonutir,--I grant
+that they may see Thy Majesty as the comet which rains down the heat of
+its flame and sheds its dew.
+
+"IV.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the land of the
+West, so that Kafiti and Cyprus shall be in fear of thee,--I grant that
+they may see Thy Majesty like the young bull, stout of heart, armed with
+horns which none may resist.
+
+"V.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush those who are in
+their marshes, so that the countries of Mitanni may tremble for fear of
+thee,--I grant that they may see Thy Majesty like the crocodile, lord of
+terrors, in the midst of the water, which none can approach.
+
+"VI.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush those who are in
+the isles, so that the people who live in the midst of the Very-Green
+may be reached by thy roaring,--I grant that they may see Thy Majesty
+like an avenger who stands on the back of his victim.
+
+"VII.--I am come, to grant that thou mayest crush the Tihonu, so that
+the isles of the Utanatiu may be in the power of thy souls,--I grant
+that they may see Thy Majesty like a spell-weaving lion, and that thou
+mayest make corpses of them in the midst of their own valleys.*
+
+"VIII.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the ends of the
+earth, so that the circle which surrounds the ocean may be grasped in
+thy fist,--I grant that they may see Thy Majesty as the sparrow-hawk,
+lord of the wing, who sees at a glance all that he desires.
+
+"IX.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the peoples who
+are in their "duars," so that thou mayest bring the Hiru-shaitu into
+captivity,--I grant that they may see Thy Majesty like the jackal of the
+south, lord of swiftness, the runner who prowls through the two lands.
+
+"X.--I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the nomads, so that
+the Nubians as far as the land of Pidit are in thy grasp,--I grant that
+they may see Thy Majesty like unto thy two brothers Horus and Sit, whose
+arms I have joined in order to establish thy power."
+
+     * The name of the people associated with the Tihonu was read
+     at first Tanau, and identified with the Danai of the Greeks.
+     Chabas was inclined to read Utena, and Brugsch, Uthent, more
+     correctly Utanatiu, utanati, the people of Uatanit. The
+     juxtaposition of this name with that of the Libyans compels
+     us to look towards the west for the site of this people: may
+     we assign to them the Ionian Islands, or even those in the
+     western Mediterranean.
+
+The poem became celebrated. When Seti I., two centuries later, commanded
+the Poet Laureates of his court to celebrate his victories in verse,
+the latter, despairing of producing anything better, borrowed the finest
+strophes from this hymn to Thutmosis IIL, merely changing the name of
+the hero. The composition, unlike so many other triumphal inscriptions,
+is not a mere piece of official rhetoric, in which the poverty of the
+subject is concealed by a multitude of common-places whether historical
+or mythological. Egypt indeed ruled the world, either directly or
+through her vassals, and from the mountains of Abyssinia to those
+of Cilicia her armies held the nations in awe with the threat of the
+Pharaoh.
+
+The conqueror, as a rule, did not retain any part of their territory. He
+confined himself to the appropriation of the revenue of certain domains
+for the benefit of his gods.* Amon of Karnak thus became possessor of
+seven Syrian towns which he owed to the generosity of the victorious
+Pharaohs.**
+
+     * The seven towns which Amon possessed in Syria are
+     mentioned, in the time of Ramses III., in the list of the
+     domains and revenues of the god.
+
+     ** In the year XXIII., on his return from his first
+     campaign, Thutmosis III. provided offerings, guaranteed from
+     the three towns Anaugasa, Inuamu, and Hurnikaru, for his
+     father Amonra.
+
+Certain cities, like Tunipa, even begged for statues of Thutmosis
+for which they built a temple and instituted a cultus. Amon and his
+fellow-gods too were adored there, side by side with the sovereign the
+inhabitants had chosen to represent them here below.* These rites were
+at once a sign of servitude, and a proof of gratitude for services
+rendered, or privileges which had been confirmed. The princes of
+neighbouring regions repaired annually to these temples to renew their
+oaths of allegiance, and to bring their tributes "before the face of the
+king." Taking everything into account, the condition of the Pharaoh's
+subjects might have been a pleasant one, had they been able to accept
+their lot without any mental reservation. They retained their own laws,
+their dynasties, and their frontiers, and paid a tax only in proportion
+to their resources, while the hostages given were answerable for their
+obedience. These hostages were as a rule taken by Thutmosis from among
+the sons or the brothers of the enemy's chief. They were carried to
+Thebes, where a suitable establishment was assigned to them,** the
+younger members receiving an education which practically made them
+Egyptians.
+
+     * The statues of Thutmosis III. and of the gods of Egypt
+     erected at Tunipa are mentioned in a letter from the
+     inhabitants of that town to Amenothes III. Later, Ramses
+     II., speaking of the two towns in the country of the Khati
+     in which were two statues of His Majesty, mentions Tunipa as
+     one of them.
+
+     ** The various titles of the lists of Thutmosis III. at
+     Thebes show us "the children of the Syrian chiefs conducted
+     as prisoners" into the town of Suhanu, which is elsewhere
+     mentioned as the depot, the prison of the temple of Anion.
+     W. Max Mullcr was the first to remark the historical value
+     of this indication, but without sufficiently insisting on
+     it; the name indicates, perhaps, as he says, a great prison,
+     but a prison like those where the princes of the family of
+     the Ottoman sultans were confined by the reigning monarch--
+     a palace usually provided with all the comforts of Oriental
+     life.
+
+As soon as a vacancy occurred in the succession either in Syria or in
+Ethiopia, the Pharaoh would choose from among the members of the family
+whom he held in reserve, that prince on whose loyalty he could best
+count, and placed him upon the throne.* The method of procedure was not
+always successful, since these princes, whom one would have supposed
+from their training to have been the least likely to have asserted
+themselves against the man to whom they owed their elevation, often gave
+more trouble than others. The sense of the supreme power of Egypt, which
+had been inculcated in them during their exile, seemed to be weakened
+after their return to their native country, and to give place to a
+sense of their own importance. Their hearts misgave them as the time
+approached for them to send their own children as pledges to their
+suzerain, and also when called upon to transfer a considerable part of
+their revenue to his treasury. They found, moreover, among their own
+cities and kinsfolk, those who were adverse to the foreign yoke, and
+secretly urged their countrymen to revolt, or else competitors for the
+throne who took advantage of the popular discontent to pose as champions
+of national independence, and it was difficult for the vassal prince to
+counteract the intrigues of these adversaries without openly declaring
+himself hostile to his foreign master.**
+
+     * Among the Tel el-Amarna tablets there is a letter of a
+     petty Syrian king, Adadnirari, whose father was enthroned
+     after a fashion in Nukhassi by Thutmosis III.
+
+     ** Thus, in the Tel el-Amarna correspondence, Zimrida,
+     governor of Sidon, gives information to Amenothes III. on
+     the intrigues which the notables of the town were concocting
+     against Egyptian authority. Ribaddu relates in one of these
+     despatches that the notables of Byblos and the women of his
+     harem were urging him to revolt; later, a letter of Amunira
+     to the King of Egypt informs us that Ribaddu had been driven
+     from Byblos by his own brother.
+
+A time quickly came when a vestige of fear alone constrained them to
+conceal their wish for liberty; the most trivial incident then sufficed
+to give them the necessary encouragement, and decided them to throw
+off the mask, a repulse or the report of a repulse suffered by the
+Egyptians, the news of a popular rising in some neighbouring state, the
+passing visit of a Chaldaean emissary who left behind him the hope
+of support and perhaps of subsidies from Babylon, and the unexpected
+arrival of a troop of mercenaries whose services might be hired for
+the occasion.* A rising of this sort usually brought about the most
+disastrous results. The native prince or the town itself could keep back
+the tribute and own allegiance to no one during the few months required
+to convince Pharaoh of their defection and to allow him to prepare the
+necessary means of vengeance; the advent of the Egyptians followed, and
+the work of repression was systematically set in hand. They destroyed
+the harvests, whether green or ready for the sickle, they cut down the
+palms and olive trees, they tore up the vines, seized on the flocks,
+dismantled the strongholds, and took the inhabitants prisoners.**
+
+     * Burnaburiash, King of Babylon, speaks of Syrian agents who
+     had come to ask for support from his father, Kurigalzu, and
+     adds that the latter had counselled submission. In one of
+     the letters preserved in the British Museum, Aziru defends
+     himself for having received an emissary of the King of the
+     Khati.
+
+     ** Cf. the raiding, for instance, of the regions of Arvad
+     and of the Zahi by Thutmosis III., described in the Annals,
+     11. 4, 5. We are still in possession of the threats which
+     the messenger Khani made against the rebellious chief of a
+     province of the Zahi--possibly Aziru.
+
+The rebellious prince had to deliver up his silver and gold, the
+contents of his palace, even his children,* and when he had finally
+obtained peace by means of endless sacrifices, he found himself a vassal
+as before, but with an empty treasury, a wasted country, and a decimated
+people.
+
+     * See, in the accounts of the campaigns of Thutmosis, the
+     record of the spoils, as well as the mention of the children
+     of the chiefs brought as prisoners into Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: 015.jpg A SYRIAN TOWN AND ITS OUTSKIRTS AFTER AN EGYPTIAN
+ARMY HAD PASSED THROUGH IT]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Gayet.
+
+In spite of all this, some head-strong native princes never relinquished
+the hope of freedom, and no sooner had they made good the breaches in
+their walls as far as they were able, than they entered once more
+on this unequal contest, though at the risk of bringing irreparable
+disaster on their country. The majority of them, after one such
+struggle, resigned themselves to the inevitable, and fulfilled their
+feudal obligations regularly. They paid their fixed contribution,
+furnished rations and stores to the army when passing through their
+territory, and informed the ministers at Thebes of any intrigues among
+their neighbours.* Years elapsed before they could so far forget the
+failure of their first attempt to regain independence, as to venture to
+make a second, and expose themselves to fresh reverses.
+
+The administration of so vast an empire entailed but a small
+expenditure on the Egyptians, and required the offices of merely a few
+functionaries.** The garrisons which they kept up in foreign provinces
+lived on the country, and were composed mainly of light troops, archers,
+a certain proportion of heavy infantry, and a few minor detachments of
+chariotry dispersed among the principal fortresses.***
+
+     * We find in the _Annals_, in addition to the enumeration of
+     the tributes, the mention of the foraging arrangements which
+     the chiefs were compelled to make for the army on its
+     passage. We find among the tablets letters from Aziru
+     denouncing the intrigues of the Khati; letters also of
+     Ribaddu pointing out the misdeeds of Abdashirti, and other
+     communications of the same nature, which demonstrate the
+     supervision exercised by the petty Syrian princes over each
+     other.
+
+     ** Under Thutmosis III. we have among others "Mir," or "Nasi
+     situ mihatitu," "governors of the northern countries," the
+     Thutii who became afterwards a hero of romance. The
+     individuals who bore this title held a middle rank in the
+     Egyptian hierarchy.
+
+     *** The archers--_pidatid, pidati, pidate_--and the
+     chariotry quartered in Syria are often mentioned in the Tel
+     el-Amarna correspondence. Steindorff has recognised the term
+     -ddu auitu, meaning infantry, in the word ueu, uiu, of the
+     Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+
+The officers in command had orders to interfere as little as possible
+in local affairs, and to leave the natives to dispute or even to fight
+among themselves unhindered, so long as their quarrels did not threaten
+the security of the Pharaoh.* It was never part of the policy of Egypt
+to insist on her foreign subjects keeping an unbroken peace among
+themselves. If, theoretically, she did not recognise the right of
+private warfare, she at all events tolerated its practice. It mattered
+little to her whether some particular province passed out of the
+possession of a certain Eibaddu into that of a certain Aziru, or _vice
+versa_, so long as both Eibaddu and Aziru remained her faithful slaves.
+She never sought to repress their incessant quarrelling until such time
+as it threatened to take the form of an insurrection against her own
+power. Then alone did she throw off her neutrality; taking the side of
+one or other of the dissentients, she would grant him, as a pledge of
+help, ten, twenty, thirty, or even more archers.**
+
+     * A half at least of the Tel el-Amarna correspondence treats
+     of provincial wars between the kings of towns and countries
+     subject to Egypt--wars of Abdashirti and his son Aziru
+     against the cities of the Phoenician coast, wars of
+     Abdikhiba, or Abdi-Tabba, King of Jerusalem, against the
+     chiefs of the neighbouring cities.
+
+     ** Abimilki (Abisharri) demands on one occasion from the
+     King of Egypt ten men to defend Tyre, on another occasion
+     twenty; the town of Gula requisitioned thirty or forty to
+     guard it. Delattre thinks that these are rhetorical
+     expressions answering to a general word, just as if we
+     should say "a handful of men"; the difference of value in
+     the figures is to me a proof of their reality.
+
+No doubt the discipline and personal courage of these veterans exercised
+a certain influence on the turn of events, but they were after all a
+mere handful of men, and their individual action in the combat would
+scarcely ever have been sufficient to decide the result; the actual
+importance of their support, in spite of their numerical inferiority,
+lay in the moral weight they brought to the side on which they fought,
+since they represented the whole army of the Pharaoh which lay behind
+them, and their presence in a camp always ensured final success. The
+vanquished party had the right of appeal to the sovereign, through whom
+he might obtain a mitigation of the lot which his successful adversary
+had prepared for him; it was to the interest of Egypt to keep the
+balance of power as evenly as possible between the various states which
+looked to her, and when she prevented one or other of the princes from
+completely crushing his rivals, she was minimising the danger which
+might soon arise from the vassal whom she had allowed to extend his
+territory at the expense of others.
+
+These relations gave rise to a perpetual exchange of letters and
+petitions between the court of Thebes and the northern and southern
+provinces, in which all the petty kings of Africa and Asia, of whatever
+colour or race, set forth, either openly or covertly, their ambitions
+and their fears, imploring a favour or begging for a subsidy, revealing
+the real or suspected intrigues of their fellow-chiefs, and while loudly
+proclaiming their own loyalty, denouncing the perfidy and the secret
+projects of their neighbours. As the Ethiopian peoples did not,
+apparently, possess an alphabet of their own, half of the correspondence
+which concerned them was carried on in Egyptian, and written on papyrus.
+In Syria, however, where Babylonian civilization maintained itself
+in spite of its conquest by Thutmosis, cuneiform writing was still
+employed, and tablets of dried clay.* It had, therefore, been found
+necessary to establish in the Pharaoh's palace a department for this
+service, in which the scribes should be competent to decipher the
+Chaldaean character. Dictionaries and easy mythological texts had been
+procured for their instruction, by means of which they had learned the
+meaning of words and the construction of sentences. Having once mastered
+the mechanism of the syllabary, they set to work to translate the
+despatches, marking on the back of each the date and the place from
+whence it came, and if necessary making a draft of the reply.** In these
+the Pharaoh does not appear, as a rule, to have insisted on the endless
+titles which we find so lavishly used in his inscriptions, but the
+shortened protocol employed shows that the theory of his divinity was
+as fully acknowledged by strangers as it was by his own subjects. They
+greet him as their sun, the god before whom they prostrate themselves
+seven times seven, while they are his slaves, his dogs, and the dust
+beneath his feet.***
+
+     * A discovery made by the fellahin, in 1887, at Tel el-
+     Arnarna, in the rums of the palace of Khuniaton, brought to
+     light a portion of the correspondence between Asiatic
+     monarchs, whether vassals or independent of Egypt, with the
+     officers of Amenothes III. and IV., and with these Pharaohs
+     themselves.
+
+     ** Several of these registrations are still to be read on
+     the backs of the tablets at Berlin, London, and Gizeh.
+
+     ***The protocols of the letters of Abdashirti may be taken
+     as an example, or those of Abimilki to Pharaoh, sometimes
+     there is a development of the protocol which assumes
+     panegyrical features similar to those met with in Egypt.
+
+The runners to whom these documents were entrusted, and who delivered
+them with their own hand, were not, as a rule, persons of any
+consideration; but for missions of grave importance "the king's
+messengers" were employed, whose functions in time became extended to
+a remarkable degree. Those who were restricted to a limited sphere
+of activity were called "the king's messengers for the regions of
+the south," or "the king's messengers for the regions of the north,"
+according to their proficiency in the idiom and customs of Africa or of
+Asia. Others were deemed capable of undertaking missions wherever they
+might be required, and were, therefore, designated by the bold title of
+"the king's messengers for all lands." In this case extended powers were
+conferred upon them, and they were permitted to cut short the disputes
+between two cities in some province they had to inspect, to excuse from
+tribute, to receive presents and hostages, and even princesses destined
+for the harem of the Pharaoh, and also to grant the support of troops
+to such as could give adequate reason for seeking it.* Their tasks were
+always of a delicate and not infrequently of a perilous nature, and
+constantly exposed them to the danger of being robbed by highwaymen or
+maltreated by some insubordinate vassal, at times even running the risk
+of mutilation or assassination by the way.**
+
+     * The Tel el-Amarna correspondence shows the messengers in
+     the time of Amenothes III. and IV. as receiving tribute, as
+     bringing an army to the succour of a chief in difficulties,
+     as threatening with the anger of the Pharaoh the princes oL
+     doubtful loyalty, as giving to a faithful vassal compliments
+     and honours from his suzerain, as charged with the
+     conveyance of a gift of slaves, or of escorting a princess
+     to the harem of the Pharaoh.
+
+     ** A letter of Ribaddu, in the time of Amenothes III.,
+     represents a royal messenger as blockaded in By bios by the
+     rebels.
+
+They were obliged to brave the dangers of the forests of Lebanon and of
+the Taurus, the solitudes of Mesopotamia, the marshes of Chaldoa, the
+voyages to Puanit and Asia Minor. Some took their way towards Assyria
+and Babylon, while others embarked at Tyre or Sidon for the islands of
+the AEgean Archipelago.* The endurance of all these officers, whether
+governors or messengers, their courage, their tact, the ready wit they
+were obliged to summon to help them out of the difficulties into which
+their calling frequently brought them, all tended to enlist the public
+sympathy in their favour.**
+
+     * We hear from the tablets of several messengers to Babylon,
+     and the Mitanni, Rasi, Mani, Khamassi. The royal messenger
+     Thutii, who governed the countries of the north, speaks of
+     having satisfied the heart of the king in "the isles which
+     are in the midst of the sea." This was not, as some think, a
+     case of hyperbole, for the messengers could embark on
+     Phoenician vessels; they had a less distance to cover in
+     order to reach the AEgean than the royal messenger of Queen
+     Hatshopsitu had before arriving at the country of the
+     Somalis and the "Ladders of Incense."
+
+     ** The hero of the _Anastasi Papyrus_, No. 1, with whom
+     Chabas made us acquainted in his _Voyage d'un Egyptien_, is
+     probably a type of the "messenger" or the time of Ramses
+     II.; in any case, his itinerary and adventures are natural
+     to a "royal messenger" compelled to traverse Syria alone.
+
+Many of them achieved a reputation, and were made the heroes of popular
+romance. More than three centuries after it was still related how one
+of them, by name Thutii, had reduced and humbled Jaffa, whose chief had
+refused to come to terms. Thutii set about his task by feigning to throw
+off his allegiance to Thutmosis III., and withdrew from the Egyptian
+service, having first stolen the great magic wand of his lord; he then
+invited the rebellious chief into his camp, under pretence of showing
+him this formidable talisman, and killed him after they had drunk
+together. The cunning envoy then packed five hundred of his soldiers
+into jars, and caused them to be carried on the backs of asses before
+the gates of the town, where he made the herald of the murdered prince
+proclaim that the Egyptians had been defeated, and that the pack train
+which accompanied him contained the spoil, among which was Thutii
+himself. The officer in charge of the city gate was deceived by this
+harangue, the asses were admitted within the walls, where the soldiers
+quitted their jars, massacred the garrison, and made themselves masters
+of the town. The tale is, in the main, the story of Ali Baba and the
+forty thieves.
+
+The frontier was continually shifting, and Thutmosis III., like
+Thutmosis I., vainly endeavoured to give it a fixed character by
+erecting stelas along the banks of the Euphrates, at those points
+where he contended it had run formerly. While Kharu and Phoenicia were
+completely in the hands of the conqueror, his suzerainty became more
+uncertain as it extended northwards in the direction of the Taurus.
+Beyond Qodshu, it could only be maintained by means of constant
+supervision, and in Naharaim its duration was coextensive with the
+sojourn of the conqueror in the locality during his campaign, for it
+vanished of itself as soon as he had set out on his return to Africa.
+It will be thus seen that, on the continent of Asia, Egypt possessed a
+nucleus of territories, so far securely under her rule that they might
+be actually reckoned as provinces; beyond this immediate domain there
+was a zone of waning influence, whose area varied with each reign, and
+even under one king depended largely on the activity which he personally
+displayed.
+
+This was always the case when the rulers of Egypt attempted to carry
+their supremacy beyond the isthmus; whether under the Ptolemies or the
+native kings, the distance to which her influence extended was always
+practically the same, and the teaching of history enables us to note its
+limits on the map with relative accuracy.*
+
+     * The development of the Egyptian navy enabled the Ptolemies
+     to exercise authority over the coasts of Asia Minor and of
+     Thrace, but this extension of their power beyond the
+     indicated limits only hastened the exhaustion of their
+     empire. This instance, like that of Mehemet Ali, thus
+     confirms the position taken up in the text.
+
+The coast towns, which were in maritime communication with the ports of
+the Delta, submitted to the Egyptian yoke more readily than those of the
+interior. But this submission could not be reckoned on beyond Berytus,
+on the banks of the Lykos, though occasionally it stretched a little
+further north as far as Byblos and Arvad; even then it did not extend
+inland, and the curve marking its limits traverses Coele-Syria from
+north-west to south-east, terminating at Mount Hermon. Damascus,
+securely entrenched behind Anti-Lebanon, almost always lay outside this
+limit. The rulers of Egypt generally succeeded without much difficulty
+in keeping possession of the countries lying to the south of this line;
+it demanded merely a slight effort, and this could be furnished for
+several centuries without encroaching seriously on the resources of the
+country, or endangering its prosperity. When, however, some province
+ventured to break away from the control of Egypt, the whole mechanism
+of the government was put into operation to provide soldiers and the
+necessary means for an expedition. Each stage of the advance beyond the
+frontier demanded a greater expenditure of energy, which, with prolonged
+distances, would naturally become exhausted. The expedition would
+scarcely have reached the Taurus or the Euphrates, before the force
+of circumstances would bring about its recall homewards, leaving but a
+slight bond of vassalage between the recently subdued countries and the
+conqueror, which would speedily be cast off or give place to relations
+dictated by interest or courtesy. Thutmosis III. had to submit to this
+sort of necessary law; a further extension of territory had hardly
+been gained when his dominion began to shrink within the frontiers that
+appeared to have been prescribed by nature for an empire like that
+of Egypt. Kharu and Phoenicia proper paid him their tithes with due
+regularity; the cities of the Amurru and of Zahi, of Damascus, Qodshu,
+Hamath, and even of Tunipa, lying on the outskirts of these two subject
+nations, formed an ill-defined borderland, kept in a state of perpetual
+disturbance by the secret intrigues or open rebellions of the native
+princes. The kings of Alasia, Naharaim, and Mitanni preserved their
+independence in spite of repeated reverses, and they treated with the
+conqueror on equal terms.*
+
+     * The difference of tone between the letters of these kings
+     and those of the other princes, as well as the consequences
+     arising from it, has been clearly defined by Delattre.
+
+The tone of their letters to the Pharaoh, the polite formulas with which
+they addressed him, the special protocol which the Egyptian ministry had
+drawn up for their reply, all differ widely from those which we see in
+the despatches coming from commanders of garrisons or actual vassals. In
+the former it is no longer a slave or a feudatory addressing his master
+and awaiting his orders, but equals holding courteous communication
+with each other, the brother of Alasia or of Mitanni with his brother of
+Egypt. They inform him of their good health, and then, before entering
+on business, they express their good wishes for himself, his wives, his
+sons, the lords of his court, his brave soldiers, and for his horses.
+They were careful never to forget that with a single word their
+correspondent could let loose upon them a whirlwind of chariots and
+archers without number, but the respect they felt for his formidable
+power never degenerated into a fear which would humiliate them before
+him with their faces in the dust.
+
+This interchange of diplomatic compliments was called for by a variety
+of exigencies, such as incidents arising on the frontier, secret
+intrigues, personal alliances, and questions of general politics. The
+kings of Mesopotamia and of Northern Syria, even those of Assyria and
+Chaldaea, who were preserved by distance from the dangers of a direct
+invasion, were in constant fear of an unexpected war, and heartily
+desired the downfall of Egypt; they endeavoured meanwhile to occupy the
+Pharaoh so fully at home that he had no leisure to attack them. Even if
+they did not venture to give open encouragement to the disposition in
+his subjects to revolt, they at least experienced no scruple in hiring
+emissaries who secretly fanned the flame of discontent. The Pharaoh,
+aroused to indignation by such plotting, reminded them of their
+former oaths and treaties. The king in question would thereupon deny
+everything, would speak of his tried friendship, and recall the fact
+that he had refused to help a rebel against his beloved brother.* These
+protestations of innocence were usually accompanied by presents, and
+produced a twofold effect. They soothed the anger of the offended party,
+and suggested not only a courteous answer, but the sending of still more
+valuable gifts. Oriental etiquette, even in those early times, demanded
+that the present of a less rich or powerful friend should place the
+recipient under the obligation of sending back a gift of still greater
+worth. Every one, therefore, whether great or little, was obliged to
+regulate his liberality according to the estimation in which he held
+himself, or to the opinion which others formed of him, and a personage
+of such opulence as the King of Egypt was constrained by the laws of
+common civility to display an almost boundless generosity: was he not
+free to work the mines of the Divine Land or the diggings of the Upper
+Nile; and as for gold, "was it not as the dust of his country"?**
+
+     * See the letter of Amenothes III. to Kallimmasin of
+     Babylon, where the King of Egypt complains of the inimical
+     designs which the Babylonian messengers had planned against
+     him, and of the intrigues they had connected on their return
+     to their own country; see also the letter from Burnaburiash
+     to Amenothes IV., in which he defends himself from the
+     accusation of having plotted against the King of Egypt at
+     any time, and recalls the circumstance that his father
+     Kurigalzu had refused to encourage the rebellion of one of
+     the Syrian tribes, subjects of Amenothes III.
+
+     ** See the letter of Dushratta, King of Mitanni, to the
+     Pharaoh Amenothes IV.
+
+He would have desired nothing better than to exhibit such liberality,
+had not the repeated calls on his purse at last constrained him to
+parsimony; he would have been ruined, and Egypt with him, had he given
+all that was expected of him. Except in a few extraordinary cases,
+the gifts sent never realised the expectations of the recipients; for
+instance, when twenty or thirty pounds of precious metal were looked
+for, the amount despatched would be merely two or three. The indignation
+of these disappointed beggars and their recriminations were then most
+amusing: "From the time when my father and thine entered into friendly
+relations, they loaded each other with presents, and never waited to be
+asked to exchange amenities;* and now my brother sends me two minas of
+gold as a gift! Send me abundance of gold, as much as thy father sent,
+and even, for so it must be, more than thy father."** Pretexts
+were never wanting to give reasonable weight to such demands: one
+correspondent had begun to build a temple or a palace in one of his
+capitals,*** another was reserving his fairest daughter for the Pharaoh,
+and he gave him to understand that anything he might receive would help
+to complete the bride's trousseau.****
+
+     * Burnaburiash complains that the king's messengers had only
+     brought him on one occasion two minas of gold, on another
+     occasion twenty minas; moreover, that the quality of the
+     metal was so bad that hardly five minas of pure gold could
+     be extracted from it.
+
+     ** Literally, "and they would never make each other a fair
+     request." The meaning I propose is doubtful, but it appears
+     to be required by the context. The letter from which this
+     passage was taken is from Burnaburiash, King of Babylon, to
+     Amenothes IV.
+
+     *** This is the pretext advanced by Burnaburiash in the
+     letter just cited.
+
+     **** This seems to have been the motive in a somewhat
+     embarrassing letter which Dushratta, King of Mitanni, wrote
+     to the Pharaoh Amenothes III. on the occasion of his fixing
+     the dowry of his daughter.
+
+The princesses thus sent from Babylon or Mitanni to the court of Thebes
+enjoyed on their arrival a more honourable welcome, and were assigned
+a more exalted rank than those who came from Kharu and Phoenicia. As a
+matter of fact, they were not hostages given over to the conqueror to be
+disposed of at will, but queens who were united in legal marriage to an
+ally.* Once admitted to the Pharaoh's court, they retained their full
+rights as his wife, as well as their own fortune and mode of life. Some
+would bring to their betrothed chests of jewels, utensils, and stuffs,
+the enumeration of which would cover both sides of a large tablet;
+others would arrive escorted by several hundred slaves or matrons as
+personal attendants.** A few of them preserved their original name,***
+many assumed an Egyptian designation,**** and so far adapted themselves
+to the costumes, manners, and language of their adopted country, that
+they dropped all intercourse with their native land, and became regular
+Egyptians.
+
+     * The daughter of the King of the Khati, wife of Ramses IL,
+     was treated, as we see from the monuments, with as much
+     honour as would have been accorded to Egyptian princesses of
+     pure blood.
+
+     ** Gilukhipa, who was sent to Egypt to become the wife of
+     Amenothes III., took with her a company of three hundred and
+     seventy women for her service. She was a daughter of
+     Sutarna, King of Mitanni, and is mentioned several times in
+     the Tel el-Amarna correspondence.
+
+     *** For example, Gilukhipa, whose name is transcribed
+     Kilagipa in Egyptian, and another princess of Mitanni, niece
+     of Gilukhipa, called Tadu-khipa, daughter of Dushratta and
+     wife of Amenothes IV.
+
+     **** The prince of the Khati's daughter who married Ramses
+     II. is an example; we know her only by her Egyptian name
+     Maitnofiruri. The wife of Ramses III. added to the Egyptian
+     name of Isis her original name, Humazarati.
+
+When, after several years, an ambassador arrived with greetings from
+their father or brother, he would be puzzled by the changed appearance
+of these ladies, and would almost doubt their identity: indeed, those
+only who had been about them in childhood were in such cases able
+to recognise them.* These princesses all adopted the gods of their
+husbands,** though without necessarily renouncing their own. From time
+to time their parents would send them, with much pomp, a statue of one
+of their national divinities--Ishtar, for example--which, accompanied by
+native priests, would remain for some months at the court.***
+
+     * This was the case with the daughter of Kallimmasin, King
+     of Babylon, married to Amenothes III.; her father's
+     ambassador did not recognise her.
+
+     ** The daughter of the King of the Khati, wife of Ramses
+     II., is represented in an attitude of worship before her
+     deified husband and two Egyptian gods.
+
+     *** Dushratta of Mitanni, sending a statue of Ishtar to his
+     daughter, wife of Amenothes III., reminds her that the same
+     statue had already made the voyage to Egypt in the time of
+     his father Sutarna.
+
+The children of these queens ranked next in order to those whose mothers
+belonged to the solar race, but nothing prevented them marrying their
+brothers or sisters of pure descent, and being eventually raised to
+the throne. The members of their families who remained in Asia were
+naturally proud of these bonds of close affinity with the Pharaoh, and
+they rarely missed an opportunity of reminding him in their letters that
+they stood to him in the relationship of brother-in-law, or one of his
+fathers-in-law; their vanity stood them in good stead, since it afforded
+them another claim on the favours which they were perpetually asking of
+him.*
+
+     * Dushratta of Mitanni never loses an opportunity of calling
+     Aoienothes III., husband of his sister Gilukhipa, and of one
+     of his daughters, "akhiya," my brother, and "khatani-ya," my
+     son-in-law.
+
+These foreign wives had often to interfere in some of the contentions
+which were bound to arise between two States whose subjects were in
+constant intercourse with one another. Invasions or provincial wars may
+have affected or even temporarily suspended the passage to and from of
+caravans between the countries of the Tigris and those of the Nile; but
+as soon as peace was re-established, even though it were the insecure
+peace of those distant ages, the desert traffic was again resumed and
+carried on with renewed vigour. The Egyptian traders who penetrated
+into regions beyond the Euphrates, carried with them, and almost
+unconsciously disseminated along the whole extent of their route, the
+numberless products of Egyptian industry, hitherto but little known
+outside their own country, and rendered expensive owing to the
+difficulty of transmission or the greed of the merchants. The Syrians
+now saw for the first time in great quantities, objects which had been
+known to them hitherto merely through the few rare specimens which made
+their way across the frontier: arms, stuffs, metal implements, household
+utensils--in fine, all the objects which ministered to daily needs or to
+luxury. These were now offered to them at reasonable prices, either
+by the hawkers who accompanied the army or by the soldiers themselves,
+always ready, as soldiers are, to part with their possessions in order
+to procure a few extra pleasures in the intervals of fighting.
+
+[Illustration: 031.jpg THE LOTANU AND THE GOLDSMITHS'WORK CONSTITUTING
+THEIR TRIBUTE]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger. The scene
+     here reproduced occurs in most of the Theban tombs of the
+     XVIIII. dynasty.
+
+On the other hand, whole convoys of spoil were despatched to Egypt
+after every successful campaign, and their contents were distributed in
+varying proportions among all classes of society, from the militiaman
+belonging to some feudal contingent, who received, as a reward of his
+valour, some half-dozen necklaces or bracelets, to the great lord of
+ancient family or the Crown Prince, who carried off waggon-loads of
+booty in their train. These distributions must have stimulated a passion
+for all Syrian goods, and as the spoil was insufficient to satisfy the
+increasing demands of the consumer, the waning commerce which had been
+carried on from early times was once more revived and extended, till
+every route, whether by land or water, between Thebes, Memphis, and the
+Asiatic cities, was thronged by those engaged in its pursuit. It would
+take too long to enumerate the various objects of merchandise brought
+in almost daily to the marts on the Nile by Phoenician vessels or the
+owners of caravans. They comprised slaves destined for the workshop or
+the harem,* Hittite bulls and stallions, horses from Singar, oxen from
+Alasia, rare and curious animals such as elephants from Nii, and
+brown bears from the Lebanon,** smoked and salted fish, live birds of
+many-coloured plumage, goldsmiths'work*** and precious stones, of which
+lapis-lazuli was the chief.
+
+     * Syrian slaves are mentioned along with Ethiopian in the
+     _Anastasi Papyrus_, No. 1, and there is mention in the Tel
+     el-Amarna correspondence of Hittite slaves whom Dushratta of
+     Mitanni brought to Amenothes III., and of other presents of
+     the same kind made by the King of Alasia as a testimony of
+     his grateful homage.
+
+     ** The elephant and the bear are represented on the tomb of
+     liakhmiri among the articles of tribute brought into Egypt.
+
+     *** The _Annals of Thutmosis III_. make a record in each
+     campaign of the importation of gold and silver vases,
+     objects in lapis-lazuli and crystal, or of blocks of the
+     same materials; the Theban tombs of this period afford
+     examples of the vases and blocks brought by the Syrians. The
+     Tel el-Amarna letters also mention vessels of gold or blocks
+     of precious stone sent as presents or as objects of exchange
+     to the Pharaoh by the King of Babylon, by the King of
+     Mitanni, by the King of the Hittites, and by other princes.
+     The lapis-lazuli of Babylon, which probably came from
+     Persia, was that which was most prized by the Egyptians on
+     account of the golden sparks in it, which enhanced the blue
+     colour; this is, perhaps, the Uknu of the cuneiform
+     inscriptions, which has been read for a long time as
+     "crystal."
+
+[Illustration: 032b.jpg PAINTED TABLETS IN THE HALL OF HARPS]
+
+Wood for building or for ornamental work--pine,cypress, yew, cedar,
+and oak,* musical instruments,** helmets, leathern jerkins covered with
+metal scales, weapons of bronze and iron,*** chariots,**** dyed and
+embroidered stuffs,^ perfumes,^^ dried cakes, oil, wines of Kharu,
+liqueurs from Alasia, Khati, Singar, Naharaim, Amurru, and beer from
+Qodi.^^^
+
+     * Building and ornamental woods are often mentioned in the
+     inscriptions of Thutmosis III. A scene at Karnak represents
+     Seti I. causing building-wood to be cut in the region of the
+     Lebanon. A letter of the King of Alasia speaks of
+     contributions of wood which several of his subjects had to
+     make to the King of Egypt.
+
+     ** Some stringed instruments of music, and two or three
+     kinds of flutes and flageolets, are designated in Egyptian
+     by names borrowed from some Semitic tongue--a fact which
+     proves that they were imported; the wooden framework of the
+     harp, decorated with sculptured heads of Astarto, figures
+     among the objects coming from Syria in the temple of the
+     Theban Anion.
+
+     *** Several names of arms borrowed from some Semitic dialect
+     have been noticed in the texts of this period. The objects
+     as well as the words must have been imported into Egypt,
+     e.g. the quiver, the sword and javelins used by the
+     charioteers. Cuirasses and leathern jerkins are mentioned in
+     the inscriptions of Thutmosis III.
+
+     **** Chariots plated with gold and silver figure frequently
+     among the spoils of Thutmosis III.: the Anastasi Papyrus,
+     No. 1, contains a detailed description of Syrian chariots--
+     Markabuti--with a reference to the localities whore certain
+     parts of them were made;--the country of the Amurru, that of
+     Aupa, the town of Pahira. The Tel el-Amarna correspondence
+     mentions very frequently chariots sent to the Pharaoh by the
+     King of Babylon, either as presents or to be sold in Egypt;
+     others sent by the King of Alasia and by the King of
+     Mitanni.
+
+     ^ Some linen, cotton, or woollen stuffs are mentioned in the
+     _Anastasi Papyrus_, No. 4, and elsewhere as coming from
+     Syria. The Egyptian love of white linen always prevented
+     their estimating highly the coloured and brocaded stuffs of
+     Asia; and one sees nowhere, in the representations, any
+     examples of stuffs of such origin, except on furniture or in
+     ships equipped with something of the kind in the form of
+     sails.
+
+     ^^ The perfumed oils of Syria are mentioned in a general way
+     in the _Anastasi Papyrus_, No. 1; the King of Alasia speaks
+     of essences which he is sending to Amenothes III.; the King
+     of Mitanni refers to bottles of oil which he is forwarding
+     to Gilukhipa and to Tii.
+
+     ^^^ A list of cakes of Syrian origin is found in the
+     _Anastasi Papyrus_, No. 1; also a reference to balsamic oils
+     from Naharaim, and to various oils which had arrived in the
+     ports of the Delta, to the wines of Syria, to palm wine and
+     various liqueurs manufactured in Alasia, in Singar, among
+     the Khati, Amorites, and the people of. Tikhisa; finally, to
+     the beer of Qodi.
+
+[Illustration: 034.jpg. THE BEAR AND ELEPHANT BROUGHT AS TRIBUTE IN THE
+TOMB OF RAKHMIRI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph of Prisse
+     d'Avennes' sketch.
+
+On arriving at the frontier, whether by sea or by land, the majority of
+these objects had to pay the custom dues which were rigorously collected
+by the officers of the Pharaoh. This, no doubt, was a reprisal tariff,
+since independent sovereigns, such as those of Mitanni, Assyria, and
+Babylon, were accustomed to impose a similar duty on all the products
+of Egypt. The latter, indeed, supplied more than she received, for many
+articles which reached her in their raw condition were, by means of
+native industry, worked up and exported as ornaments, vases, and highly
+decorated weapons, which, in the course of international traffic, were
+dispersed to all four corners of the earth. The merchants of Babylon and
+Assyria had little to fear as long as they kept within the domains of
+their own sovereign or in those of the Pharaoh; but no sooner did they
+venture within the borders of those turbulent states which separated
+the two great powers, than they were exposed to dangers at every turn.
+Safe-conducts were of little use if they had not taken the additional
+precaution of providing a strong escort and carefully guarding their
+caravan, for the Shausu concealed in the depths of the Lebanon or the
+needy sheikhs of Kharu could never resist the temptation to rob the
+passing traveller.*
+
+     * The scribe who in the reign of Ramses II. composed the
+     _Travels of an Egyptian_, speaks in several places of
+     marauding tribes and robbers, who infested the roads
+     followed by the hero. The Tel el-Amarna correspondence
+     contains a letter from the King of Alasia, who exculpates
+     himself from being implicated in the harsh treatment certain
+     Egyptians had received in passing through his territory; and
+     another letter in which the King of Babylon complains that
+     Chaldoan merchants had been robbed at Khinnatun, in Galilee,
+     by the Prince of Akku (Acre) and his accomplices: one of
+     them had his feet cut off, and the other was still a
+     prisoner in Akku, and Burnaburiash demands from Amenothes
+     IV. the death of the guilty persons.
+
+The victims complained to their king, who felt no hesitation in passing
+on their woes to the sovereign under whose rule the pillagers were
+supposed to live. He demanded their punishment, but his request was not
+always granted, owing to the difficulties of finding out and seizing the
+offenders. An indemnity, however, could be obtained which would nearly
+compensate the merchants for the loss sustained. In many cases justice
+had but little to do with the negotiations, in which self-interest was
+the chief motive; but repeated refusals would have discouraged traders,
+and by lessening the facilities of transit, have diminished the revenue
+which the state drew from its foreign commerce.
+
+The question became a more delicate one when it concerned the rights of
+subjects residing out of their native country. Foreigners, as a rule,
+were well received in Egypt; the whole country was open to them;
+they could marry, they could acquire houses and lands, they enjoyed
+permission to follow their own religion unhindered, they were eligible
+for public honours, and more than one of the officers of the crown
+whose tombs we see at Thebes were themselves Syrians, or born of Syrian
+parents on the banks of the Nile.*
+
+     * In a letter from the King of Alasia, there is question of
+     a merchant who had died in Egypt. Among other monuments
+     proving the presence of Syrians about the Pharaoh, is the
+     stele of Ben-Azana, of the town of Zairabizana, surnamed
+     Ramses-Empiri: he was surrounded with Semites like himself.
+
+Hence, those who settled in Egypt without any intention of returning to
+their own country enjoyed all the advantages possessed by the natives,
+whereas those who took up a merely temporary abode there were more
+limited in their privileges. They were granted the permission to hold
+property in the country, and also the right to buy and sell there, but
+they were not allowed to transmit their possessions at will, and if by
+chance they died on Egyptian soil, their goods lapsed as a forfeit to
+the crown. The heirs remaining in the native country of the dead man,
+who were ruined by this confiscation, sometimes petitioned the king to
+interfere in their favour with a view of obtaining restitution. If the
+Pharaoh consented to waive his right of forfeiture, and made over
+the confiscated objects or their equivalent to the relatives of the
+deceased, it was solely by an act of mercy, and as an example to foreign
+governments to treat Egyptians with a like clemency should they chance
+to proffer a similar request.*
+
+     * All this seems to result from a letter in which the King
+     of Alasia demands from Amenothes III. the restitution of the
+     goods of one of his subjects who had died in Egypt; the tone
+     of the letter is that of one asking a favour, and on the
+     supposition that the King of Egypt had a right to keep the
+     property of a foreigner dying on his territory.
+
+It is also not improbable that the sovereigns themselves had a personal
+interest in more than one commercial undertaking, and that they were
+the partners, or, at any rate, interested in the enterprises, of many
+of their subjects, so that any loss sustained by one of the latter
+would eventually fall upon themselves. They had, in fact, reserved to
+themselves the privilege of carrying on several lucrative industries,
+and of disposing of the products to foreign buyers, either to those who
+purchased them out and out, or else through the medium of agents, to
+whom they intrusted certain quantities of the goods for warehousing.
+The King of Babylon, taking advantage of the fashion which prompted
+the Egyptians to acquire objects of Chaldaean goldsmiths' and
+cabinet-makers' art, caused ingots of gold to be sent to him by the
+Pharaoh, which he returned worked up into vases, ornaments, household
+utensils, and plated chariots. He further fixed the value of all
+such objects, and took a considerable commission for having acted as
+intermediary in the transaction.* In Alasia, which was the land of
+metals, the king appears to have held a monopoly of the bronze. Whether
+he smelted it in the country, or received it from more distant regions
+ready prepared, we cannot say, but he claimed and retained for himself
+the payment for all that the Pharaoh deigned to order of him.**
+
+     * Letter of Burnaburiash to Amenothes IV.
+
+     ** Letter from the King of Alasia to Amenothes III., where,
+     whilst pretending to have nothing else in view than making a
+     present to his royal brother, he proposes to make an
+     exchange of some bronze for the products of Egypt,
+     especially for gold.
+
+From such instances we can well understand the jealous, watch which
+these sovereigns exercised, lest any individual connected with
+corporations of workmen should leave the kingdom and establish himself
+in another country without special permission. Any emigrant who opened
+a workshop and initiated his new compatriots in the technique or
+professional secrets of his craft, was regarded by the authorities as
+the most dangerous of all evil-doers. By thus introducing his trade into
+a rival state, he deprived his own people of a good customer, and thus
+rendered himself liable to the penalties inflicted on those who were
+guilty of treason. His savings were confiscated, his house razed to the
+ground, and his whole family--parents, wives, and children--treated
+as partakers in his crime. As for himself, if justice succeeded in
+overtaking him, he was punished with death, or at least with mutilation,
+such as the loss of eyes and ears, or amputation of the feet. This
+severity did not prevent the frequent occurrence of such cases, and
+it was found necessary to deal with them by the insertion of a special
+extradition clause in treaties of peace and other alliances. The two
+contracting parties decided against conceding the right of habitation
+to skilled workmen who should take refuge with either party on the
+territory of the other, and they agreed to seize such workmen forthwith,
+and mutually restore them, but under the express condition that neither
+they nor any of their belongings should incur any penalty for the
+desertion of their country. It would be curious to know if all the
+arrangements agreed to by the kings of those times were sanctioned,
+as in the above instance, by properly drawn up agreements. Certain
+expressions occur in their correspondence which seem to prove that this
+was the case, and that the relations between them, of which we can catch
+traces, resulted not merely from a state of things which, according
+to their ideas, did not necessitate any diplomatic sanction, but from
+conventions agreed to after some war, or entered on without any previous
+struggle, when there was no question at issue between the two states.*
+
+     * The treaty of Ramses II. with the King of the Khati, the
+     only one which has come down to us, was a renewal of other
+     treaties effected one after the other between the fathers
+     and grandfathers of the two contracting sovereigns. Some of
+     the Tel el-Amarna letters probably refer to treaties of this
+     kind; e.g. that of Burnaburiash of Babylon, who says that
+     since the time of Karaindash there had been an exchange of
+     ambassadors and friendship between the sovereigns of Chaldoa
+     and of Egypt, and also that of Dushratta of Mitanni, who
+     reminds Queen Tii of the secret negotiations which had taken
+     place between him and Amenothes III.
+
+When once the Syrian conquest had been effected, Egypt gave permanency
+to its results by means of a series of international decrees, which
+officially established the constitution of her empire, and brought about
+her concerted action with the Asiatic powers.
+
+[Illustration: 040.jpg THE MUMMY OF THUTMOSIS III.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Emil
+     Brugsch-Bey.
+
+She already occupied an important position among them, when Thutmosis
+III. died, on the last day of Phamenoth, in the IVth year of his reign.*
+He was buried, probably, at Deir el-Bahari, in the family tomb wherein
+the most illustrious members of his house had been laid to rest since
+the time of Thutmosis I. His mummy was not securely hidden away, for
+towards the close of the XXth dynasty it was torn out of the coffin by
+robbers, who stripped it and rifled it of the jewels with which it was
+covered, injuring it in their haste to carry away the spoil. It was
+subsequently re-interred, and has remained undisturbed until the
+present day; but before re-burial some renovation of the wrappings was
+necessary, and as portions of the body had become loose, the restorers,
+in order to give the mummy the necessary firmness, compressed it between
+four oar-shaped slips of wood, painted white, and placed, three inside
+the wrappings and one outside, under the bands which confined the
+winding-sheet.
+
+     * Dr. Mahler has, with great precision, fixed the date of
+     the accession of Thutmosis III, as the 20th of March, 1503,
+     and that of his death as the 14th of February, 1449 b.c. I
+     do not think that the data furnished to Dr. Mahler by
+     Brugsch will admit of such exact conclusions being drawn
+     from them, and I should fix the fifty-four years of the
+     reign of Thutmosis III. in a less decided manner, between
+     1550 and 1490 b.c., allowing, as I have said before, for an
+     error of half a century more or less in the dates which go
+     back to the time of the second Theban empire.
+
+[Illustration: 041.jpg HEAD OF THE MUMMY OF THUTMOSIS III.]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph lent by M. Grebaut,
+     taken by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+Happily the face, which had been plastered over with pitch at the time
+of embalming, did not suffer at all from this rough treatment, and
+appeared intact when the protecting mask was removed. Its appearance
+does not answer to our ideal of the conqueror. His statues, though
+not representing him as a type of manly beauty, yet give him refined,
+intelligent features, but a comparison with the mummy shows that the
+artists have idealised their model. The forehead is abnormally low, the
+eyes deeply sunk, the jaw heavy, the lips thick, and the cheek-bones
+extremely prominent; the whole recalling the physiognomy of Thutmosis
+II., though with a greater show of energy. Thutmosis III. is a fellah of
+the old stock, squat, thickset, vulgar in character and expression, but
+not lacking in firmness and vigour.* Amenothes II., who succeeded him,
+must have closely resembled him, if we may trust his official portraits.
+He was the son of a princess of the blood, Hatshopsitu II., daughter of
+the great Hatshopsitu,** and consequently he came into his inheritance
+with stronger claims to it than any other Pharaoh since the time of
+Amenothes I. Possibly his father may have associated him with himself on
+the throne as soon as the young prince attained his majority;*** at any
+rate, his accession aroused no appreciable opposition in the country,
+and if any difficulties were made, they must have come from outside.
+
+     * The restored remains allow us to estimate the height at
+     about 5 ft. 3 in.
+
+     ** His parentage is proved by the pictures preserved in the
+     tomb of his foster-father, where he is represented in
+     company with the _royal mother_, Maritri. Hatshopsitu.
+
+     *** It is thus that Wiedemann explains his presence by the
+     side of Thutmosis III. on certain bas-reliefs in the temple
+     of Amada.
+
+It is always a dangerous moment in the existence of a newly formed
+empire when its founder having passed away, and the conquered people
+not having yet become accustomed to a subject condition, they are called
+upon to submit to a successor of whom they know little or nothing. It
+is always problematical whether the new sovereign will display as great
+activity and be as successful as the old one; whether he will be capable
+of turning to good account the armies which his predecessor commanded
+with such skill, and led so bravely against the enemy; whether, again,
+he will have sufficient tact to estimate correctly the burden of
+taxation which each province is capable of bearing, and to lighten it
+when there is a risk of its becoming too heavy. If he does not show from
+the first that it is his purpose to maintain his patrimony intact at all
+costs, or if his officers, no longer controlled by a strong hand, betray
+any indecision in command, his subjects will become unruly, and the
+change of monarch will soon furnish a pretext for widespread rebellion.
+The beginning of the reign of Amenothes II. was marked by a revolt of
+the Libyans inhabiting the Theban Oasis, but this rising was soon
+put down by that Amenemhabi who had so distinguished himself under
+Thutmosis.* Soon after, fresh troubles broke out in different parts of
+Syria, in Galilee, in the country of the Amurru, and among the peoples
+of Naharaim. The king's prompt action, however, prevented their
+resulting in a general war.** He marched in person against the
+malcontents, reduced the town of Shamshiaduma, fell upon the Lamnaniu,
+and attacked their chief, slaying him with his own hand, and carrying
+off numbers of captives.
+
+     * Brugsch and Wiedemann place this expedition at the time
+     when Amenothes IL was either hereditary prince or associated
+     with his father the inscription of Amenemhabi places it
+     explicitly after the death of Thutmosis III., and this
+     evidence outweighs every other consideration until further
+     discoveries are made.
+
+     ** The campaigns of Amenothes II. were related on a granite
+     stele, which was placed against the second of the southern
+     pylons at Karnak. The date of this monument is almost
+     certainly the year II.; there is strong evidence in favour
+     of this, if it is compared with the inscription of Amada,
+     where Amenothes II. relates that in the year III. he
+     sacrificed the prisoners whom he had taken in the country of
+     Tikhisa.
+
+[Illustration: 044.jpg AMENOTHES II., FROM THE STATUE AT TURIN]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin.
+
+He crossed the Orontes on the 26th of Pachons, in the year II., and
+seeing some mounted troops in the distance, rushed upon them and
+overthrew them; they proved to be the advanced guard of the enemy's
+force, which he encountered shortly afterwards and routed, collecting
+in the pursuit considerable booty. He finally reached Naharaim, where he
+experienced in the main but a feeble resistance. Nii surrendered without
+resistance on the 10th of Epiphi, and its inhabitants, both men
+and women, with censers in their hands, assembled on the walls and
+prostrated themselves before the conqueror. At Akaiti, where the
+partisans of the Egyptian government had suffered persecution from a
+considerable section of the natives, order was at once reestablished as
+soon as the king's approach was made known. No doubt the rapidity of
+his marches and the vigour of his attacks, while putting an end to
+the hostile attitude of the smaller vassal states, were effectual in
+inducing the sovereigns of Alasia, of Mitanni,* and of the Hittites to
+renew with Amenothes the friendly relations which they had established
+with his father.**
+
+     * Amenothes II. mentions tribute from Mitanni on one of the
+     columns which he decorated at Karnak, in the Hall of the
+     Caryatides, close to the pillars finished by his
+     predecessors.
+
+     ** The cartouches on the pedestal of the throne of Amenothes
+     IL, in the tomb of one of his officers at Sheikh-Abd-el-
+     Qurneh, represent--together with the inhabitants of the
+     Oasis, Libya, and Kush--the Kefatiu, the people of Naharaim,
+     and the Upper Lotanu, that is to say, the entire dominion of
+     Thutmosis III., besides the people of Manus, probably
+     Mallos, in the Cilician plain.
+
+This one campaign, which lasted three or four months, secured a lasting
+peace in the north, but in the south a disturbance again broke out among
+the Barbarians of the Upper Nile. Amenothes suppressed it, and, in order
+to prevent a repetition of it, was guilty of an act of cruel severity
+quite in accordance with the manners of the time. He had taken prisoner
+seven chiefs in the country of Tikhisa, and had brought them, chained,
+in triumph to Thebes, on the forecastle of his ship. He sacrificed six
+of them himself before Amon, and exposed their heads and hands on the
+facade of the temple of Karnak; the seventh was subjected to a similar
+fate at Napata at the beginning of his third year, and thenceforth
+the sheikhs of Kush thought twice before defying the authority of the
+Pharaoh.*
+
+     * In an inscription in the temple of Amada, it is there said
+     that the king offered this sacrifice on his return from his
+     first expedition into Asia, and for this reason I have
+     connected the facts thus related with those known to us
+     through the stele of Karnak.
+
+Amenothes'reign was a short one, lasting ten years at most, and the end
+of it seems to have been darkened by the open or secret rivalries which
+the question of the succession usually stirred up among the kings' sons.
+The king had daughters only by his marriage with one of his full
+sisters, who like himself possessed all the rights of sovereignty; those
+of his sons who did not die young were the children of princesses of
+inferior rank or of concubines, and it was a subject of anxiety among
+these princes which of them would be chosen to inherit the crown and be
+united in marriage with the king's heiresses, Khuit and Mutemuau.
+
+[Illustration: 046.jpg THE GREAT SPHINX AND THE CHAPEL OF THUTMOSIS IV.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the photograph taken in 1887 by
+     Emil Brugsch-Bey
+
+[Illustration: 047.jpg THE SIMOOM. SPHINX AND PYRAMIDS AT GIZEH]
+
+One of his sons, named Thutmosis, who resided at the "White Wall," was
+in the habit of betaking himself frequently to the Libyan desert to
+practise with the javelin, or to pursue the hunt of lions and gazelles
+in his chariot. On these occasions it was his pleasure to preserve the
+strictest incognito, and he was accompanied by two discreet servants
+only. One day, when chance had brought him into the neighbourhood of the
+Great Pyramid, he lay down for his accustomed siesta in the shade cast
+by the Sphinx, the miraculous image of Khopri the most powerful, the
+god to whom all men in Memphis and the neighbouring towns raised adoring
+hands filled with offerings. The gigantic statue was at that time more
+than half buried, and its head alone was seen above the sand. As soon
+as the prince was asleep it spoke gently to him, as a father to his
+son: "Behold me, gaze on me, O my son Thutmosis, for I, thy father
+Harmakhis-Khopri-Tumu, grant thee sovereignty over the two countries, in
+both the South and the North, and thou shalt wear both the white and the
+red crown on the throne of Sibu, the sovereign, possessing the earth in
+its length and breadth; the flashing eye of the lord of all shall cause
+to rain on thee the possessions of Egypt, vast tribute from all foreign
+countries, and a long life for, many years as one chosen by the Sun,
+for my countenance is thine, my heart is thine, no other than thyself is
+mine! Nor am I covered by the sand of the mountain on which I rest,
+and have given thee this prize that thou mayest do for me what my heart
+desires, for I know that thou art my son, my defender; draw nigh, I am
+with thee, I am thy well-beloved father." The prince understood that the
+god promised him the kingdom on condition of his swearing to clear the
+sand from the statue. He was, in fact, chosen to be the husband of the
+queens, and immediately after his accession he fulfilled his oath; he
+removed the sand, built a chapel between the paws, and erected against
+the breast of the statue a stele of red granite, on which he related
+his adventure. His reign was as short as that of Amenothes, and his
+campaigns both in Asia and Ethiopia were unimportant.*
+
+     * The latest date of his reign at present known is that of
+     the year VII., on the rocks of Konosso, and on a stele of
+     Sarbut el-Khadim. There is an allusion to his wars against
+     the Ethiopians in an inscription of Amada, and to his
+     campaigns against the peoples of the North and South on the
+     stele of Nofirhait.
+
+[Illustration: 050.jpg THE STELE OF THE SPHINX OF GIZER]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+He had succeeded to an empire so firmly established from Naharaim to
+Kari,* that, apparently, no rebellion could disturb its peace. One of
+the two heiress-princesses, Kuit, the daughter, sister, and wife of a
+king, had no living male offspring, but her companion Mutemuau had at
+least one son, named Amenothes. In his case, again, the noble birth
+of the mother atoned for the defects of the paternal origin. Moreover,
+according to tradition, Amon-Ka himself had intervened to renew the
+blood of his descendants: he appeared in the person of Thutmosis IV.,
+and under this guise became the father of the heir of the Pharaohs.**
+
+     * The peoples of Naharaim and of Northern Syria are
+     represented bringing him tribute, in a tomb at Sheikh-Abd-
+     el-Qurneh. The inscription published by Mariette, speaks of
+     the first expedition of Thutmosis IV. to the land of
+     [Naharai]na, and of the gifts which he lavished on this
+     occasion on the temple of Anion.
+
+     ** It was at first thought that Mutemuau was an Ethiopian,
+     afterwards that she was a Syrian, who had changed her name
+     on arriving at the court of her husband. The manner in which
+     she is represented at Luxor, and in all the texts where she
+     figures, proves not only that she was of Egyptian race, but
+     that she was the daughter of Amenothes II., and born of the
+     marriage of that prince with one of his sisters, who was
+     herself an hereditary princess.
+
+Like Queen Ahmasis in the bas-reliefs of Deir el-Bahari, Mutemuau
+is shown on those of Luxor in the arms of her divine lover, and
+subsequently greeted by him with the title of mother; in another
+bas-relief we see the queen led to her couch by the goddesses who
+preside over the birth of children; her son Amenothes, on coming into
+the world with his double, is placed in the hands of the two Niles, to
+receive the nourishment and the education meet for the children of the
+gods. He profited fully by them, for he remained in power forty years,
+and his reign was one of the most prosperous ever witnessed by Egypt
+during the Theban dynasties.
+
+[Illustration: 052.jpg QUEEN MUTEMUAU.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Daniel Heron.
+
+Amenothes III. had spent but little of his time in war. He had
+undertaken the usual raids in the South against the negroes and the
+tribes of the Upper Nile. In his fifth year, a general defection of the
+sheikhs obliged him to invade the province of Abhait, near Semneh, which
+he devastated at the head of the troops collected by Mari-ifi mosu, the
+Prince of Kush; the punishment was salutary, the booty considerable, and
+a lengthy peace was re-established. The object of his rare expeditions
+into Naharaim was not so much to add new provinces to his empire, as to
+prevent disturbances in the old ones. The kings of Alasia, of the Khati,
+of Mitanni, of Singar,* of Assyria, and of Babylon did not dare to
+provoke so powerful a neighbour.**
+
+     * Amenothes entitles himself on a scarabaeus "he who takes
+     prisoner the country of Singar;" no other document has yet
+     been discovered to show whether this is hyperbole, or
+     whether he really reached this distant region.
+
+     ** The lists of the time of Amenothes III. contain the names
+     of Phoenicia, Naharaim, Singar, Qodshu, Tunipa, Patina,
+     Carchomish, and Assur; that is to say, of all the subject or
+     allied nations mentioned in the correspondence of Tel el-
+     Amarna. Certain episodes of these expeditions had been
+     engraved on the exterior face of the pylon constructed by
+     the king for the temple of Amon at Karnak; at the present
+     time they are concealed by the wall at the lower end of the
+     Hypostyle Hall. The tribute of the Lotanu was represented on
+     the tomb of Hui, at Sheikh-Abd-el-Qurneh.
+
+[Illustration: 052b.jpg Amenothes III. Colossal Head in the British
+Museum]
+
+[Illustration: 052b-text.jpg]
+
+The remembrance of the victories of Thutmosis III. was still fresh in
+their memories, and, even had their hands been free, would have
+made them cautious in dealing with his great-grandson; but they were
+incessantly engaged in internecine quarrels, and had recourse to
+Pharaoh merely to enlist his support, or at any rate make sure of his
+neutrality, and prevent him from joining their adversaries.
+
+[Illustration: 053.jpg AMENOTHES III. FROM THE TOMB OF KHAMHAIT]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Daniel Heron.
+
+Whatever might have been the nature of their private sentiments, they
+professed to be anxious to maintain, for their mutual interests, the
+relations with Egypt entered on half a century before, and as the surest
+method of attaining their object was by a good marriage, they would each
+seek an Egyptian wife for himself, or would offer Amenothes a princess
+of one of their own royal families. The Egyptian king was, however, firm
+in refusing to bestow a princess of the solar blood even on the most
+powerful of the foreign kings; his pride rebelled at the thought that
+she might one day be consigned to a place among the inferior wives
+or concubines, but he gladly accepted, and even sought for wives for
+himself, from among the Syrian and Chaldaean princesses. Kallimmasin of
+Babylon gave Amenothes first his sister, and when age had deprived this
+princess of her beauty, then his daughter Irtabi in marriage.*
+
+     * Letter from Amenothes III. to Kallimmasin, concerning a
+     sister of the latter, who was married to the King of Egypt,
+     but of whom there are no further records remaining at
+     Babylon, and also one of his daughters whom Amenothes had
+     demanded in marriage; and letters from Kallimmasin,
+     consenting to bestow his daughter Irtabi on the Pharaoh, and
+     proposing to give to Amenothes whichever one he might choose
+     of the daughters of his house.
+
+Sutarna of Mitanni had in the same way given the Pharaoh his daughter
+Gilukhipa; indeed, most of the kings of that period had one or two
+relations in the harem at Thebes. This connexion usually proved a
+support to Asiatic sovereigns, such alliances being a safeguard against
+the rivalries of their brothers or cousins. At times, however, they were
+the means of exposing them to serious dangers. When Sutarna died he was
+succeeded by his son Dushratta, but a numerous party put forward another
+prince, named Artassumara, who was probably Gilukhipa's brother, on the
+mother's side;* a Hittite king of the name of Pirkhi espoused the cause
+of the pretender, and a civil war broke out.
+
+     * Her exact relationship is not explicitly expressed, but is
+     implied in the facts, for there seems no reason why
+     Gilukhipa should have taken the part of one brother rather
+     than another, unless Artassumara had been nearer to her than
+     Dushratta; that is to say, her brother on the mother's side
+     as well as on the father's.
+
+Dushratta was victorious, and caused his brother to be strangled, but
+was not without anxiety as to the consequences which might follow this
+execution should Gilukhipa desire to avenge the victim, and to this end
+stir up the anger of the suzerain against him. Dushratta, therefore,
+wrote a humble epistle, showing that he had received provocation, and
+that he had found it necessary to strike a decisive blow to save his own
+life; the tablet was accompanied by various presents to the royal pair,
+comprising horses, slaves, jewels, and perfumes. Gilukhipa, however,
+bore Dushratta no ill-will, and the latter's anxieties were allayed.
+The so-called expeditions of Amenothes to the Syrian provinces
+must constantly have been merely visits of inspection, during which
+amusements, and especially the chase, occupied nearly as important
+a place as war and politics. Amenothes III. took to heart that
+pre-eminently royal duty of ridding the country of wild beasts, and
+fulfilled it more conscientiously than any of his predecessors. He had
+killed 112 lions during the first ten years of his reign, and as it was
+an exploit of which he was remarkably proud, he perpetuated the memory
+of it in a special inscription, which he caused to be engraved on
+numbers of large scarabs of fine green enamel. Egypt prospered under his
+peaceful government, and if the king made no great efforts to extend
+her frontiers, he spared no pains to enrich the country by developing
+industry and agriculture, and also endeavoured to perfect the military
+organisation which had rendered the conquest of the East so easy a
+matter.
+
+A census, undertaken by his minister Amenothes, the son of Hapi,
+ensured a more correct assessment of the taxes, and a regular scheme of
+recruiting for the army.
+
+[Illustration: 056.jpg SCARAB OF THE HUNT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the photograph published in
+     Mariette.
+
+Whole tribes of slaves were brought into the country by means of the
+border raids which were always taking place, and their opportune arrival
+helped to fill up the vacancies which repeated wars had caused among
+the rural and urban population; such a strong impetus to agriculture
+was also given by this importation, that when, towards the middle of the
+reign, the minister Khamhaifc presented the tax-gathers at court, he
+was able to boast that he had stored in the State granaries a larger
+quantity of corn than had been gathered in for thirty years. The traffic
+carried on between Asia and the Delta by means of both Egyptian and
+foreign ships was controlled by customhouses erected at the mouths of
+the Nile, the coast being protected by cruising vessels against the
+attacks of pirates. The fortresses of the isthmus and of the Libyan
+border, having been restored or rebuilt, constituted a check on the
+turbulence of the nomad tribes, while garrisons posted at intervals
+at the entrance to the Wadys leading to the desert restrained the
+plunderers scattered between the Nile and the Red Sea, and between the
+chain of Oases and the unexplored regions of the Sahara.* Egypt was at
+once the most powerful as well as the most prosperous kingdom in the
+world, being able to command more labour and more precious metals for
+the embellishment of her towns and the construction of her monuments
+than any other.
+
+     All this information is gathered from the inscription on the
+          statue of Amenothes, the son of Hapi.
+
+Public works had been carried on briskly under Thutmosis III. and his
+successors. The taste for building, thwarted at first by the necessity
+of financial reforms, and then by that of defraying the heavy expenses
+incurred through the expulsion of the Hyksos and the earlier foreign
+wars, had free scope as soon as spoil from the Syrian victories began to
+pour in year by year. While the treasure seized from the enemy provided
+the money, the majority of the prisoners were used as workmen, so that
+temples, palaces, and citadels began to rise as if by magic from one end
+of the valley to the other.*
+
+     * For this use of prisoners of war, cf. the picture from the
+     tomb of Rakhmiri on p. 58 of the present work, in which most
+     of the earlier Egyptologists believed they recognised the
+     Hebrews, condemned by Pharaoh to build the cities of Ramses
+     and Pithom in the Delta.
+
+Nubia, divided into provinces, formed merely an extension of the
+ancient feudal Egypt--at any rate as far as the neighbourhood of the
+Tacazzeh--though the Egyptian religion had here assumed a peculiar
+character.
+
+[Illustration: 058.jpg A GANG Of SYRIAN PRISONERS MAKING BRICK FOR THE
+TEMPLE OF AMON]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the chromolithograph in Lepsius.
+
+The conquest of Nubia having been almost entirely the work of the Theban
+dynasties, the Theban triad, Amon, Maut, and Montu, and their immediate
+followers were paramount in this region, while in the north, in witness
+of the ancient Elephantinite colonisation, we find Khnumu of the
+cataract being worshipped, in connexion with Didun, father of
+the indigenous Nubians. The worship of Amon had been the means of
+introducing that of Ea and of Horus, and Osiris as lord of the dead,
+while Phtah, Sokhit, Atumu, and the Memphite and Heliopolitan gods were
+worshipped only in isolated parts of the province. A being, however,
+of less exalted rank shared with the lords of heaven the favour of the
+people. This was the Pharaoh, who as the son of Amon was foreordained to
+receive divine honours, sometimes figuring, as at Bohani, as the third
+member of a triad, at other times as head of the Ennead. Usirtasen
+III. had had his chapels at Semneh and at Kummeh, they were restored by
+Thutmosis III., who claimed a share of the worship offered in them,
+and whose son, Amenothes II., also assumed the symbols and functions of
+divinity.
+
+[Illustration: 059.jpg ONE OF THE RAMS OF AMENOTHES III]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Mons. de Mertens.
+
+Amenothes I. was venerated in the province of Kari, and Amenothes III.,
+when founding the fortress Hait-Khammait* in the neighbourhood of a
+Nubian village, on a spot now known as Soleb, built a temple there, of
+which he himself was the protecting genius.**
+
+     * The name signifies literally "the Citadel of Khammait,"
+     and it is formed, as Lepsius recognised from the first, from
+     the name of the Sparrow-hawk Khammait, "Mait rising as
+     Goddess," which Amenothes had assumed on his accession.
+
+     ** Lepsius recognised the nature of the divinity worshipped
+     in this temple; the deified statue of the king, "his living
+     statue on earth," which represented the god of the temple,
+     is there named "Nibmauri, lord of Nubia." Thutmosis III. had
+     already worked at Soleb.
+
+The edifice was of considerable size, and the columns and walls
+remaining reveal an art as perfect as that shown in the best monuments
+at Thebes. It was approached by an avenue of ram-headed sphinxes, while
+colossal statues of lions and hawks, the sacred animals of the district,
+adorned the building. The sovereign condescended to preside in person
+at its dedication on one of his journeys to the southern part of his
+empire, and the mutilated pictures still visible on the facade show the
+order and detail of the ceremony observed on this occasion. The king,
+with the crown upon his head, stood before the centre gate, accompanied
+by the queen and his minister Amenothes, the son of Hapi, who was better
+acquainted than any other man of his time with the mysteries of the
+ritual.*
+
+     * On Amenothes, the son of Hapi, see p. 56 of the present
+     volume; it will be seen in the following chapter, in
+     connection with the Egyptian accounts of the Exodus, what
+     tradition made of him.
+
+The king then struck the door twelve times with his mace of white stone,
+and when the approach to the first hall was opened, he repeated the
+operation at the threshold of the sanctuary previous to entering and
+placing his statue there. He deposited it on the painted and gilded
+wooden platform on which the gods were exhibited on feast-days,
+and enthroned beside it the other images which were thenceforth to
+constitute the local Ennead, after which he kindled the sacred fire
+before them. The queen, with the priests and nobles, all bearing
+torches, then passed through the halls, stopping from time to time
+to perform acts of purification, or to recite formulas to dispel evil
+spirits and pernicious influences; finally, a triumphal procession was
+formed, and the whole _cortege_ returned to the palace, where a banquet
+brought the day's festivities to a close.* It was Amenothes III.
+himself, or rather one of his statues animated by his double, who
+occupied the chief place in the new building. Indeed, wherever we come
+across a temple in Nubia dedicated to a king, we find the homage of the
+inhabitants always offered to the image of the founder, which spoke to
+them in oracles. All the southern part of the country beyond the
+second cataract is full of traces of Amenothes, and the evidence of
+the veneration shown to him would lead us to conclude that he played an
+important part in the organisation of the country. Sedeinga possessed
+a small temple under the patronage of his wife Tii. The ruins of a
+sanctuary which he dedicated to Anion, the Sun-god, have been discovered
+at Gebel-Barkal; Amenothes seems to have been the first to perceive the
+advantages offered by the site, and to have endeavoured to transform
+the barbarian village of Napata into a large Egyptian city. Some of the
+monuments with which he adorned Soleb were transported, in later times,
+to Gebel-Barkal, among them some rams and lions of rare beauty. They lie
+at rest with their paws crossed, the head erect, and their expression
+suggesting both power and repose.** As we descend the Nile, traces of
+the work of this king are less frequent, and their place is taken by
+those of his predecessors, as at Sai, at Semneh, at Wady Haifa, at
+Amada, at Ibrim, and at Dakkeh. Distant traces of Amenothes again
+appear in the neighbourhood of the first cataract, and in the island of
+Elephantine, which he endeavoured to restore to its ancient splendour.
+
+     * Thus the small temple of Sarrah, to the north of Wady
+     Haifa, is dedicated to "the living statue of Ramses II. in
+     the land of Nubia," a statue to which his Majesty gave the
+     name of "Usirmari Zosir-Shafi."
+
+     ** One of the rams was removed from Gebel-Barkal by Lepsius,
+     and is now in the Berlin Museum, as well as the pedestal of
+     one of the hawks. Prisse has shown that these two monuments
+     originally adorned the temple of Soleb, and that they were
+     afterwards transported to Napata by an Ethiopian king, who
+     engraved his name on the pedestal of one of them.
+
+[Illustration: 062.jpg ONE OF THE LIONS OF GEBEL-BARKAL]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from one of the two lions of Gebel-
+     Barkal in the British Museum
+
+Two of the small buildings which he there dedicated to Khnumu, the local
+god, were still in existence at the beginning of the present century.
+That least damaged, on the south side of the island, consisted of
+a single chamber nearly forty feet in length. The sandstone walls,
+terminating in a curved cornice, rested on a hollow substructure
+raised rather more than six feet above the ground, and surrounded by
+a breast-high parapet. A portico ran round the building, having seven
+square pillars on each of its two sides, while at each end stood two
+columns having lotus-shaped capitals; a flight of ten or twelve steps
+between two walls of the same height as the basement, projected in
+front, and afforded access to the cella. The two columns of the facade
+were further apart than those at the opposite end of the building, and
+showed a glimpse of a richly decorated door, while a second door opened
+under the peristyle at the further extremity. The walls were covered
+with the half-brutish profile of the good Khnumu, and those of his
+two companions, Anukit and Satit, the spirits of stormy waters. The
+treatment of these figures was broad and simple, the style free, light,
+and graceful, the colouring soft; and the harmonious beauty of the whole
+is unsurpassed by anything at Thebes itself. It was, in fact, a kind of
+oratory, built on a scale to suit the capacities of a decaying town, but
+the design was so delicately conceived in its miniature proportions that
+nothing more graceful can be imagined.*
+
+     * Amenothes II. erected some small obelisks at Elephantine,
+     one of which is at present in England. The two buildings of
+     Amenothes III. at Elephantine were still in existence at the
+     beginning of the present century. They have been described
+     and drawn by French scholars; between 1822 and 1825 they
+     were destroyed, and the materials used for building barracks
+     and magazines at Syene.
+
+Ancient Egypt and its feudal cities, Ombos, Edfu,* Nekhabit, Esneh,**
+Medamot,*** Coptos,**** Denderah, Abydos, Memphis,^ and Heliopolis,
+profited largely by the generosity of the Pharaohs.
+
+     * The works undertaken by Thutmosis III. in the temple of
+     Edfu are mentioned in an inscription of the Ptolemaic
+     period; some portions are still to be seen among the ruins
+     of the town.
+
+     ** An inscription of the Roman period attributes the
+     rebuilding of the great temple of Esneh to Thutmosis III.
+     Grebaut discovered some fragments of it in the quay of the
+     modern town.
+
+     *** Amenothes II. appears to have built the existing temple.
+
+     **** The temple of Hathor was built by Thutmosis III. Some
+     fragments found in the Ptolemaic masonry bear the cartouche
+     of Thutmosis IV.
+
+     ^ Amenothes II. certainly carried on works at Memphis, for
+     he opened a new quarry at Turah, in the year IV. Amenothes
+     III. also worked limestone quarries, and built at Saqqarah
+     the earliest chapels of the Serapeum which are at present
+     known to us.
+
+Since the close of the XIIth dynasty these cities had depended entirely
+on their own resources, and their public buildings were either in ruins,
+or quite inadequate to the needs of the population, but now gold from
+Syria and Kush furnished them with the means of restoration. The Delta
+itself shared in this architectural revival, but it had suffered too
+severely under the struggle between the Theban kings and the Shepherds
+to recover itself as quickly as the remainder of the country. All
+effort was concentrated on those of its nomes which lay on the Eastern
+frontier, or which were crossed by the Pharaohs in their journeys into
+Asia, such as the Bubastite and Athribite nomes; the rest remained sunk
+in their ancient torpor.*
+
+* Mariette and E. de Rouge, attribute this torpor, at least as far as
+Tanis is concerned, to the aversion felt by the Pharaohs of Egyptian
+blood for the Hyksos capital, and for the provinces where the invaders
+had formerly established themselves in large numbers.
+
+Beyond the Red Sea the mines were actively worked, and even the oases of
+the Libyan desert took part in the national revival, and buildings rose
+in their midst of a size proportionate to their slender revenues. Thebes
+naturally came in for the largest share of the spoils of war. Although
+her kings had become the rulers of the world, they had not, like the
+Pharaohs of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties, forsaken her for some more
+illustrious city: here they had their ordinary residence as well as
+their seat of government, hither they returned after each campaign to
+celebrate their victory, and hither they sent the prisoners and the
+spoil which they had reserved for their own royal use. In the course
+of one or two generations Thebes had spread in every direction, and had
+enclosed within her circuit the neighbouring villages of Ashiru, the
+fief of Maiit, and Apit-risifc, the southern Thebes, which lay at the
+confluence of the Nile with one of the largest of the canals which
+watered the plain. The monuments in these two new quarters of the town
+were unworthy of the city of which they now formed part, and Amenothes
+III. consequently bestowed much pains on improving them. He entirely
+rebuilt the sanctuary of Maut, enlarged the sacred lake, and collected
+within one of the courts of the temple several hundred statues in black
+granite of the Memphite divinity, the lioness-headed Sokhit, whom he
+identified with his Theban goddess. The statues were crowded together so
+closely that they were in actual contact with each other in places, and
+must have presented something of the appearance of a regiment drawn up
+in battle array. The succeeding Pharaohs soon came to look upon this
+temple as a kind of storehouse, whence they might provide themselves
+with ready-made figures to decorate their buildings either at Thebes or
+in other royal cities. About a hundred of them, however, still remain,
+most of them without feet, arms, or head; some over-turned on the
+ground, others considerably out of the perpendicular, from the earth
+having given way beneath them, and a small number only still perfect and
+in situ.
+
+[Illustration: 065.jpg THE TEMPLE AT ELEPHANTINE, AS IT WAS IN 1799]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the _Description de l'Egypte,
+     Ant_., vol. i p. 35. A good restoration of it, made from
+     the statements in the _Description_, is to be found in
+     Pekrot-Cuipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, vol.
+     i. pp. 402, 403.
+
+[Illustration: 066.jpg THE GREAT COURT OF THE TEMPLE OF LUXOR DURING THE
+INUNDATION]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+[Illustration: 067.jpg PART OF THE AVENUE OF RAMS, BETWEEN THE TEMPLES
+OF AMON AND MAUT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+At Luxor Amenothes demolished the small temple with which the sovereigns
+of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties had been satisfied, and replaced it by
+a structure which is still one of the finest yet remaining of the times
+of the Pharaohs. The naos rose sheer above the waters of the Nile,
+indeed its cornices projected over the river, and a staircase at the
+south side allowed the priests and devotees to embark directly from
+the rear of the building. The sanctuary was a single chamber, with an
+opening on its side, but so completely shut out from the daylight by the
+long dark hall at whose extremity it was placed as to be in perpetual
+obscurity. It was flanked by narrow, dimly lightly chambers, and was
+approached through a pronaos with four rows of columns, a vast court
+surrounded with porticoes occupying the foreground. At the present time
+the thick walls which enclosed the entire building are nearly level
+with the ground, half the ceilings have crumbled away, air and light
+penetrate into every nook, and during the inundation the water flowing
+into the courts, transformed them until recently into lakes, whither the
+flocks and herds of the village resorted in the heat of the day to bathe
+or quench their thirst. Pictures of mysterious events never meant for
+the public gaze now display their secrets in the light of the sun, and
+reveal to the eyes of the profane the supernatural events which preceded
+the birth of the king. On the northern side an avenue of sphinxes and
+crio-sphinxes led to the gates of old Thebes. At present most of these
+creatures are buried under the ruins of the modern town, or covered by
+the earth which overlies the ancient road; but a few are still visible,
+broken and shapeless from barbarous usage, and hardly retaining any
+traces of the inscriptions in which Amenothes claimed them boastingly as
+his work.
+
+[Illustration: 069.jpg THE PYLONS OF THUTMOSIS III. AND HARMHABI AT
+KAKNAK]
+
+Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+Triumphal processions passing along this route from Luxor to Karnak
+would at length reach the great court before the temple of Amon, or, by
+turning a little to the right after passing the temple of Maut, would
+arrive in front of the southern facade, near the two gilded obelisks
+whose splendour once rejoiced the heart of the famous Hatshopsitu.
+Thutmosis III. was also determined on his part to spare no expense to
+make the temple of his god of proportions suitable to the patron of
+so vast an empire. Not only did he complete those portions which his
+predecessors had merely sketched out, but on the south side towards
+Ashiru he also built a long row of pylons, now half ruined, on which he
+engraved, according to custom, the list of nations and cities which he
+had subdued in Asia and Africa. To the east of the temple he rebuilt
+some ancient structures, the largest of which served as a halting-place
+for processions, and he enclosed the whole with a stone rampart. The
+outline of the sacred lake, on which the mystic boats were launched on
+the nights of festivals, was also made more symmetrical, and its margin
+edged with masonry.
+
+[Illustration: 070.jpg SACRED LAKE AKD THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE TEMPLE
+OF KARNAK.]
+
+     Drawn by Boucher, from a photograph by Boato: the building
+     near the centre of the picture is the covered walk
+     constructed by Thutmosis III.
+
+By these alterations the harmonious proportion between the main
+buildings and the facade had been destroyed, and the exterior wall was
+now too wide for the pylon at the entrance. Amenothes III. remedied this
+defect by erecting in front a fourth pylon, which was loftier, larger,
+and in all respects more worthy to stand before the enlarged temple.
+Its walls were partially covered with battle-scenes, which informed all
+beholders of the glory of the conqueror.*
+
+     * Portions of the military bas-reliefs which covered the
+     exterior face of the pylon are still to be seen through the
+     gaps in the wall at the end of the great Hall of Pillars
+     built by Seti I. and Ramses II.
+
+Progress had been no less marked on the left bank of the river. As long
+as Thebes had been merely a small provincial town, its cemeteries had
+covered but a moderate area, including the sandy plain and low mounds
+opposite Karnak and the valley of Deir el-Bahari beyond; but now that
+the city had more than doubled its extent, the space required for the
+dead was proportionately greater. The tombs of private persons began to
+spread towards the south, and soon reached the slopes of the Assassif,
+the hill of Sheikh-Abd-el-Qurnah and the district of Qurnet-Murrai--in
+fact, all that part which the people of the country called the "Brow"
+of Thebes. On the borders of the cultivated land a row of chapels and
+mastabas with pyramidal roofs sheltered the remains of the princes and
+princesses of the royal family. The Pharaohs themselves were buried
+either separately under their respective brick pyramids or in groups in
+a temple, as was the case with the first three Thutmosis and Hatshopsitu
+at Deir el-Bahari. Amenothes II. and Thutmosis IV. could doubtless have
+found room in this crowded necropolis,* although the space was becoming
+limited, but the pride of the Pharaohs began to rebel against this
+promiscuous burial side by side with their subjects. Amenothes III.
+sought for a site, therefore, where he would have ample room to display
+his magnificence, far from the vulgar crowd, and found what he desired
+at the farther end of the valley which opens out behind the village of
+Qurnah. Here, an hour's journey from the bank of the Nile, he cut for
+himself a magnificent rock-tomb with galleries, halls, and deep pits,
+the walls being decorated with representations of the Voyage of the Sun
+through the regions which he traverses during the twelve hours of his
+nocturnal course.
+
+     * The generally received opinion is that these sovereigns of
+     the XVIIIth dynasty were buried in the Biban el-Moluk, but I
+     have made several examinations of this valley, and cannot
+     think that this was the case. On the contrary, the scattered
+     notices in the fragments of papyrus preserved at Turin seem
+     to me to indicate that Amenothes II. and Thutmosis IV. must
+     have been buried in the neighbourhood of the Assassif or of
+     Deir el-Bahari.
+
+A sarcophagus of red granite received his mummy, and _Ushabti's_ of
+extraordinary dimensions and admirable workmanship mounted guard around
+him, so as to release him from the corvee in the fields of Ialu.
+The chapel usually attached to such tombs is not to be found in the
+neighbourhood. As the road to the funeral valley was a difficult one,
+and as it would be unreasonable to condemn an entire priesthood to live
+in solitude, the king decided to separate the component parts which had
+hitherto been united in every tomb since the Memphite period, and
+to place the vault for the mummy and the passages leading to it some
+distance away in the mountains, while the necessary buildings for
+the cultus of the statue and the accommodation of the priests were
+transferred to the plain, and were built at the southern extremity of
+the lands which were at that time held by private persons. The divine
+character of Amenothes, ascribed to him on account of his solar origin
+and the co-operation of Amon-Ra at his birth, was, owing to this
+separation of the funerary constituents, brought into further
+prominence. When once the body which he had animated while on earth
+was removed and hidden from sight, the people soon became accustomed
+to think only of his Double enthroned in the recesses of the sanctuary:
+seeing him receive there the same honours as the gods themselves, they
+came naturally to regard him as a deity himself.
+
+[Illustration: 073.jpg THE TWO COLOSSI OF MEMNON IN THE PLAIN OF THEBES]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato. The
+     "Vocal Statue of Memon" is that on the right-hand side of
+     the illustration.
+
+The arrangement of his temple differed in no way from those in which
+Amon, Maut, and Montu were worshipped, while it surpassed in size and
+splendour most of the sanctuaries dedicated to the patron gods of the
+chief towns of the nomes. It contained, moreover, colossal statues,
+objects which are never found associated with the heavenly gods. Several
+of these figures have been broken to pieces, and only a few scattered
+fragments of them remain, but two of them still maintain their positions
+on each side of the entrance, with their faces towards the east. They
+are each formed of a single block of red breccia from Syene,* and are
+fifty-three feet high, but the more northerly one was shattered in the
+earthquake which completed the ruin of Thebes in the year 27 B.C. The
+upper part toppled over with the shock, and was dashed to pieces on the
+floor of the court, while the lower half remained in its place. Soon
+after the disaster it began to be rumoured that sounds like those
+produced by the breaking of a harp-string proceeded from the pedestal at
+sunrise, whereupon travellers flocked to witness the miracle, and legend
+soon began to take possession of the giant who spoke in this marvellous
+way. In vain did the Egyptians of the neighbourhood declare that the
+statue represented the Pharaoh Amenothes; the Greeks refused to believe
+them, and forthwith recognised in the colossus an image of Memnon the
+Ethiopian, son of Tithonus and Aurora, slain by their own Achilles
+beneath the walls of Troy--maintaining that the music heard every
+morning was the clear and harmonious voice of the hero saluting his
+mother.
+
+     * It is often asserted that they are made of rose granite,
+     but Jollois and Devilliers describe them as being of "a
+     species of sandstone breccia, composed of a mass of agate
+     flint, conglomerated together by a remarkably hard cement.
+     This material, being very dense and of a heterogeneous
+     composition, presents to the sculptor perhaps greater
+     difficulties than even granite."
+
+Towards the middle of the second century of our era, Hadrian undertook a
+journey to Upper Egypt, and heard the wonderful song; sixty years later,
+Septimus Severus restored the statue by the employment of courses of
+stones, which were so arranged as to form a rough representation of a
+human head and shoulders. His piety, however, was not rewarded as he
+expected, for Memnon became silent, and his oracle fell into oblivion.
+The temple no longer exists, and a few ridges alone mark the spot where
+it rose; but the two colossi remain at their post, in the same condition
+in which they were left by the Roman Caesar: the features are quite
+obliterated, and the legs and the supporting female figures on either
+side are scored all over with Greek and Latin inscriptions expressing
+the appreciation of ancient tourists. Although the statues tower high
+above the fields of corn and _bersim_ which surround them, our first
+view of them, owing to the scale of proportion observed in their
+construction, so different from that to which we are accustomed, gives
+us the impression that they are smaller than they really are, and it
+is only when we stand close to one of them and notice the insignificant
+appearance of the crowd of sightseers clustered on its pedestal that we
+realize the immensity of the colossi.
+
+The descendants of Ahmosis had by their energy won for Thebes not only
+the supremacy over the peoples of Egypt and of the known world, but had
+also secured for the Theban deities pre-eminence over all their rivals.
+The booty collected both in Syria and Ethiopia went to enrich the god
+Amon as much as it did the kings themselves; every victory brought him
+the tenth part of the spoil gathered on the field of battle, of the
+tribute levied on vassals, and of the prisoners taken as slaves. When
+Thutmosis IIL, after having reduced Megiddo, organised a systematic
+plundering of the surrounding country, it was for the benefit of Amon-Ea
+that he reaped the fields and sent their harvest into Egypt; if during
+his journeys he collected useful plants or rare animals, it was that he
+might dispose of them in the groves or gardens of Amon as well as in his
+own, and he never retained for his personal use the whole of what he won
+by arms, but always reserved some portion for the sacred treasury.
+
+[Illustration: 076.jpg A PARTY OF TOURISTS AT THE FOOT OF THE VOCAL
+STATUE OF MEMNOK]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+His successors acted in a similar manner, and in the reigns of Amenothes
+II., Thut-mosis IV., and Amenothes III., the patrimony of the Theban
+priesthood continued to increase. The Pharaohs, perpetually called upon
+as they were to recompense one or other of their servants, were never
+able to retain for long their share of the spoils of war. Gold and
+silver, lands, jewels, and slaves passed as quickly out of their hands
+as they had fallen into them, and although then fortune was continually
+having additions made to it in every fresh campaign, yet the increase
+was rarely in proportion to the trouble expended. The god, on the
+contrary, received what he got for all time, and gave back nothing in
+return: fresh accumulations of precious metals were continually being
+added to his store, his meadows were enriched by the addition of
+vineyards, and with his palm forests he combined fish-ponds full of
+fish; he added farms and villages to those he already possessed, and
+each reign saw the list of his possessions increase. He had his own
+labourers, his own tradespeople, his own fishermen, soldiers, and
+scribes, and, presiding over all these, a learned hierarchy of divines,
+priests, and prophets, who administered everything. This immense domain,
+which was a kind of State within the State, was ruled over by a single
+high priest, chosen by the sovereign from among the prophets. He was the
+irresponsible head of it, and his spiritual ambition had increased
+step by step with the extension of his material resources. As the human
+Pharaoh showed himself entitled to homage from the lords of the earth,
+the priests came at length to the conclusion that Amon had a right
+to the allegiance of the lords of heaven, and that he was the Supreme
+Being, in respect of whom the others were of little or no account, and
+as he was the only god who was everywhere victorious, he came at length
+to be regarded by them as the only god in existence. It was impossible
+that the kings could see this rapid development of sacerdotal power
+without anxiety, and with all their devotion to the patron of their
+city, solicitude for their own authority compelled them to seek
+elsewhere for another divinity, whose influence might in some degree
+counterbalance that of Amon. The only one who could vie with him at
+Thebes, either for the antiquity of his worship or for the rank which he
+occupied in the public esteem, was the Sun-lord of Heliopolis, head of
+the first Ennead. Thutmosis IV. owed his crown to him, and 'displayed
+his gratitude in clearing away the sand from the Sphinx, in which
+the spirit of Harmakhis was considered to dwell; and Amenothes
+III., although claiming to be the son of Amon himself, inherited the
+disposition shown by Thutmosis in favour of the Heliopolitan religions,
+but instead of attaching himself to the forms most venerated by
+theologians, he bestowed his affection on a more popular deity--Atonu,
+the fiery disk. He may have been influenced in his choice by private
+reasons. Like his predecessors, he had taken, while still very young,
+wives from among his own family, but neither these reasonable ties, nor
+his numerous diplomatic alliances with foreign princesses, were enough
+for him. From the very beginning of his reign he had loved a maiden who
+was not of the blood of the Pharaohs, Tii, the daughter of Iuia and his
+wife Tuia.*
+
+* For the last thirty years Queen Tii has been the subject of many
+hypotheses and of much confusion. The scarabasi engraved under Amenothes
+III. say explicitly that she was the daughter of two personages, Iuia
+and Tuia, but these names are not accompanied by any of the signs which
+are characteristic of foreign names, and were considered Egyptian by
+contemporaries. Hincks was the first who seems to have believed her
+to be a Syrian; he compares her father's name with that of Levi, and
+attributes the religious revolution which followed to the influence of
+her foreign education. This theory has continued to predominate; some
+prefer a Libyan origin to the Asiatic one, and latterly there has
+been an attempt to recognise in Tii one of the princesses of Mitanni
+mentioned in the correspondence of Tel el-Amarna. As long ago as 1877, I
+showed that Tii was an Egyptian of middle rank, probably of Heliopolitan
+origin.
+
+Connexions of this kind had been frequently formed by his ancestors,
+but the Egyptian women of inferior rank whom they had brought into their
+harems had always remained in the background, and if the sons of these
+concubines were ever fortunate enough to come to the throne, it was in
+default of heirs of pure blood. Amenothes III. married Tii, gave her
+for her dowry the town of Zalu in Lower Egypt, and raised her to the
+position of queen, in spite of her low extraction. She busied herself
+in the affairs of State, took precedence of the princesses of the solar
+family, and appeared at her husband's side in public ceremonies, and was
+so figured on the monuments. If, as there is reason to believe, she was
+born near Heliopolis, it is easy to understand how her influence may
+have led Amenothes to pay special honour to a Heliopolitan divinity.
+He had built, at an early period of his reign, a sanctuary to Atonu at
+Memphis, and in the Xth year he constructed for him a chapel at Thebes
+itself,* to the south of the last pylon of ihutmosis III., and endowed
+this deity with property at the expense of Anion.
+
+     * This temple seems to have been raised on the site of the
+     building which is usually attributed to Amenothes II. and
+     Amenothes III. The blocks bearing the name of Amenothes II.
+     had been used previously, like most of those which bear the
+     cartouches of Amenothes III. The temple of Atonu, which was
+     demolished by Harmhabi or one of the Ramses, was
+     subsequently rebuilt with the remains of earlier edifices,
+     and dedicated to Amon.
+
+[Illustration: 079.jpg MARRIAGE SCARABAEUS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph of the scarabaeus
+     preserved at Gizeh.
+
+He had several sons;* but the one who succeeded him, and who, like
+him, was named Amenothes, was the most paradoxical of all the Egyptian
+sovereigns of ancient times.**
+
+     * One of them, Thutmosis, was high priest of Phtah, and we
+     possess several monuments erected by him in the temple of
+     Memphis; another, Tutonkhamon, subsequently became king. He
+     also had several daughters by Tii--Sitamon.
+
+     ** The absence of any cartouches of Amenothes IV. or his
+     successors in the table of Abydos prevented Champollion and
+     Rosellini from classifying these sovereigns with any
+     precision. Nestor L'hote tried to recognise in the first of
+     them, whom he called _Bakhen-Balchnan_, a king belonging to
+     the very ancient dynasties, perhaps the Hyksos Apakhnan, but
+     Lepsius and Hincks showed that he must be placed between
+     Amenothes III. and Harmhabi, that he was first called
+     Amenothes like his father, but that he afterwards took the
+     name of Baknaten, which is now read Khunaten or Khuniaton.
+     His singular aspect made it difficult to decide at first
+     whether a man or a woman was represented. Mariette, while
+     pronouncing him to be a man, thought that he had perhaps
+     been taken prisoner in the Sudan and mutilated, which would
+     have explained his effeminate appearance, almost like that
+     of an eunuch. Recent attempts have been made to prove that
+     Amenothes IV. and Khuniaton were two distinct persons, or
+     that Khuniaton was a queen; but they have hitherto been
+     rejected by Egyptologists.
+
+He made up for the inferiority of his birth on account of the plebeian
+origin of his mother Tii,* by his marriage with Nofrititi, a princess
+of the pure solar race.** Tii, long accustomed to the management of
+affairs, exerted her influence over him even more than she had done over
+her husband. Without officially assuming the rank, she certainly for
+several years possessed the power, of regent, and gave a definite
+Oriental impress to her son's religious policy. No outward changes were
+made at first; Amenothes, although showing his preference for Heliopolis
+by inscribing in his protocol the title of prophet of Harmakhis,
+which he may, however, have borne before his accession, maintained his
+residence at Thebes, as his father had done before him, continued to
+sacrifice to the Theban divinities, and to follow the ancient paths and
+the conventional practices.***
+
+     * The filiation of Amenothes IV. and Tii has given rise to
+     more than one controversy. The Egyptian texts do not define
+     it explicitly, and the title borne by Tii has been
+     considered by some to prove that Amenothes IV. was her son,
+     and by others that she was the mother of Queen Nofrititi.
+     The Tel el-Amarna correspondence solves the question,
+     however, as it gives a letter from Dushratta to Khuniaton,
+     in which Tii is called "thy mother."
+
+     ** Nofrititi, the wife of Amenothes IV., like all the
+     princesses of that time, has been supposed to be of Syrian
+     origin, and to have changed her name on her arrival in
+     Egypt. The place which she holds beside her husband is the
+     same as that which belongs to legitimate queens, like
+     Nofritari, Ahmosis, and Hatshopsitu, and the example of
+     these princesses is enough to show us what was her real
+     position; she was most probably a daughter of one of the
+     princesses of the solar blood, perhaps of one of the sisters
+     of Amenothes III., and Amenothes IV. married her so as to
+     obtain through her the rights which were wanting to him
+     through his mother Tii.
+
+     *** The tomb of Ramses, governor of Thebes and priest of
+     Mait, shows us in one part of it the king, still faithful to
+     his name of Amenothes, paying homage to the god Amon, lord
+     of Karnak, while everywhere else the worship of Atonu
+     predominates. The cartouches on the tomb of Pari, read by
+     Bouriant Akhopiruri, and by Scheil more correctly
+     Nofirkhopiruri, seem to me to represent a transitional form
+     of the protocol of Amenothes IV., and not the name of a new
+     Pharaoh; the inscription in which they are to be found bears
+     the date of his third year.
+
+He either built a temple to the Theban god, or enlarged the one which
+his father had constructed at Karnak, and even opened new quarries at
+Syene and Silsileh for providing granite and sandstone for the adornment
+of this monument. His devotion to the invincible Disk, however, soon
+began to assert itself, and rendered more and more irksome to him the
+religious observances which he had constrained himself to follow. There
+was nothing and no one to hinder him from giving free course to his
+inclinations, and the nobles and priests were too well trained in
+obedience to venture to censure anything he might do, even were it to
+result in putting the whole population into motion, from Elephantine to
+the sea-coast, to prepare for the intruded deity a dwelling which should
+eclipse in magnificence the splendour of the great temple. A few
+of those around him had become converted of their own accord to his
+favourite worship, but these formed a very small minority. Thebes had
+belonged to Amon so long that the king could never hope to bring it
+to regard Atonu as anything but a being of inferior rank. Each
+city belonged to some god, to whom was attributed its origin, its
+development, and its prosperity, and whom it could not forsake without
+renouncing its very existence. If Thebes became separated from Amon it
+would be Thebes no longer, and of this Amenothes was so well aware that
+he never attempted to induce it to renounce its patron. His residence
+among surroundings which he detested at length became so intolerable,
+that he resolved to leave the place and create a new capital elsewhere.
+The choice of a new abode would have presented no difficulty to him had
+he been able to make up his mind to relegate Atonu to the second rank of
+divinities; Memphis, Heracleopolis, Siut, Khmunu, and, in fact, all the
+towns of the valley would have deemed themselves fortunate in securing
+the inheritance of their rival, but not one of them would be false to
+its convictions or accept the degradation of its own divine founder,
+whether Phtah, Harshafitu, Anubis, or Thot. A newly promoted god
+demanded a new city; Amenothes, therefore, made selection of a broad
+plain extending on the right bank of the Nile, in the eastern part of
+the Hermopolitan nome, to which he removed with all his court about the
+fourth or fifth year of his reign.*
+
+     * The last date with the name of Amenothes is that of the
+     year V., on a papyrus from the Payilm; elsewhere we find
+     from the year VI. the name of Khuniaton, by the side of
+     monuments with the cartouche of Amenothes; we may conclude
+     from this that the foundation of the town dates from the
+     year IV. or V. at the latest, when the prince, having
+     renounced the worship of Amon, left Thebes that he might be
+     able to celebrate freely that of Atonu.
+
+He found here several obscure villages without any historical or
+religious traditions, and but thinly populated; Amenothes chose one
+of them, the Et-Tel of the present day, and built there a palace
+for himself and a temple for his god. The temple, like that of Ea at
+Heliopolis, was named _Hait-Banbonu_, the Mansion of the Obelisk. It
+covered an immense area, of which the sanctuary, however, occupied an
+inconsiderable part; it was flanked by brick storehouses, and the whole
+was surrounded by a thick wall. The remains show that the temple was
+built of white limestone, of fine quality, but that it was almost
+devoid of ornament, for there was no time to cover it with the usual
+decorations.*
+
+     * The opinion of Brugsch, that the arrangement of the
+     various parts differed from that of other temples, and was
+     the effect of foreign influence, has not been borne out by
+     the excavations of Prof. Petrie, the little which he has
+     brought to light being entirely of Egyptian character. The
+     temple is represented on the tomb of the high priest Mariri.
+
+[Illustration: 084.jpg Map]
+
+The palace was built of brick; it was approached by a colossal gateway,
+and contained vast halls, interspersed with small apartments for the
+accommodation of the household, and storehouses for the necessary
+provisions, besides gardens which had been hastily planted with rare
+shrubs and sycamores. Fragments of furniture and of the roughest of the
+utensils contained in the different chambers are still unearthed from
+among the heaps of rubbish, and the cellars especially are full of
+potsherds and cracked jars, on which we can still see written an
+indication of the reign and the year when the wine they once contained
+was made. Altars of massive masonry rose in the midst of the courts,
+on which the king or one of his ministers heaped offerings and burnt
+incense morning, noon, and evening, in honour of the three decisive
+moments in the life of Atonu.*
+
+     * Naville discovered at Deir el-Bahari a similar altar,
+     nearly intact. No other example was before known in any of
+     the ruined towns or temples, and no one had any idea of the
+     dimensions to which these altars, attained.
+
+A few painted and gilded columns supported the roofs of the principal
+apartments in which the Pharaoh held his audiences, but elsewhere the
+walls and pillars were coated with cream-coloured stucco or whitewash,
+on which scenes of private life were depicted in colours. The pavement,
+like the walls, was also decorated. In one of the halls which seems to
+have belonged to the harem, there is still to be seen distinctly
+the picture of a rectangular piece of water containing fish and
+lotus-flowers in full bloom; the edge is adorned with water-plants and
+flowering shrubs, among which birds fly and calves graze and gambol; on
+the right and left were depicted rows of stands laden with fruit, while
+at each end of the room were seen the grinning faces of a gang of negro
+and Syrian prisoners, separated from each other by gigantic arches. The
+tone of colouring is bright and cheerful, and the animals are treated
+with great freedom and facility. The Pharaoh, had collected about him
+several of the best artists then to be found at Thebes, placing
+them under the direction of Bauki, the chief of the corporation
+of sculptors,* and probably others subsequently joined these from
+provincial studios.
+
+     * Bauki belonged to a family of artists, and his father Mani
+     had filled before him the post of chief of the sculptors.
+     The part played by these personages was first defined by
+     Brugsch, with perhaps some exaggeration of their artistic
+     merit and originality of talent.
+
+Work for them was not lacking, for houses had to be built for all the
+courtiers and government officials who had been obliged to follow the
+king, and in a few years a large town had sprung up, which was called
+Khuitatonu, or the "Horizon of the Disk." It was built on a regular
+plan, with straight streets and open spaces, and divided into two
+separate quarters, interspersed with orchards and shady trellises.
+Workmen soon began to flock to the new city--metal-founders,
+glass-founders, weavers; in fine, all who followed any trade
+indispensable to the luxury of a capital. The king appropriated a
+territory for it from the ancient nome of the Hare, thus compelling the
+god Thot to contribute to the fortune of Atonu; he fixed its limits by
+means of stelae placed in the mountains, from Gebel-Tunah to Deshluit on
+the west, and from Sheikh-Said to El-Hauata on the eastern bank;* it was
+a new nome improvised for the divine _parvenu_.
+
+     * We know at present of fourteen of these stelae. A certain
+     number must still remain to be discovered on both banks of
+     the Nile.
+
+[Illustration: 082.jpg THE DECORATED PAVEMENT OF THE PALACE]
+
+Atonu was one of the forms of the Sun, and perhaps the most material one
+of all those devised by the Egyptians. He was defined as "the good god
+who rejoices in truth, the lord of the solar course, the lord of the
+disk, the lord of heaven, the lord of earth, the living disk which
+lights up the two worlds, the living Harmakhis who rises on the horizon
+bearing his name of Shu, which is disk, the eternal infuser of life."
+His priests exercised the same functions as those of Heliopolis, and his
+high priest was called "Oirimau," like the high priest of Ra in Aunu.
+This functionary was a certain Marirl, upon whom the king showered his
+favours, and he was for some time the chief authority in the State after
+the Pharaoh himself. Atonu was represented sometimes by the ordinary
+figure of Horus,* sometimes by the solar disk, but a disk whose rays
+were prolonged towards the earth, like so many arms ready to lay
+hold with their little hands of the offerings of the faithful, or to
+distribute to mortals the _crux ansata_, the symbol of life. The other
+gods, except Amon, were sharers with humanity in his benefits. Atonu
+proscribed him, and tolerated him only at Thebes; he required, moreover,
+that the name of Amon should be effaced wherever it occurred, but he
+respected Ra and Horus and Harmakhis--all, in fact, but Amon: he was
+content with being regarded as their king, and he strove rather to
+become their chief than their destroyer.**
+
+     * It was probably this form of Horus which had, in the
+     temple at Thebes, the statue called "the red image of Atonu
+     in Paatoml."
+
+     ** Prisse d'Avennes has found at Karnak, on fragments of the
+     temple, the names of other divinities than Atonu worshipped
+     by Khuniatonu.
+
+His nature, moreover, had nothing in it of the mysterious or ambiguous;
+he was the glorious torch which gave light to humanity, and which
+was seen every day to flame in the heavens without ever losing its
+brilliance or becoming weaker. When he hides himself "the world rests in
+darkness, like those dead who lie in their rock-tombs, with their heads
+swathed, their nostrils stuffed up, their eyes sightless, and whose
+whole property might be stolen from them, even that which they have
+under their head, without their knowing it; the lion issues from his
+lair, the serpent roams ready to bite, it is as obscure as in a dark
+room, the earth is silent whilst he who creates everything dwells in his
+horizon." He has hardly arisen when "Egypt becomes festal, one awakens,
+one rises on one's feet; when thou hast caused men to clothe themselves,
+they adore thee with outstretched hands, and the whole earth attends
+to its work, the animals betake themselves to their herbage, trees
+and green crops abound, birds fly to their marshy thickets with wings
+outstretched in adoration of thy double, the cattle skip, all the birds
+which were in their nests shake themselves when thou risest for them;
+the boats come and go, for every way is open at thy appearance, the
+fish of the river leap before thee as soon as thy rays descend upon the
+ocean." It is not without reason that all living things thus rejoice at
+his advent; all of them owe their existence to him, for "he creates the
+female germ, he gives virility to men, and furnishes life to the infant
+in its mother's womb; he calms and stills its weeping, he nourishes it
+in the maternal womb, giving forth the breathings which animate all that
+he creates, and when the infant escapes from the womb on the day of
+its birth, thou openest his mouth for speech, and thou satisfiest his
+necessities. When the chick is in the egg, a cackle in a stone, thou
+givest to it air while within to keep it alive; when thou hast caused
+it to be developed in the egg to the point of being able to break it, it
+goes forth proclaiming its existence by its cackling, and walks on its
+feet from the moment of its leaving the egg." Atonu presides over the
+universe and arranges within it the lot of human beings, both Egyptians
+and foreigners. The celestial Nile springs up in Hades far away in the
+north; he makes its current run down to earth, and spreads its waters
+over the fields during the inundation in order to nourish his creatures.
+He rules the seasons, winter and summer; he constructed the far-off sky
+in order to display himself therein, and to look down upon his works
+below. From the moment that he reveals himself there, "cities, towns,
+tribes, routes, rivers--all eyes are lifted to him, for he is the
+disk of the day upon the earth."* The sanctuary in which he is invoked
+contains only his divine shadow;** for he himself never leaves the
+firmament.
+
+     * These extracts are taken from the hymns of Tel el-Amarna.
+
+     ** In one of the tombs at Tel el-Amarna the king is depicted
+     leading his mother Tii to the temple of Atonu in order to
+     see "the Shadow of Ra," and it was thought with some reason
+     that "the Shadow of Ra" was one of the names of the temple.
+     I think that this designation applied also to the statue or
+     symbol of the god; the _shadow_ of a god was attached to the
+     statue in the same manner as the "double," and transformed
+     it into an animated body.
+
+His worship assumes none of the severe and gloomy forms of the Theban
+cults: songs resound therein, and hymns accompanied by the harp or
+flute; bread, cakes, vegetables, fruits, and flowers are associated
+with his rites, and only on very rare occasions one of those bloody
+sacrifices in which the other gods delight. The king made himself
+supreme pontiff of Atonu, and took precedence of the high priest. He
+himself celebrated the rites at the altar of the god, and we see him
+there standing erect, his hands outstretched, offering incense and
+invoking blessings from on high.* Like the Caliph Hakim of a later age,
+he formed a school to propagate his new doctrines, and preached them
+before his courtiers: if they wished to please him, they had to accept
+his teaching, and show that they had profited by it. The renunciation of
+the traditional religious observances of the solar house involved also
+the rejection of such personal names as implied an ardent devotion to
+the banished god; in place of Amenothes, "he to whom Amon is united,"
+the king assumed after a time the name of Khuniatonu, "the Glory of the
+Disk," and all the members of his family, as well as his adherents
+at court, whose appellations involved the name of the same god, soon
+followed his example. The proscription of Amon extended to inscriptions,
+so that while his name or figure, wherever either could be got at, was
+chiselled out, the vulture, the emblem of Mut, which expressed the idea
+of mother, was also avoided.**
+
+     * The altar on which the king stands upright is one of those
+     cubes of masonry of which Naville discovered such a fine
+     example in the temple of Hatshopsitu at Deir el-Bahari.
+
+     ** We find, however, some instances where the draughtsman,
+     either from custom or design, had used the vulture to
+     express the word mailt, "the mother," without troubling
+     himself to think whether it answered to the name of the
+     goddess.
+
+The king would have nothing about him to suggest to eye or ear the
+remembrance of the gods or doctrines of Thebes. It would consequently
+have been fatal to them and their pretensions to the primacy of Egypt
+if the reign of the young king had continued as long as might naturally
+have been expected. After having been for nearly two centuries almost
+the national head of Africa, Amon was degraded by a single blow to the
+secondary rank and languishing existence in which he had lived before
+the expulsion of the Hyksos. He had surrendered his sceptre as king of
+heaven and earth, not to any of his rivals who in old times had enjoyed
+the highest rank, but to an individual of a lower order, a sort of
+demigod, while he himself had thus become merely a local deity, confined
+to the corner of the Said in which he had had his origin. There was not
+even left to him the peaceful possession of this restricted domain,
+for he was obliged to act as host to the enemy who had deposed him:
+the temple of Atonu was erected at the door of his own sanctuary, and
+without leaving their courts the priests of Amon could hear at the hours
+of worship the chants intoned by hundreds of heretics in the temple of
+the Disk. Amon's priests saw, moreover, the royal gifts flowing into
+other treasuries, and the gold of Syria and Ethiopia no longer came
+into their hands. Should they stifle their complaints, and bow to this
+insulting oppression, or should they raise a protest against the action
+which had condemned them to obscurity and a restricted existence? If
+they had given indications of resistance, they would have been obliged
+to submit to prompt repression, but we see no sign of this. The bulk
+of the people--clerical as well as lay--accepted the deposition with
+complacency, and the nobles hastened to offer their adherence to that
+which afterwards became the official confession of faith of the Lord
+King.* The lord of Thebes itself, a certain Ramses, bowed his head to
+the new cult, and the bas-reliefs of his tomb display to our eyes the
+proofs of his apostasy: on the right-hand side Amon is the only subject
+of his devotion, while on the left he declares himself an adherent of
+Atonu. Religious formularies, divine appellations, the representations
+of the costume, expression, and demeanour of the figures are at issue
+with each other in the scenes on the two sides of the door, and if we
+were to trust to appearances only, one would think that the two pictures
+belonged to two separate reigns, and were concerned with two individuals
+strangers to each other.**
+
+     * The political character of this reaction against the
+     growing power of the high priests and the town of Amon was
+     pointed out for the first time by Masporo in 1878. Ed. Meyer
+     and Tiele blond with the political idea a monotheistic
+     conception which does not seem to me to be fully justified,
+     at least at present, by anything in the materials we
+     possess.
+
+     ** His tomb was discovered in 1878 by Villiers-Stuart.
+
+The rupture between the past and the present was so complete, in
+fact, that the sovereign was obliged to change, if not his face and
+expression, at least the mode in which they were represented.
+
+[Illustration: 095.jpg THE MASK OF KIHUNIATONU]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie. Petrie
+     thinks that the monument discovered by him, which is of fine
+     plaster, is a cast of the dead king, executed possibly to
+     enable the sculptors to make _Ushabtu_, "Respondents," for
+     him.
+
+The name and personality of an Egyptian were so closely allied that
+interference with one implied interference with the other. Khuniatonu
+could not continue to be such as he was when Amenothes, and, in fact,
+their respective portraits differ from each other to that degree that
+there is some doubt at moments as to their identity. Amenothes is
+hardly to be distinguished from his father: he has the same regular and
+somewhat heavy features, the same idealised body and conventional shape
+as those which we find in the orthodox Pharaohs. Khuniatonu affects a
+long and narrow head, conical at the top, with a retreating forehead,
+a large aquiline and pointed nose, a small mouth, an enormous chin
+projecting in front, the whole being supported by a long, thin neck.
+
+His shoulders are narrow, with little display of muscle, but his breasts
+are so full, his abdomen so prominent, and his hips so large, that one
+would think they belonged to a woman. Etiquette required the attendants
+upon the king, and those who aspired to his favour, to be portrayed in
+the bas-reliefs of temples or tombs in all points, both as regards face
+and demeanour, like the king himself. Hence it is that the majority of
+his contemporaries, after having borne the likeness of Amenothes,
+came to adopt, without a break, that of Khuniatonu. The scenes at Tel
+el-Amarna contain, therefore, nothing but angular profiles, pointed
+skulls, ample breasts, flowing figures, and swelling stomachs. The
+outline of these is one that lends itself readily to caricature, and the
+artists have exaggerated the various details with the intention, it
+may be, of rendering the representations grotesque. There was nothing
+ridiculous, however, in the king, their model, and several of his
+statues attribute to him a languid, almost valetudinarian grace, which
+is by no means lacking in dignity.
+
+[Illustration: 096.jpg AMENOTHES IV., FROM THE STATUETTE IN THE LOUVRE.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a drawing by Petrie.
+
+[Illustration: 097.jpg Page Image]
+
+He was a good and affectionate man, and was passionately fond of his
+wife, Nofrititi, associating her with himself in his sovereign acts. If
+he set out to visit the temple, she followed him in a chariot; if he was
+about to reward one of his faithful subjects, she stood beside him and
+helped to distribute the golden necklaces. She joined him in his prayers
+to the Solar Disk; she ministered to him in domestic life, when, having
+broken away from the worries of his public duties, he sought relaxation
+in his harem; and their union was so tender, that we find her on one
+occasion, at least, seated in a coaxing attitude on her husband's
+knees--a unique instance of such affection among all the representations
+on the monuments of Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: 098.jpg KHUNIATONU AND HIS WIFE REWARDING ONE OF THE
+GREAT OFFICERS OF THE COURT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+They had six daughters, whom they brought up to live with them on
+terms of the closest intimacy: they accompanied their father and mother
+everywhere, and are exhibited as playing around the throne while their
+parents are engaged in performing the duties of their office. The
+gentleness and gaiety of the king were reflected in the life of his
+subjects: all the scenes which they have left us consist entirely of
+processions, cavalcades, banquets, and entertainments. Khuniatonu was
+prodigal in the gifts of gold and the eulogies which he bestowed on
+Mariri, the chief priest: the people dance around him while he is
+receiving from the king the just recompense of his activity. When Huia,
+who came back from Syria in the XIIth year of the king's reign, brought
+solemnly before him the tribute he had collected, the king, borne in
+his jolting palanquin on the shoulders of his officers, proceeded to the
+temple to return thanks to his god, to the accompaniment of chants and
+the waving of the great fans. When the divine father Ai had married the
+governess of one of the king's daughters, the whole city gave itself
+up to enjoyment, and wine flowed freely during the wedding feast.
+Notwithstanding the frequent festivals, the king found time to watch
+jealously over the ordinary progress of government and foreign affairs.
+The architects, too, were not allowed to stand idle, and without taking
+into account the repairs of existing buildings, had plenty to do in
+constructing edifices in honour of Atonu in the principal towns of the
+Nile valley, at Memphis, Heliopolis, Hermopolis, Hermonthis, and in
+the Fayum. The provinces in Ethiopia remained practically in the
+same condition as in the time of Amenothes III.;* Kush was pacified,
+notwithstanding the raids which the tribes of the desert were accustomed
+to make from time to time, only to receive on each occasion rigorous
+chastisement from the king's viceroy.
+
+     * The name and the figure of Khuniatonu are met with on the
+     gate of the temple of Soleb, and he received in his
+     XIIth year the tributes of Kush, as well as those of Syria.
+
+The sudden degradation of Amon had not brought about any coldness
+between the Pharaoh and his princely allies in Asia. The aged Amenothes
+had, towards the end of his reign, asked the hand of Dushratta's
+daughter in marriage, and the Mitannian king, highly flattered by the
+request, saw his opportunity and took advantage of it in the interest
+of his treasury. He discussed the amount of the dowry, demanded a
+considerable sum of gold, and when the affair had been finally arranged
+to his satisfaction, he despatched the princess to the banks of the
+Nile. On her arrival she found her affianced husband was dead, or, at
+all events, dying. Amenothes IV., however, stepped into his father's
+place, and inherited his bride with his crown.
+
+[Illustration: 100.jpg THE DOOR OF A TOMB AT TEL EL-AMARNA]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+The new king's relations with other foreign princes were no less
+friendly; the chief of the Khati (Hittites) complimented him on his
+accession, the King of Alasia wrote to him to express his earnest desire
+for a continuance of peace between the two states. Burnaburiash of
+Babylon had, it is true, hoped to obtain an Egyptian princess in
+marriage for his son, and being disappointed, had endeavoured to pick a
+quarrel over the value of the presents which had been sent him, together
+with the notice of the accession of the new sovereign. But his kingdom
+lay too far away to make his ill-will of much consequence, and his
+complaints passed unheeded. In Coele-Syria and Phoenicia the situation
+remained unchanged. The vassal cities were in a perpetual state
+of disturbance, though not more so than in the past. Aziru, son of
+Abdashirti, chief of the country of the Amorites, had always, even
+during the lifetime of Amenothes III., been the most turbulent of
+vassals. The smaller states of the Orontes and of the coast about Arvad
+had been laid waste by his repeated incursions and troubled by his
+intrigues. He had taken and pillaged twenty towns, among which were
+Simyra, Sini, Irqata, and Qodshu, and he was already threatening Byblos,
+Berytus, and Sidon. It was useless to complain of him, for he always
+managed to exculpate himself to the royal messengers. Khai, Dudu,
+Amenemaupit had in turn all pronounced him innocent. Pharaoh himself,
+after citing him to appear in Egypt to give an explanation of his
+conduct, had allowed himself to be won over by his fair speaking, and
+had dismissed him uncondemned. Other princes, who lacked his cleverness
+and power, tried to imitate him, and from north to south the whole of
+Syria could only be compared to some great arena, in which fighting
+was continually carried on between one tribe or town and another--Tyre
+against Sidon, Sidon against Byblos, Jerusalem against Lachish. All
+of them appealed to Khuniatonu, and endeavoured to enlist him on their
+side. Their despatches arrived by scores, and the perusal of them at
+the present day would lead us to imagine that Egypt had all but lost
+her supremacy. The Egyptian ministers, however, were entirely unmoved
+by them, and continued to refuse material support to any of the numerous
+rivals, except in a few rare cases, where a too prolonged indifference
+would have provoked an open revolt in some part of the country.
+
+Khuniatonu died young, about the XVIIIth year of his reign.* He was
+buried in the depths of a ravine in the mountain-side to the east of
+the town, and his tomb remained unknown till within the last few years.
+Although one of his daughters who died before her father had been
+interred there, the place seems to have been entirely unprepared for the
+reception of the king's body. The funeral chamber and the passages
+are scarcely even rough-hewn, and the reception halls show a mere
+commencement of decoration.** The other tombs of the locality are
+divided into two groups, separated by the ravine reserved for the
+burying-place of the royal house. The noble families possessed each
+their own tomb on the slopes of the hillside; the common people were
+laid to rest in pits lower down, almost on the level of the plain.
+The cutting and decoration of all these tombs had been entrusted to a
+company of contractors, who had executed them according to two or three
+stereotyped plans, without any variation, except in size. Nearly all the
+walls are bare, or present but few inscriptions; those tombs only are
+completed whose occupants died before the Pharaoh.
+
+     * The length of Khuniatonu's reign was fixed by Griffith
+     with almost absolute certainty by means of the dates written
+     in ink on the jars of wine and preserves found in the ruins
+     of the palace.
+
+     ** The tomb has been found, as I anticipated, in the ravine
+     which separates the northern after the southern group of
+     burying-places. The Arabs opened it in 1891, and Grebaut has
+     since completely excavated it. The scenes depicted in it are
+     connected with the death and funeral of the Princess
+     Maqitatonu.
+
+[Illustration: 103.jpg INTERIOR OF A TOMB AT TEL EL-AMARNA]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, after a photograph by Insinger.
+
+The facades of the tombs are cut in the rock, and contain, for the most
+part, but one door, the jambs of which are covered on both sides by
+several lines of hieroglyphs; and it is just possible to distinguish
+traces of the adoration of the radiant Disk on the lintels, together
+with the cartouches containing the names of the king and god. The chapel
+is a large rectangular chamber, from one end of which opens the inclined
+passage leading to the coffin. The roof is sometimes supported by
+columns, having capitals decorated with designs of flowers or of geese
+hung from the abacus by their feet with their heads turned upwards.
+
+The religious teaching at Tel el-Amarna presents no difference in the
+main from that which prevailed in other parts of Egypt.* The Double
+of Osiris was supposed to reside in the tomb, or else to take wing to
+heaven and embark with Atonu, as elsewhere he would embark with Ea. The
+same funerary furniture is needed for the deceased as in other local
+cults--ornaments of vitreous paste, amulets, and _Ushabtiu_, or
+"Respondents," to labour for the dead man in the fields of Ialu. Those
+of Khuniatonu were, like those of Amenothes III., actual statuettes in
+granite of admirable workmanship. The dead who reached the divine abode,
+retained the same rank in life that they had possessed here below, and
+in order to ensure the enjoyment of it, they related, or caused to be
+depicted in their tombs, the events of their earthly career.
+
+     * The peculiar treatment of the two extremities of the sign
+     for the sky, which surmounts the great scene on the tomb of
+     Ahmosis, shows that there had been no change in the ideas
+     concerning the two horizons or the divine tree found in
+     them: the aspirations for the soul of Mariri, the high
+     priest of Atonu, or for that of the sculptor Bauku, are the
+     same as those usually found, and the formula on the funerary
+     stelae differs only in the name of the god from that on the
+     ordinary stelae of the same kind.
+
+A citizen of Khuitatonu would naturally represent the manners and
+customs of his native town, and this would account for the local
+colouring of the scenes in which we see him taking part.
+
+They bear no resemblance to the traditional pictures of the buildings
+and gardens of Thebes with which we are familiar; we have instead the
+palaces, colonnades, and pylons of the rising city, its courts planted
+with sycomores, its treasuries, and its storehouses. The sun's disk
+hovers above and darts its prehensile rays over every object; its hands
+present the _crux ansata_ to the nostrils of the various members of the
+family, they touch caressingly the queen and her daughters, they handle
+the offerings of bread and cakes, they extend even into the government
+warehouses to pilfer or to bless. Throughout all these scenes Khuniatonu
+and the ladies of his harem seem to be ubiquitous: here he visits one of
+the officers, there he repairs to the temple for the dedication of its
+sanctuary. His chariot, followed at a little distance by that of the
+princesses, makes its way peaceably through the streets. The police of
+the city and the soldiers of the guard, whether Egyptians or foreigners,
+run before him and clear a path among the crowd, the high priest Mariri
+stands at the gate to receive him, and the ceremony is brought to a
+close by a distribution of gold necklaces or rings, while the populace
+dance with delight before the sovereign. Meantime the slaves have
+cooked the repast, the dancers and musicians within their chambers have
+rehearsed for the evening's festival, and the inmates of the house carry
+on animated dialogues during their meal. The style and the technique of
+these wall-paintings differ in no way from those in the necropolis of
+the preceding period, and there can be no doubt that the artists who
+decorated these monuments were trained in the schools of Thebes. Their
+drawing is often very refined, and there is great freedom in their
+composition; the perspective of some of the bas-reliefs almost comes
+up to our own, and the movement of animated crowds is indicated with
+perfect accuracy. It is, however, not safe to conclude from these
+examples that the artists who executed them would have developed
+Egyptian art in a new direction, had not subsequent events caused a
+reaction against the worship of Atonu and his followers.
+
+[Illustration: 104.jpg PROFILE OF HEAD OF MUMMY (THEBES TOMBS.)]
+
+[Illustration: 106.jpg TWO OF THE DAUGHTERS OF KHUHI ATONU]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie.
+
+Although the tombs in which they worked differ from the generality
+of Egyptian burying-places, their originality does not arise from any
+effort, either conscious or otherwise, to break through the ordinary
+routine of the art of the time; it is rather the result of the
+extraordinary appearance of the sovereign whose features they were
+called on to portray, and the novelty of several of the subjects which
+they had to treat. That artist among them who first gave concrete form
+to the ideas circulated by the priests of Atonu, and drew the model
+cartoons, evidently possessed a master-hand, and was endowed with
+undeniable originality and power. No other Egyptian draughtsman ever
+expressed a child's grace as he did, and the portraits which he sketched
+of the daughters of Khuniatonu playing undressed at their mother's side,
+are examples of a reserved and delicate grace. But these models, when
+once composed and finished even to the smallest details, were entrusted
+for execution to workmen of mediocre powers, who were recruited not only
+from Thebes, but from the neighbouring cities of Hermopolis and Siut.
+These estimable people, with a praiseworthy patience, traced bit by bit
+the cartoons confided to them, omitting or adding individuals or groups
+according to the extent of the wall-space they had to cover, or to the
+number of relatives and servants whom the proprietor of the tomb desired
+should share in his future happiness. The style of these draughtsmen
+betrays the influence of the second-rate schools in which they had
+learned their craft, and the clumsiness of their work would often repel
+us, were it not that the interest of the episodes portrayed redeems it
+in the eyes of the Egyptologist.
+
+Khuniatonu left no son to succeed him; two of his sons-in-law
+successively occupied the throne--Saakeri, who had married his eldest
+daughter Maritatonu, and Tutankhamon, the husband of Ankhnasaton. The
+first had been associated in the sovereignty by his father-in-law;* he
+showed himself a zealous partisan of the "Disk," and he continued to
+reside in the new capital during the few years of his sole reign.** The
+second son-in-law was a son of Amenothes III., probably by a concubine.
+He returned to the religion of Amon, and his wife, abjuring the creed
+of her father, changed her name from Ankhnasaton to that of Ankhnasamon.
+Her husband abandoned Khuitatonu*** at the end of two or three years,
+and after his departure the town fell into decadence as quickly as it
+had arisen. The streets were unfrequented, the palaces and temples stood
+empty, the tombs remained unfinished and unoccupied, and its patron god
+returned to his former state, and was relegated to the third or fourth
+rank in the Egyptian Pantheon.
+
+     * He and his wife are represented by the side of Khuniatonu,
+     with the protocol and the attributes of royalty. Petrie
+     assigns to this double reign those minor objects on which
+     the king's prenomen Ankhkhopiruri is followed by the epithet
+     beloved of Uanira, which formed part of the name of
+     Khuniatonu.
+
+     ** Petrie thinks, on the testimony of the lists of Manetho,
+     which give twelve years to Akenkheres, daughter of Horos,
+     that Saakeri reigned twelve years, and only two or three
+     years as sole monarch without his father-in-law. I think
+     these two or three years a probable maximum length of his
+     reign, whatever may be the value we should here assign to
+     the lists of Manetho.
+
+     *** Petrie, judging from the number of minor objects which
+     he has found in his excavations at Tel el-Amarna, believes
+     that he can fix the length of Tutankhamon's sojourn at
+     Khuitatonu at six years, and that of his whole reign at nine
+     years.
+
+The town struggled for a short time against its adverse fate, which
+was no doubt retarded owing to the various industries founded in it by
+Khuniatonu, the manufactories of enamel and coloured glass requiring the
+presence of many workmen; but the latter emigrated ere long to Thebes
+or the neighbouring city of Hermopolis, and the "Horizon of Atonu"
+disappeared from the list of nomes, leaving of what might have been the
+capital of the Egyptian empire, merely a mound of crumbling bricks with
+two or three fellahin villages scattered on the eastern bank of the
+Nile.*
+
+     * Petrie thinks that the temples and palaces were
+     systematically destroyed by Harmhabi, and the ruins used by
+     him in the buildings which he erected at different places in
+     Egypt. But there is no need for this theory: the beauty of
+     the limestone which Khuniatonu had used sufficiently
+     accounts for the rapid disappearance of the deserted
+     edifices.
+
+Thebes, whose influence and population had meanwhile never lessened,
+resumed her supremacy undisturbed. If, out of respect for the past,
+Tutankhamon continued the decoration of the temple of Atonu at Karnak,
+he placed in every other locality the name and figure of Amon; a little
+stucco spread over the parts which had been mutilated, enabled the
+outlines to be restored to their original purity, and the alteration was
+rendered invisible by a few coats of colour. Tutankhamon was succeeded
+by the divine father Ai, whom Khuniatonu had assigned as husband to one
+of his relatives named Tii, so called after the widow of Amenothes
+III. Ai laboured no less diligently than his predecessor to keep up
+the traditions which had been temporarily interrupted. He had been
+a faithful worshipper of the Disk, and had given orders for the
+construction of two funerary chapels for himself in the mountain-side
+above Tel el-Amarna, the paintings in which indicate a complete
+adherence to the faith of the reigning king. But on becoming Pharaoh,
+he was proportionally zealous in his submission to the gods of Thebes,
+and in order to mark more fully his return to the ancient belief, he
+chose for his royal burying-place a site close to that in which rested
+the body of Amenothes III.*
+
+     * The first tomb seems to have been dug before his marriage,
+     at the time when he had no definite ambitions; the second
+     was prepared for him and his wife Tii.
+
+His sarcophagus, a large oblong of carved rose granite, still lies open
+and broken on the spot.
+
+[Illustration: 111.jpg SARCOPHAGUS OF THE PHARAOH AI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after the drawing of Prisse d'Avenues.
+
+Figures of goddesses stand at the four angles and extend their winged
+arms along its sides, as if to embrace the mummy of the sovereign.
+Tutankhamon and Ai were obeyed from one end of Egypt to the other, from
+Napata to the shores of the Mediterranean. The peoples of Syria raised
+no disturbances during their reigns, and paid their accustomed tribute
+regularly;* if their rule was short, it was at least happy. It would
+appear, however, that after their deaths, troubles arose in the state.
+The lists of Manetho give two or three princes--Rathotis, Khebres, and
+Akherres--whose names are not found on the monuments.** It is possible
+that we ought not to regard them as historical personages, but merely
+as heroes of popular romance, of the same type as those introduced so
+freely into the history of the preceding dynasties by the chroniclers
+of the Saite and Greek periods. They were, perhaps, merely short-lived
+pretenders who were overthrown one by the other before either had
+succeeded in establishing himself on the seat of Horus. Be that as it
+may, the XVIIIth dynasty drew to its close amid strife and quarreling,
+without our being able to discover the cause of its overthrow, or the
+name of the last of its sovereigns.***
+
+     * Tutankhamon receives the tribute of the Kushites as well
+     as that of the Syrians; Ai is represented at Shataui in
+     Nubia as accompanied by Pauiru, the prince of Kush.
+
+     ** Wiedemann has collected six royal names which, with much
+     hesitation, he places about this time.
+
+     *** The list of kings who make up the XVIIIth dynasty can be
+     established with certainty, with the exception of the order
+     of the three last sovereigns who succeed Khuniatonu. It is
+     here given in its authentic form, as the monuments have
+     permitted us to reconstruct it, and in its Greek form as it
+     is found in the lists of Manetho:
+
+     [Illustration: 112.jpg Table]
+
+     Manetho's list, as we have it, is a very ill-made extract,
+     wherein the official kings are mixed up with the legitimate
+     queens, as well as, at least towards the end, with persons
+     of doubtful authenticity. Several kings, between Khuniatonu
+     and Harmhabi, are sometimes added at the end of the list;
+     some of these I think, belonged to previous dynasties, e.g.
+     Teti to the VIth, Rahotpu to the XVIIth; several are heroes
+     of romance, as Mernebphtah or Merkhopirphtah, while the
+     names of the others are either variants from the cartouche
+     names of known princes, or else are nicknames, such as was
+     Sesu, Sesturi for Ramses II. Dr. Mahler believes that he can
+     fix, within a few days, the date of the kings of whom the
+     list is composed, from Ahmosis I. to Ai. I hold to the
+     approximate date which I have given in vol. iv. p. 153 of
+     this History, and I give the years 1600 to 1350 as the
+     period of the dynasty, with a possible error of about fifty
+     years, more or less.
+
+Scarcely half a century had elapsed between the moment when the XVIII's
+dynasty reached the height of its power under Amenothes III. and that of
+its downfall. It is impossible to introduce with impunity changes of any
+kind into the constitution or working of so complicated a machine as an
+empire founded on conquest. When the parts of the mechanism have been
+once put together and set in motion, and have become accustomed to
+work harmoniously at a proper pace, interference with it must not be
+attempted except to replace such parts as are broken or worn out, by
+others exactly like them. To make alterations while the machine is in
+motion, or to introduce new combinations, however ingenious, into any
+part of the original plan, might produce an accident or a breakage of
+the gearing when perhaps it would be least expected. When the devout
+Khuniatonu exchanged one city and one god for another, he thought
+that he was merely transposing equivalents, and that the safety of the
+commonwealth was not concerned in the operation. Whether it was Amon or
+Atonu who presided over the destinies of his people, or whether Thebes
+or Tel el-Amarna were the centre of impulse, was, in his opinion, merely
+a question of internal arrangement which could not affect the economy
+of the whole. But events soon showed that he was mistaken in his
+calculations. It is probable that if, on the expulsion of the Hyksos,
+the earlier princes of the dynasty had attempted an alteration in the
+national religion, or had moved the capital to any other city they might
+select, the remainder of the kingdom would not have been affected by the
+change. But after several centuries of faithful adherence to Amon in
+his city of Thebes, the governing power would find it no easy matter
+to accomplish such a resolution. During three centuries the dynasty had
+become wedded to the city and to its patron deity, and the locality had
+become so closely associated with the dynasty, that any blow aimed at
+the god could not fail to destroy the dynasty with it; indeed, had the
+experiment of Khuniatonu been prolonged beyond a few years, it might
+have entailed the ruin of the whole country. All who came into contact
+with Egypt, or were under her rule, whether Asiatics or Africans,
+were quick to detect any change in her administration, and to remark a
+falling away from the traditional systems of the times of Thutmosis III.
+and Amenothes II. The successors of the heretic king had the sense to
+perceive at once the first symptoms of disorder, and to refrain from
+persevering in his errors; but however quick they were to undo his work,
+they could not foresee its serious consequences. His immediate followers
+were powerless to maintain their dynasty, and their posterity had to
+make way for a family who had not incurred the hatred of Amon, or rather
+that of his priests. If those who followed them were able by their tact
+and energy to set Egypt on her feet again, they were at the same time
+unable to restore her former prosperity or her boundless confidence in
+herself.
+
+[Illustration: 114.jpg Tailpiece]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II--THE REACTION AGAINST EGYPT
+
+
+_THE XIth DYNASTY: HARMHABI--THE HITTITE EMPIRE IN SYRIA AND IN ASIA
+MINOR--SETI I. AND RAMSES II.--THE PEOPLE OF THE SEA: MINEPHTAH AND THE
+ISRAELITE EXODUS._
+
+_The birth and antecedents of Harmhabi, his youth, his enthronement--The
+final triumph of Amon and his priests--Harmhabi infuses order into the
+government: his wars against the Ethiopians and Asiatics--The Khati,
+their civilization, religion; their political and military constitution;
+the extension of their empire towards the north--The countries and
+populations of Asia Minor; commercial routes between the Euphrates and
+the AEgean Sea--The treaty concluded between Harmhabi and Sapalulu._
+
+_Ramses I. and the uncertainties as to his origin--Seti I. and
+the campaign against Syria in the 1st year of his reign; the
+re-establishment of the Egyptian empire--Working of the gold-mines at
+Etai--The monuments constructed by Seti I. in Nubia, at Karnak, Luxor,
+and Abydos--The valley of the kings and tomb of Seti I. at Thebes._
+
+_Ramses II., his infancy, his association in the Government, his debut
+in Ethiopia: he builds a residence in the Delta--His campaign against
+the Khati in the 5th year of his reign--The talcing of Qodshu, the
+victory of Ramses II. and the truce established with Khatusaru: the poem
+of Pentauirit--His treaty with the Khati in the 21st year of his reign:
+the balance of power in Syria: the marriage of Ramses II. with a Hittite
+princess--Public works: the Speos at Abu-Simbel; Luxor, Karnak, the
+Eamesseum, the monuments in the Delta--The regency of Khamoisit and
+Minephtah, the legend of Sesostris, the coffin and mummy of Ramses II._
+
+_Minephtah--The kingdom of Libya, the people of the sea--The first
+invasion of Libya: the Egyptian victory at Piriu; the triumph of
+Minephtah--Seti II., Amenmeses, Siphtah-Minephtah--The foreign captives
+in Egypt; the Exodus of the Hebrews and their march to Sinai--An
+Egyptian romance of the Exodus: Amenophis, son of Pa-apis._
+
+[Illustration: 117.jpg Page Image]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II--THE REACTION AGAINST EGYPT
+
+
+_The XIXth dynasty: Harmhabi--The Hittite empire in Syria and in Asia
+Minor--Seti I. and Ramses II.--The people of the sea: Minephtah and the
+Israelite Exodus._
+
+While none of these ephemeral Pharaohs left behind them a, either
+legitimate or illegitimate, son there was no lack of princesses, any of
+which, having on her accession to the throne to choose a consort after
+her own heart, might thus become the founder of a new dynasty. By such a
+chance alliance Harmhabi, who was himself descended from Thutmosis III.,
+was raised to the kingly office.* His mother, Mutnozmit, was of the
+royal line, and one of the most beautiful statues in the Gizeh Museum
+probably represents her. The body is mutilated, but the head is charming
+in its intelligent and animated expression, in its full eyes and
+somewhat large, but finely modelled, mouth. The material of the statue
+is a finegrained limestone, and its milky whiteness tends to soften the
+malign character of her look and smile. It is possible that Mutnozmit
+was the daughter of Amenothes III. by his marriage with one of
+his sisters: it was from her, at any rate, and not from his
+great-grandfather, that Harmhabi derived his indisputable claims to
+royalty.**
+
+     * A fragment of an inscription at Karnak calls Thutmosis
+     III. "the father of his fathers." Champollion called him
+     Hornemnob, Rosellini, Hor-hemheb, Hor-em-hbai, and both
+     identified him with the Horos of Manetho, hence the custom
+     among Egyptologists for a long time to designate him by the
+     name Horus. Deveria was the first to show that the name
+     corresponded with the Armais of the lists of Manetho, and,
+     in fact, Armais is the Greek transcription of the group
+     Harmhabi in the bilingual texts of the Ptolemaic period.
+
+     ** Mutnozmit was at first considered the daughter and
+     successor of Harmhabi, or his wife. Birch showed that the
+     monuments did not confirm these hypotheses, and he was
+     inclined to think that she was Harmhabi's mother. As far as
+     I can see for the present, it is the only solution which
+     agrees with the evidence on the principal monument which has
+     made known her existence.
+
+He was born, probably, in the last years of Amenothes, when Tii was the
+exclusive favourite of the sovereign; but it was alleged later on, when
+Harmhabi had emerged from obscurity, that Amon, destining him for the
+throne, had condescended to become his father by Mutnozmit--a customary
+procedure with the god when his race on earth threatened to become
+debased.* It was he who had rocked the newly born infant to sleep, and,
+while Harsiesis was strengthening his limbs with protective amulets, had
+spread over the child's skin the freshness and brilliance which are the
+peculiar privilege of the immortals. While still in the nursery, the
+great and the insignificant alike prostrated themselves before Harmhabi,
+making him liberal offerings. Every one recognised in him, even when
+still a lad and incapable of reflection, the carriage and complexion
+of a god, and Horus of Cynopolis was accustomed to follow his steps,
+knowing that the time of his advancement was near. After having called
+the attention of the Egyptians to Harmhabi, Amon was anxious, in fact,
+to hasten the coming of the day when he might confer upon him supreme
+rank, and for this purpose inclined the heart of the reigning Pharaoh
+towards him. Ai proclaimed him his heir over the whole land.**
+
+     * All that we know of the youth of Harmhabi is contained in
+     the texts on a group preserved in the Turin Museum, and
+     pointed out by Champollion, translated and published
+     subsequently by Birch and by Brugsch. The first lines of the
+     inscription seem to me to contain an account of the union of
+     Amon with the queen, analogous to those at Deir el-Bahari
+     treating of the birth of Hatshopsitu, and to those at Luxor
+     bearing upon Amenothes III. (cf. vol. iv. pp. 342, 343; and
+     p. 51 of the present volume), and to prove for certain that
+     Harmhabi's mother was a princess of the royal line by right.
+
+     ** The king is not named in the inscription. It cannot have
+     been Amenothes IV., for an individual of the importance of
+     Harmhabi, living alongside this king, would at least have
+     had a tomb begun for him at. Tel el-Amarna. We may hesitate
+     between Ai and Tutankhamon; but the inscription seems to say
+     definitely that Harmhabi succeeded directly to the king
+     under whom he had held important offices for many years, and
+     this compels us to fix upon Ai, who, as we have said at p.
+     108, et seq., of the present volume, was, to all
+     appearances, the last of the so-called heretical sovereigns.
+
+He never gave cause for any dissatisfaction when called to court, and
+when he was asked questions by the monarch he replied always in fit
+terms, in such words as were calculated to produce serenity, and thus
+gained for himself a reputation as the incarnation of wisdom, all his
+plans and intentions appearing to have been conceived by Thot the
+Ibis himself. For many years he held a place of confidence with the
+sovereign. The nobles, from the moment he appeared at the gate of the
+palace, bowed their backs before him; the barbaric chiefs from the north
+or south stretched out their arms as soon as they approached him, and
+gave him the adoration they would bestow upon a god. His favourite
+residence was Memphis, his preference for it arising from his having
+possibly been born there, or from its having been assigned to him for
+his abode. Here he constructed for himself a magnificent tomb, the
+bas-reliefs of which exhibit him as already king, with the sceptre in
+his hand and the uraaus on his brow, while the adjoining cartouche does
+not as yet contain his name.*
+
+     * This part of the account is based upon, a study of a
+     certain number of texts and representations all coming from
+     Harmhabi's tomb at Saqqarah, and now scattered among the
+     various museums--at Gizeh, Leyden, London, and Alexandria.
+     Birch was the first to assign those monuments to the Pharaoh
+     Harmhabi, supposing at the same time that he had been
+     dethroned by Ramses I., and had lived at Memphis in an
+     intermediate position between that of a prince and that of a
+     private individual; this opinion was adopted by Ed. Meyer,
+     rejected by Wiedemann and by myself. After full examination,
+     I think the Harmhabi of the tomb at Saqqarah and the Pharaoh
+     Harmhabi are one and the same person; Harmhabi, sufficiently
+     high placed to warrant his wearing the uraius, but not high
+     enough to have his name inscribed in a cartouche, must have
+     had his tomb constructed at Saqqarah, as Ai and possibly
+     Ramses I. had theirs built for them at Tel el-Amarna.
+
+He was the mighty of the mighty, the great among the great, the general
+of generals, the messenger who ran to convey orders to the people of
+Asia and Ethiopia, the indispensable companion in council or on the
+field of battle,* at the time when Horus of Cynopolis resolved to
+seat him upon his eternal throne. Ai no longer occupied it. Horus took
+Harmhabi with him to Thebes, escorted him thither amid expressions of
+general joy, and led him to Amon in order that the god might bestow upon
+him the right to reign. The reception took place in the temple of
+Luxor, which served as a kind of private chapel for the descendants of
+Amenothes. Amon rejoiced to see Harmhabi, the heir of the two worlds;
+he took him with him to the royal palace, introduced him into the
+apartments of his august daughter, Mutnozmit; then, after she had
+recognised her child and had pressed him to her bosom, all the gods
+broke out into acclamations, and their cries ascended up to heaven.**
+
+     * The fragments of the tomb preserved at Leyden show him
+     leading to the Pharaoh Asiatics and Ethiopians, burthened
+     with tribute. The expressions and titles given above are
+     borrowed from the fragments at Gizeh.
+
+     ** Owing to a gap, the text cannot be accurately translated
+     at this point. The reading can be made out that Amon "betook
+     himself to the palace, placing the prince before him, as far
+     as the sanctuary of his (Amon's) daughter, the very
+     august...; she poured water on his hands, she embraced the
+     beauties (of the prince), she placed herself before him." It
+     will be seen that the name of the daughter of Amon is
+     wanting, and Birch thought that a terrestrial princess whom
+     Harmhabi had married was in question, Miifcnozmit, according
+     to Brugsch. If the reference is not to a goddess, who along
+     with Amon took part in the ceremonies, but to Mutnozmit, we
+     must come to the conclusion that she, as heir and queen by
+     birth, must have ceded her rights by some ritual to her son
+     before he could be crowned.
+
+"Behold, Amon arrives with his son before him, at the palace, in order
+to put upon his head the diadem, and to prolong the length of his life!
+We install him, therefore, in his office, we give to him the insignia of
+Ea, we pray Amon for him whom he has brought as our protector: may he as
+king have the festivals of Ea and the years of Horus; may he accomplish
+his good pleasure in Thebes, in Heliopolis, in Memphis, and may he
+add to the veneration with which these cities are invested." And
+they immediately decided that the new Pharaoh should be called
+Horus-sturdy-bull, mighty in wise projects, lord of the Vulture and of
+the very marvellous Urseus in Thebes, the conquering Horus who takes
+pleasure in the truth, and who maintains the two lands, the lord of the
+south and north, Sozir Khopiruri chosen of Ea, the offspring of the Sun,
+Harmhabi Miamun, giver of life. The _cortege_ came afterwards to the
+palace, the king walking before Amon: there the god embraced his son,
+placed the diadems upon his head, delivered to him the rule of the whole
+world, over foreign populations as well as those of Egypt, inasmuch as
+he possessed this power as the sovereign of the universe.
+
+This is the customary subject of the records of enthronement. Pharaoh is
+the son of a god, chosen by his father, from among all those who might
+have a claim to it, to occupy for a time the throne of Horus; and as he
+became king only by a divine decree, he had publicly to express, at the
+moment of his elevation, his debt of gratitude to, and his boundless
+respect for, the deity, who had made him what he was. In this case,
+however, the protocol embodied something more than the traditional
+formality, and its hackneyed phrases borrowed a special meaning from the
+circumstances of the moment. Amon, who had been insulted and proscribed
+by Khuniatonu, had not fully recovered his prestige under the rule of
+the immediate successors of his enemy.
+
+[Illustration: 123.jpg THE FIRST PYLON OF HARMHABI AT KARNAK]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Beato.
+
+They had restored to him his privileges and his worship, they had become
+reconciled to him, and avowed themselves his faithful ones, but all this
+was as much an act of political necessity as a matter of religion:
+they still continued to tolerate, if not to favour, the rival doctrinal
+system, and the temple of the hateful Disk still dishonoured by its
+vicinity the sanctuary of Karnak. Harmhabi, on the other hand, was
+devoted to Amon, who had moulded him in embryo, and had trained him from
+his birth to worship none but him. Harmhabi's triumph marked the end
+of the evil days, and inaugurated a new era, in which Amon saw
+himself again master of Thebes and of the world. Immediately after his
+enthronement Harmhabi rivalled the first Amen-othes in his zeal for the
+interests of his divine father: he overturned the obelisks of Atonu and
+the building before which they stood; then, that no trace of them might
+remain, he worked up the stones into the masonry of two pylons, which he
+set up upon the site, to the south of the gates of Thutmosis III. They
+remained concealed in the new fabric for centuries, but in the year
+27 B.C. a great earthquake brought them abruptly to light. We find
+everywhere among the ruins, at the foot of the dislocated gates, or at
+the bases of the headless colossal figures, heaps of blocks detached
+from the structure, on which can be made out remnants of prayers
+addressed to the Disk, scenes of worship, and cartouches of Amenofches
+IV., Ai, and Tutankhamon. The work begun by Harmhabi at Thebes
+was continued with unabated zeal through the length of the whole
+river-valley. "He restored the sanctuaries from the marshes of Athu even
+to Nubia; he repaired their sculptures so that they were better than
+before, not to speak of the fine things he did in them, rejoicing the
+eyes of Ra. That which he had found injured he put into its original
+condition, erecting a hundred statues, carefully formed of valuable
+stone, for every one which was lacking. He inspected the ruined towns of
+the gods in the land, and made them such as they had been in the time
+of the first Ennead, and he allotted to them estates and offerings
+for every day, as well as a set of sacred vessels entirely of gold and
+silver; he settled priests in them, bookmen, carefully chosen soldiers,
+and assigned to them fields, cattle, all the necessary material to
+make prayers to Ra every morning." These measures were inspired by
+consideration for the ancient deities; but he added to them others,
+which tended to secure the welfare of the people and the stability of
+the government. Up to this time the officials and the Egyptian soldiers
+had displayed a tendency to oppress the fellahin, without taking into
+consideration the injury to the treasury occasioned by their rapacity.
+Constant supervision was the only means of restraining them, for even
+the best-served Pharaohs, Thutmosis, and Amenothes III. themselves, were
+obliged to have frequent recourse to the rigour of the law to keep the
+scandalous depredations of the officials within bounds.*
+
+     * Harmhabi refers to the edicts of Thutmosis III.
+
+The religious disputes of the preceding years, in enfeebling the
+authority of the central power, had given a free hand to these
+oppressors. The scribes and tax-collectors were accustomed to exact
+contributions for the public service from the ships, whether laden or
+not, of those who were in a small way of business, and once they had
+laid their hands upon them, they did not readily let them go. The poor
+fellow falling into their clutches lost his cargo, and he was at his
+wits' end to know how to deliver at the royal storehouses the various
+wares with which he calculated to pay his taxes. No sooner had the
+Court arrived at some place than the servants scoured the neighbourhood,
+confiscating the land produce, and seizing upon slaves, under pretence
+that they were acting for the king, while they had only their personal
+ends in view. Soldiers appropriated all the hides of animals with the
+object, doubtless, of making from them leather jackets and helmets, or
+of duplicating their shields, with the result that when the treasury
+made its claim for leather, none was to be found. It was hardly
+possible, moreover, to bring the culprits to justice, for the chief men
+of the towns and villages, the prophets, and all those who ought to
+have looked after the interests of the taxpayer, took money from the
+criminals for protecting them from justice, and compelled the innocent
+victims also to purchase their protection. Harmhabi, who was continually
+looking for opportunities to put down injustice and to punish deceit,
+at length decided to pro-mulgate a very severe edict against the
+magistrates and the double-dealing officials: any of them who was found
+to have neglected his duty was to have his nose cut off, and was to
+be sent into perpetual exile to Zalu, on the eastern frontier. His
+commands, faithfully carried out, soon produced a salutary effect, and
+as he would on no account relax the severity of the sentence, exactions
+were no longer heard of, to the advantage of the revenue of the State.
+On the last day of each month the gates of his palace were open to every
+one.
+
+[Illustration: 127.jpg AMENOTHES IV. FROM A FRAGMENT USED AGAIN BY
+HARMHABI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Prisse d'Avennes.
+
+Any one on giving his name to the guard could enter the court of honour,
+where he would find food in abundance to satisfy his hunger while he was
+awaiting an audience. The king all the while was seated in the sight
+of all at the tribune, whence he would throw among his faithful friends
+necklaces and bracelets of gold: he inquired into complaints one after
+another, heard every case, announced his judgments in brief words, and
+dismissed his subjects, who went away proud and happy at having had
+their affairs dealt with by the sovereign himself.*
+
+     * All these details are taken from a stele discovered in
+     1882. The text is so mutilated that it is impossible to give
+     a literal rendering of it in all its parts, but the sense is
+     sufficiently clear to warrant our rilling up the whole with
+     considerable certainty.
+
+The portraits of Harmhabi which have come down to us give us the
+impression of a character at once energetic and agreeable. The most
+beautiful of these is little more than a fragment broken off a
+black granite statue. Its mournful expression is not pleasing to the
+spectator, and at the first view alienates his sympathy. The face, which
+is still youthful, breathes an air of melancholy, an expression which
+is somewhat rare among the Pharaohs of the best period: the thin and
+straight nose is well set on the face, the elongated eyes have somewhat
+heavy lids; the large, fleshy lips, slightly contracted at the corners
+of the mouth, are cut with a sharpness that gives them singular vigour,
+and the firm and finely modelled chin loses little of its form from the
+false beard depending from it. Every detail is treated with such freedom
+that one would think the sculptor must have had some soft material to
+work upon, rather than a rock almost hard enough to defy the chisel;
+the command over it is so complete that the difficulty of the work is
+forgotten in the perfection of the result. The dreamy expression of his
+face, however, did not prevent Harmhabi from displaying beyond Egypt, as
+within it, singular activity.
+
+[Illustration: 128.jpg HARMHABI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a Autograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+Although Egypt had never given up its claims to dominion over the whole
+river-valley, as far as the plains of Sennar, yet since the time of
+Amenothes III. no sovereign had condescended, it would I appear, to
+conduct in person the expeditions directed against the tribes of! the
+Upper Nile. Harmhabi was anxious to revive the custom which imposed
+upon the Pharaohs the obligation to make their first essay in arms in
+Ethiopia, as Horus, son of Isis, had done of yore, and he seized the
+pretext of the occurrence of certain raids there to lead a body of
+troops himself into the heart of the negro country.
+
+[Illustration: 129.jpg THE VAULTED PASSAGE OF THE ROCK-TOMB AT GEBEL
+SILSILEH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+He had just ordered at this time the construction of the two southern
+pylons at Karnak, and there was great activity in the quarries of
+Silsileh. A commemorative chapel also was in course of excavation here
+in the sandstone rock, and he had dedicated it to his father, Amon-Ba of
+Thebes, coupling with him the local divinities, Hapi the Nile, and Sobku
+the patron of Ombos. The sanctuary is excavated somewhat deeply into
+the hillside, and the dark rooms within it are decorated with the usual
+scenes of worship, but the vaulted approach to them displays upon its
+western wall the victory of the king. We see here a figure receiving
+from Amon the assurance of a long and happy life, and another letting
+fly his arrows at a host of fleeing enemies; Ethiopians raise their
+heads to him in suppliant gesture; soldiers march past with their
+captives; above one of the doors we see twelve military leaders marching
+and carrying the king aloft upon their shoulders, while a group of
+priests and nobles salute him, offering incense.*
+
+     * The significance of the monument was pointed out first by
+     Champollion. The series of races conquered was represented
+     at Karnak on the internal face of one of the pylons built by
+     Harmhabi; it appears to have been "usurped" by Ramses II.
+
+At this period Egyptian ships were ploughing the Red Sea, and their
+captains were renewing official relations with Puanit. Somali chiefs
+were paying visits to the palace, as in the time of Thutmosis III. The
+wars of Amon had, in fact, begun again. The god, having suffered neglect
+for half a century, had a greater need than ever of gold and silver
+to fill his coffers; he required masons for his buildings, slaves and
+cattle for his farms, perfumed essences and incense for his daily rites.
+His resources had gradually become exhausted, and his treasury would
+soon be empty if he did not employ the usual means to replenish it. He
+incited Harmhabi to proceed against the countries from which, in olden
+times he had enriched himself--to the south in the first place, and
+then, having decreed victory there, and having naturally taken for
+himself the greater part of the spoils, he turned his attention to Asia.
+
+[Illustration: 131.jpg THE TRIUMPH OP HARMHABI IN THE SANCTUARY OF GEBEL
+SILSILEH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Daniel Heron.
+     The black spots are due to the torches of the fellahin of
+     the neighbourhood who have visited the rock tomb in bygone
+     years.
+
+In the latter campaign the Egyptian troops took once more the route
+through Coele-Syria, and if the expedition experienced here more
+difficulties than on the banks of the Upper Nile, it was, nevertheless,
+brought to an equally triumphant conclusion. Those of their adversaries
+who had offered an obstinate resistance were transported into other
+lands, and the rebel cities were either razed to the ground or given to
+the flames: the inhabitants having taken refuge in the mountains, where
+they were in danger of perishing from hunger, made supplications for
+peace, which was granted to them on the usual conditions of doing homage
+and paying tribute.*
+
+     * These details are taken from the fragment of an
+     inscription now in the museum at Vienna; Bergmann, and also
+     Erman, think that we have in this text the indication of an
+     immigration into Egypt of a tribe of the Monatiu.
+
+We do not exactly know how far he penetrated into the country; the
+list of the towns and nations over which he boasts of having triumphed
+contains, along with names unknown to us, some already famous or soon to
+become so--Arvad, Pibukhu, the Khati, and possibly Alasia. The Haui-Nibu
+themselves must have felt the effects of the campaign, for several of
+their chiefs associated, doubtless, with the Phoenicians, presented
+themselves before the Pharaoh at Thebes. Egypt was maintaining,
+therefore, its ascendency, or at least appearing to maintain it in
+those regions where the kings of the XVIIIth dynasty had ruled after
+the campaigns of Thutmosis I., Thutmosis III., and Amenothes II. Its
+influence, nevertheless, was not so undisputed as in former days; not
+that the Egyptian soldiers were less valiant, but owing to the fact
+that another power had risen up alongside them whose armies were strong
+enough to encounter them on the field of battle and to obtain a victory
+over them.
+
+Beyond Naharaim, in the deep recesses of the Amanus and Taurus, there
+had lived, for no one knows how many centuries, the rude and warlike
+tribes of the Khati, related not so, much to the Semites of the Syrian
+plain as to the populations of doubtful race and language who occupied
+the upper basins of the Halys and Euphrates.* The Chaldaean conquest
+had barely touched them; the Egyptian campaign had not more effect, and
+Thutmosis III. himself, after having crossed their frontiers and sacked
+several of their towns, made no serious pretence to reckon them among
+his subjects. Their chiefs were accustomed, like their neighbours, to
+use, for correspondence with other countries, the cuneiform mode of
+writing; they had among them, therefore, for this purpose, a host of
+scribes, interpreters, and official registrars of events, such as we
+find to have accompanied the sovereigns of Assyria and Babylon.**
+These chiefs were accustomed to send from time to time a present to the
+Pharaoh, which the latter was pleased to regard as a tribute,*** or
+they would offer, perhaps, one of their daughters in marriage to the
+king at Thebes, and after the marriage show themselves anxious to
+maintain good faith with their son-in-law.
+
+     * Halevy asserts that the Khati were Semites, and bases his
+     assertion on materials of the Assyrian period. Thes Khati,
+     absorbed in Syria by the Semites, with whom they were
+     blended, appear to have been by origin a non-Semitic people.
+
+     ** A letter from the King of the Khati to the Pharaoh
+     Amenothes IV. is written in cuneiform writing and in a
+     Semitic language. It has been thought that other documents,
+     drawn up in a non-Semitic language and coming from Mitanni
+     and Arzapi, contain a dialect of the Hittite speech or that
+     language itself. A "writer of books," attached to the person
+     of the Hittite King Khatusaru, is named amongst the dead
+     found on the field of battle at Qodshu.
+
+     *** It is thus perhaps we must understand the mention of
+     tribute from the Khati in the _Annals of Thutmosis III._, 1.
+     26, in the year XXXIII., also in the year XL. One of the Tel
+     el-Amarna letters refers to presents of this kind, which the
+     King of Khati addresses to Amenothes IV. to celebrate his
+     enthronement, and to ask him to maintain with himself the
+     traditional good relations of their two families.
+
+They had, moreover, commercial relations with Egypt, and furnished it
+with cattle, chariots, and those splendid Cappadocian horses whose breed
+was celebrated down to the Greek period.* They were already, indeed,
+people of consideration; their territory was so extensive that the
+contemporaries of Thutmosis III. called them the Greater Khati; and the
+epithet "vile," which the chancellors of the Pharaohs added to their
+name, only shows by its virulence the impression which they had produced
+upon the mind of their adversaries.**
+
+     * The horses of the Khati were called _abari_, strong,
+     vigorous, as also their bulls. The King of Alasia, while
+     offering to Amenothes III. a profitable speculation, advises
+     him to have nothing to do with the King of the Khati or with
+     the King of Sangar, and thus furnishes proof that the
+     Egyptians held constant commercial relations with the Khati.
+
+     ** M. de Rouge suggested that Khati "the Little" was the
+     name of the Hittites of Hebron. The expression, "Khati the
+     Great," has been compared with that of Khanirabbat, "Khani
+     the Great," which in the Assyrian texts would seem to
+     designate a part of Cappadocia, in which the province of
+     Miliddi occurs, and the identification of the two has found
+     an ardent defender in W. Max Millier. Until further light is
+     thrown upon it, the most probable reading of the word is not
+     Khani-_ra_bat, but Khani-_gal_bat. The name Khani-Galbat is
+     possibly preserved in Julbat, which the Arab geographers
+     applied in the Middle Ages to a province situated in Lesser
+     Armenia.
+
+Their type of face distinguishes them clearly from the nations
+conterminous with them on the south. The Egyptian draughtsmen
+represented them as squat and short in stature, though vigorous,
+strong-limbed, and with broad and full shoulders in youth, but as
+inclined frequently to obesity in old age. The head is long and heavy,
+the forehead flattened, the chin moderate in size, the nose prominent,
+the eyebrows and cheeks projecting, the eyes small, oblique, and
+deep-set, the mouth fleshy, and usually framed in by two deep wrinkles;
+the flesh colour is a yellowish or reddish white, but clearer than that
+of the Phoenicians or the Amurru.
+
+[Illustration: 135.jpg THREE HEADS OF HITTITE SOLDIERS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+Their ordinary costume consisted, sometimes of a shirt with short
+sleeves, sometimes of a sort of loin-cloth, more or less ample according
+to the rank of the individual wearing it, and bound round the waist by
+a belt. To these they added a scanty mantle, red or blue, fringed like
+that of the Chaldaeans, which they passed over the left shoulder and
+brought back under the right, so as to leave the latter exposed. They
+wore shoes with thick soles, turning up distinctly at the toes,* and
+they encased their hands in gloves, reaching halfway up the arm.
+
+     * This characteristic is found on the majority of the
+     monuments which the peoples of Asia Minor have left to us,
+     and it is one of the most striking indications of the
+     northern origin of the Khati. The Egyptian artists and
+     modern draughtsmen have often neglected it, and the majority
+     of them have represented the Khati without shoes.
+
+They shaved off both moustache and beard, but gave free growth to their
+hair, which they divided into two or three locks, and allowed to
+fall upon their backs and breasts. The king's head-dress, which was
+distinctive of royalty, was a tall pointed hat, resembling to some
+extent the white crown of the Pharaohs. The dress of the people, taken
+all together, was of better and thicker material than that of the
+Syrians or Egyptians. The mountains and elevated plateaus which they
+inhabited were subject to extraordinary vicissitudes of heat and cold.
+If the summer burnt up everything, the winter reigned here with an
+extreme rigour, and dragged on for months: clothing and footgear had
+to be seen to, if the snow and the icy winds of December were to be
+resisted. The character of their towns, and the domestic life of their
+nobles and the common people, can only be guessed at. Some, at least,
+of the peasants must have sheltered themselves in villages half
+underground, similar to those which are still to be found in this
+region. The town-folk and the nobles had adopted for the most part the
+Chaldaean or Egyptian manners and customs in use among the Semites of
+Syria. As to their religion, they reverenced a number of secondary
+deities who had their abode in the tempest, in the clouds, the sea, the
+rivers, the springs, the mountains, and the forests. Above this crowd
+there were several sovereign divinities of the thunder or the air,
+sun-gods and moon-gods, of which the chief was called Khati, and was
+considered to be the father of the nation. They ascribed to all their
+deities a warlike and savage character. The Egyptians pictured some of
+them as a kind of Ra,* others as representing Sit, or rather Sutkhu,
+that patron of the Hyksos which was identified by them with Sit: every
+town had its tutelary heroes, of whom they were accustomed to speak as
+if of its Sutkhu--Sutkhu of Paliqa, Sutkhu of Khissapa, Sutkhu of Sarsu,
+Sutkhu of Salpina. The goddesses in their eyes also became Astartes, and
+this one fact suggests that these deities were, like their Phoenician
+and Canaanite sisters, of a double nature--in one aspect chaste, fierce,
+and warlike, and in another lascivious and pacific. One god was called
+Mauru, another Targu, others Qaui and Khepa.**
+
+     * The Cilician inscriptions of the Graeco-Roman period reveal
+     the existence in this region of a god, Rho, Rhos. Did this
+     god exist among the Khati, and did the similarity of the
+     pronunciation of it to that of the god Ra suggest to the
+     Egyptians the existence of a similar god among these people,
+     or did they simply translate into their language the name of
+     the Hittite god representing the sun?
+
+     ** The names Mauru and Qaui are deduced from the forms
+     Maurusaru and Qauisaru, which were borne by the Khati: Qaui
+     was probably the eponymous hero of the Qui people, as Khati
+     was of the Khati. Tarku and Tisubu appear to me to be
+     contained in the names Targanunasa, Targazatas, and
+     Tartisubu; Tisubu is probably the Tessupas mentioned in the
+     letter from Dushratta written in Mitannian, and identical
+     with the Tushupu of another letter from the same king, and
+     in a despatch from Tarkondaraush. Targu, Targa, Targanu,
+     resemble the god Tarkhu, which is known to us from the
+     proper names of these regions preserved in attributes
+     covered by each of these divine names, and as to the forms
+     with which they were invested.
+
+[Illustration: 138.jpg A HITTITE KING.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a picture in Lepsius.
+     Khatusaru, King of the Khati, who was for thirty years a
+     contemporary of Ramses II.
+
+Tishubu, the Ramman of the Assyrians, was doubtless lord of the tempest
+and of the atmosphere; Shausbe answered to Shala and to Ishtar the queen
+of love;* but we are frequently in ignorance as to the Assyrian and
+Greek inscriptions. Kheba, Khepa, Khipa, is said to be a denomination
+of Ramman; we find it in the names of the princesses Tadu-khipa,
+Gilu-khipa, Puu-khipa.
+
+The majority of them, both male and female, were of gigantic stature,
+and were arrayed in the vesture of earthly kings and queens: they
+brandished their arms, displayed the insignia of their authority, such
+as a flower or bunch of grapes, and while receiving the offerings of
+the people were seated on a chair before an altar, or stood each on
+the animal representing him--such as a lion, a stag, or wild goat. The
+temples of their towns have disappeared, but they could never have been,
+it would seem, either-large or magnificent: the favourite places of
+worship were the tops of mountains, in the vicinity of springs, or the
+depths of mysterious grottoes, where the deity revealed himself to his
+priests, and received the faithful at the solemn festivals celebrated
+several times a year.*
+
+     * The association of Tushupu, Tessupas, Tisubu, with Rammanu
+     is made out from an Assyrian tablet published by Bezold: it
+     was reserved for Say ce and Jensen to determine the nature
+     of the god. Shausbe has been identified with Ishtar or Shala
+     by Jensen.
+
+We know as little about their political organisation as about their
+religion.* We may believe, however, that it was feudal in character, and
+that every clan had its hereditary chief and its proper gods: the
+clans collectively rendered obedience to a common king, whose effective
+authority depended upon his character and age.**
+
+     * The religious cities and the festivals of the Greek epoch
+     are described by Strabo; these festivals were very ancient,
+     and their institution, if not the method of celebrating
+     them, may go back to the time of the Hittite empire.
+
+     ** The description of the battle of Qodshu in the time of
+     Ramses II. shows us the King of the Khati surrounded by his
+     vassals. The evidence of the existence of a similar feudal
+     organisation from the time of the XVIIIth dynasty is
+     furnished by a letter of Dushratta, King of Mitanni, where
+     he relates to Amenothes IV. the revolt of his brother
+     Artassumara, and speaks of the help which one of the
+     neighbouring chiefs, Pirkhi, and all the Khati had given to
+     the rebel.
+
+The various contingents which the sovereign could collect together and
+lead would, if he were an incapable general, be of little avail against
+the well-officered and veteran troops of Egypt. Still they were not to
+be despised, and contained the elements of an excellent army, superior
+both in quality and quantity to any which Syria had ever been able
+to put into the field. The infantry consisted of a limited number of
+archers or slingers. They had usually neither shield nor cuirass, but
+merely, in the way of protective armour, a padded head-dress, ornamented
+with a tuft. The bulk of the army carried short lances and broad-bladed
+choppers, or more generally, short thin-handled swords with flat
+two-edged blades, very broad at the base and terminating in a point.
+
+[Illustration: 140.jpg A HITTITE CHARIOT WITH ITS THREE OCCUPANTS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Champollion.
+
+Their mode of attack was in close phalanxes, whose shock must have
+been hard to bear, for the soldiers forming them were in part at least
+recruited from among the strong and hardy mountaineers of the Taurus.
+The chariotry comprised the nobles and the _elite_ of the army, but it
+was differently constituted from that of the Egyptians, and employed
+other tactics.
+
+The Hittite chariots were heavier, and the framework, instead of being a
+mere skeleton, was pannelled on the sides, the contour at the top being
+sometimes quite square, at other times rudely curved. It was bound
+together in the front by two disks of metal, and strengthened by strips
+of copper or bronze, which were sometimes plated with silver or gold.
+There were no quiver-cases as in Egyptian chariots, for the Hittite
+charioteers rarely resorted to the bow and arrow. The occupants of
+a chariot were three in number--the driver; the shield-bearer, whose
+office it was to protect his companions by means of a shield, sometimes
+of a round form, with a segment taken out on each side, and sometimes
+square; and finally, the warrior, with his sword and lance. The Hittite
+princes whom fortune had brought into relations with Thutmosis III. and
+Amenothes II. were not able to avail themselves properly of the latent
+forces around them. It was owing probably to the feebleness of their
+character or to the turbulence of their barons that we must ascribe the
+poor part they played in the revolutions of the Eastern world at this
+time. The establishment of a strong military power on their southern
+frontier was certain, moreover, to be anything but pleasing to them; if
+they preferred not to risk everything by entering into a great struggle
+with the invaders, they could, without compromising themselves too
+much, harass them with sudden attacks, and intrigue in an underhand way
+against them to their own profit. Pharaoh's generals were accustomed
+to punish, one after the other, these bands of invading tribes, and the
+sculptors duly recorded their names on a pylon at Thebes among those
+of the conquered nations, but these disasters had little effect in
+restraining the Hittites. They continued, in spite of them, to march
+southward, and the letters from the Egyptian governors record their
+progress year after year. They had a hand in all the plots which were
+being hatched among the Syrians, and all the disaffected who wished
+to be free from foreign oppression--such as Abdashirti and his son
+Aziru--addressed themselves to them for help in the way of chariots and
+men.*
+
+     * Aziru defends himself in one of his letters against the
+     accusation of having received four messengers from the King
+     of the Khati, while he refused to receive those from Egypt.
+     The complicity of Aziru with the Khati is denounced in an
+     appeal from the inhabitants of Tunipa. In a mutilated
+     letter, an unknown person calls attention to the
+     negotiations which a petty-Syrian prince had entered into
+     with the King of the Khati.
+
+Even inthe time of Amenofches III. they had endeavoured to reap profit
+from the discords of Mitanni, and had asserted their supremacy over it.
+Dushratta, however, was able to defeat one of their chiefs. Repulsed on
+this side, they fell back upon that part of Naharaim lying between the
+Euphrates and Orontes, and made themselves masters of one town after
+another in spite of the despairing appeals of the conquered to the
+Theban king. From the accession of Khuniatonu, they set to work to annex
+the countries of Nukhassi, Nii, Tunipa, and Zinzauru: they looked with
+covetous eyes upon Phoenicia, and were already menacing Coele-Syria. The
+religious confusion in Egypt under Tutankhamon and Ai left them a free
+field for their ambitions, and when Harmhabi ventured to cross to the
+east of the isthmus, he found them definitely installed in the region
+stretching from the Mediterranean and the Lebanon to the Euphrates.
+Their then reigning prince, Sapalulu, appeared to have been the founder
+of a new dynasty: he united the forces of the country in a solid body,
+and was within a little of making a single state out of all Northern
+Syria.*
+
+
+* Sapalulu has the same name as that wo meet with later on in the
+country of Patin, in the time of Salmanasar III., viz. Sapalulme. It is
+known to us only from a treaty with the Khati, which makes him coeval
+with Ramses I.: it was with him probably that Harmhabi had to deal
+in his Syrian campaigns. The limit of his empire towards the south is
+gathered in a measure from what we know of the wars of Seti I. with the
+Khati.
+
+All Naharaim had submitted to him: Zahi, Alasia, and the Amurru had
+passed under his government from that of the Pharaohs; Carchemish,
+Tunipa, Nii, Hamath, figured among his royal cities, and Qodshu was the
+defence of his southern frontier. His progress towards the east was
+not less considerable. Mitanni, Arzapi, and the principalities of the
+Euphrates as far as the Balikh, possibly even to the Khabur,* paid him
+homage: beyond this, Assyria and Chaldaea barred his way. Here, as on
+his other frontiers, fortune brought him face to face with the most
+formidable powers of the Asiatic world.
+
+     * The text of the poem of Pentauirit mentions, among the
+     countries confederate with the Khati, all Naharaim; that is
+     to say, the country on either side of the Euphrates,
+     embracing Mitanni and the principalities named in the Amarna
+     correspondence, and in addition some provinces whose sites
+     have not yet been discovered, but which may be placed
+     without much risk of error to the north of the Taurus.
+
+The latter prince was obliged to capture Qodshu, and to conquer the
+people of the Lebanon. Had he sufficient forces at his disposal to
+triumph over them, or only enough to hold his ground? Both hypotheses
+could have been answered in the affirmative if each one of these great
+powers, confiding in its own resources, had attacked him separately.
+The Amorites, the people of Zahi, Alasia, and Naharaim, together with
+recruits from Hittite tribes, would then have put him in a position
+to resist, and even to carry off victory with a high hand in the final
+struggle. But an alliance between Assyria or Babylon and Thebes was
+always possible. There had been such things before, in the time of
+Thut-mosis IV. and in that of Amenothes III., but they were lukewarm
+agreements, and their effect was not much to boast of, for the two
+parties to the covenant had then no common enemy to deal with, and their
+mutual interests were not, therefore, bound up with their united action.
+The circumstances were very different now. The rapid growth of a nascent
+kingdom, the restless spirit of its people, its trespasses on domains in
+which the older powers had been accustomed to hold the upper hand,--did
+not all this tend to transform the convention, more commercial than
+military, with which up to this time they had been content, into an
+offensive and defensive treaty? If they decided to act in concert, how
+could Sapalulu or his successors, seeing that he was obliged to defend
+himself on two frontiers at the same moment, muster sufficient resources
+to withstand the double assault? The Hittites, as we know them more
+especially from the hieroglyphic inscriptions, might be regarded as the
+lords only of Northern Syria, and their power be measured merely by the
+extent of territory which they occupied to the south of the Taurus and
+on the two banks of the Middle Euphrates. But this does not by any means
+represent the real facts. This was but the half of their empire; the
+rest extended to the westward and northward, beyond the mountains into
+that region, known afterwards as Asia Minor, in which Egyptian tradition
+had from ancient times confused some twenty nations under the common
+vague epithet of Haui-nibu. Official language still employed it as a
+convenient and comprehensive term, but the voyages of the Phoenicians
+and the travels of the "Royal Messengers," as well as, probably, the
+maritime commerce of the merchants of the Delta, had taught the scribes
+for more than a century and a half to make distinctions among these
+nations which they had previously summed up in one. The Lufeu* were to
+be found there, as well as the Danauna,** the Shardana,*** and others
+besides, who lay behind one another on the coast. Of the second line of
+populations behind the region of the coast tribes, we have up to
+the present no means of knowing anything with certainty. Asia Minor,
+furthermore, is divided into two regions, so distinctly separated by
+nature as well as by races that one would be almost inclined to regard
+them as two countries foreign to each other.
+
+     * The Luku, Luka, are mentioned in the Amarna correspondence
+     under the form Lukki as pirates and highway robbers. The
+     identity of these people with the Lycians I hold as well
+     established.
+
+     ** The Danauna are mentioned along with the Luku in the
+     Amarna correspondence. The termination, _-auna, -ana_ of
+     this word appears to be the ending in -aon found in Asiatic
+     names like Lykaon by the side of Lykos, Kataon by the side
+     of Ketis and Kat-patuka; while the form of the name Danaos
+     is preserved in Greek legend, Danaon is found only on
+     Oriental monuments. The Danauna came "from their islands,"
+     that is to say, from the coasts of Asia Minor, or from
+     Greece, the term not being pressed too literally, as the
+     Egyptians were inclined to call all distant lands situated
+     to the north beyond the Mediterranean Sea "islands."
+
+     *** E. de Rouge and Chabas were inclined to identify the
+     Shardana with the Sardes and the island of Sardinia. Unger
+     made them out to be the Khartanoi of Libya, and was followed
+     by Brugsch. W. Max Mueller revived the hypotheses of De Rouge
+     and Chabas, and saw in them bands from the Italian island. I
+     am still persuaded, as I was twenty-five years ago, that
+     they were Asiatics--the Maeonian tribe which gave its name
+     to Sardis. The Serdani or Shardana are mentioned as serving
+     in the Egyptian Army in the Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+
+In its centre it consists of a well-defined undulating plain, having a
+gentle slope towards the Black Sea, and of the shape of a kind of convex
+trapezium, clearly bounded towards the north by the highlands of Pontus,
+and on the south by the tortuous chain of the Taurus. A line of low
+hills fringes the country on the west, from the Olympus of Mysia to the
+Taurus of Pisidia. Towards the east it is bounded by broken chains of
+mountains of unequal height, to which the name Anti-Taurus is not very
+appropriately applied. An immense volcanic cone, Mount Argseus, looks
+down from a height of some 13,000 feet over the wide isthmus which
+connects the country with the lands of the Euphrates. This volcano
+is now extinct, but it still preserved in old days something of its
+languishing energy, throwing out flames at intervals above the sacred
+forests which clothed its slopes. The rivers having their sources in the
+region just described, have not all succeeded in piercing the obstacles
+which separate them from the sea, but the Pyramus and the Sarus find
+their way into the Mediterranean and the Iris, Halys and Sangarios into
+the Euxine. The others flow into the lowlands, forming meres, marshes,
+and lakes of fluctuating extent. The largest of these lakes, called
+Tatta, is salt, and its superficial extent varies with the season. In
+brief, the plateau of this region is nothing but an extension of the
+highlands of Central Asia, and has the same vegetation, fauna, and
+climate, the same extremes of temperature, the same aridity, and the
+same wretched and poverty-stricken character as the latter. The maritime
+portions are of an entirely different aspect.
+
+[Illustration: 146.jpg Map]
+
+The western coast which stretches into the AEgean is furrowed by deep
+valleys, opening out as they reach the sea, and the rivers--the Caicus,
+the Hermos, the Cayster, and Meander--which flow through them are
+effective makers of soil, bringing down with them, as they do, a
+continual supply of alluvium, which, deposited at their mouths, causes
+the land to encroach there upon the sea. The littoral is penetrated here
+and there by deep creeks, and is fringed with beautiful islands--Lesbos,
+Chios, Samos, Cos, Rhodes--of which the majority are near enough to the
+continent to act as defences of the seaboard, and to guard the mouths of
+the rivers, while they are far enough away to be secure from the effects
+of any violent disturbances which might arise in the mainland. The
+Cyclades, distributed in two lines, are scattered, as it were, at hazard
+between Asia and Europe, like great blocks which have fallen around the
+piers of a broken bridge. The passage from one to the other is an easy
+matter, and owing to them, the sea rather serves to bring together the
+two continents than to divide them. Two groups of heights, imperfectly
+connected with the central plateau, tower above the AEgean slope--wooded
+Ida on the north, veiled in cloud, rich in the flocks and herds upon
+its sides, and in the metals within its bosom; and on the south, the
+volcanic bastions of Lycia, where tradition was wont to place the
+fire-breathing Chimaera. A rocky and irregularly broken coast stretches
+to the west of Lycia, in a line almost parallel with the Taurus, through
+which, at intervals, torrents leaping from the heights make their way
+into the sea. At the extreme eastern point of the coast, almost at the
+angle where the Cilician littoral meets that of Syria, the Pyramus and
+the Sarus have brought down between them sufficient material to form an
+alluvial plain, which the classical geographers designated by the name
+of the Level Cilicia, to distinguish it from the rough region of the
+interior, Gilicia Trachea.
+
+The populations dwelling in this peninsula belong to very varied races.
+On the south and south-west certain Semites had found an abode--the
+mysterious inhabitants of Solyma, and especially the Phoenicians in
+their scattered trading-stations. On the north-east, beside the Khati,
+distributed throughout the valleys of the Anti-Taurus, between
+the Euphrates and Mount Argseus, there were tribes allied to the
+Khati*--possibly at this time the Tabal and the Mushka--and, on the
+shores of the Black Sea, those workers in metal, which, following the
+Greeks, we may call, for want of a better designation, the Chalybes.
+
+
+     * A certain number of these tribes or of their towns are to
+     be found in the list contained in the treaty of Ramses II.
+     with the Khati.
+
+We are at a loss to know the distribution of tribes in the centre and
+in the north-west, but the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, we may rest
+assured, never formed an ethnographical frontier. The continents on
+either side of them appear at this point to form the banks of a river,
+or the two slopes of a single valley, whose bottom lies buried beneath
+the waters. The barbarians of the Balkans had forced their way across at
+several points. Dardanians were to be encountered in the neighbourhood
+of Mount Ida, as well as on the banks of the Axios, from early times,
+and the Kebrenes of Macedonia had colonised a district of the Troad near
+Ilion, while the great nation of the Mysians had issued, like them,
+from the European populations of the Hebrus and the Strymon. The hero
+Dardanos, according to legend, had at first founded, under the auspices
+of the Idasan Zeus, the town of Dardania; and afterwards a portion
+of his progeny followed the course of the Scamander, and entrenched
+themselves upon a precipitous hill, from the top of which they could
+look far and wide over the plain and sea. The most ancient Ilion, at
+first a village, abandoned on more than one occasion in the course of
+centuries, was rebuilt and transformed, earlier than the XVth century
+before Christ, into an important citadel, the capital of a warlike
+and prosperous kingdom. The ruins on the spot prove the existence of
+a primitive civilization analogous to that of the islands of the
+Archipelago before the arrival of the Phoenician navigators. We find
+that among both, at the outset, flint and bone, clay, baked and unbaked,
+formed the only materials for their utensils and furniture; metals were
+afterwards introduced, and we can trace their progressive employment
+to the gradual exclusion of the older implements. These ancient Trojans
+used copper, and we encounter only rarely a kind of bronze, in which the
+proportion of tin was too slight to give the requisite hardness to the
+alloy, and we find still fewer examples of iron and lead. They were
+fairly adroit workers in silver, electrum, and especially in gold. The
+amulets, cups, necklaces, and jewellery discovered in their tombs or in
+the ruins of their houses, are sometimes of a not ungraceful form. Their
+pottery was made by hand, and was not painted or varnished, but they
+often gave to it a fine lustre by means of a stone-polisher. Other
+peoples of uncertain origin, but who had attained a civilization as
+advanced as that of the Trojans, were the Maeonians, the Leleges, and
+the Carians who had their abode to the south of Troy and of the Mysians.
+The Maeonians held sway in the fertile valleys of the Hermos, Cayster,
+and Maaander. They were divided into several branches, such as the
+Lydians, the Tyrseni, the Torrhebi, and the Shardana, but their most
+ancient traditions looked back with pride to a flourishing state to
+which, as they alleged, they had all belonged long ago on the slopes of
+Mount Sipylos, between the valley of the Hermos and the Gulf of Smyrna.
+The traditional capital of this kingdom was Magnesia, the most ancient
+of cities, the residence of Tantalus, the father of Niobe and the
+Pelopidae. The Leleges rise up before us from many points at the same
+time, but always connected with the most ancient memories of Greece and
+Asia. The majority of the strongholds on the Trojan coast belonged to
+them--such as Antandros and Gargara--and Pedasos on the Satniois boasted
+of having been one of their colonies, while several other towns of the
+same name, but very distant from each other, enable us to form some idea
+of the extent of their migrations.*
+
+     * According to the scholiast on Nicander, the word "Pedasos"
+     signified "mountain," probably in the language of the
+     Leleges. We know up to the present of four Pedasi, or
+     Pedasa: the first in Messenia, which later on took the name
+     of Methone; the second in the Troad, on the banks of the
+     Satniois; the third in the neighbourhood of Cyzicus; and the
+     fourth in Caria.
+
+In the time of Strabo, ruined tombs and deserted sites of cities were
+shown in Caria which the natives regarded as Lelegia--that is, abode
+of the Leleges. The Carians were dominant in the southern angle of the
+peninsula and in the AEgean Islands; and the Lycians lay next them on the
+east, and were sometimes confounded with them. One of the most powerful
+tribes of the Carians, the Tremilse, were in the eyes of the Greeks
+hardly to be separated from the mountainous district which they knew
+as Lycia proper; while other tribes extended as far as the Halys. A
+district of the Troad, to the south of Mount Ida, was called Lycia, and
+there was a Lycaonia on both sides of the Middle Taurus; while Attica
+had its Lycia, and Crete its Lycians. These three nations--the Lycians,
+Carians, and Leleges--were so entangled together from their origin, that
+no one would venture now to trace the lines of demarcation between
+them, and we are often obliged to apply to them collectively what can be
+appropriately ascribed to only one.
+
+How far the Hittite power extended in the first years of its expansion
+we have now hardly the means of knowing. It would appear that it
+took within its scope, on the south-west, the Cilician plain, and the
+undulating region bordering on it--that of Qodi: the prince of the
+latter district, if not his vassal, was at least the colleague of the
+King of the Khati, and he acted in concert with him in peace as well as
+in war.*
+
+     * The country of Qidi, Qadi, Qodi, has been connected by
+     Chabas with Galilee, and Brugsch adopted the identification.
+     W. Max Mueller identified it with Phoenicia. I think the
+     name served to designate the Cilician coast and plain from
+     the mouth of the Orontes, and the country which was known in
+     the Graeco-Roman period by the name Ketis and Kataonia.
+
+It embraced also the upper basin of the Pyramos and its affluents, as
+well as the regions situated between the Euphrates and the Halys, but
+its frontier in this direction was continually fluctuating, and our
+researches fail to follow it. It is somewhat probable that it extended
+considerably towards the west and north-west in the direction of the
+AEgean Sea. The forests and escarpments of Lycaonia, and the desolate
+steppes of the central plateau, have always presented a barrier
+difficult to surmount by any invader from the east. If the Khati at that
+period attacked it in front, or by a flank movement, the assault must
+rather have been of the nature of a hurried reconnaissance, or of a
+raid, than of a methodically conducted campaign.*
+
+     * The idea of a Hittite empire extending over almost all
+     Asia Minor was advanced by Sayce.
+
+They must have preferred to obtain possession of the valleys of the
+Thermodon and the Iris, which were rich in mineral wealth, and from
+which they could have secured an inexhaustible revenue. The extraction
+and working of metals in this region had attracted thither from time
+immemorial merchants from neighbouring and distant countries--at first
+from the south to supply the needs of Syria, Chaldaea, and Egypt, then
+from the west for the necessities of the countries on the AEgean. The
+roads, which, starting from the archipelago on the one hand, or the
+Euphrates on the other, met at this point, fell naturally into one, and
+thus formed a continuous route, along which the caravans of commerce, as
+well as warlike expeditions, might henceforward pass. Starting from the
+cultivated regions of Maeonia, the road proceeded up the valley of the
+Hermos from west to east; then, scaling the heights of the central
+plateau and taking a direction more and more to the north-east, it
+reached the fords of the Halys. Crossing this river twice--for the first
+time at a point about two-thirds the length of its course, and for
+the second at a short distance from its source--it made an abrupt turn
+towards the Taurus, and joined, at Melitene, the routes leading to the
+Upper Tigris, to Nisibis, to Singara, and to Old Assur, and connecting
+further down beyond the mountainous region, under the walls of
+Carchemish, with the roads which led to the Nile and to the river-side
+cities on the Persian Gulf.*
+
+     * The very early existence of this road, which partly
+     coincides with the royal route of the Persian Achemenids,
+     was proved by Kiepert.
+
+There were other and shorter routes, if we think only of the number of
+miles, from the Hermos in Pisidia or Lycaonia, across the central
+steppe and through the Cilician Gates, to the meeting of the ways at
+Carchemish; but they led through wretched regions, without industries,
+almost without tillage, and inhospitable alike to man and beast, and
+they were ventured on only by those who aimed at trafficking among the
+populations who lived in their neighbourhood. The Khati, from the time
+even when they were enclosed among the fastnesses of the Taurus, had
+within their control the most important section of the great land route
+which served to maintain regular relations between the ancient kingdoms
+of the east and the rising states of the AEgean, and whosoever would pass
+through their country had to pay them toll. The conquest of Naharaim, in
+giving them control of a new section, placed almost at their discretion
+the whole traffic between Chaldaea and Egypt. From the time of Thutmosis
+III. caravans employed in this traffic accomplished the greater part
+of their journey in territories depending upon Babylon, Assyria, or
+Memphis, and enjoyed thus a relative security; the terror of the Pharaoh
+protected the travellers even when they were no longer in his domains,
+and he saved them from the flagrant exactions made upon them by princes
+who called themselves his brothers, or were actually his vassals. But
+the time had now come when merchants had to encounter, between Qodshu
+and the banks of the Khabur, a sovereign owing no allegiance to any one,
+and who would tolerate no foreign interference in his territory. From
+the outbreak of hostilities with the Khati, Egypt could communicate
+with the cities of the Lower Euphrates only by the Wadys of the Arabian
+Desert, which were always dangerous and difficult for large convoys; and
+its commercial relations with Chaldaea were practically brought thus to a
+standstill, and, as a consequence, the manufactures which fed this trade
+being reduced to a limited production, the fiscal receipts arising from
+it experienced a sensible diminution. When peace was restored, matters
+fell again into their old groove, with certain reservations to the Khati
+of some common privileges: Egypt, which had formerly possessed these to
+her own advantage, now bore the burden of them, and the indirect tribute
+which she paid in this manner to her rivals furnished them with arms
+to fight her in case she should endeavour to free herself from the
+imposition. All the semi-barbaric peoples of the peninsula of Asia Minor
+were of an adventurous and warlike temperament. They were always willing
+to set out on an expedition, under the leadership of some chief of noble
+family or renowned for valour; sometimes by sea in their light craft,
+which would bring them unexpectedly to the nearest point of the Syrian
+coast, sometimes by land in companies of foot-soldiers and charioteers.
+They were frequently fortunate enough to secure plenty of booty, and
+return with it to their homes safe and sound; but as frequently they
+would meet with reverses by falling into some ambuscade: in such a case
+their conqueror would not put them to the sword or sell them as slaves,
+but would promptly incorporate them into his army, thus making his
+captives into his soldiers. The King of the Khati was able to make use
+of them without difficulty, for his empire was conterminous on the
+west and north with some of their native lands, and he had often whole
+regiments of them in his army--Mysians, Lycians, people of Augarit,* of
+Ilion,** and of Pedasos.***
+
+     * The country of Augarit, Ugarit, is mentioned on several
+     occasions in the Tel el-Amarna correspondence. The name has
+     been wrongly associated with Caria; it has been placed by W.
+     Max Miiller well within Naharaim, to the east of the
+     Orontes, between Khalybon (Aleppo) and Apamoea, the writer
+     confusing it with Akaiti, named in the campaign of Amenothes
+     II. I am not sure about the site, but its association in the
+     Amarna letters with Gugu and Khanigalbat inclines me to
+     place it beyond the northern slopes of the Taurus, possibly
+     on the banks of the Halys or of the Upper Euphrates.
+
+     ** The name of this people was read Eiuna by Champollion,
+     who identified it with the Ionians; this reading and
+     identification were adopted by Lenormant and by W. Max
+     Mueller. Chabas hesitates between Eiuna and Maiuna, Ionia and
+     Moonia and Brugsch read it Malunna. The reading Iriuna,
+     Iliuna, seems to me the only possible one, and the
+     identification with Ilion as well.
+
+     *** Owing to its association with the Dardanians, Mysians,
+     and Ilion, I think it answers to the Pedasos on the Satniois
+     near Troy.
+
+The revenue of the provinces taken from Egypt, and the products of his
+tolls, furnished him with abundance of means for obtaining recruits from
+among them.*
+
+All these things contributed to make the power of the Khati so
+considerable, that Harmhabi, when he had once tested it, judged it
+prudent not to join issues with them. He concluded with Sapalulu
+a treaty of peace and friendship, which, leaving the two powers in
+possession respectively of the territory each then occupied, gave legal
+sanction to the extension of the sphere of the Khati at the expense
+of Egypt.** Syria continued to consist of two almost equal parts,
+stretching from Byblos to the sources of the Jordan and Damascus:
+the northern portion, formerly tributary to Egypt, became a Hittite
+possession; while the southern, consisting of Phoenicia and Canaan,***
+which the Pharaoh had held for a long time with a more effective
+authority, and had more fully occupied, was retained for Egypt.
+
+     * E. de Rouge and the Egyptologists who followed him thought
+     at first that the troops designated in the Egyptian texts as
+     Lycians, Mysians, Dardanians, were the national armies of
+     these nations, each one commanded by its king, who had
+     hastened from Asia Minor to succour their ally the King of
+     the Khati. I now think that those were bands of adventurers,
+     consisting of soldiers belonging to these nations, who came
+     to put themselves at the service of civilized monarchs, as
+     the Oarians, Ionians, and the Greeks of various cities did
+     later on: the individuals whom the texts mention as their
+     princes were not the kings of these nations, but the warrior
+     chiefs to which each band gave obedience.
+
+     ** It is not certain that Harmhabi was the Pharaoh with whom
+     Sapalulu entered into treaty, and it might be insisted with
+     some reason that Ramses I. was the party to it on the side
+     of Egypt; but this hypothesis is rendered less probable by
+     the fact of the extremely short reign of the latter Pharaoh.
+     I am inclined to think, as W. Max Miiller has supposed, that
+     the passage in the _Treaty of Ramses II. with the Prince of
+     the Khati,_ which speaks of a treaty concluded with
+     Sapalulu, looks back to the time of Ramses II.'s
+     predecessor, Harmhabi.
+
+     *** This follows from the situation of the two empires, as
+     indicated in the account of the campaign of Seti I. in his
+     first year. The king, after having defeated the nomads of
+     the Arabian desert, passed on without further fighting into
+     the country of the Amurru and the regions of the Lebanon,
+     which fact seems to imply the submission of Kharu. W. Max
+     Miiller was the first to* discern clearly this part of the
+     history of Egyptian conquest; he appears, however, to have
+     circumscribed somewhat too strictly the dominion of Harmhabi
+     in assigning Carmel as its limit. The list of the nations of
+     the north who yielded, or are alleged to have yielded,
+     submission to Harmhabi, were traced on the first pylon of
+     this monarch at Karnak, and on its adjoining walls. Among
+     others, the names of the Khati and of Arvad are to be read
+     there.
+
+This could have been but a provisional arrangement: if Thebes had
+not altogether renounced the hope of repossessing some day the lost
+conquests of Thutmosis III., the Khati, drawn by the same instinct which
+had urged them to cross their frontiers towards the south, were not
+likely to be content with less than the expulsion of the Egyptians
+from Syria, and the absorption of the whole country into the Hittite
+dominion. Peace was maintained during Harmhabi's lifetime. We know
+nothing of Egyptian affairs during the last years of his reign. His rule
+may have come to an end owing to some court intrigue, or he may have had
+no male heir to follow him.* Ramses, who succeeded him, did not belong
+to the royal line, or was only remotely connected with it.**
+
+     * It would appear, from an Ostracon in the British Museum,
+     that the year XXI. follows after the year VII. of Harmhabi's
+     reign; it is possible that the year XXI. may belong to one
+     of Harmhabi's successors, Seti I. or Ramses II., for
+     example.
+
+     ** The efforts to connect Ramses I. with a family of Semitic
+     origin, possibly the Shepherd-kings themselves, have not
+     been successful. Everything goes to prove that the Ramses
+     family was, and considered itself to be, of Egyptian origin.
+     Brugsch and Ed. Meyer were inclined to see in Ramses I. a
+     younger brother of Harmhabi. This hypothesis has nothing
+     either for Or against it up to the present.
+
+He was already an old man when he ascended the throne, and we ought
+perhaps to identify him with one or other of the Ramses who flourished
+under the last Pharaohs of the XVIIIth dynasty, perhaps the one who
+governed Thebes under Khuniatonu, or another, who began but never
+finished his tomb in the hillside above Tel el-Amarna, in the
+burying-place of the worshippers of the Disk.
+
+[Illustration: 160.jpg RAMSES I.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch in Rosellini.
+
+He had held important offices under Harmhabi,* and had obtained in
+marriage for his son Seti the hand of Tuia, who, of all the royal
+family, possessed the strongest rights to the crown.**
+
+     * This Tel el-Amarna Ramses is, perhaps, identical with the
+     Theban one: he may have followed his master to his new
+     capital, and have had a tomb dug for himself there, which he
+     subsequently abandoned, on the death of Khuniatonu, in order
+     to return to Thebes with Tutankhamon and Ai.
+
+     ** The fact that the marriage was celebrated under the
+     auspices of Harmhabi, and that, consequently, Ramses must
+     have occupied an important position at the court of that
+     prince, is proved by the appearance of Ramses II., son of
+     Tuia, as early as the first year of Seti, among the ranks of
+     the combatants in the war carried on by that prince against
+     the Tihonu; even granting that he was then ten years old, we
+     are forced to admit that he must have been born before his
+     grandfather came to the throne. There is in the Vatican a
+     statue of Tuia; other statues have been discovered at San.
+
+Ramses reigned only six or seven years, and associated Seti with himself
+in the government from his second year. He undertook a short military
+expedition into Ethiopia, and perhaps a raid into Syria; and we find
+remains of his monuments in Nubia, at Bohani near Wady Haifa, and at
+Thebes, in the temple of Amon.*
+
+     * He began the great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak; E. de Rouge
+     thinks that the idea of building this was first conceived
+     under the XVIIIth dynasty.
+
+He displayed little activity, his advanced age preventing him from
+entering on any serious undertaking: but his accession nevertheless
+marks an important date in the history of Egypt. Although Harmhabi was
+distantly connected with the line of the Ahmessides, it is difficult
+at the present day to know what position to assign him in the Pharaonic
+lists: while some regard him as the last of the XVIIIth dynasty, others
+prefer to place him at the head of the XIXth. No such hesitation,
+however, exists with regard to Ramses I., who was undoubtedly the
+founder of a new family. The old familiar names of Thutmosis and
+Amenothes henceforward disappear from the royal lists, and are replaced
+by others, such as Seti, Minephtah, and, especially, Ramses, which now
+figure in them for the first time. The princes who bore these names
+showed themselves worthy successors of those who had raised Egypt to the
+zenith of her power; like them they were successful on the battle-field,
+and like them they devoted the best of the spoil to building innumerable
+monuments. No sooner had Seti celebrated his father's obsequies, than he
+assembled his army and set out for war.
+
+It would appear that Southern Syria was then in open revolt. "Word had
+been brought to His Majesty: 'The vile Shausu have plotted rebellion;
+the chiefs of their tribes, assembled in one place on the confines of
+Kharu, have been smitten with blindness and with the spirit of violence;
+every one cutteth his neighbour's throat."* It was imperative to send
+succour to the few tribes who remained faithful, to prevent them from
+succumbing to the repeated attacks of the insurgents. Seti crossed the
+frontier at Zalu, but instead of pursuing his way along the coast, he
+marched due east in order to attack the Shausu in the very heart of the
+desert. The road ran through wide wadys, tolerably well supplied
+with water, and the length of the stages necessarily depended on the
+distances between the wells. This route was one frequented in early
+times, and its security was ensured by a number of fortresses and
+isolated towers built along it, such as "The House of the Lion "--_ta
+ait pa mau_--near the pool of the same name, the Migdol of the springs
+of Huzina, the fortress of Uazit, the Tower of the Brave, and the Migdol
+of Seti at the pools of Absakaba. The Bedawin, disconcerted by the
+rapidity of this movement, offered no serious resistance. Their flocks
+were carried off, their trees cut down, their harvests destroyed, and
+they surrendered their strongholds at discretion. Pushing on from
+one halting-place to another, the conqueror soon reached Babbiti, and
+finally Pakanana.**
+
+     * The pictures of this campaign and the inscriptions which
+     explain them were engraved by Seti I., on the outside of the
+     north wall of the great hypostyle hall at Karnak.
+
+     ** The site of Pakanana has, with much probability, been
+     fixed at El-Kenan or Khurbet-Kanaan, to the south of Hebron.
+     Brugsch had previously taken this name to indicate the
+     country of Canaan, but Chabas rightly contested this view.
+     W. Max Millier took up the matter afresh: he perceived that
+     we have here an allusion to the first town encountered by
+     Seti I. in the country of Canaan to the south-west of
+     Raphia, the name of which is not mentioned by the Egyptian
+     sculptor; it seems to me that this name should be Pakanana,
+     and that the town bore the same name as the country.
+
+The latter town occupied a splendid position on the slope of a rocky
+hill, close to a small lake, and defended the approaches to the vale
+of Hebron. It surrendered at the first attack, and by its fall the
+Egyptians became possessed of one of the richest provinces in the
+southern part of Kharu. This result having been achieved, Seti took
+the caravan road to his left, on the further side of Gaza, and pushed
+forward at full speed towards the Hittite frontier.
+
+[Illustration: 163.jpg THE RETURN OF THE NORTH WALL OF THE HYPOSTYLE
+HALL AT KARNAK, WHERE SETI I. REPRESENTS SOME EPISODES IN HIS FIRST
+CAMPAIGN]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph, by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+It was probably unprotected by any troops, and the Hittite king was
+absent in some other part of his empire. Seti pillaged the Amurru,
+seized Ianuamu and Qodshu by a sudden attack, marched in an oblique
+direction towards the Mediterranean, forcing the inhabitants of the
+Lebanon to cut timber from their mountains for the additions which he
+was premeditating in the temple of the Theban Amon, and finally returned
+by the coast road, receiving, as he passed through their territory, the
+homage of the Phoenicians. His entry into Egypt was celebrated by solemn
+festivities. The nobles, priests, and princes of both south and north
+hastened to meet him at the bridge of Zalu, and welcomed, with their
+chants, both the king and the troops of captives whom he was bringing
+back for the service of his father Amon at Karnak. The delight of his
+subjects was but natural, since for many years the Egyptians bad not
+witnessed such a triumph, and they no doubt believed that the prosperous
+era of Thutmosis III. was about to return, and that the wealth of
+Naharaim would once more flow into Thebes as of old. Their illusion
+was short-lived, for this initial victory was followed by no other.
+Maurusaru, King of the Khati, and subsequently his son Mautallu,
+withstood the Pharaoh with such resolution that he was forced to treat
+with them. A new alliance was concluded on the same conditions as the
+old one, and the boundaries of the two kingdoms remained the same as
+under Harmhabi, a proof that neither sovereign had gained any advantage
+over his rival. Hence the campaign did not in any way restore Egyptian
+supremacy, as had been hoped at the moment; it merely served to
+strengthen her authority in those provinces which the Khati had failed
+to take from Egypt. The Phoenicians of Tyre and Sidon had too many
+commercial interests on the banks of the Nile to dream of breaking
+the slender tie which held them to the Pharaoh, since independence,
+or submission to another sovereign, might have ruined their trade. The
+Kharu and the Bedawin, vanquished wherever they had ventured to oppose
+the Pharaoh's troops, were less than ever capable of throwing off the
+Egyptian yoke. Syria fell back into its former state. The local princes
+once more resumed their intrigues and quarrels, varied at intervals by
+appeals to their suzerain for justice or succour. The "Royal Messengers"
+appeared from time to time with their escorts of archers and chariots
+to claim tribute, levy taxes, to make peace between quarrelsome vassals,
+or, if the case required it, to supersede some insubordinate chief by a
+governor of undoubted loyalty; in fine, the entire administration of the
+empire was a continuation of that of the preceding century. The peoples
+of Kush meanwhile had remained quiet during the campaign in Syria, and
+on the western frontier the Tihonu had suffered so severe a defeat that
+they were not likely to recover from it for some time.* The bands of
+pirates, Shardana and others, who infested the Delta, were hunted down,
+and the prisoners taken from among them were incorporated into the royal
+guard.**
+
+     * This war is represented at Karnak, and Ramses II. figures
+     there among the children of Seti I.
+
+     ** We gather this from passages in the inscriptions from the
+     year V. onwards, in which Ramses II. boasts that he has a
+     number of Shardana prisoners in his guard; Rouge was,
+     perhaps, mistaken in magnifying these piratical raids into a
+     war of invasion.
+
+[Illustration: 166.jpg REPRESENTATION OF SETI I. VANQUISHING THE LIBYANS
+AND ASIATICS ON THE WALLS, KARNAK]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Ernil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+Seti, however, does not appear to have had a confirmed taste for war.
+He showed energy when occasion required it, and he knew how to lead his
+soldiers, as the expedition of his first year amply proved; but when the
+necessity was over, he remained on the defensive, and made no further
+attempt at conquest. By his own choice he was "the jackal who prowls
+about the country to protect it," rather than "the wizard lion marauding
+abroad by hidden paths,"* and Egypt enjoyed a profound peace in
+consequence of his ceaseless vigilance.
+
+     * These phrases are taken direct from the inscriptions of
+     Seti I.
+
+A peaceful policy of this kind did not, of course, produce the amount
+of spoil and the endless relays of captives which had enabled his
+predecessors to raise temples and live in great luxury without
+overburdening their subjects with taxes. Seti was, therefore, the more
+anxious to do all in his power to develop the internal wealth of the
+country. The mining colonies of the Sinaitic Peninsula had never ceased
+working since operations had been resumed there under Hatshopsitu and
+Thutmosis III., but the output had lessened during the troubles under
+the heretic kings. Seti sent inspectors thither, and endeavoured to
+stimulate the workmen to their former activity, but apparently with no
+great success. We are not able to ascertain if he continued the revival
+of trade with Puanit inaugurated by Harmhabi; but at any rate he
+concentrated his attention on the regions bordering the Red Sea and the
+gold-mines which they contained. Those of Btbai, which had been worked
+as early as the XIIth dynasty, did not yield as much as they had done
+formerly; not that they were exhausted, but owing to the lack of water
+in their neighbourhood and along the routes leading to them, they were
+nearly deserted. It was well known that they contained great wealth,
+but operations could not be carried on, as the workmen were in danger
+of dying of thirst. Seti despatched engineers to the spot to explore the
+surrounding wadys, to clear the ancient cisterns or cut others, and
+to establish victualling stations at regular intervals for the use of
+merchants supplying the gangs of miners with commodities. These stations
+generally consisted of square or rectangular enclosures, built of
+stones without mortar, and capable of resisting a prolonged attack. The
+entrance was by a narrow doorway of stone slabs, and in the interior
+were a few huts and one or two reservoirs for catching rain or storing
+the water of neighbouring springs. Sometimes a chapel was built close at
+hand, consecrated to the divinities of the desert, or to their compeers,
+Minu of Coptos, Horus, Maut, or Isis. One of these, founded by Seti,
+still exists near the modern town of Redesieh, at the entrance to one of
+the valleys which furrow this gold region.
+
+[Illustration: 168.jpg A FORTIFIED STATION ON THE ROUTE BETWEEN THE NILE
+AND THE RED SEA.
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Bock
+
+It is built against, and partly excavated in, a wall of rock, the
+face of which has been roughly squared, and it is entered through a
+four-columned portico, giving access to two dark chambers, whose walls
+are covered with scenes of adoration and a lengthy inscription. In this
+latter the sovereign relates how, in the IXth year of his reign, he
+was moved to inspect the roads of the desert; he completed the work in
+honour of Amon-Ra, of Phtah of Memphis, and of Harmakhis, and he states
+that travellers were at a loss to express their gratitude and thanks for
+what he had done. "They repeated from mouth to mouth: 'May Amon give him
+an endless existence, and may he prolong for him the length of eternity!
+O ye gods of fountains, attribute to him your life, for he has rendered
+back to us accessible roads, and he has opened that which was closed to
+us. Henceforth we can take our way in peace, and reach our destination
+alive; now that the difficult paths are open and the road has become
+good, gold can be brought back, as our lord and master has commanded.'"
+Plans were drawn on papyrus of the configuration of the district, of the
+beds of precious metal, and of the position of the stations.
+
+[Illustration: 169.jpg THE TEMPLE OF SETI I. AT REDESIEH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Golenischeff.
+
+One of these plans has come down to us, in which the districts are
+coloured bright red, the mountains dull ochre, the roads dotted
+over with footmarks to show the direction to be taken, while the
+superscriptions give the local names, and inform us that the map
+represents the Bukhni mountain and a fortress and stele of Seti. The
+whole thing is executed in a rough and naive manner, with an almost
+childish minuteness which provokes a smile; we should, however, not
+despise it, for it is the oldest map in the world.
+
+[Illustration: 170.jpg FRAGMENT OF THE MAP OF THE GOLD-MINES]
+
+     Facsimile by Faucher-Gudin of coloured chalk-drawing by Chabas.
+
+The gold extracted from these regions, together with that brought
+from Ethiopia, and, better still, the regular payment of taxes and
+custom-house duties, went to make up for the lack of foreign spoil all
+the more opportunely, for, although the sovereign did not share the
+military enthusiasm of Thutmosis III., he had inherited from him the
+passion for expensive temple-building.
+
+[Illustration: 171.jpg THE THREE STANDING COLUMNS OF THE TEMPLE OF
+SESEBI]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+He did not neglect Nubia in this respect, but repaired several of
+the monuments at which the XVIIIth dynasty had worked--among others,
+Kalabsheh, Dakkeh, and Amada, besides founding a temple at Sesebi, of
+which three columns are still standing.*
+
+     * In Lepsius's time there were still four columns standing;
+     Insinger shows us only three.
+
+The outline of these columns is not graceful, and the decoration of them
+is very poor, for art degenerated rapidly in these distant provinces of
+the empire, and only succeeded in maintaining its vigour and spirit in
+the immediate neighbourhood of the Pharaoh, as at Abydos, Memphis, and
+above all at Thebes. Seti's predecessor Ramses, desirous of obliterating
+all traces of the misfortunes lately brought about by the changes
+effected by the heretic kings, had contemplated building at Karnak,
+in front of the pylon of Amenothes III., an enormous hall for the
+ceremonies connected with the cult of Amon, where the immense numbers of
+priests and worshippers at festival times could be accommodated without
+inconvenience. It devolved on Seti to carry out what had been merely an
+ambitious dream of his father's.*
+
+     * The great hypostyle hall was cleared and the columns were
+     strengthened in the winter of 1895-6, as far, at least, as
+     it was possible to carry out the work of restoration without
+     imperilling the stability of the whole.
+
+We long to know who was the architect possessed of such confidence in
+his powers that he ventured to design, and was able to carry out, this
+almost superhuman undertaking. His name would be held up to almost
+universal admiration beside those of the greatest masters that we are
+familiar with, for no one in Greece or Italy has left us any work which
+surpasses it, or which with such simple means could produce a similar
+impression of boldness and immensity. It is almost impossible to convey
+by words to those who have not seen it, the impression which it makes on
+the spectator. Failing description, the dimensions speak for themselves.
+The hall measures one hundred and sixty-two feet in length, by three
+hundred and twenty-five in breadth. A row of twelve columns, the largest
+ever placed inside a building, runs up the centre, having capitals in
+the form of inverted bells.
+
+[Illustration: 173 AN AVENUE OF ONE OF THE AISLES OF THE HYPOSTYLE HALL
+AT KARNAK]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+One hundred and twenty-two columns with lotiform capitals fill
+the aisles, in rows of nine each. The roof of the central bay is
+seventy-four feet above the ground, and the cornice of the two towers
+rises sixty-three feet higher. The building was dimly lighted from the
+roof of the central colonnade by means of stone gratings, through
+which the air and the sun's rays entered sparingly. The daylight, as it
+penetrated into the hall, was rendered more and more obscure by the rows
+of columns; indeed, at the further end a perpetual twilight must have
+reigned, pierced by narrow shafts of light falling from the ventilation
+holes which were placed at intervals in the roof.
+
+[Illustration: 174.jpg THE GRATINGS OF THE CENTRAL COLONNADE IN THE
+HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato. In the
+     background, on the right, may be seen a column which for
+     several centuries has been retained in a half-fallen
+     position by the weight of its architrave.
+
+The whole building now lies open to the sky, and the sunshine which
+floods it, pitilessly reveals the mutilations which it has suffered in
+the course of ages; but the general effect, though less mysterious, is
+none the less overwhelming. It is the only monument in which the first
+_coup d'oil_ surpasses the expectations of the spectator instead of
+disappointing him. The size is immense, and we realise its immensity the
+more fully as we search our memory in vain to find anything with which
+to compare it. Seti may have entertained the project of building a
+_replica_ of this hall in Southern Thebes. Amenothes III. had left his
+temple at Luxor unfinished. The sanctuary and its surrounding buildings
+were used for purposes of worship, but the court of the customary pylon
+was wanting, and merely a thin wall concealed the mysteries from the
+sight of the vulgar. Seti resolved to extend the building in a northerly
+direction, without interfering with the thin screen which had satisfied
+his predecessors. Starting from the entrance in this wall, he planned an
+avenue of giant columns rivalling those of Karnak, which he destined to
+become the central colonnade of a hypostyle hall as vast as that of
+the sister temple. Either money or time was lacking to carry out his
+intention. He died before the aisles on either side were even begun. At
+Abydos, however, he was more successful. We do not know the reason
+of Seti's particular affection for this town; it is possible that his
+family held some fief there, or it may be that he desired to show the
+peculiar estimation in which he held its local god, and intended, by the
+homage that he lavished on him, to cause the fact to be forgotten that
+he bore the name of Sit the accursed.
+
+[Illustration: 176.jpg ONE OF THE COLONNADES OF THE HYPOSTYLE HALL IN
+THE TEMPLE OF SETI I. AT ABYDOS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+The king selected a favourable site for his temple to the south of the
+town, on the slope of a sandhill bordering the canal, and he marked
+out in the hardened soil a ground plan of considerable originality. The
+building was approached through two pylons, the remains of which are now
+hidden under the houses of Aarabat el-Madfuneh.
+
+[Illustration: 176b.jpg THE FACADE OF THE TEMPLE OF SETI]
+
+A fairly large courtyard, bordered by two crumbling walls, lies between
+the second pylon and the temple facade, which was composed of a portico
+resting on square pillars. Passing between these, we reach two halls
+supported by-columns of graceful outline, beyond which are eight chapels
+arranged in a line, side by side, in front of two chambers built in
+to the hillside, and destined for the reception of Osiris. The holy
+of holies in ordinary temples is surrounded by chambers of lesser
+importance, but here it is concealed behind them. The building-material
+mainly employed here was the white limestone of Turah, but of a most
+beautiful quality, which lent itself to the execution of bas-reliefs
+of great delicacy, perhaps the finest in ancient Egypt. The artists who
+carved and painted them belonged to the Theban school, and while their
+subjects betray a remarkable similarity to those of the monuments
+dedicated by Amenothes III., the execution surpasses them in freedom and
+perfection of modelling; we can, in fact, trace in them the influence of
+the artists who furnished the drawings for the scenes at Tel el-Amarna.
+They have represented the gods and goddesses with the same type
+of profile as that of the king--a type of face of much purity and
+gentleness, with its aquiline nose, its decided mouth, almond-shaped
+eyes, and melancholy smile. When the decoration of the temple was
+completed, Seti regarded the building as too small for its divine
+inmate, and accordingly added to it a new wing, which he built along
+the whole length of the southern wall; but he was unable to finish
+it completely. Several parts of it are lined with religious
+representations, but in others the subjects have been merely sketched
+out in black ink with corrections in red, while elsewhere the walls
+are bare, except for a few inscriptions, scribbled over them after an
+interval of twenty centuries by the monks who turned the temple chambers
+into a convent. This new wing was connected with the second hypostyle
+hall of the original building by a passage, on one of the walls of which
+is a list of seventy-five royal names, representing the ancestors of the
+sovereign traced back to Mini. The whole temple must be regarded as a
+vast funerary chapel, and no one who has studied the religion of Egypt
+can entertain a doubt as to its purpose. Abydos was the place where the
+dead assembled before passing into the other world. It was here, at the
+mouth of the "Cleft," that they received the provisions and offerings
+of their relatives and friends who remained on this earth. As the dead
+flocked hither from all quarters of the world, they collected round the
+tomb of Osiris, and there waited till the moment came to embark on the
+Boat of the Sun. Seti did not wish his soul to associate with those of
+the common crowd of his vassals, and prepared this temple for himself,
+as a separate resting-place, close to the mouth of Hades. After having
+dwelt within it for a short time subsequent to his funeral, his soul
+could repair thither whenever it desired, certain of always finding
+within it the incense and the nourishment of which it stood in need.
+
+Thebes possessed this king's actual tomb. The chapel was at Qurnah, a
+little to the north of the group of pyramids in which the Pharaohs of
+the XIth dynasty lay side by side with those of the XIIIth and XVIIth.
+Ramses had begun to build it, and Seti continued the work, dedicating
+it to the cult of his father and of himself. Its pylon has altogether
+disappeared, but the facade with lotus-bud columns is nearly perfect,
+together with several of the chambers in front of the sanctuary. The
+decoration is as carefully carried out and the execution as delicate as
+that in the work at Abydos; we are tempted to believe from one or two
+examples of it that the same hands have worked at both buildings.
+
+[Illustration: 181.jpg THE TEMPLE OF QURNAH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+The rock-cut tomb is some distance away up in the mountain, but not
+in the same ravine as that in which Amenothes III., Ai, and probably
+Tutankhamon and Harmhabi, are buried.*
+
+     * There are, in fact, close to those of Ai and Amenothes
+     III., three other tombs, two at least of which have been
+     decorated with paintings, now completely obliterated, and
+     which may have served as the burying-places of Tutankhamon
+     and Harmhabi: the earlier Egyptologists believed them to
+     have been dug by the first kings of the XVIIIth dynasty.
+
+There then existed, behind the rock amphitheatre of Deir el-Bahari, a
+kind of enclosed basin, which could be reached from the plain only by
+dangerous paths above the temple of Hatshopsitu. This basin is divided
+into two parts, one of which runs in a south-easterly direction,
+while the other trends to the south-west, and is subdivided into minor
+branches. To the east rises a barren peak, the outline of which is not
+unlike that of the step-pyramid of Saqqara, reproduced on a colossal
+scale. No spot could be more appropriate to serve as a cemetery for a
+family of kings. The difficulty of reaching it and of conveying thither
+the heavy accessories and of providing for the endless processions of
+the Pharaonic funerals, prevented any attempt being made to cut tombs
+in it during the Ancient and Middle Empires. About the beginning of the
+XIXth dynasty, however, some engineers, in search of suitable burial
+sites, at length noticed that this basin was only separated from the
+wady issuing to the north of Qurnah by a rocky barrier barely five
+hundred cubits in width. This presented no formidable obstacle to such
+skilful engineers as the Egyptians. They cut a trench into the living
+rock some fifty or sixty cubits in depth, at the bottom of which they
+tunnelled a narrow passage giving access to the valley.*
+
+     * French scholars recognised from the beginning of this
+     century that the passage in question had been made by human
+     agency. I attribute the execution of this work to Ramses I.,
+     as I believe Harmhabi to have been buried in the eastern
+     valley, near Amenothes III.
+
+It is not known whether this herculean work was accomplished during the
+reign of Harnhabi or in that of Ramses I. The latter was the first of
+the Pharaohs to honour the spot by his presence. His tomb is simple,
+almost coarse in its workmanship, and comprises a gentle inclined
+passage, a vault and a sarcophagus of rough stone. That of Seti, on the
+contrary, is a veritable palace, extending to a distance of 325 feet
+into the mountain-side. It is entered by a wide and lofty door, which
+opens on to a staircase of twenty-seven steps, leading to an inclined
+corridor; other staircases of shallow steps follow with their landings;
+then come successively a hypostyle hall, and, at the extreme end, a
+vaulted chamber, all of which are decorated with mysterious scenes
+and covered with inscriptions. This is, however, but the first storey,
+containing the antechambers of the dead, but not their living-rooms. A
+passage and steps, concealed under a slab to the left of the hall, lead
+to the real vault, which held the mummy and its funerary furniture.
+As we penetrate further and further by the light of torches into this
+subterranean abode, we see that the walls are covered with pictures and
+formulae, setting forth the voyages of the soul through the twelve hours
+of the night, its trials, its judgment, its reception by the departed,
+and its apotheosis--all depicted on the rock with the same perfection
+as that which characterises the bas-reliefs on the finest slabs of Turah
+stone at Qurnah and Abydos. A gallery leading out of the last of
+these chambers extends a few feet further and then stops abruptly; the
+engineers had contemplated the excavation of a third storey to the tomb,
+when the death of their master obliged them to suspend their task.
+The king's sarcophagus consists of a block of alabaster, hollowed
+out, polished, and carved with figures and hieroglyphs, with all the
+minuteness which we associate with the cutting of a gem.
+
+[Illustration: 184.jpg ONE OF THE PILLARS OF THE TOMB OF SETI I.]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger, taken in
+     1884.
+
+It contained a wooden coffin, shaped to the human figure and painted
+white, the features picked out in black, and enamel eyes inserted in
+a mounting of bronze. The mummy is that of a thin elderly man, well
+preserved; the face was covered by a mask made of linen smeared with
+pitch, but when this was raised by means of a chisel, the fine kingly
+head was exposed to view. It was a masterpiece of the art of the
+embalmer, and the expression of the face was that of one who had only
+a few hours previously breathed his last. Death had slightly drawn
+the nostrils and contracted the lips, the pressure of the bandages had
+flattened the nose a little, and the skin was darkened by the pitch; but
+a calm and gentle smile still played over the mouth, and the half-opened
+eyelids allowed a glimpse to be seen from under their lashes of an
+apparently moist and glistening line,--the reflection from the white
+porcelain eyes let in to the orbit at the time of burial.
+
+Seti had had several children by his wife Tuia, and the eldest had
+already reached manhood when his father ascended the throne, for he had
+accompanied him on his Syrian campaign. The young prince died, however,
+soon after his return, and his right to the crown devolved on his
+younger brother, who, like his grandfather, bore the name of Ramses.
+The prince was still very young,* but Seti did not on that account delay
+enthroning with great pomp this son who had a better right to the throne
+than himself.
+
+     * The history of the youth and the accession of Ramses II.
+     is known to us from the narrative given by himself in the
+     temple of Seti I. at Abydos. The bulk of the narrative is
+     confirmed by the evidence of the Kuban inscription,
+     especially as to the extreme youth of Ramses at the time
+     when he was first associated with the crown.
+
+"From the time that I was in the egg," Ramses writes later on, "the
+great ones sniffed the earth before me; when I attained to the rank of
+eldest son and heir upon the throne of Sibu, I dealt with affairs, I
+commanded as chief the foot-soldiers and the chariots. My father having
+appeared before the people, when I was but a very little boy in his
+arms, said to me: 'I shall have him crowned king, that I may see him
+in all his splendour while I am still on this earth!' The nobles of the
+court having drawn near to place the pschent upon my head: 'Place the
+diadem upon his forehead!' said he." As Ramses increased in years,
+Seti delighted to confer upon him, one after the other, the principal
+attributes of power; "while he was still upon this earth, regulating
+everything in the land, defending its frontiers, and watching over the
+welfare of its inhabitants, he cried: 'Let him reign!' because of the
+love he had for me." Seti also chose for him wives, beautiful "as are
+those of his palace," and he gave him in marriage his sisters Nofritari
+II. Mimut and Isitnofrit, who, like Ramses himself, had claims to the
+throne. Ramses was allowed to attend the State councils at the age
+of ten; he commanded armies, and he administered justice under the
+direction of his father and his viziers. Seti, however, although making
+use of his son's youth and activity, did not in any sense retire in his
+favour; if he permitted Ramses to adopt the insignia of royalty--the
+cartouches, the pschent, the bulbous-shaped helmet, and the various
+sceptres--he still remained to the day of his death the principal State
+official, and he reckoned all the years of this dual sovereignty as
+those of his sole reign.*
+
+     * Brugsoh is wrong in reckoning the reign of Ramses II. from
+     the time of his association in the crown; the great
+     inscription of Abydos, which has been translated by Brugsch
+     himself, dates events which immediately followed the death
+     of Seti I. as belonging to the first year of Ramses II.
+
+Ramses repulsed the incursions of the Tihonu, and put to the sword
+such of their hordes as had ventured to invade Egyptian territory.
+He exercised the functions of viceroy of Ethiopia, and had on several
+occasions to chastise the pillaging negroes. We see him at Beit-Wally
+and at Abu Simbel charging them in his chariot: in vain they flee in
+confusion before him; their flight, however swift, cannot save them from
+captivity and destruction.
+
+[Illustration: 187.jpg RAMSES II. PUTS THE NEGROES TO FLIGHT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+He was engaged in Ethiopia when the death of Seti recalled him to
+Thebes.*
+
+     * We do not know how long Seti I. reigned; the last date is
+     that of his IXth year at Redesieh and at Aswan, and that of
+     the year XXVII. sometimes attributed to him belongs to one
+     of the later Ramessides. I had at first supposed his reign
+     to have been a long one, merely on the evidence afforded by
+     Manetho's lists, but the presence of Ramses II. as a
+     stripling, in the campaign of Seti's 1st year, forces us to
+     limit its duration to fifteen or twenty years at most,
+     possibly to only twelve or fifteen.
+
+He at once returned to the capital, celebrated the king's funeral
+obsequies with suitable pomp, and after keeping the festival of Amon,
+set out for the north in order to make his authority felt in that part
+of his domains. He stopped on his way at Abydos to give the necessary
+orders for completing the decoration of the principal chambers of the
+resting-place built by his father, and chose a site some 320 feet to
+the north-west of it for a similar Memnonium for himself. He granted
+cultivated fields and meadows in the Thinite name for the maintenance
+of these two mausolea, founded a college of priests and soothsayers in
+connexion with them, for which he provided endowments, and also assigned
+them considerable fiefs in all parts of the valley of the Nile. The
+Delta next occupied his attention. The increasing importance of the
+Syrian provinces in the eyes of Egypt, the growth of the Hittite
+monarchy, and the migrations of the peoples of the Mediterranean,
+had obliged the last princes of the preceding dynasty to reside more
+frequently at Memphis than Amenothes I. or Thutmosis III. had done.
+Amenothes III. had set to work to restore certain cities which had been
+abandoned since the days of the Shepherds, and Bubastis, Athribis, and
+perhaps Tanis, had, thanks to his efforts, revived from their decayed
+condition. The Pharaohs, indeed, felt that at Thebes they were too far
+removed from the battle-fields of Asia; distance made it difficult for
+them to counteract the intrigues in which their vassals in Kharu and the
+lords of Naharaim were perpetually implicated, and a revolt which might
+have been easily anticipated or crushed had they been advised of
+it within a few days, gained time to increase and extend during the
+interval occupied by the couriers in travelling to and from the capital.
+Ramses felt the importance of possessing a town close to the Isthmus
+where he could reside in security, and he therefore built close to Zalu,
+in a fertile and healthy locality, a stronghold to which he gave his own
+name,* and of which the poets of the time have left us an enthusiastic
+description. "It extends," they say, "between Zahi and Egypt--and is
+filled with provisions and victuals.--It resembles Hermonthis,--it is
+strong like Memphis,--and the sun rises--and sets in it--so that men
+quit their villages and establish themselves in its territory."--"The
+dwellers on the coasts bring conger eels and fish in homage,--they
+pay it the tribute of their marshes.--The inhabitants don their festal
+garments every day,--perfumed oil is on their heads and new wigs;--they
+stand at their doors, their hands full of bunches of flowers,--green
+branches from the village of Pihathor,--garlands of Pahuru,--on the day
+when Pharaoh makes his entry.--Joy then reigns and spreads, and nothing
+can stay it,--O Usirmari-sotpuniri, thou who art Montu in the two
+lands,--Ramses-Miamun, the god." The town acted as an advance post,
+from whence the king could keep watch against all intriguing
+adversaries,--whether on the banks of the Orontes or the coast of the
+Mediterranean.
+
+     * An allusion to the foundation of this residence occurs in
+     an inscription at Abu Simbel, dated in his XXVth year.
+
+Nothing appeared for the moment to threaten the peace of the empire.
+The Asiatic vassals had raised no disturbance on hearing of the king's
+accession, and Mautallu continued to observe the conditions of
+the treaty which he had signed with Seti. Two military expeditions
+undertaken beyond the isthmus in the IInd and IVth years of the new
+sovereign were accomplished almost without fighting. He repressed by the
+way the marauding Shausu, and on reaching the Nahr el-Kelb, which then
+formed the northern frontier of his empire, he inscribed at the turn
+of the road, on the rocks which overhang the mouth of the river, two
+triumphal stelae in which he related his successes.* Towards the end
+of his IVth year a rebellion broke out among the Khati, which caused a
+rupture of relations between the two kingdoms and led to some irregular
+fighting. Khatusaru, a younger brother of Maurusaru, murdered the latter
+and made himself king in his stead.** It is not certain whether the
+Egyptians took up arms against him, or whether he judged it wise to
+oppose them in order to divert the attention of his subjects from his
+crime.
+
+     * The stelae are all in a very bad condition; in the last of
+     them the date is no longer legible.
+
+     ** In the _Treaty of Harrises II. with the Prince of Khati_,
+     the writer is content to use a discreet euphemism, and
+     states that Mautallu succumbed "to his destiny." The name of
+     the Prince of the Khati is found later on under the form
+     Khatusharu, in that of a chief defeated by Tiglath-pileser
+     I. in the country of Kummukh, though this name has generally
+     been read Khatukhi.
+
+At all events, he convoked his Syrian vassals and collected his
+mercenaries; the whole of Naharaim, Khalupu, Carchemish, and Arvad sent
+their quota, while bands of Dardanians, Mysians, Trojans, and Lycians,
+together with the people of Pedasos and Girgasha,* furnished further
+contingents, drawn from an area extending from the most distant coasts
+of the Mediterranean to the mountains of Cilicia. Ramses, informed of
+the enemy's movement by his generals and the governors of places on the
+frontier, resolved to anticipate the attack. He assembled an army almost
+as incongruous in its component elements as that of his adversary:
+besides Egyptians of unmixed race, divided into four corps bearing
+the names of Amon, Phtah, Harmakhis and Sutkhu, it contained Ethiopian
+auxiliaries, Libyans, Mazaiu, and Shardana.**
+
+     * The name of this nation is written Karkisha, Kalkisha, or
+     Kashkisha, by one of those changes of _sh_ into _r-l_ which
+     occur so frequently in Assyro-Chaldaean before a dental; the
+     two different spellings seem to show that the writers of the
+     inscriptions bearing on this war had before them a list of
+     the allies of Khatusaru, written in cuneiform characters. If
+     we may identify the nation with the Kashki or Kashku of the
+     Assyrian texts, the ancestors of the people of Colchis of
+     classical times, the termination _-isha_ of the Egyptian
+     word would be the inflexion _-ash_ or _-ush_ of the Eastern-
+     Asiatic tongues which we find in so many race-names, e.g.
+     Adaush, Saradaush, Ammaush. Rouge and Brugsch identified
+     them with the Girgashites of the Bible. Brugsch, adopting
+     the spelling Kashki, endeavoured to connect them with
+     Casiotis; later on he identified them with the people of
+     Gergis in Troas. Ramsay recognises in them the Kisldsos of
+     Cilicia.
+
+     ** In the account of the campaign the Shardana only are
+     mentioned; but we learn from a list in the _Anastasi Papyrus
+     I_, that the army of Ramses II. included, in ordinary
+     circumstances, in addition to the Shardana, a contingent of
+     Mashauasha, Kahaka, and other Libyan and negro mercenaries.
+
+When preparations were completed, the force crossed the canal at Zalu,
+on the 9th of Payni in his Vth year, marched rapidly across Canaan till
+they reached the valley of the Litany, along which they took their way,
+and then followed up that of the Orontes. They encamped for a few days
+at Shabtuna, to the south-west of Qodshu,* in the midst of the Amorite
+country, sending out scouts and endeavouring to discover the position of
+the enemy, of whose movements they possessed but vague information.
+
+     * Shabtuna had been placed on the Nahr es-Sebta, on the site
+     now occupied by Kalaat el-Hosn, a conjecture approved by
+     Mariette; it was more probably a town situated in the plain,
+     to the south of Bahr el-Kades, a little to the south-west of
+     Tell Keby Mindoh which represents Qodshu, and close to some
+     forests which at that time covered the slopes of Lebanon,
+     and, extending as they did to the bottom of the valley,
+     concealed the position of the Khati from the Egyptians.
+
+Khatusaru lay concealed in the wooded valleys of the Lebanon; he was
+kept well posted by his spies, and only waited an opportunity to take
+the field; as an occasion did not immediately present itself, he had
+recourse to a ruse with which the generals of the time were familiar.
+Ramses, at length uneasy at not falling in with the enemy, advanced to
+the south of Shabtuna, where he endeavoured to obtain information from
+two Bedawin. "Our brethren," said they, "who are the chiefs of
+the tribes united under the vile Prince of Khati, send us to give
+information to your Majesty: We desire to serve the Pharaoh. We are
+deserting the vile Prince of the Khati; he is close to Khalupu (Aleppo),
+to the north of the city of Tunipa, whither he has rapidly retired from
+fear of the Pharaoh." This story had every appearance of probability;
+and the distance--Khalupu was at least forty leagues away--explained why
+the reconnoitring parties of the Egyptians had not fallen in with any of
+the enemy. The Pharaoh, with this information, could not decide whether
+to lay siege to Qodshu and wait until the Hittites were forced to
+succour the town, or to push on towards the Euphrates and there seek the
+engagement which his adversary seemed anxious to avoid.
+
+[Illustration: 193.jpg THE SHARDANA GUARD OF RAMSES II.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+He chose the latter of the two alternatives. He sent forward the legions
+of Anion, Phra, Phtah, and Sutkhu, which constituted the main body of
+his troops, and prepared to follow them with his household chariotry. At
+the very moment when this division was being effected, the Hittites, who
+had been represented by the spies as being far distant, were secretly
+massing their forces to the north-east of Qodshu, ready to make an
+attack upon the Pharaoh's flank as soon as he should set out on his
+march towards Khalupu. The enemy had considerable forces at their
+disposal, and on the day of the engagement they placed 18,000 to 20,000
+picked soldiers in the field.* Besides a well-disciplined infantry, they
+possessed 2500 to 3000 chariots, containing, as was the Asiatic custom,
+three men in each.**
+
+     * An army corps is reckoned as containing 9000 men on the
+     wall scenes at Luxor, and 8000 at the Eamesseum; the 3000
+     chariots were manned by 9000 men. In allowing four to five
+     thousand men for the rest of the soldiers engaged, we are
+     not likely to be far wrong, and shall thus obtain the modest
+     total mentioned in the text, contrary to the opinion current
+     among historians.
+
+     * The mercenaries are included in these figures, as is shown
+     by the reckoning of the Lycian, Dardanian, and Pedasian
+     chiefs who were in command of the chariots during the
+     charges against Ramses II.
+
+The Egyptian camp was not entirely broken up, when the scouts brought
+in two spies whom they had seized--Asiatics in long blue robes arranged
+diagonally over one shoulder, leaving the other bare. The king, who was
+seated on his throne delivering his final commands, ordered them to
+be beaten till the truth should be extracted from them. They at last
+confessed that they had been despatched to watch the departure of the
+Egyptians, and admitted that the enemy was concealed in ambush behind
+the town. Ramses hastily called a council of war and laid the situation
+before his generals, not without severely reprimanding them for the
+bad organisation of the intelligence department. The officers excused
+themselves as best they could, and threw the blame on the provincial
+governors, who had not been able to discover what was going on. The king
+cut short these useless recriminations, sent swift messengers to recall
+the divisions which had started early that morning, and gave orders
+that all those remaining in camp should hold themselves in readiness to
+attack. The council were still deliberating when news was brought that
+the Hittites were in sight.
+
+[Illustration: 195.jpg TWO HITTITE SPIES BEATEN BY THE EGYPTIAN
+SOLDIERS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the picture in the temple at
+     Abu Simbel.
+
+Their first onslaught was so violent that they threw down one side of
+the camp wall, and penetrated into the enclosure. Ramses charged them at
+the head of his household troops. Eight times he engaged the chariotry
+which threatened to surround him, and each time he broke their ranks.
+Once he found himself alone with Manna, his shield-bearer, in the midst
+of a knot of warriors who were bent on his destruction, and he escaped
+solely by his coolness and bravery. The tame lion which accompanied him
+on his expeditions did terrible work by his side, and felled many an
+Asiatic with his teeth and claws.*
+
+     * The lion is represented and named in the battle-scenes at
+     Abu Simbel, at Dorr, and at Luxor, where we see it in camp
+     on the eve of the battle, with its two front paws tied, and
+     its keeper threatening it.
+
+[Illustration: 196.jpg THE EGYPTIAN CAMP AND THE COUNCIL OF WAR ON THE
+MORNING OF THE BATTLE OF QODSHU]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato of the west
+     front of the Eamesseum.
+
+The soldiers, fired by the king's example, stood their ground resolutely
+during the long hours of the afternoon; at length, as night was drawing
+on, the legions of Phra and Sutkhu, who had hastily retraced their
+steps, arrived on the scene of action. A large body of Khafci, who were
+hemmed in in that part of the camp which they had taken in the morning,
+were at once killed or made prisoners, not a man of them escaping.
+Khatusaru, disconcerted by this sudden reinforcement of the enemy, beat
+a retreat, and nightfall suspended the struggle. It was recommenced at
+dawn the following morning with unabated fury, and terminated in the
+rout of the confederates. Garbatusa, the shield-bearer of the Hittite
+prince, the generals in command of his infantry and chariotry, and
+Khalupsaru, the "writer of books," fell during the action. The chariots,
+driven back to the Orontes, rushed into the river in the hope of fording
+it, but in so doing many lives were lost. Mazraima, the Prince of
+Khati's brother, reached the opposite bank in safety, but the Chief of
+Tonisa was drowned, and the lord of Khalupu was dragged out of the water
+more dead than alive, and had to be held head downwards to disgorge the
+water he had swallowed before he could be restored to consciousness.
+
+[Illustration: 198.jpg THE GARRISON OF QODSHU ISSUING FORTH TO HELP THE
+PRINCE OF KHATI.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Benedite.
+
+Khatusaru himself was on the point of perishing, when the troops which
+had been shut up in Qodshu, together with the inhabitants, made a
+general sortie; the Egyptians were for a moment held in check, and
+the fugitives meanwhile were able to enter the town. Either there was
+insufficient provision for so many mouths, or the enemy had lost all
+heart from the disaster; at any rate, further resistance appeared
+useless. The next morning Khatusaru sent to propose a truce or peace to
+the victorious Pharaoh. The Egyptians had probably suffered at least
+as much as their adversaries, and perhaps regarded the eventuality of
+a siege with no small distaste; Ramses, therefore, accepted the offers
+made to him and prepared to return to Egypt. The fame of his exploits
+had gone before him, and he himself was not a little proud of the energy
+he had displayed on the day of battle. His predecessors had always shown
+themselves to be skilful generals and brave soldiers, but none of them
+had ever before borne, or all but borne, single-handed the brunt of an
+attack. Ramses loaded his shield-bearer Manna with rewards for having
+stood by him in the hour of danger, and ordered abundant provender and
+sumptuous harness for the good horses--"Strength-in-Thebaid" and "Nurit
+the satisfied"--who had drawn his chariot.*
+
+     * A gold ring in the Louvre bears in relief on its bezel two
+     little horses; which are probably "Strength-in-Thebaid"and
+     "Nurit satisfied."
+
+He determined that the most characteristic episodes of the campaign--the
+beating of the spies, the surprise of the camp, the king's repeated
+charges, the arrival of his veterans, the flight of the Syrians, and the
+surrender of Qodshu--should be represented on the walls and pylons of
+the temples. A poem in rhymed strophes in every case accompanies
+these records of his glory, whether at Luxor, at the Eamesseum, at the
+Memnonium of Abydos, or in the heart of Nubia at Abu Simbel. The author
+of the poem must have been present during the campaign, or must have had
+the account of it from the lips of his sovereign, for his work bears no
+traces of the coldness of official reports, and a warlike strain runs
+through it from one end to the other, so as still to invest it with life
+after a lapse of more than thirty centuries.*
+
+     * The author is unknown: Pentaur, or rather Pentauirit, to
+     whom E. de Rouge attributed the poem, is merely the
+     transcriber of the copy we possess on papyrus.
+
+But little pains are bestowed on the introduction, and the poet does not
+give free vent to his enthusiasm until the moment when he describes
+his hero, left almost alone, charging the enemy in the sight of his
+followers. The Pharaoh was surrounded by two thousand five hundred
+chariots, and his retreat was cut off by the warriors of the "perverse"
+Khati and of the other nations who accompanied them--the peoples of
+Arvad, Mysia, and Pedasos; each of their chariots contained three men,
+and the ranks were so serried that they formed but one dense mass. "No
+other prince was with me, no general officers, no one in command of the
+archers or chariots. My foot-soldiers deserted me, my charioteers
+fled before the foe, and not one of them stood firm beside me to fight
+against them." Then said His Majesty: "Who art thou, then, my father
+Amon? A father who forgets his son? Or have I committed aught against
+thee? Have I not marched and halted according to thy command? When he
+does not violate thy orders, the lord of Egypt is indeed great, and he
+overthrows the barbarians in his path! What are these Asiatics to
+thy heart? Amon will humiliate those who know not the god. Have I
+not consecrated innumerable offerings to thee? Filling thy holy
+dwelling-place with my prisoners, I build thee a temple for millions of
+years, I lavish all my goods on thy storehouses, I offer thee the whole
+world to enrich thy domains.... A miserable fate indeed awaits him who
+sets himself against thy will, but happy is he who finds favour with
+thee by deeds done for thee with a loving heart. I invoke thee, O my
+father Amon! Here am I in the midst of people so numerous that it cannot
+be known who are the nations joined together against me, and I am alone
+among them, none other is with me. My many soldiers have forsaken me,
+none of my charioteers looked towards me when I called them, not one of
+them heard my voice when I cried to them. But I find that Amon is more
+to me than a million soldiers, than a hundred thousand charioteers, than
+a myriad of brothers or young sons, joined all together, for the number
+of men is as nothing, Amon is greater than all of them. Each time I have
+accomplished these things, Amon, by the counsel of thy mouth, as I do
+not transgress thy orders, I rendered thee glory even to the ends of the
+earth." So calm an invocation in the thick of the battle would appear
+misplaced in the mouth of an ordinary man, but Pharaoh was a god, and
+the son of a god, and his actions and speeches cannot be measured by
+the same standard as that of a common mortal. He was possessed by the
+religious spirit in the hour of danger, and while his body continued
+to fight, his soul took wing to the throne of Amon. He contemplates the
+lord of heaven face to face, reminds him of the benefits which he had
+received from him, and summons him to his aid with an imperiousness
+which betrays the sense of his own divine origin. The expected help was
+not delayed. "While the voice resounds in Hermonthis, Amon arises at my
+behest, he stretches out his hand to me, and I cry out with joy when he
+hails me from behind: 'Face to face with thee, face to face with thee,
+Ramses Miamun, I am with thee! It is I, thy father! My hand is with
+thee, and I am worth more to thee than hundreds of thousands. I am the
+strong one who loves valour; I have beheld in thee a courageous heart,
+and my heart is satisfied; my will is about to be accomplished!' I am
+like Montu; from the right I shoot with the dart, from the left I seize
+the enemy. I am like Baal in his hour, before them; I have encountered
+two thousand five hundred chariots, and as soon as I am in their midst,
+they are overthrown before my mares. Not one of all these people has
+found a hand wherewith to fight; their hearts sink within their breasts,
+fear paralyses their limbs; they know not how to throw their darts, they
+have no strength to hold their lances. I precipitate them into the water
+like as the crocodile plunges therein; they are prostrate face to the
+earth, one upon the other, and I slay in the midst of them, for I have
+willed that not one should look behind him, nor that one should return;
+he who falls rises not again." This sudden descent of the god has, even
+at the present day, an effect upon the reader, prepared though he is
+by his education to consider it as a literary artifice; but on the
+Egyptian, brought up to regard Amon with boundless reverence, its
+influence was irresistible. The Prince of the Khati, repulsed at the
+very moment when he was certain of victory, "recoiled with terror. He
+sends against the enemy the various chiefs, followed by their chariots
+and skilled warriors,--the chiefs of Arvad, Lycia, and Ilion, the
+leaders of the Lycians and Dardanians, the lords of Carchemish, of the
+Girgashites, and of Khalupu; these allies of the Khati, all together,
+comprised three thousand chariots." Their efforts, however, were in
+vain. "I fell upon them like Montu, my hand devoured them in the space
+of a moment, in the midst of them I hewed down and slew. They said one
+to another: 'This is no man who is amongst us; it is Sutkhu the great
+warrior, it is Baal incarnate! These are not human actions which he
+accomplishes: alone, by himself, he repulses hundreds of thousands,
+without leaders or men. Up, let us flee before him, let us seek to save
+our lives, and let us breathe again!'" When at last, towards evening,
+the army again rallies round the king, and finds the enemy completely
+defeated, the men hang their heads with mingled shame and admiration as
+the Pharaoh reproaches them: "What will the whole earth say when it is
+known that you left me alone, and without any to succour me? that not a
+prince, not a charioteer, not a captain of archers, was found to place
+his hand in mine? I fought, I repulsed millions of people by myself
+alone. 'Victory-in-Thebes' and 'Nurit satisfied' were my glorious
+horses; it was they that I found under my hand when I was alone in the
+midst of the quaking foe. I myself will cause them to take their food
+before me, each day, when I shall be in my palace, for I was with them
+when I was in the midst of the enemy, along with the Prince Manna my
+shield-bearer, and with the officers of my house who accompanied me, and
+who are my witnesses for the combat; these are those whom I was with.
+I have returned after a victorious struggle, and I have smitten with my
+sword the assembled multitudes."
+
+The ordeal was a terrible one for the Khati; but when the first moment
+of defeat was over, they again took courage and resumed the campaign.
+This single effort had not exhausted their resources, and they rapidly
+filled up the gaps which had been made in their ranks. The plains of
+Naharaim and the mountains of Cilicia supplied them with fresh chariots
+and foot-soldiers in the place of those they had lost, and bands of
+mercenaries were furnished from the table-lands of Asia Minor, so that
+when Ramses II. reappeared in Syria, he found himself confronted by a
+completely fresh army. Khatusaru, having profited by experience, did not
+again attempt a general engagement, but contented himself with disputing
+step by step the upper valleys of the Litany and Orontes. Meantime his
+emissaries spread themselves over Phoenicia and Kharu, sowing the seeds
+of rebellion, often only too successfully. In the king's VIIIth year
+there was a general rising in Galilee, and its towns--Galaput in the
+hill-country of Bit-Aniti, Merorn, Shalama, Dapur, and Anamaim*--had to
+be reduced one after another.
+
+     * Episodes from this war are represented at Karnak. The list
+     of the towns taken, now much mutilated, comprised twenty-
+     four names, which proves the importance of the revolt.
+
+Dapur was the hardest to carry. It crowned the top of a rocky eminence,
+and was protected by a double wall, which followed the irregularities of
+the hillside. It formed a rallying-point for a large force, which had to
+be overcome in the open country before the investment of the town could
+be attempted. The siege was at last brought to a conclusion, after
+a series of skirmishes, and the town taken by scaling, four Egyptian
+princes having been employed in conducting the attack. In the Pharaoh's
+IXth year a revolt broke out on the Egyptian frontier, in the Shephelah,
+and the king placed himself at the head of his troops to crush it.
+Ascalon, in which the peasantry and their families had found, as they
+hoped, a safe refuge, opened its gates to the Pharaoh, and its fall
+brought about the submission of several neighbouring places. This, it
+appears, was the first time since the beginning of the conquests in
+Syria that the inhabitants of these regions attempted to take up arms,
+and we may well ask what could have induced them thus to renounce their
+ancient loyalty. Their defection reduced Egypt for the moment almost to
+her natural frontiers. Peace had scarcely been resumed when war again
+broke out with fresh violence in Coele-Syria, and one year it reached
+even to Naharaim, and raged around Tunipa as in the days of Thutmosis
+III. "Pharaoh assembled his foot-soldiers and chariots, and he commanded
+his foot-soldiers and his chariots to attack the perverse Khati who were
+in the neighbourhood of Tunipa, and he put on his armour and mounted his
+chariot, and he waged battle against the town of the perverse Khati at
+the head of his foot-soldiers and his chariots, covered with his armour;"
+the fortress, however, did not yield till the second attack. Ramses
+carried his arms still further afield, and with such results, that,
+to judge merely from the triumphal lists engraved on the walls of the
+temple of Karnak, the inhabitants on the banks of the Euphrates, those
+in Carchemish, Mitanni, Singar, Assyria, and Mannus found themselves
+once more at the mercy of the Egyptian battalions. These victories,
+however brilliant, were not decisive; if after any one of them the
+princes of Assyria and Singar may have sent presents to the Pharaoh, the
+Hittites, on the other hand, did not consider themselves beaten, and it
+was only after fifteen campaigns that they were at length sufficiently
+subdued to propose a treaty. At last, in the Egyptian king's XXIst year,
+on the 21st of the month Tybi, when the Pharaoh, then residing in his
+good town of Anakhitu, was returning from the temple where he had been
+offering prayers to his father Amon-Ea, to Harmakhis of Heliopolis,
+to Phtah, and to Sutkhu the valiant son of Nuit, Eamses, one of the
+"messengers" who filled the office of lieutenant for the king in Asia,
+arrived at the palace and presented to him Tartisubu, who was authorised
+to make peace with Egypt in the name of Khatusaru.* Tartisubu carried
+in his hand a tablet of silver, on which his master had prescribed the
+conditions which appeared to him just and equitable. A short preamble
+recalling the alliances made between the ancestors of both parties, was
+followed by a declaration of friendship, and a reciprocal obligation to
+avoid in future all grounds of hostility.
+
+     * The treaty of Ramses II. with the Prince of the Khati was
+     sculptured at Karnak.
+
+Not only was a perpetual truce declared between both peoples, but they
+agreed to help each other at the first demand. "Should some enemy march
+against the countries subject to the great King of Egypt, and should he
+send to the great Prince of the Khati, saying: 'Come, bring me forces
+against them,' the great Prince of the Khati shall do as he is asked by
+the great King of Egypt, and the great Prince of the Khati shall destroy
+his enemies. And if the great Prince of the Khati shall prefer not to
+come himself, he shall send his archers and his chariots to the great
+King of Egypt to destroy his enemies." A similar clause ensured aid
+in return from Ramses to Khatusaru, "his brother," while two articles
+couched in identical terms made provision against the possibility of any
+town or tribe dependent on either of the two sovereigns withdrawing its
+allegiance and placing it in the hands of the other party. In this case
+the Egyptians as well as the Hittites engaged not to receive, or at
+least not to accept, such offers, but to refer them at once to the
+legitimate lord. The whole treaty was placed under the guarantee of the
+gods both, of Egypt and of the Khati, whose names were given at length:
+"Whoever shall fail to observe the stipulations, let the thousand gods
+of Khati and the thousand gods of Egypt strike his house, his land, and
+his servants. But he who shall observe the stipulations engraved on the
+tablet of silver, whether he belong to the Hittite people or whether
+he belong to the people of Egypt, as he has not neglected them, may the
+thousand gods of Khati and the thousand gods of Egypt give him health,
+and grant that he may prosper, himself, the people of his house, and
+also his land and his servants." The treaty itself ends by a description
+of the plaque of silver on which it was engraved. It was, in fact, a
+facsimile in metal of one of those clay tablets on which the Chaldaeans
+inscribed their contracts. The preliminary articles occupied the upper
+part in closely written lines of cuneiform characters, while in the
+middle, in a space left free for the purpose, was the impress of
+two seals, that of the Prince of the Khati and of his wife Puukhipa.
+Khatusaru was represented on them as standing upright in the arms of
+Sutkhu, while around the two figures ran the inscription, "Seal of
+Sutkhu, the sovereign of heaven." Puukhipa leaned on the breast of a
+god, the patron of her native town of Aranna in Qaauadana, and the
+legend stated that this was the seal of the Sun of the town of Aranna,
+the regent of the earth. The text of the treaty was continued beneath,
+and probably extended to the other side of the tablet. The original
+draft had terminated after the description of the seals, but, to
+satisfy the Pharaoh, certain additional articles were appended for the
+protection of the commerce and industry of the two countries, for the
+prevention of the emigration of artisans, and for ensuring that steps
+taken against them should be more effectual and less cruel. Any criminal
+attempting to evade the laws of his country, and taking refuge in that
+of the other party to the agreement, was to be expelled without delay
+and consigned to the officers of his lord; any fugitive not a criminal,
+any subject carried off or detained by force, any able artisan quitting
+either territory to take up permanent residence in the other, was to be
+conducted to the frontier, but his act of folly was not to expose him
+to judicial condemnation. "He who shall thus act, his fault shall not
+be brought up against him; his house shall not be touched, nor his wife,
+nor his children; he shall not have his throat cut, nor shall his eyes
+be touched, nor his mouth, nor his feet; no criminal accusation shall be
+made against him."
+
+This treaty is the most ancient of all those of which the text has
+come down to us; its principal conditions were--perfect equality
+and reciprocity between the contracting sovereigns, an offensive and
+defensive alliance, and the extradition of criminals and refugees. The
+original was drawn up in Chaldaean script by the scribes of Khatusaru,
+probably on the model of former conventions between the Pharaohs and
+the Asiatic courts, and to this the Egyptian ministers had added a few
+clauses relative to the pardon of emigrants delivered up by one or other
+of the contracting parties. When, therefore, Tartisubu arrived in the
+city of Eamses, the acceptance of the treaty was merely a matter of
+form, and peace was virtually concluded. It did not confer on the
+conqueror the advantages which we might have expected from his
+successful campaigns: it enjoined, on the contrary, the definite
+renunciation of those countries, Mitanni, Naharaim, Alasia, and Amurru,
+over which Thutmosis III. and his immediate successors had formerly
+exercised an effective sovereignty. Sixteen years of victories had left
+matters in the same state as they were after the expedition of Harmhabi,
+and, like his predecessor, Ramses was able to retain merely those
+Asiatic provinces which were within the immediate influence of Egypt,
+such as the Phoenician coast proper, Kharu, Persea beyond Jordan, the
+oases of the Arabian desert, and the peninsula of Sinai.*
+
+     * The _Anastasi Papyrus I_. mentions a place called _Zaru of
+     Sesostris_, in the neighbourhood of Aleppo, in a part of
+     Syria which was not in Egyptian territory: the frontier in
+     this locality must have passed between Arvad and Byblos on
+     the coast, and between Qodshu and Hazor from Merom inland.
+     Egyptian rule on the other side of the Jordan seems to be
+     proved by the monument discovered a few years ago in the
+     Hauran, and known under the name of the "Stone of Job" by
+     the Bedawin of the neighbourhood.
+
+This apparently unsatisfactory result, after such supreme efforts, was,
+however, upon closer examination, not so disappointing. For more than
+half a century at least, since the Hittite kingdom had been developed
+and established under the impulse given to it by Sapalulu, everything
+had been in its favour. The campaign of Seti had opposed merely a
+passing obstacle to its expansion, and had not succeeded in discouraging
+its ambitions, for its rulers still nursed the hope of being able
+one day to conquer Syria as far as the isthmus. The check received at
+Qodshu, the abortive attempts to foment rebellion in Galilee and the
+Shephelah, the obstinate persistence with which Ramses and his army
+returned year after year to the attack, the presence of the enemy at
+Tunipa, on the banks of the Euphrates, and in the provinces then forming
+the very centre of the Hittite kingdom--in short, all the incidents of
+this long struggle--at length convinced Khatusaru that he was powerless
+to extend his rule in this direction at the expense of Egypt. Moreover,
+we have no knowledge of the events which occupied him on the other
+frontiers of his kingdom, where he may have been engaged at the same
+time in a conflict with Assyria, or in repelling an incursion of the
+tribes on the Black Sea. The treaty with Pharaoh, if made in good faith
+and likely to be lasting, would protect the southern extremities of his
+kingdom, and allow of his removing the main body of his forces to the
+north and east in case of attack from either of these quarters. The
+security which such an alliance would ensure made it, therefore, worth
+his while to sue for peace, even if the Egyptians should construe his
+overtures as an acknowledgment of exhausted supplies or of inferiority
+of strength. Ramses doubtless took it as such, and openly displayed
+on the walls at Karnak and in the Eamesseum a copy of the treaty so
+flattering to his pride, but the indomitable resistance which he had
+encountered had doubtless given rise to reflections resembling those of
+Khatusaru, and he had come to realise that it was his own interest not
+to lightly forego the good will of the Khati. Egypt had neighbours
+in Africa who were troublesome though not dangerous: the Timihu, the
+Tihonu, the Mashuasha, the negroes of Kush and of Puanit, might be a
+continual source of annoyance and disturbance, even though they were
+incapable of disturbing her supremacy. The coast of the Delta, it is
+true, was exposed to the piracy of northern nations, but up to that time
+this had been merely a local trouble, easy to meet if not to obviate
+altogether. The only real danger was on the Asiatic side, arising
+from empires of ancient constitution like Chaldaea, or from hordes who,
+arriving at irregular intervals from the north, and carrying all before
+them, threatened, after the example of the Hyksos, to enter the Delta.
+The Hittite kingdom acted as a kind of buffer between the Nile valley
+and these nations, both civilized and barbarous; it was a strongly armed
+force on the route of the invaders, and would henceforth serve as a
+protecting barrier, through which if the enemy were able to pass
+it would only be with his strength broken or weakened by a previous
+encounter. The sovereigns loyally observed the peace which they had
+sworn to each other, and in his XXXIVth year the marriage of Ramses with
+the eldest daughter of Khatusaru strengthened their friendly relations.
+
+[Illustration: 214.jpg KHATUSARU, PRINCE OF KHATI, AND HIS DAUGHTER]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the plate in Lepsius; the triad
+     worshipped by Khatusaru and his daughter is composed of
+     Ramses II., seated between Amon-Ra and Phtah-Totunen.
+
+Pharaoh was not a little proud of this union, and he has left us a naive
+record of the manner in which it came about. The inscription is engraved
+on the face of the rock at Abu Simbel in Nubia; and Ramses begins by
+boasting, in a heroic strain, of his own energy and exploits, of the
+fear with which his victories inspired the whole world, and of the
+anxiety of the Syrian kinglets to fulfil his least wishes. The Prince of
+the Khati had sent him sumptuous presents at every opportunity, and,
+not knowing how further to make himself agreeable to the Pharaoh, had
+finally addressed the great lords of his court, and reminded them how
+their country had formerly been ruined by war, how their master Sutkhu
+had taken part against them, and how they had been delivered from their
+ills by the clemency of the Sun of Egypt. "Let us therefore take our
+goods, and placing my eldest daughter at the head of them, let us
+repair to the domains of the great god, so that the King Sesostris may
+recognise us." He accordingly did as he had proposed, and the embassy
+set out with gold and silver, valuable horses, and an escort of
+soldiers, together with cattle and provisions to supply them with food
+by the way. When they reached the borders of Kharu, the governor wrote
+immediately to the Pharaoh as follows: "Here is the Prince of the Khati,
+who brings his eldest daughter with a number of presents of every kind;
+and now this princess and the chief of the country of the Khati, after
+having crossed many mountains and undertaken a difficult journey from
+distant parts, have arrived at the frontiers of His Majesty. May we be
+instructed how we ought to act with regard to them." The king was
+then in residence at Ramses. When the news reached him, he officially
+expressed his great joy at the event, since it was a thing unheard of
+in the annals of the country that so powerful a prince should go to such
+personal inconvenience in order to marry his daughter to an ally. The
+Pharaoh, therefore, despatched his nobles and an army to receive them,
+but he was careful to conceal the anxiety which he felt all the while,
+and, according to custom, took counsel of his patron god Sutkhu: "Who
+are these people who come with a message at this time to the country of
+Zahi?" The oracle, however, reassured him as to their intentions, and
+he thereupon hastened to prepare for their proper reception. The embassy
+made a triumphal entry into the city, the princess at its head, escorted
+by the Egyptian troops told off for the purpose, together with the
+foot-soldiers and charioteers of the Khati, comprising the flower of
+their army and militia. A solemn festival was held in their honour, in
+which food and drink were served without stint, and was concluded by the
+celebration of the marriage in the presence of the Egyptian lords and of
+the princes of the whole earth.*
+
+     * The fact of the marriage is known to us by the decree of
+     Phtah Totunen at Abu Simbel in the XXXVth year of the king's
+     reign. The account of it in the text is taken from the stele
+     at Abu Simbel. The last lines are so mutilated that I have
+     been obliged to paraphrase them. The stele of the Princess
+     of Bakhtan has preserved the romantic version of this
+     marriage, such as was current about the Saite period. The
+     King of the Khati must have taken advantage of the
+     expedition which the Pharaoh made into Asia to send him
+     presents by an embassy, at the head of which he placed his
+     eldest daughter: the princess found favour with Ramses, who
+     married her.
+
+Ramses, unwilling to relegate a princess of such noble birth to the
+companionship of his ordinary concubines, granted her the title of
+queen, as if she were of solar blood, and with the cartouche gave her
+the new name of Uirimaunofiruri--"She who sees the beauties of the Sun."
+She figures henceforth in the ceremonies and on the monuments in the
+place usually occupied by women of Egyptian race only, and these unusual
+honours may have compensated, in the eyes of the young princess, for the
+disproportion in age between herself and a veteran more than sixty years
+old. The friendly relations between the two courts became so intimate
+that the Pharaoh invited his father-in-law to visit him in his own
+country. "The great Prince of Khati informed the Prince of Qodi:
+'Prepare thyself that we may go down into Egypt. The word of the king
+has gone forth, let us obey Sesostris. He gives the breath of life to
+those who love him; hence all the earth loves him, and Khati forms but
+one with him.'" They were received with pomp at Ramses-Anakhitu, and
+perhaps at Thebes. It was with a mixture of joy and astonishment that
+Egypt beheld her bitterest foe become her most faithful ally, "and the
+men of Qimit having but one heart with the chiefs of the Khati, a thing
+which had not happened since the ages of Pa."
+
+The half-century following the conclusion of this alliance was a period
+of world-wide prosperity. Syria was once more able to breathe freely,
+her commerce being under the combined protection of the two powers who
+shared her territory. Not only caravans, but isolated travellers, were
+able to pass through the country from north to south without incurring
+any risks beyond those occasioned by an untrustworthy guide or a few
+highwaymen. It became in time a common task in the schools of Thebes to
+describe the typical Syrian tour of some soldier or functionary, and we
+still possess one of these imaginative stories in which the scribe takes
+his hero from Qodshu across the Lebanon to Byblos, Berytus, Tyre, and
+Sidon, "the fish" of which latter place "are more numerous than the
+grains of sand;" he then makes him cross Galilee and the forest of
+oaks to Jaffa, climb the mountains of the Dead Sea, and following the
+maritime route by Raphia, reach Pelusium. The Egyptian galleys thronged
+the Phoenician ports, while those of Phoenicia visited Egypt. The latter
+drew so little water that they had no difficulty in coming up the Nile,
+and the paintings in one of the tombs represent them at the moment of
+their reaching Thebes. The hull of these vessels was similar to that
+of the Nile boats, but the bow and stern were terminated by structures
+which rose at right angles, and respectively gave support to a sort of
+small platform. Upon this the pilot maintained his position by one of
+those wondrous feats of equilibrium of which the Orientals were masters.
+
+[Illustration: 218.jpg PHOENICIAN BOATS LANDING AT THEBES]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from the photograph published by Daressy.
+
+An open rail ran round the sides of the vessel, so as to prevent goods
+stowed upon the deck from falling into the sea when the vessel lurched.
+Voyages to Puanit were undertaken more frequently in quest of incense
+and precious metals. The working of the mines of Akiti had been the
+source of considerable outlay at the beginning of the reign. The
+measures taken by Seti to render the approaches to them practicable at
+all seasons had not produced the desired results; as far back as the
+IIIrd year of Ramses the overseers of the south had been forced to
+acknowledge that the managers of the convoys could no longer use any of
+the cisterns which had been hewn and built at such great expense. "Half
+of them die of thirst, together with their asses, for they have no means
+of carrying a sufficient number of skins of water to last during the
+journey there and back." The friends and officers whose advice had been
+called in, did not doubt for a moment that the king would be willing to
+complete the work which his father had merely initiated. "If thou sayest
+to the water, 'Come upon the mountain,' the heavenly waters will spring
+out at the word of thy mouth, for thou art Ra incarnate, Khopri
+visibly created, thou art the living image of thy father Tumu, the
+Heliopolitan."--"If thou thyself sayest to thy father the Nile, father
+of the gods," added the Viceroy of Ethiopia, "'Raise the water up to the
+mountain,' he will do all that thou hast said, for so it has been with
+all thy projects which have been accomplished in our presence, of which
+the like has never been heard, even in the songs of the poets." The
+cisterns and wells were thereupon put into such a condition that the
+transport of gold was rendered easy for years to come. The war with the
+Khati had not suspended building and other works of public utility;
+and now, owing to the establishment of peace, the sovereign was able
+to devote himself entirely to them. He deepened the canal at Zalu; he
+repaired the walls and the fortified places which protected the frontier
+on the side of the Sinaitic Peninsula, and he built or enlarged the
+strongholds along the Nile at those points most frequently threatened
+by the incursions of nomad tribes. Ramses was the royal builder _par
+excellence_, and we may say without fear of contradiction that, from the
+second cataract to the mouths of the Nile, there is scarcely an edifice
+on whose ruins we do not find his name. In Nubia, where the desert
+approaches close to the Nile, he confined himself to cutting in the
+solid rock the monuments which, for want of space, he could not build in
+the open. The idea of the cave-temple must have occurred very early
+to the Egyptians; they were accustomed to house their dead in the
+mountain-side, why then should they not house their gods in the same
+manner? The oldest forms of speos, those near to Beni-Hasan, at Deir
+el-Bahari, at Bl-Kab, and at Gebel Silsileh, however, do not date
+further back than the time of the XVIIIth dynasty. All the forms of
+architectural plan observed in isolated temples were utilised by Ramses
+and applied to rock-cut buildings with more or less modification,
+according to the nature of the stratum in which he had to work. Where
+space permitted, a part only of the temple was cut in the rock, and the
+approaches to it were built in the open air with blocks brought to
+the spot, so that the completed speos became only in part a grotto--a
+hemi-speos of varied construction. It was in this manner that the
+architects of Ramses arranged the court and pylon at Beit-Wally, the
+hypostyle hall, rectangular court and pylon at Gerf-Hossein, and the
+avenue of sphinxes at Wady es-Sebuah, where the entrance to the
+avenue was guarded by two statues overlooking the river. The pylon
+at Gerf-Hossein has been demolished, and merely a few traces of the
+foundations appear here and there above the soil, but a portion of the
+portico which surrounded the court is still standing, together with its
+massive architraves and statues, which stand with their backs against
+the pillars.
+
+[Illustration: 221.jpg THE PROJECTING COLUMNS OF THE SPEOS OF
+GERF-HOSSEIN]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+The sanctuary itself comprised an antechamber, supported by two columns
+and flanked by two oblong recesses; this led into the Holy of Holies,
+which was a narrow niche with a low ceiling, placed between two lateral
+chapels. A hall, nearly square in shape, connected these mysterious
+chambers with the propylaea, which were open to the sky and faced with
+Osiride caryatides.
+
+[Illustration: 221.jpg THE CARYATIDES OF GERF-HOSSEIN]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger and
+     Daniel Heron.
+
+These appear to keep rigid and solemn watch over the approaches to the
+tabernacle, and their faces, half hidden in the shadow, still
+present such a stern appearance that the semi-barbaric Nubians of the
+neighbouring villages believe them to be possessed by implacable genii.
+They are supposed to move from their places during the hours of night,
+and the fire which flashes from their eyes destroys or fascinates
+whoever is rash enough to watch them.
+
+Other kings before Ramses had constructed buildings in these spots, and
+their memory would naturally become associated with his in the future;
+he wished, therefore, to find a site where he would be without a rival,
+and to this end he transformed the cliff at Abu Simbel into a monument
+of his greatness. The rocks here project into the Nile and form
+a gigantic conical promontory, the face of which was covered with
+triumphal stelae, on which the sailors or troops going up or down the
+river could spell out as they passed the praises of the king and his
+exploits. A few feet of shore on the northern side, covered with dry and
+knotty bushes, affords in winter a landing-place for tourists. At the
+spot where the beach ends near the point of the promontory, sit four
+colossi, with their feet nearly touching the water, their backs leaning
+against a sloping wall of rock, which takes the likeness of a pylon. A
+band of hieroglyphs runs above their heads underneath the usual cornice,
+over which again is a row of crouching cynocephali looking straight
+before them, their hands resting upon their knees, and above this line
+of sacred images rises the steep and naked rock. One of the colossi is
+broken, and the bust of the statue, which must have been detached by
+some great shock, has fallen to the ground; the others rise to the
+height of 63 feet, and appear to look across the Nile as if watching the
+wadys leading to the gold-mines.
+
+[Illustration 224.jpg THE TWO COLOSSI OF ABU SIMBEL TO THE SOUTH OF THE
+DOORWAY]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger and
+     Daniel Heron.
+
+The pschent crown surmounts their foreheads, and the two ends of the
+head-dress fall behind their ears; their features are of a noble type,
+calm and serious; the nose slightly aquiline, the under lip projecting
+above a square, but rather heavy, chin. Of such a type we may picture
+Ramses, after the conclusion of the peace with the Khati, in the full
+vigour of his manhood and at the height of his power.
+
+[Illustration: 225.jpg THE INTERIOR OF THE SPEOS OF ABU SIMBEL]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger and Daniel
+     Heron.
+
+The doorway of the temple is in the centre of the facade, and rises
+nearly to a level with the elbows of the colossi; above the lintel,
+and facing the river, stands a figure of the god Ra, represented with a
+human body and the head of a sparrow-hawk, while two images of the king
+in profile, one on each side of the god, offer him a figure of Truth.
+The first hall, 130 feet long by 58 feet broad, takes the place of the
+court surrounded by a colonnade which in other temples usually follows
+the pylon. Her eight Osiride figures, standing against as many square
+pillars, appear to support the weight of the superincumbent rock. Their
+profile catches the light as it enters through the open doorway, and
+in the early morning, when the rising sun casts a ruddy ray over their
+features, their faces become marvellously life-like. We are almost
+tempted to think that a smile plays over their lips as the first beams
+touch them. The remaining chambers consist of a hypostyle hall nearly
+square in shape, the sanctuary itself being between two smaller
+apartments, and of eight subterranean chambers excavated at a lower
+level than the rest of the temple. The whole measures 178 feet from the
+threshold to the far end of the Holy of Holies. The walls are covered
+with bas-reliefs in which the Pharaoh has vividly depicted the wars
+which he carried on in the four corners of his kingdom; here we see
+raids against the negroes, there the war with the Khati, and further
+on an encounter with some Libyan tribe. Ramses, flushed by the heat of
+victory, is seen attacking two Timihu chiefs: one has already fallen
+to the ground and is being trodden underfoot; the other, after vainly
+letting fly his arrows, is about to perish from a blow of the conqueror.
+
+[Illustration: 228.jpg THE FACE OF THE ROCK AT ABU SIMGEL]
+
+His knees give way beneath him, his head falls heavily backwards, and
+the features are contracted in his death-agony. Pharaoh with his left
+hand has seized him by the arm, while with his right he points his
+lance against his enemy's breast, and is about to pierce him through
+the heart. As a rule, this type of bas-relief is executed with a
+conventional grace which leaves the spectator unmoved, and free to
+consider the scene merely from its historical point of view, forgetful
+of the artist.
+
+[Illustration: 229.jpg RAMSES II. PIERCES a Libyan chief with his lance]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Mons. do Bock.
+
+An examination of most of the other wall-decorations of the speos will
+furnish several examples of this type: we see Ramses with a suitable
+gesture brandishing his weapon above a group of prisoners, and the
+composition furnishes us with a fair example of official sculpture,
+correct, conventional, but devoid of interest. Here, on the contrary,
+the drawing is so full of energy that it carries the imagination hack to
+the time and scene of those far-off battles.
+
+[Illustration: 230.jpg RAMSES II. STRIKES A GROUP OF PRISONERS]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+The indistinct light in which it is seen helps the illusion, and we
+almost forget that it is a picture we are beholding, and not the action
+itself as it took place some three thousand years ago. A small speos,
+situated at some hundred feet further north, is decorated with standing
+colossi of smaller size, four of which represent Ramses, and two of them
+his wife, Isit Nofritari. This speos possesses neither peristyle
+nor crypt, and the chapels are placed at the two extremities of the
+transverse passage, instead of being in a parallel line with the
+sanctuary; on the other hand, the hypostyle hall rests on six pillars
+with Hathor-headed capitals of fine proportions.
+
+[Illustration: 231.jpg THE FACADE OF THE LITTLE SPEOS OF HAUTHOR AT ABU
+SIMBEL]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the plates in Champollion.
+
+A third excavated grotto of modest dimensions served as an accessory
+chamber to the two others. An inexhaustible stream of yellow sand
+poured over the great temple from the summit of the cliff, and partially
+covered it every year. No sooner were the efforts to remove it relaxed,
+than it spreads into the chambers, concealing the feet of the colossi,
+and slowly creeping upwards to their knees, breasts, and necks; at the
+beginning of this century they were entirely hidden. In spite of all
+that was done to divert it, it ceaselessly reappeared, and in a few
+summers regained all the ground which had been previously cleared.
+It would seem as if the desert, powerless to destroy the work of the
+conqueror, was seeking nevertheless to hide it from the admiration of
+posterity.*
+
+     * The English engineers have succeeded in barring out the
+     sand, and have prevented it from pouring over the cliff any
+     more.--Ed.
+
+Seti had worked indefatigably at Thebes, but the shortness of his reign
+prevented him from completing the buildings he had begun there. There
+existed everywhere, at Luxor, at Karnak, and on the left bank of the
+Nile, the remains of his unfinished works; sanctuaries partially roofed
+in, porticoes incomplete, columns raised to merely half their height,
+halls as yet imperfect with blank walls, here and there covered with
+only the outlines in red and black ink of their future bas-reliefs,
+and statues hardly blocked out, or awaiting the final touch of the
+polisher.*
+
+     * This is the description which Ramses gave of the condition
+     in which he found the Memnonium of Abydos. An examination of
+     the inscriptions existing in the Theban temples which Seti
+     I. had constructed, shows that it must have applied also to
+     the appearance of certain portions of Qurneh, Luxor, and
+     Karnak in the time of Ramses II.
+
+Ramses took up the work where his father had relinquished it. At Luxor
+there was not enough space to give to the hypostyle hall the extension
+which the original plans proposed, and the great colonnade has an
+unfinished appearance.
+
+[Illustration: 230.jpg COLUMNS OF TEMPLE AT LUXOR]
+
+The Nile, in one of its capricious floods, had carried away the land
+upon which the architects had intended to erect the side aisles; and if
+they wished to add to the existing structure a great court and a pylon,
+without which no temple was considered complete, it was necessary to
+turn the axis of the building towards the east.
+
+[Illustration: 233.jpg THE CHAPEL OF THUTMOSIS III. AND ONE OF THE
+PYLONS OF RAMSES II. AT LUXOR]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+In their operations the architects came upon a beautiful little edifice
+of rose granite, which had been either erected or restored by Thutmosis
+III. at a time when the town was an independent municipality and was
+only beginning to extend its suburban dwellings to meet those of Karnak.
+They took care to make no change in this structure, but set to work to
+incorporate it into their final plans. It still stands at the north-west
+corner of the court, and the elegance of its somewhat slender little
+columns contrasts happily with the heaviness of the structure to which
+it is attached. A portion of its portico is hidden by the brickwork of
+the mosque of Abu'l Haggag: the part brought to light in the course of
+the excavations contains between each row of columns a colossal statue
+of Ramses II. We are accustomed to hear on all sides of the degeneracy
+of the sculptor's art at this time, and of its having fallen into
+irreparable neglect. Nothing can be further from the truth than this
+sweeping statement. There are doubtless many statues and bas-reliefs of
+this epoch which shock us by their crudity and ugliness, but these owed
+their origin for the most part to provincial workshops which had been
+at all times of mediocre repute, and where the artists did not receive
+orders enough to enable them to correct by practice the defects of their
+education. We find but few productions of the Theban school exhibiting
+bad technique, and if we had only this one monument of Luxor from which
+to form our opinion of its merits, it would be sufficient to prove that
+the sculptors of Ramses II. were not a whit behind those of Harmham or
+Seti I. Adroitness in cutting the granite or hard sandstone had in no
+wise been lost, and the same may be said of the skill in bringing
+out the contour and life-like action of the figure, and of the art of
+infusing into the features and demeanour of the Pharaoh something of
+the superhuman majesty with which the Egyptian people were accustomed to
+invest their monarchs. If the statues of Ramses II. in the portico are
+not perfect models of sculpture, they have many good points, and their
+bold treatment makes them effectively decorative.
+
+[Illustration: 235.jpg THE COLONNADE OF SETI I. AND THE THREE COLOSSAL
+STATUES OF RAMSES II. AT LUXOR]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+Eight other statues of Ramses are arranged along the base of the
+facade, and two obelisks--one of which has been at Paris for half a
+century*--stood on either side of the entrance.
+
+     * The colonnade and the little temple of Thutmosis III. were
+     concealed under the houses of the village; they were first
+     brought to light in the excavations of 1884-86.
+
+The whole structure lacks unity, and there is nothing corresponding to
+it in this respect anywhere else in Egypt. The northern half does
+not join on to the southern, but seems to belong to quite a distinct
+structure, or the two parts might be regarded as having once formed
+a single edifice which had become divided by an accident, which the
+architect had endeavoured to unite together again by a line of columns
+running between two walls. The masonry of the hypostyle hall at Karnak
+was squared and dressed, but the walls had been left undecorated, as
+was also the case with the majority of the shafts of the columns and the
+surface of the architraves. Ramses covered the whole with a series of
+sculptured and painted scenes which had a rich ornamental effect; he
+then decorated the pylon, and inscribed on the outer wall to the south
+the list of cities which he had captured. The temple of Amon then
+assumed the aspect which it preserved henceforward for centuries. The
+Ramessides and their successors occupied themselves in filling it with
+furniture, and in taking steps for the repair of any damage that might
+accrue to the hall or pillars; they had their cartouches or inscriptions
+placed in vacant spaces, but they did not dare to modify its
+arrangement. It was reserved for the Ethiopian and Greek Pharaohs, in
+presence of the hypostyle and pylon of the XIXth dynasty, to conceive of
+others on a still vaster scale.
+
+[Illustration: 236.jpg PAINTINGS OF CHAIRS]
+
+Ramses, having completed the funerary chapel of Seti at Qurneh upon the
+left bank of the river, then began to think of preparing the edifice
+destined for the cult of his "double"--that Eamesseum whose majestic
+ruins still stand at a short distance to the north of the giants of
+Amenothes. Did these colossal statues stimulate his spirit of emulation
+to do something yet more marvellous? He erected here, at any rate,
+a still more colossal figure. The earthquake which shattered Memnon
+brought it to the ground, and fragments of it still strew the soil where
+they fell some nineteen centuries ago. There are so many of them that the
+spectator would think himself in the middle of a granite quarry.*
+
+     * The ear measures 3 feet 4 inches (feet ?) in length; the
+          statue is 58 feet high from the top of the head to the
+          sole of the foot, and the weight of the whole has been
+          estimated at over a thousand tons.
+
+[Illustration: 237.jpg THE REMAINS OF THE COLOSSAL STATUE OF RAMSES II.
+AT THE RAMESSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato
+
+The portions forming the breast, arms, and thighs are in detached
+pieces, but they are still recognisable where they lie close to each
+other. The head has lost nothing of its characteristic expression, and
+its proportions are so enormous, that a man could sleep crouched up
+in the hollow of one of its ears as if on a sofa. Behind the court
+overlooked by this colossal statue lay a second court, surrounded by a
+row of square pillars, each having a figure of Osiris attached to it.
+The god is represented as a mummy, the swathings throwing the body and
+limbs into relief.
+
+[Illustration: 238.jpg THE RAMESSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato; the great
+     blocks in the foreground are the fragments of the colossal
+     statue of Ramses II.
+
+His hands are freed from the bandages and are crossed on the breast, and
+hold respectively the flail and crook; the smiling face is surmounted by
+an enormous head-dress. The sanctuary with the buildings attached to
+it has perished, but enormous brick structures extend round the ruins,
+forming an enclosure of storehouses. Here the priests of the "double"
+were accustomed to dwell with their wives and slaves, and here they
+stored up the products of their domains--meat, vegetables, corn, fowls
+dried or preserved in fat, and wines procured from all the vineyards of
+Egypt.
+
+These were merely the principal monuments put up by Ramses II. at Thebes
+during the sixty-seven years of his rule. There would be no end to the
+enumeration of his works if we were to mention all the other edifices
+which he constructed in the necropolis or among the dwellings of the
+living, all those which he restored, or those which he merely repaired
+or inscribed with his cartouches. These are often cut over the name of
+the original founder, and his usurpations of monuments are so numerous
+that he might be justly accused of having striven to blot out the memory
+of his predecessors, and of claiming for himself the entire work of the
+whole line of Pharaohs. It would seem as if, in his opinion, the glory
+of Egypt began with him, or at least with his father, and that no
+victorious campaigns had been ever heard of before those which he
+conducted against the Libyans and the Hittites.
+
+The battle of Qodshu, with its attendant episodes--the flogging of the
+spies, the assault upon the camp, the charge of the chariots, the flight
+of the Syrians--is the favourite subject of his inscriptions; and the
+poem of Pentauirit adds to the bas-reliefs a description worthy of the
+acts represented. This epic reappears everywhere, in Nubia and in the
+Said, at Abu Simbel, at Beit-Wally, at Derr, at Luxor, at Karnak, and
+on the Eamesseum, and the same battle-scenes, with the same accompanying
+texts, reappear in the Memnonium, whose half-ruined walls still crown
+the necropolis of Abydos.
+
+[Illustration: 240.jpg THE RUINS OF THE MEMNONIUM OF RAMSES II. AT
+ABYDOS]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+He had decided upon the erection of this latter monument at the very
+beginning of his reign, and the artisans who had worked at the similar
+structure of Seti I. were employed to cover its walls with admirable
+bas-reliefs. Ramses also laid claim to have his own resting-place at
+"the Cleft;" in this privilege he associated all the Pharaohs, from whom
+he imagined himself to be descended, and the same list of their names,
+which we find engraved in the chapel of his father, appears on his
+building also. Some ruins, lying beyond Abydos, are too formless to do
+more than indicate the site of some of his structures. He enlarged
+the temple of Harshafitu and that of Osiris at Heracleopolis, and, to
+accomplish these works the more promptly, his workmen had recourse
+for material to the royal towns of the IVth and XIIth dynasties; the
+pyramids of Usirtasen II. and Snofrui at Medum suffered accordingly the
+loss of the best part of their covering. He finished the mausoleum at
+Memphis, and dedicated the statue which Seti had merely blocked out;
+he then set to work to fill the city with buildings of his own
+device--granite and sandstone chambers to the east of the Sacred Lake,*
+monumental gateways to the south,** and before one of them a fine
+colossal figure in granite.*** It lay not long ago at the bottom of a
+hole among the palm trees, and was covered by the inundation every year;
+it has now been so raised as to be safe from the waters. Ramses could
+hardly infuse new life into all the provinces which had been devastated
+years before by the Shepherd-kings; but Heliopolis,**** Bubastes,
+Athribis, Patumu, Mendis, Tell Moqdam, and all the cities of the eastern
+corner of the Delta, constitute a museum of his monuments, every object
+within them testifying to his activity.
+
+     * Partly excavated and published by Mariette, and partly by
+     M. de Morgan. This is probably the temple mentioned in the
+     _Great Inscription of Abu Simbel_.
+
+     ** These are probably those mentioned by Herodotus, when he
+     says that Sesostris constructed a propylon in the temple of
+     Hephaistos.
+
+     *** This is Abu-1-hol of the Arabs.
+
+     **** Ruins of the temple of Ra bear the cartouche of Ramses
+     II. "Cleopatra's Needle," transported to Alexandria by one
+     of the Ptolemies, had been set up by Ramses at Heliopolis;
+     it is probably one of the four obelisks which the
+     traditional Sesostris is said to have erected in that city,
+     according to Pliny.
+
+He colonised these towns with his prisoners, rebuilt them, and set to
+work to rouse them from the torpor into which they had fallen after
+their capture by Ahmosis. He made a third capital of Tanis, which
+rivalled both Memphis and Thebes.
+
+[Illustration: 242.jpg THE COLOSSAL STATUE OF RAMSES II. AT MITRAHINEH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph brought back by
+     Benedite.
+
+Before this it had been little more than a deserted ruin: he cleared
+out the _debris_, brought a population to the place; rebuilt the temple,
+enlarging it by aisles which extended its area threefold; and here he
+enthroned, along with the local divinities, a triad, in which Amonra and
+Sutkhu sat side by side with his own deified "double." The ruined
+walls, the overturned stelae, the obelisks recumbent in the dust, and
+the statues of his usurped predecessors, all bear his name. His colossal
+figure of statuary sandstone, in a sitting attitude like that at the
+Eamesseum, projected from the chief court, and seemed to look down upon
+the confused ruin of his works.*
+
+     * The fragments of the colossus were employed in the Graeco-
+     Roman period as building material, and used in the masonry
+     of a boundary wall.
+
+We do not know how many wives he had in his harem, but one of the lists
+of his children which has come down to us enumerates, although mutilated
+at the end, one hundred and eleven sons, while of his daughters we know
+of fifty-five.*
+
+     * The list of Abydos enumerates thirty-three of his sons and
+     thirty-two of his daughters, that of Wady-Sebua one hundred
+     and eleven of his sons and fifty-one of his daughters; both
+     lists are mutilated. The remaining lists for the most part
+     record only some of the children living at the time they
+     were drawn up, at Derr, at the Eamesseum, and at Abu Simbel.
+
+The majority of these were the offspring of mere concubines or foreign
+princesses, and possessed but a secondary rank in comparison with
+himself; but by his union with his sisters Nofritari Maritmut and
+Isitnofrit, he had at least half a dozen sons and daughters who might
+aspire to the throne. Death robbed him of several of these before
+an opportunity was open to them to succeed him, and among them
+Amenhikhopshuf, Amenhiunamif, and Ramses, who had distinguished
+themselves in the campaign against the Khati; and some of his
+daughters--Bitaniti, Maritamon, Nibittaui--by becoming his wives lost
+their right to the throne. About the XXXth year of his reign, when he
+was close upon sixty, he began to think of an associate, and his choice
+rested on the eldest surviving son of his queen Isitnofrit, who was
+called Khamoisit. This prince was born before the succession of his
+father, and had exhibited distinguished bravery under the walls of
+Qodshu and at Ascalon. When he was still very young he had been invested
+with the office of high priest of the Memphite Phtah, and thus had
+secured to him the revenues of the possessions of the god, which were
+the largest in all Egypt after those of the Theban Anion. He had a great
+reputation for his knowledge of abstruse theological questions and of
+the science of magic--a later age attributing to him the composition of
+several books on magic giving directions for the invocation of spirits
+belonging to this world and the world beyond. He became the hero also of
+fantastic romances, in which it was related of him how, in consequence
+of his having stolen from the mummy of an old wizard the books of
+Thot, he became the victim of possession by a sort of lascivious and
+sanguinary ghoul. Ramses relieved himself of the cares of state by
+handing over to Khamoisifc the government of the country, without,
+however, conferring upon him the titles and insignia of royalty. The
+chief concern of Khamoisit was to secure the scrupulous observance
+of the divine laws. He celebrated at Silsilis the festivals of the
+inundation; he presided at the commemoration of his father's apotheosis,
+and at the funeral rites of the Apis who died in the XXXth year of the
+king's reign. Before his time each sacred bull had its separate tomb
+in a quarter of the Memphite Necropolis known to the Greeks as the
+Serapeion. The tomb was a small cone-roofed building erected on a square
+base, and containing only one chamber. Khamoisit substituted for this a
+rock-tomb similar to those used by ordinary individuals. He had a tunnel
+cut in the solid rock to a depth of about a hundred yards, and on either
+side of this a chamber was prepared for each Apis on its death, the
+masons closing up the wall after the installation of the mummy. His
+regency had lasted for nearly a quarter of a century, when, the burden
+of government becoming too much for him, he was succeeded in the LVth
+year of Ramses by his younger brother Minephtah, who was like himself
+a son of Isitnofrit.* Minephtah acted, during the first twelve years of
+his rule, for his father, who, having now almost attained the age of
+a hundred, passed peacefully away at Thebes in the LXVIII year of his
+reign, full of days and sated with glory.** He became the subject of
+legend almost before he had closed his eyes upon the world.
+
+     * Minephtah was in the order of birth the thirteenth son of
+     Ramses II.
+
+     ** A passage on a stele of Ramses IV. formally attributes to
+     him a reign of sixty-seven years. I procured at Koptos a
+     stele of his year LXVI.
+
+[Illustration: 245.jpg THE CHAPEL OF THE APIS OF AMEKOTHES III.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Mariette.
+
+He had obtained brilliant successes during his life, and the scenes
+describing them were depicted in scores of places. Popular fancy
+believed everything which he had related of himself, and added to
+this all that it knew of other kings, thus making him the Pharaoh of
+Pharaohs--the embodiment of all preceding monarchs. Legend preferred to
+recall him by the name Sesusu, Sesusturi--a designation which had been
+applied to him by his contemporaries, and he thus became better known to
+moderns as Sesostris than by his proper name Ramses Miamun.*
+
+     * This designation, which is met with at Medinet-Habu and in
+     the Anmtasi Papyrus I., was shown by E. de Rouge to refer to
+     Ramses II.; the various readings Sesu, Sesusu, Sesusturi,
+     explain the different forms Sesosis, Sesoosis, Sesostris.
+     Wiedemann saw in this name the mention of a king of the
+     XVIIIth dynasty not yet classified.
+
+According to tradition, he was at first sent to Ethiopia with a fleet
+of four hundred ships, by which he succeeded in conquering the coasts
+of the Red Sea as far as the Indus. In later times several stelae in the
+cinnamon country were ascribed to him. He is credited after this with
+having led into the east a great army, with which he conquered Syria,
+Media, Persia, Bactriana, and India as far as the ocean; and with having
+on his return journey through the deserts of Scythia reached the Don
+[Tanais], where, on the shore of the Masotic Sea, he left a number of
+his soldiers, whose descendants afterwards peopled Colchis. It was
+even alleged that he had ventured into Europe, but that the lack of
+provisions and the inclemency of the climate had prevented him from
+advancing further than Thrace.
+
+[Illustration: 246.jpg STATUE OF KHAMOISIT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a statue in the British Museum.
+
+He returned to Egypt after an absence of nine years, and after
+having set up on his homeward journey statues and stelae everywhere in
+commemoration of his victories. Herodotus asserts that he himself had
+seen several of these monuments in his travels in Syria and Ionia. Some
+of these are of genuine Egyptian manufacture, and are to be attributed
+to our Ramses; they are to be found near Tyre, and on the banks of the
+Nahr el-Kelb, where they mark the frontier to which his empire extended
+in this direction. Others have but little resemblance to Egyptian
+monuments, and were really the work of the Asiatic peoples among whom
+they were found. The two figures referred to long ago by Herodotus,
+which have been discovered near Ninfi between Sardis and Smyrna, are
+instances of the latter.
+
+[Illustration: 247.jpg STELE OF THE NAHR EL-KELB]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+The shoes of the figures are turned up at the toe, and the head-dress
+has more resemblance to the high hats of the people of Asia Minor
+than to the double crown of Egypt, while the lower garment is striped
+horizontally in place of vertically. The inscription, moreover, is in an
+Asiatic form of writing, and has nothing Egyptian about it. Ramses
+II. in his youth was the handsomest man of his time. He was tall and
+straight; his figure was well moulded--the shoulders broad, the arms
+full and vigorous, the legs muscular; the face was oval, with a firm and
+smiling mouth, a thin aquiline nose, and large open eyes.
+
+[Illustration: 248.jpg THE BAS-BELIEF OF NINFI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+[Illustration: 249.jpg THE COFFIN AND MUMMY OF RAMSES II]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph taken from the mummy
+     itself, by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+There may be seen below the cartouche the lines of the official report
+of inspection written during the XXIst dynasty. Old age and death did
+not succeed in marring the face sufficiently to disfigure it. The coffin
+containing his body is not the same as that in which his children placed
+him on the day of his obsequies; it is another substituted for it by one
+of the Ramessides, and the mask upon it has but a distant resemblance
+to the face of the victorious Pharaoh. The mummy is thin, much shrunken,
+and light; the bones are brittle, and the muscles atrophied, as one
+would expect in the case of a man who had attained the age of a hundred;
+but the figure is still tall and of perfect proportions.*
+
+
+* Even after the coalescence of the vertebrae and the shrinkage produced
+by mummification, the body of Ramses II. still measures over 5 feet 8
+inches.
+
+The head, which is bald on the top, is somewhat long, and small in
+relation to the bulk of the body; there is but little hair on the
+forehead, but at the back of the head it is thick, and in smooth stiff
+locks, still preserving its white colour beneath the yellow balsams
+of his last toilet. The forehead is low, the supra-orbital ridges
+accentuated, the eyebrows thick, the eyes small and set close to the
+nose, the temples hollow, the cheek-bones prominent; the ears, finely
+moulded, stand out from the head, and are pierced, like those of a
+woman, for the usual ornaments pendant from the lobe. A strong jaw and
+square chin, together, with a large thick-lipped mouth, which reveals
+through the black paste within it a few much-worn but sound teeth, make
+up the features of the mummied king. His moustache and beard, which were
+closely shaven in his lifetime, had grown somewhat in his last sickness
+or after his death; the coarse and thick hairs in them, white like those
+of the head and eyebrows, attain a length of two or three millimetres.
+The skin shows an ochreous yellow colour under the black bituminous
+plaster. The mask of the mummy, in fact, gives a fair idea of that of
+the living king; the somewhat unintelligent expression, slightly brutish
+perhaps, but haughty and firm of purpose, displays itself with an air
+of royal majesty beneath the sombre materials used by the embalmer.
+The disappearance of the old hero did not produce many changes in the
+position of affairs in Egypt: Minephtah from this time forth possessed
+as Pharaoh the power which he had previously wielded as regent. He was
+now no longer young. Born somewhere about the beginning of the reign of
+Ramses II., he was now sixty, possibly seventy, years old; thus an old
+man succeeded another old man at a moment when Egypt must have needed
+more than ever an active and vigorous ruler. The danger to the country
+did not on this occasion rise from the side of Asia, for the relations
+of the Pharaoh with his Kharu subjects continued friendly, and, during a
+famine which desolated Syria,* he sent wheat to his Hittite allies.
+
+     * A document preserved in the _Anastasi Papyrus III._ shows
+     how regular the relations with Syria had become. It is the
+     journal of a custom-house officer, or of a scribe placed at
+     one of the frontier posts, who notes from day to day the
+     letters, messengers, officers, and troops which passed from
+     the 15th to the 25th of Pachons, in the IIIrd year of the
+     reign.
+
+The nations, however, to the north and east, in Libya and in the
+Mediterranean islands, had for some time past been in a restless
+condition, which boded little good to the empires of the old world. The
+Tirnihu, some of them tributaries from the XIIth, and others from the
+first years of the XVIIIth dynasty, had always been troublesome, but
+never really dangerous neighbours. From time to time it was necessary
+to send light troops against them, who, sailing along the coast or
+following the caravan routes, would enter their territory, force them
+from their retreats, destroy their palm groves, carry off their cattle,
+and place garrisons in the principal oases--even in Siwah itself.
+For more than a century, however, it would seem that more active and
+numerically stronger populations had entered upon the stage. A current
+of invasion, having its origin in the region of the Atlas, or possibly
+even in Europe, was setting towards the Nile, forcing before it the
+scattered tribes of the Sudan. Who were these invaders? Were they
+connected with the race which had planted its dolmens over the plains of
+the Maghreb? Whatever the answer to this question may be, we know that
+a certain number of Berber tribes*--the Labu and Mashauasha--who had
+occupied a middle position between Egypt and the people behind them,
+and who had only irregular communications with the Nile valley, were now
+pushed to the front and forced to descend upon it.**
+
+     * The nationality of these tribes is evidenced by the names
+     of their chiefs, which recall exactly those of the
+     Numidians--Massyla, Massinissa, Massiva.
+
+     ** The Labu, Laubu, Lobu, are mentioned for the first time
+     under Ramses II.; these are the Libyans of classical
+     geographers. The Mashauasha answer to the Maxycs of
+     Herodotus; they furnished mercenaries to the armies of
+     Ramses II.
+
+They were men tall of stature and large of limb, with fair skins, light
+hair, and blue eyes; everything, in fact, indicating their northern
+origin. They took pleasure in tattooing the skin, just as the Tuaregs
+and Kabyles are now accustomed to do, and some, if not all, of them
+practised circumcision, like a portion of the Egyptians and Semites. In
+the arrangement of the hair, a curl fell upon the shoulder, while the
+remainder was arranged in small frizzled locks. Their chiefs and braves
+wore on their heads two flowering plumes. A loin-cloth, a wild-beast's
+skin thrown over the back, a mantle, or rather a covering of woollen
+or dyed cloth, fringed and ornamented with many-coloured needlework,
+falling from the left shoulder with no attachment in front, so as to
+leave the body unimpeded in walking,--these constituted the ordinary
+costume of the people. Their arms were similar to those of the
+Egyptians, consisting of the lance, the mace, the iron or copper dagger,
+the boomerang, the bow and arrow, and the sling.
+
+[Illustration: 253.jpg A LIBYAN]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+They also employed horses and chariots. Their bravery made them a foe
+not to be despised, in spite of their ignorance of tactics and their
+want of discipline. When they were afterwards formed into regiments and
+conducted by experienced generals, they became the best auxiliary troops
+which Egypt could boast of. The Labu from this time forward were the
+most energetic of the tribes, and their chiefs prided themselves upon
+possessing the leadership over all the other clans in this region of the
+world.*
+
+     * This was the case in the wars of Minephtah and Ramses
+     III., in which the Labu and their kings took the command of
+     the confederate armies assembled against Egypt.
+
+The Labu might very well have gained the mastery over the other
+inhabitants of the desert at this period, who had become enfeebled
+by the frequent defeats which they had sustained at the hands of the
+Egyptians. At the moment when Minephtah ascended the throne, their king,
+Maraiu, son of Didi, ruled over the immense territory lying between the
+Fayum and the two Syrtes: the Timihu, the Kahaka, and the Mashauasha
+rendered him the same obedience as his own people. A revolution had
+thus occurred in Africa similar to that which had taken place a century
+previously in Naharaim, when Sapalulu founded the Hittite empire. A
+great kingdom rose into being where no state capable of disturbing
+Egyptian control had existed before. The danger was serious. The
+Hittites, separated from the Nile by the whole breadth of Kharu, could
+not directly threaten any of the Egyptian cities; but the Libyans, lords
+of the desert, were in contact with the Delta, and could in a few days
+fall upon any point in the valley they chose. Minephtah, therefore,
+hastened to resist the assault of the westerns, as his father had
+formerly done that of the easterns, and, strange as it may seem, he
+found among the troops of his new enemies some of the adversaries with
+whom the Egyptians had fought under the walls of Qodshu sixty years
+before. The Shardana, Lycians, and others, having left the coasts of the
+Delta and the Phoenician seaports owing to the vigilant watch kept by
+the Egyptians over their waters, had betaken themselves to the Libyan
+littoral, where they met with a favourable reception. Whether they had
+settled in some places, and formed there those colonies of which a Greek
+tradition of a recent age speaks, we cannot say. They certainly followed
+the occupation of mercenary soldiers, and many of them hired out their
+services to the native princes, while others were enrolled among the
+troops of the King of the Khati or of the Pharaoh himself. Maraiu
+brought with him Achaeans, Shardana, Tursha, Shagalasha,* and Lycians
+in considerable numbers when he resolved to begin the strife.** This was
+not one of those conventional little wars which aimed at nothing further
+than the imposition of the payment of a tribute upon the conquered, or
+the conquest of one of their provinces. Maraiu had nothing less in view
+than the transport of his whole people into the Nile valley, to settle
+permanently there as the Hyksos had done before him.
+
+     * The Shakalasha, Shagalasha, identified with the Sicilians
+     by E. de Rouge, were a people of Asia Minor whose position
+     there is approximately indicated by the site of the town
+     Sagalassos, named after them.
+
+     ** The _Inscription of Minephtah_ distinguishes the Libyans
+     of Maraiu from "the people of the Sea."
+
+He set out on his march towards the end of the IVth year of the
+Pharaoh's reign, or the beginning of his Vth, surrounded by the elite
+of his troops, "the first choice from among all the soldiers and all the
+heroes in each land." The announcement of their approach spread terror
+among the Egyptians. The peace which they had enjoyed for fifty years
+had cooled their warlike ardour, and the machinery of their military
+organisation had become somewhat rusty. The standing army had almost
+melted away; the regiments of archers and charioteers were no longer
+effective, and the neglected fortresses were not strong enough to
+protect the frontier. As a consequence, the oases of Farafrah and of the
+Natron lakes fell into the hands of the enemy at the first attack, and
+the eastern provinces of the Delta became the possession of the invader
+before any steps could be taken for their defence. Memphis, which
+realised the imminent danger, broke out into open murmurs against the
+negligent rulers who had given no heed to the country's ramparts, and
+had allowed the garrisons of its fortresses to dwindle away. Fortunately
+Syria remained quiet. The Khati, in return for the aid afforded them
+by Minephtah during the famine, observed a friendly attitude, and
+the Pharaoh was thus enabled to withdraw the troops from his Asiatic
+provinces. He could with perfect security take the necessary measures
+for ensuring "Heliopolis, the city of Tumu," against surprise, "for
+arming Memphis, the citadel of Phtah-Tonen, and for restoring all things
+which were in disorder: he fortified Pibalisit, in the neighbourhood of
+the Shakana canal, on a branch of that of Heliopolis," and he rapidly
+concentrated his forces behind these quickly organised lines.*
+
+     * Chabas would identify Pibalisit with Bubastis; I agree
+     with Brugsch in placing it at Belbeis.
+
+Maraiu, however, continued to advance; in the early months of the summer
+he had crossed the Canopic branch of the Nile, and was now about to
+encamp not far from the town of Pirici. When the king heard of this "he
+became furious against them as a lion that fascinates its victim; he
+called his officers together and addressed them: 'I am about to make you
+hear the words of your master, and to teach you this: I am the sovereign
+shepherd who feeds you; I pass my days in seeking out that which is
+useful for you: I am your father; is there among you a father like me
+who makes his children live? You are trembling like geese, you do not
+know what is good to do: no one gives an answer to the enemy, and
+our desolated land is abandoned to the incursions of all nations. The
+barbarians harass the frontier, rebels violate it every day, every one
+robs it, enemies devastate our seaports, they penetrate into the fields
+of Egypt; if there is an arm of a river they halt there, they stay for
+days, for months; they come as numerous as reptiles, and no one is able
+to sweep them back, these wretches who love death and hate life, whose
+hearts meditate the consummation of our ruin. Behold, they arrive with
+their chief; they pass their time on the land which they attack in
+filling their stomachs every day; this is the reason why they come to
+the land of Egypt, to seek their sustenance, and their intention is to
+install themselves there; mine is to catch them like fish upon their
+bellies. Their chief is a dog, a poor devil, a madman; he shall never
+sit down again in his place.'" He then announced that on the 14th of
+Epiphi he would himself conduct the troops against the enemy.
+
+These were brave words, but we may fancy the figure that this king of
+more than sixty years of age would have presented in a chariot in the
+middle of the fray, and his competence to lead an effective charge
+against the enemy. On the other hand, his absence in such a critical
+position of affairs would have endangered the _morale_ of his soldiers
+and possibly compromised the issue of the battle. A dream settled the
+whole question.*
+
+     * Ed. Meyer sees in this nothing but a customary rhetorical
+     expression, and thinks that the god spoke in order to
+     encourage the king to defend himself vigorously.
+
+While Minephtah was asleep one night, he saw a gigantic figure of Phtah
+standing before him, and forbidding him to advance. "'Stay,' cried
+the god to him, while handing him the curved khopesh: 'put away
+discouragement from thee!' His Majesty said to him: 'But what am I to do
+then?' And Phtah answered him: 'Despatch thy infantry, and send before
+it numerous chariots to the confines of the territory of Piriu.'"**
+
+     * This name was read Pa-ari by E. de Rouge, Pa-ali by Lauth,
+     and was transcribed Pa-ari-shop by Brugsch, who identified
+     with Prosopitis. The orthography of the text at Athribis
+     shows that we ought to read Piri, Piru, Piriu; possibly the
+     name is identical with that of laru which is mentioned in
+     the Pyramid-texts.
+
+The Pharaoh obeyed the command, and did not stir from his position.
+Maraiu had, in the mean time, arranged his attack for the 1st of Epiphi,
+at the rising of the sun: it did not take place, however, until the 3rd.
+"The archers of His Majesty made havoc of the barbarians for six
+hours; they were cut off by the edge of the sword." When Maraiu saw
+the carnage, "he was afraid, his heart failed him; he betook himself
+to flight as fast as his feet could bear him to save his life, so
+successfully that his bow and arrows remained behind him in his
+precipitation, as well as everything else he had upon him." His
+treasure, his arms, his wife, together with the cattle which he had
+brought with him for his use, became the prey of the conqueror; "he tore
+out the feathers from his head-dress, and took flight with such of those
+wretched Libyans as escaped the massacre, but the officers who had the
+care of His Majesty's team of horses followed in their steps" and put
+most of them to the sword. Maraiu succeeded, however, in escaping in the
+darkness, and regained his own country without water or provisions, and
+almost without escort. The conquering troops returned to the camp laden
+with booty, and driving before them asses carrying, as bloody tokens of
+victory, quantities of hands and phalli cut from the dead bodies of the
+slain. The bodies of six generals and of 6359 Libyan soldiers were found
+upon the field of battle, together with 222 Shagalasha, 724 Tursha, and
+some hundreds of Shardana and Achaeans: several thousands of prisoners
+passed in procession before the Pharaoh, and were distributed among such
+of his soldiers as had distinguished themselves. These numbers show the
+gravity of the danger from which Egypt had escaped: the announcement
+of the victory filled the country with enthusiasm, all the more sincere
+because of the reality of the panic which had preceded it. The fellahin,
+intoxicated with joy, addressed each other: "'Come, and let us go a long
+distance on the road, for there is now no fear in the hearts of
+men.'The fortified posts may at last be left; the citadels are now open;
+messengers stand at the foot of the walls and wait in the shade for the
+guard to awake after their siesta, to give them entrance. The military
+police sleep on their accustomed rounds, and the people of the marshes
+once more drive their herds to pasture without fear of raids, for there
+are no longer marauders near at hand to cross the river; the cry of the
+sentinels is heard no more in the night: 'Halt, thou that comest, thou
+that comest under a name which is not thine own--sheer off!' and men no
+longer exclaim on the following morning: 'Such or such a thing has been
+stolen;' but the towns fall once more into their usual daily routine,
+and he who works in the hope of the harvest, will nourish himself upon
+that which he shall have reaped." The return from Memphis to Thebes was
+a triumphal march.
+
+[Illustration: 260.jpg STATUE OF MINEPHTAH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Deveria.
+
+"He is very strong, Binri Minephtah," sang the court poets, "very
+wise are his projects--his words have as beneficial effect as those of
+Thot--everything which he does is completed to the end.--When he is like
+a guide at the head of his armies--his voice penetrates the fortress
+walls.--Very friendly to those who bow their backs--before Miamun--his
+valiant soldiers spare him who humbles himself--before his courage
+and before his strength;--they fall upon the Libyans--they consume the
+Syrian;--the Shardana whom thou hast brought back by thy
+sword--make prisoners of their own tribes.--Very happy thy return to
+Thebes--victorious! Thy chariot is drawn by hand--the conquered chiefs
+march backwards before thee--whilst thou leadest them to thy venerable
+father--Amon, husband of his mother." And the poets amuse themselves
+with summoning Maraiu to appear in Egypt, pursued as he was by his own
+people and obliged to hide himself from them. "He is nothing any longer
+but a beaten man, and has become a proverb among the Labu, and his
+chiefs repeat to themselves: 'Nothing of the kind has occurred since the
+time of Ra.' The old men say each one to his children: 'Misfortune
+to the Labu! it is all over with them! No one can any longer pass
+peacefully across the country; but the power of going out of our
+land has been taken from us in a single day, and the Tihonu have been
+withered up in a single year; Sutkhu has ceased to be their chief, and
+he devastates their "duars;" there is nothing left but to conceal one's
+self, and one feels nowhere secure except in a fortress.'" The news of
+the victory was carried throughout Asia, and served to discourage the
+tendencies to revolt which were beginning to make themselves manifest
+there. "The chiefs gave there their salutations of peace, and none among
+the nomads raised his head after the crushing defeat of the Libyans;
+Khati is at peace, Canaan is a prisoner as far as the disaffected are
+concerned, the inhabitant of Ascalon is led away, Gezer is carried into
+captivity, Ianuamim is brought to nothing, the Israilu are destroyed and
+have no longer seed, Kharu is like a widow of the land of Egypt."*
+
+     * This passage is taken from a stele discovered by Petrie in
+     1896, on the site of the Amenophium at Thebes. The mention
+     of the Israilu immediately calls to mind the place-names
+     Yushaph-ilu, Yakob-ilu, on lists of Thutmosis III. which
+     have been compared with the names Jacob and Joseph.
+
+Minephtah ought to have followed up his opportunity to the end, but he
+had no such intention, and his inaction gave Maraiu time to breathe.
+Perhaps the effort which he had made had exhausted his resources,
+perhaps old age prevented him from prosecuting his success; he was
+content, in any case, to station bodies of pickets on the frontier,
+and to fortify a few new positions to the east of the Delta. The Libyan
+kingdom was now in the same position as that in which the Hittite had
+been after the campaign of Seti I.: its power had been checked for the
+moment, but it remained intact on the Egyptian frontier, awaiting its
+opportunity.
+
+Minephtah lived for some time after this memorable year* and the number
+of monuments which belong to this period show that he reigned in peace.
+We can see that he carried out works in the same places as his father
+before him; at Tanis as well as Thebes, in Nubia as well as in the
+Delta. He worked the sandstone quarries for his building materials,
+and continued the custom of celebrating the feasts of the inundation at
+Silsileh. One at least of the stelae which he set up on the occasion of
+these feasts is really a chapel, with its architraves and columns, and
+still, excites the admiration of the traveller on account both of its
+form and of its picturesque appearance.
+
+     * The last known year of his reign is the year VIII. The
+     lists of Manetho assign to him a reign of from twenty to
+     forty years; Brugsch makes it out to have been thirty-four
+     years, from 1300 to 1266 B.C., which is evidently too much,
+     but we may attribute to him without risk of serious error a
+     reign of about twenty years.
+
+The last years of his life were troubled by the intrigues of princes who
+aspired to the throne, and by the ambition of the ministers to whom he
+was obliged to delegate his authority.
+
+[Illustration: 263.jpg THE CHAPELS OF RAMSES II. AND MINEPHTAH AT
+SISILEH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+One of the latter, a man of Semite origin, named Ben-Azana, of
+Zor-bisana, who had assumed the appellation of his first patron,
+ramsesupirniri, appears to have acted for him as regent. Minephtah
+was succeeded, apparently, by one of his sons, called Seti, after his
+great-grandfather.* Seti II. had doubtless reached middle age at the
+time of his accession, but his portraits represent him, nevertheless,
+with the face and figure of a young man.** The expression in these is
+gentle, refined, haughty, and somewhat melancholic. MU It is the type
+of Seti I. and Ramses II., but enfeebled and, as it were, saddened. An
+inscription of his second year attributes to him victories in Asia,***
+but others of the same period indicate the existence of disturbances
+similar to those which had troubled the last years of his father.
+
+     * E. de Rouge introduced Amenmeses and Siphtah between
+     Minephtah and Seti II., and I had up to the present followed
+     his example; I have come back to the position of Chabas,
+     making Seti II. the immediate successor of Minephtah, which
+     is also the view of Brugsch, Wiedemann, and Ed. Meyer. The
+     succession as it is now given does not seem to me to be free
+     from difficulties; the solution generally adopted has only
+     the merit of being preferable to that of E. de Rouge, which
+     I previously supported.
+
+     ** The last date known of his reign is the year II. which is
+     found at Silsilis; Chabas was, nevertheless, of the opinion
+     that he reigned a considerable time.
+
+     *** The expressions employed in this document do not vary
+     much from the usual protocol of all kings of this period.
+     The triumphal chant of Seti II. preserved in the _Anastasi
+     Papyrus IV_. is a copy of the triumphal chant of Minephtah,
+     which is in the same Papyrus.
+
+[Illustration: 264.jpg STATUE OF SETI II.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+These were occasioned by a certain Aiari, who was high priest of Phtah,
+and who had usurped titles belonged ordinarily to the Pharaoh or his
+eldest son, in the house of Sibu, "heir and hereditary prince of the two
+lands." Seti died, it would seem, without having had time to finish his
+tomb. We do not know whether he left any legitimate children, but two
+sovereigns succeeded him who were not directly connected with him, but
+were probably the grandsons of the Amenmesis and the Siphtah, whom we
+meet with among the children of Ramses. The first of these was also
+called Amenmesis,* and he held sway for several years over the whole of
+Egypt, and over its foreign possessions.
+
+     * Graffiti of this sovereign have been found at the second
+     cataract. Certain expressions have induced E. de Rouge to
+     believe that he, as well as Siphtah, came originally from
+     Khibit in the Aphroditopolite nome. This was an allusion, as
+     Chabas had seen, to the myth of Horus, similar to that
+     relating to Thutmosis III., and which we more usually meet
+     with in the cases of those kings who were not marked out
+     from their birth onwards for the throne.
+
+[Illustration: 265.jpg SETI II.]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The second, who was named Siphtah-Minephtah, ascended "the throne of his
+father" thanks to the devotion of his minister Bai,* but in a greater
+degree to his marriage with a certain princess called Tausirit. He
+maintained himself in this position for at least six years, during which
+he made an expedition into Ethiopia, and received in audience at
+Thebes messengers from all foreign nations. He kept up so zealously the
+appearance of universal dominion, that to judge from his inscriptions
+he must have been the equal of the most powerful of his predecessors at
+Thebes.
+
+Egypt, nevertheless, was proceeding at a quick pace towards its
+downfall. No sooner had this monarch disappeared than it began to break
+up.** There were no doubt many claimants for the crown, but none of them
+succeeded in disposing of the claims of his rivals, and anarchy reigned
+supreme from one end of the Nile valley to the other. The land of Qimit
+began to drift away, and the people within it had no longer a sovereign,
+and this, too, for many years, until other times came; for "the land of
+Qimit was in the hands of the princes ruling over the nomes, and they
+put each other to death, both great and small.
+
+     * Bai has left two inscriptions behind him, one at Silsilis
+     and the other at Sehel, and the titles he assumes on both
+     monuments show the position he occupied at the Theban court
+     during the reign of Siphtah-Minephtah. Chabas thought that
+     Bai had succeeded in maintaining his rights to the crown
+     against the claims of Amenmesis.
+
+     ** The little that we know about this period of anarchy has
+     been obtained from the _Harris Papyrus_.
+
+Other times came afterwards, during years of nothingness, in which
+Arisu, a Syrian,* was chief among them, and the whole country paid
+tribute before him; every one plotted with his neighbour to steal the
+goods of others, and it was the same with regard to the gods as with
+regard to men, offerings were no longer made in the temples."
+
+     * The name of this individual was deciphered by Chabas;
+     Lauth, and after him Krall, were inclined to read it as Ket,
+     Ketesh, in order to identify it with the Ketes of Diodorus
+     Siculus. A form of the name Arisai in the Bible may be its
+     original, or that of Arish which is found in Phoenician,
+     especially Punic, inscriptions.
+
+This was in truth the revenge of the feudal system upon Pharaoh. The
+barons, kept in check by Ahmosis and Amenothes I., restricted by the
+successors of these sovereigns to the position of simple officers of the
+king, profited by the general laxity to recover as many as possible of
+their ancient privileges. For half a century and more, fortune had given
+them as masters only aged princes, not capable of maintaining continuous
+vigilance and firmness. The invasions of the peoples of the sea, the
+rivalry of the claimants to the throne, and the intrigues of ministers
+had, one after the other, served to break the bonds which fettered them,
+and in one generation they were able to regain that liberty of action
+of which they had been deprived for centuries. To this state of
+things Egypt had been drifting from the earliest times. Unity could be
+maintained only by a continuous effort, and once this became relaxed,
+the ties which bound the whole country together were soon broken. There
+was another danger threatening the country beside that arising from
+the weakening of the hands of the sovereign, and the turbulence of the
+barons. For some three centuries the Theban Pharaohs were accustomed to
+bring into the country after each victorious campaign many thousands of
+captives. The number of foreigners around them had, therefore, increased
+in a striking manner. The majority of these strangers either died
+without issue, or their posterity became assimilated to the indigenous
+inhabitants. In many places, however, they had accumulated in such
+proportions that they were able to retain among themselves the
+remembrance of their origin, their religion, and their customs, and with
+these the natural desire to leave the country of their exile for their
+former fatherland. As long as a strict watch was kept over them they
+remained peaceful subjects, but as soon as this vigilance was relaxed
+rebellion was likely to break out, especially amongst those who worked
+in the quarries. Traditions of the Greek period contain certain romantic
+episodes in the history of these captives. Some Babylonian prisoners
+brought back by Sesostris, these traditions tell us, unable to endure
+any longer the fatiguing work to which they were condemned, broke out
+into open revolt.
+
+[Illustration: 268.jpg AMENMESIS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after a picture in Rosellini.
+
+They made themselves masters of a position almost opposite Memphis, and
+commanding the river, and held their ground there with such obstinacy
+that it was found necessary to give up to them the province which they
+occupied: they built here a town, which they afterwards called Babylon.
+A similar legend attributes the building of the neighbouring village of
+Troiu to captives from Troy.*
+
+The scattered barbarian tribes of the Delta, whether Hebrews or the
+remnant of the iiyksos, had endured there a miserable lot ever since the
+accession of the Ramessides. The rebuilding of the cities which had
+been destroyed there during the wars with the Hyksos had restricted the
+extent of territory on which they could pasture their herds. Ramses II.
+treated them as slaves of the treasury,** and the Hebrews were not long
+under his rule before they began to look back with regret on the time of
+the monarchs "who knew Joseph."**
+
+     * The name Babylon comes probably from _Banbonu, Barbonu,
+     Babonu_--a term which, under the form _Hat-Banbonu,_ served
+     to designate a quarter of Heliopolis, or rather a suburban
+     village of that city. Troja was, as we have seen, the
+     ancient city of Troiu, now Turah, celebrated for its
+     quarries of fine limestone. The narratives collected by the
+     historians whom Diodorus consulted were products of the
+     Saite period, and intended to explain to Greeks the
+     existence on Egyptian territory of names recalling those of
+     Babylon in Chaldaea and of Homeric Troy.
+
+     ** A very ancient tradition identifies Ramses II. with the
+     Pharaoh "who knew not Joseph" (_Exod._ i. 8). Recent
+     excavations showing that the great works in the east of the
+     Delta began under this king, or under Seti II. at the
+     earliest, confirm in a general way the accuracy of the
+     traditional view: I have, therefore, accepted it in part,
+     and placed the Exodus after the death of Ramses II. Other
+     authorities place it further back, and Lieblein in 1863 was
+     inclined to put it under Amenothes III.
+
+The Egyptians set over them taskmasters to afflict them with their
+burdens. And they built for Pharaoh treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses.
+But the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied and grew.
+And they were "grieved because of the children of Israel."* A secondary
+version of the same narrative gives a more detailed account of their
+condition: "They made their lives bitter with hard bondage, in mortar
+and in brick, and in all manner of service in the field."** The
+unfortunate slaves awaited only an opportunity to escape from the
+cruelty of their persecutors.
+
+     * _Exod_. i. 11, 12. Excavations made by Naville have
+     brought to light near Tel el-Maskhutah the ruins of one of
+     the towns which the Hebrews of the Alexandrine period
+     identified with the cities constructed by their ancestors in
+     Egypt: the town excavated by Naville is Pitumu, and
+     consequently the Pithom of the Biblical account, and at the
+     same time also the Succoth of Exod. xii. 37, xiii. 20, the
+     first station of the Bne-Israel after leaving Ramses.
+
+     ** _Exod,_ i. 13, 14.
+
+The national traditions of the Hebrews inform us that the king, in
+displeasure at seeing them increase so mightily notwithstanding his
+repression, commanded the midwives to strangle henceforward their male
+children at their birth. A woman of the house of Levi, after having
+concealed her infant for three months, put him in an ark of bulrushes
+and consigned him to the Nile, at a place where the daughter of Pharaoh
+was accustomed to bathe. The princess on perceiving the child had
+compassion on him, adopted him, called him Moses--saved from the
+waters--and had him instructed in all the knowledge of the Egyptians.
+Moses had already attained forty years of age, when he one day
+encountered an Egyptian smiting a Hebrew, and slew him in his anger,
+shortly afterwards fleeing into the land of Midian. Here he found an
+asylum, and Jethro the priest gave him one of his daughters in marriage.
+After forty years of exile, God, appearing to him in a burning bush,
+sent him to deliver His people. The old Pharaoh was dead, but Moses and
+his brother Aaron betook themselves to the court of the new Pharaoh, and
+demanded from him permission for the Hebrews to sacrifice in the desert
+of Arabia. They obtained it, as we know, only after the infliction
+of the ten plagues, and after the firstborn of the Egyptians had been
+stricken.* The emigrants started from Ramses; as they were pursued by a
+body of troops, the Sea parted its waters to give them passage over the
+dry ground, and closing up afterwards on the Egyptian hosts, overwhelmed
+them to a man. Thereupon Moses and the children of Israel sang this song
+unto Jahveh, saying: "Jahveh is my strength and song--and He has become
+my salvation.--This is my God, and I will praise Him,--my father's God,
+and I will exalt Him.--The Lord is a man of war,--and Jahveh is His
+name.--Pharaoh's chariots and his hosts hath He cast into the sea,
+--and his chosen captains are sunk in the sea of weeds.--The deeps cover
+them--they went down into the depths like a stone.... The enemy said: 'I
+will pursue, I will overtake--I will divide the spoil--my lust shall
+be satiated upon them--I will draw my sword--my hand shall destroy
+them.'--Thou didst blow with Thy wind--the sea covered them--they sank
+as lead in the mighty waters."**
+
+     * _Exod._ ii.-xiii. I have limited myself here to a summary
+     of the Biblical narrative, without entering into a criticism
+     of the text, which I leave to others.
+
+     ** _Exod._ xv. 1-10 (R.V.)
+
+From this narrative we see that the Hebrews, or at least those of them
+who dwelt in the Delta, made their escape from their oppressors, and
+took refuge in the solitudes of Arabia. According to the opinion of
+accredited historians, this Exodus took place in the reign of Minephtah,
+and the evidence of the triumphal inscription, lately discovered by
+Prof. Petrie, seems to confirm this view, in relating that the people of
+Israilu were destroyed, and had no longer a seed. The context indicates
+pretty clearly that these ill-treated Israilu were then somewhere south
+of Syria, possibly in the neighbourhood of Ascalon and Glezer. If it is
+the Biblical Israelites who are here mentioned for the first time on an
+Egyptian monument, one might suppose that they had just quitted the land
+of slavery to begin their wanderings through the desert. Although the
+peoples of the sea and the Libyans did not succeed in reaching their
+settlements in the land of Goshen, the Israelites must have profited
+both by the disorder into which the Egyptians were thrown by the
+invaders, and by the consequent withdrawal to Memphis of the troops
+previously stationed on the east of the Delta, to break away from their
+servitude and cross the frontier. If, on the other hand, the Israilu of
+Minephtah are regarded as a tribe still dwelling among the mountains of
+Canaan, while the greater part of the race had emigrated to the banks
+of the Nile, there is no need to seek long after Minephtah for a date
+suiting the circumstances of the Exodus. The years following the reign
+of Seti II. offer favourable conditions for such a dangerous enterprise:
+the break-up of the monarchy, the discords of the barons, the revolts
+among the captives, and the supremacy of a Semite over the other chiefs,
+must have minimised the risk. We can readily understand how, in the
+midst of national disorders, a tribe of foreigners weary of its lot
+might escape from its settlements and betake itself towards Asia without
+meeting with strenous opposition from the Pharaoh, who would naturally
+be too much preoccupied with his own pressing necessities to trouble
+himself much over the escape of a band of serfs.
+
+Having crossed the Red Sea, the Israelites pursued their course to
+the north-east on the usual road leading into Syria, and then turning
+towards the south, at length arrived at Sinai. It was a moment when
+the nations of Asia were stirring. To proceed straight to Canaan by
+the beaten track would have been to run the risk of encountering their
+moving hordes, or of jostling against the Egyptian troops, who still
+garrisoned the strongholds of the She-phelah. The fugitives had,
+therefore, to shun the great military roads if they were to avoid coming
+into murderous conflict with the barbarians, or running into the teeth
+of Pharaoh's pursuing army. The desert offered an appropriate asylum to
+people of nomadic inclinations like themselves; they betook themselves
+to it as if by instinct, and spent there a wandering life for several
+generations.*
+
+     * This explanation of the wanderings of the Israelites has
+     been doubted by most historians: it has a cogency, once we
+     admit the reality of the sojourn in Egypt and the Exodus.
+
+The traditions collected in their sacred books described at length their
+marches and their halting-places, the great sufferings they endured, and
+the striking miracles which God performed on their behalf.*
+
+     * The itinerary of the Hebrew people through the desert
+     contains a very small number of names which were not
+     actually in use. They represent possibly either the stations
+     at which the caravans of the merchants put up, or the
+     localities where the Bedawin and their herds were accustomed
+     to sojourn. The majority of them cannot be identified, but
+     enough can still be made out to give us a general idea of
+     the march of the emigrants.
+
+Moses conducted them through all these experiences, continually troubled
+by their murmurings and seditions, but always ready to help them out of
+the difficulties into which they were led, on every occasion, by their
+want of faith. He taught them, under God's direction, how to correct the
+bitterness of brackish waters by applying to them the wood of a certain
+tree.* When they began to look back with regret to the "flesh-pots
+of Egypt" and the abundance of food there, another signal miracle was
+performed for them. "At even the quails came up and covered the camp,
+and in the morning the dew lay round about the host; and when the dew
+that lay was gone up, behold, upon the face of the wilderness there lay
+a small round thing, as small as the hoar frost on the ground. And when
+the children of Israel saw it, they said one to another, 'What is it?
+'for they wist not what it was. And Moses said unto them, 'It is the
+bread which the Lord hath given you to eat.'"**
+
+     * _Exod._ xv. 23-25. The station Marah, "the bitter waters,"
+     is identified by modern tradition with Ain Howarah. There is
+     a similar way of rendering waters potable still in use among
+     the Bedawin of these regions.
+
+     ** _Exod._ xvi. 13-15.
+
+"And the house of Israel called the name thereof 'manna: 'and it was
+like coriander seed, white; and the taste of it was like wafers made
+with honey."* "And the children of Israel did eat the manna forty years,
+until they came to a land inhabited; they did eat the manna until they
+came unto the borders of the land of Canaan."** Further on, at Eephidim,
+the water failed: Moses struck the rocks at Horeb, and a spring gushed
+out.*** The Amalekites, in the meantime, began to oppose their
+passage; and one might naturally doubt the power of a rabble of slaves,
+unaccustomed to war, to break through such an obstacle. Joshua was made
+their general, "and Moses, Aaron, and Hur went up to the top of the
+hill: and it came to pass, when Moses held up his hand, that Israel
+prevailed, and when he let down his hand, Amalek prevailed. But
+Moses' hands were heavy; and they took a stone, and put it under him, and
+he sat thereon; and Aaron and Hur stayed up his hands, the one on the
+one side, and the other on the other side, and his hands were steady
+until the going down of the sun. And Joshua discomfited Amalek and his
+people with the edge of the sword."****
+
+     * _Exod._ xvi. 31. Prom early times the manna of the Hebrews
+     had been identified with the mann-es-sama, "the gift of
+     heaven," of the Arabs, which exudes in small quantities from
+     the leaves of the tamarisk after being pricked by insects:
+     the question, however, is still under discussion whether
+     another species of vegetable manna may not be meant.
+
+     ** _Exod._ xvi. 35.
+
+     *** _Exod._ xvii. 1-7. There is a general agreement as to
+     the identification of Rephidim with the Wady Peiran, the
+     village of Pharan of the Graeco-Roman geographers.
+
+     **** Exod. xvii. 8-13.
+
+Three months after the departure of the Israelites from Egypt they
+encamped at the foot of Sinai, and "the Lord called unto Moses out of
+the mountain, saying, 'Thus shalt thou say to the house of Jacob, and
+tell the children of Israel: Ye have seen what I did unto the Egyptians,
+and how I bare you on eagles' wings, and brought you unto Myself. Now
+therefore, if ye will obey My voice indeed, and keep My covenant, then
+ye shall be a peculiar treasure unto Me from among all peoples: for all
+the earth is Mine: and ye shall be unto Me a kingdom of priests, and an
+holy nation.' The people answered together and said, 'All that the Lord
+hath spoken we will do.' And the Lord said unto Moses, 'Lo, I come unto
+thee in a thick cloud, that the people may hear when I speak with thee,
+and may also believe thee for ever.'" "On the third day, when it was
+morning, there were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the
+mount, and the voice of a trumpet exceeding loud; and all the people
+that were in the camp trembled. And Moses brought forth the people
+out of the camp to meet God; and they stood at the nether part of the
+mountain. And Mount Sinai was altogether on smoke, because the Lord
+descended upon it in fire: and the smoke thereof ascended as the smoke
+of a furnace, and the whole mount quaked greatly. And when the voice of
+the trumpet waxed louder and louder, Moses spake, and God answered him
+by a voice."*
+
+     * _Exod._ xix. 3-6, 9, 16-19.
+
+Then followed the giving of the supreme law, the conditions of the
+covenant which the Lord Himself deigned to promulgate directly to His
+people. It was engraved on two tables of stone, and contained, in ten
+concise statements, the commandments which the Creator of the Universe
+imposed upon the people of His choice.
+
+"I. I am Jahveh, which brought thee out of the land of Egypt. Thou shalt
+have none other gods before Me.
+
+II. Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image, etc.
+
+III. Thou shalt not take the name of Jahveh thy God in vain.
+
+IV. Remember the sabbath day to keep it holy.
+
+V. Honour thy father and thy mother.
+
+VI. Thou shalt do no murder.
+
+VII. Thou shalt not commit adultery.
+
+VIII. Thou shalt not steal.
+
+IX. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour.
+
+X. Thou shalt not covet."*
+
+     * We have two forms of the Decalogue--one in _Exod._ xx. 2-
+     17, and the other in _Deut._ v. 6-18.
+
+"And all the people saw the thunderings, and the lightnings, and the
+voice of the trumpet, and the mountain smoking: and when the people saw
+it, they trembled, and stood afar off. And they said unto Moses, 'Speak
+thou with us, and we will hear: but let not God speak with us, lest
+we die.'"* God gave His commandments to Moses in instalments as the
+circumstances required them: on one occasion the rites of sacrifice,
+the details of the sacerdotal vestments, the mode of consecrating the
+priests, the composition of the oil and the incense for the altar; later
+on, the observance of the three annual festivals, and the orders as to
+absolute rest on the seventh day, as to the distinctions between clean
+and unclean animals, as to drink, as to the purification of women, and
+lawful and unlawful marriages.**
+
+     * _Exod._ xx. 18, 19.
+
+     ** This legislation and the history of the circumstances on
+     which it was promulgated are contained in four of the books
+     of the Pentateuch, viz. _Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
+     Deuteronomy_. Any one of the numerous text-books published
+     in Germany will be found to contain an analysis of these
+     books, and the prevalent opinions as to the date of the
+     documents which it [the Hexateuch] contains. I confine
+     myself here and afterwards only to such results as may fitly
+     be used in a general history.
+
+The people waited from week to week until Jahveh had completed the
+revelation of His commands, and in their impatience broke the new law
+more than once. On one occasion, when "Moses delayed to come out of the
+mount," they believed themselves abandoned by heaven, and obliged Aaron,
+the high priest, to make for them a golden calf, before which they
+offered burnt offerings. The sojourn of the people at the foot of Sinai
+lasted eleven months. At the end of this period they set out once more
+on their slow marches to the Promised Land, guided during the day by
+a cloud, and during the night by a pillar of fire, which moved before
+them. This is a general summary of what we find in the sacred writings.
+
+The Israelites, when they set out from Egypt, were not yet a nation.
+They were but a confused horde, flying with their herds from their
+pursuers; with no resources, badly armed, and unfit to sustain the
+attack of regular troops. After leaving Sinai, they wandered for some
+time among the solitudes of Arabia Petraea in search of some uninhabited
+country where they could fix their tents, and at length settled on
+the borders of Idumaea, in the mountainous region surrounding
+Kadesh-Barnea.* Kadesh had from ancient times a reputation for sanctity
+among the Bedawin of the neighbourhood: it rejoiced in the possession
+of a wonderful well--the Well of Judgment--to which visits were made
+for the purpose of worship, and for obtaining the "judgment" of God. The
+country is a poor one, arid and burnt up, but it contains wells which
+never fail, and wadys suitable for the culture of wheat and for the
+rearing of cattle. The tribe which became possessed of a region in
+which there was a perennial supply of water was fortunate indeed, and
+a fragment of the psalmody of Israel at the time of their sojourn here
+still echoes in a measure the transports of joy which the people gave
+way to at the discovery of a new spring: "Spring up, O well; sing ye
+unto it: the well which the princes digged, which the nobles of the
+people delved with the sceptre and with their staves."**
+
+     * The site of Kadesh-Barnea appears to have been fixed with
+     certainty at Ain-Qadis by C. Trumbull.
+
+     ** _Numb._ xxi. 17, 18. The context makes it certain that
+     this song was sung at Beer, beyond the Arnon, in the land of
+     Moab. It has long been recognised that it had a special
+     reference, and that it refers to an incident in the
+     wanderings of the people through the desert.
+
+The wanderers took possession of this region after some successful
+brushes with the enemy, and settled there, without being further
+troubled by their neighbours or by their former masters. The Egyptians,
+indeed, absorbed in their civil discords, or in wars with foreign
+nations, soon forgot their escaped slaves, and never troubled themselves
+for centuries over what had become of the poor wretches, until in the
+reign of the Ptolemies, when they had learned from the Bible something
+of the people of God, they began to seek in their own annals for traces
+of their sojourn in Egypt and of their departure from the country. A
+new version of the Exodus was the result, in which Hebrew tradition was
+clumsily blended with the materials of a semi-historical romance, of
+which Amenothes III. was the hero. His minister and namesake, Amenothes,
+son of Hapu, left ineffaceable impressions on the minds of the
+inhabitants of Thebes: he not only erected the colossal figures in the
+Amenophium, but he constructed the chapel at Deir el-Medineh, which was
+afterwards restored in Ptolemaic times, and where he continued to be
+worshipped as long as the Egyptian religion lasted. Profound knowledge
+of the mysteries of magic were attributed to him, as in later times to
+Prince Khamoisit, son of Ramses II. On this subject he wrote certain
+works which maintained their reputation for more than a thousand years
+after his death,* and all that was known about him marked him out for
+the important part he came to play in those romantic stories so popular
+among the Egyptians.
+
+     * One of these books, which is mentioned in several
+     religious texts, is preserved in the _Louvre Papyrus_.
+
+The Pharaoh in whose good graces he lived had a desire, we are informed,
+to behold the gods, after the example of his ancestor Horus. The son of
+Hapu, or Pa-Apis, informed him that he could not succeed in his design
+until he had expelled from the country all the lepers and unclean
+persons who contaminated it. Acting on this information, he brought
+together all those who suffered from physical defects, and confined
+them, to the number of eighty thousand, in the quarries of Turah. There
+were priests among them, and the gods became wrathful at the treatment
+to which their servants were exposed; the soothsayer, therefore, fearing
+the divine anger, predicted that certain people would shortly arise who,
+forming an alliance with the Unclean, would, together with them, hold
+sway in Egypt for thirteen years. He then committed suicide, but the
+king nevertheless had compassion on the outcasts, and granted to them,
+for their exclusive use, the town of Avaris, which had been deserted
+since the time of Ahmosis. The outcasts formed themselves into a nation
+under the rule of a Heliopolitan priest called Osarsyph, or Moses,
+who gave them laws, mobilised them, and joined his forces with the
+descendants of the Shepherds at Jerusalem. The Pharaoh Amenophis, taken
+by surprise at this revolt, and remembering the words of his minister
+Amenothes, took flight into Ethiopia. The shepherds, in league with the
+Unclean, burned the towns, sacked the temples, and broke in pieces the
+statues of the gods: they forced the Egyptian priests to slaughter even
+their sacred animals, to cut them up and cook them for their foes, who
+ate them derisively in their accustomed feasts. Amenophis returned from
+Ethiopia, together with his son Ramses, at the end of thirteen years,
+defeated the enemy, driving them back into Syria, where the remainder of
+them became later on the Jewish nation.*
+
+     * A list of the Pharaohs after Ai, as far as it is possible
+     to make them out, is here given:
+
+[Illustration: 281.jpg Table]
+
+This is but a romance, in which a very little history is mingled with a
+great deal of fable: the scribes as well as the people were acquainted
+with the fact that Egypt had been in danger of dissolution at the time
+when the Hebrews left the banks of the Nile, but they were ignorant
+of the details, of the precise date and of the name of the reigning
+Pharaoh. A certain similarity in sound suggested to them the idea
+of assimilating the prince whom the Chroniclers called Menepthes or
+Amenepthes with Amen-othes, i.e. Amenophis III.; and they gave to the
+Pharaoh of the XIXth dynasty the minister who had served under a king of
+the XVIIIth: they metamorphosed at the same time the Hebrews into lepers
+allied with the Shepherds. From this strange combination there resulted
+a narrative which at once fell in with the tastes of the lovers of the
+marvellous, and was a sufficient substitute for the truth which had
+long since been forgotten. As in the case of the Egyptians of the Greek
+period, we can see only through a fog what took place after the deaths
+of Minephtah and Seti II. We know only for certain that the chiefs of
+the nomes were in perpetual strife with each other, and that a foreign
+power was dominant in the country as in the time of Apophis. The days of
+the empire would have Harmhabi himself belonged to the XVIIIth dynasty,
+for he modelled the form of his cartouches on those of the Ahmesside
+Pharaohs: the XIXth dynasty began only, in all probability, with Ramses
+I., but the course of the history has compelled me to separate Harmhabi
+from his predecessors. Not knowing the length of the reigns, we cannot
+determine the total duration of the dynasty: we shall not, however, be
+far wrong in assigning to it a length of 130 years or thereabouts, i.e.
+from 1350 to somewhere near 1220 B.C. been numbered if a deliverer had
+not promptly made his appearance. The direct line of Ramses II. was
+extinct, but his innumerable sons by innumerable concubines had left a
+posterity out of which some at least might have the requisite ability
+and zeal, if not to save the empire, at least to lengthen its duration,
+and once more give to Thebes days of glorious prosperity. Egypt had set
+out some five centuries before this for the conquest of the world, and
+fortune had at first smiled upon her enterprise. Thutmosis I., Thutmosis
+III., and the several Pharaohs bearing the name of Amenothes had marched
+with their armies from the upper waters of the Nile to the banks of the
+Euphrates, and no power had been able to withstand them. New nations,
+however, soon rose up to oppose her, and the Hittites in Asia and the
+Libyans of the Sudan together curbed her ambition. Neither the triumphs
+of Ramses II. nor the victory of Minephtah had been able to restore her
+prestige, or the lands of which her rivals had robbed her beyond her
+ancient frontier. Now her own territory itself was threatened, and her
+own well-being was in question; she was compelled to consider, not
+how to rule other tribes, great or small, but how to keep her own
+possessions intact and independent: in short, her very existence was at
+stake.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III--THE CLOSE OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE
+
+
+_RAMSES III.--THE THEBAN CITY UNDER THE RAMESSIDES--MANNERS AND
+CUSTOMS._
+
+_Nalthtasit and Ramses III.: the decline of the military spirit in
+Egypt--The reorganisation of the army and fleet by Ramses--The second
+Libyan invasion--The Asiatic peoples, the Pulasati, the Zakleala, and
+the Tyrseni: their incursions into Syria and their defeat--The campaign
+of the year XL and the fall of the Libyan kingdom--Cruising on the Red
+Sea--The buildings at Medinet-Habu--The conspiracy of Pentauirit--The
+mummy of Ramses III._
+
+_The sons and immediate successors of Ramses III.--Thebes and the
+Egyptian population: the transformation of the people and of the great
+lords: the feudal system from being military becomes religious--The
+wealth of precious metals, jewellery, furniture, costume--Literary
+education, and the influence of the Semitic language on the Egyptian:
+romantic stories, the historical novel, fables, caricatures and satires,
+collections of maxims and moral dialogues, love-poems._
+
+[Illustration: 287.jpg Page Image]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III--THE CLOSE OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE
+
+
+_Ramses III.--The Theban city under the Ramessides--Manners and
+customs._
+
+
+As in a former crisis, Egypt once more owed her salvation to a scion
+of the old Theban race. A descendant of Seti I. or Ramses II., named
+Nakhtusit, rallied round him the forces of the southern nomes, and
+succeeded, though not without difficulty, in dispossessing the Syrian
+Arisu. "When he arose, he was like Sutkhu, providing for all the
+necessities of the country which, for feebleness, could not stand,
+killing the rebels which were in the Delta, purifying the great throne
+of Egypt; he was regent of the two lands in the place of Tumu, setting
+himself to reorganise that which had been overthrown, to such good
+purpose, that each one recognised as brethren those who had been
+separated from him as by a wall for so long a time, strengthening
+the temples by pious gifts, so that the traditional rites could be
+celebrated at the divine cycles."*
+
+     * The exact relationship between Nakhtusit and Ramses II. is
+     not known; he was probably the grandson or great-grandson of
+     that sovereign, though Ed. Meyer thinks he was perhaps the
+     son of Seti II. The name should be read either Nakhitsit,
+     with the singular of the first word composing it, or
+     Nakhitusit, Nakhtusit, with the plural, as in the analogous
+     name of the king of the XXXth dynasty, Nectanebo.
+
+Many were the difficulties that he had to encounter before he could
+restore to his country that peace and wealth which she had enjoyed under
+the long reign of Sesostris. It seems probable that his advancing years
+made him feel unequal to the task, or that he desired to guard against
+the possibility of disturbances in the event of his sudden death; at
+all events, he associated with himself on the throne his eldest son
+Ramses--not, however, as a Pharaoh who had full rights to the crown,
+like the coadjutors of the Amenemhaits and Usirtasens, but as a prince
+invested with extraordinary powers, after the example of the sons of the
+Pharaohs Thutmosis and Seti I. Ramses recalls with pride, towards the
+close of his life, how his father "had promoted him to the dignity of
+heir-presumptive to the throne of Sibu," and how he had been acclaimed
+as "the supreme head of Qimit for the administration of the whole earth
+united together."* This constituted the rise of a new dynasty on the
+ruins of the old--the last, however, which was able to retain the
+supremacy of Egypt over the Oriental world. We are unable to ascertain
+how long this double reign lasted.
+
+     * The only certain monument that we as yet possess of this
+     double reign is a large stele cut on the rock behind
+     Medinet-Habu.
+
+[Illustration: 289.jpg NAKHTUSIT.]
+
+Nakhtusit, fully occupied by enemies within the country, had no leisure
+either to build or to restore any monuments;* on his death, as no tomb
+had been prepared for him, his mummy was buried in that of the usurper
+Siphtah and the Queen Tausirit.
+
+     * Wiedemann attributes to him the construction of one of the
+     doors of the temple of Mut at Karnak; it would appear that
+     there is a confusion in his notes between the prenomen of
+     this sovereign and that of Seti II., who actually did
+     decorate one of the doorways of that temple. Nakhusit must
+     have also worked on the temple of Phtah at Memphis. His
+     cartouche is met with on a statue originally dedicated by a
+     Pharaoh of the XIIth dynasty, discovered at Tell-Nebesheh.
+
+He was soon forgotten, and but few traces of his services survived him;
+his name was subsequently removed from the official list of the kings,
+while others not so deserving as he--as, for instance, Siphtah-Minephtah
+and Amenmesis--were honourably inscribed in it. The memory of his son
+overshadowed his own, and the series of the legitimate kings who formed
+the XXth dynasty did not include him. Ramses III. took for his hero his
+namesake, Ramses the Great, and endeavoured to rival him in everything.
+This spirit of imitation was at times the means of leading him to commit
+somewhat puerile acts, as, for example, when he copied certain
+triumphal inscriptions word for word, merely changing the dates and
+the cartouches,* or when he assumed the prenomen of Usirmari, and
+distributed among his male children the names and dignities of the sons
+of Sesostris. We see, moreover, at his court another high priest of
+Phtah at Memphis bearing the name of Khamoisit, and Maritumu, another
+supreme pontiff of Ra in Heliopolis. However, this ambition to resemble
+his ancestor at once instigated him to noble deeds, and gave him the
+necessary determination to accomplish them.
+
+     * Thus the great decree of Phtah-Totunen, carved by Ramses
+     II. in the year XXXV. on the rocks of Abu Simbel, was copied
+     by Ramses III. at Medinet-Habu in the year XII.
+
+He began by restoring order in the administration of affairs; "he
+established truth, crushed error, purified the temple from all crime,"
+and made his authority felt not only in the length and breadth of the
+Nile valley, but in what was still left of the Asiatic provinces.
+The disturbances of the preceding years had weakened the prestige of
+Amon-Ra, and the king's supremacy would have been seriously endangered,
+had any one arisen in Syria of sufficient energy to take advantage of
+the existing state of affairs. But since the death of Khatusaru, the
+power of the Khati had considerably declined, and they retained their
+position merely through their former prestige; they were in as much need
+of peace, or even more so, than the Egyptians, for the same discords
+which had harassed the reigns of Seti II. and his successors had
+doubtless brought trouble to their own sovereigns. They had made no
+serious efforts to extend their dominion over any of those countries
+which had been the objects of the cupidity of their forefathers, while
+the peoples of Kharu and Phoenicia, thrown back on their own resources,
+had not ventured to take up arms against the Pharaoh. The yoke lay
+lightly upon them, and in no way hampered their internal liberty; they
+governed as they liked, they exchanged one prince or chief for another,
+they waged petty wars as of old, without, as a rule, exposing themselves
+to interference from the Egyptian troops occupying the country, or from
+the "royal messengers." These vassal provinces had probably ceased to
+pay tribute, or had done so irregularly, during the years of anarchy
+following the death of Siphtah, but they had taken no concerted action,
+nor attempted any revolt, so that when Ramses III. ascended the throne
+he was spared the trouble of reconquering them. He had merely to claim
+allegiance to have it at once rendered him--an allegiance which included
+the populations in the neighbourhood of Qodshu and on the banks of the
+Nahr el-Kelb. The empire, which had threatened to fall to pieces amid
+the civil wars, and which would indeed have succumbed had they continued
+a few years longer, again revived now that an energetic prince had been
+found to resume the direction of affairs, and to weld together those
+elements which had been on the point of disintegration.
+
+One state alone appeared to regret the revival of the Imperial power;
+this was the kingdom of Libya. It had continued to increase in size
+since the days of Minephtah, and its population had been swelled by the
+annexation of several strange tribes inhabiting the vast area of the
+Sahara. One of these, the Mashauasha, acquired the ascendency among
+these desert races owing to their numbers and valour, and together with
+the other tribes--the Sabati, the Kaiakasha, the Shaiu, the Hasa, the
+Bikana, and the Qahaka*--formed a confederacy, which now threatened
+Egypt on the west. This federation was conducted by Didi, Mashaknu,
+and Maraiu, all children of that Maraiu who had led the first Libyan
+invasion, and also by Zamaru and Zautmaru, two princes of less important
+tribes.** Their combined forces had attacked Egypt for the second time
+during the years of anarchy, and had gained possession one after another
+of all the towns in the west of the Delta, from the neighbourhood of
+Memphis to the town of Qarbina: the Canopic branch of the Nile now
+formed the limit of their dominion, and they often crossed it to
+devastate the central provinces.***
+
+     * This enumeration is furnished by the summary of the
+     campaigns of Ramses III. in _The Great Harris Papyrus_. The
+     Sabati of this text are probably identical with the people
+     of the Sapudiu or Spudi (Asbytse), mentioned on one of the
+     pylons of Medinet-Habu.
+
+     ** The relationship is nowhere stated, but it is thought to
+     be probable from the names of Didi and Maraiu, repeated in
+     both series of inscriptions.
+
+     *** The town of Qarbina has been identified with the Canopus
+     of the Greeks, and also with the modern Korbani; and the
+     district of Gautu, which adjoined it, with the territory of
+     the modern town of Edko. Spiegel-berg throws doubt on the
+     identification of Qarbu or Qarbina, with Canopus. Revillout
+     prefers to connect Qarbina with Heracleopolis Parva in Lower
+     Egypt.
+
+Nakhtusiti had been unable to drive them out, and Ramses had not
+ventured on the task immediately after his accession. The military
+institutions of the country had become totally disorganised after the
+death of Minephtah, and that part of the community responsible for
+furnishing the army with recruits had been so weakened by the late
+troubles, that they were in a worse condition than before the first
+Libyan invasion. The losses they had suffered since Egypt began its
+foreign conquests had not been repaired by the introduction of fresh
+elements, and the hope of spoil was now insufficient to induce members
+of the upper classes to enter the army. There was no difficulty in
+filling the ranks from the fellahin, but the middle class and the
+aristocracy, accustomed to ease and wealth, no longer came forward in
+large numbers, and disdained the military profession. It was the fashion
+in the schools to contrast the calling of a scribe with that of a
+foot-soldier or a charioteer, and to make as merry over the discomforts
+of a military occupation as it had formerly been the fashion to extol
+its glory and profitableness. These scholastic exercises represented the
+future officer dragged as a child to the barracks, "the side-lock over
+his ear.--He is beaten and his sides are covered with scars,--he is
+beaten and his two eyebrows are marked with wounds,--he is beaten and
+his head is broken by a badly aimed blow; he is stretched on the ground"
+for the slightest fault, "and blows fall on him as on a papyrus,--and
+he is broken by the stick." His education finished, he is sent away to
+a distance, to Syria or Ethiopia, and fresh troubles overtake him. "His
+victuals and his supply of water are about his neck like the burden of
+an ass,--and his neck and throat suffer like those of an ass,--so that
+the joints of his spine are broken.--He drinks putrid water, keeping
+perpetual guard the while." His fatigues soon tell upon his health
+and vigour: "Should he reach the enemy,--he is like a bird which
+trembles.--Should he return to Egypt,--he is like a piece of old
+worm-eaten wood.--He is sick and must lie down, he is carried on an
+ass,--while thieves steal his linen,--and his slaves escape." The
+charioteer is not spared either. He, doubtless, has a moment of
+vain-glory and of flattered vanity when he receives, according to
+regulations, a new chariot and two horses, with which he drives at a
+gallop before his parents and his fellow-villagers; but once having
+joined his regiment, he is perhaps worse off than the foot-soldier.
+"He is thrown to the ground among thorns:--a scorpion wounds him in
+the foot, and his heel is pierced by its sting.--When his kit is
+examined,--his misery is at its height." No sooner has the fact been
+notified that his arms are in a bad condition, or that some article has
+disappeared, than "he is stretched on the ground--and overpowered with
+blows from a stick." This decline of the warlike spirit in all classes
+of society had entailed serious modifications in the organisation of
+both army and navy. The native element no longer predominated in most
+battalions and on the majority of vessels, as it had done under the
+XVIIIth dynasty; it still furnished those formidable companies of
+archers--the terror of both Africans and Asiatics--and also the most
+important part, if not the whole, of the chariotry, but the main body
+of the infantry was composed almost exclusively of mercenaries,
+particularly of the Shardana and the Qahaka. Ramses began his reforms
+by rebuilding the fleet, which, in a country like Egypt, was always
+an artificial creation, liable to fall into decay, unless a strong
+and persistent effort were made to keep it in an efficient condition.
+Shipbuilding had made considerable progress in the last few centuries,
+perhaps from the impulse received through Phoenicia, and the vessels
+turned out of the dockyards were far superior to those constructed under
+Hatshopsitu. The general outlines of the hull remained the same, but
+the stem and stern were finer, and not so high out of the water; the
+bow ended, moreover, in a lion's head of metal, which rose above
+the cut-water. A wooden structure running between the forecastle and
+quarter-deck protected the rowers during the fight, their heads alone
+being exposed. The mast had only one curved yard, to which the sail was
+fastened; this was run up from the deck by halyards when the sailors
+wanted to make sail, and thus differed from the Egyptian arrangement,
+where the sail was fastened to a fixed upper yard. At least half of the
+crews consisted of Libyan prisoners, who were branded with a hot iron
+like cattle, to prevent desertion; the remaining half was drawn from
+the Syrian or Asiatic coast, or else were natives of Egypt. In order
+to bring the army into better condition, Ramses revived the system of
+classes, which empowered him to compel all Egyptians of unmixed race to
+take personal service, while he hired mercenaries from Libya, Phoenicia,
+Asia Minor, and wherever he could get them, and divided them into
+regular regiments, according to their extraction and the arms that they
+bore. In the field, the archers always headed the column, to meet the
+advance of the foe with their arrows; they were followed by the Egyptian
+lancers--the Shardana and the Tyrseni with their short spears and heavy
+bronze swords--while a corps of veterans, armed with heavy maces,
+brought up the rear.* In an engagement, these various troops formed
+three lines of infantry disposed one behind the other--the light brigade
+in front to engage the adversary, the swordsmen and lancers who were to
+come into close quarters with the foe, and the mace-bearers in reserve,
+ready to advance on any threatened point, or to await the critical
+moment when their intervention would decide the victory: as in the times
+of Thutmosis and Ramses II. the chariotry covered the two wings.
+
+     * This is the order of march represented during the Syrian
+     campaign, as gathered from the arrangement observed in the
+     pictures at Medinet-Habu.
+
+It was well for Ramses that on ascending the throne he had devoted
+himself to the task of recruiting the Egyptian army, and of personally
+and carefully superintending the instruction and equipment of his men;
+for it was thanks to these precautions that, when the confederated
+Libyans attacked the country about the Vth year of his reign, he was
+enabled to repulse them with complete success. "Didi, Mashaknu, Maraiu,
+together with Zamaru and Zautmaru, had strongly urged them to
+attack Egypt and to carry fire before them from one end of it to the
+other."--"Their warriors confided to each other in their counsels,
+and their hearts were full: 'We will be drunk!' and their princes said
+within their breasts: 'We will fill our hearts with violence!' But their
+plans were overthrown, thwarted, broken against the heart of the god,
+and the prayer of their chief, which their lips repeated, was
+not granted by the god." They met the Egyptians at a place called
+"Kamsisu-Khasfi-Timihu" ("Ramses repulses the Timihu"), but their attack
+was broken by the latter, who were ably led and displayed considerable
+valour. "They bleated like goats surprised by a bull who stamps its
+foot, who pushes forward its horn and shakes the mountains, charging
+whoever seeks to annoy it." They fled afar, howling with fear, and
+many of them, in endeavouring to escape their pursuers, perished in the
+canals. "It is," said they, "the breaking of our spines which threatens
+us in the land of Egypt, and its lord destroys our souls for ever and
+ever. Woe be upon them! for they have seen their dances changed into
+carnage, Sokhit is behind them, fear weighs upon them. We march no
+longer upon roads where we can walk, but we run across fields, all the
+fields! And their soldiers did not even need to measure arms with us in
+the struggle! Pharaoh alone was our destruction, a fire against us every
+time that he willed it, and no sooner did we approach than the flame
+curled round us, and no water could quench it on us." The victory was a
+brilliant one; the victors counted 12,535 of the enemy killed,* and
+many more who surrendered at discretion. The latter were formed into
+a brigade, and were distributed throughout the valley of the Nile in
+military settlements. They submitted to their fate with that resignation
+which we know to have been a characteristic of the vanquished at that
+date.
+
+     * The number of the dead is calculated from that of the
+     hands and phalli brought in by the soldiers after the
+     victory, the heaps of which are represented at Medinet-Habu.
+
+They regarded their defeat as a judgment from God against which there
+was no appeal; when their fate had been once pronounced, nothing
+remained to the condemned except to submit to it humbly, and to
+accommodate themselves to the master to whom they were now bound by a
+decree from on high. The prisoners of one day became on the next the
+devoted soldiers of the prince against whom they had formerly fought
+resolutely, and they were employed against their own tribes, their
+employers having no fear of their deserting to the other side during
+the engagement. They were lodged in the barracks at Thebes, or in the
+provinces under the feudal lords and governors of the Pharaoh, and
+were encouraged to retain their savage customs and warlike spirit. They
+intermarried either with the fellahin or with women of their own tribes,
+and were reinforced at intervals by fresh prisoners or volunteers.
+Drafted principally into the Delta and the cities of Middle Egypt, they
+thus ended by constituting a semi-foreign population, destined by nature
+and training to the calling of arms, and forming a sort of warrior
+caste, differing widely from the militia of former times, and known for
+many generations by their national name of Mashauasha. As early as the
+XIIth dynasty, the Pharaohs had, in a similar way, imported the Mazaiu
+from Nubia, and had used them as a military police; Ramses III. now
+resolved to naturalise the Libyans for much the same purpose. His
+victory did not bear the immediate fruits that we might have expected
+from his own account of it; the memory of the exploits of Ramses II.
+haunted him, and, stimulated by the example of his ancestor at Qodshu,
+he doubtless desired to have the sole credit of the victory over the
+Libyans. He certainly did overcome their kings, and arrested their
+invasion; we may go so far as to allow that he wrested from them the
+provinces which they had occupied on the left bank of the Canopic
+branch, from Marea to the Natron Lakes, but he did not conquer them,
+and their power still remained as formidable as ever. He had gained a
+respite at the point of the sword, but he had not delivered Egypt from
+their future attacks.
+
+[Illustration: 299.jpg one of the Libyan chiefs VANQUISHED BY RAMSES
+III.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Champollion.
+
+He might perhaps have been tempted to follow up his success and assume
+the offensive, had not affairs in Asia at this juncture demanded the
+whole of his attention. The movement of great masses of European tribes
+in a southerly and easterly direction was beginning to be felt by the
+inhabitants of the Balkans, who were forced to set out in a double
+stream of emigration--one crossing the Bosphorus and the Propontis
+towards the centre of Asia Minor, while the other made for what was
+later known as Greece Proper, by way of the passes over Olympus and
+Pindus. The nations who had hitherto inhabited these regions, now found
+themselves thrust forward by the pressure of invading hordes, and were
+constrained to move towards the south and east by every avenue which
+presented itself. It was probably the irruption of the Phrygians into
+the high table-land which gave rise to the general exodus of these
+various nations--the Pulasati, the Zakkala, the Shagalasha, the Danauna,
+and the Uashasha--some of whom had already made their way into Syria and
+taken part in campaigns there, while others had as yet never measured
+strength with the Egyptians. The main body of these migrating tribes
+chose the overland route, keeping within easy distance of the coast,
+from Pamphylia as far as the confines of Naharaim.
+
+[Illustration: 300.jpg THE WAGGONS OF THE PULASATI AND THEIR
+CONFEDERATES]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Champollion.
+
+They were accompanied by their families, who must have been mercilessly
+jolted in the ox-drawn square waggons with solid wheels in which they
+travelled. The body of the vehicle was built either of roughly squared
+planks, or else of something resembling wicker-work. The round axletree
+was kept in its place by means of a rude pin, and four oxen were
+harnessed abreast to the whole structure. The children wore no clothes,
+and had, for the most part, their hair tied into a tuft on the top of
+their heads; the women affected a closely fitting cap, and were wrapped
+in large blue or red garments drawn close to the body.* The men's attire
+varied according to the tribe to which they belonged. The Pulasati
+undoubtedly held the chief place; they were both soldiers and sailors,
+and we must recognise in them the foremost of those tribes known to the
+Greeks of classical times as the Oarians, who infested the coasts of
+Asia Minor as well as those of Greece and the AEgean islands.**
+
+     * These details are taken from the battle-scenes at Medinet-
+     Habu.
+
+     ** The Pulasati have been connected with the Philistines by
+     Champollion, and subsequently by the early English
+     Egyptologists, who thought they recognised in them the
+     inhabitants of the Shephelah. Chabas was the first to
+     identify them with the Pelasgi; Unger and Brugsch prefer to
+     attribute to them a Libyan origin, but the latter finally
+     returns to the Pelasgic and Philistine hypothesis. They were
+     without doubt the Philistines, but in their migratory state,
+     before they settled on the coast of Palestine.
+
+[Illustration: 301.jpg PULASATI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+Crete was at this time the seat of a maritime empire, whose chiefs were
+perpetually cruising the seas and harassing the civilized states of
+the Eastern Mediterranean. These sea-rovers had grown wealthy through
+piracy, and contact with the merchants of Syria and Egypt had awakened
+in them a taste for a certain luxury and refinement, of which we find
+no traces in the remains of their civilization anterior to this period.
+Some of the symbols in the inscriptions found on their monuments recall
+certain of the Egyptian characters, while others present an original
+aspect and seem to be of AEgean origin. We find in them, arranged in
+juxtaposition, signs representing flowers, birds, fish, quadrupeds
+of various kinds, members of the human body, and boats and household
+implements. From the little which is known of this script we are
+inclined to derive it from a similar source to that which has furnished
+those we meet with in several parts of Asia Minor and Northern Syria.
+It would appear that in ancient times, somewhere in the centre of the
+Peninsula--but under what influence or during what period we know not--a
+syllabary was developed, of which varieties were handed on from tribe
+to tribe, spreading on the one side to the Hittites, Cilicians, and
+the peoples on the borders of Syria and Egypt, and on the other to the
+Trojans, to the people of the Cyclades, and into Crete and Greece. It
+is easy to distinguish the Pulasati by the felt helmet which they wore
+fastened under the chin by two straps and surmounted by a crest of
+feathers. The upper part of their bodies was covered by bands of leather
+or some thick material, below which hung a simple loin-cloth, while
+their feet were bare or shod with short sandals. They carried each a
+round buckler with two handles, and the stout bronze sword common to
+the northern races, suspended by a cross belt passing over the left
+shoulder, and were further armed with two daggers and two javelins.
+They hurled the latter from a short distance while attacking, and then
+drawing their sword or daggers, fell upon the enemy; we find among them
+a few chariots of the Hittite type, each manned by a driver and two
+fighting men. The Tyrseni appear to have been the most numerous after
+the Pulasati, next to whom came the Zakkala. The latter are thought to
+have been a branch of the Siculo-Pelasgi whom Greek tradition represents
+as scattered at this period among the Cyclades and along the coast of
+the Hellespont;* they wore a casque surmounted with plumes like that
+of the Pulasati. The Tyrseni may be distinguished by their feathered
+head-dress, but the Shaga-lasha affected a long ample woollen cap
+falling on the neck behind, an article of apparel which is still worn by
+the sailors of the Archipelago; otherwise they were equipped in much the
+same manner as their allies. The other members of the confederation,
+the Shardana, the Danauna, and the Nashasha, each furnished an
+inconsiderable contingent, and, taken all together, formed but a small
+item of the united force.**
+
+     * The Zakkara, or Zakkala, have been identified with the
+     Teucrians by Lauth, Chabas, and Fr. Lenormant, with the
+     Zygritse of Libya by linger and Brugsch, who subsequently
+     returned to the Teucrian hypothesis; W. Max Millier regards
+     them as an Asiatic nation probably of the Lydian family. The
+     identification with the Siculo-Pelasgi of the AEgean Sea was
+     proposed by Maspero.
+
+     ** The form of the word shows that it is of Asiatic origin,
+     Uasasos, Uassos, which refers us to Caria or Lycia.
+
+Their fleet sailed along the coast and kept within sight of the force on
+land. The squadrons depicted on the monuments are without doubt those of
+the two peoples, the Pulasati and Zakkala. Their ships resembled in many
+respects those of Egypt, except in the fact that they had no cut-water.
+The bow and stern rose up straight like the neck of a goose or swan; two
+structures for fighting purposes were erected above the dock, while a
+rail running round the sides of the vessel protected the bodies of the
+rowers. An upper yard curved in shape hung from the single mast, which
+terminated in a top for the look-out during a battle. The upper yard was
+not made to lower, and the top-men managed the sail in the same manner
+as the Egyptian sailors. The resemblance between this fleet and that
+of Ramses is easily explained. The dwellers on the AEgean, owing to
+the knowledge they had acquired of the Phoenician galleys, which
+were accustomed to cruise annually in their waters, became experts in
+shipbuilding.
+
+[Illustration: 304.jpg A SIHAGALASHA CHIEF]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie.
+
+They copied the lines of the Phoenician craft, imitated the rigging, and
+learned to manoeuvre their vessels so well, both on ordinary occasions
+and in a battle, that they could now oppose to the skilled eastern
+navigators ships as well fitted out and commanded by captains as
+experienced as those of Egypt or Asia.
+
+There had been a general movement among all these peoples at the very
+time when Ramses was repelling the attack of the Libyans; "the isles had
+quivered, and had vomited forth their people at once."*
+
+     * This campaign is mentioned in the inscription of Medinet-
+     Habu. We find some information about the war in the _Great
+     Harris Papyrus_, also in the inscription of Medinet-Habu
+     which describes the campaign of the year V., and in other
+     shorter texts of the same temple.
+
+They were subjected to one of those irresistible impulses such as had
+driven the Shepherds into Egypt; or again, in later times, had carried
+away the Cimmerians and the Scyths to the pillage of Asia Minor: "no
+country could hold out against their arms, neither Khati, nor Qodi, nor
+Carchemish, nor Arvad, nor Alasia, without being brought to nothing."
+The ancient kingdoms of Sapalulu and Khatusaru, already tottering,
+crumbled to pieces under the shock, and were broken up into their
+primitive elements. The barbarians, unable to carry the towns by
+assault, and too impatient to resort to a lengthened siege, spread
+over the valley of the Orontes, burning and devastating the country
+everywhere. Having reached the frontiers of the empire, in the country
+of the Amorites, they came to a halt, and constructing an entrenched
+camp, installed within it their women and the booty they had acquired.
+Some of their predatory bands, having ravaged the Bekaa, ended by
+attacking the subjects of the Pharaoh himself, and their chiefs dreamed
+of an invasion of Egypt. Ramses, informed of their design by the
+despatches of his officers and vassals, resolved to prevent its
+accomplishment. He summoned his troops together, both indigenous
+and mercenary, in his own person looked after their armament and
+commissariat, and in the VIIIth year of his reign crossed the frontier
+near Zalu. He advanced by forced marches to meet the enemy, whom
+he encountered somewhere in Southern Syria, on the borders of the
+Shephelah,* and after a stubbornly contested campaign obtained the
+victory. He carried off from the field, in addition to the treasures of
+the confederate tribes, some of the chariots which had been used for the
+transport of their families. The survivors made their way hastily to the
+north-west, in the direction of the sea, in order to receive the support
+of their navy, but the king followed them step by step.
+
+     * No site is given for these battles. E. de Rouge placed the
+     theatre of war in Syria, and his opinion was accepted by
+     Brugsch. Chabas referred it to the mouth of the Nile near
+     Pelusium, and his authority has prevailed up to the present.
+     The remarks of W. Max Mueller have brought me back to the
+     opinion of the earlier Egyptologists; but I differ from him
+     in looking for the locality further south, and not to the
+     mouth of Nahr el-Kelb as the site of the naval battle. It
+     seems to me that the fact that the Zakkala were prisoners at
+     Dor, and the Pulasati in the Shephelah, is enough to assign
+     the campaign to the regions I have mentioned in the text.
+
+It is recorded that he occupied himself with lion-hunting _en route_
+after the example of the victors of the XVIIIth dynasty, and that he
+killed three of these animals in the long grass on one occasion on the
+banks of some river. He rejoined his ships, probably at Jaffa, and made
+straight for the enemy. The latter were encamped on the level shore, at
+the head of a bay wide enough to offer to their ships a commodious
+space for naval evolutions--possibly the mouth of the Belos, in the
+neighbourhood of Magadil. The king drove their foot-soldiers into the
+water at the same moment that his admirals attacked the combined fleet
+of the Pulasati and Zakkala.
+
+[Illustration: 307.jpg THE ARMY OP RAMSES III. ON THE MARCH, AND THE
+LION-HUNT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+Some of the AEgean galleys were capsized and sank when the Egyptian
+vessels rammed them with their sharp stems, and the crews, in
+endeavouring to escape to land by swimming, were picked off by the
+arrows of the archers of the guard who were commanded by Ramses and his
+sons; they perished in the waves, or only escaped through the compassion
+of the victors. "I had fortified," said the Pharaoh, "my frontier at
+Zahi; I had drawn up before these people my generals, my provincial
+governors, the vassal princes, and the best of my soldiers. The mouths
+of the river seemed to be a mighty rampart of galleys, barques, and
+vessels of all kinds, equipped from the bow to the stern with valiant
+armed men. The infantry, the flower of Egypt, were as lions roaring
+on the mountains; the charioteers, selected from among the most rapid
+warriors, had for their captains only officers confident in themselves;
+the horses quivered in all their limbs, and were burning to trample the
+nations underfoot. As for me, I was like the warlike Montu: I stood up
+before them and they saw the vigour of my arms. I, King Ramses, I was as
+a hero who is conscious of his valour, and who stretches his hands over
+the people in the day of battle. Those who have violated my frontier
+will never more garner harvests from this earth: the period of their
+soul has been fixed for ever. My forces were drawn up before them on
+the 'Very Green,' a devouring flame approached them at the river mouth,
+annihilation embraced them on every side. Those who were on the strand
+I laid low on the seashore, slaughtered like victims of the butcher.
+I made their vessels to capsize, and their riches fell into the sea."
+Those who had not fallen in the fight were caught, as it were, in
+the cast of a net. A rapid cruiser of the fleet carried the Egyptian
+standard along the coast as far as the regions of the Orontes and
+Saros. The land troops, on the other hand, following on the heels of the
+defeated enemy, pushed through Coele-Syria, and in their first burst of
+zeal succeeded in reaching the plains of the Euphrates. A century had
+elapsed since a Pharaoh had planted his standard in this region, and the
+country must have seemed as novel to the soldiers of Ramses III. as to
+those of his predecessor Thutmosis.
+
+[Illustration: 308.jpg THE DEFEAT OF THE PEOPLES OF THE SEA]
+
+The Khati were still its masters; and all enfeebled as they were by
+the ravages of the invading barbarians, were nevertheless not slow in
+preparing to resist their ancient enemies. The majority of the citadels
+shut their gates in the face of Ramses, who, wishing to lose no time,
+did not attempt to besiege them: he treated their territory with the
+usual severity, devastating their open towns, destroying their harvests,
+breaking down their fruit trees, and cutting away their forests. He was
+able, moreover, without arresting his march, to carry by assault several
+of their fortified towns, Alaza among the number, the destruction of
+which is represented in the scenes of his victories. The spoils were
+considerable, and came very opportunely to reward the soldiers or to
+provide funds for the erection of monuments. The last battalion of
+troops, however, had hardly recrossed the isthmus when Lotanu became
+again its own master, and Egyptian rule was once more limited to its
+traditional provinces of Kharu and Phoenicia. The King of the Khati
+appears among the prisoners whom the Pharaoh is represented as bringing
+to his father Amon; Carchemish, Tunipa, Khalabu, Katna, Pabukhu, Arvad,
+Mitanni, Mannus, Asi, and a score of other famous towns of this period
+appear in the list of the subjugated nations, recalling the triumphs
+of Thutmosis III. and Amenothes II. Ramses did not allow himself to
+be deceived into thinking that his success was final. He accepted the
+protestations of obedience which were spontaneously offered him, but he
+undertook no further expedition of importance either to restrain or to
+provoke his enemies: the restricted rule which satisfied his exemplar
+Ramses II. ought, he thought, to be sufficient for his own ambition.
+
+Egypt breathed freely once more on the announcement of the victory;
+henceforward she was "as a bed without anguish." "Let each woman now go
+to and fro according to her will," cried the sovereign, in describing
+the campaign, "her ornaments upon her, and directing her steps to any
+place she likes!" And in order to provide still further guarantees of
+public security, he converted his Asiatic captives, as he previously
+had his African prisoners, into a bulwark against the barbarians, and
+a safeguard of the frontier. The war must, doubtless, have decimated
+Southern Syria; and he planted along its coast what remained of the
+defeated tribes--the Philistines in the Shephelah, and the Zakkala on
+the borders of the great oak forest stretching from Oarmel to Dor.*
+
+     * It is in this region that we find henceforward the Hebrews
+     in contact with the Philistines: at the end of the XXIst
+     Egyptian dynasty a scribe makes Dor a town of the Zakkala.
+
+Watch-towers were erected for the supervision of this region, and for
+rallying-points in case of internal revolts or attacks from without. One
+of these, the Migdol of Ramses III., was erected, not far from the scene
+of the decisive battle, on the spot where the spoils had been divided.
+This living barrier, so to speak, stood between the Nile valley and the
+dangers which threatened it from Asia, and it was not long before
+its value was put to the proof. The Libyans, who had been saved from
+destruction by the diversion created in their favour on the eastern side
+of the empire, having now recovered their courage, set about collecting
+their hordes together for a fresh invasion. They returned to the attack
+in the XIth year of Ramses, under the leadership of Kapur, a prince of
+the Mashauasha.*
+
+     * The second campaign against the Libyans is known to us
+     from the inscriptions of the year XI. at Medinet-Habu.
+
+[Illustration: 313.jpg THE CAPTIVE CHIEFS OF RAMSES III. AT
+MEDINET-IHABU]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato. The first
+     prisoner on the left is the Prince of the Khati (cf. the cut
+     on p. 318 of the present work), the second is the Prince of
+     the Amauru [Amoritos], the third the Prince of the Zakkala,
+     the fourth that of the Shardana, the fifth that of the
+     Shakalasha (see the cut on p. 304 of this work), and the
+     sixth that of the Tursha [Tyrseni].
+
+Their soul had said to them for the second time that "they would end
+their lives in the nomes of Egypt, that they would till its valleys and
+its plains as their own land." The issue did not correspond with their
+intentions. "Death fell upon them within Egypt, for they had hastened
+with their feet to the furnace which consumes corruption, under the
+fire of the valour of the king who rages like Baal from the heights of
+heaven. All his limbs are invested with victorious strength; with his
+right hand he lays hold of the multitudes, his left extends to those who
+are against him, like a cloud of arrows directed upon them to destroy
+them, and his sword cuts like that of Montu. Kapur, who had come to
+demand homage, blind with fear, threw down his arms, and his troops did
+the same. He sent up to heaven a suppliant cry, and his son [Mashashalu]
+arrested his foot and his hand; for, behold, there rises beside him the
+god who knows what he has in his heart: His Majesty falls upon their
+heads as a mountain of granite and crushes them, the earth drinks up
+their blood as if it had been water...; their army was slaughtered,
+slaughtered their soldiers," near a fortress situated on the borders
+of the desert called the "Castle of Usirmari-Miamon." They were seized,
+"they were stricken, their arms bound, like geese piled up in the bottom
+of a boat, under the feet of His Majesty."* The fugitives were pursued
+at the sword's point from the _Castle of Usirmari-Miamon_ to the _Castle
+of the Sands_, a distance of over thirty miles.**
+
+     * The name of the son of Kapur, Mashashalu, Masesyla, which
+     is wanting in this inscription, is supplied from a parallel
+     inscription.
+
+     * The Castle of Usirmari-Miamon was "on the mountain of the
+     horn of the world," which induces me to believe that we must
+     seek its site on the borders of the Libyan desert. The royal
+     title entering into its name being liable to change with
+     every reign, it is possible that we have an earlier
+     reference to this stronghold in a mutilated passage of the
+     Athribis Stele, which relates to the campaigns of Minephtah;
+     it must have commanded one of the most frequented routes
+     leading to the oasis of Amon.
+
+[Illustration: 314.jpg RAMSES III. BINDS THE CHIEFS OF THE LIBYANS]
+
+     From a photograph by Beato.
+
+Two thousand and seventy-five Libyans were left upon the ground that
+day, two thousand and fifty-two perished in other engagements, while
+two thousand and thirty-two, both male and female, were made prisoners.
+These were almost irreparable losses for a people of necessarily small
+numbers, and if we add the number of those who had succumbed in the
+disaster of six years before, we can readily realise how discouraged
+the invaders must have been, and how little likely they were to try the
+fortune of war once more. Their power dwindled and vanished almost as
+quickly as it had arisen; the provisional cohesion given to their forces
+by a few ambitious chiefs broke up after their repeated defeats, and
+the rudiments of an empire which had struck terror into the Pharaohs,
+resolved itself into its primitive elements, a number of tribes
+scattered over the desert. They were driven back beyond the Libyan
+mountains; fortresses* guarded the routes they had previously followed,
+and they were obliged henceforward to renounce any hope of an invasion
+_en masse_, and to content themselves with a few raiding expeditions
+into the fertile plain of the Delta, where they had formerly found a
+transitory halting-place. Counter-raids organised by the local troops
+or by the mercenaries who garrisoned the principal towns in the
+neighbourhood of Memphis--Hermopolis and Thinisl--inflicted punishment
+upon them when they became too audacious. Their tribes, henceforward,
+as far as Egypt was concerned, formed a kind of reserve from which the
+Pharaoh could raise soldiers every year, and draw sufficient materials
+to bring his army up to fighting strength when internal revolt or an
+invasion from without called for military activity.
+
+     * _The Great Harris Papyrus_ speaks of fortifications
+     erected in the towns of Anhuri-Shu, possibly Thinis, and of
+     Thot, possibly Hermopolis, in order to repel the tribes of
+     the Tihonu who were ceaselessly harassing the frontier.
+
+[Illustration: 318.jpg THE PRINCE OF THE KHATI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken at Medinet-
+     Habu.
+
+The campaign of the XIth year brought to an end the great military
+expeditions of Ramses III. Henceforward he never took the lead in any
+more serious military enterprise than that of repressing the Bedawin of
+Seir for acts of brigandage,* or the Ethiopians for some similar
+reason. He confined his attention to the maintenance of commercial and
+industrial relations with manufacturing countries, and with the
+markets of Asia and Africa. He strengthened the garrisons of Sinai, and
+encouraged the working of the ancient mines in that region. He sent a
+colony of quarry-men and of smelters to the land of Atika, in order to
+work the veins of silver which were alleged to exist there.**
+
+     *The Sairu of the Egyptian texts have been identified with
+     the Bedawin of Seir.
+
+     ** This is the Gebel-Ataka of our day. All this district is
+     imperfectly explored, but we know that it contains mines and
+     quarries some of which were worked as late as in the time of
+     the Mameluk Sultans.
+
+He launched a fleet on the Red Sea, and sent it to the countries of
+fragrant spices. "The captains of the sailors were there, together with
+the chiefs of the _corvee_ and accountants, to provide provision" for
+the people of the Divine Lands "from the innumerable products of Egypt;
+and these products were counted by myriads. Sailing through the great
+sea of Qodi, they arrived at Puantt without mishap, and there collected
+cargoes for their galleys and ships, consisting of all the unknown
+marvels of Tonutir, as well as considerable quantities of the perfumes
+of Puatin, which they stowed on board by tens of thousands without
+number. The sons of the princes of Tonutir came themselves into Qimit
+with their tributes. They reached the region of Coptos safe and sound,
+and disembarked there in peace with their riches." It was somewhere
+about Sau and Tuau that the merchants and royal officers landed,
+following the example of the expeditions of the XIIth and XVIIIth
+dynasties. Here they organised caravans of asses and slaves, which
+taking the shortest route across the mountain--that of the valley of
+Rahanu--carried the precious commodities to Coptos, whence they were
+transferred to boats and distributed along the river. The erection
+of public buildings, which had been interrupted since the time of
+Minephtah, began again with renewed activity. The captives in the recent
+victories furnished the requisite labour, while the mines, the voyages
+to the Somali coast, and the tributes of vassals provided the necessary
+money. Syria was not lost sight of in this resumption of peaceful
+occupations. The overthrow of the Khati secured Egyptian rule in this
+region, and promised a long tranquillity within its borders. One temple
+at least was erected in the country--that of Pa-kanana--where the
+princes of Kharu were to assemble to offer worship to the Pharaoh, and
+to pay each one his quota of the general tribute. The Pulasati were
+employed to protect the caravan routes, and a vast reservoir was
+erected near Aina to provide a store of water for the irrigation of the
+neighbouring country. The Delta absorbed the greater part of the royal
+subsidies; it had suffered so much from the Libyan incursions, that the
+majority of the towns within it had fallen into a condition as
+miserable as that in which they were at the time of the expulsion of the
+Shepherds. Heliopolis, Bubastis, Thmuis, Amu, and Tanis still preserved
+some remains of the buildings which had already been erected in them
+by Ramses; he constructed also, at the place at present called Tel
+el-Yahudiyeh, a royal palace of limestone, granite, and alabaster, of
+which the type is unique amongst all the structures hitherto discovered.
+Its walls and columns were not ornamented with the usual sculptures
+incised in stone, but the whole of the decorations--scenes as well
+as inscriptions--consisted of plaques of enamelled terra-cotta set
+in cement. The forms of men and animals and the lines of hieroglyphs,
+standing out in slight relief from a glazed and warm-coloured
+background, constitute an immense mosaic-work of many hues. The few
+remains of the work show great purity of design and an extraordinary
+delicacy of tone.
+
+[Illustration: 320.jpg SIGNS, ARMS AND INSTRUMENTS]
+
+All the knowledge of the Egyptian painters, and all the technical skill
+of their artificers in ceramic, must have been employed to compose such
+harmoniously balanced decorations, with their free handling of line and
+colour, and their thousands of rosettes, squares, stars, and buttons of
+varicoloured pastes.*
+
+     * This temple has been known since the beginning of the
+     nineteenth century, and the Louvre is in possession of some
+     fragments from it which came from Salt's collection; it was
+     rediscovered in 1870, and some portions of it were
+     transferred by Mariette to the Boulaq Museum. The remainder
+     was destroyed by the fellahin, at the instigation of the
+     enlightened amateurs of Cairo, and fragments of it have
+     passed into various private collections. The decoration has
+     been attributed to Chaldoan influence, but it is a work
+     purely Egyptian, both in style and in technique.
+
+[Illustration: 321.jpg THE COLOSSAL OSIRIAN FIGURES in THE FIRST COURT
+AT MEDINET-HABU]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+The difficulties to overcome were so appalling, that when the marvellous
+work was once accomplished, no subsequent attempt was made to construct
+a second like it: all the remaining structures of Ramses III., whether
+at Memphis, in the neighbourhood of Abydos, or at Karnak, were in the
+conventional style of the Pharaohs. He determined, nevertheless, to give
+to the exterior of the Memnonium, which he built near Medinet-Habu for
+the worship of himself, the proportions and appearance of an Asiatic
+"Migdol," influenced probably by his remembrance of similar structures
+which he had seen during his Syrian campaign. The chapel itself is of
+the ordinary type, with its gigantic pylons, its courts surrounded by
+columns--each supporting a colossal Osirian statue--its hypostyle
+hall, and its mysterious cells for the deposit of spoils taken from the
+peoples of the sea and the cities of Asia. His tomb was concealed at a
+distant spot in the Biban-el-Moluk, and we see depicted on its walls the
+same scenes that we find in the last resting-place of Seti I. or Ramses
+II., and in addition to them, in a series of supplementary chambers, the
+arms of the sovereign, his standards, his treasure, his kitchen, and the
+preparation of offerings which were to be made to him. His sarcophagus,
+cut out of an enormous block of granite, was brought for sale to Europe
+at the beginning of this century, and Cambridge obtained possession of
+its cover, while the Louvre secured the receptacle itself.
+
+These were years of profound tranquillity. The Pharaoh intended that
+absolute order should reign throughout his realm, and that justice
+should be dispensed impartially within it.
+
+[Illustration: 322.jpg THE FIRST PYLON OF THE TEMPLE]
+
+There were to be no more exactions, no more crying iniquities: whoever
+was discovered oppressing the people, no matter whether he were court
+official or feudal lord--was instantly deprived of his functions,
+and replaced by an administrator of tried integrity. Ramses boasts,
+moreover, in an idyllic manner, of having planted trees everywhere, and
+of having built arbours wherein the people might sit in the shade in the
+open air; while women might go to and fro where they would in security,
+no one daring to insult them on the way. The Shardanian and Libyan
+mercenaries were restricted to the castles which they garrisoned, and
+were subjected to such a severe discipline that no one had any cause of
+complaint against these armed barbarians settled in the heart of Egypt.
+"I have," continues the king, "lifted up every miserable one out of his
+misfortune, I have granted life to him, I have saved him from the mighty
+who were oppressing him, and have secured rest for every one in his own
+town." The details of the description are exaggerated, but the general
+import of it is true. Egypt had recovered the peace and prosperity of
+which it had been deprived for at least half a century, that is, since
+the death of Minephtah. The king, however, was not in such a happy
+condition as his people, and court intrigues embittered the later years
+of his life. One of his sons, whose name is unknown to us, but who is
+designated in the official records by the nickname of Pentauirit, formed
+a conspiracy against him. His mother, Tii, who was a woman of secondary
+rank, took it into her head to secure the crown for him, to the
+detriment of the children of Queen Isit. An extensive plot was hatched
+in which scribes, officers of the guard, priests, and officials in
+high place, both natives and foreigners, were involved. A resort to
+the supernatural was at first attempted, and the superintendent of the
+Herds, a certain Panhuibaunu, who was deeply versed in magic, undertook
+to cast a spell upon the Pharaoh, if he could only procure certain
+conjuring books of which he was not possessed. These were found to be
+in the royal library. He managed to introduce himself under cover of the
+night into the harem, where he manufactured certain waxen figures, of
+which some were to excite the hate of his wives against their husband,
+while others would cause him to waste away and finally perish. A traitor
+betrayed several of the conspirators, who, being subjected to the
+torture, informed upon others, and these at length brought the matter
+home to Pentauirit and his immediate accomplices. All were brought
+before a commission of twelve members, summoned expressly to try the
+case, and the result was the condemnation and execution of six women and
+some forty men. The extreme penalty of the Egyptian code was reserved
+for Pentauirit, and for the most culpable,--"they died of themselves,"
+and the meaning of this phrase is indicated, I believe, by the
+appearance of one of the mummies disinterred at Deir el-Bahari.* The
+coffin in which it was placed was very plain, painted white and without
+inscription; the customary removal of entrails had not been effected,
+but the body was covered with a thick layer of natron, which was applied
+even to the skin itself and secured by wrappings.
+
+     * The translations by Deveria, Lepage-Renouf, and Erman
+     agree in making it a case of judicial suicide: there was
+     left to the condemned a choice of his mode of death, in
+     order to avoid the scandal of a public execution. It is also
+     possible to make it a condemnation to death in person, which
+     did not allow of the substitution of a proxy willing, for a
+     payment to his family, to undergo death in place of the
+     condemned; but, unfortunately, no other text is to be found
+     supporting the existence of such a practice in Egypt.
+
+It makes one's flesh creep to look at it: the hands and feet are tied
+by strong bands, and are curled up as if under an intolerable pain;
+the abdomen is drawn up, the stomach projects like a ball, the chest is
+contracted, the head is thrown back, the face is contorted in a hideous
+grimace, the retracted lips expose the teeth, and the mouth is open as
+if to give utterance to a last despairing cry. The conviction is
+borne in upon us that the man was invested while still alive with the
+wrappings of the dead. Is this the mummy of Pentauirit, or of some
+other prince as culpable as he was, and condemned to this frightful
+punishment? In order to prevent the recurrence of such wicked plots,
+Pharaoh resolved to share his throne with that one of his sons who had
+most right to it. In the XXXIInd year of his reign he called together
+his military and civil chiefs, the generals of the foreign mercenaries,
+the Shardana, the priests, and the nobles of the court, and presented
+to them, according to custom, his heir-designate, who was also called
+Ramses. He placed the double crown upon his brow, and seated him beside
+himself upon the throne of Horus. This was an occasion for the Pharaoh
+to bring to remembrance all the great exploits he had performed during
+his reign--his triumphs over the Libyans and over the peoples of the
+sea, and the riches he had lavished upon the gods: at the end of the
+enumeration he exhorted those who were present to observe the same
+fidelity towards the son which they had observed towards the father, and
+to serve the new sovereign as valiantly as they had served himself.
+
+[Illustration: 327.jpg THE MUMMY OF RAMSES III.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a, photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+
+The joint reign lasted for only four years. Ramses III. was not
+much over sixty years of age when he died. He was still vigorous and
+muscular, but he had become stout and heavy. The fatty matter of the
+body having been dissolved by the natron in the process of embalming,
+the skin distended during life has gathered up into enormous loose
+folds, especially about the nape of the neck, under the chin, on the
+hips, and at the articulations of the limbs. The closely shaven head and
+cheeks present no trace of hair or beard. The forehead, although neither
+broad nor high, is better proportioned than that of Ramses II.; the
+supra-orbital ridges are less accentuated than his, the cheek-bones not
+so prominent, the nose not so arched, and the chin and jaw less massive.
+The eyes were perhaps larger, but no opinion can be offered on this
+point, for the eyelids have been cut away, and the cleared-out cavities
+have been filled with rags. The ears do not stand out so far from the
+head as those of Ramses II., but they have been pierced for ear-rings.
+The mouth, large by nature, has been still further widened in the
+process of embalming, owing to the awkwardness of the operator, who
+has cut into the cheeks at the side. The thin lips allow the white and
+regular teeth to be seen; the first molar on the right has been either
+broken in half, or has worn away more rapidly than the rest. Ramses III.
+seems, on the whole, to have been a sort of reduced copy, a little
+more delicate in make, of Ramses II.; his face shows more subtlety
+of expression and intelligence, though less nobility than that of the
+latter, while his figure is not so upright, his shoulders not so
+broad, and his general muscular vigour less. What has been said of
+his personality may be extended to his reign; it was evidently and
+designedly an imitation of the reign of Ramses IL, but fell short of its
+model owing to the insufficiency of his resources in men and money. If
+Ramses III. did not succeed in becoming one of the most powerful of the
+Theban Pharaohs, it was not for lack of energy or ability; the depressed
+condition of Egypt at the time limited the success of his endeavours and
+caused them to fall short of his intentions. The work accomplished by
+him was not on this account less glorious. At his accession Egypt was
+in a wretched state, invaded on the west, threatened by a flood
+of barbarians on the east, without an army or a fleet, and with no
+resources in the treasury. In fifteen years he had disposed of his
+inconvenient neighbours, organised an army, constructed a fleet,
+re-established his authority abroad, and settled the administration
+at home on so firm a basis, that the country owed the peace which it
+enjoyed for several centuries to the institutions and prestige which
+he had given it. His associate in the government, Ramses IV., barely
+survived him. Then followed a series of _rois faineants_ bearing the
+name of Ramses, but in an order not yet clearly determined. It is
+generally assumed that Ramses V., brother of Ramses III., succeeded
+Ramses IV. by supplanting his nephews--who, however, appear to have
+soon re-established their claim to the throne, and to have followed each
+other in rapid succession as Ramses VI., Ramses VIL, Ramses VIII., and
+Maritumu.* Others endeavour to make out that Ramses V. was the son of
+Ramses IV., and that the prince called Ramses VI. never succeeded to the
+throne at all. At any rate, his son, who is styled Ramses VIL, but who
+is asserted by some to have been a son of Ramses III., is considered to
+have succeeded Ramses V., and to have become the ancestor from whom the
+later Ramessides traced their descent.**
+
+     * The order of the Ramessides was first made out by
+     Champollion the younger and by Rosellini. Bunsen and Lepsius
+     reckon in it thirteen kings; E. de Rouge puts the number at
+     fifteen or sixteen; Maspero makes the number to be twelve,
+     which was reduced still further by Setho. Erman thinks that
+     Ramses IX. and Ramses X. were also possibly sons of Ramses
+     III.; he consequently declines to recognise King Maritumu as
+     a son of that sovereign, as Brugsch would make out.
+
+     * The monuments of these later Ramessides are so rare and so
+     doubtful that I cannot yet see my way to a solution of the
+     questions which they raise.
+
+The short reigns of these Pharaohs were marked by no events which would
+cast lustre on their names; one might say that they had nothing else to
+do than to enjoy peacefully the riches accumulated by their forefather.
+Ramses IV. was anxious to profit by the commercial relations which
+had been again established between Egypt and Puanit, and, in order to
+facilitate the transit between Coptos and Kosseir, founded a station,
+and a temple dedicated to Isis, in the mountain of Bakhni; by this
+route, we learn, more than eight thousand men had passed under the
+auspices of the high priest of Amon, Nakh-tu-ramses. This is the only
+undertaking of public utility which we can attribute to any of these
+kings. As we see them in their statues and portraits, they are heavy
+and squat and without refinement, with protruding eyes, thick lips,
+flattened and commonplace noses, round and expressionless faces. Their
+work was confined to the engraving of their cartouches on the blank
+spaces of the temples at Karnak and Medinet-Habu, and the addition of a
+few stones to the buildings at Memphis, Abydos, and Heliopolis. Whatever
+energy and means they possessed were expended on the construction of
+their magnificent tombs.
+
+[Illustration: 331.jpg A RAMSES OF THE XXth DYNASTY]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey. This is the Ramses VI. of the series now generally
+     adopted.
+
+These may still be seen in the Biban el-Moluk, and no visitor can
+refrain from admiring them for their magnitude and decoration. As to
+funerary chapels, owing to the shortness of the reigns of these kings,
+there was not time to construct them, and they therefore made up for
+this want by appropriating the chapel of their father, which was at
+Medinet-Habu, and it was here consequently that their worship was
+maintained. The last of the sons of Ramses III. was succeeded by another
+and equally ephemeral Ramses; after whom came Ramses X. and Ramses XI.,
+who re-established the tradition of more lasting reigns. There was
+now no need of expeditions against Kharu or Libya, for these enfeebled
+countries no longer disputed, from the force of custom, the authority of
+Egypt. From time to time an embassy from these countries would arrive at
+Thebes, bringing presents, which were pompously recorded as representing
+so much tribute.* If it is true that a people which has no history
+is happy, then Egypt ought to be reckoned as more fortunate under the
+feebler descendants of Ramses III. than it had ever been under the most
+famous Pharaohs.
+
+     * The mention of a tribute, for instance, in the time of
+     Ramses IV. from the Lotanu.
+
+Thebes continued to be the favourite royal residence. Here in its temple
+the kings were crowned, and in its palaces they passed the greater part
+of their lives, and here in its valley of sepulchres they were laid
+to rest when their reigns and lives were ended. The small city of the
+beginning of the XVIIIth dynasty had long encroached upon the plain, and
+was now transformed into an immense town, with magnificent monuments,
+and a motley population, having absorbed in its extension the villages
+of Ashiru,* and Madit, and even the southern Apit, which we now call
+Luxor. But their walls could still be seen, rising up in the middle of
+modern constructions, a memorial of the heroic ages, when the power of
+the Theban princes was trembling in the balance, and when conflicts with
+the neighbouring barons or with the legitimate king were on the point of
+breaking out at every moment.**
+
+     * The village of Ashiru was situated to the south of the
+     temple of Karnak, close to the temple of Mut. Its ruins,
+     containing the statues of Sokhit collected by Amenothes III.,
+     extend around the remains marked X in Mariette's plan.
+
+     * These are the walls which are generally regarded as
+     marking the sacred enclosure of the temples: an examination
+     of the ruins of Thebes shows us that, during the XXth and
+     XXIst dynasties, brick-built houses lay against these walls
+     both on the inner and outer sides, so that they must have
+     been half hidden by buildings, as are the ancient walls of
+     Paris at the present day.
+
+The inhabitants of Apit retained their walls, which coincided almost
+exactly with the boundary of Nsittaui, the great sanctuary of Amon;
+Ashiru sheltered behind its ramparts the temple of Mut, while Apit-risit
+clustered around a building consecrated by Amenothes III. to his divine
+father, the lord of Thebes. Within the boundary walls of Thebes extended
+whole suburbs, more or less densely populated and prosperous, through
+which ran avenues of sphinxes connecting together the three chief
+boroughs of which the sovereign city was composed. On every side might
+have been seen the same collections of low grey huts, separated from
+each other by some muddy pool where the cattle were wont to drink
+and the women to draw water; long streets lined with high houses,
+irregularly shaped open spaces, bazaars, gardens, courtyards, and
+shabby-looking palaces which, while presenting a plain and unadorned
+exterior, contained within them the refinements of luxury and the
+comforts of wealth. The population did not exceed a hundred thousand
+souls,* reckoning a large proportion of foreigners attracted hither by
+commerce or held as slaves.
+
+     * Letronne, after having shown that we have no authentic
+     ancient document giving us the population, fixes it at
+     200,000 souls. My estimate, which is, if anything,
+     exaggerated, is based on the comparison of the area of
+     ancient Thebes and that of such modern towns as Shit, Girgeh
+     and Qina, whose populations are known for the last fifty
+     years from the census.
+
+[Illustration: 334.jpg MAP: THEBES IN THE XXTH DYNASTY]
+
+The court of the Pharaoh drew to the city numerous provincials, who,
+coming thither to seek their fortune, took up their abode there,
+planting in the capital of Southern Egypt types from the north and
+the centre of the country, as well as from Nubia and the Oases; such a
+continuous infusion of foreign material into the ancient Theban stock
+gave rise to families of a highly mixed character, in which all the
+various races of Egypt were blended in the most capricious fashion. In
+every twenty officers, and in the same number of ordinary officials,
+about half would be either Syrians, or recently naturalised Nubians, or
+the descendants of both, and among the citizens such names as Pakhari
+the Syrian, Palamnani the native of the Lebanon, Pinahsi the negro,
+Palasiai the Alasian, preserved the indications of foreign origin.*
+A similar mixture of races was found in other cities, and Memphis,
+Bubastis, Tanis, and Siut must have presented as striking an aspect
+in this respect as Thebes.** At Memphis there were regular colonies of
+Phoenician, Canaanite, and Amorite merchants sufficiently prosperous
+to have temples there to their national gods, and influential enough to
+gain adherents to their religion from the indigenous inhabitants. They
+worshipped Baal, Aniti. Baal-Zaphuna, and Ashtoreth, side by side with
+Phtah, Nofirtumu, and Sokhit,*** and this condition of things at Memphis
+was possibly paralleled elsewhere--as at Tanis and Bubastis.
+
+     * Among the forty-three individuals compromised in the
+     conspiracy against Ramses III. whose names have been
+     examined by Deveria, nine are foreigners, chiefly Semites,
+     and were so recognised by the Egyptians themselves--Adiram,
+     Balmahara, Garapusa, lunini the Libyan, Paiarisalama,
+     possibly the Jerusalemite, Nanaiu, possibly the Ninevite,
+     Palulca the Lycian, Qadendena, and Uarana or Naramu.
+
+     ** An examination of the stelae of Abydos shows the extent of
+     foreign influence in this city in the middle of the
+     XVIIIth dynasty.
+
+     *** These gods are mentioned in the preamble of a letter
+     written on the _verso_ of the _Sallier Papyrus_. From the
+     mode in which they are introduced we may rightly infer that
+     they had, like the Egyptian gods who are mentioned with
+     them, their chapels at Memphis. A place in Memphis is called
+     "the district called the district of the Khatiu" is an
+     inscription of the IIIth year of Ai, and shows that Hittites
+     were there by the side of Canaanites.
+
+This blending of races was probably not so extensive in the country
+districts, except in places where mercenaries were employed as
+garrisons; but Sudanese or Hittite slaves, brought back by the soldiers
+of the ranks, had introduced Ethiopian and Asiatic elements into many a
+family of the fellahin.*
+
+     * One of the letters in the Great Bologna Papyrus treats of
+     a Syrian slave, employed as a cultivator at Hermopolis, who
+     had run away from his master.
+
+We have only to examine in any of our museums the statues of the
+Memphite and Theban periods respectively, to see the contrast between
+the individuals represented in them as far as regards stature and
+appearance. Some members of the courts of the Ramessides stand out as
+genuine Semites notwithstanding the disguise of their Egyptian names;
+and in the times of Kheops and Usirtasen they would have been regarded
+as barbarians. Many of them exhibit on their faces a blending of the
+distinctive features of one or other of the predominant Oriental races
+of the time. Additional evidence of a mixture of races is forthcoming
+when we examine with an unbiased mind the mummies of the period, and
+the complexity of the new elements introduced among the people by the
+political movements of the later centuries is thus strongly confirmed.
+The new-comers had all been absorbed and assimilated by the country, but
+the generations which arose from this continual cross-breeding, while
+representing externally the Egyptians of older epochs, in manners,
+language, and religion, were at bottom something different, and
+the difference became the more accentuated as the foreign elements
+increased. The people were thus gradually divested of the character
+which had distinguished them before the conquest of Syria; the
+dispositions and defects imported from without counteracted to such
+an extent their own native dispositions and defects that all marks of
+individuality were effaced and nullified. The race tended to become more
+and more what it long continued to be afterwards,--a lifeless and inert
+mass, without individual energy--endowed, it is true, with patience,
+endurance, cheerfulness of temperament, and good nature, but with little
+power of self-government, and thus forced to submit to foreign masters
+who made use of it and oppressed it without pity.
+
+The upper classes had degenerated as much as the masses. The feudal
+nobles who had expelled the Shepherds, and carried the frontiers of
+the empire to the banks of the Euphrates, seemed to have expended their
+energies in the effort, and to have almost ceased to exist. As long as
+Egypt was restricted to the Nile valley, there was no such disproportion
+between the power of the Pharaoh and that of his feudatories as to
+prevent the latter from maintaining their privileges beside, and, when
+occasion arose, even against the monarch. The conquest of Asia, while it
+compelled them either to take up arms themselves or to send their
+troops to a distance, accustomed them and their soldiers to a passive
+obedience. The maintenance of a strict discipline in the army was the
+first condition of successful campaigning at great distances from the
+mother country and in the midst of hostile people, and the unquestioning
+respect which they had to pay to the orders of their general prepared
+them for abject submission to the will of their sovereign. To their
+bravery, moveover, they owed not only money and slaves, but also
+necklaces and bracelets of honour, and distinctions and offices in
+the Pharaonic administration. The king, in addition, neglected no
+opportunity for securing their devotion to himself. He gave to them
+in marriage his sisters, his daughters, his cousins, and any of the
+princesses whom he was not compelled by law to make his own wives. He
+selected from their harems nursing-mothers for his own sons, and this
+choice established between him and them a foster relationship, which
+was as binding among the Egyptians and other Oriental peoples as one of
+blood. It was not even necessary for the establishment of this relation
+that the foster-mother's connexion with the Pharaoh's son should be
+durable or even effective: the woman had only to offer her breast to
+the child for a moment, and this symbol was quite enough to make her his
+nurse--his true _monait_. This fictitious fosterage was carried so far,
+that it was even made use of in the case of youths and persons of mature
+age. When an Egyptian woman wished to adopt an adult, the law prescribed
+that she should offer him the breast, and from that moment he became her
+son. A similar ceremony was prescribed in the case of men who wished to
+assume the quality of male nurse--_monai_--or even, indeed, of female
+nurse--_monait_--like that of their wives; according to which they were
+to place, it would seem, the end of one of their fingers in the mouth
+of the child.* Once this affinity was established, the fidelity of these
+feudal lords was established beyond question; and their official duties
+to the sovereign were not considered as accomplished when they had
+fulfilled their military obligations, for they continued to serve him in
+the palace as they had served him on the field. Wherever the necessities
+of the government called them--at Memphis, at Ramses, or elsewhere--they
+assembled around the Pharaoh; like him they had their palaces at Thebes,
+and when they died they were anxious to be buried there beside him.**
+
+     * These symbolical modes of adoption were first pointed out
+     by Maspero. Legend has given examples of them: as, for
+     instance, where Isis fosters the child of Malkander, King of
+     Byblos, by inserting the tip of her finger in its mouth.
+
+     ** The tomb of a prince of Tobui, the lesser Aphroditopolis,
+     was discovered at Thebes by Maspero. The rock-out tombs of
+     two Thinite princes were noted in the same necropolis. These
+     two were of the time of Thutmosis III. I have remarked in
+     tombs not yet made public the mention of princes of El-Kab,
+     who played an important part about the person of the
+     Pharaohs down to the beginning of the XXth dynasty.
+
+Many of the old houses had become extinct, while others, owing to
+marriages, were absorbed into the royal family; the fiefs conceded to
+the relations or favourites of the Pharaoh continued to exist, indeed,
+as of old, but the ancient distrustful and turbulent feudality had given
+place to an aristocracy of courtiers, who lived oftener in attendance on
+the monarch than on their own estates, and whose authority continued to
+diminish to the profit of the absolute rule of the king. There would
+be nothing astonishing in the "count" becoming nothing more than a
+governor, hereditary or otherwise, in Thebes itself; he could hardly be
+anything higher in the capital of the empire.* But the same restriction
+of authority was evidenced in all the provinces: the recruiting of
+soldiers, the receipt of taxes, most of the offices associated with the
+civil or military administration, became more and more affairs of the
+State, and passed from the hands of the feudal lord into those of the
+functionaries of the Crown. The few barons who still lived on their
+estates, while they were thus dispossessed of the greater part of their
+prerogatives, obtained some compensation, on the other hand, on the side
+of religion. From early times they had been by birth the heads of the
+local cults, and their protocol had contained, together with those
+titles which justified their possession of the temporalities of the
+nome, others which attributed to them spiritual supremacy. The sacred
+character with which they were invested became more and more prominent
+in proportion as their political influence became curtailed, and we find
+scions of the old warlike families or representatives of a new lineage
+at Thinis, at Akhmim,** in the nome of Baalu, at Hieraconpolis,***
+at El-Kab,**** and in every place where we have information from the
+monuments as to their position, bestowing more concern upon their
+sacerdotal than on their other duties.
+
+     * Rakhmiri and his son Manakhpirsonbu were both "counts "of
+     Thebes under Thutmosis III., and there is nothing to show
+     that there was any other person among them invested with the
+     same functions and belonging to a different family.
+
+     ** For example, the tomb of Anhurimosu, high priest of
+     Anhuri-Shu and prince of Thinis, under Minephtah, where the
+     sacerdotal character is almost exclusively prominent. The
+     same is the case with the tombs of the princes of Akhmim in
+     the time of Khuniatonu and his successors: the few still
+     existing in 1884-5 have not been published. The stelae
+     belonging to them are at Paris and Berlin.
+
+     *** Horimosu, Prince of Hieraconpolis under Thutmosis III.,
+     is, above everything else, a prophet of the local Horus.
+
+     **** The princes of El-Kab during the XIXth and XXth
+     dynasties were, before everything, priests of Nekhabit, as
+     appears from an examination of their tombs, which, lying in
+     a side valley, far away from the tomb of Pihiri, are rarely
+     visited.
+
+This transfiguration of the functions of the barons, which had been
+completed under the XIXth and XXth dynasties, corresponded with a
+more general movement by which the Pharaohs themselves were driven to
+accentuate their official position as high priests, and to assign to
+their sons sacerdotal functions in relation to the principal deities.
+This rekindling of religious fervour would not, doubtless, have
+restrained military zeal in case of war;* but if it did not tend to
+suppress entirely individual bravery, it discouraged the taste for arms
+and for the bold adventures which had characterised the old feudality.
+
+     * The sons of Ramses II., Khamoisit and Maritumu, were bravo
+     warriors in spite of their being high priests of Phtah at
+     Memphis, and of Ra at Heliopolis.
+
+The duties of sacrificing, of offering prayer, of celebrating the sacred
+rites according to the prescribed forms, and rendering due homage to the
+gods in the manner they demanded, were of such an exactingly scrupulous
+and complex character that the Pharaohs and the lords of earlier times
+had to assign them to men specially fitted for, and appointed to, the
+task; now that they had assumed these absorbing functions themselves,
+they were obliged to delegate to others an increasingly greater
+proportion of their civil and military duties. Thus, while the king
+and his great vassals were devoutly occupying themselves in matters of
+worship and theology, generals by profession were relieving them of
+the care of commanding their armies; and as these individuals were
+frequently the chiefs of Ethiopian, Asiatic, and especially of Libyan
+bands, military authority, and, with it, predominant influence in the
+State were quickly passing into the hands of the barbarians. A sort of
+aristocracy of veterans, notably of Shardana or Mashauasha, entirely
+devoted to arms, grew up and increased gradually side by side with the
+ancient noble families, now by preference devoted to the priesthood.*
+
+     * This military aristocracy was fully developed in the XXIst
+     and XXIInd dynasties, but it began to take shape after
+     Ramses III. had planted the Shardana and Qahaka in certain
+     towns as garrisons.
+
+The barons, whether of ancient or modern lineage, were possessed of
+immense wealth, especially those of priestly families. The tribute and
+spoil of Asia and Africa, when once it had reached Egypt, hardly ever
+left it: they were distributed among the population in proportion to the
+position occupied by the recipients in the social scale. The commanders
+of the troops, the attendants on the king, the administrators of the
+palace and temples, absorbed the greater part, but the distribution
+was carried down to the private soldier and his relations in town or
+country, who received some of the crumbs. When we remember for a moment
+the four centuries and more during which Egypt had been reaping the
+fruits of her foreign conquest, we cannot think without amazement of
+the quantities of gold and other precious metals which must have been
+brought in divers forms into the valley of the Nile.* Every fresh
+expedition made additions to these riches, and one is at a loss to know
+whence in the intervals between two defeats the conquered could procure
+so much wealth, and why the sources were never exhausted nor became
+impoverished. This flow of metals had an influence upon commercial
+transactions, for although trade was still mainly carried on by barter,
+the mode of operation was becoming changed appreciably. In exchanging
+commodities, frequent use was now made of rings and ingots of a certain
+prescribed weight in _tabonu_; and it became more and more the custom
+to pay for goods by a certain number of _tabonu_ of gold, silver, or
+copper, rather than by other commodities: it was the practice even
+to note down in invoices or in the official receipts, alongside the
+products or manufactured articles with which payments were made, the
+value of the same in weighed metal.**
+
+     * The quantity of gold in ingots or rings, mentioned in the
+     _Annals of Tkutmosis III._, represents altogether a weight
+     of nearly a ton and a quarter, or in value some L140,000 of
+     our money. And this is far from being the whole of the metal
+     obtained from the enemy, for a large portion of the
+     inscription has disappeared, and the unrecorded amount might
+     be taken, without much risk of error, at as much as that of
+     which we have evidence--say, some two and a half tons,
+     which Thutmosis had received or brought back between the
+     years XXIII. and XLII. of his reign--an estimation rather
+     under than over the reality. These figures, moreover, take
+     no account of the vessels and statues, or of the furniture
+     and arms plated with gold. Silver was not received in such
+     large quantities, but it was of great value, and the like
+     may be said of copper and lead.
+
+     * The facts justifying this position were observed and put
+     together for the first time by Chabas: a translation is
+     given in his memoir of a register of the XXth or XXIst
+     dynasty, which gives the price of butcher's meat, both in
+     gold and silver, at this date. Fresh examples have been
+     since collected by Spiegelberg, who has succeeded in drawing
+     up a kind of tariff for the period between the XVIIIth and
+     XXth dynasties.
+
+This custom, although not yet widely extended, placed at the disposal
+of trade enormous masses of metal, which were preserved in the form of
+ingots or bricks, except the portion which went to the manufacture of
+rings, jewellery, or valuable vessels.*
+
+     * There are depicted on the monuments bags or heaps of gold
+     dust, ingots in the shape of bricks, rings, and vases,
+     arranged alongside each other.
+
+The general prosperity encouraged a passion for goldsmith's work, and
+the use of bracelets, necklaces, and chains became common among classes
+of the people who were not previously accustomed to wear them. There was
+henceforward no scribe or merchant, however poor he might be, who had
+not his seal made of gold or silver, or at any rate of copper gilt. The
+stone was sometimes fixed, but frequently arranged so as to turn round
+on a pivot; while among people of superior rank it had some emblem
+or device upon it, such as a scorpion, a sparrow-hawk, a lion, or
+a cynocephalous monkey. Chains occupied the same position among the
+ornaments of Egyptian women as rings among men; they were indispensable
+decorations. Examples of silver chains are known of some five feet
+in length, while others do not exceed two to three inches. There are
+specimens in gold of all sizes, single, double, and triple, with large
+or small links, some thick and heavy, while others are as slight and
+flexible as the finest Venetian lace. The poorest peasant woman, alike
+with the lady of the court, could boast of the possession of a chain,
+and she must have been in dire poverty who had not some other ornament
+in her jewel-case. The jewellery of Queen Ahhotpu shows to what degree
+of excellence the work of the Egyptian goldsmiths had attained at the
+time of the expulsion of the Nyksos: they had not only preserved the
+good traditions of the best workmen of the XIIth dynasty, but they had
+perfected the technical details, and had learned to combine form and
+colour with a greater skill. The pectorals of Prince Khamoisit and the
+Lord Psaru,now in the Louvre, but which were originally placed in the
+tomb of the Apis in the time of Ramses II., are splendid examples.
+
+[Illustration: 345.jpg PECTORAL OF RAMSES II.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the jewel in the Louvre.
+
+The most common form of these represents in miniature the front of a
+temple with a moulded or flat border, surmounted by a curved cornice.
+In one of them, which was doubtless a present from the king himself, the
+cartouche, containing the first name of the Pharaoh-Usirmari, appears
+just below the frieze, and serves as a centre for the design within the
+frame. The wings of the ram-headed sparrow-hawk, the emblem of Amonra,
+are so displayed as to support it, while a large urseus and a vulture
+beneath embracing both the sparrow-hawk and the cartouche with outspread
+wings give the idea of divine protection. Two _didu_, each of them
+filling one of the lower corners, symbolise duration. The framework of
+the design is made up of divisions marked out in gold, and filled either
+with coloured enamels or pieces of polished stone. The general effect is
+one of elegance, refinement, and harmony, the three principal elements
+of the design becoming enlarged from the top downwards in a deftly
+adjusted gradation. The dead-gold of the cartouche in the upper centre
+is set off below by the brightly variegated and slightly undulating band
+of colours of the sparrow-hawk, while the urseus and vulture, associated
+together with one pair of wings, envelope the upper portions in a
+half-circle of enamels, of which the shades pass from red through
+green to a dull blue, with a freedom of handling and a skill in the
+manipulation of colour which do honour to the artist. It was not his
+fault if there is still an element of stiffness in the appearance of the
+pectoral as a whole, for the form which religious tradition had imposed
+upon the jewel was so rigid that no artifice could completely get over
+this defect. It is a type which arose out of the same mental concepts
+as had given birth to Egyptian architecture and sculpture--monumental in
+character, and appearing often as if designed for colossal rather than
+ordinary beings. The dimensions, too overpowering for the decoration of
+normal men or women, would find an appropriate place only on the breasts
+of gigantic statues: the enormous size of the stone figures to which
+alone they are adapted would relieve them, and show them in their proper
+proportions. The artists of the second Theban empire tried all they
+could, however, to get rid of the square framework in which the sacred
+bird is enclosed, and we find examples among the pectorals in the Louvre
+of the sparrow-hawk only with curved wings, or of the ram-headed hawk
+with the wings extended; but in both of them there is displayed the same
+brilliancy, the same purity of line, as in the square-shaped jewels,
+while the design, freed from the trammels of the hampering enamelled
+frame, takes on a more graceful form, and becomes more suitable for
+personal decoration.
+
+[Illustration: 347.jpg THE RAM-HEADED SPARROW-HAWK IN THE LOUVRE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a jewel in the Louvre.
+
+The ram's head in the second case excels in the beauty of its
+workmanship anything to be found elsewhere in the museums of Europe or
+Egypt. It is of the finest gold, but its value does not depend upon the
+precious material: the ancient engraver knew how to model it with a bold
+and free hand, and he has managed to invest it with as much dignity
+as if he had been carving his subject in heroic size out of a block of
+granite or limestone. It is not an example of pure industrial art, but
+of an art for which a designation is lacking. Other examples, although
+more carefully executed and of more costly materials, do not approach it
+in value: such, for instance, are the earrings of Ramses XII. at
+Gizeh, which are made up of an ostentatious combination of disks,
+filigree-work, chains, beads, and hanging figures of the urseus.
+
+To get an idea of the character of the plate on the royal sideboards, we
+must have recourse to the sculptures in the temples, or to the paintings
+on the tombs: the engraved gold or silver centrepieces, dishes, bowls,
+cups, and amphoras, if valued by weight only, were too precious to
+escape the avarice of the impoverished generations which followed the
+era of Theban prosperity. In the fabrication of these we can trace
+foreign influences, but not to the extent of a predominance over native
+art: even if the subject to be dealt with by the artist happened to be a
+Phoenician god or an Asiatic prisoner, he was not content with slavishly
+copying his model; he translated it and interpreted it, so as to give it
+an Egyptian character.
+
+The household furniture was in keeping with these precious objects.
+Beds and armchairs in valuable woods, inlaid with ivory, carved, gilt,
+painted in subdued and bright colours, upholstered with mattresses
+and cushions of many-hued Asiatic stuffs, or of home-made materials,
+fashioned after Chaldaean patterns, were in use among the well-to-do,
+while people of moderate means had to be content with old-fashioned
+furniture of the ancient regime.
+
+[Illustration: 348.jpg DECORATED ARMCHAIR]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from one of these objects in the
+     tomb of Ramses III.
+
+The Theban dwelling-house was indeed more sumptuously furnished than the
+earliest Memphite, but we find the same general arrangements in both,
+which provided, in addition to quarters for the masters, a similar
+number of rooms intended for the slaves, for granaries, storehouses, and
+stables. While the outward decoration of life was subject to change,
+the inward element remained unaltered. Costume was a more complex
+matter than in former times: the dresses and lower garments were more
+gauffered, had more embroidery and stripes; the wigs were larger and
+longer, and rose up in capricious arrangements of curls and plaits.
+
+[Illustration: 349.jpg EGYPTIAN WIG]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Mertens.
+
+The use of the chariot had now become a matter of daily custom, and
+the number of domestics, already formidable, was increased by fresh
+additions in the shape of coachmen, grooms, and _saises_, who ran before
+their master to clear a way for the horses through the crowded streets
+of the city.*
+
+     * The pictures at Tel el-Amarna exhibit the king, queen, and
+     princesses driving in their chariots with escorts of
+     soldiers and runners. We often find in the tomb-paintings
+     the chariot and coachman of some dignitary, waiting while
+     their master inspects a field or a workshop, or while he is
+     making a visit to the palace for some reward.
+
+As material, existence became more complex, intellectual life partook of
+the same movement, and, without deviating much from the lines prescribed
+for it by the learned and the scribes of the Memphite age, literature
+had become in the mean time larger, more complicated, more exacting,
+and more difficult to grapple with and to master. It had its classical
+authors, whose writings were committed to memory and taught in the
+schools. These were truly masterpieces, for if some felt that they
+understood and enjoyed them, others found them almost beyond their
+comprehension, and complained bitterly of their obscurity. The later
+writers followed them pretty closely, in taking pains, on the one hand
+to express fresh ideas in the forms consecrated by approved and ancient
+usage, or when they failed to find adequate vehicles to convey new
+thoughts, resorting in their lack of imagination to the foreigner for the
+requisite expressions. The necessity of knowing at least superficially,
+something of the dialect and writings of Asia compelled the Egyptian
+scribes to study to some degree the literature of Phonecia and of
+Chaldaea.
+
+[Illustration: 350.jpg Page Image with Furniture]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from photographs of the objects in
+     the Museums of Berlin and Gizeh.
+
+From these sources they had borrowed certain formulae and incantation,
+medical recipes, and devout legends, in which the deities of Assyria
+and especially Astarte played the chief part. They appropriated in
+this manner a certain number of words and phrases with which they were
+accustomed to interlard their discourses and writings. They thought it
+polite to call a door no longer by the word _ro_, but the term _tira_,
+and to accompany themselves no longer with the harp _bordt_, but with
+the same instrument under its new name _kinnor_, and to make the _salam_
+in saluting the sovereign in place of crying before him, _aau_. They
+were thorough-going Semiticisers; but one is less offended by their
+affectation when one considers that the number of captives in the
+country, and the intermarriages with Canaanite women, had familiarised a
+portion of the community from childhood with the sounds and ideas of the
+languages from which the scribes were accustomed to borrow unblushingly.
+This artifice, if it served to infuse an appearance of originality into
+their writings, had no influence upon their method of composition. Their
+poetical ideal remained what it had been in the time of their ancestors,
+but seeing that we are now unable to determine the characteristic
+cadence of sentences or the mental attitude which marked each generation
+of literary men, it is often difficult for us to find out the qualities
+in their writings which gave them popularity. A complete library of one
+of the learned in the Ramesside period must have contained a strange
+mixture of works, embracing, in addition to books of devotion, which
+were indispensable to those who were solicitous about their souls,*
+collections of hymns, romances, war and love songs, moral and
+philosophical treatises, letters, and legal documents.
+
+     * There are found in the rubrics of many religious books,
+     for example that dealing with the unseen world, promises of
+     health and prosperity to the soul which, "while still on
+     earth," had read and learned them. A similar formula appears
+     at the end of several important chapters of the _Book of the
+     Dead._
+
+It would have been similar in character to the literary-possessions of
+an Egyptian of the Memphite period,* but the language in which it was
+written would not have been so stiff and dry, but would have flowed more
+easily, and been more sustained and better balanced.
+
+     * The composition of these libraries may be gathered from
+     the collections of papyri which have turned up from time to
+     time, and have been sold by the Arabs to Europeans buyers;
+     e.g. the Sallier Collection, the Anastasi Collections, and
+     that of Harris. They have found their way eventually into
+     the British Museum or the Museum at Leyden, and have been
+     published in the _Select Papyri_ of the former, or in the
+     _Monuments Egyptiens_ of the latter.
+
+The great odes to the deities which we find in the Theban _papyri_ are
+better fitted, perhaps, than the profane compositions of the period,
+to give us an idea of the advance which Egyptian genius had made in the
+width and richness of its modes of expression, while still maintaining
+almost the same dead-level of idea which had characterised it from the
+outset. Among these, one dedicated to Harmakhis, the sovereign sun, is
+no longer restricted to a bare enumeration of the acts and virtues of
+the "Disk," but ventures to treat of his daily course and his final
+triumphs in terms which might have been used in describing the
+victorious campaigns or the apotheosis of a Pharaoh. It begins with his
+awakening, at the moment when he has torn himself away from the embraces
+of night. Standing upright in the cabin of the divine bark, "the fair
+boat of millions of years," with the coils of the serpent Mihni around
+him, he glides in silence on the eternal current of the celestial
+waters, guided and protected by those battalions of secondary deities
+with whose odd forms the monuments have made us familiar. "Heaven is
+in delight, the earth is in joy, gods and men are making festival, to
+render glory to Phra-Harmakhis, when they see him arise in his bark,
+having overturned his enemies in his own time!" They accompany him from
+hour to hour, they fight the good fight with him against Apopi, they
+shout aloud as he inflicts each fresh wound upon the monster: they
+do not even abandon him when the west has swallowed him up in its
+darkness.* Some parts of the hymn remind us, in the definiteness of
+the imagery and in the abundance of detail, of a portion of the poem
+of Pentauirit, or one of those inscriptions of Ramses III. wherein he
+celebrates the defeat of hordes of Asiatics or Libyans.
+
+     * The remains of Egyptian romantic literature have been
+     collected and translated into French by Maspero, and
+     subsequently into English by Flinders Petrie.
+
+The Egyptians took a delight in listening to stories. They preferred
+tales which dealt with the marvellous and excited their imagination,
+introducing speaking animals, gods in disguise, ghosts and magic. One
+of them tells of a king who was distressed because he had no heir, and
+had no sooner obtained the favour he desired from the gods, than the
+Seven Hathors, the mistresses of Fate, destroyed his happiness by
+predicting that the child would meet with his death by a serpent, a dog,
+or a crocodile. Efforts were made to provide against such a fatality by
+shutting him up in a tower; but no sooner had he grown to man's estate,
+than he procured himself a dog, went off to wander through the world,
+and married the daughter of the Prince of Naharaim. His fate meets him
+first under the form of a serpent, which is killed by his wife; he is
+next assailed by a crocodile, and the dog kills the crocodile, but as
+the oracles must be fulfilled, the brute turns and despatches his master
+without further consideration. Another story describes two brothers,
+Anupu and Bitiu, who live happily together on their farm till the wife
+of the elder falls in love with the younger, and on his repulsing her
+advances, she accuses him to her husband of having offered her violence.
+The virtue of the younger brother would not have availed him much,
+had not his animals warned him of danger, and had not Phra-Harmakhis
+surrounded him at the critical moment with a stream teeming with
+crocodiles. He mutilates himself to prove his innocence, and announces
+that henceforth he will lead a mysterious existence far from mankind; he
+will retire to the Valley of the Acacia, place his heart on the topmost
+flower of the tree, and no one will be able with impunity to steal it
+from him. The gods, however, who frequent this earth take pity on his
+loneliness, and create for him a wife of such beauty that the Nile falls
+in love with her, and steals a lock of her hair, which is carried by its
+waters down into Egypt. Pharaoh finds the lock, and, intoxicated by
+its scent, commands his people to go in quest of the owner. Having
+discovered the lady, Pharaoh marries her, and ascertaining from her
+who she is, he sends men to cut down the Acacia, but no sooner has the
+flower touched the earth, than Bitiu droops and dies. The elder brother
+is made immediately acquainted with the fact by means of various
+prodigies. The wine poured out to him becomes troubled, his beer leaves
+a deposit. He seizes his shoes and staff and sets out to find the heart.
+
+After a search of seven years he discovers it, and reviving it in a vase
+of water, he puts it into the mouth of the corpse, which at once returns
+to life. Bitiu, from this moment, seeks only to be revenged. He changes
+himself into the bull Apis, and, on being led to court, he reproaches
+the queen with the crime she has committed against him. The queen causes
+his throat to be cut; two drops of his blood fall in front of the gate
+of the palace, and produce in the night two splendid "Persea" trees,
+which renew the accusation in a loud voice. The queen has them cut down,
+but a chip from one of them flies into her mouth, and ere long she gives
+birth to a child who is none other than a reincarnation of Bitiu. When
+the child succeeds to the Pharaoh, he assembles his council, reveals
+himself to them, and punishes with death her who was first his wife
+and subsequently his mother. The hero moves throughout the tale without
+exhibiting any surprise at the strange incidents in which he takes
+part, and, as a matter of fact, they did not seriously outrage the
+probabilities of contemporary life. In every town sorcerers could be
+found who knew how to transform themselves into animals or raise
+the dead to life: we have seen how the accomplices of Pentauirit had
+recourse to spells in order to gain admission to the royal palace when
+they desired to rid themselves of Ramses III. The most extravagant
+romances differed from real life merely in collecting within a dozen
+pages more miracles than were customarily supposed to take place in the
+same number of years; it was merely the multiplicity of events, and
+not the events themselves, that gave to the narrative its romantic and
+improbable character. The rank of the heroes alone raised the tale
+out of the region of ordinary life; they are always the sons of kings,
+Syrian princes, or Pharaohs; sometimes we come across a vague and
+undefined Pharaoh, who figures under the title of Piruiaui or Pruiti,
+but more often it is a well-known and illustrious Pharaoh who is
+mentioned by name. It is related how, one day, Kheops, suffering from
+_ennui_ within his palace, assembled his sons in the hope of learning
+from them something which he did not already know. They described to him
+one after another the prodigies performed by celebrated magicians under
+Kanibri and Snofrui; and at length Mykerinos assured him that there
+was a certain Didi, living then not far from Meidum, who was capable of
+repeating all the marvels done by former wizards. Most of the Egyptian
+sovereigns were, in the same way, subjects of more or less wonderful
+legends--Sesostris, Amenothes III., Thufcmosis III., Amenemhait I.,
+Khiti, Sahuri, Usirkaf, and Kakiu. These stories were put into literary
+shape by the learned, recited by public story-tellers, and received by
+the people as authentic history; they finally filtered into the writings
+of the chroniclers, who, in introducing them into the annals, filled
+up with their extraordinary details the lacunae of authentic tradition.
+Sometimes the narrative assumed a briefer form, and became an apologue.
+In one of them the members of the body were supposed to have combined
+against the head, and disputed its supremacy before a jury; the parties
+all pleaded their cause in turn, and judgment was given in due form.*
+
+     * This version of the _Fable of the Members and the Stomach_
+     was discovered upon a schoolboy's tablet at Turin.
+
+Animals also had their place in this universal comedy. The passions or
+the weaknesses of humanity were attributed to them, and the narrator
+makes the lion, rat, or jackal to utter sentiments from which he draws
+some short practical moral. La Fontaine had predecessors on the banks of
+the Nile of whose existence he little dreamed.
+
+[Illustration: 357.jpg THE CAT AND THE JACKAL GO OFF TO THE FIELDS WITH
+THEIR FLOCKS]
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Lepsius.
+
+As La Fontaine found an illustrator in Granville, so, too, in Egypt
+the draughtsman brought his reed to the aid of the fabulist, and by his
+cleverly executed sketches gave greater point to the sarcasm of story
+than mere words could have conveyed. Where the author had briefly
+mentioned that the jackal and the cat had cunningly forced their
+services on the animals whom they wished to devour at their leisure, the
+artist would depict the jackal and the cat equipped as peasants, with
+wallets on their backs, and sticks over their shoulders, marching behind
+a troup of gazelles or a flock of fat geese: it was easy to foretell the
+fate of their unfortunate charges. Elsewhere it is an ox who brings
+up before his master a cat who has cheated him, and his proverbial
+stupidity would incline us to think that he will end by being punished
+himself for the misdeeds of which he had accused the other. Puss's sly
+and artful expression, the ass-headed and important-looking judge, with
+the wand and costume of a high and mighty dignitary, give pungency to
+the story, and recall the daily scenes at the judgment-seat of the lord
+of Thebes. In another place we see a donkey, a lion, a crocodile, and a
+monkey giving an instrumental and vocal concert.
+
+[Illustration: 358.jpg THE CAT BEFORE ITS JUDGE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Lepsius.
+
+A lion and a gazelle play a game of chess. A cat of fashion, with a
+flower in her hair, has a disagreement with a goose: they have come to
+blows, and the excitable puss, who fears she will come off worst in the
+struggle, falls backwards in a fright. The draughtsmen having once found
+vent for their satire, stopped at nothing, and even royalty itself did
+not escape their attacks. While the writers of the day made fun of the
+military calling, both in prose and verse, the caricaturists parodied
+the combats and triumphal scenes of the Ramses or Thutmosis of the
+day depicted on the walls of the pylons. The Pharaoh of all the rats,
+perched upon a chariot drawn by dogs, bravely charges an army of cats;
+standing in the heroic attitude of a conqueror, he pierces them with
+his darts, while his horses tread the fallen underfoot; his legions
+meanwhile in advance of him attack a fort defended by tomcats, with the
+same ardour that the Egyptian battalions would display in assaulting a
+Syrian stronghold.
+
+[Illustration: 359.jpg A CONCERT OF ANIMALS DEVOTED TO MUSIC]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Lepsius.
+
+This treatment of ethics did not prevent the Egyptian writers from
+giving way to their natural inclinations, and composing large volumes
+on this subject after the manner of Kaqimni or Phtahhotpu. One of their
+books, in which the aged Ani inscribes his Instructions to his son,
+Khonshotpu, is compiled in the form of a dialogue, and contains the
+usual commonplaces upon virtue, temperance, piety, the respect due to
+parents from children, or to the great ones of this world from
+their inferiors. The language in which it is written is ingenious,
+picturesque, and at times eloquent; the work explains much that is
+obscure in Egyptian life, and upon which the monuments have thrown no
+light. "Beware of the woman who goes out surreptitiously in her town, do
+not follow her or any like her, do not expose thyself to the experience
+of what it costs a man to face an Ocean of which the bounds are
+unknown.* The wife whose husband is far from home sends thee letters,
+and invites thee to come to her daily when she has no witnesses; if
+she succeeds in entangling thee in her net, it is a crime which is
+punishable by death as soon as it is known, even if no wicked act has
+taken place, for men will commit every sort of crime when under this
+temptation alone."
+
+     * I have been obliged to paraphrase the sentence
+     considerably to render it intelligible to the modern reader.
+     The Egyptian text says briefly: "Do not know the man who
+     braves the water of the Ocean whose bounds are unknown."_To
+     know the man_ means here _know the state of the man_ who
+     does an action.
+
+"Be not quarrelsome in breweries, for fear that thou mayest be denounced
+forthwith for words which have proceeded from thy mouth, and of having
+spoken that of which thou art no longer conscious. Thou fallest,
+thy members helpless, and no one holds out a hand to thee, but thy
+boon-companions around thee say: 'Away with the drunkard!' Thou art
+wanted for some business, and thou art found rolling on the ground like
+an infant." In speaking of what a man owes to his mother, Ani waxes
+eloquent: "When she bore thee as all have to bear, she had in thee a
+heavy burden without being able to call on thee to share it. When thou
+wert born, after thy months were fulfilled, she placed herself under a
+yoke in earnest, her breast was in thy mouth for three years; in spite
+of the increasing dirtiness of thy habits, her heart felt no disgust,
+and she never said: 'What is that I do here?' When thou didst go to
+school to be instructed in writing, she followed thee every day with
+bread and beer from thy house. Now thou art a full-grown man, thou hast
+taken a wife, thou hast provided thyself with a house; bear always in
+mind the pains of thy birth and the care for thy education that thy
+mother lavished on thee, that her anger may not rise up against thee,
+and that she lift not her hands to God, for he will hear her complaint!"
+The whole of the book does not rise to this level, but we find in it
+several maxims which appear to be popular proverbs, as for instance: "He
+who hates idleness will come without being called;" "A good walker comes
+to his journey's end without needing to hasten;" or, "The ox which
+goes at the head of the flock and leads the others to pasture is but an
+animal like his fellows." Towards the end, the son Khonshotpu, weary of
+such a lengthy exhortation to wisdom, interrupts his father roughly:
+"Do not everlastingly speak of thy merits, I have heard enough of thy
+deeds;" whereupon Ani resignedly restrains himself from further speech,
+and a final parable gives us the motive of his resignation: "This is the
+likeness of the man who knows the strength of his arm. The nursling who
+is in the arms of his mother cares only for being suckled; but no sooner
+has he found his mouth than he cries: 'Give me bread!'"
+
+It is, perhaps, difficult for us to imagine an Egyptian in love
+repeating madrigals to his mistress,* for we cannot easily realise that
+the hard and blackened bodies we see in our museums have once been men
+and women loving and beloved in their own day.
+
+     * The remains of Egyptian amatory literature have been
+     collected, translated, and commentated on by Maspero. They
+     have been preserved in two papyri, one of which is at Turin,
+     the other in the British Museum. The first of these appears
+     to be a sort of dialogue in which the trees of a garden
+     boast one after another of the beauty of a woman, and
+     discourse of the love-scenes which took place under their
+     shadow.
+
+The feeling which they entertained one for another had none of the
+reticence or delicacy of our love: they went straight to the point, and
+the language in which, they expressed themselves is sometimes too coarse
+for our taste. The manners and customs of daily life among the Egyptians
+tended to blunt in them the feelings of modesty and refinement to which
+our civilization has accustomed us. Their children went about without
+clothes, or, at any rate, wore none until the age of puberty. Owing to
+the climate, both men and women left the upper part of the body more or
+less uncovered, or wore fabrics of a transparent nature. In the towns,
+the servants who moved about their masters or his guests had merely
+a narrow loin-cloth tied round their hips; while in the country, the
+peasants dispensed with even this covering, and the women tucked up
+their garments when at work so as to move more freely. The religious
+teaching and the ceremonies connected with their worship drew the
+attention of the faithful to the unveiled human form of their gods, and
+the hieroglyphs themselves contained pictures which shock our sense of
+propriety. Hence it came about that the young girl who was demanded in
+marriage had no idea, like the maiden of to-day, of the vague delights
+of an ideal union. The physical side was impressed upon her mind,
+and she was well aware of the full meaning of her consent. Her lover,
+separated from her by her disapproving parents, thus expresses the grief
+which overwhelms him: "I desire to lie down in my chamber,--for I am
+sick on thy account,--and the neighbours come to visit me.--Ah! if my
+sister but came with them,--she would show the physicians what ailed
+me,--for she knows my sickness!" Even while he thus complains, he sees
+her in his imagination, and his spirit visits the places she frequents:
+"The villa of my sister,--(a pool is before the house),--the door opens
+suddenly,--and my sister passes out in wrath.--Ah! why am I not the
+porter,--that she might give me her orders!--I should at least hear
+her voice, even were she angry,--and I, like a little boy, full of fear
+before her!" Meantime the young girl sighs in vain for "her brother, the
+beloved of her heart," and all that charmed her before has now ceased to
+please her. "I went to prepare my snare, my cage and the covert for
+my trap--for all the birds of Puanit alight upon Egypt, redolent with
+perfume;--he who flies foremost of the flock is attracted by my worm,
+bringing odours from Puanit,--its claws full of incense.--But my heart
+is with thee, and desires that we should trap them together,--I with
+thee, alone, and that thou shouldest be able to hear the sad cry of
+my perfumed bird,--there near to me, close to me, I will make ready
+my trap,--O my beautiful friend, thou who goest to the field of the
+well-beloved!" The latter, however, is slow to appear, the day passes
+away, the evening comes on: "The cry of the goose resounds--which is
+caught by the worm-bait,--but thy love removes me far from the bird, and
+I am unable to deliver myself from it; I will carry off my net, and what
+shall I say to my mother,--when I shall have returned to her?--Every day
+I come back laden with spoil,--but to-day I have not been able to set
+my trap,--for thy love makes me its prisoner!" "The goose flies away,
+alights,--it has greeted the barns with its cry;--the flock of birds
+increases on the river, but I leave them alone and think only of thy
+love,--for my heart is bound to thy heart--and I cannot tear myself
+away from thy beauty." Her mother probably gave her a scolding, but she
+hardly minds it, and in the retirement of her chamber never wearies
+of thinking of her brother, and of passionately crying for him: "O my
+beautiful friend! I yearn to be with thee as thy wife--and that thou
+shouldest go whither thou wishest with thine arm upon my arm,--for then
+I will repeat to my heart, which is in thy breast, my supplications.--If
+my great brother does not come to-night,--I am as those who lie in the
+tomb--for thou, art thou not health and life,--he who transfers the joys
+of thy health to my heart which seeks thee?" The hours pass away and
+he does not come, and already "the voice of the turtle-dove speaks,--it
+says: 'Behold, the dawn is here, alas! what is to become of me?' Thou,
+thou art the bird, thou callest me,--and I find my brother in his
+chamber,--and my heart is rejoiced to see him!--I will never go away
+again, my hand will remain in thy hand,--and when I wander forth, I will
+go with thee into the most beautiful places,--happy in that he makes me
+the foremost of women--and that he does not break my heart." We should
+like to quote the whole of it, but the text is mutilated, and we are
+unable to fill in the blanks. It is, nevertheless, one of those products
+of the Egyptian mind which it would have been easy for us to appreciate
+from beginning to end, without effort and almost without explanation.
+The passion in it finds expression in such sincere and simple language
+as to render rhetorical ornament needless, and one can trace in it,
+therefore, nothing of the artificial colouring which would limit it to
+a particular place or time. It translates a universal sentiment into the
+common language of humanity, and the hieroglyphic groups need only to be
+put into the corresponding words of any modern tongue to bring home
+to the reader their full force and intensity. We might compare it with
+those popular songs which are now being collected in our provinces
+before the peasantry have forgotten them altogether: the artlessness of
+some of the expressions, the boldness of the imagery, the awkwardness
+and somewhat abrupt character of some of the passages, communicate to
+both that wild charm which we miss in the most perfect specimens of our
+modern love-poets.
+
+END OF VOL. V.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldaea, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 5 (of 12), by G. Maspero
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