160 files changed, 12742 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/17324-h/17324-h.htm b/17324-h/17324-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2fab3f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/17324-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,12742 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?>
+
+<!DOCTYPE html
+   PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+   "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" >
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en">
+  <head>
+    <title>
+      History of Egypt, by Maspero, Volume 4
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve">
+
+    body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify}
+    P { text-indent: 2em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; }
+    H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; }
+    hr  { width: 50%; text-align: center;}
+    .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; }
+    blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+    .mynote    {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;}
+    .toc       { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;}
+    .toc2      { margin-left: 20%;}
+    .figleft   {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;}
+    .figright  {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;}
+    div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; }
+    pre     { font-family: Times; font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;}
+
+</style>
+  </head>
+  <body>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chald�a, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12), by G. Maspero
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History Of Egypt, Chald�a, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12)
+
+Author: G. Maspero
+
+Editor: A.H. Sayce
+
+Translator: M.L. McClure
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2005 [EBook #17324]
+Last Updated: September 7, 2016
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT, CHALD�A ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Widger
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/spines.jpg" width="100%" alt="Spines " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/cover.jpg" width="100%" alt="Cover " />
+    </div>
+    <h1>
+      HISTORY OF EGYPT <br /><br /> CHALDEA, SYRIA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA
+    </h1>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      By G. MASPERO, <br /><br /> Honorable Doctor of Civil Laws, and Fellow of
+      Queen&rsquo;s College, <br /> Oxford; Member of the Institute and Professor at
+      the College of France
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      Edited by A. H. SAYCE, <br /> Professor of Assyriology, Oxford
+    </h3>
+    <h4>
+      Translated by M. L. McCLURE, <br /> Member of the Committee of the Egypt
+      Exploration Fund
+    </h4>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      CONTAINING OVER TWELVE HUNDRED COLORED PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      Volume IV.
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      LONDON <br /> THE GROLIER SOCIETY <br /> PUBLISHERS
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="100%" alt="Frontispiece " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="100%" alt="Titlepage " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="001 (154K)" src="images/001.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="002 (117K)" src="images/002.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <b><i>THE FIRST CHALDEAN EMPIRE AND THE HYKS�S IN EGYPT</i></b>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>SYRIA: THE PART PLAYED BY IT IN THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD&mdash;
+      BABYLON AND THE FIRST CHALD�AN EMPIRE&mdash;THE DOMINION OF THE HYKS�S:
+      �HMOSIS.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Syria, owing to its geographical position, condemned to be subject to
+      neighbouring powers-Lebanon, Anti-Lebanon, the valley of the Orontes and
+      of the Lit�ny, and surrounding regions: the northern table-land, the
+      country about Damascus, the Mediterranean coast, the Jordan and the Dead
+      Sea-Civilization and primitive inhabitants, Semites and Asiatics: the
+      almost entire absence of Egyptian influence, the predominance of that of
+      Chald�a.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Babylon, its ruins and its environs&mdash;It extends its rule over
+      Mesopotamia; its earliest dynasty and its struggle with Central
+      Chald�a-Elam, its geographical position, its peoples; Kutur-Nakhunta
+      conquers Larsam-Bimsin (Eri-Aku); Khammurabi founds the first Babylonian
+      empire; Ids victories, his buildings, his canals&mdash;The Elamites in
+      Syria: Kudurlagamar&mdash;Syria recognizes the authority of Hammurabi and
+      his successors.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The Hyks�s conquer Egypt at the end of the XIVth dynasty; the founding
+      of Avaris&mdash;Uncertainty both of ancients and moderns with regard to
+      the origin of the Hyks�s: probability of their being the Khati&mdash;Their
+      kings adopt the manners and civilization of the Egyptians: the monuments
+      of Khiani and of Ap�phis I. and II&mdash;The XVth dynasty.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Semitic incursions following the Hyks�s&mdash;The migration of the
+      Phoenicians and the Israelites into Syria: Terah, Abraham and his sojourn
+      in the land of Canaan&mdash;Isaac, Jacob, Joseph: the Israelites go down
+      into Egypt and settle in the land of Goshen.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Th�bes revolts against the Hyks�s: popular traditions as to the origin
+      of the war, the romance of Ap�phis and Saquinri&mdash;The Theban
+      princesses and the last Icings of the XVIIth dynasty: Ti�dqni Kamosis,
+      Ahmosis I.&mdash;The lords of El-Kab, and the part they played during the
+      war of independence&mdash;The taking of Avaris and the expulsion of the
+      Ilylcs�s.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The reorganization of Egypt&mdash;Ahmosis I. and his Nubian wars, the
+      reopening of the quarries of Turah&mdash;Amen�thes I. and his mother
+      Nofr�tari: the jewellery of Queen �hhotp�&mdash;The wars of Amen�thes I.,
+      the apotheosis of Nofr�tari&mdash;The accession of Th�tmosis I. and the
+      re-generation of Egypt.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <blockquote>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <br />
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I&mdash;THE FIRST CHALD�AN EMPIRE AND
+        THE HYKS�S IN EGYPT </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkB2HCH0001"> CHAPTER II&mdash;SYRIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE
+        EGYPTIAN CONQUEST </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkC2HCH0001"> CHAPTER III&mdash;THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN
+        DYNASTY </a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <br /> <br />
+      </p>
+      <hr />
+      <p>
+        <br /> <br />
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <big><b>List of Illustrations</b></big>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <br />
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0001"> Spines </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0002"> Cover </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0003"> Frontispiece </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0004"> Titlepage </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0005"> 014.jpg the Most Northern Source of The
+        Jordan, The Naiir-el-hasbany </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0006"> 015.jpg Lake of Genesarath </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0007"> 017.jpg One of the Reaches Of The Jordan </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0008"> 018.jpg the Dead Sea and The Mountains of
+        Moab, Seen Fkom The Heights of Engedi </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0009"> 023.jpg Asiatic Women from the Tomb of
+        Khn�mhotp� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0010"> 024.jpg Two Asiatics Fkom the Tomb of
+        Khn�mhopt�. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0011"> 029.jpg the Ruins of Babylon </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0012"> 030.jpg Plan of the Ruins Of Babylon </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0013"> 032.jpg the Kask Seen from The South </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0014"> 033.jpg the Tell of Borsippa, The Present
+        Birs-nimrud </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0015"> 036.jpg the Banks of The Euphrates at
+        Zuleibeh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0016"> 039.jpg Table </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0017"> 045.jpg Map of Chald�a and Elam. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0018"> 046.jpg an Ancient Susian of Negretic Race
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0019"> 047.jpg Native of Mixed Negritic Race from
+        Susiana </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0020"> 048.jpg the Tumulus of Susa, As It Appeared
+        Towards The Middle of the Xixth Century </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0021"> 050.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0022"> 057.jpg Head of a Sceptre in Copper, Bearing
+        the Name Of Kham-murabi </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0023"> 059.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0024"> 079.jpg Pallate of Hyks�s Scribe </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0025"> 080.jpg a Hyks�s Prisoner Guiding the Plough,
+        at El-kab </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0026"> 082.jpg Table of Offerings Bearing the Name
+        Of Ap�ti �qn�nr� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0027"> 083.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0028"> 084.jpg Broken Statue of Khiani </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0029"> 093.jpg the Traditional Oak of Abraham at
+        Hebron </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0030"> 106.jpg Pallate of Ti�.a </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0031"> 109.jpg Nofr�tari, from Tue Wooden Statuette
+        in the Turin Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0032"> 110.jpg the Head of Saqnuri </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0033"> 113.jpg the Small Gold Votive Barque of
+        Pharaoh Kamos�, In the G�zeh Museum. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0034"> 114.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0035"> 116.jpg the Walls of El-kab Seen from The
+        Tomb Of Pihiri </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0036"> 116a.jpg Collection of Vases Modelled and
+        Painted in The Grand Temple. Philae Island. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0037"> 119.jpg the Ruins of The Pyramid Of Q�lah,
+        Near Mohammerieh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0038"> 122.jpg the Tombs of The Princes Of Nekhab�t,
+        in The Hillside Above El-kab </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0039"> 130.jpg Painting in Tomb of the Kings Thebes
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0040"> 132.jpg a Convoy of T�rah Quarrymen Drawing
+        Stone </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0041"> 135.jpg Coffin of Ahmosis in the G�zeh Museum
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0042"> 136.jpg Nofritari, Hie Black-skinned Goddess
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0043"> 137.jpg the Jewels and Weapons of Queen
+        �hhhotp� I. In The G�zeh Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0044"> 141.jpg the Two Coffins of Ahhotp Ii. And
+        Nofritari Standing in Tub Vestibule of the Old B�lak Museum. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0045"> 144.jpg Statue of Amen�thes I. In the Turin
+        Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0046"> 146.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0047"> 147.jpg the Coffin and Mummy of Amenothes
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0048"> 150.jpg Th�tmosis I., from a Statue in the
+        G�zeh Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0049"> 153.jpg Table </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0050"> 155.jpg Signs, Arms and Instruments </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0005"> 158.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0006"> Table </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0007"> 177.jpg the Fortress and Bridge of Zalu </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0008"> 180.jpg Map </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0009"> 184.jpg the Canaanite Fortresses </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0010"> 185.jpg the Walled City of Dap�r, in Galilee
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0011"> 187.jpg the Migdol of Ramses Iii. At Thebes,
+        in The Temple of Medinet-abul </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0012"> 189.jpg the Modern Village of Be�t�n
+        (ancient Bethel), Seen from the South-west. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0013"> 191.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0014"> 192.jpg Amphitheatre of Hills </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0015"> 196.jpg the Evergreen Oaks Between Joppa and
+        Carmel </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0016"> 197.jpg Acre and the Fringe of Reefs
+        Sheltering The Ancient Port </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0017"> 199.jpg Map </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0018"> 201.jpg the Town of Qodshu </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0019"> 202.jpg the Tyrian Ladder at Ras El-abiad
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0020"> 206.jpg the Dyke at Baiik El-kades in Its
+        Present Condition </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0021"> 208.jpg Map </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0022"> 211.jpg Site of Carchemish </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0023"> 212.jpg the Tell of Jerabis in Its Present
+        Condition </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0024"> 213.jpg a Northern Syrian </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0025"> 215.jpg the Heads of Three Amorite Captives
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0026"> 216.jpg Mixture of Syrian Races </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0027"> 218.jpg a Caricature of the Syrian Type </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0028"> 219.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0029"> 220.jpg Syrians Dressed in the Loin-cloth
+        and Double Shawl </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0030"> 222a.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0032"> 223.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0033"> 226.jpg Lotan� Women and Children from the
+        Tomb Of Rakhmie� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0034"> 229.jpg Astarte As a Sphinx </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0035"> 231.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0036"> 235.jpg Transjordanian Dolmen </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0037"> 238.jpg a Cromlech in the Neighbourhood of
+        Hesban, In The Country of Moab </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0038"> 240.jpg a Corner of the Phoenician
+        Neckropolis at Adlun </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0039"> 241.jpg Valley of the Tomb Of The Kings </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0040"> 241-text.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0041"> 246.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0042"> 248.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0043"> 249.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0044"> 252.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0045"> 253.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0046"> 256.jpg Valley of the Adonis </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0047"> 256a.jpg the Amphitheatre of Aphaka and The
+        Source Of The Nahh-ibrahim </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0048"> 267.jpg the Ambrosian Rocks </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0049"> 268.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0050"> 269.jpg Tyre and Its Suburbs on the Mainland
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0051"> 273.jpg the Sculptured Rocks of Hanaweh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0052"> 282.jpg One of the Kaf�ti from The Tomb Of
+        Rakhmir� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0053"> 286.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0054"> 288.jpg an Egyptian Trading Vessel of the
+        First Half Of The Xviiith Dynasty </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0055"> 294.jpg Map of Cyprus </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0056"> 297.jpg the Murex Trunculus </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0057"> 298.jpg Dagger of �hmosis </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0058"> 299.jpg One of the Daggers Discovered at
+        Mycen�, Showing An Imitation of Egyptian Decoration </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0059"> 302.jpg Tailpiece </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0005"> 303.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0006"> 305.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0007"> 311.jpg a Platoon (troop) of Egyptian
+        Spearmen at De�r El-bahar� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0008"> 313.jpg a Platoon of Egyptian Archers at
+        De�r El-bahar� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0009"> 314.jpg the Egyptian Chariot Preserved in
+        The Florence Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0010"> 315.jpg the King Charging on his Chariot
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0011"> 318.jpg an Egyptian Learning to Ride, from a
+        Bas-relief In the Bologna Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0012"> 319.jpg the War-dance of The Timihu at De�r
+        El-bahar� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0013"> 321.jpg a Column of Troops on the March,
+        Chariots And Infantry </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0014"> 322.jpg an Egyptian Fortified Camp, Forced
+        by the Enemy </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0015"> 322b.jpg Two Companies on the March </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0016"> 325.jpg Scenes from Military Life in an
+        Egyptian Camp </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0017"> 327.jpg Encounter Between Egyptian and
+        Asiatic Chariots </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0018"> 328.jpg Ramses II. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0020"> 330.jpg Counting of the Hands </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0021"> 336.jpg a City of Modern Nubia&mdash;the
+        Ancient Dongola </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0022"> 338.jpg Arrival of an Ethiopian Queen
+        Bringing Tribute To The Viceroy of K�sii </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0023"> 339.jpg Typical Galla Woman </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0024"> 341.jpg Gold Epergne Representing Scenes
+        from Ethiopian Life </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0025"> 344.jpg Portrait of the Queen �hmasi </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0026"> 345.jpg Queen M�tnofr�t in the G�zeh Museum
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0027"> 346.jpg Queen H�tshops�t� in Male Costume
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0028"> 347.jpg Bust of Queen H�tshops�t� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0029"> 348.jpg Painting on the Tomb of The Kings
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0030"> 350.jpg the Amphitheatre at De�r El-bahar�,
+        As It Appeared Bepoee Naville&rsquo;s Excavations </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0031"> 351.jpg the Northern Collonade </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0032"> 353.jpg Head of the Mummy Of Th�tmosis I.
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0033"> 354.jpg Head of the Mummy Of Th�tmosis Ii.
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0034"> 356.jpg the Coffin of Th�tmosis I. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0035"> 356b Avenue of Rams and Pylon at Karnak </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0036"> 356b-text </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0037"> 357.jpg the Statue of Sanm�t </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0038"> 358.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0039"> 361.jpg an Inhabitant of the Land Of P�an�t
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0040"> 363.jpg a Village on the Bank of The River,
+        With Ladders Of Incense </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0041"> 365.jpg Prince Parih� and the Princess of
+        Puan�t </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0042"> 366.jpg the Embarkation of The Incense
+        Sycomores On Board the Egyptian Fleet </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0043"> 369.jpg Some of the Incense Trees Brought
+        from P�an�t To De�r El-baiiak� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0044"> 372.jpg Thutmosis Iii., from his Statue in
+        the Turin Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0045"> 378.jpg an Egyptian Encampment Before a
+        Besieged Town </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0046"> 380.jpg Some of the Plants and Animals
+        Brought Back From Puan�t </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0047"> 381.jpg Part of the Triumphal Lists Of
+        Thutmosis Iii. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0048"> 384.jpg Some of the Objects Carried in
+        Tribute to The Syrians </a>
+      </p>
+    </blockquote>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="003 (232K)" src="images/003.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="005 (269K)" src="images/005.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER I<br /> <br /> THE FIRST CHALD�AN EMPIRE AND THE HYKS�S IN EGYPT
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Syria: the part played by it in the ancient world&mdash;Babylon and the
+      first Chald�an empire&mdash;The dominion of the Hyks�s: �hmosis.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Some countries seem destined from their origin to become the battle-fields
+      of the contending nations which environ them. Into such regions, and to
+      their cost, neighbouring peoples come from century to century to settle
+      their quarrels and bring to an issue the questions of supremacy which
+      disturb their little corner of the world. The nations around are eager for
+      the possession of a country thus situated; it is seized upon bit by bit,
+      and in the strife dismembered and trodden underfoot: at best the only
+      course open to its inhabitants is to join forces with one of its invaders,
+      and while helping the intruder to overcome the rest, to secure for
+      themselves a position of permanent servitude. Should some unlooked-for
+      chance relieve them from the presence of their foreign lord, they will
+      probably be quite incapable of profiting by the respite which fortune puts
+      in their way, or of making any effectual attempt to organize themselves in
+      view of future attacks. They tend to become split up into numerous rival
+      communities, of which even the pettiest will aim at autonomy, keeping up a
+      perpetual frontier war for the sake of becoming possessed of or of
+      retaining a glorious sovereignty over a few acres of corn in the plains,
+      or some wooded ravines in the mountains. Year after year there will be
+      scenes of bloody conflict, in which petty armies will fight petty battles
+      on behalf of petty interests, but so fiercely, and with such furious
+      animosity, that the country will suffer from the strife as much as, or
+      even more than, from an invasion. There will be no truce to their
+      struggles until they all fall under the sway of a foreign master, and,
+      except in the interval between two conquests, they will have no national
+      existence, their history being almost entirely merged in that of other
+      nations.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      From remote antiquity Syria was in the condition just described, and thus
+      destined to become subject to foreign rule. Chald�a, Egypt, Assyria, and
+      Persia presided in turn over its destinies, while Macedonia and the
+      empires of the West were only waiting their opportunity to lay hold of it.
+      By its position it formed a kind of meeting-place where most of the
+      military nations of the ancient world were bound sooner or later to come
+      violently into collision. Confined between the sea and the desert, Syria
+      offers the only route of easy access to an army marching northwards from
+      Africa into Asia, and all conquerors, whether attracted to Mesopotamia or
+      to Egypt by the accumulated riches on the banks of the Euphrates or the
+      Nile, were obliged to pass through it in order to reach the object of
+      their cupidity. It might, perhaps, have escaped this fatal consequence of
+      its position, had the formation of the country permitted its tribes to
+      mass themselves together, and oppose a compact body to the invading hosts;
+      but the range of mountains which forms its backbone subdivides it into
+      isolated districts, and by thus restricting each tribe to a narrow
+      existence maintained among them a mutual antagonism. The twin chains, the
+      Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon, which divide the country down the centre,
+      are composed of the same kind of calcareous rocks and sandstone, while the
+      same sort of reddish clay has been deposited on their slopes by the
+      glaciers of the same geological period.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Drake remarked in the Lebanon several varieties of
+     limestone, which have been carefully catalogued by Blanche
+     and Lartet. Above these strata, which belong to the Jurassic
+     formation, come reddish sandstone, then beds of very hard
+     yellowish limestone, and finally marl. The name Lebanon, in
+     Assyrian Libnana, would appear to signify &ldquo;the white
+     mountain;&rdquo; the Amorites called the Anti-Lebanon Saniru,
+     Shenir, according to the Assyrian texts and the Hebrew
+     books.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Arid and bare on the northern side, they sent out towards the south
+      featureless monotonous ridges, furrowed here and there by short narrow
+      valleys, hollowed out in places into basins or funnel-shaped ravines,
+      which are widened year by year by the down-rush of torrents. These ridges,
+      as they proceed southwards, become clothed with verdure and offer a more
+      varied outline, the ravines being more thickly wooded, and the summits
+      less uniform in contour and colouring. Lebanon becomes white and
+      ice-crowned in winter, but none of its peaks rises to the altitude of
+      perpetual snows: the highest of them, Mount Timarun, reaches 10,526 feet,
+      while only three others exceed 9000.* Anti-Lebanon is, speaking generally,
+      1000 or 1300 feet lower than its neighbour: it becomes higher, however,
+      towards the south, where the triple peak of Mount Hermon rises to a height
+      of 9184 feet. The Orontes and the Lit�ny drain the intermediate space. The
+      Orontes rising on the west side of the Anti-Lebanon, near the ruins of
+      Baalbek, rushes northwards in such a violent manner, that the dwellers on
+      its banks call it the rebel&mdash;Nahr el-Asi.** About a third of the way
+      towards its mouth it enters a depression, which ancient dykes help to
+      transform into a lake; it flows thence, almost parallel to the sea-coast,
+      as far as the 36th degree of latitude. There it meets the last spurs of
+      the Amanos, but, failing to cut its way through them, it turns abruptly to
+      the west, and then to the south, falling into the Mediterranean after
+      having received an increase to its volume from the waters of the Afr�n.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Bukton-Drake, Unexplored Syria, vol. i. p. 88, attributed
+     to it an altitude of 9175 English feet; others estimate it
+     at 10,539 feet. The mountains which exceed 3000 metres are
+     Dahr el-Koz�b, 3046 metres; Jebel-Mislriyah, 3080 metres;
+     and Jebel-Makhmal or Makmal, 3040 metres. As a matter of
+     fact, these heights are not yet determined with the accuracy
+     desirable.
+
+     ** The Egyptians knew it in early times by the name of
+     A�nrati, or Ara�nti; it is mentioned in Assyrian
+     inscriptions under the name of Arant�. All are agreed in
+     acknowledging that this name is not Semitic, and an Aryan
+     origin is attributed to it, but without convincing proof;
+     according to Strabo (xvi. ii. � 7, p. 750), it was
+     originally called Typhon, and was only styled Orontes after
+     a certain Orontes had built the first bridge across it. The
+     name of Axios which it sometimes bears appears to have been
+     given to it by Greek colonists, in memory of a river in
+     Macedonia. This is probably the origin of the modern name of
+     Asi, and the meaning, <i>rebellious river</i>, which Arab
+     tradition attaches to the latter term, probably comes from a
+     popular etymology which likened Axios to Asi, the
+     identification was all the easier since it justifies the
+     epithet by the violence of its current.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Lit�ny rises a short distance from the Orontes; it flows at first
+      through a wide and fertile plain, which soon contracts, however, and
+      forces it into a channel between the spurs of the Lebanon and the Galil�an
+      hills. The water thence makes its way between two cliffs of perpendicular
+      rock, the ravine being in several places so narrow that the branches of
+      the trees on the opposite sides interlace, and an active man could readily
+      leap across it. Near Yakhmur some detached rocks appear to have been
+      arrested in their fall, and, leaning like flying buttresses against the
+      mountain face, constitute a natural bridge over the torrent. The basins of
+      the two rivers lie in one valley, extending eighty leagues in length,
+      divided by an almost imperceptible watershed into two beds of unequal
+      slope. The central part of the valley is given up to marshes. It is only
+      towards the south that we find cornfields, vineyards, plantations of
+      mulberry and olive trees, spread out over the plain, or disposed in
+      terraces on the hillsides. Towards the north, the alluvial deposits of,
+      the Orontes have gradually formed a black and fertile soil, upon which
+      grow luxuriant crops of cereals and other produce. Cole-Syria, after
+      having generously nourished the Oriental empires which had preyed upon
+      her, became one of the granaries of the Roman world, under the capable
+      rule of the C�sars.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Syria is surrounded on all sides by countries of varying aspect and soil.
+      That to the north, flanked by the Amanos, is a gloomy mountainous region,
+      with its greatest elevation on the seaboard: it slopes gradually towards
+      the interior, spreading out into chalky table-lands, dotted over with bare
+      and rounded hills, and seamed with tortuous valleys which open out to the
+      Euphrates, the Orontes, or the desert. Vast, slightly undulating plains
+      succeed the table-lands: the soil is dry and stony, the streams are few in
+      number and contain but little water. The Sajur flows into the Euphrates,
+      the Afr�n and the Karasu when united yield their tribute to the Orontes,
+      while the others for the most part pour their waters into enclosed basins.
+      The Khalus of the Greeks sluggishly pursues its course southward, and
+      after reluctantly leaving the gardens of Aleppo, finally loses itself on
+      the borders of the desert in a small salt lake full of islets: about
+      halfway between the Khalus and the Euphrates a second salt lake receives
+      the Nahr ed-Dahab, the &ldquo;golden river.&rdquo; The climate is mild, and the
+      temperature tolerably uniform. The sea-breeze which rises every afternoon
+      tempers the summer heat: the cold in winter is never piercing, except when
+      the south wind blows which comes from the mountains, and the snow rarely
+      lies on the ground for more than twenty-four hours. It seldom rains during
+      the autumn and winter months, but frequent showers fall in the early days
+      of spring. Vegetation then awakes again, and the soil lends itself to
+      cultivation in the hollows of the valleys and on the table-lands wherever
+      irrigation is possible. The ancients dotted these now all but desert
+      spaces with wells and cisterns; they intersected them with canals, and
+      covered them with farms and villages, with fortresses and populous cities.
+      Prim�val forests clothed the slopes of the Amanos, and pinewood from this
+      region was famous both at Babylon and in the towns of Lower Chald�a. The
+      plains produced barley and wheat in enormous quantities, the vine throve
+      there, the gardens teemed with flowers and fruit, and pistachio and olive
+      trees grew on every slope. The desert was always threatening to invade the
+      plain, and gained rapidly upon it whenever a prolonged war disturbed
+      cultivation, or when the negligence of the inhabitants slackened the work
+      of defence: beyond the lakes and salt marshes it had obtained a secure
+      hold. At the present time the greater part of the country between the
+      Orontes and the Euphrates is nothing but a rocky table-land, ridged with
+      low hills and dotted over with some impoverished oases, excepting at the
+      foot of Anti-Lebanon, where two rivers, fed by innumerable streams, have
+      served to create a garden of marvellous beauty. The Barada, dashing from
+      cascade to cascade, flows for some distance through gorges before emerging
+      on the plain: scarcely has it reached level ground than it widens out,
+      divides, and forms around Damascus a miniature delta, into which a
+      thousand interlacing channels carry refreshment and fertility. Below the
+      town these streams rejoin the river, which, after having flowed merrily
+      along for a day&rsquo;s journey, is swallowed up in a kind of elongated chasm
+      from whence it never again emerges. At the melting of the snows a regular
+      lake is formed here, whose blue waters are surrounded by wide grassy
+      margins &ldquo;like a sapphire set in emeralds.&rdquo; This lake dries up almost
+      completely in summer, and is converted into swampy meadows, filled with
+      gigantic rushes, among which the birds build their nests, and multiply as
+      unmolested as in the marshes of Chald�a. The Awaj, unfed by any tributary,
+      fills a second deeper though smaller basin, while to the south two other
+      lesser depressions receive the waters of the Anti-Lebanon and the Hauran.
+      Syria is protected from the encroachments of the desert by a continuous
+      barrier of pools and beds of reeds: towards the east the space reclaimed
+      resembles a verdant promontory thrust boldly out into an ocean of sand.
+      The extent of the cultivated area is limited on the west by the narrow
+      strip of rock and clay which forms the littoral. From the mouth of the
+      Lit�ny to that of the Orontes, the coast presents a rugged, precipitous,
+      and inhospitable appearance. There are no ports, and merely a few
+      ill-protected harbours, or narrow beaches lying under formidable
+      headlands. One river, the Nahr el-Kebir, which elsewhere would not attract
+      the traveller&rsquo;s attention, is here noticeable as being the only stream
+      whose waters flow constantly and with tolerable regularity; the others,
+      the Leon, the Adonis,* and the Nahr el-Kelb,* can scarcely even be called
+      torrents, being precipitated as it were in one leap from the Lebanon to
+      the Mediterranean. Olives, vines, and corn cover the maritime plain, while
+      in ancient times the heights were clothed with impenetrable forests of
+      oak, pine, larch, cypress, spruce, and cedar. The mountain range drops in
+      altitude towards the centre of the country and becomes merely a line of
+      low hills, connecting Gebel Ansarieh with the Lebanon proper; beyond the
+      latter it continues without interruption, till at length, above the narrow
+      Phoenician coast road, it rises in the form of an almost insurmountable
+      wall. Near to the termination of Coele-Syria, but separated from it by a
+      range of hills, there opens out on the western slopes of Hermon a valley
+      unlike any other in the world. At this point the surface of the earth has
+      been rent in prehistoric times by volcanic action, leaving a chasm which
+      has never since closed up. A river, unique in character&mdash;the Jordan&mdash;flows
+      down this gigantic crevasse, fertilizing the valley formed by it from end
+      to end.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Adonis of classical authors is now Nahr-Ibrahim. We
+     have as yet no direct evidence as to the Phoenician name of
+     this river; it was probably identical with that of the
+     divinity worshipped on its banks. The fact of a river
+     bearing the name of a god is not surprising: the Belos, in
+     the neighbourhood of Acre, affords us a parallel case to the
+     Adonis.
+
+     ** The present Nahr el-Kelb is the Lykos of classical
+     authors. The Due de Luynes thought he recognized a
+     corruption of the Phoenician name in that of Alcobile, which
+     is mentioned hereabouts in the Itinerary of the pilgrim of
+     Bordeaux. The order of the Itinerary does not favour this
+     identification, and Alcobile is probably Jebail: it is none
+     the less probable that the original name of the Nahr el Kelb
+     contained from earliest times the Phoenician equivalent of
+     the Arab word <i>kelb</i>, &ldquo;dog.&rdquo;
+
+     *** The Jordan is mentioned in the Egyptian texts under the
+     name of Yorduna: the name appears to mean <i>the descender,
+     the down-flowing.</i>
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Its principal source is at Tell el-Qadi, where it rises out of a basaltic
+      mound whose summit is crowned by the ruins of Laish.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This source is mentioned by Josephus as being that of the
+     Little Jordan.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/014.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="014.jpg the Most Northern Source of The Jordan, The Naiir-el-hasbany " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by the Duc de Luynes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The water collects in an oval rocky basin hidden by bushes, and flows down
+      among the brushwood to join the Nahr el-Hasbany, which brings the waters
+      of the upper torrents to swell its stream; a little lower down it mingles
+      with the Banias branch, and winds for some time amidst desolate marshy
+      meadows before disappearing in the thick beds of rushes bordering Lake
+      Huleh.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Lake Huleh is called the Waters of Merom, M�-Merom, in the
+     Book of Joshua, xi. 5, 7; and Lake Sammochonitis in
+     Josephus. The name of Ulatha, which was given to the
+     surrounding country, shows that the modern word Huleh is
+     derived from an ancient form, of which unfortunately the
+     original has not come down to us.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/015.jpg" width="100%" alt="15.jpg Lake of Genesarath " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      At this point the Jordan reaches the level of the Mediterranean, but
+      instead of maintaining it, the river makes a sudden drop on leaving the
+      lake, cutting for itself a deeply grooved channel. It has a fall of some
+      300 feet before reaching the Lake of Grenesareth, where it is only
+      momentarily arrested, as if to gather fresh strength for its headlong
+      career southwards.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/017.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="017.jpg One of the Reaches Of The Jordan " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from several photographs brought back by
+     Lortet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Here and there it makes furious assaults on its right and left banks, as
+      if to escape from its bed, but the rocky escarpments which hem it in
+      present an insurmountable barrier to it; from rapid to rapid it descends
+      with such capricious windings that it covers a course of more than 62
+      miles before reaching, the Dead Sea, nearly 1300 feet below the level of
+      the Mediterranean.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The exact figures are: the Lake of H�leh 7 feet above the
+     Mediterranean; the Lake of Genesareth 68245 feet, and the
+     Dead Sea 1292 feet below the sea-level; to the south of
+     the Dead Sea, towards the water-parting of the Akabah, the
+     ground is over 720 feet higher than the level of the Red
+     Sea.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/018.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="018.jpg the Dead Sea and The Mountains of Moab, Seen Fkom The Heights of Engedi " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by the Duc de Luynes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nothing could offer more striking contrasts than the country on either
+      bank. On the east, the ground rises abruptly to a height of about 3000
+      feet, resembling a natural rampart flanked with towers and bastions:
+      behind this extends an immense table-land, slightly undulating and
+      intersected in all directions by the affluents of the Jordan and the Dead
+      Sea&mdash;the Yarmuk,* the Jabbok,** and the Arnon.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Yarmuk does not occur in the Bible, but we meet with
+     its name in the Talmud, and the Greeks adopted it under the
+     form Hieromax.
+
+     ** <i>Gen.</i> xxxii. 22; Numb, xxi. 24. The name has been
+     Grecized under the forms l�bacchos, labacchos, Iambykes. It
+     is the present Nahr Zerqa.
+
+     *** <i>Numb.</i> xxi. 13-26; Beut. ii. 24; the present Wady
+     M�jib. [Shephelah = &ldquo;low country,&rdquo; plain (Josh. xi. 16).
+     With the article it means the plain along the Mediterranean
+     from Joppa to Gaza.&mdash;Te.]
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The whole of this district forms a little world in itself, whose
+      inhabitants, half shepherds, half bandits, live a life of isolation, with
+      no ambition to take part in general history. West of the Jordan, a
+      confused mass of hills rises into sight, their sparsely covered slopes
+      affording an impoverished soil for the cultivation of corn, vines, and
+      olives. One ridge&mdash;Mount Carmel&mdash;detached from the principal
+      chain near the southern end of the Lake of Genesareth, runs obliquely to
+      the north-west, and finally projects into the sea. North of this range
+      extends Galilee, abounding in refreshing streams and fertile fields; while
+      to the south, the country falls naturally into three parallel zones&mdash;the
+      littoral, composed alternately of dunes and marshes&mdash;an expanse of
+      plain, a &ldquo;Shephelah,&rdquo; dotted about with woods and watered by intermittent
+      rivers,&mdash;and finally the mountains. The region of dunes is not
+      necessarily barren, and the towns situated in it&mdash;Gaza, Jaffa,
+      Ashdod, and Ascalon&mdash;are surrounded by flourishing orchards and
+      gardens. The plain yields plentiful harvests every year, the ground
+      needing no manure and very little labour. The higher ground and the
+      hill-tops are sometimes covered with verdure, but as they advance
+      southwards, they become denuded and burnt by the sun. The valleys, too,
+      are watered only by springs, which are dried up for the most part during
+      the summer, and the soil, parched by the continuous heat, can scarcely be
+      distinguished from the desert. In fact, till the Sinaitic Peninsula and
+      the frontiers of Egypt are reached, the eye merely encounters desolate and
+      almost uninhabited solitudes, devastated by winter torrents, and
+      overshadowed by the volcanic summits of Mount Seir. The spring rains,
+      however, cause an early crop of vegetation to spring up, which for a few
+      weeks furnishes the flocks of the nomad tribes with food.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We may summarise the physical characteristics of Syria by saying that
+      Nature has divided the country into five or six regions of unequal area,
+      isolated by rivers and mountains, each one of which, however, is admirably
+      suited to become the seat of a separate independent state. In the north,
+      we have the country of the two rivers&mdash;the Naharaim&mdash;extending
+      from the Orontes to the Euphrates and the Balikh, or even as far as the
+      Khabur:* in the centre, between the two ranges of the Lebanon, lie
+      Coele-Syria and its two unequal neighbours, Aram of Damascus and
+      Phoenicia; while to the south is the varied collection of provinces
+      bordering the valley of the Jordan.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Naharaim of the Egyptians was first identified with
+     Mesopotamia; it was located between the Orontes and the
+     Balikh or the Euphrates by Maspero. This opinion is now
+     adopted by the majority of Egyptologists, with slight
+     differences in detail. Ed. Meyer has accurately compared the
+     Egyptian Naharaim with the Parapotamia of the administration
+     of the Seleucid�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is impossible at the present day to assert, with any approach to
+      accuracy, what peoples inhabited these different regions towards the
+      fourth millennium before our era. Wherever excavations are made, relics
+      are brought to light of a very ancient semi-civilization, in which we find
+      stone weapons and implements, besides pottery, often elegant in contour,
+      but for the most part coarse in texture and execution. These remains,
+      however, are not accompanied by any monument of definite characteristics,
+      and they yield no information with regard to the origin or affinities of
+      the tribes who fashioned them.* The study of the geographical nomenclature
+      in use about the XVIth century B.C. reveals the existence, at all events
+      at that period, of several peoples and several languages. The mountains,
+      rivers, towns, and fortresses in Palestine and Coele-Syria are designated
+      by words of Semitic origin: it is easy to detect, even in the hieroglyphic
+      disguise which they bear on the Egyptian geographical lists, names
+      familiar to us in Hebrew or Assyrian.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Researches with regard to the primitive inhabitants of
+     Syria and their remains have not as yet been prosecuted to
+     any extent. The caves noticed by Hedenborg at Ant-Elias,
+     near Tripoli, and by Botta at Nahr el-Kelb, and at Adlun by
+     the Duc de Luynes, have been successively explored by
+     Lartet, Tristram, Lortet, and Dawson. The grottoes of
+     Palestine proper, at Bethzur, at Gilgal near Jericho, and at
+     Tibneh, have been the subject of keen controversy ever since
+     their discovery. The Abb� Richard desired to identify the
+     flints of Gilgal and Tibneh with the stone knives used by
+     Joshua for the circumcision of the Israelites after the
+     passage of the Jordan (<i>Josh.</i> v- 2-9), some of which might
+     have been buried in that hero&rsquo;s tomb.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But once across the Orontes, other forms present themselves which reveal
+      no affinities to these languages, but are apparently connected with one or
+      other of the dialects of Asia Minor.* The tenacity with which the
+      place-names, once given, cling to the soil, leads us to believe that a
+      certain number at least of those we know in Syria were in use there long
+      before they were noted down by the Egyptians, and that they must have been
+      heirlooms from very early peoples. As they take a Semitic or non-Semitic
+      form according to their geographical position, we may conclude that the
+      centre and south were colonized by Semites, and the north by the immigrant
+      tribes from beyond the Taurus. Facts are not wanting to support this
+      conclusion, and they prove that it is not so entirely arbitrary as we
+      might be inclined to believe. The Asiatic visitors who, under a king of
+      the XIIth dynasty, came to offer gifts to Khn�mhotp�, the Lord of
+      Beni-Hasan, are completely Semitic in type, and closely resemble the
+      Bedouins of the present day. Their chief&mdash;Abisha&mdash;bears a
+      Semitic name,** as too does the Sheikh Ammianshi, with whom Sin�hit took
+      refuge.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The non-Semitic origin of the names of a number of towns
+     in Northern Syria preserved in the Egyptian lists, is
+     admitted by the majority of scholars who have studied the
+     question.
+
+     ** His name has been shown to be cognate with the Hebrew
+     Abishai (1 Sam. xxvi. 6-9; 2 Sam. ii. 18, 24; xxi. 17) and
+     with the Chald�o-Assyrian Abeshukh.
+
+     *** The name Ammianshi at once recalls those of Ammisatana,
+     Ammiza-dugga, and perhaps Ammurabi, or Khammurabi, of one of
+     the Babylonian dynasties; it contains, with the element
+     Ammi, a final <i>anshi</i>. Chabas connects it with two Hebrew
+     words <i>Am-nesh</i>, which he does not translate.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ammianshi himself reigned over the province of Kadim�, a word which in
+      Semitic denotes the East. Finally, the only one of their gods known to us,
+      Hadad, was a Semite deity, who presided over the atmosphere, and whom we
+      find later on ruling over the destinies of Damascus. Peoples of Semitic
+      speech and religion must, indeed, have already occupied the greater part
+      of that region on the shores of the Mediterranean which we find still in
+      their possession many centuries later, at the time of the Egyptian
+      conquest.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/023.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="023.jpg Asiatic Women from the Tomb of Khn�mhotp� " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      For a time Egypt preferred not to meddle in their affairs. When, however,
+      the &ldquo;lords of the sands&rdquo; grew too insolent, the Pharaoh sent a column of
+      light troops against them, and inflicted on them such a severe punishment,
+      that the remembrance of it kept them within bounds for years. Offenders
+      banished from Egypt sought refuge with the turbulent kinglets, who were in
+      a perpetual state of unrest between Sinai and the Dead Sea. Egyptian
+      sailors used to set out to traffic along the seaboard, taking to piracy
+      when hard pressed; Egyptian merchants were accustomed to penetrate by easy
+      stages into the interior. The accounts they gave of their journeys were
+      not reassuring. The traveller had first to face the solitudes which
+      confronted him before reaching the Isthmus, and then to avoid as best he
+      might the attacks of the pillaging tribes who inhabited it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/024.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="024.jpg Two Asiatics Fkom the Tomb of Khn�mhopt�. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Should he escape these initial perils, the Amu&mdash;an agricultural and
+      settled people inhabiting the fertile region&mdash;would give the stranger
+      but a sorry reception: he would have to submit to their demands, and the
+      most exorbitant levies of toll did not always preserve caravans from their
+      attacks.* The country seems to have been but thinly populated; tracts now
+      denuded were then covered by large forests in which herds of elephants
+      still roamed,** and wild beasts, including lions and leopards, rendered
+      the route through them dangerous.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The merchant who sets out for foreign lands &ldquo;leaves his
+     possessions to his children&mdash;for fear of lions and
+     Asiatics.&rdquo;
+
+     ** Th�tmosis III. went elephant-hunting near the Syrian town
+     of Ni�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The notion that Syria was a sort of preserve for both big and small game
+      was so strongly implanted in the minds of the Egyptians, that their
+      popular literature was full of it: the hero of their romances betook
+      himself there for the chase, as a prelude to meeting with the princess
+      whom he was destined to marry,* or, as in the case of Kazar�ti, chief of
+      Assur, that he might encounter there a monstrous hyena with which to
+      engage in combat.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * As, for instance, the hero in the <i>Story of the
+     Predestined Prince</i>, exiled from Egypt with his dog, pursues
+     his way hunting till he reaches the confines of Naharaim,
+     where he is to marry the prince&rsquo;s daughter.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These merchants&rsquo; adventures and explorations, as they were not followed by
+      any military expedition, left absolutely no mark on the industries or
+      manners of the primitive natives: those of them only who were close to the
+      frontiers of Egypt came under her subtle charm and felt the power of her
+      attraction, but this slight influence never penetrated beyond the
+      provinces lying nearest to the Dead Sea. The remaining populations looked
+      rather to Chald�a, and received, though at a distance, the continuous
+      impress of the kingdoms of the Euphrates. The tradition which attributes
+      to Sargon of Agad�, and to his son Istaramsin, the subjection of the
+      people of the Amanos and the Orontes, probably contains but a slight
+      element of truth; but if, while awaiting further information, we hesitate
+      to believe that the armies of these princes ever crossed the Lebanon or
+      landed in Cyprus, we must yet admit the very early advent of their
+      civilization in those western countries which are regarded as having been
+      under their rule. More than three thousand years before our era, the
+      Asiatics who figure on the tomb of Khn�mhotp� clothed themselves according
+      to the fashions of Uru and Lagash, and affected long robes of striped and
+      spotted stuffs. We may well ask if they had also borrowed the cuneiform
+      syllabary for the purposes of their official correspondence,* and if the
+      professional scribe with his stylus and clay tablet was to be found in
+      their cities. The Babylonian courtiers were, no doubt, more familiar
+      visitors among them than the Memphite nobles, while the Babylonian kings
+      sent regularly to Syria for statuary stone, precious metals, and the
+      timber required in the building of their monuments: Urbau and Gudea, as
+      well as their successors and contemporaries, received large convoys of
+      materials from the Amanos, and if the forests of Lebanon were more rarely
+      utilised, it was not because their existence was unknown, but because
+      distance rendered their approach more difficult and transport more costly.
+      The Mediterranean marches were, in their language, classed as a whole
+      under one denomination&mdash;Martu, Amurru,** the West&mdash;but there
+      were distinctive names for each of the provinces into which they were
+      divided.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The most ancient cuneiform tablets of Syrian origin are
+     not older than the XVIth century before our era; they
+     contain the official, correspondence of the native princes
+     with the Pharaohs Amen�thes III. and IV. of the XVIIIth
+     dynasty, as will be seen later on in this volume; they were
+     discovered in the ruins of one of the palaces at Tel el-
+     Amarna in Egypt.
+
+     ** Formerly read Akharru. Martu would be the Sumerian and
+     Akharru the Semitic form, Akharru meaning <i>that which is
+     behind</i>. The discovery of the Tel el-Amarna tablets threw
+     doubt on the reading of the name Akharru: some thought that
+     it ought to be kept in any case; others, with more or less
+     certainty, think that it should be replaced by Amuru,
+     Amurru, the country of the Amorites. But the question has
+     now been settled by Babylonian contract and law tablets of
+     the period of Khaminurabi, in which the name is written <i>A-
+     mu-ur-ri (ki)</i>. Hommel originated the idea that Martu might
+     be an abbreviation of Amartu, that is, Amar with the
+     feminine termination of nouns in the Canaanitish dialect:
+     Martu would thus actually signify <i>the country of the
+     Amorites</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Probably even at that date they called the north Khati,* and Cole-Syria,
+      Amurru, the land of the Amorites. The scattered references in their
+      writings seem to indicate frequent intercourse with these countries, and
+      that, too, as a matter of course which excited no surprise among their
+      contemporaries: a journey from Lagash to the mountains of Tidanum and to
+      Gubin, or to the Lebanon and beyond it to Byblos,** meant to them no
+      voyage of discovery. Armies undoubtedly followed the routes already
+      frequented by caravans and flotillas of trading boats, and the time came
+      when kings desired to rule as sovereigns over nations with whom their
+      subjects had peaceably traded.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of the Khati, Khatti, is found in the <i>Book of
+     Omens</i>, which is supposed to contain an extract from the
+     annals of Sargon and Naramsin; as, however, the text which
+     we possess of it is merely a copy of the time of
+     Assurbanipal, it is possible that the word Khati is merely
+     the translation of a more ancient term, perhaps Martu.
+     Winckler thinks it to be included in Lesser Armenia and the
+     Melit�n� of classical authors.
+
+     ** Gubin is probably the K�p�na, K�pn�, of the Egyptians,
+     the Byblos of Phoenicia. Amiaud had proposed a most unlikely
+     identification with Koptos in Egypt. In the time of In�-Sin,
+     King of Ur, mention is found of Simurru, Zimyra.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It does not appear, however, that the ancient rulers of Lagash ever
+      extended their dominion so far. The governors of the northern cities, on
+      the other hand, showed themselves more energetic, and inaugurated that
+      march westwards which sooner or later brought the peoples of the Euphrates
+      into collision with the dwellers on the Nile: for the first Babylonian
+      empire without doubt comprised part if not the whole of Syria.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It is only since the discovery of the Tel el-Amarna
+     tablets that the fact of the dominant influence of Chald�a
+     over Syria and of its conquest has been definitely realized.
+     It is now clear that the state of things of which the
+     tablets discovered in Egypt give us a picture, could only be
+     explained by the hypothesis of a Babylonish supremacy of
+     long duration over the peoples situated between the
+     Euphrates and the Mediterranean.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Among the most celebrated names in ancient history, that of Babylon is
+      perhaps the only one which still suggests to our minds a sense of vague
+      magnificence and undefined dominion. Cities in other parts of the world,
+      it is true, have rivalled Babylon in magnificence and power: Egypt could
+      boast of more than one such city, and their ruins to this day present to
+      our gaze more monuments worthy of admiration than Babylon ever contained
+      in the days of her greatest prosperity. The pyramids of Memphis and the
+      colossal statues of Thebes still stand erect, while the ziggur�ts and the
+      palaces of Chald�a are but mounds of clay crumbling into the plain; but
+      the Egyptian monuments are visible and tangible objects; we can calculate
+      to within a few inches the area they cover and the elevation of their
+      summits, and the very precision with which we can gauge their enormous
+      size tends to limit and lessen their effect upon us. How is it possible to
+      give free rein to the imagination when the subject of it is strictly
+      limited by exact and determined measurements? At Babylon, on the contrary,
+      there is nothing remaining to check the flight of fancy: a single hillock,
+      scoured by the rains of centuries, marks the spot where the temple of Bel
+      stood erect in its splendour; another represents the hanging gardens,
+      while the ridges running to the right and left were once the ramparts.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/029.jpg" width="100%" alt="029.jpg the Ruins of Babylon " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a drawing reproduced in Hofer. It
+     shows the state of the ruins in the first half of our
+     century, before the excavations carried out at European
+     instigation.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The vestiges of a few buildings remain above the mounds of rubble, and as
+      soon as the pickaxe is applied to any spot, irregular layers of bricks,
+      enamelled tiles, and inscribed tablets are brought to light&mdash;in fine,
+      all those numberless objects which bear witness to the presence of man and
+      to his long sojourn on the spot. But these vestiges are so mutilated and
+      disfigured that the principal outlines of the buildings cannot be
+      determined with any certainty, and afford us no data for guessing their
+      dimensions. He who would attempt to restore the ancient appearance of the
+      place would find at his disposal nothing but vague indications, from which
+      he might draw almost any conclusion he pleased.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0012" id="linkimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/030.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="030.jpg Plan of the Ruins Of Babylon " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Prepared by Thuillier, from a plan reproduced in G.
+     Rawlinson, <i>Herodotus</i>
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Palaces and temples would take a shape in his imagination on a plan which
+      never entered the architect&rsquo;s mind; the sacred towers as they rose would
+      be disposed in more numerous stages than they actually possessed; the
+      enclosing walls would reach such an elevation that they must have quickly
+      fallen under their own weight if they had ever been carried so high: the
+      whole restoration, accomplished without any certain data, embodies the
+      concept of something vast and superhuman, well befitting the city of blood
+      and tears, cursed by the Hebrew prophets. Babylon was, however, at the
+      outset, but a poor town, situated on both banks of the Euphrates, in a
+      low-lying, flat district, intersected by canals and liable at times to
+      become marshy. The river at this point runs almost directly north and
+      south, between two banks of black mud, the base of which it is perpetually
+      undermining. As long as the city existed, the vertical thrust of the
+      public buildings and houses kept the river within bounds, and even since
+      it was finally abandoned, the masses of <i>debris</i> have almost
+      everywhere had the effect of resisting its encroachment; towards the
+      north, however, the line of its ancient quays has given way and sunk
+      beneath the waters, while the stream, turning its course westwards, has
+      transferred to the eastern bank the gardens and mounds originally on the
+      opposite side. E-sagilla, the temple of the lofty summit, the sanctuary of
+      Merodach, probably occupied the vacant space in the depression between the
+      Babil and the hill of the Kasr.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The temple of Merodach, called by the Greeks the temple of
+     Belos, has been placed on the site called Bab�l by the two
+     Rawlinsons; and by Oppert; Hormuzd Rassam and Fr. Delitzsch
+     locate it between the hill of Junjuma and the Kasr, and
+     considers Bab�l to be a palace of Nebuchadrezzar.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In early times it must have presented much the same appearance as the
+      sanctuaries of Central Chald�a: a mound of crude brick formed the
+      substructure of the dwellings of the priests and the household of the god,
+      of the shops for the offerings and for provisions, of the treasury, and of
+      the apartments for purification or for sacrifice, while the whole was
+      surmounted by a ziggur�t. On other neighbouring platforms rose the royal
+      palace and the temples of lesser divinities,* elevated above the crowd of
+      private habitations.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * As, for instance, the temple E-temenanki on the actual
+     hill of Amr�n-ibn-Ali, the temple of Shamash, and others,
+     which there will be occasion to mention later on in dealing
+     with the second Chald�an empire.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0013" id="linkimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/032.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="032.jpg the Kask Seen from The South " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from the engraving by Thomas in Perrot-
+     Chipiez.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The houses of the people were closely built around these stately piles, on
+      either side of narrow lanes. A massive wall surrounded the whole, shutting
+      out the view on all sides; it even ran along the bank of the Euphrates,
+      for fear of a surprise from that quarter, and excluded the inhabitants
+      from the sight of their own river. On the right bank rose a suburb, which
+      was promptly fortified and enlarged, so as to become a second Babylon,
+      almost equalling the first in extent and population.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0014" id="linkimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/033.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="033.jpg the Tell of Borsippa, The Present Birs-nimrud " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after the plate published in
+     Ohesney.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Beyond this, on the outskirts, extended gardens and fields, finding at
+      length their limit at the territorial boundaries of two other towns, Kutha
+      and Borsippa, whose black outlines are visible to the east and south-west
+      respectively, standing isolated above the plain. Sippara on the north,
+      Nippur on the south, and the mysterious Agad�, completed the circle of
+      sovereign states which so closely hemmed in the city of Bel. We may
+      surmise with all probability that the history of Babylon in early times
+      resembled in the main that of the Egyptian Thebes. It was a small
+      seigneury in the hands of petty princes ceaselessly at war with petty
+      neighbours: bloody struggles, with alternating successes and reverses,
+      were carried on for centuries with no decisive results, until the day came
+      when some more energetic or fortunate dynasty at length crushed its
+      rivals, and united under one rule first all the kingdoms of Northern and
+      finally those of Southern Chald�a.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The lords of Babylon had, ordinarily, a twofold function, religious and
+      military, the priest at first taking precedence of the soldier, but
+      gradually yielding to the latter as the town increased in power. They were
+      merely the priestly representatives or administrators of Babel&mdash;<i>shakannaku
+      Babili</i>&mdash;and their authority was not considered legitimate until
+      officially confirmed by the god. Each ruler was obliged to go in state to
+      the temple of Bel Merodach within a year of his accession: there he had to
+      take the hands of the divine statue, just as a vassal would do homage to
+      his liege, and those only of the native sovereigns or the foreign
+      conquerors could legally call themselves Kings of Babylon&mdash;<i>sharru
+      Babili</i>&mdash;who had not only performed this rite, but renewed it
+      annually.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The meaning of the ceremony in which the kings of Babylon
+     &ldquo;took the hands of Bel&rdquo; has been given by Winckler; Tiele
+     compares it very aptly with the rite performed by the
+     Egyptian kings&mdash;at Heliopolis, for example, when they
+     entered alone the sanctuary of R�, and there contemplated
+     the god face to face. The rite was probably repeated
+     annually, at the time of the Zakmuku, that is, the New Year
+     festival.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Sargon the Elder had lived in Babylon, and had built himself a palace
+      there: hence the tradition of later times attributed to this city the
+      glory of having been the capital of the great empire founded by the
+      Akkadian dynasties. The actual sway of Babylon, though arrested to the
+      south by the petty states of Lower Chald�a, had not encountered to the
+      north or north-west any enemy to menace seriously its progress in that
+      semi-fabulous period of its history. The vast plain extending between the
+      Euphrates and the Tigris is as it were a continuation of the Arabian
+      desert, and is composed of a grey, or in parts a whitish, soil impregnated
+      with selenite and common salt, and irregularly superimposed upon a bed of
+      gypsum, from which asphalt oozes up here and there, forming slimy pits.
+      Frost is of rare occurrence in winter, and rain is infrequent at any
+      season; the sun soon burns up the scanty herbage which the spring showers
+      have encouraged, but fleshy plants successfully resist its heat, such as
+      the common salsola, the salsola soda, the pallasia, a small mimosa, and a
+      species of very fragrant wormwood, forming together a vari-coloured
+      vegetation which gives shelter to the ostrich and the wild ass, and
+      affords the flocks of the nomads a grateful pasturage when the autumn has
+      set in. The Euphrates bounds these solitudes, but without watering them.
+      The river flows, as far as the eye can see, between two ranges of rock or
+      bare hills, at the foot of which a narrow strip of alluvial soil supports
+      rows of date-palms intermingled here and there with poplars, sumachs, and
+      willows. Wherever there is a break in the two cliffs, or where they recede
+      from the river, a series of shadufs takes possession of the bank, and
+      every inch of the soil is brought under cultivation. The aspect of the
+      country remains unchanged as far as the embouchure of the Khabur; but
+      there a black alluvial soil replaces the saliferous clay, and if only the
+      water were to remain on the land in sufficient quantity, the country would
+      be unrivalled in the world for the abundance and variety of its crops.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0015" id="linkimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/036.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="036.jpg the Banks of The Euphrates at Zuleibeh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from the plate in Chesney.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The fields, which are regularly sown in the neighbourhood of the small
+      towns, yield magnificent harvests of wheat and barley: while in the
+      prairie-land beyond the cultivated ground the grass grows so high that it
+      comes up to the horses&rsquo; girths. In some places the meadows are so covered
+      with varieties of flowers, growing in dense masses, that the effect
+      produced is that of a variegated carpet; dogs sent in among them in search
+      of game, emerge covered with red, blue, and yellow pollen. This fragrant
+      prairie-land is the delight of bees, which produce excellent and abundant
+      honey, while the vine and olive find there a congenial soil. The
+      population was unequally distributed in this region. Some half-savage
+      tribes were accustomed to wander over the plain, dwelling in tents, and
+      supporting life by the chase and by the rearing of cattle; but the bulk of
+      the inhabitants were concentrated around the affluents of the Euphrates
+      and Tigris, or at the foot of the northern mountains wherever springs
+      could be found, as in Assur, Singar, Nisibis, Tilli,* Kharranu, and in all
+      the small fortified towns and nameless townlets whose ruins are scattered
+      over the tract of country between the Khabur and the Balikh. Kharranu, or
+      Harran, stood, like an advance guard of Chald�an civilization, near the
+      frontiers of Syria and Asia Minor.** To the north it commanded the passes
+      which opened on to the basins of the Upper Euphrates and Tigris; it
+      protected the roads leading to the east and south-east in the direction of
+      the table-land of Iran and the Persian Gulf, and it was the key to the
+      route by which the commerce of Babylon reached the countries lying around
+      the Mediterranean. We have no means of knowing what affinities as regards
+      origin or race connected it with Uru, but the same moon-god presided over
+      the destinies of both towns, and the Sin of Harran enjoyed in very early
+      times a renown nearly equal to that of his namesake.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Tilli, the only one of these towns mentioned with any
+     certainty in the inscriptions of the first Chald�an empire,
+     is the Tela of classical authors, and probably the present
+     Wer�nshaher, near the sources of the Balikh.
+
+     ** Kharranu was identified by the earlier Assyriologists
+     with the Harran of the Hebrews (<i>Gen.</i> v. 12), the Carrhse
+     of classical authors, and this identification is still
+     generally accepted.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was worshipped under the symbol of a conical stone, probably an
+      aerolite, surmounted by a gilded crescent, and the ground-plan of the town
+      roughly described a crescent-shaped curve in honour of its patron. His
+      cult, even down to late times, was connected with cruel practices;
+      generations after the advent to power of the Abbasside caliphs, his
+      faithful worshippers continued to sacrifice to him human victims, whose
+      heads, prepared according to the ancient rite, were accustomed to give
+      oracular responses.* The government of the surrounding country was in the
+      hands of princes who were merely vicegerents:** Chald�an civilization
+      before the beginnings of history had more or less laid hold of them, and
+      made them willing subjects to the kings of Babylon.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Without seeking to specify exactly which were the
+     doctrines introduced into Harranian religion subsequently to
+     the Christian era, we may yet affirm that the base of this
+     system of faith was merely a very distorted form of the
+     ancient Chald�an worship practised in the town.
+
+     ** Only one vicegerent of Mesopotamia is known at present,
+     and he belongs to the Assyrian epoch. His seal is preserved
+     in the British Museum.
+
+     *** The importance of Harran in the development of the
+     history of the first Chald�an empire was pointed out by
+     Winckler; but the theory according to which this town was
+     the capital of the kingdom, called by the Chald�an and
+     Assyrian scribes &ldquo;the kingdom of the world,&rdquo; is justly
+     combated by Tiele.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These sovereigns were probably at the outset somewhat obscure personages,
+      without much prestige, being sometimes independent and sometimes subject
+      to the rulers of neighbouring states, among others to those of Agad�. In
+      later times, when Babylon had attained to universal power, and it was
+      desired to furnish her kings with a continuous history, the names of these
+      earlier rulers were sought out, and added to those of such foreign princes
+      as had from time to time enjoyed the sovereignty over them&mdash;thus
+      forming an interminable list which for materials and authenticity would
+      well compare with that of the Thinite Pharaohs. This list has come down to
+      us incomplete, and its remains do not permit of our determining the exact
+      order of reigns, or the status of the individuals who composed it. We find
+      in it, in the period immediately subsequent to the Deluge, mention of
+      mythical heroes, followed by names which are still semi-legendary, such as
+      Sargon the Elder; the princes of the series were, however, for the most
+      part real beings, whose memories had been preserved by tradition, or whose
+      monuments were still existing in certain localities. Towards the end of
+      the XXVth century before our era, however, a dynasty rose into power of
+      which all the members come within the range of history.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This dynasty, which is known to us in its entirety by the
+     two lists of G. Smith and by Pinches, was legitimately
+     composed of only eleven kings, and was known as the
+     Babylonian dynasty, although Sayce suspects it to be of
+     Arabian origin. It is composed as follows:&mdash;
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0016" id="linkimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/039.jpg" width="100%" alt="039.jpg Table " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The dates of this dynasty are not fixed with entire certainty. The first
+      of them, Sumuab�m, has left us some contracts bearing the dates of one or
+      other of the fifteen years of his reign, and documents of public or
+      private interest abound in proportion as we follow down the line of his
+      successors. Sumula�lu, who reigned after him, was only distantly related
+      to his predecessor; but from Sumula�lu to Sam-shusatana the kingly power
+      was transmitted from father to son without a break for nine generations,
+      if we may credit the testimony of the official lists.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Simula�lu, also written Samu-la-ilu, whom Mr. Pinches has
+     found in a contract tablet associated with Pungunila as
+     king, was not the son of Sumuab�m, since the lists do not
+     mention him as such; he must, however, have been connected
+     with some sort of relationship, or by marriage, with his
+     predecessor, since both are placed in the same dynasty. A
+     few contracts of Sumula�lu are given by Meissner. Samsuiluna
+     calls him &ldquo;my forefather (d-gula-mu), the fifth king before
+     me.&rdquo;
+
+     Hommel believes that the order of the dynasties has been
+     reversed, and that the first upon the lists we possess was
+     historically the second; he thus places the Babylonian
+     dynasty between 2035 and 1731 B.C. His opinion has not been
+     generally adopted, but every Assyriologist dealing with this
+     period proposes a different date for the reigns in this
+     dynasty; to take only one characteristic example, Khammurabi
+     is placed by Oppert in the year 2394-2339, by Delitzsch-
+     Murdter in 2287-2232, by Winckler in 2264-2210, and by
+     Peiser in 2139-2084, and by Carl Niebuhr in 2081-2026.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Contemporary records, however, prove that the course of affairs did not
+      always run so smoothly. They betray the existence of at least one usurper&mdash;Imm�ru&mdash;who,
+      even if he did not assume the royal titles, enjoyed the supreme power for
+      several years between the reigns of Zabu and Abilsin. The lives of these
+      rulers closely resembled those of their contemporaries of Southern
+      Chald�a. They dredged the ancient canals, or constructed new ones; they
+      restored the walls of their fortresses, or built fresh strongholds on the
+      frontier;* they religiously kept the festivals of the divinities belonging
+      to their terrestrial domain, to whom they annually rendered solemn homage.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Sumula�lu had built six such large strongholds of brick,
+     which were repaired by Samsuiluna five generations later. A
+     contract of Sinmuballit is dated the year in which he built
+     the great wall of a strong place, the name of which is
+     unfortunately illegible on the fragment which we possess.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They repaired the temples as a matter of course, and enriched them
+      according to their means; we even know that Zabu, the third in order of
+      the line of sovereigns, occupied himself in building the sanctuary Eulbar
+      of Anunit, in Sippara. There is evidence that they possessed the small
+      neighbouring kingdoms of Kishu, Sippara, and Kuta, and that they had
+      consolidated them into a single state, of which Babylon was the capital.
+      To the south their possessions touched upon those of the kings of Uru, but
+      the frontier was constantly shifting, so that at one time an important
+      city such as Nippur belonged to them, while at another it fell under the
+      dominion of the southern provinces. Perpetual war was waged in the narrow
+      borderland which separated the two rival states, resulting apparently in
+      the balance of power being kept tolerably equal between them under the
+      immediate successors of Sumuab�m* &mdash;the obscure Sumula�lu, Zabum, the
+      usurper Immeru, Ab�lsin and Sinmuballit&mdash;until the reign of
+      Khammurabi (the son of Sinmuballit), who finally made it incline to his
+      side.** The struggle in which he was engaged, and which, after many
+      vicissitudes, he brought to a successful issue, was the more decisive,
+      since he had to contend against a skilful and energetic adversary who had
+      considerable forces at his disposal. Birnsin*** was, in reality, of
+      Elamite race, and as he held the province of Yamutbal in appanage, he was
+      enabled to muster, in addition to his Chald�an battalions, the army of
+      foreigners who had conquered the maritime regions at the mouth of the
+      Tigris and the Euphrates.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * None of these facts are as yet historically proved: we
+     may, however, conjecture with some probability what was the
+     general state of things, when we remember that the first
+     kings of Babylon were contemporaries of the last independent
+     sovereigns of Southern Chald�a.
+
+     ** The name of this prince has been read in several ways&mdash;
+     Hammurabi, Khammurabi, by the earlier Assyriologists,
+     subsequently Hammuragash, Khammuragash, as being of Elamite
+     or Cossoan extraction: the reading Khammurabi is at present
+     the prevailing one. The bilingual list published by Pinches
+     makes Khammurabi an equivalent of the Semitic names Kimta-
+     rapashtum. Hence Hal�vy concluded that Khammurabi was a
+     series of ideograms, and that Kimtarapashtum was the true
+     reading of the name; his proposal, partially admitted by
+     Hommel, furnishes us with a mixed reading of Khammurapaltu,
+     Amraphel. [Hommel is now convinced of the identity of the
+     Amraphel of <i>Gen.</i> xiv. I with Khammurabi.&mdash;Te.] Sayce,
+     moreover, adopts the reading Khammurabi, and assigns to him
+     an Arabian origin. The part played by this prince was
+     pointed out at an early date by Menant. Recent discoveries
+     have shown the important share which he had in developing
+     the Chald�an empire, and have, increased his reputation with
+     Assyriologists.
+
+     *** The name of this king has been the theme of heated
+     discussions: it was at first pronounced Aradsin, Ardusin, or
+     Zikarsin; it is now read in several different ways&mdash;Rimsin,
+     or Eriaku, Riaku, Rimagu. Others have made a distinction
+     between the two forms, and have made out of them the names
+     of two different kings. They are all variants of the same
+     name. I have adopted the form Rimsin, which is preferred by
+     a few Assyriologists. [The tablets recently discovered by
+     Mr. Pinches, referring to Kudur-lagamar and Tudkhula, which
+     he has published in a Paper road before the Victoria
+     Institute, Jan. 20, 1896, have shown that the true reading
+     is Eri-Aku. The Elamite name Eri-Aku, &ldquo;servant of the moon-
+     god,&rdquo; was changed by some of his subjects into the
+     Babylonian Rim-Sin, &ldquo;Have mercy, O Moon-god!&rdquo; just as
+     Ab�sukh, the Hebrew Absihu&rsquo;a (&ldquo;the father of welfare&rdquo;) was
+     transformed into the Babylonian Ebisum (&ldquo;the actor&rdquo;).&mdash;Ed.]
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0018" id="linkimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/046.jpg"
+       alt="046.jpg an Ancient Susian of Negretic Race " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a bas-relief of
+Sargon II. in the Louvre.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It was not the first time that Elam had audaciously interfered in the
+      affairs of her neighbours. In fabulous times, one of her mythical kings&mdash;Khumbaba
+      the Ferocious&mdash;had oppressed. Uruk, and Gilgames with all his valour
+      was barely able to deliver the town. Sargon the Elder is credited with
+      having subdued Elam; the kings and vicegerents of Lagash, as well as those
+      of Uru and. Larsam, had measured forces with Anshan, but with no decisive
+      issue. From time to time they obtained an advantage, and we find recorded
+      in the annals victories gained by Gudea, In�-sin, or Bursin, but to be
+      followed only by fresh reverses; at the close of such campaigns, and in
+      order to seal the ensuing peace, � princess of Susa would be sent as a
+      bride to one of the Chald�an cities, or a Chald�an lady of royal birth
+      would enter the harem of a king of Ansh�n. Elam was protected along the
+      course of the Tigris and on the shores of the N�r-Marratum by a wide
+      marshy region, impassable except at a few fixed and easily defended
+      places. The alluvial plain extending behind the marshes was as rich and
+      fertile as that of Chald�a. Wheat and barley ordinarily yielded an hundred
+      and at times two hundredfold; the towns were surrounded by a shadeless
+      belt of palms; the almond, fig, acacia, poplar, and willow extended in
+      narrow belts along the rivers&rsquo; edge. The climate closely resembles that of
+      Chaldaja: if the midday heat in summer is more pitiless, it is at least
+      tempered by more frequent east winds. The ground, however, soon begins to
+      rise, ascending gradually towards the north-east. The distant and uniform
+      line of mountain-peaks grows loftier on the approach of the traveller, and
+      the hills begin to appear one behind another, clothed halfway up with
+      thick forests, but bare on their summits, or scantily covered with meagre
+      vegetation. They comprise, in fact, six or seven parallel ranges,
+      resembling natural ramparts piled up between the country of the Tigris and
+      the table-land of Iran. The intervening valleys were formerly lakes,
+      having had for the most part no communication with each other and no
+      outlet into the sea. In the course of centuries they had dried up, leaving
+      a thick deposit of mud in the hollows of their ancient beds, from which
+      sprang luxurious and abundant harvests. The rivers&mdash;the Uknu,* the
+      Ididi,** and the Ula�***&mdash;which water this region are, on reaching
+      more level ground, connected by canals, and are constantly shifting their
+      beds in the light soil of the Susian plain: they soon attain a width equal
+      to that of the Euphrates, but after a short time lose half their volume in
+      swamps, and empty themselves at the present day into the Shatt-el-Arab.
+      They flowed formerly into that part of the Persian Gulf which extended as
+      far as Kornah, and the sea thus formed the southern frontier of the
+      kingdom.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Uknu is the Kerkhah of the present day, the Choaspes
+     of the Greeks.
+
+     ** The Ididi was at first identified with the ancient
+     Pasitigris, which scholars then desired to distinguish from
+     the Eulseos: it is now known to be the arm of the Karun
+     which runs to Dizful, the Koprates of classical times, which
+     has sometimes been confounded with the Eulaws.
+
+     *** The Ula�, mentioned in the Hebrew texts (Ban. viii. 2,
+     16), the Euloos of classical writers, also called
+     Pasitigris. It is the Karun of the present day, until its
+     confluence with the Sha�r, and subsequently the Sha�r
+     itself, which waters the foot of the Susian hills.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      From earliest times this country was inhabited by three distinct peoples,
+      whose descendants may still be distinguished at the present day, and
+      although they have dwindled in numbers and become mixed with elements of
+      more recent origin, the resemblance to their forefathers is still very
+      remarkable. There were, in the first place, the short and robust people of
+      well-knit figure, with brown skins, black hair and eyes, who belonged to
+      that negritic race which inhabited a considerable part of Asia in
+      prehistoric times.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The connection of the negroid type of Susians with the
+     negritic races of India and Oceania, has been proved, in the
+     course of M. Dieulafoy&rsquo;s expedition to the Susian plains and
+     the ancient provinces of Elam.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0017" id="linkimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/045.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="045.jpg Map of Chald�a and Elam. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These prevailed in the lowlands and the valleys, where the warm, damp
+      climate favoured their development; but they also spread into the mountain
+      region, and had pushed their outposts as far as the first slopes of the
+      Iranian table-land. They there contact with white-skinned of medium
+      height, who were probably allied to the nations of Northern and Central
+      Asia&mdash;to the Scythians,* for instance, if it is permissible to use a
+      vague term employed by the Ancients.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This last-mentioned people is, by some authors, for
+     reasons which, so far, can hardly be considered conclusive,
+     connected with the so-called Sumerian race, which we find
+     settled in Chald�a. They are said to have been the first to
+     employ horses and chariots in warfare.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0019" id="linkimage-0019">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/047.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="047.jpg Native of Mixed Negritic Race from Susiana " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph furnished by
+     Marcel Dieulafoy.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Semites of the same stock as those of Chald�a pushed forward as far as the
+      east bank of the Tigris, and settling mainly among the marshes led a
+      precarious life by fishing and pillaging.* The country of the plain was
+      called Anz�n, or Ansh�n,** and the mountain region Numma, or Ilamma, &ldquo;the
+      high lands:&rdquo; these two names were subsequently used to denote the whole
+      country, and Ilamma has survived in the Hebrew word Elam.*** Susa, the
+      most important and flourishing town in the kingdom, was situated between
+      the Ula� and the Ididi, some twenty-five or thirty miles from the nearest
+      of the mountain ranges.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * From the earliest times we meet beyond the Tigris with
+     names like that of Durilu, a fact which proves the existence
+     of races speaking a Semitic dialect in the countries under
+     the suzerainty of the King of Elam: in the last days of the
+     Chald�an empire they had assumed such importance that the
+     Hebrews made out Elam to be one of the sons of Shem (<i>Gen.</i>
+     x. 22).
+
+     ** Anz�n, Ansh�n, and, by assimilation of the nasal with the
+     sibilant, Ashsh�n. This name has already been mentioned in
+     the inscriptions of the kings and vicegerents of Lagash and
+     in the <i>Book of Prophecies</i> of the ancient Chald�an
+     astronomers; it also occurs in the royal preamble of Cyrus
+     and his ancestors, who like him were styled &ldquo;kings of
+     Ansh�n.&rdquo; It had been applied to the whole country of Elam,
+     and afterwards to Persia. Some are of opinion that it was
+     the name of a part of Elam, viz. that inhabited by the
+     Turanian Medes who spoke the second language of the
+     Ach�menian inscriptions, the eastern half, bounded by the
+     Tigris and the Persian Gulf, consisting of a flat and swampy
+     land. These differences of opinion gave rise to a heated
+     controversy; it is now, however, pretty generally admitted
+     that Anz�n-Ansh�n was really the plain of Elam, from the
+     mountains to the sea, and one set of authorities affirms
+     that the word Anz�n may have meant &ldquo;plain&rdquo; in the language
+     of the country, while others hesitate as yet to pronounce
+     definitely on this point.
+
+     *** The meaning of &ldquo;Nunima,&rdquo; &ldquo;Ilamma,&rdquo; &ldquo;Ilamtu,&rdquo; in the
+     group of words used to indicate Elam, had been recognised
+     even by the earliest Assyriologists; the name originally
+     referred to the hilly country on the north and east of Susa.
+     To the Hebrews, Elam was one of the sons of Shem (Gen. x.
+     22). The Greek form of the name is Elymais, and some of the
+     classical geographers were well enough acquainted with the
+     meaning of the word to be able to distinguish the region to
+     which it referred from Susiana proper.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0020" id="linkimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/048.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="048.jpg the Tumulus of Susa, As It Appeared Towards The Middle of the Xixth Century " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after a plate in Chesney.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Its fortress and palace were raised upon the slopes of a mound which
+      overlooked the surrounding country:* at its base, to the eastward,
+      stretched the town, with its houses of sun-dried bricks.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Susa, in the language of the country, was called Shushun;
+     this name was transliterated into Chald�o-Assyrian, by
+     Shushan, Shushi.
+
+     ** Strabo tells us, on the authority of Polycletus, that the
+     town had no walls in the time of Alexander, and extended
+     over a space two hundred stadia in length; in the
+     VIII century B.C. it was enclosed by walls with bastions,
+     which are shown on a bas-relief of Assurbanipal, but it was
+     surrounded by unfortified suburbs.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Further up the course of the Uknu, lay the following cities: Madaktu, the
+      Badaca of classical authors,* rivalling Susa in strength and importance;
+      Naditu,** Til-Khumba,*** Dur-Undash,**** Khaidalu.^&mdash;all large walled
+      towns, most of which assumed the title of royal cities. Elam in reality
+      constituted a kind of feudal empire, composed of several tribes&mdash;the
+      Habardip, the Khushshi, the Umliyash, the people of Yamutbal and of
+      Yatbur^^&mdash;all independent of each other, but often united under the
+      authority of one sovereign, who as a rule chose Susa as the seat of
+      government.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Madaktu, Mataktu, the Badaka of Diodorus, situated on the
+     Eulaaos, between Susa and Ecbatana, has been placed by
+     Rawlinson near the bifurcation of the Kerkhah, either at
+     Paipul or near Aiw�n-i-Kherkah, where there are some rather
+     important and ancient ruins; Billerbeck prefers to put it at
+     the mouth of the valley of Zal-fer, on the site at present
+     occupied by the citadel of Kala-i-Riza.
+
+     ** Naditu is identified by Finzi with the village of
+     Natanzah, near Ispahan; it ought rather to be looked for in
+     the neighbourhood of Sarna.
+
+     *** Til-Khumba, the Mound of Khumba, so named after one of
+     the principal Elamite gods, was, perhaps, situated among the
+     ruins of Budbar, towards the confluence of the Ab-i-Kirind
+     and Kerkhah, or possibly higher up in the mountain, in the
+     vicinity of Asmanabad.
+
+     **** Dur-Undash, Dur-Undasi, has been identified, without
+     absolutely conclusive reason, with the fortress of Kala-i-
+     Dis on the Disful-Rud.
+
+     ^ Khaidalu, Khidalu, is perhaps the present fortress of Dis-
+     Malkan.
+
+     ^^ The countries of Yatbur and Yamutbal extended into the
+     plain between the marshes of the Tigris and the mountain;
+     the town of Durilu was near the Yamutbal region, if not in
+     that country itself. Umliyash lay between the Uknu and the
+     Tigris.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0021" id="linkimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/050.jpg" width="100%" alt="050.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The language is not represented by any idioms now spoken, and its
+      affinities with the Sumerian which some writers have attempted to
+      establish, are too uncertain to make it safe to base any theory upon
+      them.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A great part of the Susian inscriptions have been
+     collected by Fr. Lenormant. An attempt has been made to
+     identify the language in which they are written with the
+     Sumero-accadian, and authorities now generally agree in
+     considering the Arc�menian inscriptions of the second type
+     as representative of its modern form. Hommel connects it
+     with Georgian, and includes it in a great linguistic family,
+     which comprises, besides these two idioms, the Hittite, the
+     Cappadocian, the Armenian of the Van inscriptions, and the
+     Cosstean. Oppert claims to have discovered on a tablet in
+     the British Museum a list of words belonging to one of the
+     idioms (probably Semitic) of Susiana, which differs alike
+     from the Suso-Medic and the Assyrian.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The little that we know of Elamite religion reveals to us a mysterious
+      world, full of strange names and vague forms. Over their hierarchy there
+      presided a deity who was called Shushinak (the Susian), Dimesh or Samesh,
+      Dagbag, As-siga, Adaene, and possibly Khumba and �mm�n, whom the Chald�ns
+      identified with their god Ninip; his statue was concealed in a sanctuary
+      inaccessible to the profane, but it was dragged from thence by
+      Assurbanipal of Nineveh in the VIIth century B.C.* This deity was
+      associated with six others of the first rank, who were divided into two
+      triads&mdash;Shumudu, Lagamaru, Partikira; Ammankasibar, Uduran, and
+      Sapak: of these names, the least repellent, Ammankasibar, may possibly be
+      the Memnon of the Greeks. The dwelling of these divinities was near Susa,
+      in the depths of a sacred forest to which the priests and kings alone had
+      access: their images were brought out on certain days to receive solemn
+      homage, and were afterwards carried back to their shrine accompanied by a
+      devout and reverent multitude. These deities received a tenth of the spoil
+      after any successful campaign&mdash;the offerings comprising statues of
+      the enemies&rsquo; gods, valuable vases, ingots of gold and silver, furniture,
+      and stuffs. The Elamite armies were well organized, and under a skilful
+      general became irresistible. In other respects the Elamites closely
+      resembled the Chald�ans, pursuing the same industries and having the same
+      agricultural and commercial instincts. In the absence of any bas-reliefs
+      and inscriptions peculiar to this people, we may glean from the monuments
+      of Lagash and Babylon a fair idea of the extent of their civilization in
+      its earliest stages.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Shushinak</i> is an adjective derived from the name of the
+     town of Susa. The real name of the god was probably kept
+     secret and rarely uttered. The names which appear by the
+     side of Shushinak in the text published by H. Rawlinson, as
+     equivalents of the Babylonian Ninip, perhaps represent
+     different deities; we may well ask whether the deity may not
+     be the Khumba, Umma, Umm�n, who recurs so frequently in the
+     names of men and places, and who has hitherto never been met
+     with alone in any formula or dedicatory tablet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The cities of the Euphrates, therefore, could have been sensible of but
+      little change, when the chances of war transferred them from the rule of
+      their native princes to that of an Elamite. The struggle once over, and
+      the resulting evils repaired as far as practicable, the people of these
+      towns resumed their usual ways, hardly conscious of the presence of their
+      foreign ruler. The victors, for their part, became assimilated so rapidly
+      with the vanquished, that at the close of a generation or so the
+      conquering dynasty was regarded legitimate and national one, loyally
+      attached to the traditions and religion of its adopted country. In the
+      year 2285 B.C., towards the close of the reign of Nurramm�n, or in the
+      earlier part of that of Siniddinam, a King of Elam, by name
+      Kudur-nakhunta, triumphantly marched through Chald�a from end to end,
+      devastating the country and sparing neither town nor temple: Uruk lost its
+      statue of Nana, which was carried off as a trophy and placed in the
+      sanctuary of Susa. The inhabitants long mourned the detention of their
+      goddess, and a hymn of lamentation, probably composed for the occasion by
+      one of their priests, kept the remembrance of the disaster fresh in their
+      memories. &ldquo;Until when, oh lady, shall the impious enemy ravage the
+      country!&mdash;In thy queen-city, Uruk, the destruction is accomplished,&mdash;in
+      Eulbar, the temple of thy oracle, blood has flowed like water,&mdash;upon
+      the whole of thy lands has he poured out flame, and it is spread abroad
+      like smoke.&mdash;Oh, lady, verily it is hard for me to bend under the
+      yoke of misfortune!&mdash;? Oh, lady, thou hast wrapped me about, thou
+      hast plunged me, in sorrow!&mdash;The impious mighty one has broken me in
+      pieces like a re�d,&mdash;and I know not what to resolve, I trust not in
+      myself,&mdash;like a bed of reeds I sigh day and night!&mdash;I, thy
+      servant, I bow myself before thee!&rdquo; It would appear that the whole of
+      Chald�a, including Babylon itself, was forced to acknowledge the supremacy
+      of the invader;* a Susian empire thus absorbed Chald�a, reducing its
+      states to feudal provinces, and its princes to humble vassals.
+      Kudur-nakhunta having departed, the people of Larsa exerted themselves to
+      the utmost to repair the harm that he had done, and they succeeded but too
+      well, since their very prosperity was the cause only a short time after of
+      the outburst of another storm. Siniddinam, perhaps, desired to shake off
+      the Elamite yoke. Simtishilkhak, one of the successors of Kudur-nakhunta,
+      had conceded the principality of Yamutbal as a fief to Kudur-mabug, one of
+      his sons. Kudur-mabug appears to have been a conqueror of no mean ability,
+      for he claims, in his inscriptions, the possession of the whole of
+      Syria.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The submission of Babylon is evident from the title Adda
+     Martu, &ldquo;sovereign of the West,&rdquo; assumed by several of the
+     Elamite princes (of. p. 65 of the present work): in order to
+     extend his authority beyond the Euphrates, it was necessary
+     for the King of Elam to be first of all master of Babylon.
+     In the early days of Assyriology it was supposed that this
+     period of Elamite supremacy coincided with the Median
+     dynasty of Berosus.
+
+     ** His preamble contains the titles <i>adda Martu,</i> &ldquo;prince of
+     Syria;&rdquo; <i>adda lamutbal</i>, &ldquo;prince of Yamutbal.&rdquo; The word
+     <i>adda</i> seems properly to mean &ldquo;lather,&rdquo; and the literal
+     translation of the full title would probably be &ldquo;father of
+     Syria,&rdquo; &ldquo;<i>father</i> of Yamutbal,&rdquo; whence the secondary
+     meanings &ldquo;master, lord, prince,&rdquo; which have been
+     provisionally accepted by most Assyriologists. Tiele, and
+     Winckler after him, have suggested that Martu is here
+     equivalent to Yamutbal, and that it was merely used to
+     indicate the western part of Elam; Winckler afterwards
+     rejected this hypothesis, and has come round to the general
+     opinion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He obtained a victory over Siniddinam, and having dethroned him, placed
+      the administration of the kingdom in the hands of his own son Eimsin. This
+      prince, who was at first a feudatory, afterwards associated in the
+      government with his father, and finally sole monarch after the latter&rsquo;s
+      death, married a princess of Chald�an blood, and by this means
+      legitimatized his usurpation in the eyes of his subjects. His domain,
+      which lay on both sides of the Tigris and of the Euphrates, comprised,
+      besides the principality of Yamutbal, all the towns dependent on Sumer and
+      Accad&mdash;Uru, Larsa, Uruk, and Nippur, He acquitted himself as a good
+      sovereign in the sight of gods and men: he repaired the brickwork in the
+      temple of Nannar at Uru; he embellished the temple of Shamash at Larsa,
+      and caused two statues of copper to be cast in honour of the god; he also
+      rebuilt Lagash and Grirsu. The city of Uruk had been left a heap of ruins
+      after the withdrawal of Kudur-nakhunta: he set about the work of
+      restoration, constructed a sanctuary to Papsukal, raised the ziggur�t of
+      Nana, and consecrated to the goddess an entire set of temple furniture to
+      replace that carried off by the Elamites. He won the adhesion of the
+      priests by piously augmenting their revenues, and throughout his reign
+      displayed remarkable energy. Documents exist which attribute to him the
+      reduction of Durilu, on the borders of Elam and the Chald�an states;
+      others contain discreet allusions to a perverse enemy who disturbed his
+      peace in the north, and whom he successfully repulsed. He drove
+      Sinmuballit out of Ishin, and this victory so forcibly impressed his
+      contemporaries, that they made it the starting-point of a new
+      semi-official era; twenty-eight years after the event, private contracts
+      still continued to be dated by reference to the taking of Ishin.
+      Sinmuballit&rsquo;s son, Khammurabi, was more fortunate. Eimsin vainly appealed
+      for help against him to his relative and suzerain Kudur-lagamar, who had
+      succeeded Simtishilkhak at Susa. Eimsin was defeated, and disappeared from
+      the scene of action, leaving no trace behind him, though we may infer that
+      he took refuge in his fief of Yamutbal. The conquest by Khammurabi was by
+      no means achieved at one blow, the enemy offering an obstinate resistance.
+      He was forced to destroy several fortresses, the inhabitants of which had
+      either risen against him or had refused to do him homage, among them being
+      those of Me�r* and Malgu. When the last revolt had been put down, all the
+      countries speaking the language of Chald�a and sharing its civilization
+      were finally united into a single kingdom, of which Khammurabi proclaimed
+      himself the head. Other princes who had preceded him had enjoyed the same
+      opportunities, but their efforts had never been successful in establishing
+      an empire of any duration; the various elements had been bound together
+      for a moment, merely to be dispersed again after a short interval. The
+      work of Khammurabi, on the contrary, was placed on a solid foundation, and
+      remained unimpaired under his successors. Not only did he hold sway
+      without a rival in the south as in the north, but the titles indicating
+      the rights he had acquired over Sumer and Accad were inserted in his
+      Protocol after those denoting his hereditary possessions,&mdash;the city
+      of Bel and the four houses of the world. Khammurabi&rsquo;s victory marks the
+      close of those long centuries of gradual evolution during which the
+      peoples of the Lower Euphrates passed from division to unity. Before his
+      reign there had been as many states as cities, and as many dynasties as
+      there were states; after him there was but one kingdom under one line of
+      kings.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ma�ru, Me�r, has been identified with Shurippak; but it
+     is, rather, the town of Mar, now Tell-Id. A and Lagamal, the
+     Elamite Lagamar, were worshipped there. It was the seat of a
+     linen manufacture, and possessed large shipping.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Khammurabi&rsquo;s long reign of fifty-five years has hitherto yielded us but a
+      small number of monuments&mdash;seals, heads of sceptres, alabaster vases,
+      and pompous inscriptions, scarcely any of them being of historical
+      interest. He was famous for the number of his campaigns, no details of
+      which, however, have come to light, but the dedication of one of his
+      statues celebrates his good fortune on the battlefield. &ldquo;Bel has lent thee
+      sovereign majesty: thou, what awaitest thou?&mdash;Sin has lent thee
+      royalty: thou, what awaitest thou?&mdash;Ninip has lent thee his supreme
+      weapon: thou, what awaitest thou?&mdash;The goddess of light, Ishtar, has
+      lent thee the shock of arms and the fray: thou, what awaitest thou?&mdash;Shamash
+      and Bamman are thy varlets: thou, what awaitest thou?&mdash;It is
+      Khammurabi, the king, the powerful chieftain&mdash;who cuts the enemies in
+      pieces,&mdash;the whirlwind of battle&mdash;who overthrows the country of
+      the rebels&mdash;who stays combats, who crushes rebellions,&mdash;who
+      destroys the stubborn like images of clay,&mdash;who overcomes the
+      obstacles of inaccessible mountains.&rdquo; The majority of these expeditions
+      were, no doubt, consequent on the victory which destroyed the power of
+      Kimsin. It would not have sufficed merely to drive back the Elamites
+      beyond the Tigris; it was necessary to strike a blow within their own
+      territory to avoid a recurrence of hostilities, which might have
+      endangered the still recent work of conquest. Here, again, Khammurabi
+      seems to have met with his habitual success.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0022" id="linkimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/057.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="057.jpg Head of a Sceptre in Copper, Bearing the Name Of Kham-murabi " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a rapid sketch made at the
+     British Museum.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ashnunak was a border district, and shared the fate of all the provinces
+      on the eastern bank of the Tigris, being held sometimes by Elam and
+      sometimes by Chald�a; properly speaking, it was a country of Semitic
+      speech, and was governed by viceroys owning allegiance, now to Babylon,
+      now to Susa.* Khammurabi seized this province, and permanently secured its
+      frontier by building along the river a line of fortresses surrounded by
+      earthworks. Following the example of his predecessors, he set himself to
+      restore and enrich the temples.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Pognon discovered inscriptions of four of the vicegerents
+     of Ashnunak, which he assigns, with some hesitation, to the
+     time of Khammurabi, rather than to that of the kings of
+     Telloh. Three of these names are Semitic, the fourth
+     Sumerian; the language of the inscriptions bears a
+     resemblance to the Semitic dialect of Chald�a.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The house of Zamama and Ninni, at Kish, was out of repair, and the
+      ziggur�t threatened to fall; he pulled it down and rebuilt it, carrying it
+      to such a height that its summit &ldquo;reached the heavens.&rdquo; Merodach had
+      delegated to him the government of the faithful, and had raised him to the
+      rank of supreme ruler over the whole of Chald�a. At Babylon, close to the
+      great lake which served as a reservoir for the overflow of the Euphrates,
+      the king restored the sanctuary of Esagilla, the dimensions of which did
+      not appear to him to be proportionate to the growing importance of the
+      city. &ldquo;He completed this divine dwelling with great joy and delight, he
+      raised the summit to the firmament,&rdquo; and then enthroned Merodach and his
+      spouse, Zarpanit, within it, amid great festivities. He provided for the
+      ever-recurring requirements of the national religion by frequent gifts;
+      the tradition has come down to us of the granary for wheat which he built
+      at Babylon, the sight of which alone rejoiced the heart of the god. While
+      surrounding Sippar with a great wall and a fosse, to protect its earthly
+      inhabitants, he did not forget Shamash and Malkatu, the celestial patrons
+      of the town. He enlarged in their honour the mysterious Ebarra, the sacred
+      seat of their worship, and that which no king from the earliest times had
+      known how to build for his divine master, that did he generously for
+      Shamash his master. He restored Ezida, the eternal dwelling of Merodach,
+      at Borsippa; Eturka-lamma, the temple of Anu, Ninni, and Nana, the
+      suzerains of Kish; and also Ezikalamma, the house of the goddess Ninna, in
+      the village of Zarilab. In the southern provinces, but recently added to
+      the crown,&mdash;at Larsa, Uruk, and Uru,&mdash;he displayed similar
+      activity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0023" id="linkimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/059.jpg" width="100%" alt="059.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He had, doubtless, a political as well as a religious motive in all he
+      did; for if he succeeded in winning the allegiance of the priests by the
+      prodigality of his pious gifts, he could count on their gratitude in
+      securing for him the people&rsquo;s obedience, and thus prevent the outbreak of
+      a revolt. He had, indeed, before him a difficult task in attempting to
+      allay the ills which had been growing during centuries of civil discord
+      and foreign conquest. The irrigation of the country demanded constant
+      attention, and from earliest times its sovereigns had directed the work
+      with real solicitude; but owing to the breaking up of the country into
+      small states, their respective resources could not be combined in such
+      general operations as were needed for controlling the inundations and
+      effectually remedying the excess or the scarcity of water. Khammurabi
+      witnessed the damage done to the whole province of Umliyash by one of
+      those terrible floods which still sometimes ravage the regions of the
+      Lower Tigris,* and possibly it may have been to prevent the recurrence of
+      such a disaster that he undertook the work of canalization.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Contracts dated the year of an inundation which laid waste
+     Umliyash; cf. in our own time, the inundation of April 10,
+     1831, which in a single night destroyed half the city of
+     Bagdad, and in which fifteen thousand persons lost their
+     lives either by drowning or by the collapse of their houses.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was the first that we know of who attempted to organize and reduce to a
+      single system the complicated network of ditches and channels which
+      intersected the territory belonging to the great cities between Babylon
+      and the sea. Already, more than half a century previously, Siniddinam had
+      enlarged the canal on which Larsa was situated, while Bimsin had provided
+      an outlet for the &ldquo;River of the Gods&rdquo; into the Persian Gulf:* by the
+      junction of the two a navigable channel was formed between the Euphrates
+      and the marshes, and an outlet was thus made for the surplus waters of the
+      inundation. Khammurabi informs us how Anu and Bel, having confided to him
+      the government of Sumer and Accad, and having placed in his hands the
+      reins of power, he dug the N�r-Khammurabi, the source of wealth to the
+      people, which brings abundance of water to the country of Sumir and Accad.
+      &ldquo;I turned both its banks into cultivated ground, I heaped up mounds of
+      grain and I furnished perpetual water for the people of Sumir and Accad.
+      The country of Sumer and Accad, I gathered together its nations who were
+      scattered, I gave them pasture and drink, I ruled over them in riches and
+      abundance, I caused them to inhabit a peaceful dwelling-place. Then it was
+      that Khammurabi, the powerful king, the favourite of the great gods, I
+      myself, according to the prodigious strength with which Merodach had
+      endued me, I constructed a high fortress, upon mounds of earth; its summit
+      rises to the height of the mountains, at the head of the N�r-Khammurabi,
+      the source of wealth to the people. This fortress I called
+      Dur-Sinmuballit-abim-u�lidiya, the Fortress of Sinmuballit, the father who
+      begat me, so that the name of Sinmuballit, the father who begat me, may
+      endure in the habitations of the world.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Contract dated &ldquo;the year the Tigris, river of the gods,
+     was canalized down to the sea&rdquo;; i.e. as far as the point to
+     which the sea then penetrated in the environs of Kornah.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This canal of Khammurabi ran from a little south of Babylon, joining those
+      of Siniddinam and Rimsin, and probably cutting the alluvial plain in its
+      entire length.* It drained the stagnant marshes on either side along its
+      course, and by its fertilising effects, the dwellers on its banks were
+      enabled to reap full harvests from the lands which previously had been
+      useless for purposes of cultivation. A ditch of minor importance pierced
+      the isthmus which separates the Tigris and the Euphrates in the
+      neighbourhood of Sippar.** Khammurabi did not rest contented with these; a
+      system of secondary canals doubtless completed the whole scheme of
+      irrigation which he had planned after the achievement of his conquest, and
+      his successors had merely to keep up his work in order to ensure an
+      unrivalled prosperity to the empire.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Delattre is of opinion that the canal dug by Khammurabi is
+     the Arakhtu of later epochs which began at Babylon and
+     extended as far as the Larsa canal. It must therefore be
+     approximately identified with the Shatt-en-Nil of the
+     present day, which joins Shatt-el-Kaher, the canal of
+     Siniddinam.
+
+     ** The canal which Khammurabi caused to be dug or dredged
+     may be the N�r-Malk�, or &ldquo;royal canal,&rdquo; which ran from the
+     Tigris to the Euphrates, passing Sippar on the way. The
+     digging of this canal is mentioned in a contract.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their efforts in this direction were not unsuccessful. Samsu�luna, the son
+      of Khammurabi, added to the existing system two or three fresh canals, one
+      at least of which still bore his name nearly fifteen centuries later; it
+      is mentioned in the documents of the second Assyrian empire in the time of
+      Assurbanipal, and it is possible that traces of it may still be found at
+      the present day. Abi�shukh,* Ammisatana,** Ammizadugga,*** and
+      Samsusatana,**** all either continued to elaborate the network planned by
+      their ancestors, or applied themselves to the better distribution of the
+      overflow in those districts where cultivation was still open to
+      improvement.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ab�shukh (the Hebrew Abishua) is the form of the name
+     which we find in contemporary contracts. The official lists
+     contain the variant Ebishu, Eb�shum.
+
+     ** Ammiditana is only a possible reading: others prefer
+     Ammisatana. The N�r-Ammisatana is mentioned in a Sippar
+     contract. Another contract is dated &ldquo;the year in which
+     Ammisatana, the king, repaired the canal of Samsu�luna.&rdquo;
+
+     *** This was, at first, read Ammididugga. Ammizadugga is
+     mentioned in the date of a contract as having executed
+     certain works&mdash;of what nature it is not easy to say&mdash;on the
+     banks of the Tigris; another contract is dated &ldquo;the year in
+     which Ammizadugga, the king, by supreme command of Sha-mash,
+     his master, [dug] the Ndr-Ammizadugga-nulchus-nishi (canal
+     of Ammizadugga), prosperity of men.&rdquo; In the Min�an
+     inscriptions of Southern Arabia the name is found under the
+     form of Ammi-Zaduq.
+
+     **** Sometimes erroneously read Samdiusatana; but, as a
+     matter of fact, we have contracts of that time, in which a
+     royal name is plainly written as Samsusatana.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We should know nothing of these kings had not the scribes of those times
+      been in the habit of dating the contracts of private individuals by
+      reference to important national events. They appear to have chosen by
+      preference incidents in the religious life of the country; as, for
+      instance, the restoration of a temple, the annual enthronisation of one of
+      the great divinities, such as Shamash, Merodach, Ishtar, or Nana, as the
+      eponymous god of the current year, the celebration of a solemn festival,
+      or the consecration of a statue; while a few scattered allusions to works
+      of fortification show that meanwhile the defence of the country was
+      jealously watched over.* These sovereigns appear to have enjoyed long
+      reigns, the shortest extending over a period of five and twenty years; and
+      when at length the death of any king occurred, he was immediately replaced
+      by his son, the notaries&rsquo; acts and the judicial documents which have come
+      down to us betraying no confusion or abnormal delay in the course of
+      affairs. We may, therefore, conclude that the last century and a half of
+      the dynasty was a period of peace and of material prosperity. Chald�a was
+      thus enabled to fully reap the advantage of being united under the rule of
+      one individual. It is quite possible that those cities&mdash;Uru, Larsa,
+      Ishin, Uruk, and Nippur&mdash;which had played so important a part in the
+      preceding centuries, suffered from the loss of their prestige, and from
+      the blow dealt to their traditional pretensions.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Samsu�luna repaired the five fortresses which his ancestor
+     Sumula�lu had built. Contract dated &ldquo;the year in which
+     Ammisatana, the king, built Dur-Ammisatana, near the Sin
+     river,&rdquo; and &ldquo;the year in which Ammisatana, the king, gave
+     its name to Dur-Iskunsin, near the canal of
+     Ammisatana.&rdquo; Contract dated &ldquo;the year in which the King
+     Ammisatana repaired Dur-Iskunsin.&rdquo; Contract dated &ldquo;the year in
+     which Samsu�luna caused &lsquo;the wall of Uru and Uruk&rsquo; to be
+     built.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      Up to this time they had claimed the privilege of controlling the history
+      of their country, and they had bravely striven among themselves for the
+      supremacy over the southern states; but the revolutions which had raised
+      each in turn to the zenith of power, had never exalted any one of them to
+      such an eminence as to deprive its rivals of all hope of supplanting it
+      and of enjoying the highest place. The rise of Babylon destroyed the last
+      chance which any of them had of ever becoming the capital; the new city
+      was so favourably situated, and possessed so much wealth and so many
+      soldiers, while its kings displayed such tenacious energy, that its
+      neighbours were forced to bow before it and resign themselves to the
+      subordinate position of leading provincial towns. They gave a loyal
+      obedience to the officers sent them from the north, and sank gradually
+      into obscurity, the loss of their political supremacy being somewhat
+      compensated for by the religious respect in which they were always held.
+      Their ancient divinities&mdash;Nana, Sin, Anu, and Ra&mdash;were adopted,
+      if we may use the term, by the Babylonians, who claimed the protection of
+      these gods as fully as they did that of Merodach or of Nebo, and prided
+      themselves on amply supplying all their needs. As the inhabitants of
+      Babylon had considerable resources at their disposal, their appeal to
+      these deities might be regarded as productive of more substantial results
+      than the appeal of a merely local kinglet. The increase of the national
+      wealth and the concentration, under one head, of armies hitherto owning
+      several chiefs, enabled the rulers, not of Babylon or Larsa alone, but of
+      the whole of Chald�a, to offer an invincible resistance to foreign
+      enemies, and to establish their dominion in countries where their
+      ancestors had enjoyed merely a precarious sovereignty. Hostilities never
+      completely ceased between Elam and Babylon; if arrested for a time, they
+      broke out again in some frontier disturbance, at times speedily
+      suppressed, but at others entailing violent consequences and ending in a
+      regular war. No document furnishes us with any detailed account of these
+      outbreaks, but it would appear that the balance of power was maintained on
+      the whole with tolerable regularity, both kingdoms at the close of each
+      generation finding themselves in much the same position as they had
+      occupied at its commencement. The two empires were separated from south to
+      north by the sea and the Tigris, the frontier leaving the river near the
+      present village of Amara and running in the direction of the mountains.
+      Dur�lu probably fell ordinarily under Chald�an jurisdiction. Umliyash was
+      included in the original domain of Kham-murabi, and there is no reason to
+      believe that it was evacuated by his descendants. There is every
+      probability that they possessed the plain east of the Tigris, comprising
+      Nineveh and Arbela, and that the majority of the civilized peoples
+      scattered over the lower slopes of the Kurdish mountains rendered them
+      homage. They kept the Mesopotamian table-land under their suzerainty, and
+      we may affirm, without exaggeration, that their power extended northwards
+      as far as Mount Masios, and westwards to the middle course of the
+      Euphrates.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At what period the Chald�ans first crossed that river is as yet unknown.
+      Many of their rulers in their inscriptions claim the title of suzerains
+      over Syria, and we have no evidence for denying their pretensions.
+      Kudur-mabug proclaims himself &ldquo;adda&rdquo; of Martu, Lord of the countries of
+      the West, and we are in the possession of several facts which suggest the
+      idea of a great Blamite empire, with a dominion extending for some period
+      over Western Asia, the existence of which was vaguely hinted at by the
+      Greeks, who attributed its glory to the fabulous Memnon.* Contemporary
+      records are still wanting which might show whether Kudur-mabug inherited
+      these distant possessions from one of his predecessors&mdash;such as
+      Kudur-nakhunta, for instance&mdash;or whether he won them himself at the
+      point of the sword; but a fragment of an old chronicle, inserted in the
+      Hebrew Scriptures, speaks distinctly of another Elamite, who made war in
+      person almost up to the Egyptian frontier.** This is the Kudur-lagamar
+      (Chedorlaomer) who helped Eimsin against Hammurabi, but was unable to
+      prevent his overthrow.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We know that to Herodotus (v. 55) Susa was the city of
+     Memnon, and that Strabo attributes its foundation to
+     Tithonus, father of Memnon. According to Oppert, the word
+     Memnon is the equivalent of the Susian Umman-an�n, &ldquo;the
+     house of the king:&rdquo; Weissbach declares that &ldquo;anin&rdquo; does not
+     mean king, and contradicts Oppert&rsquo;s view, though he does not
+     venture to suggest a new explanation of the name.
+
+     ** <i>Gen.</i> xiv. Prom the outset Assyriologists have never
+     doubted the historical accuracy of this chapter, and they
+     have connected the facts which it contains with those which
+     seem to be revealed by the Assyrian monuments. The two
+     Rawlinsons intercalate Kudur-lagamar between Kudur-nakhunta
+     and Kudur-mabug, and Oppert places him about the same
+     period. Fr. Lenormant regards him as one of the successors
+     of Kudur-mabug, possibly his immediate successor. G. Smith
+     does not hesitate to declare positively that the Kudur-mabug
+     and Kudur-nakhunta of the inscriptions are one and the same
+     with the Kudur-lagamar (Chedor-laomer) of the Bible.
+     Finally, Schrader, while he repudiates Smith&rsquo;s view, agrees
+     in the main fact with the other Assyriologists. On the other
+     hand, the majority of modern Biblical critics have
+     absolutely refused to credit the story in Genesis. Sayce
+     thinks that the Bible story rests on an historic basis, and
+     his view is strongly confirmed by Pinches&rsquo;discovery of a
+     Chald�an document which mentions Kudur-lagamar and two of
+     his allies. The Hebrew historiographer reproduced an
+     authentic fact from the chronicles of Babylon, and connected
+     it with one of the events in the life of Abraham. The very
+     late date generally assigned to Gen. xiv. in no way
+     diminishes the intrinsic probability of the facts narrated
+     by the Chald�an document which is preserved to us in the
+     pages of the Hebrew book.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In the thirteenth year of his reign over the East, the cities of the Dead
+      Sea&mdash;Sodom, Gomorrah, Adamah, Zebo�m, and Bel�&mdash;revolted against
+      him: he immediately convoked his great vassals, Amraphel of Chald�a,
+      Ari�ch of Ellasar,* Tida&rsquo;lo the Guti, and marched with them to the
+      confines of his dominions. Tradition has invested many of the tribes then
+      inhabiting Southern Syria with semi-mythical names and attributes. They
+      are represented as being giants&mdash;Rephalm; men of prodigious strength&mdash;Zuz�m;
+      as having a buzzing and indistinct manner of speech&mdash;Zamzumm�m; as
+      formidable monsters**&mdash;Em�m or Anak�m, before whom other nations
+      appeared as grasshoppers;*** as the Hor�m who were encamped on the
+      confines of the Sinaitic desert, and as the Amalekites who ranged over the
+      mountains to the west of the Dead Sea. Kudur-lagamar defeated them one
+      after another&mdash;the Repha�m near to Ashtaroth-Karna�m, the Zuz�m near
+      Ham,**** the Am�m at Shaveh-Kiriathaim, and the Hor�m on the spurs of
+      Mount Seir as far as El-Paran; then retracing his footsteps, he entered
+      the country of the Amalekites by way of En-mishpat, and pillaged the
+      Amorites of Hazaz�n-Tamar.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ellasar has been identified with Larsa since the
+     researches of Rawlin-son and Norris; the Go�m, over whom
+     Tidal was king, with the Guti.
+
+     ** Sayce considers Zuz�m and Zamzumm�m to be two readings of
+     the same word Zamzum, written in cuneiform characters on the
+     original document. The sounds represented, in the Hebrew
+     alphabet, by the letters m and w, are expressed in the
+     Chald�an syllabary by the same character, and a Hebrew or
+     Babylonian scribe, who had no other means of telling the
+     true pronunciation of a race-name mentioned in the story of
+     this campaign, would have been quite as much at a loss as
+     any modern scholar to say whether he ought to transcribe the
+     word as Z-m-z-m or as Z-w-z-vo; some scribes read it
+     <i>Zuz�m,</i> others preferred <i>Zamzumm�m.</i>
+
+     *** <i>Numb.</i> xiii. 33.
+
+     **** In Deut. ii. 20 it is stated that the Zamzumm�m lived
+     in the country of Ammon. Sayce points out that we often find
+     the variant Am for the character usually read <i>Ham</i> or
+     <i>Kham</i>&mdash;the name Khammurabi, for instance, is often found
+     written Ammurabi; the Ham in the narrative of Genesis would,
+     therefore, be identical with the land of Ammon in
+     Deuteronomy, and the difference between the spelling of the
+     two would be due to the fact that the document reproduced in
+     the XIVIIth chapter of Genesis had been originally copied from
+     a cuneiform tablet in which the name of the place was
+     expressed by the sign <i>Ham-Am.</i>
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In the mean time, the kings of the five towns had concentrated their
+      troops in the vale of Sidd�m, and were there resolutely awaiting
+      Kudur-lagamar. They were, however, completely routed, some of the
+      fugitives being swallowed up in the pits of bitumen with which the soil
+      abounded, while others with difficulty reached the mountains.
+      Kudur-lagamar sacked Sodom and Gomorrah, re-established his dominion on
+      all sides, and returned laden with booty, Hebrew tradition adding that he
+      was overtaken near the sources of the Jordan by the patriarch Abraham.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * An attempt has been made to identify the three vassals of
+     Kudur-lagamar with kings mentioned on the Chald�an
+     monuments. Tidcal, or, if we adopt the Septuagint variant,
+     Thorgal, has been considered by some as the bearer of a
+     Sumorian name, Turgal= &ldquo;great chief,&rdquo; &ldquo;great son,&rdquo; while
+     others put him on one side as not having been a Babylonian;
+     Pinches, Sayce, and Hommel identify him with Tudkhula, an
+     ally of Kudur-lagamar against Khammurabi. Schrader was the
+     first to suggest that Amraphel was really Khammurabi, and
+     emended the Amraphel of the biblical text into Amraphi or
+     Amrabi, in order to support this identification. Hal�vy,
+     while on the whole accepting this theory, derives the name
+     from the pronunciation Kimtarapashtum or Kimtarapaltum,
+     which he attributes to the name generally read Khammurabi,
+     and in this he is partly supported by Hommel, who reads
+     &ldquo;Khammurapaltu.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      After his victory over Kudur-lagamar, Khammurabi assumed the title of King
+      of Martu,* which we find still borne by Ammisatana sixty years later.** We
+      see repeated here almost exactly what took place in Ethiopia at the time
+      of its conquest by Egypt: merchants had prepared the way for military
+      occupation, and the civilization of Babylon had taken hold on the people
+      long before its kings had become sufficiently powerful to claim them as
+      vassals. The empire may be said to have been virtually established from
+      the day when the states of the Middle and Lower Euphrates formed but one
+      kingdom in the hands of a single ruler. We must not, however, imagine it
+      to have been a compact territory, divided into provinces under military
+      occupation, ruled by a uniform code of laws and statutes, and administered
+      throughout by functionaries of various grades, who received their orders
+      from Babylon or Susa, according as the chances of war favoured the
+      ascendency of Chald�a or Elam. It was in reality a motley assemblage of
+      tribes and principalities, whose sole bond of union was subjection to a
+      common yoke.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It is, indeed, the sole title which he attributes to
+     himself on a stone tablet now in the British Museum.
+
+     ** In an inscription by this prince, copied probably about
+     the time of Nabonidus by the scribe Belushall�m, he is
+     called &ldquo;king of the vast land of Martu.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      They were under obligation to pay tribute, and furnish military
+      contingents and show other external marks of obedience, but their
+      particular constitution, customs, and religion were alike respected: they
+      had to purchase, at the cost of a periodical ransom, the right to live in
+      their own country after their own fashion, and the head of the empire
+      forbore all interference in their affairs, except in cases where the
+      internecine quarrels and dissensions threatened the security of his
+      suzerainty. Their subordination lasted as best it could, sometimes for a
+      year or for ten years, at the end of which period they would neglect the
+      obligations of their vassalage, or openly refuse to fulfil them: a revolt
+      would then break out at one point or another, and it was necessary to
+      suppress it without delay to prevent the bad example from spreading far
+      and wide. The empire was maintained by perpetual re-conquests, and its
+      extent varied with the energy shown by its chiefs, or with the resources
+      which were for the moment available.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Separated from the confines of the empire by only a narrow isthmus, Egypt
+      loomed on the horizon, and appeared to beckon to her rival. Her natural
+      fertility, the industry of her inhabitants, the stores of gold and
+      perfumes which she received from the heart of Ethiopia, were well known by
+      the passage to and fro of her caravans, and the recollection of her
+      treasures must have frequently provoked the envy of Asiatic courts. Egypt
+      had, however, strangely declined from her former greatness, and the line
+      of princes who governed her had little in common with the Pharaohs who had
+      rendered her name so formidable under the XIIth dynasty. She was now under
+      the rule of the Xoites, whose influence was probably confined to the
+      Delta, and extended merely in name over the Said and Nubia. The feudal
+      lords, ever ready to reassert their independence as soon as the central
+      power waned, shared between them the possession of the Nile valley below
+      Memphis: the princes of Thebes, who were probably descendants of
+      Usirtasen, owned the largest fiefdom, and though some slight scruple may
+      have prevented them from donning the psch�nt or placing their names within
+      a cartouche, they assumed notwithstanding the plenitude of royal power. A
+      favourable opportunity was therefore offered to an invader, and the
+      Chald�ans might have attacked with impunity a people thus divided among
+      themselves.* They stopped short, however, at the southern frontier of
+      Syria, or if they pushed further forward, it was without any important
+      result: distance from head-quarters, or possibly reiterated attacks of the
+      Elamites, prevented them from placing in the field an adequate force for
+      such a momentous undertaking. What they had not dared to venture, others
+      more audacious were to accomplish. At this juncture, so runs the Egyptian
+      record, &ldquo;there came to us a king named Timaios. Under this king, then, I
+      know not wherefore, the god caused to blow upon us a baleful wind, and in
+      the face of all probability bands from the East, people of ignoble race,
+      came upon us unawares, attacked the country, and subdued it easily and
+      without fighting.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The theory that the divisions of Egypt, under the XIVth
+     dynasty, and the discords between its feudatory princes,
+     were one of the main causes of the success of the Shepherds,
+     is now admitted to be correct.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is possible that they owed this rapid victory to the presence in their
+      armies of a factor hitherto unknown to the African&mdash;the war-chariot&mdash;and
+      before the horse and his driver the Egyptians gave way in a body.* The
+      invaders appeared as a cloud of locusts on the banks of the Nile. Towns
+      and temples were alike pillaged, burnt, and ruined; they massacred all
+      they could of the male population, reduced to slavery those of the women
+      and children whose lives they spared, and then proclaimed as king Salatis,
+      one of their chiefs.** He established a semblance of regular government,
+      chose Memphis as his capital, and imposed a tax upon the vanquished. Two
+      perils, however, immediately threatened the security of his triumph: in
+      the south the Theban lords, taking matters into their own hands after the
+      downfall of the Xoites, refused the oath of allegiance to Salatis, and
+      organized an obstinate resistance;*** in the north he had to take measures
+      to protect himself against an attack of the Chald�ans or of the �lamites
+      who were oppressing Chald�a.****
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The horse was unknown, or at any rate had not been
+     employed in. Egypt prior to the invasion; we find it,
+     however, in general use immediately after the expulsion of
+     the Shepherds, see the tomb of Pihiri. Moreover, all
+     historians agree in admitting that it was introduced into
+     the country under the rule of the Shepherds. The use of the
+     war-chariot in Chald�a at an epoch prior to the Hyks�s
+     invasion, is proved by a fragment of the Vulture Stele; it
+     is therefore, natural to suppose that the Hyks�s used the
+     chariot in war, and that the rapidity of their conquest was
+     due to it.
+
+     ** The name Salatis (var. Sait�s) seems to be derived from a
+     Semitic word, Siial�t = &ldquo;the chief,&rdquo; &ldquo;the governor;&rdquo; this
+     was the title which Joseph received when Pharaoh gave him
+     authority over the whole of Egypt (Gen. xli. 43). Salatis
+     may not, therefore, have been the real name of the first
+     Hyks�s king, but his title, which the Egyptians
+     misunderstood, and from which they evolved a proper name:
+     Uhlemann has, indeed, deduced from this that Manetho, being
+     familiar with the passage referring to Joseph, had forged
+     the name of Salatis. Ebers imagined that he could decipher
+     the Egyptian form of this prince&rsquo;s name on the Colossus of
+     Tell-Mokdam, where Naville has since read with certainty the
+     name of a Pharaoh of the XIIIth and XIVth dynasties,
+     Nahsiri.
+
+     *** The text of Manetho speaks of taxes which he imposed on
+     the high and low lands, which would seem to include the
+     Thebaid in the kingdom; it is, however, stated in the next
+     few pages that the successors of Salatis waged an incessant
+     war against the Egyptians, which can only refer to
+     hostilities against the Thebans. We are forced, therefore,
+     to admit, either that Manetho took the title of lord of the
+     high and low lands which belonged to Salatis, literally, or
+     that the Thebans, after submitting at first, subsequently
+     refused to pay tribute, thus provoking a war.
+
+     **** Manetho here speaks of Assyrians; this is an error
+     which is to be explained by the imperfect state of
+     historical knowledge in Greece at the time of the Macedonian
+     supremacy. We need not for this reason be led to cast doubt
+     upon the historic value of the narrative: we must remember
+     the suzerainty which the kings of Babylon exercised over
+     Syria, and read <i>Chald�ans</i> where Manetho has written
+     <i>Assyrians</i>. In Herodotus &ldquo;Assyria&rdquo; is the regular term for
+     &ldquo;Babylonia,&rdquo; and Babylonia is called &ldquo;the land of the
+     Assyrians.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      From the natives of the Delta, who were temporarily paralysed by their
+      reverses, he had, for the moment, little to fear: restricting himself,
+      therefore, to establishing forts at the strategic points in the Nile
+      valley in order to keep the Thebans in check, he led the main body of his
+      troops to the frontier on the isthmus. Pacific immigrations had already
+      introduced Asiatic settlers into the Delta, and thus prepared the way for
+      securing the supremacy of the new rulers; in the midst of these strangers,
+      and on the ruins of the ancient town of H�w�r�t-Avaris, in the Sethro&rsquo;ifce
+      nome&mdash;a place connected by tradition with the myth of Osiris and
+      Typhon&mdash;Salatis constructed an immense entrenched camp, capable of
+      sheltering two hundred and forty thousand men. He visited it yearly to
+      witness the military manoeuvres, to pay his soldiers, and to preside over
+      the distribution of rations. This permanent garrison protected him from a
+      Chald�an invasion, a not unlikely event as long as Syria remained under
+      the supremacy of the Babylonian kings; it furnished his successors also
+      with an inexhaustible supply of trained soldiers, thus enabling them to
+      complete the conquest of Lower Egypt. Years elapsed before the princes of
+      the south would declare themselves vanquished, and five kings&mdash;An�n,
+      Apachnas, Ap�phis I., Iannas, and Asses&mdash;passed their lifetime &ldquo;in a
+      perpetual warfare, desirous of tearing up Egypt to the very root.&rdquo; These
+      Theban kings, who were continually under arms against the barbarians, were
+      subsequently classed in a dynasty by themselves, the XVth of Manetho, but
+      they at last succumbed to the invader, and Asses became master of the
+      entire country. His successors in their turn formed a dynasty, the XVIth,
+      the few remaining monuments of which are found scattered over the length
+      and breadth of the valley from the shores of the Mediterranean to the
+      rocks of the first cataract.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians who witnessed the advent of this Asiatic people called them
+      by the general term Am��, Asiatics, or Mon�ti�, the men of the desert.*
+      They had already given the Bedouin the opprobrious epithet of Sha�s�&mdash;pillagers
+      or robbers&mdash;which aptly described them;** and they subsequently
+      applied the same name to the intruders&mdash;Hiq Sha�s�&mdash;from which
+      the Greeks derived their word Hyks�s, or Hykouss�s, for this people.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The meaning of the term <i>Mon�ti</i> was discovered by E. de
+     Roug�, who translated it <i>Shepherd</i>, and applied it to the
+     Hyks�s; from thence it passed into the works of all the
+     Egyptologists who concerned themselves with this question,
+     but <i>Shepherd</i> has not been universally accepted as the
+     meaning of the word. It is generally agreed that it was a
+     generic term, indicating the races with which their
+     conquerors were supposed to be connected, and not the
+     particular term of which Manetho&rsquo;s word <i>Hoiveves</i> would be
+     the literal translation.
+
+     ** The name seems, in fact, to be derived from a word which
+     meant &ldquo;to rob,&rdquo; &ldquo;to pillage.&rdquo; The name Shausu, Shosu, was
+     not used by the Egyptians to indicate a particular race. It
+     was used of all Bedouins, and in general of all the
+     marauding tribes who infested the desert or the mountains.
+     The Shausu most frequently referred to on the monuments are
+     those from the desert between Egypt and Syria, but there is
+     a reference, in the time of Ramses II., to those from the
+     Lebanon and the valley of Orontes. Krall finds an allusion
+     to them in a word (<i>Shosim</i>) in <i>Judges</i> ii. 14, which is
+     generally translated by a generic expression, &ldquo;the
+     spoilers.&rdquo;
+
+     *** Manetho declares that the people were called Hyks�s,
+     from <i>Syk</i>, which means &ldquo;king&rdquo; in the sacred language, and
+     <i>s�s</i>, which means &ldquo;shepherd&rdquo; in the popular language. As a
+     matter of fact, the word <i>Hyku</i> means &ldquo;prince &ldquo;in the
+     classical language of Egypt, or, as Manetho styles it, the
+     <i>sacred language</i>, i.e. in the idiom of the old religious,
+     historical, and literary texts, which in later ages the
+     populace no longer understood. Sh�s, on the contrary,
+     belongs to the spoken language of the later time, and does
+     not occur in the ancient inscriptions, so that Manetho&rsquo;s
+     explanation is valueless; there is but one material fact to
+     be retained from his evidence, and that is the name <i>Hyk-
+     Sh�s</i> or <i>Hyku-Sh�s</i> given by its inventors to the alien
+     kings. Cham-pollion and Rosellini were the first to identify
+     these Sh�s with the Sha�s� whom they found represented on
+     the monuments, and their opinion, adopted by some, seems to
+     me an extremely plausible one: the Egyptians, at a given
+     moment, bestowed the generic name of Sha�s� on these
+     strangers, just as they had given those of Am�� and Man�ti�.
+     The texts or writers from whom Manetho drew his information
+     evidently mentioned certain kings <i>hyku</i>-Sha�s�; other
+     passages, or, the same passages wrongly interpreted, were
+     applied to the race, and were rendered <i>hyku</i>-Sha�s� = &ldquo;the
+     <i>prisoners</i> taken from the Sha�s�,&rdquo; a substantive derived
+     from the root <i>haka</i> = &ldquo;to take&rdquo; being substituted for the
+     noun <i>hyqu</i> = &ldquo;prince.&rdquo; Josephus declares, on the authority
+     of Manetho, that some manuscripts actually suggested this
+     derivation&mdash;a fact which is easily explained by the custom
+     of the Egyptian record offices. I may mention, in passing,
+     that Mariette recognised in the element &ldquo;<i>S�s</i>&rdquo; an Egyptian
+     word <i>sh�s</i> = &ldquo;soldiers,&rdquo; and in the name of King M�rm�sh��,
+     which he read M�rsh�s�, an equivalent of the title Hyq-
+     Sh�s�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But we are without any clue as to their real name, language, or origin.
+      The writers of classical times were unable to come to an agreement on
+      these questions: some confounded the Hyks�s with the Phoenicians, others
+      regarded them as Arabs.* Modern scholars have put forward at least a dozen
+      contradictory hypotheses on the matter. The Hyks�s have been asserted to
+      have been Canaanites, Elamites, Hittites, Accadians, Scythians. The last
+      opinion found great favour with the learned, as long as they could believe
+      that the sphinxes discovered by Mariette represented Ap�phis or one of his
+      predecessors. As a matter of fact, these monuments present all the
+      characteristics of the Mongoloid type of countenance&mdash;the small and
+      slightly oblique eyes, the arched but somewhat flattened nose, the
+      pronounced cheekbones and well-covered jaw, the salient chin and full lips
+      slightly depressed at the corners.** These peculiarities are also observed
+      in the three heads found at Damanhur, in the colossal torso dug up at
+      Mit-Far�s in the Fayum, in the twin figures of the Nile removed to the
+      Bulaq Museum from Tanis, and upon the remains of a statue in the
+      collection at the Villa Ludovisi in Rome. The same foreign type of face is
+      also found to exist among the present inhabitants of the villages
+      scattered over the eastern part of the Delta, particularly on the shores
+      of Lake Menzaleh, and the conclusion was drawn that these people were the
+      direct descendants of the Hyks�s.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Manetho takes them to be Phoenicians, but he adds that
+     certain writers thought them to be Arabs: Brugsch favours
+     this latter view, but the Arab legend of a conquest of Egypt
+     by Shedd�d and the Adites is of recent origin, and was
+     inspired by traditions in regard to the Hyks�s current
+     during the Byzantine epoch; we cannot, therefore, allow it
+     to influence us. We must wait before expressing a definite
+     opinion in regard to the facts which Glaser believes he has
+     obtained from the Minoan inscriptions which date from the
+     time of the Hyks�s.
+
+     ** Mariette, who was the first to describe these curious
+     monuments, recognised in them all the incontestable
+     characteristics of a Semitic type, and the correctness of
+     his view was, at first, universally admitted. Later on Hamy
+     imagined that he could distinguish traces of Mongolian
+     influences, and Er. Lenormant, and then Mariette himself
+     came round to this view; it has recently been supported in
+     England by Flower, and in Germany by Virchow.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This theory was abandoned, however, when it was ascertained that the
+      sphinxes of San had been carved, many centuries before the invasion, for
+      Amenemh��t III., a king of the XIIth dynasty. In spite of the facts we
+      possess, the problem therefore still remains unsolved, and the origin of
+      the Hyks�s is as mysterious as ever. We gather, however, that the third
+      millennium before our era was repeatedly disturbed by considerable
+      migratory movements. The expeditions far afield of Elamite and Chald�an
+      princes could not have taken place without seriously perturbing the
+      regions over which they passed. They must have encountered by the way many
+      nomadic or unsettled tribes whom a slight shock would easily displace. An
+      impulse once given, it needed but little to accelerate or increase the
+      movement: a collision with one horde reacted on its neighbours, who either
+      displaced or carried others with them, and the whole multitude, gathering
+      momentum as they went, were precipitated in the direction first given.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Hyks�s invasion has been regarded as a natural result
+     of the Elamite conquest.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A tradition, picked up by Herodotus on his travels, relates that the
+      Phoenicians had originally peopled the eastern and southern shores of the
+      Persian Gulf;* it was also said that Indathyrses, a Scythian king, had
+      victoriously scoured the whole of Asia, and had penetrated as far as
+      Egypt.** Either of these invasions may have been the cause of the Syrian
+      migration. In. comparison with the meagre information which has come down
+      to us under the form of legends, it is provoking to think how much actual
+      fact has been lost, a tithe of which would explain the cause of the
+      movement and the mode of its execution. The least improbable hypothesis is
+      that which attributes the appearance of the Shepherds about the XXIIIrd
+      century B.C., to the arrival in Naharaim of those Khati who subsequently
+      fought so obstinately against the armies both of the Pharaohs and the
+      Ninevite kings. They descended from the mountain region in which the Halys
+      and the Euphrates take their rise, and if the bulk of them proceeded no
+      further than the valleys of the Taurus and the Amanos, some at least must
+      have pushed forward as far as the provinces on the western shores of the
+      Dead Sea. The most adventurous among them, reinforced by the Canaanites
+      and other tribes who had joined them on their southward course, crossed
+      the isthmus of Suez, and finding a people weakened by discord, experienced
+      no difficulty in replacing the native dynasties by their own barbarian
+      chiefs.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It was to the exodus of this race, in the last analysis,
+     that the invasion of the shepherds may be attributed
+
+     ** A certain number of commentators are of opinion that the
+     wars attributed to Indathyrses have been confounded with
+     what Herodotus tells of the exploits of Madyes, and are
+     nothing more than a distorted remembrance of the great
+     Scythian invasion which took place in the latter half of the
+     VIIth century B.C.
+
+     *** At the present time, those scholars who admit the
+     Turanian origin of the Hyks�s are of opinion that only the
+     nucleus of the race, the royal tribe, was composed of
+     Mongols, while the main body consisted of elements of all
+     kinds&mdash;Canaanitish, or, more generally, Semitic.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0024" id="linkimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/079.jpg"
+       alt="079.jpg Pallate of Hyks�s Scribe " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by
+M. de Mertons.
+It is the palette of
+a scribe, now in the
+Berlin Museum, and
+given by King Ap�pi II
+�usirr� to a scribe
+named Atu.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Both their name and origin were doubtless well known to the Egyptians, but
+      the latter nevertheless disdained to apply to them any term but that of
+      &ldquo;she-ma�,&rdquo; * strangers, and in referring to them used the same vague
+      appellations which they applied to the Bedouin of the Sinaitic peninsula,&mdash;Mon�ti�,
+      the shepherds, or S�ti�, the archers. They succeeded in hiding the
+      original name of their conquerors so thoroughly, that in the end they
+      themselves forgot it, and kept the secret of it from posterity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The remembrance of the cruelties with which the invaders sullied their
+      conquest lived long after them; it still stirred the anger of Manetho
+      after a lapse of twenty centuries.** The victors were known as the
+      &ldquo;Plagues&rdquo; or &ldquo;Pests,&rdquo; and every possible crime and impiety was attributed
+      to them.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The term <i>shamamil,</i> variant of <i>sliema�,</i> is applied to
+     them by Queen H�tshops�tu: the same term is employed shortly
+     afterward by Thutmosis III., to indicate the enemies whom he
+     had defeated at Megiddo.
+
+     ** He speaks of them in contemptuous terms as <i>men of
+     ignoble race</i>. The epithet <i>A�ti, Ia�ti, Iad�ti</i>, was applied
+     to the Nubians by the writer of the inscription of Ahmosi-
+     si-Ab�na, and to the Shepherds of the Delta by the author of
+     the <i>Sallier Papyrus</i>. Brugsch explained it as &ldquo;the rebels,&rdquo;
+      or &ldquo;disturbers,&rdquo; and Goodwin translated it &ldquo;invaders&rdquo;;
+     Chabas rendered it by &ldquo;plague-stricken,&rdquo; an interpretation
+     which was in closer conformity with its etymological
+     meaning, and Groff pointed out that the malady called Ait,
+     or Adit in Egyptian, is the malignant fever still frequently
+     to be met with at the present day in the marshy cantons of
+     the Delta, and furnished the proper rendering, which is &ldquo;The
+     Fever-stricken.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0025" id="linkimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/080.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="080.jpg a Hyks�s Prisoner Guiding the Plough, at El-kab " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But the brutalities attending the invasion once past, the invaders soon
+      lost their barbarity and became rapidly civilized. Those of them stationed
+      in the encampment at Avaris retained the military qualities and
+      characteristic energy of their race; the remainder became assimilated to
+      their new compatriots, and were soon recognisable merely by their long
+      hair, thick beard, and marked features. Their sovereigns seemed to have
+      realised from the first that it was more to their interest to exploit the
+      country than to pillage it; as, however, none of them was competent to
+      understand the intricacies of the treasury, they were forced to retain the
+      services of the majority of the scribes, who had managed the public
+      accounts under the native kings.* Once schooled to the new state of
+      affairs, they readily adopted the refinements of civilized life.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The same thing took place on every occasion when Egypt was
+     conquered by an alien race: the Persian Ach�menians and
+     Greeks made use of the native employ�s, as did the Romans
+     after them; and lastly, the Mussulmans, Arabs, and Turks.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The court of the Pharaohs, with its pomp and its usual assemblage of
+      officials, both great and small, was revived around the person of the new
+      sovereign;* the titles of the Amenemh��ts and the Usirtasens, adapted to
+      these &ldquo;princes of foreign lands,&rdquo; ** legitimatised them as descendants of
+      Horus and sons of the Sun.*** They respected the local religions, and went
+      so far as to favour those of the gods whose attributes appeared to connect
+      them with some of their own barbarous divinities. The chief deity of their
+      worship was Baal, the lord of all,**** a cruel and savage warrior; his
+      resemblance to Sit, the brother and enemy of Osiris, was so marked, that
+      he was identified with the Egyptian deity, with the emphatic additional
+      title of Sutkh�, the Great Sit.^
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The narrative of the <i>Sallier Papyrus,</i> No. 1, shows us
+     the civil and military chiefs collected round the Shepherd-
+     king Ap�pi, and escorting him in the solemn processions in
+     honour of the gods. They are followed by the scribes and
+     magicians, who give him advice on important occasions.
+
+     ** Hiqu Situ: this is the title of Ab�sha at Beni-Hassan,
+     which is also assumed by Khiani on several small monuments;
+     Steindorff has attempted to connect it with the name of the
+     Hyks�s.
+
+     *** The preamble of the two or three Shepherd-kings of whom
+     we know anything, contains the two cartouches, the special
+     titles, and the names of Horus, which formed part of the
+     title of the kings of pure Egyptian race; thus Ap�phis IL is
+     proclaimed to be the living Horus, who joins the two earths
+     in peace, the good god, Aqnunr�, son of the Sun, Ap�pi, who
+     lives for ever, on the statues of M�rm�sh�u, which he had
+     appropriated, and on the pink granite table of offerings in
+     the Gizeh Museum.
+
+     **** The name of Baal, transcribed Ba�lu, is found on that
+     of a certain Peteba�l�, &ldquo;the Gift of Baal,&rdquo; who must have
+     flourished in the time of the last shepherd-kings, or rather
+     under the Theban kings of the XVIIth dynasty, who were their
+     contemporaries, whose conclusions have been adopted by
+     Brugsch.
+
+     ^ Sutikh�, Sutkh�, are lengthened forms of S�t�, or S�t�;
+     and Chabas, who had at first denied the existence of the
+     final <i>Jeh�</i>, afterwards himself supplied the philological
+     arguments which proved the correctness of the reading: he
+     rightly refused, however, to recognise in Sutikh� or Sutkh�
+     &mdash;the name of the conquerors&rsquo; god&mdash;a transliteration of the
+     Phoenician Sydyk, and would only see in it that of the
+     nearest Egyptian deity. This view is now accepted as the
+     right one, and Sutkh� is regarded as the indigenous
+     equivalent of the great Asiatic god, elsewhere called Baal,
+     or supreme lord. [Professor P�trie found a scarab bearing
+     the cartouche of &ldquo;Sutekh&rdquo; Apepi I. at Koptos.&mdash;Te.]
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was usually represented as a fully armed warrior, wearing a helmet of
+      circular form, ornamented with two plumes; but he also borrowed the
+      emblematic animal of S�t, the fennec, and the winged griffin which haunted
+      the deserts of the Thebaid. His temples were erected in the cities of the
+      Delta, side by side with the sanctuaries of the feudal gods, both at
+      Bubastis and at Tanis. Tanis, now made the capital, reopened its palaces,
+      and acquired a fresh impetus from the royal presence within its walls.
+      Ap�phis Aq-n�nr�, one of its kings, dedicated several tables of offerings
+      in that city, and engraved his cartouches upon the sphinxes and standing
+      colossi of the Pharaohs of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0027" id="linkimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/083.jpg" width="100%" alt="083.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He was, however, honest enough to leave the inscriptions of his
+      predecessors intact, and not to appropriate to himself the credit of works
+      belonging to the Amenemh��ts or to Mirm�sh��. Khian�, who is possibly the
+      Iannas of Manetho, was not, however, so easily satisfied.* The statue
+      bearing his inscription, of which the lower part was discovered by Naville
+      at Bubastis, appears to have been really carved for himself or for one of
+      his contemporaries. It is a work possessing no originality, though of very
+      commendable execution, such as would render it acceptable to any museum;
+      the artist who conceived it took &lsquo;his inspiration with considerable
+      cleverness from the best examples turned out by the schools of the Delta
+      under the Sovkhotpfts and the Nofirhotp�s. But a small grey granite lion,
+      also of the reign of Khian�, which by a strange fate had found its way to
+      Bagdad, does not raise our estimation of the modelling of animals in the
+      Hyks�s period.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Naville, who reads the name R�yan or Yanr�, thinks that
+     this prince must be the Annas or Iannas mentioned by Manetho
+     as being one of the six shepherd-kings of the XVth dynasty.
+     Mr. P�trie proposed to read Khian, Khian�, and the fragment
+     discovered at Gebele�n confirms this reading, as well as a
+     certain number of cylinders and scarabs. Mr. P�trie prefers
+     to place this Pharaoh in the VIIIth dynasty, and makes him
+     one of the leaders in the foreign occupation to which he
+     supposes Egypt to have submitted at that time; but it is
+     almost certain that he ought to be placed among the Hyks�s
+     of the XVIth dynasty. The name Khian�, more correctly
+     Khiyan� or Kheyan�, is connected by Tomkins, and Hilprecht
+     with that of a certain Khayan� or Khayan, son of Gabbar, who
+     reigned in Amanos in the time of Salmanasar II., King of
+     Assyria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0028" id="linkimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/084.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="084.jpg Broken Statue of Khiani " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Naville.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0026" id="linkimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/082.jpg"
+       alt="082.jpg Table of Offerings Bearing the Name Of Ap�ti �qn�nr� " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by
+E. Brugsch.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is heavy in form, and the muzzle in no way recalls the fine profile of
+      the lions executed by the sculptors of earlier times. The pursuit of
+      science and the culture of learning appear to have been more successfully
+      perpetuated than the fine arts; a treatise on mathematics, of which a copy
+      has come down to us, would seem to have been recopied, if not remodelled,
+      in the twenty-second year of Ap�phis IL A�sirr�. If we only possessed more
+      monuments or documents treating of this period, we should doubtless
+      perceive that their sojourn on the banks of the Nile was instrumental in
+      causing a speedy change in the appearance and character of the Hyks�s. The
+      strangers retained to a certain extent their coarse countenances and rude
+      manners: they showed no aptitude for tilling the soil or sowing grain, but
+      delighted in the marshy expanses of the Delta, where they gave themselves
+      up to a semi-savage life of hunting and of tending cattle. The nobles
+      among them, clothed and schooled after the Egyptian fashion, and holding
+      fiefs, or positions at court, differed but little from the native feudal
+      chiefs. We see here a case of what generally happens when a horde of
+      barbarians settles down in a highly organised country which by a stroke of
+      fortune they may have conquered; as soon as the Hyks�s had taken complete
+      possession of Egypt, Egypt in her turn took possession of them, and those
+      who survived the enervating effect of her civilization were all but
+      transformed into Egyptians.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If, in the time of the native Pharaohs, Asiatic tribes had been drawn
+      towards Egypt, where they were treated as subjects or almost as slaves,
+      the attraction which she possessed for them must have increased in
+      intensity under the shepherds. They would now find the country in the
+      hands of men of the same races as themselves&mdash;Egyptianised, it is
+      true, but not to such an extent as to have completely lost their own
+      language and the knowledge of their own extraction. Such immigrants were
+      the more readily welcomed, since there lurked a feeling among the Hyks�s
+      that it was necessary to strengthen themselves against the slumbering
+      hostility of the indigenous population. The royal palace must have more
+      than once opened its gates to Asiatic counsellors and favourites.
+      Canaanites and Bedouin must often have been enlisted for the camp at
+      Avaris. Invasions, famines, civil wars, all seem to have conspired to
+      drive into Egypt not only isolated individuals, but whole families and
+      tribes. That of the Beni-Israel, or Israelites, who entered the country
+      about this time, has since acquired a unique position in the world&rsquo;s
+      history. They belonged to that family of Semitic extraction which we know
+      by the monuments and tradition to have been scattered in ancient times
+      along the western shores of the Persian Gulf and on the banks of the
+      Euphrates. Those situated nearest to Chald�a and to the sea probably led a
+      settled existence; they cultivated the soil, they employed themselves in
+      commerce and industries, their vessels&mdash;from Dilmun, from M�gan, and
+      from Milukhkha&mdash;coasted from one place to another, and made their way
+      to the cities of Sumer and Accad. They had been civilized from very early
+      times, and some of their towns were situated on islands, so as to be
+      protected from sudden incursions. Other tribes of the same family occupied
+      the interior of the continent; they lived in tents, and delighted in the
+      unsettled life of nomads. There appeared to be in this distant corner of
+      Arabia an inexhaustible reserve of population, which periodically
+      overflowed its borders and spread over the world. It was from this very
+      region that we see the Kashdim, the true Chald�ans, issuing ready armed
+      for combat,&mdash;a people whose name was subsequently used to denote
+      several tribes settled between the lower waters of the Tigris and the
+      Euphrates. It was there, among the marshes on either side of these rivers,
+      that the Aramoans established their first settlements after quitting the
+      desert. There also the oldest legends of the race placed the cradle of the
+      Phoenicians; it was even believed, about the time of Alexander, that the
+      earliest ruins attributable to this people had been discovered on the
+      Bahrein Islands, the largest of which, Tylos and Arados, bore names
+      resembling the two great ports of Tyre and Arvad. We are indebted to
+      tradition for the cause of their emigration and the route by which they
+      reached the Mediterranean. The occurrence of violent earthquakes forced
+      them to leave their home; they travelled as far as the Lake of Syria,
+      where they halted for some time; then resuming their march, did not rest
+      till they had reached the sea, where they founded Sidon. The question
+      arises as to the position of the Lake of Syria on whose shores they
+      rested, some believing it to be the Bahr-�-Nedjif and the environs of
+      Babylon; others, the Lake of Bambyk�s near the Euphrates, the emigrants
+      doubtless having followed up the course of that river, and having
+      approached the country of their destination on its north-eastern frontier.
+      Another theory would seek to identify the lake with the waters of Merom,
+      the Lake of Galilee, or the Dead Sea; in this case the horde must have
+      crossed the neck of the Arabian peninsula, from the Euphrates to the
+      Jordan, through one of those long valleys, sprinkled with oases, which
+      afforded an occasional route for caravans.* Several writers assure us that
+      the Phoenician tradition of this exodus was misunderstood by Herodotus,
+      and that the sea which they remembered on reaching Tyre was not the
+      Persian Gulf, but the Dead Sea. If this had been the case, they need not
+      have hesitated to assign their departure to causes mentioned in other
+      documents. The Bible tells us that, soon after the invasion of
+      Kudur-lagamar, the anger of God being kindled by the wickedness of Sodom
+      and Gomorrah, He resolved to destroy the five cities situated in the
+      valley of Siddim. A cloud of burning brimstone broke over them and
+      consumed them; when the fumes and smoke, as &ldquo;of a furnace,&rdquo; had passed
+      away, the very site of the towns had disappeared.** Previous to their
+      destruction, the lake into which the Jordan empties itself had had but a
+      restricted area: the subsidence of the southern plain, which had been
+      occupied by the impious cities, doubled the size of the lake, and enlarged
+      it to its present dimensions. The earthquake which caused the Phoenicians
+      to leave their ancestral home may have been the result of this cataclysm,
+      and the sea on whose shores they sojourned would thus be our Dead Sea.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * They would thus have arrived at the shores of Lake Merom,
+     or at the shores either of the Dead Sea or of the Lake of
+     Gennesareth; the Arab traditions speak of an itinerary which
+     would have led the emigrants across the desert, but they
+     possess no historic value is so far as these early epochs
+     are concerned.
+
+     ** <i>Gen.</i> xix. 24-29; the whole of this episode belongs to
+     the Jehovistic narrative.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One fact, however, appears to be certain in the midst of many hypotheses,
+      and that is that the Phoenicians had their origin in the regions bordering
+      on the Persian Gulf. It is useless to attempt, with the inadequate
+      materials as yet in our possession, to determine by what route they
+      reached the Syrian coast, though we may perhaps conjecture the period of
+      their arrival. Herodotus asserts that the Tyrians placed the date of the
+      foundation of their principal temple two thousand three hundred years
+      before the time of his visit, and the erection of a sanctuary for their
+      national deity would probably take place very soon after their settlement
+      at Tyre: this would bring their arrival there to about the XXVIIIth
+      century before our era. The Elamite and Babylonian conquests would
+      therefore have found the Phoenicians already established in the country,
+      and would have had appreciable effect upon them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The question now arises whether the Beni-Israel belonged to the group of
+      tribes which included the Phoenicians, or whether they were of Chald�an
+      race. Their national traditions leave no doubt upon that point. They are
+      regarded as belonging to an important race, which we find dispersed over
+      the country of Padan-Aram, in Northern Mesopotamia, near the base of Mount
+      Masios, and extending on both sides of the Euphrates.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The country of Padan-Aram is situated between the
+     Euphrates and the upper reaches of the Khabur, on both sides
+     of the Balikh, and is usually explained as the &ldquo;plain&rdquo; or
+     &ldquo;table-land&rdquo; of Aram, though the etymology is not certain;
+     the word seems to be preserved in that of Tell-Fadd�n, near
+     Harr�n.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their earliest chiefs bore the names of towns or of peoples,&mdash;N
+      akhor, Peleg, and Serug:* all were descendants of Arphaxad,** and it was
+      related that Terakh, the direct ancestor of the Israelites, had dwelt in
+      Ur-Kashd�m, the Ur or Uru of the Chald�ans.*** He is said to have had
+      three sons&mdash;Abraham, Nakh�r, and Har�n. Har�n begat Lot, but died
+      before his father in Ur-Kashd�m, his own country; Abraham and Nakhor both
+      took wives, but Abraham&rsquo;s wife remained a long time barren. Then Terakh,
+      with his son Abraham, his grandson Lot, the son of Har�n, and his
+      daughter-in-law Sarah,**** went forth from Ur-Kashd�m (Ur of the Chaldees)
+      to go into the land of Canaan.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Nakh�r has been associated with the ancient village of
+     Khaura, or with the ancient village of H�ditha-en-Naura, to
+     the south of Anah; Peleg probably corresponds with Phalga or
+     Phaliga, which was situated at the mouth of the Khabur;
+     Serug with the present Sarudj in the neighbourhood of
+     Edessa, and the other names in the genealogy were probably
+     borrowed from as many different localities.
+
+     ** The site of Arphaxad is doubtful, as is also its meaning:
+     its second element is undoubtedly the name of the Chald�ans,
+     but the first is interpreted in several ways&mdash;&ldquo;frontier of
+     the Chald�ans,&rdquo; &ldquo;domain of the Chald�ans.&rdquo; The similarity of
+     sound was the cause of its being for a long time associated
+     with the Arrapakhitis of classical times; the tendency is
+     now to recognise in it the country nearest to the ancient
+     domain of the Chald�ans, i.e. Babylonia proper.
+
+     *** Ur-Kashd�m has long been sought for in the north, either
+     at Orfa, in accordance with the tradition of the Syrian
+     Churches still existing in the East, or in a certain Ur of
+     Mesopotamia, placed by Ammianus Marcellinus between Nisibis
+     and the Tigris; at the present day Hal�vy still looks for it
+     on the Syrian bank of the Euphrates, to the south-east of
+     Thapsacus. Rawlin-son&rsquo;s proposal to identify it with the
+     town of Uru has been successively accepted by nearly all
+     Assyriologists. Sayce remarks that the worship of Sin, which
+     was common to both towns, established a natural link between
+     them, and that an inhabitant of Uru would have felt more at
+     home in Harr�n than in any other town.
+
+     **** The names of Sarah and Abraham, or rather the earlier
+     form, Abram, have been found, the latter under the form
+     Abir�mu, in the contracts of the first Chald�an empire.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      And they came unto Khar�n, and dwelt there, and Terakh died in Khar�n.* It
+      is a question whether Khar�n is to be identified with Harr�n in
+      Mesopotamia, the city of the god Sin; or, which is more probable, with the
+      Syrian town of Haur�n, in the neighbourhood of Damascus. The tribes who
+      crossed the Euphrates became subsequently a somewhat important people.
+      They called themselves, or were known by others, as the &lsquo;Ibr�m, or
+      Hebrews, the people from beyond the river;** and this appellation, which
+      we are accustomed to apply to the children of Israel only, embraced also,
+      at the time when the term was most extended, the Ammonites, Moabites,
+      Edomites, Ishmaelites, Midianites, and many other tribes settled on the
+      borders of the desert to the east and south of the Dead Sea.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Gen. xi. 27-32. In the opinion of most critics, verses 27,
+     31 32 form part of the document which was the basis of the
+     various narratives still traceable in the Bible; it is
+     thought that the remaining verses bear the marks of a later
+     redaction, or that they may be additions of a later date.
+     The most important part of the text, that relating the
+     migration from Ur-Kashd�m to Khar�n, belongs, therefore, to
+     the very oldest part of the national tradition, and may be
+     regarded as expressing the knowledge which the Hebrews of
+     the times of the Kings possessed concerning the origin of
+     their race.
+
+     ** The most ancient interpretation identified this nameless
+     river with the Euphrates; an identification still admitted
+     by most critics; others prefer to recognise it as being the
+     Jordan. Hal�vy prefers to identify it with one of the rivers
+     of Damascus, probably the Abana.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These peoples all traced their descent from Abraham, the son of Terakh,
+      but the children of Israel claimed the privilege of being the only
+      legitimate issue of his marriage with Sarah, giving na�ve or derogatory
+      accounts of the relations which connected the others with their common
+      ancestor; Ammon and Moab were, for instance, the issue of the incestuous
+      union of Lot and his daughters. Midian and his sons were descended from
+      Keturah, who was merely a concubine, Ishmael was the son of an Egyptian
+      slave, while the &ldquo;hairy&rdquo; Esau had sold his birthright and the primacy of
+      the Edomites to his brother Jacob, and consequently to the Israelites, for
+      a dish of lentils. Abraham left Khar�n at the command of Jahveh, his God,
+      receiving from Him a promise that his posterity should be blessed above
+      all others. Abraham pursued his way into the heart of Canaan till he
+      reached Shechem, and there, under the oaks of Moreh, Jahveh, appearing to
+      him a second time, announced to him that He would give the whole land to
+      his posterity as an inheritance. Abraham virtually took possession of it,
+      and wandered over it with his flocks, building altars at Shechem, Bethel,
+      and Mamre, the places where God had revealed Himself to him, treating as
+      his equals the native chiefs, Ab�melech of Gerar and Melchizedek of
+      Jerusalem,* and granting the valley of the Jordan as a place of pasturage
+      to his nephew Lot, whose flocks had increased immensely.** His nomadic
+      instinct having led him into Egypt, he was here robbed of his wife by
+      Pharaoh.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Cf. the meeting with Melchizedek after the victory over
+     the Elamites (<i>Gen</i>. xiv. 18-20) and the agreement with
+     Ab�melech about the well (Gen. xxi. 22-34). The mention of
+     the covenant of Abraham with Ab�melech belongs to the oldest
+     part of the national tradition, and is given to us in the
+     Jehovistic narrative. Many critics have questioned the
+     historical existence of Melchizedek, and believed that the
+     passage in which he is mentioned is merely a kind of parable
+     intended to show the head of the race paying tithe of the
+     spoil to the priest of the supreme God residing at
+     Jerusalem; the information, however, furnished by the Tel-
+     el-Amarna tablets about the ancient city of Jerusalem and
+     the character of its early kings have determined Sayce to
+     pronounce Melchizedek to be an historical personage.
+
+     ** <i>Gen.</i> xiii. 1-13. Lot has been sometimes connected of
+     late with the people called on the Egyptian monuments
+     Rotanu, or Lotanu, whom we shall have occasion to mention
+     frequently further on: he is supposed to have been their
+     eponymous hero. L�tan, which is the name of an Edomite clan,
+     (<i>Gen</i>. xxxvi. 20, 29), is a racial adjective, derived from
+     Lot.
+
+     *** <i>Gen.</i> xii. 9-20, xiii. 1. Abraham&rsquo;s visit to Egypt
+     reproduces the principal events of that of Jacob.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0029" id="linkimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/093.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="093.jpg the Traditional Oak of Abraham at Hebron " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph brought home by Lortet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      On his return he purchased the field of Ephron, near Kirjath-Arba, and the
+      cave of Machpelah, of which he made a burying-place for his family*
+      Kirjath-Arba, the Hebron of subsequent times, became from henceforward his
+      favourite dwelling-place, and he was residing there when the Elamites
+      invaded the valley of Sidd�m, and carried off Lot among their prisoners.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Gen</i>. xiii. 18, xxiii. (Elohistic narrative). The tombs
+     of the patriarchs are believed by the Mohammedans to exist
+     to the present day in the cave which is situated within the
+     enclosure of the mosque at Hebron, and the tradition on
+     which this belief is based goes back to early Christian
+     times.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Abraham set out in pursuit of them, and succeeded in delivering his
+      nephew.* God (Jahveh) not only favoured him on every occasion, but
+      expressed His will to extend over Abraham&rsquo;s descendants His sheltering
+      protection. He made a covenant with him, enjoining the use on the occasion
+      of the mysterious rites employed among the nations when effecting a treaty
+      of peace. Abraham offered up as victims a heifer, a goat, and a
+      three-year-old ram, together with a turtle-dove and a young pigeon; he cut
+      the animals into pieces, and piling them in two heaps, waited till the
+      evening. &ldquo;And when the sun was going down, a deep sleep fell upon Abraham;
+      and lo, an horror of great darkness fell upon him,&rdquo; and a voice from on
+      high said to him: &ldquo;Know of a surety that thy seed shall be a stranger in a
+      land that is not theirs, and shall serve them; and they shall afflict them
+      four hundred years; and also that nation, whom they shall serve, will I
+      judge: and afterward shall they come out with great substance.... And it
+      came to pass, that when the sun went down, and it was dark, behold a
+      smoking furnace, and a burning lamp that passed between those pieces.&rdquo;
+       Jahveh sealed the covenant by consuming the offering.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Gen.</i> xiv. 12-24. 2 Gen. xv., Jehovistic narrative.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Two less important figures fill the interval between the Divine prediction
+      of servitude and its accomplishment. The birth of one of them, Isaac, was
+      ascribed to the Divine intervention at a period when Sarah had given up
+      all hope of becoming a mother. Abraham was sitting at his tent door in the
+      heat of the day, when three men presented themselves before him, whom he
+      invited to repose under the oak while he prepared to offer them
+      hospitality. After their meal, he who seemed to be the chief of the three
+      promised to return within a year, when Sarah should be blessed with the
+      possession of a son. The announcement came from Jahveh, but Sarah was
+      ignorant of the fact, and laughed to herself within the tent on hearing
+      this amazing prediction; for she said, &ldquo;After I am waxed old shall I have
+      pleasure, my lord being old also?&rdquo; The child was born, however, and was
+      called Isaac, &ldquo;the laugher,&rdquo; in remembrance of Sarah&rsquo;s mocking laugh.*
+      There is a remarkable resemblance between his life and that of his
+      father.** Like Abraham he dwelt near Hebron,*** and departing thence
+      wandered with his household round the wells of Beersheba. Like him he was
+      threatened with the loss of his wife.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Gen</i>. xviii. 1-16, according to the Jehovistic narrative.
+     <i>Gen</i>. xvii. 15-22 gives another account, in which the
+     Elohistic writer predicts the birth of Isaac in a diff�rent
+     way. The name of Isaac, &ldquo;the laugher,&rdquo; possibly abridged
+     from Isaak-el, &ldquo;he on whom God smiles,&rdquo; is explained in
+     three different ways: first, by the laugh of Abraham (ch.
+     xvii. 17); secondly, by that of Sarah (xviii. 12) when her
+     son&rsquo;s birth was foretold to her; and lastly, by the laughter
+     of those who made sport of the delayed maternity of Sarah
+     (xxi. 6).
+
+     ** Many critics see in the life of Isaac a colourless copy
+     of that of Abraham, while others, on the contrary, consider
+     that the primitive episodes belonged to the former, and that
+     the parallel portions of the two lives were borrowed from
+     the biography of the son to augment that of his father.
+
+     *** <i>Gen</i>. xxxv. 27, Elohistic narrative.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Like him, also, he renewed relations with Ab�melech of Gerar.* He married
+      his relative Rebecca, the granddaughter of N�khor and the sister of
+      Laban.** After twenty years of barrenness, his wife gave birth to twins,
+      Esau and Jacob, who contended with each other from their mother&rsquo;s womb,
+      and whose descendants kept up a perpetual feud. We know how Esau, under
+      the influence of his appetite, deprived himself of the privileges of his
+      birthright, and subsequently went forth to become the founder of the
+      Edomites. Jacob spent a portion of his youth in Padan-Aram; here he served
+      Laban for the hands of his cousins Rachel and Leah; then, owing to the bad
+      faith of his uncle, he left him secretly, after twenty years&rsquo; service,
+      taking with him his wives and innumerable flocks. At first he wandered
+      aimlessly along the eastern bank of the Jordan, where Jahveh revealed
+      Himself to him in his troubles. Laban pursued and overtook him, and,
+      acknowledging his own injustice, pardoned him for having taken flight.
+      Jacob raised a heap of stones on the site of their encounter, known at
+      Mizpah to after-ages as the &ldquo;Stone of Witness &ldquo;&mdash;G-al-Ed (Galeed).***
+      This having been accomplished, his difficulties began with his brother
+      Esau, who bore him no good will.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Gen.</i> xxvi. 1&mdash;31, Jehovistic narrative. In <i>Gen.</i> xxv.
+     11 an Elohistic interpolation makes Isaac also dwell in the
+     south, near to the &ldquo;Well of the Living One Who seeth me.&rdquo;
+
+     ** <i>Gen.</i> xxiv., where two narratives appear to have been
+     amalgamated; in the second of these, Abraham seems to have
+     played no part, and Eliezer apparently conducted Rebecca
+     direct to her husband Isaac (vers. 61-67).
+
+     *** <i>Gen.</i> xxxi. 45-54, where the writer evidently traces
+     the origin of the word Gilead to Gal-Ed. We gather from the
+     context that the narrative was connected with the cairn at
+     Mizpah which separated the Hebrew from the Aram�an speaking
+     peoples.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One night, at the ford of the Jabbok, when he had fallen behind his
+      companions, &ldquo;there wrestled a man with him until the breaking of the day,&rdquo;
+       without prevailing against him. The stranger endeavoured to escape before
+      daybreak, but only succeeded in doing so at the cost of giving Jacob his
+      blessing. &ldquo;What is thy name? And he said, Jacob. And he said, Thy name
+      shall be called no more Jacob, but Israel: for thou hast striven with God
+      and with men, and hast prevailed.&rdquo; Jacob called the place Pen�el, &ldquo;for,&rdquo;
+       said he, &ldquo;I have seen God face to face, and my life is preserved.&rdquo; The
+      hollow of his thigh was &ldquo;strained as he wrestled with him,&rdquo; and he became
+      permanently lame.* Immediately after the struggle he met Esau, and
+      endeavoured to appease him by his humility, building a house for him, and
+      providing booths for his cattle, so as to secure for his descendants the
+      possession of the land. From this circumstance the place received the name
+      of Succ�th&mdash;the &ldquo;Booths &ldquo;&mdash;by which appellation it was
+      henceforth known. Another locality where Jahveh had met Jacob while he was
+      pitching his tents, derived from this fact the designation of the &ldquo;Two
+      Hosts&rdquo;&mdash;Mahana�m.** On the other side of the river, at Shechem,*** at
+      Bethel,**** and at Hebron, near to the burial-place of his family, traces
+      of him are everywhere to be found blent with those of Abraham.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Gen.</i> xxxii. 22-32. This is the account of the Jehovistic
+     writer. The Elohist gives a different version of the
+     circumstances which led to the change of name from Jacob to
+     Israel; he places the scene at Bethel, and suggests no
+     precise etymology for the name Israel (<i>Gen.</i> xxxv. 9-15).
+
+     ** <i>Gen.</i> xxxii. 2, 3, where the theophany is indicated
+     rather than directly stated.
+
+     *** <i>Gen.</i> xxxiii. 18-20. Here should be placed the episode
+     of Dinah seduced by an Amorite prince, and the consequent
+     massacre of the inhabitants by Simeon and Levi (<i>Gen.</i>
+     xxxiv.). The almost complete dispersion of the two tribes of
+     Simeon and Levi is attributed to this massacre: cf. <i>Gen.</i>
+     xlix. 5-7.
+
+     **** <i>Gen.</i> xxxv. 1-15, where is found the Elohistic version
+     (9-15) of the circumstances which led to the change of name
+     from Jacob to Israel.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      By his two wives and their maids he had twelve sons. Leah was the mother
+      of Keuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, and Zabulon; Gad. and Asher were
+      the children of his slave Zilpah; while Joseph and Benjamin were the only
+      sons of Rachel&mdash;Dan and Naphtali being the offspring of her servant
+      Bilhah. The preference which his father showed to him caused Joseph to be
+      hated by his brothers; they sold him to a caravan of Midianites on their
+      way to Egypt, and persuaded Jacob that a wild beast had devoured him.
+      Jahveh was, however, with Joseph, and &ldquo;made all that he did to prosper in
+      his hand.&rdquo; He was bought by Potiphar, a great Egyptian lord and captain of
+      Pharaoh&rsquo;s guard, who made him his overseer; his master&rsquo;s wife, however,
+      &ldquo;cast her eyes upon Joseph,&rdquo; but finding that he rejected her shameless
+      advances, she accused him of having offered violence to her person. Being
+      cast into prison, he astonished his companions in misfortune by his skill
+      in reading dreams, and was summoned to Court to interpret to the king his
+      dream of the seven lean kine who had devoured the seven fat kine, which he
+      did by representing the latter as seven years of abundance, of which the
+      crops should be swallowed up by seven years of famine. Joseph was
+      thereupon raised by Pharaoh to the rank of prime minister. He stored up
+      the surplus of the abundant harvests, and as soon as the famine broke out,
+      distributed the corn to the hunger-stricken people in exchange for their
+      silver and gold, and for their flocks and fields. Hence it was,that the
+      whole of the Nile valley, with the exception of the lands belonging to the
+      priests, gradually passed into the possession of the royal treasury.
+      Meanwhile his brethren, who also suffered from the famine, came down into
+      Egypt to buy corn. Joseph revealed himself to them, pardoned the wrong
+      they had done him, and presented them to the Pharaoh. &ldquo;And Pharaoh said
+      unto Joseph, Say unto thy brethren, This do ye; lade your beasts, and go,
+      get you unto the land of Canaan: and take your father and your household,
+      and come unto me: and I will give you the good of the land of Egypt, and
+      ye shall eat the fat of the land.&rdquo; Jacob thereupon raised his camp and
+      came to Beersheba, where he offered sacrifices to the God of his father
+      Isaac; and Jahveh commanded him to go down into Egypt, saying, &ldquo;I will
+      there make of thee a great nation: I will go down with thee into Egypt:
+      and I will also surely bring thee up again: and Joseph shall put his hand
+      upon thine eyes.&rdquo; The whole family were installed by Pharaoh in the
+      province of Goshen, as far as possible from the centres of the native
+      population, &ldquo;for every shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyptians.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+    <p>
+      In the midst of these stern yet touching narratives in which the Hebrews
+      of the times of the Kings delighted to trace the history of their remote
+      ancestors, one important fact arrests our attention: the Beni-Israel
+      quitted Southern Syria and settled on the banks of the Nile. They had
+      remained for a considerable time in what was known later as the mountains
+      of Judah. Hebron had served as their rallying-point; the broad but
+      scantily watered wadys separating the cultivated lands from the desert,
+      were to them a patrimony, which they shared with the inhabitants of the
+      neighbouring towns. Every year, in the spring, they led their flocks to
+      browse on the thin herbage growing in the bottoms of the valleys, removing
+      them to another district only when the supply of fodder was exhausted. The
+      women span, wove, fashioned garments, baked bread, cooked the viands, and
+      devoted themselves to the care of the younger children, whom they suckled
+      beyond the usual period. The men lived like the Bedouin&mdash;periods of
+      activity alternating regularly with times of idleness, and the daily
+      routine, with its simple duties and casual work, often gave place to
+      quarrels for the possession of some rich pasturage or some never-failing
+      well.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A comparatively ancient tradition relates that the Hebrews arrived in
+      Egypt during the reign of Aph�bis, a Hyks�s king, doubtless one of the
+      Ap�pi, and possibly the monarch who restored the monuments of the Theban
+      Pharaohs, and engraved his name on the sphinxes of Amenemh��t III. and on
+      the colossi of M�rm�sh��.* The land which the Hebrews obtained is that
+      which, down to the present day, is most frequently visited by nomads, who
+      find there an uncertain hospitality.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The year XVII. of Ap�phis has been pointed out as the date
+     of their arrival, and this combination, probably proposed by
+     some learned Jew of Alexandria, was adopted by Christian
+     chroniclers. It is unsupported by any fact of Egyptian
+     history, but it rests on a series of calculations founded on
+     the information contained in the Bible. Starting from the
+     assumption that the Exodus must have taken place under
+     Ahmos�s, and that the children of Israel had been four
+     hundred and thirty years on the banks of the Nile, it was
+     found that the beginning of their sojourn fell under the
+     reign of the Ap�phis mentioned by Josephus, and, to be still
+     more correct, in the XVIIth year of that prince.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The tribes of the isthmus of Suez are now, in fact, constantly shifting
+      from one continent to another, and their encampments in any place are
+      merely temporary. The lord of the soil must, if he desire to keep them
+      within his borders, treat them with the greatest prudence and tact. Should
+      the government displease them in any way, or appear to curtail their
+      liberty, they pack up their tents and take flight into the desert. The
+      district occupied by them one day is on the next vacated and left to
+      desolation. Probably the same state of things existed in ancient times,
+      and the border nomes on the east of the Delta were in turn inhabited or
+      deserted by the Bedouin of the period. The towns were few in number, but a
+      series of forts protected the frontier. These were mere
+      village-strongholds perched on the summit of some eminence, and surrounded
+      by a strip of cornland. Beyond the frontier extended a region of bare
+      rock, or a wide plain saturated with the ill-regulated surplus water of
+      the inundation. The land of Goshen was bounded by the cities of Heliopolis
+      on the south, Bubastis on the west, and Tanis and Mendes on the north: the
+      garrison at Avaris could easily keep watch over it and maintain order
+      within it, while they could at the same time defend it from the incursions
+      of the Monati� and the H�r�-Sh��t�.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Goshen comprised the provinces situated on the borders of
+     the cultivable cornland, and watered by the infiltration of
+     the Nile, which caused the growth of a vegetation sufficient
+     to support the flocks during a few weeks; and it may also
+     have included the imperfectly irrigated provinces which were
+     covered with pools and reedy swamps after each inundation.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Beni-Israel throve in these surroundings so well adapted to their
+      traditional tastes. Even if their subsequent importance as a nation has
+      been over-estimated, they did not at least share the fate of many foreign
+      tribes, who, when transplanted into Egypt, waned and died out, or, at the
+      end of two or three generations, became merged in the native population.*
+      In pursuing their calling as shepherds, almost within sight of the rich
+      cities of the Nile valley, they never forsook the God of their fathers to
+      bow down before the Enneads or Triads of Egypt; whether He was already
+      known to them as Jahveh, or was worshipped under the collective name of
+      Eloh�m, they served Him with almost unbroken fidelity even in the presence
+      of R� and Osiris, of Phtah and S�tkh�.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We are told that when the Hebrews left Ramses, they were
+     &ldquo;about six hundred thousand on foot that were men, beside
+     children. And a mixed multitude went up also with them; and
+     flocks and herds, even very much cattle&rdquo; (<i>Exod.</i> xii. 37,
+     38).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Hyks�s conquest had not in any way modified the feudal system of the
+      country. The Shepherd-kings must have inherited the royal domain just as
+      they found it at the close of the XIVth dynasty, but doubtless the whole
+      Delta, from Avaris to Sais, and from Memphis to Buto, was their personal
+      appanage. Their direct authority probably extended no further south than
+      the pyramids, and their supremacy over the fiefs of the Said was at best
+      precarious. The turbulent lords who shared among them the possession of
+      the valley had never lost their proud or rebellious spirit, and under the
+      foreign as under the native Pharaohs regulated their obedience to their
+      ruler by the energy he displayed, or by their regard for the resources at
+      his disposal. Thebes had never completely lost the ascendency which it
+      obtained over them at the fall of the Memphite dynasty. The accession of
+      the Xoite dynasty, and the arrival of the Shepherd-kings, in relegating
+      Thebes unceremoniously to a second rank, had not discouraged it, or
+      lowered its royal prestige in its own eyes or in those of others: the
+      lords of the south instinctively rallied around it, as around their
+      natural citadel, and their resources, combined with its own, rendered it
+      as formidable a power as that of the masters of the Delta. If we had
+      fuller information as to the history of this period, we should doubtless
+      see that the various Theban princes took occasion, as in the
+      Heracleopolitan epoch, to pick a quarrel with their sovereign lord, and
+      did not allow themselves to be discouraged by any check.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The length of time during which Egypt was subject to
+     Asiatic rule is not fully known. Historians are agreed in
+     recognizing the three epochs referred to in the narrative of
+     Manetho as corresponding with (1) the conquest and the six
+     first Hyks�s kings, including the XVth Theban dynasty; (2)
+     the complete submission of Egypt to the XVIth foreign
+     dynasty; (3) the war of independence during the XVIIth
+     dynasty, which consisted of two parallel series of kings,
+     the one Shepherds (Pharaohs), the other Thebans. There has
+     been considerable discussion as to the duration of the
+     oppression. The best solution is still that given by Erman,
+     according to whom the XVth dynasty lasted 284, the XVIth
+     234, and the XVIIth 143 years, or, in all, 661 years. The
+     invasion must, therefore, have taken place about 2346 B.C.,
+     or about the time when the Elamite power was at its highest.
+     The advent of the XVIth dynasty would fall about 2062 B.C.,
+     and the commencement of the war of independence between 1730
+     and 1720 B.C.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The period of hegemony attributed by the chronicles to the Hyks�s of the
+      XVIth dynasty was not probably, as far as they were concerned, years of
+      perfect tranquillity, or of undisputed authority. In inscribing their sole
+      names on the lists, the compilers denoted merely the shorter or longer
+      period during which their Theban vassals failed in their rebellious
+      efforts, and did not dare to assume openly the title or ensigns of
+      royalty. A certain Ap�phis, probably the same who took the prsenomen of
+      Aqn�nr�, was reigning at Tanis when the decisive revolt broke out, and
+      Saqn�nr� Ti��a I., who was the leader on the occasion, had no other title
+      of authority over the provinces of the south than that of <i>hiqu,</i> or
+      regent. We are unacquainted with the cause of the outbreak or with its
+      sequel, and the Egyptians themselves seem to have been not much better
+      informed on the subject than ourselves. They gave free flight to their
+      fancy, and accommodated the details to their taste, not shrinking from the
+      introduction of daring fictions into the account. A romance, which was
+      very popular with the literati four or five hundred years later, asserted
+      that the real cause of the war was a kind of religious quarrel. &ldquo;It
+      happened that the land of Egypt belonged to the Fever-stricken, and, as
+      there was no supreme king at that time, it happened then that King
+      Saqn�nr� was regent of the city of the south, and that the Fever-stricken
+      of the city of R� were under the rule of R�-Ap�pi in Avaris. The Whole
+      Land tribute to the latter in manufactured products, and the north did the
+      same in all the good things of the Delta. Now, the King R�-Ap�pi took to
+      himself S�tkh� for lord, and he did not serve any other god in the Whole
+      Land except S�tkh�, and he built a temple of excellent and everlasting
+      work at the gate of the King R�-Ap�pi, and he arose every morning to
+      sacrifice the daily victims, and the chief vassals were there with
+      garlands of flowers, as it was accustomed to be done for the temple of
+      Phr�-Harm�khis.&rdquo; Having finished the temple, he thought of imposing upon
+      the Thebans the cult of his god, but as he shrank from employing force in
+      such a delicate matter, he had recourse to stratagem. He took counsel with
+      his princes and generals, but they were unable to propose any plan. The
+      college of diviners and scribes was more complaisant: &ldquo;Let a messenger go
+      to the regent of the city of the South to tell him: The King R�-Ap�pi
+      commands thee: &lsquo;That the hippopotami which are in the pool of the town are
+      to be exterminated in the pool, in order that slumber may come to me by
+      day and by night.&rsquo; He will not be able to reply good or bad, and thou
+      shalt send him another messenger: The King R�-Ap�pi commands thee: &lsquo;If the
+      chief of the South does not reply to my message, let him serve no longer
+      any god but S�tkh�. But if he replies to it, and will do that which I tell
+      him to do, then I will impose nothing further upon him, and I will not in
+      future bow before any other god of the Whole Land than Amonr�, king of the
+      gods!&rsquo;&rdquo; Another Pharaoh of popular romance, Nectanebo, possessed, at a
+      much later date, mares which conceived at the neighing of the stallions of
+      Babylon, and his friend Lycerus had a cat which went forth every night to
+      wring the necks of the cocks of Memphis:* the hippopotami of the Theban
+      lake, which troubled the rest of the King of Tanis, were evidently of
+      close kin to these extraordinary animals.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Found in a popular story, which came in later times to be
+     associated with the traditions connected with �sop.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The sequel is unfortunately lost. We may assume, however, without much
+      risk of error, that Saqn�nr� came forth safe and sound from the ordeal;
+      that Ap�pi was taken in his own trap, and saw himself driven to the dire
+      extremity of giving up S�tkh� for Amonr� or of declaring war. He was
+      likely to adopt the latter alternative, and the end of the manuscript
+      would probably have related his defeat.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0030" id="linkimage-0030">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:10%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/106.jpg" alt="106.jpg Pallate of Ti�a " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn from
+the original
+by Faucher-
+Gudin.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Hostilities continued for a century and a half from the time when Saqn�nr�
+      Ti��a declared himself son of the Sun and king of the two Egypts. From the
+      moment in which he surrounded his name with a cartouche, the princes of
+      the Said threw in their lot with him, and the XVIIth dynasty had its
+      beginning on the day of his proclamation. The strife at first was
+      undecisive and without marked advantage to either side: at length the
+      Pharaoh whom the Greek copyists of Manetho call Alisphragmouthosis,
+      defeated the barbarians, drove them away from Memphis and from the western
+      plains of the Delta, and shut them up in their entrenched camp at Avaris,
+      between the Sebennytic branch of the Nile and the Wady Tumil�t. The
+      monuments bearing on this period of strife and misery are few in number,
+      and it is a fortunate circumstance if some insignificant object tarns up
+      which would elsewhere be passed over as unworthy of notice. One of the
+      officials of Ti��a I. has left us his writing palette, on which the
+      cartouches of his master are incised with a rudeness baffling description.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We have also information of a prince of the blood, a king&rsquo;s son, T�a�, who
+      accompanied this same Pharaoh in his expeditions; and the G�zeh Museum is
+      proud of having in its possession the i wooden sabre which this individual
+      placed on the mummy of a certain Aqhor�, to enable him to defend himself
+      against the monsters of the lower world. A second Saqn�nr� Ti��a succeeded
+      the first, and like him was buried in a little brick pyramid on the border
+      of the Theban necropolis. At his death the series of rulers was broken,
+      and we meet with several names which are difficult to classify&mdash;Sakhontinibr�,
+      Sanakht�-niri, Hotp�r�, Manhotp�r�, E�hotp�.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Hotp�r� and Manhotp�r� are both mentioned in the fragments
+     of a fantastic story (copied during the XXth dynasty), bits
+     of which are found in most European museums. In one of these
+     fragments, preserved in the Louvre, mention is made of
+     Hotp�r�&rsquo;s tomb, certainly situated at Thebes; we possess
+     scarabs of this king, and P�trie discovered at Coptos a
+     fragment of a stele bearing his name and titles, and
+     describing the works which he executed in the temples of the
+     town. The XIVth year of Manhotp�r� is mentioned in a passage
+     of the story as being the date of the death of a personage
+     born under Hotp�r�. These two kings belong, as far as we are
+     able to judge, to the middle of the XVIIth dynasty; I am
+     inclined to place beside them the Pharaoh N�bhotp�r�, of
+     whom we possess a few rather coarse scarabs.
+</pre>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="107 (180K)" src="images/107.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0031" id="linkimage-0031">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:35%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/109.jpg"
+       alt="109.jpg Nofr�tari, from The Wooden Statuette in the Turin Museum " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph
+by Plinders P�trie.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As we proceed, however, information becomes more plentiful, and the list
+      of reigns almost complete. The part which the princesses of older times
+      played in the transmission of power had, from the XIIth dynasty downward,
+      considerably increased in importance, and threatened to overshadow that of
+      the princes. The question presents itself whether, during these centuries
+      of perpetual warfare, there had not been a moment when, all the males of
+      the family having perished, the women alone were left to perpetuate the
+      solar race on the earth and to keep the succession unbroken. As soon as
+      the veil over this period of history begins to be lifted, we distinguish
+      among the personages emerging from the obscurity as many queens as kings
+      presiding over the destinies of Egypt. The sons took precedence of the
+      daughters when both were the offspring of a brother and sister born of the
+      same parents, and when, consequently, they were of equal rank; but, on the
+      other hand, the sons forfeited this equality when there was any
+      inferiority in origin on the maternal side, and their prospect of
+      succession to the throne diminished in proportion to their mother&rsquo;s
+      remoteness from the line of R�. In the latter case all their sisters, born
+      of marriages which to us appear incestuous, took precedence of them, and
+      the eldest daughter became the legitimate Pharaoh, who sat in the seat of
+      Horus on the death of her father, or even occasionally during his
+      lifetime. The prince whom she married governed for her, and discharged
+      those royal duties which could be legally performed by a man only,&mdash;such
+      as offering worship to the supreme gods, commanding the army, and
+      administering justice; but his wife never ceased to be sovereign, and
+      however small the intelligence or firmness of which she might be
+      possessed, her husband was obliged to leave to her, at all events on
+      certain occasions, the direction of affairs.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At her death her children inherited the crown: their father had formally
+      to invest the eldest of them with royal, authority in the room of the
+      deceased, and with him he shared the externals, if not the reality, of
+      power.* It is doubtful whether the third Saq-n�nr� Ti��a known to us&mdash;he
+      who added an epithet to his name, and was commonly known as Ti��qni,
+      &ldquo;Ti��a the brave&rdquo; ** &mdash;united in his person all the requisites of a
+      Pharaoh qualified to reign in his own right. However this may have been,
+      at all events his wife, Queen Ahhotp�, possessed them.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Thus we find Th�tmosis I. formally enthroning his daughter
+     H�t-shops�t�, towards the close of his reign.
+
+     ** It would seem that the epithet Qeni ( = the brave, the
+     robust) did not form an indispensable part of his name, any
+     more than Ahmosi did of the names of members of the family
+     of Ahmosis, the conqueror of the Shepherds. It is to him
+     that the Ti��a cartouche refers, which is to be found on the
+     statue mentioned by Daninos-Pasha, published by Bouriant,
+     and on which we find Ahmosis, a princess of the same name,
+     together with Queen Ahhotp� I.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His eldest son Ahmos� died prematurely; the two younger brothers, Kamos�
+      and a second Ahmos�, the Amosis of the Greeks, assumed the crown after
+      him. It is possible, as frequently happened, that their young sister
+      Ahmasi-Nofr�tari entered the harem of both brothers consecutively.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0032" id="linkimage-0032">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/110.jpg" alt="110.jpg the Head of Saqnuri " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Bouclier,
+from a photograph
+by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      We cannot be sure that she was united to Kamos�, but at all events she
+      became the wife of Ahmosis, and the rights which she possessed, together
+      with those which her husband had inherited from their mother Ahhotp�, gave
+      him a legal claim such as was seldom enjoyed by the Pharaohs of that
+      period, so many of them being sovereigns merely <i>de facto,</i> while he
+      was doubly king by right.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Ti��qni, Kamos�,* and Ahmosis** quickly succeeded each other. Ti��qni very
+      probably waged war against the Shepherds, and it is not known whether he
+      fell upon the field of battle or was the victim of some plot; the
+      appearance of his mummy proves that he died a violent death when about
+      forty years of age. Two or three men, whether assassins or soldiers, must
+      have surrounded and despatched him before help was available. A blow from
+      an axe must have severed part of his left cheek, exposed the teeth,
+      fractured the jaw, and sent him senseless to the ground; another blow must
+      have seriously injured the skull, and a dagger or javelin has cut open the
+      forehead on the right side, a little above the eye. His body must have
+      remained lying where it fell for some time: when found, decomposition had
+      set in, and the embalming had to be hastily performed as best it might.
+      The hair is thick, rough, and matted; the face had been shaved on the
+      morning of his death, but by touching the cheek we can ascertain how harsh
+      and abundant the hair must have been. The mummy is that of a fine,
+      vigorous man, who might have lived to a hundred years, and he must have
+      defended himself resolutely against his assailants; his features bear even
+      now an expression of fury. A flattened patch of exuded brain appears above
+      one eye, the forehead is wrinkled, and the lips, which are drawn back in a
+      circle about the gums, reveal the teeth still biting into the tongue.
+      Kamos� did not reign long;&rsquo;we know nothing of the events of his life, but
+      we owe to him one of the prettiest examples of the Egyptian goldsmith&rsquo;s
+      art&mdash;the gold boat mounted on a carriage of wood and bronze, which
+      was to convey his double on its journeys through Hades. This boat was
+      afterwards appropriated by his mother Ahhotp�.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * With regard to Kamos�, we possess, in addition to the
+     miniature bark which was discovered on the sarcophagus of
+     Queen Ahhotp�, and which is now in the museum at G�zeh, a
+     few scattered references to his worship existing on the
+     monuments, on a stele at G�zeh, on a table of offerings in
+     the Marseilles Museum, and in the list of princes worshipped
+     by the &ldquo;servants of the Necropolis.&rdquo; His pyramid was at Drah-
+     Abu&rsquo;l-Neggah, beside those of Il��a and Amen�th�s I.
+
+     ** The name Amos� or Ahmosi is usually translated &ldquo;Child of
+     the Moon-god&rdquo; the real meaning is, &ldquo;the Moon-god has brought
+     forth,&rdquo; &ldquo;him&rdquo; or &ldquo;her&rdquo; (referring to the person who bears
+     the name) being understood.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ahmosisa must have been about twenty-five years of age when he ascended
+      the throne; he was of medium height, as his body when mummied measured
+      only 5 feet 6 inches in length, but the development of the neck and chest
+      indicates extraordinary strength. The head is small in proportion to the
+      bust, the forehead low and narrow, the cheek-bones project, and the hair
+      is thick and wavy. The face exactly resembles that of Ti��crai, and the
+      likeness alone would proclaim the affinity, even if we were ignorant of
+      the close relationship which united these two Pharaohs.* Ahmosis seems to
+      have been a strong, active, warlike man; he was successful in all the wars
+      in which we know him to have been engaged, and he ousted the Shepherds
+      from the last towns occupied by them. It is possible that modern writers
+      have exaggerated the credit due to Ahmosis for expelling the Hyks�s. He
+      found the task already half accomplished, and the warfare of his
+      forefathers for at least a century must have prepared the way for his
+      success; if he appears to have played the most important <i>r�le</i> in
+      the history of the deliverance, it is owing to our ignorance of the work
+      of others, and he thus benefits by the oblivion into which their deeds
+      have passed. Taking this into consideration, we must still admit that the
+      Shepherds, even when driven into Avaris, were not adversaries to be
+      despised. Forced by the continual pressure of the Egyptian armies into
+      this corner of the Delta, they were as a compact body the more able to
+      make a protracted resistance against very superior forces.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Here again my description is taken from the present
+     appearance of the mummy, which is now in the G�zeh Museum.
+     It is evident, from the inspection which I have made, that
+     Ahmosis was about fifty years old at the time of his death,
+     and, allowing him to have reigned twenty-five years, he must
+     have been twenty-five or twenty-six when he came to the
+     throne.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0033" id="linkimage-0033">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/113.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="113.jpg the Small Gold Votive Barque of Pharaoh Kamos�, In the G�zeh Museum. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by �mil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The impenetrable marshes of Menzaleh on the north, and the desert of the
+      Red Sea on the south, completely covered both their wings; the shifting
+      network of the branches of the Nile, together with the artificial canals,
+      protected them as by a series of moats in front, while Syria in their rear
+      offered them inexhaustible resources for revictualling their troops, or
+      levying recruits among tribes of kindred race. As long as they could hold
+      their ground there, a re-invasion was always possible; one victory would
+      bring them to Memphis, and the whole valley would again fall under
+      then-suzerainty. Ahmosis, by driving them from their last stronghold,
+      averted this danger. It is, therefore, not without reason that the
+      official chroniclers of later times separated him from his ancestors and
+      made him the head of a new dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0034" id="linkimage-0034">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/114.jpg" width="100%" alt="114.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      His predecessors had in reality been merely Pharaohs on sufferance, ruling
+      in the south within the confines of their Theban principality, gaining in
+      power, it is true, with every generation, but never able to attain to the
+      suzerainty of the whole country. They were reckoned in the XVIIth dynasty
+      together with the Hyks�s sovereigns of uncontested legitimacy, while their
+      successors were chosen to constitute the XVIIIth, comprising Pharaohs with
+      full powers, tolerating no competitors, and uniting under their firm rule
+      the two regions of which Egypt was composed&mdash;the possessions of Sit
+      and the possessions of Horus.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Manetho, or his abridgers, call the king who drove out the
+     Shepherds Am�sis or Tethm�sis. Lepsius thought he saw
+     grounds for preferring the second reading, and identified
+     this Tethm�sis with Th�tmosi Manakhpirri, the �h�tmosis III.
+     of our lists; Ahmosis could only have driven out the greater
+     part of the nation. This theory, to which Naville still
+     adheres, as also does Stindorff, was disputed nearly fifty
+     years ago by E. de Roug�; nowadays we are obliged to admit
+     that, subsequent to the Vth year of Ahmosis, there were no
+     longer Shepherd-kings in Egypt, even though a part of the
+     conquering race may have remained in the country in a state
+     of slavery, as we shall soon have occasion to observe.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The war of deliverance broke out on the accession of Ahmosis, and
+      continued during the first five years of his reign.* One of his
+      lieutenants, the king&rsquo;s namesake&mdash;�hmosi-si-Ab�na&mdash;who belonged
+      to the family of the lords of Nekhab�t, has left us an account, in one of
+      the inscriptions in his tomb, of the numerous exploits in which he took
+      part side by side with his royal master, and thus, thanks to this
+      fortunate record of his vanity, we are not left in complete ignorance of
+      the events which took place during this crucial struggle between the
+      Asiatic settlers and their former subjects. Nekhab�t had enjoyed
+      considerable prosperity in the earlier ages of Egyptian history, marking
+      as it did the extreme southern limit of the kingdom, and forming an
+      outpost against the barbarous tribes of Nubia. As soon as the progress of
+      conquest had pushed the frontier as far south as the first cataract, it
+      declined in importance, and the remembrance of its former greatness found
+      an echo only in proverbial expressions or in titles used at the Pharaonic
+      court.* The nomes situated to the south of Thebes, unlike those of Middle
+      Egypt, did not comprise any extensive fertile or well-watered territory
+      calculated to enrich its possessors or to afford sufficient support for a
+      large population: they consisted of long strips of alluvial soil, shut in
+      between the river and the mountain range, but above the level of the
+      inundation, and consequently difficult to irrigate.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is evident from passage in the biography of Ahmosi-
+     si-Ab�na, where it is stated that, after the taking of
+     Avaris, the king passed into Asia in the year VI. The first
+     few lines of the <i>Great Inscription of El-Kab</i> seem to refer
+     to four successive campaigns, i.e. four years of warfare up
+     to the taking of Avaris, and to a fifth year spent in
+     pursuing the Shepherds into Syria.
+
+     ** The vulture of Nekhab�t is used to indicate the south,
+     while the urseus of Buto denotes the extreme north; the
+     title R�-Nekhn�t, &ldquo;Chief of Nekhn�t,&rdquo; which is,
+     hypothetically, supposed to refer to a judicial function, is
+     none the less associated with the expression, &ldquo;Nekhab�t-
+     Tekhn�t,&rdquo; as an indication of the south, and, therefore,
+     can be traced to the prehistoric epoch when Nekhab�t was the
+     primary designation of the south.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0035" id="linkimage-0035">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/116.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="116.jpg the Walls of El-kab Seen from The Tomb Of Pihiri " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0036" id="linkimage-0036">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/116a.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="116a.jpg Collection of Vases  Modelled and Painted in The Grand Temple. Philae Island. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These nomes were cultivated, moreover, by a poor and sparse population. It
+      needed a fortuitous combination of circumstances to relieve them from
+      their poverty-stricken condition&mdash;either a war, which would bring
+      into prominence their strategic positions; or the establishment of
+      markets, such as those of Sy�n� and Elephantine, where the commerce of
+      neighbouring regions would naturally centre; or the erection, as at Ombos
+      or Adf�, of a temple which would periodically attract a crowd of pilgrims.
+      The principality of the Two Feathers comprised, besides Nekhab�t, �t least
+      two such towns&mdash;An�t, on its northern boundary, and Nekhn�t almost
+      facing Nekhab�t on the left bank of the river.* These three towns
+      sometimes formed separate estates for as many independent lords:** even
+      when united they constituted a fiefdom of but restricted area and of
+      slender revenues, its chiefs ranking below those of the great feudal
+      princes of Middle Egypt. The rulers of this fiefdom led an obscure
+      existence during the whole period of the Memphite empire, and when at
+      length Thebes gained the ascendency, they rallied to the latter and
+      acknowledged her suzerainty. One of them, Sovk�nakh�ti, gained the favour
+      of Sovkhotp� III. Sakhem�azta�ir�, who granted him lands which made the
+      fortune of his house; another of them, A�, married Khonsu, one of the
+      daughters of Sovk�msa�f I. and his Queen N�bkh�s, and it is possible that
+      the misshapen pyramid of Q�lah, the most southern in Egypt proper, was
+      built for one of these royally connected personages.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Nekhn�t is the Hierac�npolis of Greek and Roman times,
+     H��t-Ba�k�, the modern name of which is Kom-el-Ahmar.
+
+     ** Pihiri was, therefore, prince of Nekhab�t and of An�t at
+     one and the same time, whereas the town of Nekhn�t had its
+     own special rulers, several of whom are known to us from the
+     tombs at Kom-el-Ahmar.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The descendants of A� attached themselves faithfully to the Pharaohs of
+      the XVIIth dynasty, and helped them to the utmost in their struggle
+      against the invaders. Their capital, Nekhab�t, was situated between the
+      Nile and the Arabian chain, at the entrance to a valley which penetrates
+      some distance into the desert, and leads to the gold-mines on the Red Sea.
+      The town profited considerably from the precious metals brought into it by
+      the caravans, and also from the extraction of natron, which from
+      prehistoric times was largely employed in embalming. It had been a
+      fortified place from the outset, and its walls, carefully repaired by
+      successive ages, were still intact at the beginning of this century. They
+      described at this time a rough quadrilateral, the two longer sides of
+      which measured some 1900 feet in length, the two shorter being about
+      one-fourth less. The southern face was constructed in a fashion common in
+      brick buildings in Egypt, being divided into alternate panels of
+      horizontally laid courses, and those in which the courses were concave; on
+      the north and west fa�ades the bricks were so laid as to present an
+      undulating arrangement running uninterruptedly from one end to the other.
+      The walls are 33 feet thick, and their average height 27 feet; broad and
+      easy steps lead to the foot-walk on the top. The gates are unsymmetrically
+      placed, there being one on the north, east, and west sides respectively;
+      while the southern side is left without an opening. These walls afforded
+      protection to a dense but unequally distributed population, the bulk of
+      which was housed towards the north and west sides, where the remains of an
+      immense number of dwellings may still be seen. The temples were crowded
+      together in a small square enclosure, concentric with the walls of the
+      enceinte, and the principal sanctuary was dedicated to Nekhab�t, the
+      vulture goddess, who gave her name to the city.* This enclosure formed a
+      kind of citadel, where the garrison could hold out when the outer part had
+      fallen into the enemy&rsquo;s hands. The times were troublous; the open country
+      was repeatedly wasted by war, and the peasantry had more than once to seek
+      shelter behind the protecting ramparts of the town, leaving their lands to
+      lie fallow.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A part of the latter temple, that which had been rebuilt
+     in the Sa�te epoch, was still standing at the beginning of
+     the XIXth century, with columns bearing the cartouches of
+     Hakori; it was destroyed about the year 1825, and
+     Champollion found only the foundations of the walls.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0037" id="linkimage-0037">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/119.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="119.jpg the Ruins of The Pyramid Of Q�lah, Near Mohammerieh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Famine constantly resulted from these disturbances, and it taxed all the
+      powers of the ruling prince to provide at such times for his people. A
+      chief of the Commissariat, Beb� by name, who lived about this period,
+      gives us a lengthy account of the number of loaves, oxen, goats, and pigs,
+      which he allowed to all the inhabitants both great and little, down even
+      to the quantity of oil and incense, which he had taken care to store up
+      for them: his prudence was always justified by the issue, for &ldquo;during the
+      many years in which the famine recurred, he distributed grain in the city
+      to all those who hungered.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+    <p>
+      Baba�, the first of the lords of El-Kab whose name has come down to us,
+      was a captain in the service of Saqn�nr� Ti��qni.* His son Ahmosi, having
+      approached the end of his career, cut a tomb for himself in the hill which
+      overlooks the northern side of the town. He relates on the walls of his
+      sepulchre, for the benefit of posterity, the most praiseworthy actions of
+      his long life. He had scarcely emerged from childhood when he was called
+      upon to act for his father, and before his marriage he was appointed to
+      the command of the barque <i>The Calf.</i> From thence he was promoted to
+      the ship <i>The North</i>, and on account of his activity he was chosen to
+      escort his namesake the king on foot, whenever he drove in his chariot. He
+      repaired to his post at the moment when the decisive war against the
+      Hyks�s broke out.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * There are still some doubts as to the descent of this
+     Ahmosi. Some authorities hold that Babai was the name of his
+     father and Ab�na that of his grandfather; others think that
+     Babai was his father and Ab�na his mother; others, again,
+     make out Babai and Ab�na to be variants of the same name,
+     probably a Semitic one, borne by the father of Ahmosi; the
+     majority of modern Egyptologists (including myself) regard
+     this last hypothesis as being the most probable one.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The tradition current in the time of the Ptolemies reckoned the number of
+      men under the command of King Ahmosis when he encamped before Avaris at
+      480,000. This immense multitude failed to bring matters to a successful
+      issue, and the siege dragged on indefinitely. The king afc length
+      preferred to treat with the Shepherds, and gave them permission to retreat
+      into Syria safe and sound, together with their wives, their children, and
+      all their goods. This account, however, in no way agrees with the all too
+      brief narration of events furnished by the inscription in the tomb. The
+      army to which Egypt really owed its deliverance was not the undisciplined
+      rabble of later tradition, but, on the contrary, consisted of troops
+      similar to those which subsequently invaded Syria, some 15,000 to 20,000
+      in number, fully equipped and ably officered, supported, moreover, by a
+      fleet ready to transfer them across the canals and arms of the river in a
+      vigorous condition and ready for the battle.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It may be pointed out that Ahmosi, son of Ab�na, was a
+     sailor and a leader of sailors; that he passed from one
+     vessel to another, until he was at length appointed to the
+     command of one of the most important ships in the royal
+     fleet. Transport by water always played considerable part in
+     the wars which were carried on in Egyptian territory; I have
+     elsewhere drawn attention to campaigns conducted in this
+     manner under the Horacleopolitan dynasties, and we shall see
+     that the Ethiopian conquerors adopted the same mode of
+     transit in the course of their invasion of Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As soon as this fleet arrived at the scene of hostilities, the engagement
+      began. Ahmosi-si-Ab�na conducted the manouvres under the king&rsquo;s eye, and
+      soon gave such evidence of his capacity, that he was transferred by royal
+      favour to the <i>Rising in Memphis</i>&mdash;a vessel with a high
+      freeboard. He was shortly afterwards appointed to a post in a division
+      told off for duty on the river Zadiku, which ran under the walls of the
+      enemy&rsquo;s fortress.* Two successive and vigorous attacks made in this
+      quarter were barren of important results. Ahmosi-si-Ab�na succeeded in
+      each of the attacks in killing an enemy, bringing back as trophies a hand
+      of each of his victims, and his prowess, made known to the king by one of
+      the heralds, twice procured for him, &ldquo;the gold of valour,&rdquo; probably in the
+      form of collars, chains, or bracelets.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of this canal was first recognised by Brugsch,
+     then misunderstood and translated &ldquo;the water bearing the
+     name of the water of Avaris.&rdquo; It is now road &ldquo;Zadik�,&rdquo; and,
+     with the Egyptian article, Pa-zadik�, or Pzadik�. The name
+     is of Semitic origin, and is derived from the root meaning
+     &ldquo;to be just;&rdquo; we do not know to which of the watercourses
+     traversing the east of the Delta it ought to be applied.
+
+     ** The fact that the attacks from this side were not
+     successful is proved by the sequel. If they had succeeded,
+     as is usually supposed, the Egyptians would not have fallen
+     back on another point further south in order to renew the
+     struggle.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0038" id="linkimage-0038">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/122.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="122.jpg the Tombs of The Princes Of Nekhab�t, in The Hillside Above El-kab " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The assault having been repulsed in this quarter, the Egyptians made their
+      way towards the south, and came into conflict with the enemy at the
+      village of Taqim�t.* Here, again, the battle remained undecided, but
+      Ahmosi-si-Ab�na had an adventure. He had taken a prisoner, and in bringing
+      him back lost himself, fell into a muddy ditch, and, when he had freed
+      himself from the dirt as well as he could, pursued his way by mistake for
+      some time in the direction of Avaris. He found out his error, however,
+      before it was too late, came back to the camp safe and sound, and received
+      once more some gold as a reward of his brave conduct. A second attack upon
+      the town was crowned with complete success; it was taken by storm, given
+      over to pillage, and Ahmosi-si-Ab�na succeeded in capturing one man and
+      three women, who were afterwards, at the distribution of the spoil, given
+      to him as slaves.** The enemy evacuated in haste the last strongholds
+      which they held in the east of the Delta, and took refuge in the Syrian
+      provinces on the Egyptian frontier. Whether it was that they assumed here
+      a menacing attitude, or whether Ahmosis hoped to deal them a crushing blow
+      before they could find time to breathe, or to rally around them sufficient
+      forces to renew the offensive, he made up his mind to cross the frontier,
+      which he did in the 5th year of his reign.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The site of Taqim�t is unknown.
+
+     ** The prisoner who was given to Ahmosis after the victory,
+     is probably Pa�m�, the Asiatic, mentioned in the list of his
+     slaves which he had engraved on one of the walls of his
+     tomb.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was the first time for centuries that a Pharaoh had trusted himself in
+      Asia, and the same dread of the unknown which had restrained his ancestors
+      of the XIIth dynasty, doubtless arrested Ahmosis also on the threshold of
+      the continent. He did not penetrate further than the border provinces of
+      Zahi, situated on the edge of the desert, and contented himself with
+      pillaging the little town of Shar�hana.* Ahmosi-si-Ab�na was again his
+      companion, together with his cousin, Ahmosi-Pannekhabit, then at the
+      beginning of his career, who brought away on this occasion two young girls
+      for his household.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Shar�hana, which is mentioned again under Th�tmosis III.
+     is not the plain of Sharon, as Birch imagined, but the
+     Sharuhen of the Biblical texts, in the tribe of Simeon
+     (<i>Josh.</i> xix. 6), as Brugsch recognised it to be. It is
+     probably identical with the modern Tell-esh-Sheri�h, which
+     lies north-west of Beersheba.
+
+     ** Ahmosi Pannekhabit lay in tomb No. 2, at El-Kab. His
+     history is briefly told on one of the walls, and on two
+     sides of the pedestal of his statues. We have one of these,
+     or rather two plates from the pedestal of one of them, in
+     the Louvre; the other is in a good state of preservation,
+     and belongs to Mr. Finlay. The inscription is found in a
+     mutilated condition on the wall of the tomb, but the three
+     monuments which have come down to us are sufficiently
+     complementary to one another to enable us to restore nearly
+     the whole of the original text.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The expedition having accomplished its purpose, the Egyptians returned
+      home with their spoil, and did not revisit Asia for a long period. If the
+      Hyks�s generals had fostered in their minds the idea that they could
+      recover their lost ground, and easily re-enter upon the possession of
+      their African domain, this reverse must have cruelly disillusioned them.
+      They must have been forced to acknowledge that their power was at an end,
+      and to renounce all hope of returning to the country which had so
+      summarily ejected them. The majority of their own people did not follow
+      them into exile, but remained attached to the soil on which they lived,
+      and the tribes which had successively settled down beside them&mdash;including
+      the Beni-Israel themselves&mdash;no longer dreamed of a return to their
+      fatherland. The condition of these people varied according to their
+      locality. Those who had taken up a position in the plain of the Delta were
+      subjected to actual slavery. Ahmosis destroyed the camp at Avails,
+      quartered his officers in the towns, and constructed forts at strategic
+      points, or rebuilt the ancient citadels to resist the incursions of the
+      Bedouin. The vanquished people in the Delta, hemmed in as they were by a
+      network of fortresses, were thus reduced to a rabble of serfs, to be taxed
+      and subjected to the <i>corv�e</i> without mercy. But further north, the
+      fluctuating population which roamed between the Sebennytic and Pelusiac
+      branches of the Nile were not exposed to such rough treatment. The marshes
+      of the coast-line afforded them a safe retreat, in which they could take
+      refuge at the first threat of exactions on the part of the royal
+      emissaries. Secure within dense thickets, upon islands approached by
+      interminable causeways, often covered with water, or by long tortuous
+      canals concealed in the thick growth of reeds, they were able to defy with
+      impunity the efforts of the most disciplined troops, and treason alone
+      could put them at the mercy of their foes. Most of the Pharaohs felt that
+      the advantages to be gained by conquering them would be outweighed by the
+      difficulty of the enterprise; all that could result from a campaign would
+      be the destruction of one or two villages, the acquisition of a few
+      hundred refractory captives, of some ill-favoured cattle, and a trophy of
+      nets and worm-eaten boats. The kings, therefore, preferred to keep a close
+      watch over these undisciplined hordes, and as long as their depredations
+      were kept within reasonable limits, they were left unmolested to their
+      wild and precarious life.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Asiatic invasion had put a sudden stop to the advance of Egyptian rule
+      in the vast plains of the Upper Nile. The Theban princes, to whom Nubia
+      was directly subject, had been too completely engrossed in the wars
+      against their hereditary enemy, to devote much time to the continuation of
+      that work of colonization in the south which had been carried on so
+      vigorously by their forefathers of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties. The
+      inhabitants of the Nile valley, as far as the second cataract, rendered
+      them obedience, but without any change in the conditions and mode of their
+      daily life, which appear to have remained unaltered for centuries. The
+      temples of Usirtasen and Amenemha�t were allowed to fall into decay one
+      after another, the towns waned in prosperity, and were unable to keep
+      their buildings and monuments in repair; the inundation continued to bring
+      with it periodically its fleet of boats, which the sailors of K�sh had
+      laden with timber, gum, elephants&rsquo; tusks, and gold dust: from time to time
+      a band of Bedouin from Ua�a�t or Mazai� would suddenly bear down upon some
+      village and carry off its spoils; the nearest garrison would be called to
+      its aid, or, on critical occasions, the king himself, at the head of his
+      guards, would fall on the marauders and drive them back into the
+      mountains. Ahrnosis, being greeted on his return from Syria by the news of
+      such an outbreak, thought it a favourable moment to impress upon the
+      nomadic tribes of Nubia the greatness of his conquest. On this occasion it
+      was the people of Khonthan�nofir, settled in the wadys east of the Nile,
+      above Semneh, which required a lesson. The army which had just expelled
+      the Hyks�s was rapidly conveyed to the opposite borders of the country by
+      the fleet, the two Ahmosi of Nekhab�t occupying the highest posts. The
+      Egyptians, as was customary, landed at the nearest point to the enemy&rsquo;s
+      territory, and succeeded in killing a few of the rebels. Ahmosi-si-Ab�na
+      brought back two prisoners and three hands, for which he was rewarded by a
+      gift of two female Bedouin slaves, besides the &ldquo;gold of valour.&rdquo; This
+      victory in the south following on such decisive success in the north,
+      filled the heart of the Pharaoh with pride, and the view taken of it by
+      those who surrounded him is evident even in the brief sentences of the
+      narrative. He is described as descending the river on the royal galley,
+      elated in spirit and flushed by his triumph in Nubia, which had followed
+      so closely on the deliverance of the Delta. But scarcely had he reached
+      Thebes, when an unforeseen catastrophe turned his confidence into alarm,
+      and compelled him to retrace his steps. It would appear that at the very
+      moment when he was priding himself on the successful issue of his
+      Ethiopian expedition, one of the sudden outbreaks, which frequently
+      occurred in those regions, had culminated in a Sudanese invasion of Egypt.
+      We are not told the name of the rebel leader, nor those of the tribes who
+      took part in it. The Egyptian people, threatened in a moment of such
+      apparent security by this inroad of barbarians, regarded them as a fresh
+      incursion of the Hyks�s, and applied to these southerners the opprobrious
+      term of &ldquo;Fever-stricken,&rdquo; already used to denote their Asiatic conquerors.
+      The enemy descended the Nile, committing terrible atrocities, and
+      polluting every sanctuary of the Theban gods which came within their
+      reach. They had reached a spot called Tento�,* before they fell in with
+      the Egyptian troops. Ahmosi-si-Ab�na again distinguished himself in the
+      engagement. The vessel which he commanded, probably the <i>Rising in
+      Memphis</i>, ran alongside the chief galliot of the Sudanese fleet, and
+      took possession of it after a struggle, in which Ahmosi made two of the
+      enemy&rsquo;s sailors prisoners with his own hand. The king generously rewarded
+      those whose valour had thus turned the day in his favour, for the danger
+      had appeared to him critical; he allotted to every man on board the
+      victorious vessel five slaves, and five ancra of land situated in his
+      native province of each respectively. The invasion was not without its
+      natural consequences to Egypt itself.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of this locality does not occur elsewhere; it
+     would seem to refer, not to a village, but rather to a
+     canal, or the branch of a river, or a harbour somewhere
+     along the Nile. I am unable to locate it definitely, but am
+     inclined to think we ought to look for it, if not in Egypt
+     itself, at any rate in that part of Nubia which is nearest
+     to Egypt. M. Revillout, taking up a theory which had been
+     abandoned by Chabas, recognising in this expedition an
+     offensive incursion of the Shepherds, suggests that Tanto�
+     may be the modern Tantah in the Delta.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A certain Titi�nu, who appears to have been at the head of a powerful
+      faction, rose in rebellion at some place not named in the narrative, but
+      in the rear of the army. The rapidity with which Ahmosis repulsed the
+      Nubians, and turned upon his new enemy, completely baffled the latter&rsquo;s
+      plans, and he and his followers were cut to pieces, but the danger had for
+      the moment been serious.* It was, if not the last expedition undertaken in
+      this reign, at least the last commanded by the Pharaoh in person. By his
+      activity and courage Ahmosis had well earned the right to pass the
+      remainder of his days in peace.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The wording of the text is so much condensed that it is
+     difficult to be sure of its moaning. Modern scholars agree
+     with Brugsch that Titi�nu is the name of a man, but several
+     Egyptologists believe its bearer to have been chief of the
+     Ethiopian tribes, while others think him to have been a
+     rebellious Egyptian prince, or a king of the Shepherds, or
+     give up the task of identification in despair. The tortuous
+     wording of the text, and the expressions which occur in it,
+     seem to indicate that the rebel was a prince of the royal
+     blood, and even that the name he bears was not his real one.
+     Later on we shall find that, on a similar occasion, the
+     official documents refer to a prince who took part in a plot
+     against Ramses III. by the fictitious name of Pentau�r�t;
+     Titi�nu was probably a nickname of the same kind inserted in
+     place of the real name. It seems that, in cases of high
+     treason, the criminal not only lost his life, but his name
+     was proscribed both in this world and in the next.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A revival of military greatness always entailed a renaissance in art,
+      followed by an age of building activity. The claims of the gods upon the
+      spoils of war must be satisfied before those of men, because the victory
+      and the booty obtained through it were alike owing to the divine help
+      given in battle. A tenth, therefore, of the slaves, cattle, and precious
+      metals was set apart for the service of the gods, and even fields, towns,
+      and provinces were allotted to them, the produce of which was applied to
+      enhance the importance of their cult or to repair and enlarge their
+      temples. The main body of the building was strengthened, halls and pylons
+      were added to the original plan, and the impulse once given to
+      architectural work, the co-operation of other artificers soon followed.
+      Sculptors and painters whose art had been at a standstill for generations
+      during the centuries of Egypt&rsquo;s humiliation, and whose hands had lost
+      their cunning for want of practice, were now once more in demand. They had
+      probably never completely lost the technical knowledge of their calling,
+      and the ancient buildings furnished them with various types of models,
+      which they had but to copy faithfully in order to revive their old
+      traditions. A few years after this revival a new school sprang up, whose
+      originality became daily more patent, and whose leaders soon showed
+      themselves to be in no way inferior to the masters of the older schools.
+      Ahmosis could not be accused of ingratitude to the gods; as soon as his
+      wars allowed him the necessary leisure, he began his work of
+      temple-building. The accession to power of the great Theban families had
+      been of little advantage to Thebes itself. Its Pharaohs, on assuming the
+      sovereignty of the whole valley, had not hesitated to abandon their native
+      city, and had made Heracleopolis, the Fayum or even Memphis, their seat of
+      government, only returning to Thebes in the time of the XIIIth dynasty,
+      when the decadence of their power had set in. The honour of furnishing
+      rulers for its country had often devolved on Thebes, but the city had
+      reaped but little benefit from the fact; this time, however, the tide of
+      fortune was to be turned. The other cities of Egypt had come to regard
+      Thebes as their metropolis from the time when they had temples. The main
+      body of the building was strengthened, halls and pylons were added to the
+      original plan, and the impulse once given to architectural work, the
+      co-operation of other artificers soon followed. Sculptors and painters
+      whose art had been at a standstill for generations during the centuries of
+      Egypt&rsquo;s humiliation, and whose hands had lost their cunning for want of
+      practice, were now once more in demand. They had probably never completely
+      lost the technical knowledge of their calling, and the ancient buildings
+      furnished them with various types of models, which they had but to copy
+      faithfully in order to revive their old traditions. A few years after this
+      revival a new school sprang up, whose originality became daily more
+      patent, and whose leaders soon showed themselves to be in no way inferior
+      to the masters of the older schools. Ahmosis could not be accused of
+      ingratitude to the gods; as soon as his wars allowed him the necessary
+      leisure, he began his work of temple-building. The accession to power of
+      the great Theban families had been of little advantage to Thebes itself.
+      Its Pharaohs, on assuming the sovereignty of the whole valley, had not
+      hesitated to abandon their native city, and had made Heracleopolis, the
+      Fayum or even Memphis, their seat of government, only returning to Thebes
+      in the time of the XIIIth dynasty, when the decadence of their power had
+      set in. The honour of furnishing rulers for its country had often devolved
+      on Thebes, but the city had reaped but little benefit from the fact; this
+      time, however, the tide of fortune was to be turned.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0039" id="linkimage-0039">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/130.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="130.jpg Painting in Tomb of the Kings Thebes " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The other cities of Egypt had come to regard Thebes as their metropolis
+      from the time when they had learned to rally round its princes to wage war
+      against the Hyks�s. It had been the last town to lay down arms at the time
+      of the invasion, and the first to take them up again in the struggle for
+      liberty. Thus the Egypt which vindicated her position among the nations of
+      the world was not the Egypt of the Memphite dynasties. It was the great
+      Egypt of the Amenemh��ts and the Usirtasens, still further aggrandised by
+      recent victories. Thebes was her natural capital, and its kings could not
+      have chosen a more suitable position from whence to command effectually
+      the whole empire. Situated at an equal distance from both frontiers, the
+      Pharaoh residing there, on the outbreak of a war either in the north or
+      south, had but half the length of the country to traverse in order to
+      reach the scene of action. Ahmosis spared no pains to improve the city,
+      but his resources did not allow of his embarking on any very extensive
+      schemes; he did not touch the temple of Amon, and if he undertook any
+      buildings in its neighbourhood, they must have been minor edifices. He
+      could, indeed, have had but little leisure to attempt much else, for it
+      was not till the XXIInd year of his reign that he was able to set
+      seriously to work.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In the inscription of the year XXII., �hmosis expressly
+     states that he opened new chambers in the quarries of T�rah
+     for the works in connection with the Theban Amon, as well as
+     for those of the temple of the Memphite Phtah.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      An opportunity then occurred to revive a practice long fallen into disuse
+      under the foreign kings, and to set once more in motion an essential part
+      of the machinery of Egyptian administration. The quarries of Turah, as is
+      well known, enjoyed the privilege of furnishing the finest materials to
+      the royal architects; nowhere else could be found limestone of such
+      whiteness, so easy to cut, or so calculated to lend itself to the carving
+      of delicate inscriptions and bas-reliefs. The commoner veins had never
+      ceased to be worked by private enterprise, gangs of quarrymen being always
+      employed, as at the present day, in cutting small stone for building
+      purposes, or in ruthlessly chipping it to pieces to burn for lime in the
+      kilns of the neighbouring villages; but the finest veins were always kept
+      for State purposes. Contemporary chroniclers might have formed a very just
+      estimate of national prosperity by the degree of activity shown in working
+      these royal preserves; when the amount of stone extracted was lessened,
+      prosperity was on the wane, and might be pronounced to be at its lowest
+      ebb when the noise of the quarryman&rsquo;s hammer finally ceased to be heard.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0040" id="linkimage-0040">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/132.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="132.jpg a Convoy of T�rah Quarrymen Drawing Stone " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Vyse-Perring.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Every dynasty whose resources were such as to justify their resumption of
+      the work proudly recorded the fact on stelae which lined the approaches to
+      the masons&rsquo; yards. Ahmosis reopened the T�rah quarry-chambers, and
+      procured for himself &ldquo;good stone and white&rdquo; for the temples of Anion at
+      Thebes and of Phtah at Memphis. No monument has as yet been discovered to
+      throw any light on the fate of Memphis subsequent to the time of the
+      Amenemh��ts. It must have suffered quite as much as any city of the Delta
+      from the Shepherd invasion, and from the wars which preceded their
+      expulsion, since it was situated on the highway of an invading army, and
+      would offer an attraction for pillagers. By a curious turn of fortune it
+      was the &ldquo;Fankh�i,&rdquo; or Asiatic prisoners, who were set to quarry the stone
+      for the restoration of the monuments which their own forefathers had
+      reduced to ruins.* The bas-reliefs sculptured on the stel� of Ahmosis show
+      them in full activity under the <i>corv�e;</i> we see here the stone block
+      detached from the quarry being squared by the chisel, or transported on a
+      sledge drawn by oxen.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The <i>Fankh�i</i> are, properly speaking, all white prisoners,
+     without distinction of race. Their name is derived from the
+     root <i>f�khu, fankhu</i> = to bind, press, carry off, steal,
+     destroy; if it is sometimes used in the sense of
+     Phoenicians, it is only in the Ptolemaic epoch. Here the
+     term &ldquo;Fankh�i&rdquo; refers to the Shepherds and Asiatics made
+     prisoners in the campaign of the year V. against Sharuhana.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ahmosis had several children by his various wives; six at least owned
+      Nofr�tari for their mother and possessed near claims to the crown, but she
+      may have borne him others whose existence is unrecorded. The eldest
+      appears to have been a son, Sipiri; he received all the honours due to an
+      hereditary prince, but died without having reigned, and his second
+      brother, Amenhotp�&mdash;called by the Greeks Amen�thes*&mdash;took his
+      place.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The form Amen�phis, which is usually employed, is,
+     properly speaking, the equivalent of the name
+     <i>Amenemaupitu,</i> or Amenaup�ti, which belongs to a king of
+     the XXIst Tanite dynasty; the true Greek transcription of
+     the Ptolemaic epoch, corresponding to the pronunciation
+     <i>Amehotpe,</i> or <i>Amenhopte,</i> is Amen�thes. Under the XVIIIth
+     dynasty the cuneiform transcription of the tablets of Tel-el
+     Amarna, Amankhatbi, seems to indicate the pronunciation
+     Amanhautpi, Amanhatpi, side by side with the pronunciation
+     Aman-hautpu, Amenhotpu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ahmosis was laid to rest in the chapel which he had prepared for himself
+      in the cemetery of Drah-abu&rsquo;l-Neggah, among the modest pyramids of the
+      XIth, XIIIth, and XVIIth dynasties.* He was venerated as a god, and his
+      cult was continued for six or eight centuries later, until the increasing
+      insecurity of the Theban necropolis at last necessitated the removal of
+      the kings from their funeral chambers.** The coffin of Ahmosis was found
+      to be still intact, though it was a poorly made one, shaped to the
+      contours of the body, and smeared over with yellow; it represents the king
+      with the false beard depending from his chin, and his breast covered with
+      a pectoral ornament, the features, hair, and accessories being picked out
+      in blue. His name has been hastily inscribed in ink on the front of the
+      winding-sheet, and when the lid was removed, garlands of faded pink
+      flowers were still found about the neck, laid there as a last offering by
+      the priests who placed the Pharaoh and his compeers in their secret
+      burying-place.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The precise site is at present unknown: we see, however,
+     that it was in this place, when wo observe that Ahmosis was
+     worshipped by the Servants of the Necropolis, amongst the
+     kings and princes of his family who were buried at Drah-
+     abu&rsquo;l-Neggah.
+
+     ** His priests and the minor <i>employ�s</i> of his cult are
+     mentioned on a stele in the museum at Turin, and on a brick
+     in the Berlin Museum. He is worshipped as a god, along with
+     Osiris, Horus, and Isis, on a stele in the Lyons Museum,
+     brought from Abydos: he had, probably, during one of his
+     journeys across Egypt, made a donation to the temple of that
+     city, on condition that he should be worshipped there for
+     ever; for a stele at Marseilles shows him offering homage to
+     Osiris in the bark of the god itself, and another stele in
+     the Louvre informs us that Pharaoh Th�tmosis IV. several
+     times sent one of his messengers to Abydos for the purpose
+     of presenting land to Osiris and to his own ancestor
+     Ahmosis.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0041" id="linkimage-0041">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/135.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="135.jpg Coffin of Ahmosis in the G�zeh Museum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Amen�thes I. had not attained his majority when his father &ldquo;thus winged
+      his way to heaven,&rdquo; leaving him as heir to the throne.* Nofr�tari assumed
+      the authority; after having shared the royal honours for nearly
+      twenty-five years with her husband, she resolutely refused to resign
+      them.** She was thus the first of those queens by divine right who,
+      scorning the inaction of the harem, took on themselves the right to fulfil
+      the active duties of a sovereign, and claimed the recognition of the
+      equality or superiority of their titles to those of their husbands or
+      sons.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The last date known is that of the year XXII. at T�rah;
+     Manetho&rsquo;s lists give, in one place, twenty-five years and
+     four months after the expulsion; in another, twenty-six
+     years in round numbers, as the total duration of his reign,
+     which has every appearance of probability.
+
+     ** There is no direct evidence to prove that Amen�thes I.
+     was a minor when he came to the throne; still the
+     presumptions in favour of this hypothesis, afforded by the
+     monuments, are so strong that many historians of ancient
+     Egypt have accepted it. Queen Nofr�tari is represented as
+     reigning, side by side with her reigning son, on some few
+     Theban tombs which can be attributed to their epoch.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0042" id="linkimage-0042">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/136.jpg"
+       alt="136.jpg Nofritari, Hie Black-skinned Goddess " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Bouclier, from the
+photograph by M. de Mertens
+taken in the Berlin Museum.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The aged Ahhotpu, who, like Nofr�tari, was of pure royal descent, and who
+      might well have urged her superior rank, had been content to retire in
+      favour of her children; she lived to the tenth year of her grandson&rsquo;s
+      reign, respected by all her family, but abstaining from all interference
+      in political affairs. When at length she passed away, full of days and
+      honour, she was embalmed with special care, and her body was placed in a
+      gilded mummy-case, the head of which presented a faithful copy of her
+      features. Beside her were piled the jewels she had received in her
+      lifetime from her husband and son. The majority of them a fan with a
+      handle plated with gold, a mirror of gilt bronze with ebony handle,
+      bracelets and ankle-rings, some of solid and some of hollow gold, edged
+      with fine chains of plaited gold wire, others formed of beads of gold,
+      lapis-lazuli, cornelian, and green felspar, many of them engraved with the
+      cartouche of Ahmosis. Belonging also to Ahmosis we have a beautiful
+      quiver, in which figures of the king and the gods stand out in high relief
+      on a gold plaque, delicately chased with a graving tool; the background is
+      formed of small pieces of lapis and blue glass, cunningly cut to fit each
+      other. One bracelet in particular, found on the queen&rsquo;s wrist, consisted
+      of three parallel bands of solid gold set with turquoises, and having, a
+      vulture with extended wings on the front. The queen&rsquo;s hair was held in
+      place by a gold circlet, scarcely as large as a bracelet; a cartouche was
+      affixed to the circlet, bearing the name of Ahmosis in blue paste, and
+      flanked by small sphinxes, one on each side, as supporters. A thick
+      flexible chain of gold was passed several times round her neck, and
+      attached to it as a pendant was a beautiful scarab, partly of gold and
+      partly of blue porcelain striped with gold. The breast ornament was
+      completed by a necklace of several rows of twisted cords, from which
+      depended antelopes pursued by tigers, sitting jackals, hawks, vultures,
+      and the winged urasus, all attached to the winding-sheet by means of a
+      small ring soldered on the back of each animal. The fastening of this
+      necklace was formed of the heads of two gold hawks, the details of the
+      heads being worked out in blue enamel. Both weapons and amulets were found
+      among the jewels, including three gold flies suspended by a thin chain,
+      nine gold and silver axes, a lion&rsquo;s head in gold of most minute
+      workmanship, a sceptre of black wood plated with gold, daggers to defend
+      the deceased from the dangers of the unseen world, boomerangs of hard
+      wood, and the battle-axe of Ahmosis. Besides these, there were two boats,
+      one of gold and one of silver, originally intended for the Pharaoh Kamos�&mdash;models
+      of the skiff in which his mummy crossed the Nile to reach its last
+      resting-place, and to sail in the wake of the gods on the western sea.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0043" id="linkimage-0043">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/137.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="137.jpg the Jewels and Weapons of Queen �hhhotp� I. In The G�zeh Museum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Bechard.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nofr�tari thus reigned conjointly with Amen�thes, and even if we have no
+      record of any act in which she was specially concerned, we know at least
+      that her rule was a prosperous one, and that her memory was revered by her
+      subjects. While the majority of queens were relegated after death to the
+      crowd of shadowy ancestors to whom habitual sacrifice was offered, the
+      worshippers not knowing even to which sex these royal personages belonged,
+      the remembrance of Nofr�tari always remained distinct in their minds, and
+      her cult spread till it might be said to have become a kind of popular
+      religion. In this veneration Ahmosis was rarely associated with the queen,
+      but Amen�thes and several of her other children shared in it&mdash;her son
+      Sipiri, for instance, and her daughters S�tamon,* S�tkamosi, and
+      Mar�tamon; Nofr�tari became, in fact, an actual goddess, taking her place
+      beside Amon, Khons�, and Maut,** the members of the Theban Triad, or
+      standing alone as an object of worship for her devotees.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * S�tamon is mentioned, with her mother, on the Karnak stele
+     and on the coffin of B�tehamon.
+
+     ** She is worshipped with the Theban Triad by Brihor, at
+     Karnak, in the temple of Khons�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0044" id="linkimage-0044">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/141.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="141.jpg the Two Coffins of Ahhotp Ii. And Nofritari Standing in Tub Vestibule of the Old B�lak Museum. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      She was identified with Isis, Hathor, and the mistresses of Hades, and
+      adopted their attributes, even to the black or blue coloured skin of these
+      funerary divinities.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Her statue in the Turin Museum represents her as having
+     black skin. She is also painted black standing before
+     Amen�thes (who is white) in the Deir el-Medineh tomb, now
+     preserved in the Berlin Museum, in that of Nibn�t�r�, and hi
+     that of Unnofir, at Sheikh Abd el-Q�rnah. Her face is
+     painted blue in the tomb of Kasa. The representations of
+     this queen with a black skin have caused her to be taken for
+     a negress, the daughter of an Ethiopian Pharaoh, or at any
+     rate the daughter of a chief of some Nubian tribe; it was
+     thought that Ahmosis must have married her to secure the
+     help of the negro tribes in his wars, and that it was owing
+     to this alliance that he succeeded in expelling the Hyks�s.
+     Later discoveries have not confirmed these hypotheses.
+     Nofr�tari was most probably an Egyptian of unmixed race, as
+     we have seen, and daughter of Ahhotp� I., and the black or
+     blue colour of her skin is merely owing to her
+     identification with the goddesses of the dead.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Considerable endowments were given for maintaining worship at her tomb,
+      and were administered by a special class of priests. Her mummy reposed
+      among those of the princes of her family, in the hiding-place at
+      De�r-el-Bahar�: it was enclosed in an enormous wooden sarcophagus covered
+      with linen and stucco, the lower part being shaped to the body, while the
+      upper part representing the head and arms could be lifted off in one
+      piece. The shoulders are covered with a network in relief, the meshes of
+      which are painted blue on a yellow background. The Queen&rsquo;s hands are
+      crossed over her breast, and clasp the <i>crux ansata</i>, the symbol of
+      life. The whole mummy-case measures a little over nine feet from the sole
+      of the feet to the top of the head, which is furthermore surmounted by a
+      cap, and two long ostrich-feathers. The appearance is not so much that of
+      a coffin as of one of those enormous caryatides which we sometimes find
+      adorning the front of a temple.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We may perhaps attribute to the influence of Nofr�tari the lack of zest
+      evinced by Amen�thes for expeditions into Syria. Even the most energetic
+      kings had always shrunk from penetrating much beyond the isthmus. Those
+      who ventured so far as to work the mines of Sinai had nevertheless felt a
+      secret fear of invading Asia proper&mdash;a dread which they never
+      succeeded in overcoming. When the raids of the Bedouin obliged the
+      Egyptian sovereign to cross the frontier into their territory, he would
+      retire as soon as possible, without attempting any permanent conquest.
+      After the expulsion of the Hyks�s, Ahmosis seemed inclined to pursue a
+      less timorous course. He made an advance on Shar�hana and pillaged it, and
+      the booty he brought back ought to have encouraged him to attempt more
+      important expeditions; but he never returned to this region, and it would
+      seem that when his first enthusiasm had subsided, he was paralysed by the
+      same fear which had fallen on his ancestors. Nofr�tari may have counselled
+      her son not to break through the traditions which his father had so
+      strictly followed, for Amen�thes I. confined his campaigns to Africa, and
+      the traditional battle-fields there. He embarked for the land of K�sh on
+      the vessel of Ahmosi-si-Ab�na &ldquo;for the purpose of enlarging the frontiers
+      of Egypt.&rdquo; It was, we may believe, a thoroughly conventional campaign,
+      conducted according to the strictest precedents of the XIIth dynasty. The
+      Pharaoh, as might be expected, came into personal contact with the enemy,
+      and slew their chief with his own hand; the barbarian warriors sold their
+      lives dearly, but were unable to protect their country from pillage, the
+      victors carrying off whatever they could seize&mdash;men, women, and
+      cattle. The pursuit of the enemy had led the army some distance into the
+      desert, as far as a halting-place called the &ldquo;Upper cistern&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Khn�m�t
+      hir�t</i>; instead of retracing his steps to the Nile squadron, and
+      returning slowly by boat, Amen�thes resolved to take a short cut
+      homewards. Ahmosi conducted him back overland in two days, and was
+      rewarded for his speed by the gift of a quantity of gold, and two female
+      slaves. An incursion into Libya followed quickly on the Ethiopian
+      campaign.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0045" id="linkimage-0045">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/144.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="144.jpg Statue of Amen�thes I. In the Turin Museum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph supplied by Flinders
+     P�trie.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The tribe of the Kihaka, settled between Lake Mareotis and the Oasis of
+      Amon, had probably attacked in an audacious manner the western provinces
+      of the Delta; a raid was organized against them, and the issue was
+      commemorated by a small wooden stele, on which we see the victor
+      represented as brandishing his sword over a barbarian lying prostrate at
+      his feet. The exploits of Amen�thes appear to have ended with this raid,
+      for we possess no monument recording any further victory gained by him.
+      This, however, has not prevented his contemporaries from celebrating him
+      as a conquering and &lsquo;victorious king. He is portrayed standing erect in
+      his chariot ready to charge, or as carrying off two barbarians whom he
+      holds half suffocated in his sinewy arms, or as gleefully smiting the
+      princes of foreign lands. He acquitted himself of the duties of the chase
+      as became a true Pharaoh, for we find him depicted in the act of seizing a
+      lion by the tail and raising him suddenly in mid-air previous to
+      despatching him. These are, indeed, but conventional pictures of war, to
+      which we must not attach an undue importance. Egypt had need of repose in
+      order to recover from the losses it had sustained during the years of
+      struggle with the invaders. If Amen�thes courted peace from preference and
+      not from political motives, his own generation profited as much by his
+      indolence as the preceding one had gained by the energy of Ahrnosis. The
+      towns in his reign resumed their ordinary life, agriculture flourished,
+      and commerce again followed its accustomed routes. Egypt increased its
+      resources, and was thus able to prepare for future conquest. The taste for
+      building had not as yet sufficiently developed to become a drain upon the
+      public treasury. We have, however, records showing that Amen�thes
+      excavated a cavern in the mountain of Ibr�m in Nubia, dedicated to Sat�t,
+      one of the goddesses of the cataract.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0046" id="linkimage-0046">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/146.jpg" width="100%" alt="146.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is also stated that he worked regularly the quarries of Silsileh, but
+      we do not know for what buildings the sandstone thus extracted was
+      destined.* Karnak was also adorned with chapels, and with at least one
+      colossus,** while several chambers built of the white limestone of T�rah
+      were added to Ombos. Thebes had thus every reason to cherish the memory of
+      this pacific king.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A bas-relief on the western bank of the river represents
+     him deified: Pana�ti, the name of a superintendent of the
+     quarries who lived in his reign, has been preserved in
+     several graffiti, while another graffito gives us only the
+     protocol of the sovereign, and indicates that the quarries
+     were worked in his reign.
+
+     ** The chambers of white limestone are marked I, K, on
+     Mariette&rsquo;s plan; it is possible that they may have been
+     merely decorated under Th�tmosis III., whose cartouches
+     alternate with those of Amen�thes I. The colossus is now in
+     front of the third Pylon, and Wiedemann concluded from this
+     fact that Amen�thes had begun extensive works for enlarging
+     the temple of Amon; Mariette believed, with greater
+     probability, that the colossus formerly stood at the
+     entrance to the XIIth dynasty temple, but was removed to its
+     present position by Th�tmosis III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As Nofr�tari had been metamorphosed into a form of Isis, Amen�thes was
+      similarly represented as Osiris, the protector of the Necropolis, and he
+      was depicted as such with the sombre colour of the funerary divinities;
+      his image, moreover, together with those of the other gods, was used to
+      decorate the interiors of coffins, and to protect the mummies of his
+      devotees.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Wiedemann has collected several examples, to which it
+     would be easy to add others. The names of the king are in
+     this case constantly accompanied by unusual epithets, which
+     are enclosed in one or other of his cartouches: Mons.
+     Kevillout, deceived by these unfamiliar forms, has made out
+     of one of these variants, on a painted cloth in the Louvre,
+     a new Amen�thes, whom he styles Amen�thes V.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0047" id="linkimage-0047">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/147.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="147.jpg the Coffin and Mummy of Amenothes " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One of his statues, now in the Turin Museum, represents him sitting on his
+      throne in the posture of a king giving audience to his subjects, or in
+      that of a god receiving the homage of his worshippers. The modelling of
+      the bust betrays a flexibility of handling which is astonishing in a work
+      of art so little removed from barbaric times; the head is a marvel of
+      delicacy and natural grace. We feel that the sculptor has taken a delight
+      in chiselling the features of his sovereign, and in reproducing the
+      benevolent and almost dreamy expression which characterised them.* The
+      cult of Amen�thes lasted for seven or eight centuries, until the time when
+      his coffin was removed and placed with those of the other members of his
+      family in the place where it remained concealed until our own times.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Another statue of very fine workmanship, but mutilated, is
+     preserved in the Gizeh Museum; this statue is of the time of
+     Seti I., and, as is customary, represents Amen�thes in the
+     likeness of the king then reigning.
+
+     ** We know, from the Abbott Papyrus, that the pyramid of
+     Amen�thes I. was situated at Dr-ah Abou&rsquo;l-Neggah, among
+     those of the Pharaohs of the XIth, XIIth, and XVIIth
+     dynasties. The remains of it have not yet been discovered.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is shaped to correspond with the form of the human body and painted
+      white; the face resembles that of his statue, and the eyes of enamel,
+      touched with kohl, give it a wonderful appearance of animation. The body
+      is swathed in orange-coloured linen, kept in place by bands of brownish
+      linen, and is further covered by a mask of wood and cartonnage, painted to
+      match the exterior of the coffin. Long garlands of faded flowers deck the
+      mummy from head to foot. A wasp, attracted by their scent, must have
+      settled upon them at the moment of burial, and become imprisoned by the
+      lid; the insect has been completely preserved from corruption by the
+      balsams of the embalmer, and its gauzy wings have passed un-crumpled
+      through the long centuries.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Amen�thes had married Ahhotp� II, his sister by the same father and
+      mother;* Ahmasi, the daughter born of this union, was given in marriage to
+      Th�tmosis, one of her brothers, the son of a mere concubine, by name
+      Sonisonb�.** Ahmasi, like her ancestor Nofr�tari, had therefore the right
+      to exercise all the royal functions, and she might have claimed precedence
+      of her husband. Whether from conjugal affection or from weakness of
+      character, she yielded, however, the priority to Th�tmosis, and allowed
+      him to assume the sole government.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ahhotp� II. may be seen beside her husband on several
+     monuments. The proof that she was full sister of Amen�thes
+     I. is furnished by the title of &ldquo;hereditary princess&rdquo; which
+     is given to her daughter �hmasi; this princess would not
+     have taken precedence of her brother and husband Th�tmosis,
+     who was the son of an inferior wife, had she not been the
+     daughter of the only legitimate spouse of Amen�thes I. The
+     marriage had already taken place before the accession of
+     Th�tmosis I., as Ahmasi figures in a document dated the
+     first year of his reign.
+
+     ** The absence of any cartouche shows that Sonisonb� did not
+     belong to the royal family, and the very form of the name
+     points her out to have been of the middle classes, and
+     merely a concubine. The accession of her son, however,
+     ennobled her, and he represents her as a queen on the walls
+     of the temple at De�r el-Bahar�; even then he merely styles
+     her &ldquo;Royal Mother,&rdquo; the only title she could really claim,
+     as her inferior position in the harem prevented her from
+     using that of &ldquo;Royal Spouse.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0048" id="linkimage-0048">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/150.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="150.jpg Th�tmosis I., from a Statue in the G�zeh Museum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the photograph taken by �mil
+     Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was crowned at Thebes on the 21st of the third month of Pir�t; and a
+      circular, addressed to the representatives of the ancient seignorial
+      families and to the officers of the crown, announced the names assumed by
+      the new sovereign. &ldquo;This is the royal rescript to announce to you that my
+      Majesty has arisen king of the two Egypts, on the seat of the Horus of the
+      living, without equal, for ever, and that my titles are as follows: The
+      vigorous bull Horus, beloved of M��t, the Lord of the Vulture and of the
+      Uraeus who raises itself as a flame, most valiant,&mdash;the golden Horns,
+      whose years are good and who puts life into all hearts, king of the two
+      Egypts, Akhopirker�, son of the Sun, Th�tmosis, living for ever.* Cause,
+      therefore, sacrifices to be offered to the gods of the south and of
+      Elephantine,** and hymns to be chanted for the well-being of the King
+      Akhopirker�, living for ever, and then cause the oath to be taken in the
+      name of my Majesty, born of the royal mother Sonisonb�, who is in good
+      health.&mdash;This is sent to thee that thou mayest know that the royal
+      house is prosperous, and in good health and condition, the 1st year, the
+      21st of the third month of Pir�t, the day of coronation.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is really the protocol of the king, as we find it on
+     the monuments, with his two Horus names and his solar
+     titles.
+
+     ** The copy of the letter which has come down to us is
+     addressed to the commander of Elephantine: hence the mention
+     of the gods of that town. The names of the divinities must
+     have been altered to suit each district, to which the order
+     to offer sacrifices for the prosperity of the new sovereign
+     was sent.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The new king was tall in stature, broad-shouldered, well knit, and capable
+      of enduring the fatigues of war without flagging. His statues represent
+      him as having a full, round face, long nose, square chin, rather thick
+      lips, and a smiling but firm expression. Th�tmosis brought with him on
+      ascending the throne the spirit of the younger generation, who, born
+      shortly after the deliverance from the Hyks�s, had grown up in the
+      peaceful days of Amen�thes, and, elated by the easy victories obtained
+      over the nations of the south, were inspired by ambitions unknown to the
+      Egyptians of earlier times. To this younger race Africa no longer offered
+      a sufficiently wide or attractive field; the whole country was their own
+      as far as the confluence of the two Niles, and the Theban gods were
+      worshipped at Napata no less devoutly than at Thebes itself. What remained
+      to be conquered in that direction was scarcely worth the trouble of
+      reducing to a province or of annexing as a colony; it comprised a number
+      of tribes hopelessly divided among themselves, and consequently, in spite
+      of their renowned bravery, without power of resistance. Light columns of
+      troops, drafted at intervals on either side of the river, ensured order
+      among the submissive, or despoiled the refractory of their possessions in
+      cattle, slaves, and precious stones. Th�tmosis I. had to repress, however,
+      very shortly after his accession, a revolt of these borderers at the
+      second and third cataracts, but they were easily overcome in a campaign of
+      a few days&rsquo; duration, in which the two �hmosis of Al-Kab took an
+      honourable part. There was, as usual, an encounter of the two fleets in
+      the middle of the river: the young king himself attacked the enemy&rsquo;s
+      chief, pierced him with his first arrow, and made a considerable number of
+      prisoners. Th�tmosis had the corpse of the chief suspended as a trophy in
+      front of the royal ship, and sailed northwards towards Thebes, where,
+      however, he was not destined to remain long.* An ample field of action
+      presented itself to him in the north-east, affording scope for great
+      exploits, as profitable as they were glorious.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * That this expedition must be placed at the beginning of
+     the king&rsquo;s reign, in his first year, is shown by two facts:
+     (1) It precedes the Syrian campaign in the biography of the
+     two �hmosis of El-Kab; (2) the Syrian campaign must have
+     ended in the second year of the reign, since Th�tmosis I.,
+     on the stele of Tombos which bears that date, gives
+     particulars of the course of the Euphrates, and records the
+     submission of the countries watered by that river. The date
+     of the invasion may be placed between 2300 and 2250 B.C.; if
+     we count 661 years for the three dynasties together, as
+     Erman proposes, we find that the accession of Ahmosis would
+     fall between 1640 and 1590. I should place it provisionally
+     in the year 1600, in order not to leave the position of the
+     succeeding reigns uncertain; I estimate the possible error
+     at about half a century.
+
+     ** It is impossible at present to draw up a correct table of
+     the native or foreign sovereigns who reigned over Egypt
+     during the time of the Hyks�s. I have given the list of the
+     kings of the XIIIth and XIVth dynasties which are known to
+     us from the Turin Papyrus. I here append that of the
+     Pharaohs of the following dynasties, who are mentioned
+     either in the fragments of Manetho or on the monuments:
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0049" id="linkimage-0049">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/153.jpg" width="100%" alt="153.jpg Table " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Syria offered to Egyptian cupidity a virgin prey in its large commercial
+      towns inhabited by an industrious population, who by maritime trade and
+      caravan traffic had amassed enormous wealth. The country had been
+      previously subdued by the Chald�ans, who still exercised an undisputed
+      influence over it, and it was but natural that the conquerors of the
+      Hyks�s should act in their turn as invaders. The incursion of Asiatics
+      into Egypt thus provoked a reaction which issued in an Egyptian invasion
+      of Asiatic soil. Th�tmosis and his contemporaries had inherited none of
+      the instinctive fear of penetrating into Syria which influenced Ahmosis
+      and his successor: the Theban legions were, perhaps, slow to advance, but
+      once they had trodden the roads of Palestine, they were not likely to
+      forego the delights of conquest. From that time forward there was
+      perpetual warfare and pillaging expeditions from the plains of the Blue
+      Nile to those of the Euphrates, so that scarcely a year passed without
+      bringing to the city of Amon its tribute of victories and riches gained at
+      the point of the sword. One day the news would be brought that the
+      Amorites or the Kh�ti had taken the field, to be immediately followed by
+      the announcement that their forces had been shattered against the valour
+      of the Egyptian battalions. Another day, Pharaoh would re-enter the city
+      with the flower of his generals and veterans; the chiefs whom he had taken
+      prisoners, sometimes with his own hand, would be conducted through the
+      streets, and then led to die at the foot of the altars, while fantastic
+      processions of richly clothed captives, beasts led by halters, and slaves
+      bending under the weight of the spoil would stretch in an endless line
+      behind him.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0050" id="linkimage-0050">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/155.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="155.jpg Signs, Arms and Instruments " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile the Timih�, roused by some unknown cause, would attack the
+      outposts stationed on the frontier, or news would come that the Peoples of
+      the Sea had landed on the western side of the Delta; the Pharaoh had again
+      to take the field, invariably with the same speedy and successful issue.
+      The Libyans seemed to fare no better than the Syrians, and before long
+      those who had survived the defeat would be paraded before the Theban
+      citizens, previous to being sent to join the Asiatic prisoners in the
+      mines or quarries; their blue eyes and fair hair showing from beneath
+      strangely shaped helmets, while their white skins, tall stature, and
+      tattooed bodies excited for a few hours the interest and mirth of the idle
+      crowd. At another time, one of the customary raids into the land of K�sh
+      would take place, consisting of a rapid march across the sands of the
+      Ethiopian desert and a cruise along the coasts of P�an�fc. This would be
+      followed by another triumphal procession, in which fresh elements of
+      interest would appear, heralded by flourish of trumpets and roll of drums:
+      Pharaoh would re-enter the city borne on the shoulders of his officers,
+      followed by negroes heavily chained, or coupled in such a way that it was
+      impossible for them to move without grotesque contortions, while the
+      acclamations of the multitude and the chanting of the priests would
+      resound from all sides as the <i>cortege</i> passed through the city gates
+      on its way to the temple of Amon. Egypt, roused as it were to warlike
+      frenzy, hurled her armies across all her frontiers simultaneously, and her
+      sudden appearance in the heart of Syria gave a new turn to human history.
+      The isolation of the kingdoms of the ancient world was at an end; the
+      conflict of the nations was about to begin.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="156 (20K)" src="images/156.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <br /> <i>SYRIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EGYPTIAN CONQUEST</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>NINEVEH AND THE FIRST COSS�AN KINGS-THE PEOPLES OF SYRIA, THEIR TOWNS,
+      THEIR CIVILIZATION, THEIR RELIGION-PHOENICIA.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The dynasty of Uruazagga-The Cossseans: their country, their gods,
+      their conquest of Chald�a-The first sovereigns of Assyria, and the first
+      Coss�an Icings: Agumhakrim�.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The Egyptian names for Syria: Khar�, Zahi, Lotan�, Kef�tiu-The military
+      highway from the Nile to the Euphrates: first section from Zalu to
+      Gaza-The Canaanites: their fortresses, their agricultural character: the
+      forest between Jaffa and Mount Carmel, Megiddo-The three routes beyond
+      Megiddo: Qodshu-Alasia, Naharaim, Garchemish; Mitanni and the countries
+      beyond the Euphrates.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Disintegration of the Syrian, Canaanite, Amorite, and Khdti
+      populations; obliteration of types-Influence of Babylon on costumes,
+      customs, and religion&mdash;Baalim and Astarte, plant-gods and
+      stone-gods-Religion, human sacrifices, festivals; sacred stones&mdash;Tombs
+      and the fate of man after death-Phoenician cosmogony.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Phoenicia&mdash;Arad, Marathus, Simyra, Botrys&mdash;Byblos, its
+      temple, its goddess, the myth of Adonis: Aphaka and the valley of the
+      Nahr-Ibrahim, the festivals of the death and resurrection of Adonis&mdash;Berytus
+      and its god El; Sidon and its suburbs&mdash;Tyre: its foundation, its
+      gods, its necropolis, its domain in the Lebanon.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Isolation of the Phoenicians with regard to the other nations of Syria;
+      their love of the sea and the causes which developed it&mdash;Legendary
+      accounts of the beginning of their colonization&mdash;Their commercial
+      proceedings, their banks and factories; their ships&mdash;Cyprus, its
+      wealth, its occupations&mdash;The Phoenician colonies in Asia Minor and
+      the �gean Sea: purple dye&mdash;The nations of the �gean.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="157 (134K)" src="images/157.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0005" id="linkBimage-0005">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/158.jpg" width="100%" alt="158.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkB2HCH0001" id="linkB2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="159 (211K)" src="images/159.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER II&mdash;SYRIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EGYPTIAN CONQUEST
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      Nineveh and the first Coss�an kings&mdash;The peoples of Syria, their
+      towns, their civilization, their religion&mdash;Phoenicia.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The world beyond the Arabian desert presented to the eyes of the
+      enterprising Pharaohs an active and bustling scene. Babylonian
+      civilization still maintained its hold there without a rival, but
+      Babylonian rule had ceased to exercise any longer a direct control, having
+      probably disappeared with the sovereigns who had introduced it. When
+      Ammisatana died, about the year 2099, the line of Khammurabi became
+      extinct, and a family from the Sea-lands came into power.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The origin of this second dynasty and the reading of its
+     name still afford matter for discussion. Amid the many
+     conflicting opinions, it behoves us to remember that
+     Gulkishar, the only prince of this dynasty whose title we
+     possess, calls himself <i>King of the Country of the Sea</i>,
+     that is to say, of the marshy country at the mouth of the
+     Euphrates: this simple fact directs us to seek the cradle of
+     the family in those districts of Southern Chald�a. Sayce
+     rejects this identification on philological and
+     chronological grounds, and sees in Gulkishar, &ldquo;King of the
+     Sea-lands,&rdquo; a vassal Kald� prince.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This unexpected revolution of affairs did not by any means restore to the
+      cities of Lower Chald�a the supreme authority which they once possessed.
+      Babylon had made such good use of its centuries of rule that it had gained
+      upon its rivals, and was not likely now to fall back into a secondary
+      place. Henceforward, no matter what dynasty came into power, as soon as
+      the fortune of war had placed it upon the throne, Babylon succeeded in
+      adopting it, and at once made it its own. The new lord of the country,
+      Iluma�lu, having abandoned his patrimonial inheritance, came to reside
+      near to Merodach.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name has been read An-ma-an or Anman by Pinches,
+     subsequently Iluma�lu, Mailu, finally Anuma�lu and perhaps
+     Huma�lu. The true reading of it is still unknown. Hommel
+     believed he had discovered in Hilprecht&rsquo;s book an
+     inscription belonging to the reign of this prince; but
+     Hilprecht has shown that it belonged to a king of Erech,
+     An-a-an, anterior to the time of An-ma-an.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was followed during the four next centuries by a dynasty of ten
+      princes, in uninterrupted succession. Their rule was introduced and
+      maintained without serious opposition. The small principalities of the
+      south were theirs by right, and the only town which might have caused them
+      any trouble&mdash;Assur&mdash;was dependent on them, being satisfied with
+      the title of vicegerents for its princes,&mdash;Khallu, Irishum, Ismidagan
+      and his son Sarnsiramman I., Igurkapkapu and his son Sarnsiramman II.* As
+      to the course of events beyond the Khabur, and any efforts Iluma�lu&rsquo;s
+      descendants may have made to establish their authority in the direction of
+      the Mediterranean, we have no inscriptions to inform us, and must be
+      content to remain in ignorance. The last two of these princes,
+      Melamkurkurra and E�gam�l, were not connected with each other, and had no
+      direct relationship with their predecessors.** The shortness of their
+      reigns presents a striking contrast with the length of those preceding
+      them, and probably indicates a period of war or revolution. When these
+      princes disappeared, we know not how or why, about the year 1714 B.C.,
+      they were succeeded by a king of foreign extraction; and one of the
+      semi-barbarous race of Kashshu ascended the throne which had been occupied
+      since the days of Khammurabi by Chald�ans of ancient stock.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Inscription of Irishum, son of Khallu, on a brick found at
+     Kalah-Shergat, and an inscription of Sarnsiramman II., son
+     of Igurkapkapu, on another brick from the same place.
+     Sarnsiramman I. and his father Ismidagan are mentioned in
+     the great inscription of Tiglath-pileser II., as having
+     lived 641 years before King Assurd�n, who himself had
+     preceded Tiglath-pileser by sixty years: they thus reigned
+     between 1900 and 1800 years before our era, according to
+     tradition, whose authenticity we have no other means of
+     verifying.
+
+     ** The name of the last is read E�gam�l, for want of
+     anything better: Oppert makes it E�g�, simply transcribing
+     the signs; and Hilprecht, who took up the question again
+     after him, has no reading to propose.
+
+     *** I give here the list of the kings of the second dynasty,
+     from the documents discovered by Pinches: No monument
+     remains of any of these princes, and even the reading of
+     their names is merely provisional: those placed between
+     brackets represent Delitzsch&rsquo;s readings. A Gulkishar is
+     mentioned in an inscription of Belnadiuabal; but Jensen is
+     doubtful if the Gulkishar mentioned in this place is
+     identical with the one in the lists.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0006" id="linkBimage-0006">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/162-table.jpg" width="100%" alt="Table " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These Kashshu, who spring up suddenly out of obscurity, had from the
+      earliest times inhabited the mountainous districts of Zagros, on the
+      confines of Elymai&rsquo;s and Media, where the Coss�ans of the classical
+      historians flourished in the time of Alexander.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      * The Kashshu are identified with the Coss�ans by Sayce, by Schrader, by
+      Fr. Delitzsch, by Hal�vy, by Tiele, by Hommel, and by Jensen. Oppert
+      maintains that they answer to the Kissians of Herodotus, that is to say,
+      to the inhabitants of the district of which Susa is the capital. Lehmann
+      supports this opinion. Winckler gives none, and several Assyriologists
+      incline to that of Kiepert, according to which the Kissians are identical
+      with the Coss�ans.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was a rugged and unattractive country, protected by nature and easy to
+      defend, made up as it was of narrow tortuous valleys, of plains of
+      moderate extent but of rare fertility, of mountain chains whose grim sides
+      were covered with forests, and whose peaks were snow-crowned during half
+      the year, and of rivers, or, more correctly speaking, torrents, for the
+      rains and the melting of the snow rendered them impassable in spring and
+      autumn. The entrance to this region was by two or three well-fortified
+      passes: if an enemy were unwilling to incur the loss of time and men
+      needed to carry these by main force, he had to make a detour by narrow
+      goat-tracks, along which the assailants were obliged to advance in single
+      file, as best they could, exposed to the assaults of a foe concealed among
+      the rocks and trees. The tribes who were entrenched behind this natural
+      rampart made frequent and unexpected raids upon the marshy meadows and fat
+      pastures of Chald�a: they dashed through the country, pillaging and
+      burning all that came in their way, and then, quickly regaining their
+      hiding-places, were able to place their booty in safety before the
+      frontier garrisons had recovered from the first alarm.* These tribes were
+      governed by numerous chiefs acknowledging a single king&mdash;<i>ianzi</i>&mdash;whose
+      will was supreme over nearly the whole country:** some of them had a
+      slight veneer of Chald�an civilization, while among the rest almost every
+      stage of barbarism might be found. The remains of their language show that
+      it was remotely allied to the dialect of Susa, and contained many Semitic
+      words.*** What is recorded of their religion reaches us merely at second
+      hand, and the groundwork of it has doubtless been modified by the
+      Babylonian scribes who have transmitted it to us.****
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It was thus in the time of Alexander and his successors,
+     and the information given by the classical historians about
+     this period is equally applicable to earlier times, as we
+     may conclude from the numerous passages from Assyrian
+     inscriptions which have been collected by Fr. Delitzsch.
+
+     ** Delitzsch conjectures that <i>Ianzi</i>, or <i>Ianzu</i>, had
+     become a kind of proper name, analogous to the term
+     <i>Pharaoh</i> employed by the Egyptians.
+
+     *** A certain number of Coss�an words has been preserved and
+     translated, some in one of the royal Babylonian lists, and
+     some on a tablet in the British Museum, discovered and
+     interpreted by Fr. Delitzsch. Several Assyriologists think
+     that they showed a marked affinity with the idiom of the
+     Susa inscriptions, and with that of the Ach�menian
+     inscriptions of the second type; others deny the proposed
+     connection, or suggest that the Coss�an language was a
+     Semitic dialect, related to the Chald�o-Assyrian. Oppert,
+     who was the first to point out the existence of this
+     dialect, thirty years ago, believed it to be the Elamite; he
+     still persists in his opinion, and has published several
+     notes in defence of it.
+
+     **** It has been studied by Pr. Delitzsch, who insists on
+     the influence which daily intercourse with the Chald�ans had
+     on it after the conquest; Hal�vy, in most of the names of
+     the gods given as Coss�an, sees merely the names of Chald�an
+     divinities slightly disguised in the writing.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They worshipped twelve great gods, of whom the chief&mdash;Kashshu, the
+      lord of heaven-gave his name to the principal tribe, and possibly to the
+      whole race:* Sh�malia, queen of the snowy heights, was enthroned beside
+      him,** and the divinities next in order were, as in the cities of the
+      Euphrates, the Moon, the Sun (Sakh or Shuriash), the air or the tempest
+      (Ubriash), and Khudkha.*** Then followed the stellar deities or secondary
+      incarnations of the sun,&mdash;Mirizir, who represented both Istar and
+      Beltis; and Khala, answering to Gula.****
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The existence of Kashshu is proved by the name of
+     Kashshunadinakh�: Ashshur also bore a name identical with
+     that of his worshippers.
+
+     ** She is mentioned in a rescript of Nebuchadrezzar I., at
+     the head of the gods of Namar, that is to say, the Coss�an
+     deities, as &ldquo;the lady of the shining mountains, the
+     inhabitants of the summits, the frequenter of peaks.&rdquo; She is
+     called Shimalia in Rawlinson, but Delitzsch has restored her
+     name which was slightly mutilated; one of her statues was
+     taken by Samsiramm�n III., King of Assyria, in one of that
+     sovereign&rsquo;s campaigns against Chald�a.
+
+     *** All these identifications are furnished by the glossary
+     of Delitzsch. Ubriash, under the form of Buriash, is met
+     with in a large number of proper names, Burnaburiash,
+     Shagashaltiburiash, Ulamburiash, Kadashmanburiash, where the
+     Assyrian scribe translates it <i>Bel-mat�ti</i>, lord of the
+     world: Buriash is, therefore, an epithet of the god who was
+     called Ramm�n in Chald�a. The name of the moon-god is
+     mutilated, and only the initial syllable Shi... remains,
+     followed by an indistinct sign: it has not yet been
+     restored.
+
+     **** Hal�vy considers Khala, or Khali, as a harsh form of
+     Gula: if this is the case, the Coss�ans must have borrowed
+     the name, and perhaps the goddess herself, from their
+     Chald�an neighbours.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Chald�an Ninip corresponded both to Gidar and Maruttash, Bel to Kharbe
+      and Turgu, Merodach to Shipak, Nergal to Shugab.* The Coss�an kings,
+      already enriched by the spoils of their neighbours, and supported by a
+      warlike youth, eager to enlist under their banner at the first call,**
+      must have been often tempted to quit their barren domains and to swoop
+      down on the rich country which lay at their feet. We are ignorant of the
+      course of events which, towards the close of the XVIIIth century B.C., led
+      to their gaining possession of it. The Coss�an king who seized on Babylon
+      was named Gandish, and the few inscriptions we possess of his reign are
+      cut with a clumsiness that betrays the barbarism of the conqueror. They
+      cover the pivot stones on which Sargon of Agad� or one of the Bursins had
+      hung the doors of the temple of Nippur, but which Gandish dedicated afresh
+      in order to win for himself, in the eyes of posterity, the credit of the
+      work of these sovereigns.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Hilprecht has established the identity of Turgu with Bel
+     of Nippur.
+
+     ** Strabo relates, from some forgotten historian of
+     Alexander, that the Coss�ans &ldquo;had formerly been able to
+     place as many as thirteen thousand archers in line, in the
+     wars which they waged with the help of the Elym�ans against
+     the inhabitants of Susa and Babylon.&rdquo;
+
+     *** The full name of this king, Gandish or Gandash, which is
+     furnished by the royal lists, is written Gaddash on a
+     monument in the British Museum discovered by Pinches, whose
+     conclusions have been erroneously denied by Winckler. A
+     process of abbreviation, of which there are examples in the
+     names of other kings of the same dynasty, reduced the name
+     to Gand� in the current language.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Bel found favour in the eyes of the Coss�ans who saw in him Kharb� or
+      Turgu, the recognised patron of their royal family: for this reason
+      Gandish and his successors regarded Bel with peculiar devotion. These
+      kings did all they could for the decoration and endowment of the ancient
+      temple of Ekur, which had been somewhat neglected by the sovereigns of
+      purely Babylonian extraction, and this devotion to one of the most
+      venerated Chald�an sanctuaries contributed largely towards their winning
+      the hearts of the conquered people.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Hilpreoht calls attention on this point to the fact that
+     no one has yet discovered at Nippur a single ex-voto
+     consecrated by any king of the two first Babylonian
+     dynasties.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Coss�an rule over the countries of the Euphrates was doubtless similar
+      in its beginnings to that which the Hyks�s exercised at first over the
+      nomes of Egypt. The Coss�an kings did not merely bring with them an army
+      to protect their persons, or to occupy a small number of important posts;
+      they were followed by the whole nation, and spread themselves over the
+      entire country. The bulk of the invaders instinctively betook themselves
+      to districts where, if they could not resume the kind of life to which
+      they were accustomed in their own land, they could, at least give full
+      rein to their love of a free and wild existence. As there were no
+      mountains in the country, they turned to the marshes, and, like the Hyks�s
+      in Egypt, made themselves at home about the mouths of the rivers, on the
+      half-submerged low lands, and on the sandy islets of the lagoons which
+      formed an undefined borderland between the alluvial region and the Persian
+      Gulf. The covert afforded, by the thickets furnished scope for the chase
+      which these hunters had been accustomed to pursue in the depths of their
+      native forests, while fishing, on the other hand, supplied them with an
+      additional element of food. When their depredations drew down upon them
+      reprisals from their neighbours, the mounds occupied, by their fortresses,
+      and surrounded by muddy swamps, offered them almost as secure retreats as
+      their former strongholds on the lofty sides of the Zagros. They made
+      alliances with the native Aram�ans&mdash;with those Kashdi, properly
+      called Chald�ans, whose name we have imposed upon all the nations who,
+      from a very early date, bore rule on the banks of the Lower Euphrates.
+      Here they formed themselves into a State&mdash;Karduniash&mdash;whose
+      princes at times rebelled, against all external authority, and at other
+      times acknowledged the sovereignty of the Babylonian monarchs.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The state of Karduniash, whose name appears for the first
+     time on the monuments of the Coss�an period, has been
+     localised in a somewhat vague manner, in the south of
+     Babylonia, in the country of the Kashdi, and afterwards
+     formally identified with the <i>Countries of the Sea</i>, and
+     with the principality which was called B�t-Y�kin in the
+     Assyrian period. In the Tel-el-Amarna tablets the name is
+     already applied to the entire country occupied by the
+     Coss�an kings or their descendants, that is to say, to the
+     whole of Babylonia. Sargon II. at that time distinguishes
+     between an Upper and a Lower Karduniash; and in consequence
+     the earliest Assyriologists considered it as an Assyrian
+     designation of Babylon, or of the district surrounding it,
+     an opinion which was opposed by Delitzsch, as he believed it
+     to be an indigenous term which at first indicated the
+     district round Babylon, and afterwards the whole of
+     Babylonia. From one frequent spelling of the name, the
+     meaning appears to have been <i>Fortress of Duniash</i>; to this
+     Delitzsch preferred the translation <i>Garden of Duniash</i>,
+     from an erroneous different reading&mdash;Ganduniash: Duniash, at
+     first derived from a Chald�an God <i>Dun</i>, whose name may
+     exist in <i>Dunghi</i>, is a Coss�an name, which the Assyrians
+     translated, as they did Buriash, <i>Belmat�ti</i>, lord of the
+     country. Winckler rejects the ancient etymology, and
+     proposes to divide the word as Kardu-niash and to see in it
+     a Coss�an translation of the expression <i>m�t-kaldi</i>, country
+     of the Cald�ans: Hommel on his side, as well as Delitzsch,
+     had thought of seeking in the Chald�ans proper&mdash;<i>Kaldi</i> for
+     <i>Kashdi</i>, or <i>Kash-da</i>, &ldquo;domain of the Coss�ans &ldquo;&mdash;the
+     descendants of the Coss�ans of Karduniash, at least as far
+     as race is concerned. In the cuneiform texts the name is
+     written Kara&mdash;D. P. Duniyas, &ldquo;the Wall of the god
+     Duniyas&rdquo; (cf. the Median Wall or Wall of Semiramis which
+     defended Babylonia on the north).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The people of Sumir and Akkad, already a composite of many different
+      races, absorbed thus another foreign element, which, while modifying its
+      homogeneity, did not destroy its natural character. Those Coss�an tribes
+      who had not quitted their own country retained their original barbarism,
+      but the hope of plunder constantly drew them from their haunts, and they
+      attacked and devastated the cities of the plain unhindered by the thought
+      that they were now inhabited by their fellow-countrymen. The raid once
+      over, many of them did not return home, but took service under some
+      distant foreign ruler&mdash;the Syrian princes attracting many, who
+      subsequently became the backbone of their armies,* while others remained
+      at Babylon and enrolled themselves in the body-guard of the kings.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Hal�vy has at least proved that the Khabiri mentioned in.
+     the Tel el-Amarna tablets were Coss�ans, contrary to the
+     opinion of Sayce, who makes them tribes grouped round
+     Hebron, which W. Max M�ller seems to accept; Winckler,
+     returning to an old opinion, believes them to have been
+     Hebrews.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      To the last they were an undisciplined militia, dangerous, and difficult
+      to please: one day they would hail their chiefs with acclamations, to kill
+      them the next in one of those sudden outbreaks in which they were
+      accustomed to make and unmake their kings.* The first invaders were not
+      long in acquiring, by means of daily intercourse with the old inhabitants,
+      the new civilization: sooner or later they became blended with the
+      natives, losing all their own peculiarities, with the exception of their
+      outlandish names, a few heroic legends,** and the worship of two or three
+      gods&mdash;Sh�malia, Shugab, and Shukamuna.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is the opinion of Hommel, supported by the testimony
+     of the <i>Synchronous Hist.</i>: in this latter document the
+     Coss�ans are found revolting against King Kadashmankharb�,
+     and replacing him on the throne by a certain Nazibugash, who
+     was of obscure origin.
+
+     ** Pr. Delitzsch and Schrader compare their name with that
+     of Kush, who appears in the Bible as the father of Nimrod
+     (<i>Gen.</i> x. 8-12); Hommel and Sayce think that the history of
+     Nimrod is a reminiscence of the Coss�an rule. Jensen is
+     alone in his attempt to attribute to the Coss�ans the first
+     idea of the epic of Gilgames.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As in the case of the Hyks�s in Africa, the barbarian conquerors thus
+      became merged in the more civilized people which they had subdued. This
+      work of assimilation seems at first to have occupied the whole attention
+      of both races, for the immediate successors of Gandish were unable to
+      retain under their rule all the provinces of which the empire was formerly
+      composed. They continued to possess the territory situated on the middle
+      course of the Euphrates as far as the mouth of the Balikh, but they lost
+      the region extending to the east of the Khabur, at the foot of the Masios,
+      and in the upper basin of the Tigris: the vicegerents of Assur also
+      withdrew from them, and, declaring that they owed no obedience excepting
+      to the god of their city, assumed the royal dignity. The first four of
+      these kings whose names have come down to us, Sulili, Belkapkapu, Adasi,
+      and Belb�ni,* appear to have been but indifferent rulers, but they knew
+      bow to hold their own against the attacks of their neighbours, and when,
+      after a century of weakness and inactivity, Babylon reasserted herself,
+      and endeavoured to recover her lost territory, they had so completely
+      established their independence that every attack on it was unsuccessful.
+      The Coss�an king at that time&mdash;an active and enterprising prince,
+      whose name was held in honour up to the days of the Ninevite supremacy&mdash;was
+      Agumkakrim�, the son of Tassigurumash.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These four names do not so much represent four consecutive
+     reigns as two separate traditions which were current
+     respecting the beginnings of Assyrian royalty. The most
+     ancient of them gives the chief place to two personages
+     named Belkapkapu and Sulili; this tradition has been
+     transmitted to us by Ramm�nnir�ri III., because it connected
+     the origin of his race with these kings. The second
+     tradition placed a certain Belb�ni, the son of Adasi, in the
+     room of Belkapkapu and Sulili: Esarhaddon made use of it in
+     order to ascribe to his own family an antiquity at least
+     equal to that of the family to which Ramm�nnir�ri III.
+     belonged. Each king appropriated from the ancient popular
+     traditions those names which seemed to him best calculated
+     to enhance the prestige of his dynasty, but we cannot tell
+     how far the personages selected enjoyed an authentic
+     historical existence: it is best to admit them at least
+     provisionally into the royal series, without trusting too
+     much to what is related of them.
+
+     ** The tablet discovered by Pinches is broken after the
+     fifth king of the dynasty. The inscription of Agumkakrim�,
+     containing a genealogy of this prince which goes back as far
+     as the fifth generation, has led to the restoration of the
+     earlier part of the list as follows:
+
+     Gandish, Gaddash, Adumitasii .... 1655-? B.C.
+     Gand� ........................... 1714-1707 B.C.
+     Tassigurumash.................... ?
+     Agumrabi, his son................ 1707-1685
+     Agumkakrim� ..................... ?
+     [A]guyashi ...................... 1685-1663
+     Ushshi, his son.................. 1663-1655
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This &ldquo;brilliant scion of Shukamuna&rdquo; entitled himself lord of the Kashshu
+      and of Akkad, of Babylon the widespread, of Padan, of Alman, and of the
+      swarthy Guti.* Ashnunak had been devastated; he repeopled it, and the four
+      &ldquo;houses of the world&rdquo; rendered him obedience; on the other hand, Elam
+      revolted from its allegiance, Assur resisted him, and if he still
+      exercised some semblance of authority over Northern Syria, it was owing to
+      a traditional respect which the towns of that country voluntarily rendered
+      to him, but which did not involve either subjection or control. The people
+      of Kh�ni still retained possession of the statues of Merodach and of his
+      consort Zarpanit, which had been stolen, we know not how, some time
+      previously from Chald�a.** Agumkakrim� recovered them and replaced them in
+      their proper temple. This was an important event, and earned him the good
+      will of the priests.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The translation <i>black-headed</i>, i.e. dark-haired and
+     complexioned, <i>Guti</i>, is uncertain; Jensen interprets the
+     epithet <i>nishi saldati</i> to mean &ldquo;the Guti, stupid (foolish?
+     culpable?) people.&rdquo; The Guti held both banks of the lower
+     Zab, in the mountains on the east of Assyria. Delitzsch has
+     placed Padan and Alman in the mountains to the east of the
+     Diy�leh; Jensen places them in the chain of the Khamr�n, and
+     Winckler compares Alman or Halman with the Holw�n of the
+     present day.
+
+     ** The Kh�ni have been placed by Delitzsch in the
+     neighbourhood of Mount Kh�na, mentioned in the accounts of
+     the Assyrian campaigns, that is to say, in the Amanos,
+     between the Euphrates and the bay of Alexandretta: he is
+     inclined to regard the name as a form of that of the Kh�ti.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The king reorganised public worship; he caused new fittings for the
+      temples to be made to take the place of those which had disappeared, and
+      the inscription which records this work enumerates with satisfaction the
+      large quantities of crystal, jasper, and lapis-lazuli which he lavished on
+      the sanctuary, the utensils of silver and gold which he dedicated,
+      together with the &ldquo;seas&rdquo; of wrought bronze decorated with monsters and
+      religious emblems.* This restoration of the statues, so flattering to the
+      national pride and piety, would have been exacted and insisted upon by a
+      Khammurabi at the point of the sword, but Agumkakrim� doubtless felt that
+      he was not strong enough to run the risk of war; he therefore sent an
+      embassy to the Kh�ni, and such was the prestige which the name of Babylon
+      still possessed, from the deserts of the Caspian to the shores of the
+      Mediterranean, that he was able to obtain a concession from that people
+      which he would probably have been powerless to extort by force of arms.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We do not possess the original of the inscription which
+     tells us of these facts, but merely an early copy.
+
+     ** Strictly speaking, one might suppose that a war took
+     place; but most Assyriologists declare unhesitatingly that
+     there was merely an embassy and a diplomatic negotiation.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians had, therefore, no need to anticipate Chald�an interference
+      when, forsaking their ancient traditions, they penetrated for the first
+      time into the heart of Syria. Not only was Babylon no longer supreme
+      there, but the coalition of those cities on which she had depended for
+      help in subduing the West was partially dissolved, and the foreign princes
+      who had succeeded to her patrimony were so far conscious of their
+      weakness, that they voluntarily kept aloof from the countries in which,
+      previous to their advent, Babylon had held undivided sway. The Egyptian
+      conquest of Syria had already begun in the days of Agumkakrim�, and it is
+      possible that dread of the Pharaoh was one of the chief causes which
+      influenced the Coss�ans to return a favourable answer to the Kh�ni.
+      Th�tmosis I., on entering Syria, encountered therefore only the native
+      levies, and it must be admitted that, in spite of their renowned courage,
+      they were not likely to prove formidable adversaries in Egyptian
+      estimation. Not one of the local Syrian dynasties was sufficiently
+      powerful to collect all the forces of the country around its chief, so as
+      to oppose a compact body of troops to the attack of the African armies.
+      The whole country consisted of a collection of petty states, a complex
+      group of peoples and territories which even the Egyptians themselves never
+      completely succeeded in disentangling. They classed the inhabitants,
+      however, under three or four very comprehensive names&mdash;Khar�, Zahi,
+      Lotan�, and Kef�ti�&mdash;all of which frequently recur in the
+      inscriptions, but without having always that exactness of meaning we look
+      for in geographical terms. As was often the case in similar circumstances,
+      these names were used at first to denote the districts close to the
+      Egyptian frontier with which the inhabitants of the Delta had constant
+      intercourse. The Kef�ti� seem to have been at the outset the people of the
+      sea-coast, more especially of the region occupied later by the
+      Phoenicians, but all the tribes with whom the Phoenicians came in contact
+      on the Asiatic and European border were before long included under the
+      same name.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Kef�ti�, whose name was first read Kefa, and later
+     Kefto, were originally identified with the inhabitants of
+     Cyprus or Crete, and subsequently with those of Cilicia,
+     although the decree of Canopus locates them in Phoenicia.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Zahi originally comprised that portion of the desert and of the maritime
+      plain on the north-east of Egypt which was coasted by the fleets, or
+      traversed by the armies of Egypt, as they passed to and fro between Syria
+      and the banks of the Nile. This region had been ravaged by Ahmosis during
+      his raid upon Sharuhana, the year after the fall of Avaris. To the
+      south-east of Zahi lay Khar�; it included the greater part of Mount Seir,
+      whose wadys, thinly dotted over with oases, were inhabited by tribes of
+      more or less stationary habits. The approaches to it were protected by a
+      few towns, or rather fortified villages, built in the neighbourhood of
+      springs, and surrounded by cultivated fields and poverty-stricken gardens;
+      but the bulk of the people lived in tents or in caves on the
+      mountain-sides. The Egyptians constantly confounded those Khauri, whom the
+      Hebrews in after-times found scattered among the children of Edom, with
+      the other tribes of Bedouin marauders, and designated them vaguely as
+      Sha�s�. Lotan� lay beyond, to the north of Khar� and to the north-east of
+      Zahi, among the hills which separate the &ldquo;Shephelah&rdquo; from the Jordan.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of Lotan� or Rotan� has been assigned by Brugsch
+     to the Assyrians, but subsequently, by connecting it, more
+     ingeniously than plausibly, with the Assyrian <i>ilt�nu</i>, he
+     extended it to all the peoples of the north; we now know
+     that in the texts it denotes the whole of Syria, and, more
+     generally, all the peoples dwelling in the basins of the
+     Orontes and the Euphrates. The attempt to connect the name
+     Rotan� or Lotan� with that of the Edomite tribe of Lotan
+     (Gen. xxxvi. 20, 22) was first made by P. de Saulcy; it was
+     afterwards taken up by Haigh and adopted by Renan.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0007" id="linkBimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/177.jpg"
+       alt="177.jpg the Fortress and Bridge of Zalu " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As it was more remote from the isthmus, and formed the Egyptian horizon in
+      that direction, all the new countries with which the Egyptians became
+      acquainted beyond its northern limits were by degrees included under the
+      one name of Lotan�, and this term was extended to comprise successively
+      the entire valley of the Jordan, then that of the Orontes, and finally
+      even that of the Euphrates. Lotan� became thenceforth a vague and
+      fluctuating term, which the Egyptians applied indiscriminately to widely
+      differing Asiatic nations, and to which they added another indefinite
+      epithet when they desired to use it in a more limited sense: that part of
+      Syria nearest to Egypt being in this case qualified as Upper Lotan�, while
+      the towns and kingdoms further north were described as being in Lower
+      Lotan�. In the same way the terms Zahi and Khar� were extended to cover
+      other and more northerly regions. Zahi was applied to the coast as far as
+      the mouth of the Nahr el-Kebir and to the country of the Lebanon which lay
+      between the Mediterranean and the middle course of the Orontes. Khar� ran
+      parallel to Zahi, but comprised the mountain district, and came to include
+      most of the countries which were at first ranged under Upper Lotan�; it
+      was never applied to the region beyond the neighbourhood of Mount Tabor,
+      nor to the trans-Jordanie provinces. The three names in their wider sense
+      preserved the same relation to each other as before, Zahi lying to the
+      west and north-west of Khar�, and Lower Lotan� to the north of Khar� and
+      north-east of Zahi, but the extension of meaning did not abolish the old
+      conception of their position, and hence arose confusion in the minds of
+      those who employed them; the scribes, for instance, who registered in some
+      far-off Theban temple the victories of the Pharaoh would sometimes write
+      Zahi where they should have inscribed Khar�, and it is a difficult matter
+      for us always to detect their mistakes. It would be unjust to blame them
+      too severely for their inaccuracies, for what means had they of
+      determining the relative positions of that confusing collection of states
+      with which the Egyptians came in contact as soon as they had set foot on
+      Syrian soil?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A choice of several routes into Asia, possessing unequal advantages, was
+      open to the traveller, but the most direct of them passed through the town
+      of Zal�. The old entrenchments running from the Ked Sea to the marshes of
+      the Pelusiac branch still protected the isthmus, and beyond these, forming
+      an additional defence, was a canal on the banks of which a fortress was
+      constructed. This was occupied by the troops who guarded the frontier, and
+      no traveller was allowed to pass without having declared his name and
+      rank, signified the business which took him into Syria or Egypt, and shown
+      the letters with which he was entrusted.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The notes of an official living at Zalu in the time of
+     M�neptah are preserved on the back of pls. v., vi. of the
+     <i>Anastasi Papyrus III</i>,; his business was to keep a register
+     of the movements of the comers and goers between Egypt and
+     Syria during a few days of the month Pakhons, in the year
+     III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was from Zal� that the Pharaohs set out with their troops, when
+      summoned to Khar� by a hostile confederacy; it was to Zal� they returned
+      triumphant after the campaign, and there, at the gates of the town, they
+      were welcomed by the magnates of the kingdom. The road ran for some
+      distance over a region which was covered by the inundation of the Nile
+      during six months of the year; it then turned eastward, and for some
+      distance skirted the sea-shore, passing between the Mediterranean and the
+      swamp which writers of the Greek period called the Lake of Sirbonis.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Sirbonian Lake is sometimes half full of water,
+     sometimes almost entirely dry; at the present time it bears
+     the name of Sebkhat Berdawil, from King Baldwin I. of
+     Jerusalem, who on his return from his Egyptian campaign died
+     on its shores, in 1148, before he could reach El-Artsh.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This stage of the journey was beset with difficulties, for the Sirbonian
+      Lake did not always present the same aspect, and its margins were
+      constantly shifting. When the canals which connected it with the open sea
+      happened to become obstructed, the sheet of water subsided from
+      evaporation, leaving in many places merely an expanse of shifting mud,
+      often concealed under the sand which the wind brought up from the desert.
+      Travellers ran imminent risk of sinking in this quagmire, and the Greek
+      historians tell of large armies being almost entirely swallowed up in it.
+      About halfway along the length of the lake rose the solitary hill of Mount
+      Casios; beyond this the sea-coast widened till it became a vast slightly
+      undulating plain, covered with scanty herbage, and dotted over with wells
+      containing an abundant supply of water, which, however, was brackish and
+      disagreeable to drink.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0008" id="linkBimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/180-map.jpg" width="100%" alt="180.jpg Map " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Beyond these lay a grove of palms, a brick prison, and a cluster of
+      miserable houses, bounded by a broad wady, usually dry. The bed of the
+      torrent often served as the boundary between Africa and Asia, and the town
+      was for many years merely a convict prison, where ordinary criminals,
+      condemned to mutilation and exile, were confined; indeed, the Greeks
+      assure us that it owed its name of Rhinocol�ra to the number of noseless
+      convicts who were to be seen there.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The ruins of the ancient town, which were of considerable
+     extent, are half buried under the sand, out of which an
+     Egyptian naos of the Ptolemaic period has been dug, and
+     placed near the well which supplies the fort, where it
+     serves as a drinking trough for the horses. Brugsch believed
+     he could identify its site with that of the Syrian town
+     Hurnikheri, which he erroneously reads Harinkola; the
+     ancient form of the name is unknown, the Greek form varies
+     between Rhinocor�ra and Rhinocol�ra. The story of the
+     mutilated convicts is to be found in Diodorus Siculus, as
+     well as in Strabo; it rests on a historical fact. Under the
+     XVIIIth dynasty Zal� was used as a place of confinement for
+     dishonest officials. For this purpose it was probably
+     replaced by Rhinocol�ra, when the Egyptian frontier was
+     removed from the neighbourhood of Selle to that of El-Ar�sh.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At this point the coast turns in a north-easterly direction, and is
+      flanked with high sand-hills, behind which the caravans pursue their way,
+      obtaining merely occasional glimpses of the sea. Here and there, under the
+      shelter of a tower or a half-ruined fortress, the traveller would have
+      found wells of indifferent water, till on reaching the confines of Syria
+      he arrived at the fortified village of Raphia, standing like a sentinel to
+      guard the approach to Egypt. Beyond Raphia vegetation becomes more
+      abundant, groups of sycamores and mimosas and clusters of date-palms
+      appear on the horizon, villages surrounded with fields and orchards are
+      seen on all sides, while the bed of a river, blocked with gravel and
+      fallen rocks, winds its way between the last fringes of the desert and the
+      fruitful Shephelah;* on the further bank of the river lay the suburbs of
+      Gaza, and, but a few hundred yards beyond, Gaza itself came into view
+      among the trees standing on its wall-crowned hill.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The term Shephelah signifies the plain; it is applied by
+     the Biblical writers to the plain bordering the coast, from
+     the heights of Gaza to those of Joppa, which were inhabited
+     at a later period by the Philistines (<i>Josh</i>. xi. 16; <i>Jer</i>.
+     xxxii. 44 and xxxiii. 13).
+
+     ** Gu�rin describes at length the road from Gaza to Raphia.
+     The only town of importance between them in the Greek period
+     was I�nysos, the ruins of which are to be found near Khan
+     Yunes, but the Egyptian name for this locality is unknown:
+     Aunaugasa, the name of which Brugsch thought he could
+     identify with it, should be placed much farther away, in
+     Northern or in Coele-Syria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians, on their march from the Nile valley, were wont to stop at
+      this spot to recover from their fatigues; it was their first halting-place
+      beyond the frontier, and the news which would reach them here prepared
+      them in some measure for what awaited them further on. The army itself,
+      the &ldquo;troop of R�,&rdquo; was drawn from four great races, the most distinguished
+      of which came, of course, from the banks of the Nile: the Am�, born of
+      Sokh�t, the lioness-headed goddess, were classed in the second rank; the
+      Nahsi, or negroes of Ethiopia, were placed in the third; while the Timih�,
+      or Libyans, with the white tribes of the north, brought up the rear. The
+      Syrians belonged to the second of these families, that next in order to
+      the Egyptians, and the name of Amu, which for centuries had been given
+      them, met so satisfactorily all political, literary, or commercial
+      requirements, that the administrators of the Pharaohs never troubled
+      themselves to discover the various elements concealed beneath the term. We
+      are, however, able at the present time to distinguish among them several
+      groups of peoples and languages, all belonging to the same family, but
+      possessing distinctive characteristics. The kinsfolk of the Hebrews, the
+      children of Ishmael and Edom, the Moabites and Ammonites, who were all
+      qualified as Sha�s�, had spread over the region to the south and east of
+      the Dead Sea, partly in the desert, and partly on the confines of the
+      cultivated land. The Canaanites were not only in possession of the coast
+      from Gaza to a point beyond the Nahr el-Kebir, but they also occupied
+      almost the whole valley of the Jordan, besides that of the Lit�ny, and
+      perhaps that of the Upper Orontes.* There were Aramaean settlements at
+      Damascus, in the plains of the Lower Orontes, and in Naharaim.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * I use the term Canaanite with the meaning most frequently
+     attached to it, according to the Hebrew use (<i>Gen</i>. x. 15-
+     19). This word is found several times in the Egyptian texts
+     under the forms Kinakhna, Kinakhkhi, and probably K�nakha��,
+     in the cuneiform texts of Tel el-Amarna.
+
+     ** As far as I know, the term Aram�an is not to be found in
+     any Egyptian text of the time of the Pharaohs: the only
+     known example of it is a writer&rsquo;s error corrected by Chabas.
+     W. Max M�ller very justly observes that the mistake is
+     itself a proof of the existence of the name and of the
+     acquaintance of the Egyptians with it.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The country beyond the Aramaean territory, including the slopes of the
+      Amanos and the deep valleys of the Taurus, was inhabited by peoples of
+      various origin; the most powerful of these, the Kh�ti, were at this time
+      slowly forsaking the mountain region, and spreading by degrees over the
+      country between the Afr�n and the Euphrates.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Canaanites were the most numerous of all these groups, and had they
+      been able to amalgamate under a single king, or even to organize a lasting
+      confederacy, it would have been impossible for the Egyptian armies to have
+      broken through the barrier thus raised between them and the rest of Asia;
+      but, unfortunately, so far from showing the slightest tendency towards
+      unity or concentration, the Canaanites were more hopelessly divided than
+      any of the surrounding nations. Their mountains contained nearly as many
+      states as there were valleys, while in the plains each town represented a
+      separate government, and was built on a spot carefully selected for
+      purposes of defence. The land, indeed, was chequered with these petty
+      states, and so closely were they crowded together, that a horseman,
+      travelling at leisure, could easily pass through two or three of them in a
+      day&rsquo;s journey.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Th�tmosis III. shows that, at any rate, they were
+     established in these regions about the XVIth century B.C.
+     The Egyptian pronunciation of their name is <i>Kh�ti</i>, with
+     the feminine <i>Kh�ta�t, Kh�tit</i>; but the Tel el-Amarna texts
+     employ the vocalisation <i>Kh�ti, Kh�te</i>, which must be more
+     correct than that of the Egyptians, The form <i>Kh�ti</i> seems
+     to me to be explicable by an error of popular etymology.
+     Egyptian ethnical appellations in <i>�ti</i> formed their plural
+     by <i>-�ti�, -�te�, -�ti, -�te</i>, so that if <i>Kh�te, Kh�ti</i>,
+     were taken for a plural, it would naturally have suggested
+     to the scribes the form <i>Kh�ti</i> for the singular.
+
+     ** Th�tmosis III., speaking to his soldiers, tells them that
+     all the chiefs the projecting spur of some mountain, or on a
+     solitary and more or less irregularly shaped eminence in the
+     midst of a plain, and the means of defence in the country
+     are shut up in Megiddo, so that &ldquo;to take it is to take a
+     thousand cities:&rdquo; this is evidently a hyperbole in the mouth
+     of the conqueror, but the exaggeration itself shows how
+     numerous were the chiefs and consequently the small states
+     in Central and Southern Syria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Not only were the royal cities fenced with walls, but many of the
+      surrounding villages were fortified, while the watch-towers, or <i>migdols</i>*
+      built at the bends of the roads, at the fords over the rivers, and at the
+      openings of the ravines, all testified to the insecurity of the times and
+      the aptitude for self-defence shown by the inhabitants.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This Canaanite word was borrowed by the Egyptians from the
+     Syrians at the beginning of their Asiatic wars; they
+     employed it in forming the names of the military posts which
+     they established on the eastern frontier of the Delta: it
+     appears for the first time among Syrian places in the list
+     of cities conquered by Th�tmosis III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0009" id="linkBimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/184.jpg"
+       alt="184.jpg the Canaanite Fortresses " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The aspect of these migdols, or forts, must have appeared strange to the
+      first Egyptians who beheld them. These strongholds bore no resemblance to
+      the large square or oblong enclosures to which they were accustomed, and
+      which in their eyes represented the highest skill of the engineer. In
+      Syria, however, the positions suitable for the construction of fortresses
+      hardly ever lent themselves to a symmetrical plan. The usual sites had to
+      be adapted in each case to suit the particular configuration of the
+      ground.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0010" id="linkBimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/185.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="185.jpg the Walled City of Dap�r, in Galilee " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken at Karnak by
+     Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was usually a mere wall of stone or dried brick, with towers at
+      intervals; the wall measuring from nine to twelve feet thick at the base,
+      and from thirty to thirty-six feet high, thus rendering an assault by
+      means of portable ladders, nearly impracticable.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is, at least, the result of investigations made by
+     modern engineers who have studied these questions of
+     military arch�ology.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The gateway had the appearance of a fortress in itself. It was composed of
+      three large blocks of masonry, forming a re-entering face, considerably
+      higher than the adjacent curtains, and pierced near the top with square
+      openings furnished with mantlets, so as to give both a front and flank
+      view of the assailants. The wooden doors in the receded face were covered
+      with metal and raw hides, thus affording a protection against axe or
+      fire.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Most of the Canaanite towns, taken by Ramses II. in the
+     campaign of his VIIIth year were fortified in this manner.
+     It must have been the usual method of fortification, as it
+     seems to have served as a type for conventional
+     representation, and was sometimes used to denote cities
+     which had fortifications of another kind. For instance,
+     Dap�r-Tabor is represented in this way, while a picture on
+     another monument, which is reproduced in the illustration on
+     page 185, represents what seems to have been the particular
+     form of its encompassing walls.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The building was strong enough not only to defy the bands of adventurers
+      who roamed the country, but was able to resist for an indefinite time the
+      operations of a regular siege. Sometimes, however, the inhabitants when
+      constructing their defences did not confine themselves to this rudimentary
+      plan, but threw up earthworks round the selected site. On the most exposed
+      side they raised an advance wall, not exceeding twelve or fifteen feet in
+      height, at the left extremity of which the entrance was so placed that the
+      assailants, in endeavouring to force their way through, were obliged to
+      expose an unprotected flank to the defenders. By this arrangement it was
+      necessary to break through two lines of fortification before the place
+      could be entered. Supposing the enemy to have overcome these first
+      obstacles, they would find themselves at their next point of attack
+      confronted with a citadel which contained, in addition to the sanctuary of
+      the principal god, the palace of the sovereign himself. This also had a
+      double enclosing wall and massively built gates, which could be forced
+      only at the expense of fresh losses, unless the cowardice or treason of
+      the garrison made the assault an easy one.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The type of town described in the text is based on a
+     representation on the walls of Karnak, where the siege of
+     Dap�r-Tabor by Ramses II. is depicted. Another type is given
+     in the case of Ascalon.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0011" id="linkBimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/187.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="187.jpg the Migdol of Ramses Iii. At Thebes, in The Temple of Medinet-abul " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by D�v�ria
+     in 1865.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Of these bulwarks of Canaanite civilization, which had been thrown up by
+      hundreds on the route of the invading hosts, not a trace is to be seen
+      to-day. They may have been razed to the ground during one of those
+      destructive revolutions to which the country was often exposed, or their
+      remains may lie hidden underneath the heaps of ruins which thirty
+      centuries of change have raised over them.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The only remains of a Canaanite fortification which can be
+     assigned to the Egyptian period are those which Professor
+     F. I. Petrie brought to light in the ruins of Tell el-Hesy,
+     and in which he rightly recognised the remains of Lachish.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The records of victories graven on the walls of the Theban temples
+      furnish, it is true, a general conception of their appearance, but the
+      notions of them which we should obtain from this source would be of a very
+      confused character had not one of the last of the conquering Pharaohs,
+      Ramses III., taken it into his head to have one built at Thebes itself, to
+      contain within it, in addition to his funerary chapel, accommodation for
+      the attendants assigned to the conduct of his worship. In the Greek and
+      Roman period a portion of this fortress was demolished, but the external
+      wall of defence still exists on the eastern side, together with the gate,
+      which is commanded on the right by a projection of the enclosing-wall, and
+      flanked by two guard-houses, rectangular in shape, and having roofs which
+      jut out about a yard beyond the wall of support. Having passed through
+      these obstacles, we find ourselves face to face with a <i>migdol</i> of
+      cut stone, nearly square in form, with two projecting wings, the court
+      between their loop-holed walls being made to contract gradually from the
+      point of approach by a series of abutments. A careful examination of the
+      place, indeed, reveals more than one arrangement which the limited
+      knowledge of the Egyptians would hardly permit us to expect. We discover,
+      for instance, that the main body of the building is made to rest upon a
+      sloping sub-structure which rises to a height of some sixteen feet.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This served two purposes: it increased, in the first place, the strength
+      of the defence against sapping; and in the second, it caused the weapons
+      launched by the enemy to rebound with violence from its inclined surface,
+      thus serving to keep the assailants at a distance. The whole structure has
+      an imposing look, and it must be admitted that the royal architects
+      charged with carrying out their sovereign&rsquo;s idea brought to their task an
+      attention to detail for which the people from whom the plan was borrowed
+      had no capacity, and at the same time preserved the arrangements of their
+      model so faithfully that we can readily realise what it must have been.
+      Transport this migdol of Ramses III. into Asia, plant it upon one of those
+      hills which the Canaanites were accustomed to select as a site for their
+      fortifications, spread out at its base some score of low and miserable
+      hovels, and we have before us an improvised pattern of a village which
+      recalls in a striking manner Zer�n or Be�t�n, or any other small modern
+      town which gathers the dwellings of its fellahin round some central stone
+      building&mdash;whether it be a hostelry for benighted travellers, or an
+      ancient castle of the Crusading age.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0012" id="linkBimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/189.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="189.jpg the Modern Village of Be�t�n (ancient Bethel), Seen from the South-west. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There were on the littoral, to the north of Gaza, two large walled towns,
+      Ascalon and Joppa, in whose roadsteads merchant vessels were accustomed to
+      take hasty refuge in tempestuous weather.* There were to be found on the
+      plains also, and on the lower slopes of the mountains, a number of similar
+      fortresses and villages, such as Iurza, Migdol, Lachish, Ajalon, Shocho,
+      Adora, Aphuk�n, Keilah, Gezer, and Ono; and, in the neighbourhood of the
+      roads which led to the fords of the Jordan, Gibeah, Beth-Anoth, and
+      finally Urusalim, our Jerusalem.** A tolerably dense population of active
+      and industrious husbandmen maintained themselves upon the soil.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ascalon was not actually on the sea. Its port, &ldquo;Maiumas
+     Ascalonis,&rdquo; was probably merely a narrow bay or creek, now,
+     for a long period, filled up by the sand. Neither the site
+     nor the remains of the port have been discovered. The name
+     of the town is always spelled in Egyptian with an &ldquo;s &ldquo;&mdash;
+     Askaluna, which gives us the pronunciation of the time. The
+     name of Joppa is written Yapu, Yaphu, and the gardens which
+     then surrounded the town are mentioned in the <i>Anastasi
+     Papyrus I</i>.
+
+     ** Urusalim is mentioned only in the Tel el-Amarna tablets,
+     alongside of Kilti or Keilah, Ajalon, and Lachish. The
+     remaining towns are noticed in the great lists of Th�tmosis
+     III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0013" id="linkBimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/191.jpg" width="100%" alt="191.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The plough which they employed was like that used by the Egyptians and
+      Babylonians, being nothing but a large hoe to which a couple of oxen were
+      harnessed.* The scarcity of rain, except in certain seasons, and the
+      tendency of the rivers to run low, contributed to make the cultivators of
+      the soil experts in irrigation and agriculture. Almost the only remains of
+      these people which have come down ti us consist of indestructible wells
+      and cisterns, or wine and oil presses hollowed out of the rock.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is the form of plough still employed by the Syrians
+     in some places.
+
+     ** Monuments of this kind are encountered at every step in
+     Judaea, but it is very difficult to date them. The aqueduct
+     of Siloam, which goes back perhaps to the time of Hezekiah.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Fields of wheat and barley extended along the flats of the valleys, broken
+      in upon here and there by orchards, in which the white and pink almond,
+      the apple, the fig, the pomegranate, and the olive flourished side by
+      side.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0014" id="linkBimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/192.jpg" width="100%" alt="192.jpg Amphitheatre of Hills " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a plate in Chesney.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Jerusalem, possibly in part to be attributed to the reign of Solomon, are
+      the only instances to which anything like a certain date may be assigned.
+      But these are long posterior to the XVIIIth dynasty. Good judges, however,
+      attribute some of these monuments to a very distant period: the masonry of
+      the wells of Beersheba is very ancient, if not as it is at present, at
+      least as it was when it was repaired in the time of the C�sars; the olive
+      and wine presses hewn in the rock do not all date back to the Roman
+      empire, but many belong to a still earlier period, and modern descriptions
+      correspond with what we know of such presses from the Bible.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If the slopes of the valley rose too precipitously for cultivation, stone
+      dykes were employed to collect the falling earth, and thus to transform
+      the sides of the hills into a series of terraces rising one above the
+      other. Here the vines, planted in lines or in trellises, blended their
+      clusters with the fruits of the orchard-trees. It was, indeed, a land of
+      milk and honey, and its topographical nomenclature in the Egyptian
+      geographical lists reflects as in a mirror the agricultural pursuits of
+      its ancient inhabitants: one village, for instance, is called Aubila, &ldquo;the
+      meadow;&rdquo; while others bear such names as Ganutu, &ldquo;the gardens;&rdquo; Magraphut,
+      &ldquo;the mounds;&rdquo; and Karman, &ldquo;the vineyard.&rdquo; The further we proceed towards
+      the north, we find, with a diminishing aridity, the hillsides covered with
+      richer crops, and the valleys decked out with a more luxuriant and warmly
+      coloured vegetation. Shechem lies in an actual amphitheatre of verdure,
+      which is irrigated by countless unfailing streams; rushing brooks babble
+      on every side, and the vapour given off by them morning and evening covers
+      the entire landscape with a luminous haze, where the outline of each
+      object becomes blurred, and quivers in a manner to which we are accustomed
+      in our Western lands.* Towns grew and multiplied upon this rich and loamy
+      soil, but as these lay outside the usual track of the invading hosts&mdash;which
+      preferred to follow the more rugged but shorter route leading straight to
+      Carmel across the plain&mdash;the records of the conquerors only casually
+      mention a few of them, such as B�tsha�lu, Birkana, and Dut�na.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Shechem is not mentioned in the Egyptian geographical
+     lists, but Max M�ller thinks he has discovered it in the
+     name of the mountain of Sikima which figures in the
+     <i>Anastasi Papyrus</i>, No. 1.
+
+     ** B�tsha�lu, identified by Chabas with Bethshan, and with
+     Shiloh by Mariette and Maspero, is more probably Bethel,
+     written B�t-sha-�lu, either with <i>sh</i>, the old relative
+     pronoun of the Phoenician, or with the Assyrian <i>sha</i>; on
+     the latter supposition one must suppose, as Sayce does, that
+     the compiler of the Egyptian lists had before him sources of
+     information in the cuneiform character. Birkana appears to
+     be the modern Brukin, and Dut�na is certainly Dothain, now
+     Tell-Doth�n.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Beyond Ono reddish-coloured sandy clay took the place of the dark and
+      compact loam: oaks began to appear, sparsely at first, but afterwards
+      forming vast forests, which the peasants of our own days have thinned and
+      reduced to a considerable extent. The stunted trunks of these trees are
+      knotted and twisted, and the tallest of them do not exceed some thirty
+      feet in height, while many of them may be regarded as nothing more
+      imposing than large bushes.* Muddy rivers, infested with crocodiles,
+      flowed slowly through the shady woods, spreading out their waters here and
+      there in pestilential swamps. On reaching the seaboard, their exit was
+      impeded by the sands which they brought down with them, and the banks
+      which were thus formed caused the waters to accumulate in lagoons
+      extending behind the dunes. For miles the road led through thickets,
+      interrupted here and there by marshy places and clumps of thorny shrubs.
+      Bands of Sha�s� were accustomed to make this route dangerous, and even the
+      bravest heroes shrank from venturing alone along this route. Towards Aluna
+      the way began to ascend Mount Carmel by a narrow and giddy track cut in
+      the rocky side of the precipice.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The forest was well known to the geographers of the Gr�co-
+     Roman period, and was still in existence at the time of the
+     Crusades.
+
+     ** This defile is described at length in the <i>Anastasi
+     Papyrus</i>, No. 1, and the terms used by the writer are in
+     themselves sufficient evidence of the terror with which the
+     place inspired the Egyptians. The annals of Th�tmosis III.
+     are equally explicit as to the difficulties which an army
+     had to encounter here. I have placed this defile near the
+     point which is now called Umm-el-Fahm, and this site seems
+     to me to agree better with the account of the expedition of
+     Th�tmosis III. than that of Arraneh proposed by Conder.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Beyond the Mount, it led by a rapid descent into a plain covered with corn
+      and verdure, and extending in a width of some thirty miles, by a series of
+      undulations, to the foot of Tabor, where it came to an end. Two side
+      ranges running almost parallel&mdash;little Hermon and Glilboa&mdash;disposed
+      in a line from east to west, and united by an almost imperceptibly rising
+      ground, serve rather to connect the plain of Megiddo with the valley of
+      the Jordan than to separate them. A single river, the Kishon, cuts the
+      route diagonally&mdash;or, to speak more correctly, a single river-bed,
+      which is almost waterless for nine months of the year, and becomes swollen
+      only during the winter rains with the numerous torrents bursting from the
+      hillsides. As the flood approaches the sea it becomes of more manageable
+      proportions, and finally distributes its waters among the desolate lagoons
+      formed behind the sand-banks of the open and wind-swept bay, towered over
+      by the sacred summit of Carmel.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In the lists of Th�tmosis III. we find under No. 48 the
+     town of Rosh-Qodshu, the &ldquo;Sacred Cape,&rdquo; which was evidently
+     situated at the end of the mountain range, or probably on
+     the site of Haifah; the name itself suggests the veneration
+     with which Carmel was invested from the earliest times.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      No corner of the world has been the scene of more sanguinary engagements,
+      or has witnessed century after century so many armies crossing its borders
+      and coming into conflict with one another. Every military leader who,
+      after leaving Africa, was able to seize Gaza and Ascalon, became at once
+      master of Southern Syria. He might, it is true, experience some local
+      resistance, and come into conflict with bands or isolated outposts of the
+      enemy, but as a rule he had no need to anticipate a battle before he
+      reached the banks of the Kishon.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0015" id="linkBimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/196.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="196.jpg the Evergreen Oaks Between Joppa and Carmel " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a pencil sketch by Lortet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Here, behind a screen of woods and mountain, the enemy would concentrate
+      his forces and prepare resolutely to meet the attack. If the invader
+      succeeded in overcoming resistance at this point, the country lay open to
+      him as far as the Orontes; nay, often even to the Euphrates. The position
+      was too important for its defence to have been neglected. A range of
+      forts, Ible�m, Taanach, and Megiddo,* drawn like a barrier across the line
+      of advance, protected its southern face, and beyond these a series of
+      strongholds and villages followed one another at intervals in the bends of
+      the valleys or on the heights, such as Shunem, Kasuna, Anaharath, the two
+      Aphuls, Cana, and other places which we find mentioned on the triumphal
+      lists, but of which, up to the present, the sites have not been fixed.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Megiddo, the &ldquo;Legio&rdquo; of the Roman period, has been
+     identified since Robinson&rsquo;s time with Khurbet-Lej�n, and
+     more especially with the little mound known by the name of
+     Tell-el-Mutesallim. Conder proposed to place its site more
+     to the east, in the valley of the Jordan, at Khurbet-el-
+     Mujeddah.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0016" id="linkBimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/197.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="197.jpg Acre and the Fringe of Reefs Sheltering The Ancient Port " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Lortet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      From this point the conqueror had a choice of three routes. One ran in an
+      oblique direction to the west, and struck the Mediterranean near Acre,
+      leaving on the left the promontory of Carmel, with the sacred town,
+      Rosh-Qodshu, planted on its slope.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0017" id="linkBimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/199-map.jpg" width="100%" alt="199.jpg Map " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0018" id="linkBimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/201.jpg" alt="201.jpg the Town of Qodshu " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Acre was the first port where a fleet could find safe anchorage after
+      leaving the mouths of the Nile, and whoever was able to make himself
+      master of it had in his hands the key of Syria, for it stood in the same
+      commanding position with regard to the coast as that held by Megiddo in
+      respect of the interior. Its houses were built closely together on a spit
+      of rock which projected boldly into the sea, while fringes of reefs formed
+      for it a kind of natural breakwater, behind which ships could find a safe
+      harbourage from the attacks of pirates or the perils of bad weather. From
+      this point the hills come so near the shore that one is sometimes obliged
+      to wade along the beach to avoid a projecting spur, and sometimes to climb
+      a zig-zag path in order to cross a headland. In more than one place the
+      rock has been hollowed into a series of rough steps, giving it the
+      appearance of a vast ladder.* Below this precipitous path the waves dash
+      with fury, and when the wind sets towards the land every thud causes the
+      rocky wall to tremble, and detaches fragments from its surface. The
+      majority of the towns, such as Aksapu (Ecdippa), Mashal, Lubina,
+      Ushu-Shakhan, lay back from the sea on the mountain ridges, out of the
+      reach of pirates; several, however, were built on the shore, under the
+      shelter of some promontory, and the inhabitants of these derived a
+      miserable subsistence from fishing and the chase. Beyond the Tyrian Ladder
+      Phoenician territory began. The country was served throughout its entire
+      length, from town to town, by the coast road, which turning at length to
+      the right, and passing through the defile formed by the Nahr-el-Keb�r,
+      entered the region of the middle Orontes.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Hence the name Tyrian Ladder, which is applied to one of
+     these passes, either Ras-en-Nakurah or Ras-el-Abiad.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The second of the roads leading from Megiddo described an almost
+      symmetrical curve eastwards, crossing the Jordan at Beth-shan, then the
+      Jab-bok, and finally reaching Damascus after having skirted at some
+      distance the last of the basaltic ramparts of the Haur�n. Here extended a
+      vast but badly watered pasture-land, which attracted the Bedouin from
+      every side, and scattered over it were a number of walled towns, such as
+      Hamath, Magato, Ashtaroth, and Ono-Eepha.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Proof that the Egyptians knew this route, followed even to
+     this day in certain circumstances, is furnished by the lists
+     of Th�tmosis III., in which the principal stations which it
+     comprises are enumerated among the towns given up after the
+     victory of Megiddo. Dimasqu was identified with Damascus by
+     E. de Roug�, and Astarotu with Ashtar�th-Qarnaim. Hamatu is
+     probably Hamath of the Gadarenes; Magato, the Maged of the
+     Maccabees, is possibly the present Mukatta; and Ono-Repha,
+     Raph�n, Raphana, Arpha of Decapolis, is the modern Er-Rafeh.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Probably Damascus was already at this period the dominant authority over
+      the region watered by these two rivers, as well as over the villages
+      nestling in the gorges of Hermon,&mdash;Abila, Helb�n of the vineyards,
+      and Tabr�d,&mdash;but it had not yet acquired its renown for riches and
+      power. Protected by the Anti-Lebanon range from its turbulent neighbours,
+      it led a sort of vegetative existence apart from invading hosts, forgotten
+      and hushed to sleep, as it were, in the shade of its gardens.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The third road from Megiddo took the shortest way possible. After crossing
+      the Kishon almost at right angles to its course, it ascended by a series
+      of steep inclines to arid plains, fringed or intersected by green and
+      flourishing valleys, which afforded sites for numerous towns,&mdash;Pahira,
+      Merom near Lake Huleh, Qart-Nizanu, Beerotu, and Lau�sa, situated in the
+      marshy district at the head-waters of the Jordan.* From this point forward
+      the land begins to fall, and taking a hollow shape, is known as
+      Coele-Syria, with its luxuriant vegetation spread between the two ranges
+      of the Lebanon. It was inhabited then, as at the time of the Babylonian
+      conquest, by the Amorites, who probably included Damascus also in their
+      domain.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Pahira is probably Safed; Qart-Nizanu, the &ldquo;flowery city,&rdquo;
+      the Kartha of Zabulon; and Bcer�t, the Berotha of Josephus,
+     near Merom. Maroma and Lau�sa, Laisa, have been identified
+     with Merom and Laish.
+
+     ** The identification of the country of Am�uru with that of
+     the Amorites was admitted from the first. The only doubt was
+     as to the locality occupied by these Amorites: the mention
+     of Qodshu on the Orontes, in the country of the Amurru,
+     showed that Coele-Syria was the region in question. In the
+     Tel el-Amarna tablets the name Amurru is applied also to the
+     country east of the Phoenician coast, and we have seen that
+     there is reason to believe that it was used by the
+     Babylonians to denote all Syria. If the name given by the
+     cuneiform inscriptions to Damascus and its neighbourhood,
+     &ldquo;Gar-Imir�shu,&rdquo; &ldquo;Imir�shu,&rdquo; &ldquo;Imir�sh,&rdquo; really means &ldquo;the
+     Fortress of the Amorites,&rdquo; we should have in this fact a
+     proof that this people were in actual possession of the
+     Damascene Syria. This must have been taken from them by the
+     Hittites towards the XXth century before our era, according
+     to Hommel; about the end of the XVIIIth dynasty, according
+     to Lenormant. If, on the other hand, the Assyrians read the
+     name &ldquo;Sha-imiri-shu,&rdquo; with the signification, &ldquo;the town of
+     its asses,&rdquo; it is simply a play upon words, and has no
+     bearing upon the primitive meaning of the name.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0019" id="linkBimage-0019">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/202.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="202.jpg the Tyrian Ladder at Ras El-abiad " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their capital, the sacred Qodshu, was situated on the left bank of the
+      Orontes, about five miles from the lake which for a long time bore its
+      name, Bahr-el-Kades.* It crowned one of those barren oblong eminences
+      which are so frequently met with in Syria. A muddy stream, the Tannur,
+      flowed, at some distance away, around its base, and, emptying itself into
+      the Orontes at a point a little to the north, formed a natural defence for
+      the town on the west. Its encompassing walls, slightly elliptic in form,
+      were strengthened by towers, and surrounded by two concentric ditches
+      which kept the sapper at a distance.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name Qodshu-Kadesh was for a long time read Uatesh,
+     Badesh, Atesh, and, owing to a confusion with Qodi, Ati, or
+     Atet. The town was identified by Champollion with Bactria,
+     then transferred to Mesopotamia by Bosollini, in the land of
+     Omira, which, according to Pliny, was close to the Taurus,
+     not far from the Khabur or from the province of Aleppo:
+     Osburn tried to connect it with Hadashah (<i>Josh</i>. xv. 21),
+     an Amorite town in the southern part of the tribe of Judah;
+     while Hincks placed it in Edessa. The reading Kedesh,
+     Kadesh, Qodshu, the result of the observations of Lepsius,
+     has finally prevailed. Brugsch connected this name with that
+     of Bahr el-Kades, a designation attached in the Middle Ages
+     to the lake through which the Orontes flows, and placed the
+     town on its shores or on a small island on the lake. Thomson
+     pointed out Tell Neby-Mendeh, the ancient Laodicea of the
+     Lebanon, as satisfying the requirements of the site. Conder
+     developed this idea, and showed that all the conditions
+     prescribed by the Egyptian texts in regard to Qodshu find
+     here, and here alone, their application. The description
+     given in the text is based on Conder&rsquo;s observations.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0020" id="linkBimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/206.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="206.jpg the Dyke at Baiik El-kades in Its Present Condition " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A dyke running across the Orontes above the town caused the waters to rise
+      and to overflow in a northern direction, so as to form a shallow lake,
+      which acted as an additional protection from the enemy. Qodshu was thus a
+      kind of artificial island, connected with the surrounding country by two
+      flying bridges, which could be opened or shut at pleasure. Once the
+      bridges were raised and the gates closed, the boldest enemy had no
+      resource left but to arm himself with patience and settle down to a
+      lengthened siege. The invader, fresh from a victory at Megiddo, and
+      following up his good fortune in a forward movement, had to reckon upon
+      further and serious resistance at this point, and to prepare himself for a
+      second conflict. The Amorite chiefs and their allies had the advantage of
+      a level and firm ground for the evolutions of their chariots during the
+      attack, while, if they were beaten, the citadel afforded them a secure
+      rallying-place, whence, having gathered their shattered troops, they could
+      regain their respective countries, or enter, with the help of a few
+      devoted men, upon a species of guerilla warfare in which they excelled.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The road from Damascus led to a point south of Quodshu, while that from
+      Phonicia came right up to the town itself or to its immediate
+      neighbourhood. The dyke of Bahr el-Kades served to keep the plain in a dry
+      condition, and thus secured for numerous towns, among which Hamath stood
+      out pre-eminently, a prosperous existence. Beyond Hamath, and to the left,
+      between the Orontes and the sea, lay the commercial kingdom of Alasia,
+      protected from the invader by bleak mountains.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The site of Alasia, Alashia, was determined from the Tel
+     el-Amarna tablets by Maspero. Niebuhr had placed it to the
+     west of Cilicia, opposite the island of Eleousa mentioned by
+     Strabo. Conder connected it with the scriptural Elishah, and
+     W. Max Millier confounds it with Asi or Cyprus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      On the right, between the Orontes and the Balikh, extended the land of
+      rivers, Naharaim. Towns had grown up here thickly,&mdash;on the sides of
+      the torrents from the Amanos, along the banks of rivers, near springs or
+      wells&mdash;wherever, in fact, the presence of water made culture
+      possible. The fragments of the Egyptian chronicles which have come down to
+      us number these towns by the hundred,* and yet of how many more must the
+      records have perished with the crumbling Theban walls upon which the
+      Pharaohs had their names incised! Khalabu was the Aleppo of our own day,**
+      and grouped around it lay Turmanuna, Tunipa, Zarabu, N�i, Durbaniti,
+      Nirabu, Sarmata,*** and a score of others which depended upon it, or upon
+      one of its rivals. The boundaries of this portion of the Lower Lotan� have
+      come down to us in a singularly indefinite form, and they must also,
+      moreover, have been subject to continual modifications from the results of
+      tribal conflicts.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Two hundred and thirty names belonging to Naharaim are
+     still legible on the lists of Th�tmosis III., and a hundred
+     others have been effaced from the monument.
+
+     ** Khalabu was identified by Chabas with Khalyb�n, the
+     modern Aleppo, and his opinion has been adopted by most
+     Egyptologists.
+
+     *** Tunipa has been found in Tennib, Tinnab, by Noldoke;
+     Zarabu in Zarbi, and Sarmata in Sarmeda, by Tomkins;
+     Durbaniti in De�r el-Ban�t, the Castrum Puellarum of the
+     chroniclers of the Crusades; Nirabu in Nirab, and Tirabu in
+     Tereb, now el-Athrib. Nirab is mentioned by Nicholas of
+     Damascus. N�i, long confounded with Nineveh, was identified
+     by Lenormant with Ninus Vetus, Membidj, and by Max Millier
+     with Balis on the Euphrates: I am inclined to make it Kefer-
+     Naya, between Aleppo and Turmanin.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0021" id="linkBimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/208.jpg" width="100%" alt="208.jpg Map " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      We are at a loss to know whether the various principalities were
+      accustomed to submit to the leadership of a single individual, or whether
+      we are to relegate to the region of popular fancy that Lord of Naharaim of
+      whom the Egyptian scribes made such a hero in their fantastic narratives.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In the &ldquo;Story of the Predestined Prince&rdquo; the heroine is
+     daughter of the Prince of Naharaim, who seems to exercise
+     authority over all the chiefs of the country; as the
+     manuscript does not date back further than the XXth dynasty,
+     we are justified in supposing that the Egyptian writer had a
+     knowledge of the Hittite domination, during which the King
+     of the Kh�ti was actually the ruler of all Naharaim.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Carchemish represented in this region the position occupied by Megiddo in
+      relation to Khar�, and by Qodshu among the Amorites; that is to say, it
+      was the citadel and sanctuary of the surrounding country. Whoever could
+      make himself master of it would have the whole country at his feet.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0022" id="linkBimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/211.jpg" alt="211.jpg Site of Carchemish " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It lay upon the Euphrates, the winding of the river protecting it on its
+      southern and south-eastern sides, while around its northern front ran a
+      deep stream, its defence being further completed by a double ditch across
+      the intervening region. Like Qodshu, it was thus situated in the midst of
+      an artificial island beyond the reach of the battering-ram or the sapper.
+      The encompassing wall, which tended to describe an ellipse, hardly
+      measured two miles in circumference; but the suburbs extending, in the
+      midst of villas and gardens, along the river-banks furnished in time of
+      peace an abode for the surplus population. The wall still rises some five
+      and twenty to thirty feet above the plain. Two mounds divided by a ravine
+      command its north-western side, their summits being occupied by the ruins
+      of two fine buildings&mdash;a temple and a palace.* Carchemish was the
+      last stage in a conqueror&rsquo;s march coming from the south.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Karkamisha, Gargamish, was from the beginning associated
+     with the Carchemish of the Bible; but as the latter was
+     wrongly identified with Circesium, it was naturally located
+     at the confluence of the Khabur with the Euphrates. Hincks
+     fixed the site at Rum-Kaleh. G. Rawlinson referred it
+     cursorily to Hierapolis-Mabog, which position Maspero
+     endeavoured to confirm. Finzi, and after him G. Smith,
+     thought to find the site at Jerabis, the ancient Europos,
+     and excavations carried on there by the English have brought
+     to light in this place Hittite monuments which go back in
+     part to the Assyrian epoch. This identification is now
+     generally accepted, although there is still no direct proof
+     attainable, and competent judges continue to prefer the site
+     of Membij. I fall in with the current view, but with all
+     reserve.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0023" id="linkBimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/212.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="212.jpg the Tell of Jerabis in Its Present Condition " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Reproduced by Faucher-Gudin, from a cut in the <i>Graphic</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      For an invader approaching from the east or north it formed his first
+      station. He had before him, in fact, a choice of the three chief fords for
+      crossing the Euphrates. That of Thapsacus, at the bend of the river where
+      it turns eastward to the Arabian plain, lay too far to the south, and it
+      could be reached only after a march through a parched and desolate region
+      where the army would run the risk of perishing from thirst.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0024" id="linkBimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/213.jpg" alt="213.jpg a Northern Syrian " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      For an invader proceeding from Asia Minor, or intending to make his way
+      through the defiles of the Taurus, Samosata offered a convenient
+      fording-place; but this route would compel the general, who had Naharaim
+      or the kingdoms of Chald�a in view, to make a long detour, and although
+      the Assyrians used it at a later period, at the time of their expeditions
+      to the valleys of the Halys, the Egyptians do not seem ever to have
+      travelled by this road. Carchemish, the place of the third ford, was about
+      equally distant from Thapsacus and Samosata, and lay in a rich and fertile
+      province, which was so well watered that a drought or a famine would not
+      be likely to enter into the expectations of its inhabitants. Hither
+      pilgrims, merchants, soldiers, and all the wandering denizens of the world
+      were accustomed to direct their steps, and the habit once established was
+      perpetuated for centuries. On the left bank of the river, and almost
+      opposite Carchemish, lay the region of Mit�nni,* which was already
+      occupied by a people of a different race, who used a language cognate, it
+      would seem, with the imperfectly classified dialects spoken by the tribes
+      of the Upper Tigris and Upper Euphrates.** Harran bordered on Mit�nni, and
+      beyond Harran one may recognise, in the vaguely defined Singar, Assur,
+      Arrapkha, and Babel, states that arose out of the dismemberment of the
+      ancient Chald�an Empire.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Mit�nni is mentioned on several Egyptian monuments; but
+     its importance was not recognised until after the discovery
+     of the Tel el-Amarna tablets and of its situation. The fact
+     that a letter from the Prince of Mit�nni is stated in a
+     Hieratic docket to have come from Naharaim has been used as
+     a proof that the countries were identical; I have shown that
+     the docket proves only that Mit�nni formed a part of
+     Naharaim. It extended over the province of Edessa and
+     Harran, stretching out towards the sources of the Tigris.
+     Niebuhr places it on the southern slope of the Masios, in
+     Mygdonia; Th. Reinach connects it with the Mati�ni, and asks
+     whether this was not the region occupied by this people
+     before their emigration towards the Caspian.
+
+     ** Several of the Tel el-Amarna tablets are couched in this
+     language.
+
+     *** These names were recognised from the first in the
+     inscriptions of Th�tmosis III. and in those of other
+     Pharaohs of the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Carchemish route was, of course, well known to caravans, but armed
+      bodies had rarely occasion to make use of it. It was a far cry from
+      Memphis to Carchemish, and for the Egyptians this town continued to be a
+      limit which they never passed, except incidentally, when they had to
+      chastise some turbulent tribe, or to give some ill-guarded town to the
+      flames.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A certain number of towns mentioned in the lists of
+     Th�tmosis III. were situated beyond the Euphrates, and they
+     belonged some to Mit�nni and some to the regions further
+     away.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0025" id="linkBimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/215.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="215.jpg the Heads of Three Amorite Captives " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It would be a difficult task to define with any approach to accuracy the
+      distribution of the Canaanites, Amorites, and Aram�ans, and to indicate
+      the precise points where they came into contact with their rivals of
+      non-Semitic stock. Frontiers between races and languages can never be very
+      easily determined, and this is especially true of the peoples of Syria.
+      They are so broken up and mixed in this region, that even in
+      neighbourhoods where one predominant tribe is concentrated, it is easy to
+      find at every step representatives of all the others. Four or five
+      townships, singled out at random from the middle of a province, would
+      often be found to belong to as many different races, and their respective
+      inhabitants, while living within a distance of a mile or two, would be as
+      great strangers to each other as if they were separated by the breadth of
+      a continent.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0026" id="linkBimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:35%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/216.jpg"
+       alt="216.jpg Mixture of Syrian Races " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It would appear that the breaking up of these populations had not been
+      carried so far in ancient as in modern times, but the confusion must
+      already have been great if we are to judge from the number of different
+      sites where we encounter evidences of people of the same language and
+      blood. The bulk of the Kh�ti had not yet departed from the Taurus region,
+      but some stray bands of them, carried away by the movement which led to
+      the invasion of the Hyks�s, had settled around Hebron, where the rugged
+      nature of the country served to protect them from their neighbours.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In very early times they are described as dwelling near
+     Hebron or in the mountains of Judah. Since we have learned
+     from the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments that the Kh�ti
+     dwelt in Northern Syria, the majority of commentators have
+     been indisposed to admit the existence of southern Hittites;
+     this name, it is alleged, having been introduced into the
+     Biblical around text through a misconception of the original
+     documents, where the term Hittite was the equivalent of
+     Canaanite.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Amorites* had their head-quarters Qodshul in Coele-Syria, but one
+      section of them had taken up a position on the shores of the Lake of
+      Tiberias in Galilee, others had established themselves within a short
+      distance of Jaffa** on the Mediterranean, while others had settled in the
+      neighbourhood of the southern Hittites in such numbers that their name in
+      the Hebrew Scriptures was at times employed to designate the western
+      mountainous region about the Dead Sea and the valley of the Jordan. Their
+      presence was also indicated on the table-lands bordering the desert of
+      Damascus, in the districts frequented by Bedouin of the tribe of Terah,
+      Ammon and Moab, on the rivers Yarmuk and Jabbok, and at Edrei and
+      Heshbon.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ed. Meyer has established the fact that the term Amorite,
+     as well as the parallel word Canaanite, was the designation
+     of the inhabitants of Palestine before the arrival of the
+     Hebrews: the former belonged to the prevailing tradition in
+     the kingdom of Israel, the latter to that which was current
+     in Judah. This view confirms the conclusion which may be
+     drawn from the Egyptian monuments as to the power of
+     expansion and the diffusion of the people.
+
+     ** These were the Amorites which the tribe of Dan at a later
+     period could not dislodge from the lands which had been
+     allotted to them.
+
+     *** This was afterwards the domain of Sihon, King of the
+     Amorites, and that of Og.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The fuller, indeed, our knowledge is of the condition of Syria at the time
+      of the Egyptian conquest, the more we are forced to recognise the mixture
+      of races therein, and their almost infinite subdivisions. The mutual
+      jealousies, however, of these elements of various origin were not so
+      inveterate as to put an obstacle in the way, I will not say of political
+      alliances, but of daily intercourse and frequent contracts. Owing to
+      intermarriages between the tribes, and the continual crossing of the
+      results of such unions, peculiar characteristics were at length
+      eliminated, and a uniform type of face was the result. From north to south
+      one special form of countenance, that which we usually call Semitic,
+      prevailed among them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0027" id="linkBimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/218.jpg"
+       alt="218.jpg a Caricature of the Syrian Type " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Syrian and Egyptian monuments furnish us everywhere, under different
+      ethnical names, with representations of a broad-shouldered people of high
+      stature, slender-figured in youth, but with a fatal tendency to obesity in
+      old age. Their heads are large, somewhat narrow, and artificially
+      flattened or deformed, like those of several modern tribes in the Lebanon.
+      Their high cheek-bones stand out from their hollow cheeks, and their blue
+      or black eyes are buried under their enormous eyebrows. The lower part of
+      the face is square and somewhat heavy, but it is often concealed by a
+      thick and curly beard. The forehead is rather low and retreating, while
+      the nose has a distinctly aquiline curve. The type is not on the whole so
+      fine as the Egyptian, but it is not so heavy as that of the Chald�ans in
+      the time of Gudea. The Theban artists have represented it in their
+      battle-scenes, and while individualising every soldier or Asiatic prisoner
+      with a happy knack so as to avoid monotony, they have with much
+      intelligence impressed upon all of them the marks of a common parentage.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0028" id="linkBimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/219.jpg" alt="219.jpg " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the original
+wooden object.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      One feels that the artists must have recognised them as belonging to one
+      common family. They associated with their efforts after true and exact
+      representation a certain caustic humour, which impelled them often to
+      substitute for a portrait a more or less jocose caricature of their
+      adversaries. On the walls of the Pylons, and in places where the majesty
+      of a god restrained them from departing too openly from their official
+      gravity, they contented themselves with exaggerating from panel to panel
+      the contortions and pitiable expressions of the captive chiefs as they
+      followed behind the triumphal chariot of the Pharaoh on his return from
+      his Syrian campaigns.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * An illustration of this will be found in the line of
+     prisoners, brought by Seti I. from his great Asiatic
+     campaign, which is depicted on the outer face of the north
+     wall of the hypostyle at Karnak.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Where religious scruples offered no obstacle they abandoned themselves to
+      the inspiration of the moment, and gave themselves freely up to
+      caricature. It is an Amorite or Canaanite&mdash;that thick-lipped,
+      flat-nosed slave, with his brutal lower jaw and smooth conical skull&mdash;who
+      serves for the handle of a spoon in the museum of the Louvre. The
+      stupefied air with which he trudges under his burden is rendered in the
+      most natural manner, and the flattening to which his forehead had been
+      subjected in infancy is unfeelingly accentuated. The model which served
+      for this object must have been intentionally brutalised and disfigured in
+      order to excite the laughter of Pharaoh&rsquo;s subjects.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Dr. Regnault thinks that the head was artificially
+     deformed in infancy: the bandage necessary to effect it must
+     have been applied very low on the forehead in front, and to
+     the whole occiput behind. If this is the case, the instance
+     is not an isolated one, for a deformation of a similar
+     character is found in the case of the numerous Semites
+     represented on the tomb of Rakhmiri: a similar practice
+     still obtains in certain parts of modern Syria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0029" id="linkBimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/220.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="220.jpg Syrians Dressed in the Loin-cloth and Double Shawl " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The idea of uniformity with which we are impressed when examining the
+      faces of these people is confirmed and extended when we come to study
+      their costumes. Men and women&mdash;we may say all Syrians according to
+      their condition of life&mdash;had a choice between only two or three modes
+      of dress, which, whatever the locality, or whatever the period, seemed
+      never to change. On closer examination slight shades of difference in cut
+      and arrangement may, however, be detected, and it may be affirmed that
+      fashion ran even in ancient Syria through as many capricious evolutions as
+      with ourselves; but these variations, which were evident to the eyes of
+      the people of the time, are not sufficiently striking to enable us to
+      classify the people, or to fix their date. The peasants and the lower
+      class of citizens required no other clothing than a loin-cloth similar to
+      that of the Egyptians,* or a shirt of a yellow or white colour, extending
+      below the knees, and furnished with short sleeves. The opening for the
+      neck was cruciform, and the hem was usually ornamented with coloured
+      needlework or embroidery. The burghers and nobles wore over this a long
+      strip of cloth, which, after passing closely round the hips and chest, was
+      brought up and spread over the shoulders as a sort of cloak. This was not
+      made of the light material used in Egypt, which offered no protection from
+      cold or rain, but was composed of a thick, rough wool, like that employed
+      in Chald�a, and was commonly adorned with stripes or bands of colour, in
+      addition to spots and other conspicuous designs.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Asiatic loin-cloth differs from the Egyptian in having
+     pendent cords; the Syrian fellahin still wear it when at
+     work.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Rich and fashionable folk substituted for this cloth two large shawls&mdash;one
+      red and the other blue&mdash;in which they dexterously arrayed themselves
+      so as to alternate the colours: a belt of soft leather gathered the folds
+      around the figure. Red morocco buskins, a soft cap, a handkerchief, a <i>kejf�yeh</i>
+      confined by a fillet, and sometimes a wig after the Egyptian fashion,
+      completed the dress.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0030" id="linkBimage-0030">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/222.jpg" width="100%" alt="222a.jpg " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a figure on the tomb of Ramses III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Beards were almost universal among the men, but the moustache was of rare
+      occurrence. In many of the figures represented on the monuments we find
+      that the head was carefully shaved, while in others the hair was allowed
+      to grow, arranged in curls, frizzed and shining with oil or sweet-smelling
+      pomade, sometimes thrown back behind the ears and falling on the neck in
+      bunches or curly masses, sometimes drawn out in stiff spikes so as to
+      serve as a projecting cover over the face.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The women usually tired their hair in three great masses, of which the
+      thickest was allowed to fall freely down the back; while the other two
+      formed a kind of framework for the face, the ends descending on each side
+      as far as the breast. Some of the women arranged their hair after the
+      Egyptian manner, in a series of numerous small tresses, brought together
+      at the ends so as to form a kind of plat, and terminating in a flower made
+      of metal or enamelled terracotta. A network of glass ornaments, arranged
+      on a semicircle of beads, or on a background of embroidered stuff, was
+      frequently used as a covering for the top of the head.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Examples of Syrian feminine costume are somewhat rare on
+     the Egyptian monuments. In the scenes of the capturing of
+     towns we see a few. Here the women are represented on the
+     walls imploring the mercy of the besieger. Other figures are
+     those of prisoners being led captive into Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0032" id="linkBimage-0032">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/223.jpg" width="100%" alt="223.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The shirt had no sleeves, and the fringed garment which covered it left
+      half of the arm exposed. Children of tender years had their heads shaved,
+      as a head-dress, and rejoiced in no more clothing than the little ones
+      among the Egyptians. With the exception of bracelets, anklets, rings on
+      the fingers, and occasionally necklaces and earrings, the Syrians, both
+      men and women, wore little jewellery. The Chald�a women furnished them
+      with models of fashion to which they accommodated themselves in the choice
+      of stuffs, colours, cut of their mantles or petticoats, arrangement of the
+      hair, and the use of cosmetics for the eyes and cheeks. In spite of
+      distance, the modes of Babylon reigned supreme. The Syrians would have
+      continued to expose their right shoulder to the weather as long as it
+      pleased the people of the Lower Euphrates to do the same; but as soon as
+      the fashion changed in the latter region, and it became customary to cover
+      the shoulder, and to wrap the upper part of the person in two or three
+      thicknesses of heavy wool, they at once accommodated themselves to the new
+      mode, although it served to restrain the free motion of the body. Among
+      the upper classes, at least, domestic arrangements were modelled upon the
+      fashions observed in the palaces of the nobles of Car-chemish or Assur:
+      the same articles of toilet, the same ranks of servants and scribes, the
+      same luxurious habits, and the same use of perfumes were to be found among
+      both.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * An example of the fashion of leaving the shoulder bare is
+     found even in the XXth dynasty. The Tel el-Amarna tablets
+     prove that, as far as the scribes were concerned, the
+     customs and training of Syria and Chald�a were identical.
+     The Syrian princes are there represented as employing the
+     cuneiform character in their correspondence, being
+     accompanied by scribes brought up after the Chald�an manner.
+     We shall see later on that the king of the Khati, who
+     represented in the time of Ramses II. the type of an
+     accomplished Syrian, had attendants similar to those of the
+     Chald�an kings.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      From all that we can gather, in short, from the silence as well as from
+      the misunderstandings of the Egyptian chroniclers, Syria stands before us
+      as a fruitful and civilized country, of which one might be thankful to be
+      a native, in spite of continual wars and frequent revolutions.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The religion of the Syrians was subject to the same influences as their
+      customs; we are, as yet, far from being able to draw a complete picture of
+      their theology, but such knowledge as we do possess recalls the same names
+      and the same elements as are found in the religious systems of Chald�a.
+      The myths, it is true, are still vague and misty, at least to our modern
+      ideas: the general characteristics of the principal divinities alone stand
+      out, and seem fairly well defined. As with the other Semitic races, the
+      deity in a general sense, the primordial type of the godhead, was called
+      <i>El</i> or <i>Il�</i>, and his feminine counterpart <i>Il�t</i>, but we
+      find comparatively few cities in which these nearly abstract beings
+      enjoyed the veneration of the faithful.* The gods of Syria, like those of
+      Egypt and of the countries watered by the Euphrates, were feudal princes
+      distributed over the surface of the earth, their number corresponding with
+      that of the independent states. Each nation, each tribe, each city,
+      worshipped its own lord&mdash;<i>Adoni</i>** &mdash;or its master&mdash;<i>Baal</i>***
+      &mdash;and each of these was designated by a special title to distinguish
+      him from neighbouring <i>Baal�m</i>, or masters.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The frequent occurrence of the term <i>Il�</i> or <i>El</i> in names
+     of towns in Southern Syria seems to indicate pretty
+     conclusively that the inhabitants of these countries used
+     this term by preference to designate their supreme god.
+     Similarly we meet with it in Aramaic names, and later on
+     among the Nabathseans; it predominates at Byblos and Berytus
+     in Phoenicia and among the Aramaic peoples of North Syria;
+     in the Samalla country, for instance, during the VIIIth
+     century B.C.
+
+     ** The extension of this term to Syrian countries is proved
+     in the Israelitish epoch by Canaanitish names, such as
+     Adonizedek and Adonibezek, or Jewish names such as Adonijah,
+     Adonikam, Adoniram-Adoram.
+
+     *** Movers tried to prove that there was one particular god
+     named Baal, and his ideas, popularised in Prance by M. de
+     Vogii�, prevailed for some time: since then scholars have
+     gone back to the view of M�nter and of the writers at the
+     beginning of this century, who regarded the term Baal as a
+     common epithet applicable to all gods.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Baal who ruled at Zebub was styled &ldquo;Master of Zebub,&rdquo; or Baal-Zebub;*
+      and the Baal of Hermon, who was an ally of Gad, goddess of fortune, was
+      sometimes called Baal-Hermon, or &ldquo;Master of Hermon,&rdquo; sometimes Baal-G-ad,
+      or &ldquo;Master of Gad;&rdquo; ** the Baal of Shechem, at the time of the Israelite
+      invasion, was &ldquo;Master of the Covenant&rdquo;&mdash;Baal-Ber�th&mdash;doubtless
+      in memory of some agreement which he had concluded with his worshippers in
+      regard to the conditions of their allegiance.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Baal-Zebub was worshipped at Ekxon during the Philistine
+     supremacy.
+
+     ** The mountain of Baal-Hermon is the mountain of Bani�s,
+     where the Jordan has one of its sources, and the town of
+     Baal-Hermon is Bani�s itself. The variant Baal-Gad occurs
+     several times in the Biblical books.
+
+     *** Baal-Berith, like Baal-Zebub, only occurs, so far as we
+     know at present, in the Hebrew Scriptures, where, by the
+     way, the first element, Baal, is changed to El, El-Berith.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0033" id="linkBimage-0033">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/226.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="226.jpg Lotan� Women and Children from the Tomb Of Rakhmie� " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from coloured sketches by Prisse
+     d&rsquo;Avennes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The prevalent conception of the essence and attributes of these deities
+      was not the same in all their sanctuaries, but the more exalted among them
+      were regarded as personifying the sky in the daytime or at night, the
+      atmosphere, the light,* or the sun, Shamash, as creator and prime mover of
+      the universe; and each declared himself to be king&mdash;<i>melek</i>&mdash;over
+      the other gods.** Bashuf represented the lightning and the thunderbolt;***
+      Shalm�n, Hadad, and his double Bimm�n held sway over the air like the
+      Babylonian.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This appears under the name <i>Or</i> or <i>Ur</i> in the Samalla
+     inscriptions of the VIIIth century B.C.; it is, so far, a
+     unique instance among the Semites.
+
+     ** We find the term applied in the Bible to the national god
+     of the Ammonites, under the forms <i>Moloch, Molech, Mik�m,
+     Milk�m</i>, and especially with the article, <i>Ham-molek</i>; the
+     real name hidden beneath this epithet was probably <i>Amn�n or
+     Amm�n</i>, and, strictly speaking, the God Moloch only exists
+     in the imagination of scholars. The epithet was used among
+     the Oanaanites in the name Melchizedek, a similar form to
+     Adonizedek, Abimelech, Ahimelech; it was in current use
+     among the Phoenicians, in reference to the god of Tyre,
+     Melek-Karta or Melkarth, and in many proper names, such as
+     Melekiathon, Baalmelek, Bodmalek, etc., not to mention the
+     god Milichus worshipped in Spain, who was really none other
+     than Melkarth.
+
+     *** Resheph has been vocalised <i>Rashuf</i> in deference to the
+     Egyptian orthography Rashupu. It was a name common to a
+     whole family of lightning and storm-gods, and M. de Roug�
+     pointed out long ago the passage in the Great Inscription of
+     Ramses III. at Medinet-Habu, in which the soldiers who man
+     the chariots are compared to the Rashupu; the Rabbinic
+     Hebrew still employs this plural form in the sense of
+     &ldquo;demons.&rdquo; The Phoenician inscriptions contain references to
+     several local Rashufs; the way in which this god is coupled
+     with the goddess Qodshu on the Egyptian stel� leads me to
+     think that, at the epoch now under consideration, he was
+     specially worshipped by the Amorites, just as his equivalent
+     Hadad was by the inhabitants of Damascus, neighbours of the
+     Amorites, and perhaps themselves Amorites.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ramm�nu;* Dagon, patron god of fishermen and husbandmen, seems to have
+      watched over the fruitfulness of the sea and the land.** We are beginning
+      to learn the names of the races whom they specially protected: Rashuf the
+      Amorites, Hadad and Rimmon the Aram�ans of Damascus, Dagon the peoples of
+      the coast between Ashkelon and the forest of Carmel. Rash�f is the only
+      one whose appearance is known to us. He possessed the restless temperament
+      usually attributed to the thunder-gods, and was, accordingly, pictured as
+      a soldier armed with javelin and mace, bow and buckler; a gazelle&rsquo;s head
+      with pointed horns surmounts his helmet, and sometimes, it may be, serves
+      him as a cap.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Hadad and Rimmon are represented in Assyrio-Chald�an by
+     one and the same ideogram, which may be read either Dadda-
+     Hadad or Eamm�nu. The identity of the expressions employed
+     shows how close the connection between the two divinities
+     must have been, even if they were not similar in all
+     respects; from the Hebrew writings we know of the temple of
+     Rimmon at Damascus (<i>2 Kings</i> v. 18) and that one of the
+     kings of that city was called Tabrimm�n = &ldquo;llimmon is good&rdquo;
+      (<i>1 Kings</i> xv. 18), while Hadad gave his name to no less
+     than ten kings of the same city. Even as late as the Gr�co-
+     Roman epoch, kingship over the other gods was still
+     attributed both to Rimmon and to Hadad, but this latter was
+     identified with the sun.
+
+     ** The documents which we possess in regard to Dagon date
+     from the Hebrew epoch, and represent him as worshipped by
+     the Philistines. We know, however, from the Tel el-Amarna
+     tablets, of a Dagantakala, a name which proves the presence
+     of the god among the Canaanites long before the Philistine
+     invasion, and we find two Beth-Dagons&mdash;one in the plain of
+     Judah, the other in the tribe of Asher; Philo of Byblos
+     makes Dagon a Phoenician deity, and declares him to be the
+     genius of fecundity, master of grain and of labour. The
+     representation of his statue which appears on the Gr�co-
+     Roman coins of Abydos, reminds us of the fish-god of
+     Chald�a.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Each god had for his complement a goddess, who was proclaimed &ldquo;mistress&rdquo;
+       of the city, <i>Baalat</i>, or &ldquo;queen,&rdquo; <i>Milkat</i>, of heaven, just as
+      the god himself was recognised as &ldquo;master&rdquo; or &ldquo;king.&rdquo; * As a rule, the
+      goddess was contented with the generic name of Astart�; but to this was
+      often added some epithet, which lent her a distinct personality, and
+      prevented her from being confounded with the Astart�s of neighbouring
+      cities, her companions or rivals.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Among goddesses to whom the title &ldquo;Baalat &ldquo;was referred,
+     we have the goddess of Byblos, Baalat-Gebal, also the
+     goddess of Berytus, Baalat-Ber�th, or Beyrut. The epithet
+     &ldquo;queen of heaven &ldquo;is applied to the Phoenician Astart� by
+     Hebrew (<i>Jer.</i> vii. 18, xliv. 18-29) and classic writers.
+     The Egyptians, when they adopted these Oanaanitish
+     goddesses, preserved the title, and called each of them
+     <i>nib�t pit,</i> &ldquo;lady of heaven.&rdquo; In the Phoenician inscriptions
+     their names are frequently preceded by the word <i>Rabbat:
+     rabbat Baalat-Gebal</i>, &ldquo;(my) lady Baalat-Gebal.&rdquo;
+
+     ** The Hebrew writers frequently refer to the Canaanite
+     goddesses by the general title &ldquo;the Ashtar�th&rdquo; or &ldquo;Astart�s,&rdquo;
+      and a town in Northern Syria bore the significant name of
+     Istar�ti = &ldquo;the Ishtars, the Ashtar�th,&rdquo; a name which finds
+     a parallel in Anath�th = &ldquo;the Anats,&rdquo; a title assumed by a
+     town of the tribe of Benjamin; similarly, the Assyrio-
+     Chald�ans called their goddesses by the plural of Ishtar.
+     The inscription on an Egyptian amulet in the Louvre tells us
+     of a personage of the XXth dynasty, who, from his name,
+     Rabrab�na, must have been of Syrian origin, and who styled
+     himself &ldquo;Prophet of the Astart�s,&rdquo; Honnutir Astiratu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0034" id="linkBimage-0034">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/229.jpg" width="100%" alt="229.jpg Astarte As a Sphinx " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a copy of an original in chased
+     gold.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Thus she would be styled the &ldquo;good&rdquo; Astart�, Ashtoreth Naamah, or the
+      &ldquo;horned&rdquo; Astart�, Ashtoreth Qarna�m, because of the lunar crescent which
+      appears on her forehead, as a sort of head-dress.* She was the goddess of
+      good luck, and was called Gad;** she was Anat,*** or As�ti,**** the chaste
+      and the warlike.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The two-horned Astart� gave her name to a city beyond the
+     Jordan, of which she was, probably, the eponymous goddess:
+     (Gen xiv. 5) she would seem to be represented on the curious
+     monument called by the Arabs &ldquo;the stone of Job,&rdquo; which was
+     discovered by M. Schumacher in the centre of the Hauran. It
+     was an analogous goddess whom the Egyptians sometimes
+     identified with their H�thor, and whom they represented as
+     crowned with a crescent.
+
+     ** Gad, the goddess of fortune, is mainly known to us in
+     connection with the Aram�ans; we find mention made of her by
+     the Hebrew writers, and geographical names, such as Baal-Gad
+     and Migdol-Gad, prove that she must have been worshipped at
+     a very early date in the Canaanite countries.
+
+     *** Anat, or Ana�ti, or Aniti, has been found in a
+     Phoenician inscription, which enables us to reconstruct the
+     history of the goddess. Her worship was largely practised
+     among the Canaanites, as is proved by the existence in the
+     Hebrew epoch of several towns, such as Beth-Anath, Beth-
+     Anoth, Anath�th; at least one of which, B�t-An�ti, is
+     mentioned in the Egyptian geographical lists. The appearance
+     of Anat-An�ti is known to us, as she is represented in
+     Egyptian dress on several stel� of the XIXth and XXth
+     dynasties. Her name, like that of Astart�, had become a
+     generic term, in the plural form Anath�th, for a whole group
+     of goddesses.
+
+     **** As�ti is represented at Radesieh, on a stele of the
+     time of Seti I.; she enters into the composition of a
+     compound name, <i>As�tii�kh�r�</i> (perhaps &ldquo;the goddess of Asiti
+     is enflamed with anger &ldquo;), which we find on a monument in
+     the Vienna Museum. W. Max M�ller makes her out to have been
+     a divinity of the desert, and the place in which the picture
+     representing her was found would seem to justify this
+     hypothesis; the Egyptians connected her, as well as the
+     other Astart�s, with Sit-Typhon, owing to her cruel and
+     warlike character.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0035" id="linkBimage-0035">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/231.jpg" width="100%" alt="231.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The statues sometimes represent her as a sphinx with a woman&rsquo;s head, but
+      more often as a woman standing on a lion passant, either nude, or
+      encircled round the hips by merely a girdle, her hands filled with flowers
+      or with serpents, her features framed in a mass of heavy tresses&mdash;a
+      faithful type of the priestesses who devoted themselves to her service,
+      the <i>Qedesh�t</i>. She was the goddess of love in its animal, or rather
+      in its purely physical, aspect, and in this capacity was styled Qaddishat
+      the Holy, like the hetair� of her family; Qodshu, the Amorite capital, was
+      consecrated to her service, and she was there associated with Rashuf, the
+      thunder-god.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Qaddishat is know to us from the Egyptian monuments
+     referred to above. The name was sometimes written Qodsh�,
+     like that of the town: E. de Boug� argued from this that
+     Qaddishat must have been the eponymous divinity of Qodsh�,
+     and that her real name was Kashit or Kesh; he recalls,
+     however, the <i>r�le</i> played by the Qedeshoth, and admits that
+     &ldquo;the Holy here means the prostitute.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      But she often comes before us as a warlike Amazon, brandishing a club,
+      lance, or shield, mounted on horseback like a soldier, and wandering
+      through the desert in quest of her prey.* This dual temperament rendered
+      her a goddess of uncertain attributes and of violent contrasts; at times
+      reserved and chaste, at other times shameless and dissolute, but always
+      cruel, always barren, for the countless multitude of her excesses for ever
+      shut her out from motherhood: she conceives without ceasing, but never
+      brings forth children.** The Baalim and Astart�s frequented by choice the
+      tops of mountains, such as Lebanon, Carmel, Hermon, or Kasios:*** they
+      dwelt near springs, or hid themselves in the depths of forests.**** They
+      revealed themselves to mortals through the heavenly bodies, and in all the
+      phenomena of nature: the sun was a Baal, the moon was Astart�, and the
+      whole host of heaven was composed of more or less powerful genii, as we
+      find in Chald�a.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A fragment of a popular tale preserved in the British
+     Museum, and mentioned by Birch, seems to show us Astart� in
+     her character of war-goddess, and the sword of Astart� is
+     mentioned by Chabas. A bas-relief at Edf� represents her
+     standing upright in her chariot, drawn by horses, and
+     trampling her enemies underfoot: she is there identified
+     with Sokh�t the warlike, destroyer of men.
+
+     ** This conception of the Syrian goddesses had already
+     become firmly established at the period with which we are
+     dealing, for an Egyptian magical formula defines An�ti and
+     Astart� as &ldquo;the great goddesses who conceiving do not bring
+     forth young, for the Horuses have sealed them and Sit hath
+     established them.&rdquo;
+
+     *** The Baal of Lebanon is mentioned in an archaic
+     Phoenician inscription, and the name &ldquo;Holy Cape&rdquo; (<i>Rosh-
+     Qodshu</i>), borne in the time of Th�tmosis III. either by
+     Haifa or by a neighbouring town, proves that Carmel was held
+     sacred as far back as the Egyptian epoch. Baal-Hermon has
+     already been mentioned.
+
+     **** The source of the Jordan, near Bani�s, was the seat of
+     a Baal whom the Greeks identified with Pan. This was
+     probably the Baal-Gad who often lent his name to the
+     neighbouring town of Baal-Hermon: many of the rivers of
+     Phoenicia were called after the divinities worshipped in the
+     nearest city, e.g. the Adonis, the B�los, the Asclepios, the
+     Dam�ras.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They required that offerings and prayers should be brought to them at the
+      high places,* but they were also pleased&mdash;and especially the
+      goddesses&mdash;to lodge in trees; tree-trunks, sometimes leafy, sometimes
+      bare and branchless (<i>ash�rah</i>), long continued to be living emblems
+      of the local Astart�s among the peoples of Southern Syria. Side by side
+      with these plant-gods we find everywhere, in the inmost recesses of the
+      temples, at cross-roads, and in the open fields, blocks of stone hewn into
+      pillars, isolated boulders, or natural rocks, sometimes of meteoric
+      origin, which were recognised by certain mysterious marks to be the house
+      of the god, the Betyli or Beth-els in which he enclosed a part of his
+      intelligence and vital force.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These are the &ldquo;high places&rdquo; (bam�th) so frequently
+     referred to by the Hebrew prophets, and which we find in the
+     country of Moab, according to the Mesha inscription, and in
+     the place-name Bamoth-Baal; many of them seem to have served
+     for Canaanitish places of worship before they were resorted
+     to by the children of Israel.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The worship of these gods involved the performance of ceremonies more
+      bloody and licentious even than those practised by other races. The Baalim
+      thirsted after blood, nor would they be satisfied with any common blood
+      such as generally contented their brethren in Chald�a or Egypt: they
+      imperatively demanded human as well as animal sacrifices. Among several of
+      the Syrian nations they had a prescriptive right to the firstborn male of
+      each family;* this right was generally commuted, either by a money payment
+      or by subjecting the infant to circumcision.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This fact is proved, in so far as the Hebrew people is
+     concerned, by the texts of the Pentateuch and of the
+     prophets; amongst the Moabites also it was his eldest son
+     whom King Mosha took to offer to his god. We find the same
+     custom among other Syrian races: Philo of Byblos tells us,
+     in fact, that El-Kronos, god of Byblos, sacrificed his
+     firstborn son and set the example of this kind of offering.
+
+     ** Redemption by a payment in money was the case among the
+     Hebrews, as also the substitution of an animal in the place
+     of a child; as to redemption by circumcision, cf. the story
+     of Moses and Zipporah, where the mother saves her son from
+     Jahveh by circumcising him. Circumcision was practised among
+     the Syrians of Palestine in the time of Herodotus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At important junctures, however, this pretence of bloodshed would fail to
+      appease them, and the death of the child alone availed. Indeed, in times
+      of national danger, the king and nobles would furnish, not merely a single
+      victim, but as many as the priests chose to demand.* While they were being
+      burnt alive on the knees of the statue, or before the sacred emblem, their
+      cries of pain were drowned by the piping of flutes or the blare of
+      trumpets, the parents standing near the altar, without a sign of pity, and
+      dressed as for a festival: the ruler of the world could refuse nothing to
+      prayers backed by so precious an offering, and by a purpose so determined
+      to move him. Such sacrifices were, however, the exception, and the
+      shedding of their own blood by his priests sufficed, as a rule, for the
+      daily wants of the god. Seizing their knives, they would slash their arms
+      and breasts with the view of compelling, by this offering of their own
+      persons, the good will of the Baalim.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * If we may credit Tertullian, the custom of offering up
+     children as sacrifices lasted down to the proconsulate of
+     Tiberius.
+
+     ** Cf., for the Hebraic epoch, the scene where the priests
+     of Baal, in a trial of power with Elijah before Ahab,
+     offered up sacrifices on the highest point of Carmel, and
+     finding that their offerings did not meet with the usual
+     success, &ldquo;cut themselves... with knives and lancets till the
+     blood gushed out upon them.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      The Astart�s of all degrees and kinds were hardly less cruel; they imposed
+      frequent flagellations, self-mutilation, and sometimes even emasculation,
+      on their devotees. Around the majority of these goddesses was gathered an
+      infamous troop of profligates (<i>kedesh�m</i>), &ldquo;dogs of love&rdquo; (<i>kelab�m</i>),
+      and courtesans (<i>kedesh�t</i>). The temples bore little resemblance to
+      those of the regions of the Lower Euphrates: nowhere do we find traces of
+      those <i>ziggurat</i> which serve to produce the peculiar jagged outline
+      characteristic of Chald�an cities. The Syrian edifices were stone
+      buildings, which included, in addition to the halls and courts reserved
+      for religious rites, dwelling-rooms for the priesthood, and storehouses
+      for provisions: though not to be compared in size with the sanctuaries of
+      Thebes, they yet answered the purpose of strongholds in time of need, and
+      were capable of resisting the attacks of a victorious foe.* A numerous
+      staff, consisting of priests, male and female singers, porters, butchers,
+      slaves, and artisans, was assigned to each of these temples: here the god
+      was accustomed to give forth his oracles, either by the voice of his
+      prophets, or by the movement of his statues.** The greater number of the
+      festivals celebrated in them were closely connected with the pastoral and
+      agricultural life of the country; they inaugurated, or brought to a close,
+      the principal operations of the year&mdash;the sowing of seed, the
+      harvest, the vintage, the shearing of the sheep. At Shechem, when the
+      grapes were ripe, the people flocked out of the town into the vineyards,
+      returning to the temple for religious observances and sacred banquets when
+      the fruit had been trodden in the winepress.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The story of Abimelech gives us some idea of what the
+     Canaanite temple of Baal-Ber�th at Shechem was like.
+
+     ** As to the regular organisation of Baal-worship, we
+     possess only documents of a comparatively late period.
+
+     *** It is probable that the vintage festival, celebrated at
+     Shiloh in the time of the Judges, dated back to a period of
+     Canaanite history prior to the Hebrew invasion, i.e. to the
+     time of the Egyptian supremacy.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In times of extraordinary distress, such as a prolonged drought or a
+      famine, the priests were wont to ascend in solemn procession to the high
+      places in order to implore the pity of their divine masters, from whom
+      they strove to extort help, or to obtain the wished-for rain, by their
+      dances, their lamentations, and the shedding of their blood.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *Cf., in the Hebraic period, the scene where the priests of
+     Baal go up to the top of Mount Carmel with the prophet
+     Elijah.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Almost everywhere, but especially in the regions east of the Jordan, were
+      monuments which popular piety surrounded with a superstitious reverence.
+      Such were the isolated boulders, or, as we should call them, &ldquo;menhirs,&rdquo;
+       reared on the summit of a knoll, or on the edge of a tableland; dolmens,
+      formed of a flat slab placed on the top of two roughly hewn supports,
+      cromlechs, or, that is to say, stone circles, in the centre of which might
+      be found a beth-el. We know not by whom were set up these monuments there,
+      nor at what time: the fact that they are in no way different from those
+      which are to be met with in Western Europe and the north of Africa has
+      given rise to the theory that they were the work of some one primeval race
+      which wandered ceaselessly over the ancient world. A few of them may have
+      marked the tombs of some forgotten personages, the discovery of human
+      bones beneath them confirming such a conjecture; while others seem to have
+      been holy places and altars from the beginning. The nations of Syria did
+      not in all cases recognise the original purpose of these monuments, but
+      regarded them as marking the seat of an ancient divinity, or the precise
+      spot on which he had at some time manifested himself. When the children of
+      Israel caught sight of them again on their return from Egypt, they at once
+      recognised in them the work of their patriarchs. The dolmen at Shechem was
+      the altar which Abraham had built to the Eternal after his arrival in the
+      country of Canaan. Isaac had raised that at Beersheba, on the very spot
+      where Jehovah had appeared in order to renew with him the covenant that He
+      had made with Abraham. One might almost reconstruct a map of the
+      wanderings of Jacob from the altars which he built at each of his
+      principal resting-places&mdash;at Gilead [Galeed], at Ephrata, at Bethel,
+      and at Shechem.* Each of such still existing objects probably had a
+      history of its own, connecting it inseparably with some far-off event in
+      the local annals.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The heap of stones at Galeed, in Aramaic <i>Jegar-
+     Sahadutha</i>, &ldquo;the heap of witness,&rdquo; marked the spot where
+     Laban and Jacob were reconciled; the stele on the way to
+     Ephrata was the tomb of Rachel; the altar and stele at
+     Bethel marked the spot where God appeared unto Jacob.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0036" id="linkBimage-0036">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/235.jpg" width="100%" alt="235.jpg Transjordanian Dolmen " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0037" id="linkBimage-0037">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/238.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="238.jpg a Cromlech in the Neighbourhood of Hesban, In The Country of Moab " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Most of them were objects of worship: they were anointed with oil, and
+      victims were slaughtered in their honour; the faithful even came at times
+      to spend the night and sleep near them, in order to obtain in their dreams
+      glimpses of the future.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The menhir of Bethel was the identical one whereon Jacob
+     rested his head on the night in which Jehovah appeared to
+     him in a dream. In Phoenicia there was a legend which told
+     how Us�os set up two stell� to the elements of wind and fire,
+     and how he offered the blood of the animals he had killed in
+     the chase as a libation.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Men and beasts were supposed to be animated, during their lifetime, by a
+      breath or soul which ran in their veins along with their blood, and served
+      to move their limbs; the man, therefore, who drank blood or ate bleeding
+      flesh assimilated thereby the soul which inhered in it. After death the
+      fate of this soul was similar to that ascribed to the spirits of the
+      departed in Egypt and Chald�a. The inhabitants of the ancient world were
+      always accustomed to regard the surviving element in man as something
+      restless and unhappy&mdash;a weak and pitiable double, doomed to hopeless
+      destruction if deprived of the succour of the living. They imagined it as
+      taking up its abode near the body wrapped in a half-conscious lethargy; or
+      else as dwelling with the other <i>rephaim</i> (departed spirits) in some
+      dismal and gloomy kingdom, hidden in the bowels of the earth, like the
+      region ruled by the Chald�an All�t, its doors gaping wide to engulf new
+      arrivals, but allowing none to escape who had once passed the threshold.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The expression <i>rephaim</i> means &ldquo;the feeble&rdquo;; it was the
+     epithet applied by the Hebrews to a part of the primitive
+     races of Palestine.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There it wasted away, a prey to sullen melancholy, under the sway of
+      inexorable deities, chief amongst whom, according to the Phoenician idea,
+      was Mout (Death),* the grandson of El; there the slave became the equal of
+      his former master, the rich man no longer possessed anything which could
+      raise him above the poor, and dreaded monarchs were greeted on their
+      entrance by the jeers of kings who had gone down into the night before
+      them.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *Among the Hebrews his name was Maweth, who feeds the
+     departed like sheep, and himself feeds on them in hell. Some
+     writers have sought to identify this or some analogous god
+     with the lion represented on a stele of Piraeus which
+     threatens to devour the body of a dead man.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0038" id="linkBimage-0038">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/240.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="240.jpg a Corner of the Phoenician Neckropolis at Adlun " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph in Lortet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The corpse, after it had been anointed with perfumes and enveloped in
+      linen, and impregnated with substances which retarded its decomposition,
+      was placed in some natural grotto or in a cave hollowed out of the solid
+      rock: sometimes it was simply laid on the bare earth, sometimes in a
+      sarcophagus or coffin, and on it, or around it, were piled amulets,
+      jewels, objects of daily use, vessels filled with perfume, or household
+      utensils, together with meat and drink. The entrance was then closed, and
+      on the spot a cippus was erected&mdash;in popular estimation sometimes
+      held to represent the soul&mdash;or a monument was set up on a scale
+      proportionate to the importance of the family to which the dead man had
+      belonged.* On certain days beasts ceremonially pure were sacrificed at the
+      tomb, and libations poured out, which, carried into the next world by
+      virtue of the prayers of those who offered them, and by the aid of the
+      gods to whom the prayers were addressed, assuaged the hunger and thirst of
+      the dead man.** The chapels and stell� which marked the exterior of these
+      &ldquo;eternal&rdquo; *** houses have disappeared in the course of the various wars by
+      which Syria suffered so heavily: in almost all cases, therefore, we are
+      ignorant as to the sites of the various cities of the dead in which the
+      nobles and common people of the Canaanite and Amorite towns were laid to
+      rest.****
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The pillar or stele was used among both Hebrews and
+     Phoenicians to mark the graves of distinguished persons.
+     Among the Semites speaking Aramaic it was called <i>nephesh</i>,
+     especially when it took the form of a pyramid; the word
+     means &ldquo;breath,&rdquo; &ldquo;soul,&rdquo; and clearly shows the ideas
+     associated with the object.
+
+     ** An altar was sometimes placed in front of the sarcophagus
+     to receive these offerings.
+
+     *** This expression, which is identical with that used by
+     the Egyptians of the same period, is found in one of the
+     Phoenician inscriptions at Malta.
+
+     **** The excavations carried out by M. Gautier in 1893-94,
+     on the little island of Bahr-el-Kadis, at one time believed
+     to have been the site of the town of Qodshu, have revealed
+     the existence of a number of tombs in the enclosure which
+     forms the central part of the tumulus: some of these may
+     possibly date from the Amorite epoch, but they are very poor
+     in remains, and contain no object which permits us to fix
+     the date with accuracy.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In Phoenicia alone do we meet with burial-places which, after the
+      vicissitudes and upheavals of thirty centuries, still retain something of
+      their original arrangement. Sometimes the site chosen was on level ground:
+      perpendicular shafts or stairways cut in the soil led down to low-roofed
+      chambers, the number of which varied according to circumstances: they were
+      often arranged in two stories, placed one above the other, fresh vaults
+      being probably added as the old ones were filled up. They were usually
+      rectangular in shape, with horizontal or slightly arched ceilings; niches
+      cut in the walls received the dead body and the objects intended for its
+      use in the next world, and were then closed with a slab of stone.
+      Elsewhere some isolated hill or narrow gorge, with sides of fine
+      homogeneous limestone, was selected.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Such was the necropolis at Adl�n, the last rearrangement
+     of which took place during the Gr�co-Roman period, but
+     which externally bears so strong a resemblance to an
+     Egyptian necropolis of the XVIIIth or XIXth dynasty, that we
+     may, without violating the probabilities, trace its origin
+     back to the time of the Pharaonic conquest.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In this case the doors were placed in rows on a sort of fa�ade similar to
+      that of the Egyptian rock-tomb, generally without any attempt at external
+      ornament. The vaults were on the ground-level, but were not used as
+      chapels for the celebration of festivals in honour of the dead: they were
+      walled up after every funeral, and all access to them forbidden, until
+      such time as they were again required for the purposes of burial. Except
+      on these occasions of sad necessity, those whom &ldquo;the mouth of the pit had
+      devoured&rdquo; dreaded the visits of the living, and resorted to every means
+      afforded by their religion to protect themselves from them. Their
+      inscriptions declare repeatedly that neither gold nor silver, nor any
+      object which could excite the greed of robbers, was to be found within
+      their graves; they threaten any one who should dare to deprive them of
+      such articles of little value as belonged to them, or to turn them out of
+      their chambers in order to make room for others, with all sorts of
+      vengeance, divine and human. These imprecations have not, however, availed
+      to save them from the desecration the danger of which they foresaw, and
+      there are few of their tombs which were not occupied by a succession of
+      tenants between the date of their first making and the close of the Roman
+      supremacy. When the modern explorer chances to discover a vault which has
+      escaped the spade of the treasure-seeker, it is hardly ever the case that
+      the bodies whose remains are unearthed prove to be those of the original
+      proprietors.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0039" id="linkBimage-0039">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/241.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="241.jpg Valley of the Tomb Of The Kings " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0040" id="linkBimage-0040">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/241-text.jpg" width="100%" alt="241-text.jpg " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The gods and legends of Chald�a had penetrated to the countries of Amauru
+      and Canaan, together with the language of the conquerors and their system
+      of writing: the stories of Adapa&rsquo;s struggles against the south-west wind,
+      or of the incidents which forced Irishkigal, queen of the dead, to wed
+      Nergal, were accustomed to be read at the courts of Syrian princes.
+      Chald�an theology, therefore, must have exercised influence on individual
+      Syrians and on their belief; but although we are forced to allow the
+      existence of such influence, we cannot define precisely the effects
+      produced by it. Only on the coast and in the Phoenician cities do the
+      local religions seem to have become formulated at a fairly early date, and
+      crystallised under pressure of this influence into cosmogonie theories.
+      The Baalim and Astart�s reigned there as on the banks of the Jordan or
+      Orontes, and in each town Baal was &ldquo;the most high,&rdquo; master of heaven and
+      eternity, creator of everything which exists, though the character of his
+      creating acts was variously defined according to time and place. Some
+      regarded him as the personification of Justice, Sydyk, who established the
+      universe with the help of eight indefatigable Cabiri. Others held the
+      whole world to be the work of a divine family, whose successive
+      generations gave birth to the various elements. The storm-wind, Colpias,
+      wedded to Chaos, had begotten two mortals, Ulom (Time) and Kadm�n (the
+      First-Born), and these in their turn engendered Q�n and Q�nath, who dwelt
+      in Phoenicia: then came a drought, and they lifted up their heads to the
+      Sun, imploring him, as Lord of the Heavens (<i>Baalsam�n</i>), to put an
+      end to their woes. At Tyre it was thought that Chaos existed at the
+      beginning, but chaos of a dark and troubled nature, over which a Breath (<i>r�akh</i>)
+      floated without affecting it; &ldquo;and this Chaos had no ending, and it was
+      thus for centuries and centuries.&mdash;Then the Breath became enamoured
+      of its own principles, and brought about a change in itself, and this
+      change was called Desire:&mdash;now Desire was the principle which created
+      all things, and the Breath knew not its own creation.&mdash;The Breath and
+      Chaos, therefore, became united, and Mot the Clay was born, and from this
+      clay sprang all the seed of creation, and Mot was the father of all
+      things; now Mot was like an egg in shape.&mdash;And the Sun, the Moon, the
+      stars, the great planets, shone forth.* There were living beings devoid of
+      intelligence, and from these living beings came intelligent beings, who
+      were called <i>Zophesam�n</i>, or &lsquo;watchers of the heavens.&lsquo;Now the
+      thunder-claps in the war of separating elements awoke these intelligent
+      beings as it were from a sleep, and then the males and the females began
+      to stir themselves and to seek one another on the land and in the sea.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Mot, the clay formed by the corruption of earth and water,
+     is probably a Phoenician form of a word which means <i>water</i>
+     in the Semitic languages. Cf. the Egyptian theory, according
+     to which the clay, heated by the sun, was supposed to have
+     given birth to animated beings; this same clay modelled by
+     Khn�m� into the form of an egg was supposed to have produced
+     the heavens and the earth.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A scholar of the Roman epoch, Philo of Byblos, using as a basis some old
+      documents hidden away in the sanctuaries, which had apparently been
+      classified by Sanchoniathon, a priest long before his time, has handed
+      these theories of the cosmogony down to us: after he has explained how the
+      world was brought out of Chaos, he gives a brief summary of the dawn of
+      civilization in Phoenicia and the legendary period in its history. No
+      doubt he interprets the writings from which he compiled his work in
+      accordance with the spirit of his time: he has none the less preserved
+      their substance more or less faithfully. Beneath the veneer of abstraction
+      with which the Greek tongue and mind have overlaid the fragment thus
+      quoted, we discern that groundwork of barbaric ideas which is to be met
+      with in most Oriental theologies, whether Egyptian or Babylonian. At first
+      we have a black mysterious Chaos, stagnating in eternal waters, the
+      primordial N� or Aps�; then the slime which precipitates in this chaos and
+      clots into the form of an egg, like the mud of the Nile under the hand? of
+      Khn�m�; then the hatching forth of living organisms and indolent
+      generations of barely conscious creatures, such as the Lakhm�, the Anshar,
+      and the Illinu of Chald�an speculation; finally the abrupt appearance of
+      intelligent beings.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0041" id="linkBimage-0041">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/246.jpg" alt="246.jpg " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the original in the
+<i>Cabinet des M�dailles</i>.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Phoenicians, however, accustomed as they were to the Mediterranean,
+      with its blind outbursts of fury, had formed an idea of Chaos which
+      differed widely from that of most of the inland races, to whom it
+      presented itself as something silent and motionless: they imagined it as
+      swept by a mighty wind, which, gradually increasing to a roaring tempest,
+      at length succeeded in stirring the chaos to its very depths, and in
+      fertilizing its elements amidst the fury of the storm. No sooner had the
+      earth been thus brought roughly into shape, than the whole family of the
+      north winds swooped down upon it, and reduced it to civilized order. It
+      was but natural that the traditions of a seafaring race should trace its
+      descent from the winds.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0042" id="linkBimage-0042">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/248.jpg" alt="248.jpg " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In Phoenicia the sea is everything: of land there is but just enough to
+      furnish a site for a score of towns, with their surrounding belt of
+      gardens. Mount Lebanon, with its impenetrable forests, isolated it almost
+      entirely from Coele-Syria, and acted as the eastward boundary of the long
+      narrow quadrangle hemmed in between the mountains and the rocky shore of
+      the sea. At frequent intervals, spurs run out at right angles from the
+      principal chain, forming steep headlands on the sea-front: these cut up
+      the country, small to begin with, into five or six still smaller
+      provinces, each one of which possessed from time immemorial its own
+      independent cities, its own religion, and its own national history. To the
+      north were the Zahi, a race half sailors, half husbandmen, rich, brave,
+      and turbulent, ever ready to give battle to their neighbours, or rebel
+      against an alien master, be he who he might. Arvad,* which was used by
+      them as a sort of stronghold or sanctuary, was huddled together on an
+      island some two miles from the coast: it was only about a thousand yards
+      in circumference, and the houses, as though to make up for the limited
+      space available for their foundations, rose to a height of five stories.
+      An Astart� reigned there, as also a sea-Baal, half man, half fish, but not
+      a trace of a temple or royal palace is now to be found.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name Arvad was identified in the Egyptian inscriptions
+     by Birch, who, with Hincks, at first saw in the name a
+     reference to the peoples of Ararat; Birch&rsquo;s identification,
+     is now accepted by all Egyptologists. The name is written
+     Aruada or Arada in the Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+
+     ** The Arvad Astart� had been identified by the Egyptians
+     with their goddess Bast�t. The sea-Baal, who has been
+     connected by some with Dagon of Askalon, is represented on
+     the earliest Arvadian coins. He has a fish-like tail, the
+     body and bearded head of a man, with an Assyrian headdress;
+     on his breast we sometimes find a circular opening which
+     seems to show the entrails.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The whole island was surrounded by a stone wall, built on the outermost
+      ledges of the rocks, which were levelled to form its foundation. The
+      courses of the masonry were irregular, laid without cement or mortar of
+      any kind. This bold piece of engineering served the double purpose of
+      sea-wall and rampart, and was thus fitted to withstand alike the onset of
+      hostile fleets and the surges of the Mediterranean.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The antiquity of the wall of Arvad, recognised by
+     travellers of the last century, is now universally admitted
+     by all arch�ologists.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There was no potable water on the island, and for drinking purposes the
+      inhabitants were obliged to rely on the fall of rain, which they stored in
+      cisterns&mdash;still in use among their descendants. In the event of
+      prolonged drought they were obliged to send to the mainland opposite; in
+      time of war they had recourse to a submarine spring, which bubbles up in
+      mid-channel. Their divers let down a leaden bell, to the top of which was
+      fitted a leathern pipe, and applied it to the orifice of the spring; the
+      fresh water coming up through the sand was collected in this bell, and
+      rising in the pipe, reached the surface uncontaminated by salt water.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Renan tells us that &ldquo;M. Gaillardot, when crossing from the
+     island to the mainland, noticed a spring of sweet water
+     bubbling up from the bottom of the sea.... Thomson and
+     Walpole noticed the same spring or similar springs a little
+     to the north of Tortosa.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0043" id="linkBimage-0043">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/249.jpg" width="100%" alt="249.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The harbour opened to the east, facing the mainland: it was divided into
+      two basins by a stone jetty, and was doubtless insufficient for the
+      sea-traffic, but this was the less felt inasmuch as there was a safe
+      anchorage outside it&mdash;the best, perhaps, to be found in these waters.
+      Opposite to Arvad, on an almost continuous line of coast some ten or
+      twelve miles in length, towns and villages occurred at short intervals,
+      such as Marath, Antarados, Enhydra, and Karn�, into which the surplus
+      population of the island overflowed. Karn� possessed a harbour, and would
+      have been a dangerous neighbour to the Arvadians had they themselves not
+      occupied and carefully fortified it.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Marath, now Amr�t, possesses some ancient ruins which have
+     been described by Renan. Antarados, which prior to the
+     Gr�co-Roman era was a place of no importance, occupies the
+     site of Tortosa. Enhydra is not known, and Karn� has been
+     replaced by Karn�n to the north of Tortosa. None of the
+     &ldquo;neighbours of Arados&rdquo; are mentioned by name in the Assyrian
+     texts; but W. Max M�ller has demonstrated that the Egyptian
+     form <i>Arat�t</i> or <i>Arati�t</i> corresponds with a Semitic plural
+     <i>Arvad�t</i>, and consequently refers not only to Arad itself,
+     but also to the fortified cities and towns which formed its
+     continental suburbs.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The cities of the dead lay close together in the background, on the slope
+      of the nearest chain of hills; still further back lay a plain celebrated
+      for its fertility and the luxuriance of its verdure: Lebanon, with its
+      wooded peaks, was shut in on the north and south, but on the east the
+      mountain sloped downwards almost to the sea-level, furnishing a pass
+      through which ran the road which joined the great military highway not far
+      from Qodshu. The influence of Arvad penetrated by means of this pass into
+      the valley of the Orontes, and is believed to have gradually extended as
+      far as Hamath itself&mdash;in other words, over the whole of Zahi. For the
+      most part, however, its rule was confined to the coast between G-abala and
+      the Nahr el-Keb�r; Simyra at one time acknowledged its suzerainty, at
+      another became a self-supporting and independent state, strong enough to
+      compel the respect of its neighbours.* Beyond the Orontes, the coast
+      curves abruptly inward towards the west, and a group of wind-swept hills
+      ending in a promontory called Phaniel,** the reputed scene of a divine
+      manifestation, marked the extreme limit of Arabian influence to the north,
+      if, indeed, it ever reached so far.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Simyra is the modern Surnrah, near the Nahr el-Keb�r.
+
+     ** The name has only come down to us under its Greek form,
+     but its original form, Phaniel or Pen�el, is easily arrived
+     at from the analogous name used in Canaan to indicate
+     localities where there had been a theophany. Renan questions
+     whether Phaniel ought not to be taken in the same sense as
+     the Pn�-Baal of the Carthaginian inscriptions, and applied
+     to a goddess to whom the promontory had been dedicated; he
+     also suggests that the modern name <i>Cap Madonne</i> may be a
+     kind of echo of the title <i>Rabbath</i> borne by this goddess
+     from the earliest times.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Half a dozen obscure cities flourished here, Arka,* Siani,** Mahallat,
+      Kaiz, Ma�za, and Botrys,*** some of them on the seaboard, others inland on
+      the bend of some minor stream. Botrys,**** the last of the six, barred the
+      roads which cross the Phaniel headland, and commanded the entrance to the
+      holy ground where Byblos and Berytus celebrated each year the amorous
+      mysteries of Adonis.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Arka is perhaps referred to in the tablets of Tel el-
+     Amarna under the form Irkata or Irkat; it also appears in
+     the Bible (Gen. x. 17) and in the Assyrian texts. It is the
+     Cassarea of classical geographers, which has now resumed its
+     old Phoenician name of Tell-Arka.
+
+     ** Sianu or Siani is mentioned in the Assyrian texts and in
+     the Bible; Strabo knew it under the name of Sinna, and a
+     village near Arka was called Sin or Syn as late as the XVth
+     century.
+
+     *** According to the Assyrian inscriptions, these were the
+     names of the three towns which formed the Tripolis of
+     Gr�co-Roman times.
+
+     **** Botrys is the hellenized form of the name Bozruna or
+     Bozrun, which appears on the tablets of Tel el-Amarna; the
+     modern name, Butrun or Batrun, preserves the final letter
+     which the Greeks had dropped.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Gublu, or&mdash;as the Greeks named it&mdash;Byblos,* prided itself on
+      being the most ancient city in the world. The god El had founded it at the
+      dawning of time, on the flank of a hill which is visible from some
+      distance out at sea. A small bay, now filled up, made it an important
+      shipping centre. The temple stood on the top of the hill, a few fragments
+      of its walls still serving to mark the site; it was, perhaps, identical
+      with that of which we find the plan engraved on certain imperial coins.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Gublu</i> or <i>Gubli</i> is the pronunciation indicated for this
+     name in the Tel el-Amarna tablets; the Egyptians transcribed
+     it <i>Kupuna</i> or <i>Kupna</i> by substituting <i>n</i> for <i>l</i>. The
+     Greek name Byblos was obtained from Gublu by substituting a
+     <i>b</i> for the <i>g</i>.
+
+     ** Renan carried out excavations in the hill of Kassubah
+     which brought to light some remains of a Gr�co-Roman temple:
+     he puts forward, subject to correction, the hypothesis which
+     I have adopted above.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Two flights of steps led up to it from the lower quarters of the town, one
+      of which gave access to a chapel in the Greek style, surmounted by a
+      triangular pediment, and dating, at the earliest, from the time of the
+      Seleucides; the other terminated in a long colonnade, belonging to the
+      same period, added as a new fa�ade to an earlier building, apparently in
+      order to bring it abreast of more modern requirements.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The sanctuary which stands hidden behind this incongruous veneer is, as
+      represented on the coins, in a very archaic style, and is by no means
+      wanting in originality or dignity. It consists of a vast rectangular court
+      surrounded by cloisters. At the point where lines drawn from the centres
+      of the two doors seem to cross one another stands a conical stone mounted
+      on a cube of masonry, which is the beth-el animated by the spirit of the
+      god: an open-work balustrade surrounds and protects it from the touch of
+      the profane. The building was perhaps not earlier than the Assyrian or
+      Persian era, but in its general plan it evidently reproduced the
+      arrangements of some former edifice.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The author of the <i>De De� Syr�</i> classed the temple of
+     Byblos among the Phoenician temples of the old order, which
+     were almost as ancient as the temples of Egypt, and it is
+     probable that from the Egyptian epoch onwards the plan of
+     this temple must have been that shown on the coins; the
+     cloister arcades ought, however, to be represented by
+     pillars or by columns supporting architraves, and the fact
+     of their presence leads me to the conclusion that the temple
+     did not exist in the form known to us at a date earlier than
+     the last Assyrian period.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At an early time El was spoken of as the first king of G-ablu in the same
+      manner as each one of his Egyptian fellow-gods had been in their several
+      nomes, and the story of his exploits formed the inevitable prelude to the
+      beginning of human history. Grandson of Eli�n who had brought Chaos into
+      order, son of Heaven and Earth, he dispossessed, vanquished, and mutilated
+      his father, and conquered the most distant regions one after another&mdash;the
+      countries beyond the Euphrates, Libya, Asia Minor and Greece: one year,
+      when the plague was ravaging his empire, he burnt his own son on the altar
+      as an expiatory victim, and from that time forward the priests took
+      advantage of his example to demand the sacrifice of children in moments of
+      public danger or calamity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0044" id="linkBimage-0044">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/252.jpg" alt="252.jpg " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the original in the
+<i>Cabinet des M�dailles</i>.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0045" id="linkBimage-0045">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:25%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/253.jpg" alt="253.jpg " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the original in the
+<i>Cabinet des M�dailles</i>.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He was represented as a man with two faces, whose eyes opened and shut in
+      an eternal alternation of vigilance and repose: six wings grew from his
+      shoulders, and spread fan-like around him. He was the incarnation of time,
+      which destroys all things in its rapid flight; and of the summer sun,
+      cruel and fateful, which eats up the green grass and parches the fields.
+      An Astart� reigned with him over Byblos&mdash;Baalat-Gublu, his own
+      sister; like him, the child of Earth and Heaven. In one of her aspects she
+      was identified with the moon, the personification of coldness and
+      chastity, and in her statues or on her sacred pillars she was represented
+      with the crescent or cow-horns of the Egyptian H�thor; but in her other
+      aspect she appeared as the amorous and wanton goddess in whom the Greeks
+      recognised the popular concept of Aphrodit�. Tradition tells us how, one
+      spring morning, she caught sight of and desired the youthful god known by
+      the title of <i>Adoni</i>, or &ldquo;My Lord.&rdquo; We scarce know what to make of
+      the origin of Adonis, and of the legends which treat him as a hero&mdash;the
+      representation of him as the incestuous offspring of a certain King
+      Kinyras and his own daughter Myrrha is a comparatively recent element
+      grafted on the original myth; at any rate, the happiness of two lovers had
+      lasted but a few short weeks when a sudden end was put to it by the tusks
+      of a monstrous wild boar. Baalat-Gublu wept over her lover&rsquo;s body and
+      buried it; then her grief triumphed over death, and Adonis, ransomed by
+      her tears, rose from the tomb, his love no whit less passionate than it
+      had been before the catastrophe. This is nothing else than the Chald�an
+      legend of Ishtar and D�m�zi presented in a form more fully symbolical of
+      the yearly marriage of Earth and Heaven. Like the Lady of Byblos at her
+      master&rsquo;s approach, Earth is thrilled by the first breath of spring, and
+      abandons herself without shame to the caresses of Heaven: she welcomes him
+      to her arms, is fructified by him, and pours forth the abundance of her
+      flowers and fruits. Them comes summer and kills the spring: Earth is burnt
+      up and withers, she strips herself of her ornaments, and her fruitfulness
+      departs till the gloom and icy numbness of winter have passed away. Each
+      year the cycle of the seasons brings back with it the same joy, the same
+      despair, into the life of the world; each year Baalat falls in love with
+      her Adonis and loses him, only to bring him back to life and lose him
+      again in the coming year.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The whole neighbourhood of Byblos, and that part of Mount Lebanon in which
+      it lies, were steeped in memories of this legend from the very earliest
+      times. We know the precise spot where the goddess first caught sight of
+      her lover, where she unveiled herself before him, and where at the last
+      she buried his mutilated body, and chanted her lament for the dead. A
+      river which flows southward not far off was called the Adonis, and the
+      valley watered by it was supposed to have been the scene of this tragic
+      idyll. The Adonis rises near Aphaka,* at the base of a narrow
+      amphitheatre, issuing from the entrance of an irregular grotto, the
+      natural shape of which had, at some remote period, been altered by the
+      hand of man; in three cascades it bounds into a sort of circular basin,
+      where it gathers to itself the waters of the neighbouring springs, then it
+      dashes onwards under the single arch of a Roman bridge, and descends in a
+      series of waterfalls to the level of the valley below.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Aphaka means &ldquo;spring&rdquo; in Syriac. The site of the temple and
+     town of Aphaka, where a temple of Aphrodit� and Adonis still
+     stood in the time of the Emperor Julian, had long been
+     identified either with Fakra, or with El-Yamuni. Seetzen was
+     the first to place it at El-Afka, and his proposed
+     identification has been amply confirmed by the researches of
+     Penan.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0046" id="linkBimage-0046">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/256.jpg" width="100%" alt="256.jpg Valley of the Adonis " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0047" id="linkBimage-0047">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/256b.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="256b.jpg the Amphitheatre of Aphaka and The Source Of The Nahh-ibrahim " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The temple rises opposite the source of the stream on an artificial mound,
+      a meteorite fallen from heaven having attracted the attention of the
+      faithful to the spot. The mountain falls abruptly away, its summit
+      presenting a red and bare appearance, owing to the alternate action of
+      summer sun and winter frost. As the slopes approach the valley they become
+      clothed with a garb of wild vegetation, which bursts forth from every
+      fissure, and finds a foothold on every projecting rock: the base of the
+      mountain is hidden in a tangled mass of glowing green, which the moist yet
+      sunny Spring calls forth in abundance whenever the slopes are not too
+      steep to retain a shallow layer of nourishing mould. It would be hard to
+      find, even among the most picturesque spots of Europe, a landscape in
+      which wildness and beauty are more happily combined, or where the mildness
+      of the air and sparkling coolness of the streams offer a more perfect
+      setting for the ceremonies attending the worship of Astart�.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The temple had been rebuilt during the Roman period, as
+     were nearly all the temples of this region, upon the site of
+     a more ancient structure; this was probably the edifice
+     which the author of <i>De De� Syr�</i> considered to be the
+     temple of Venus, built by Kinyras within a day&rsquo;s journey of
+     Byblos in the Lebanon.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In the basin of the river and of the torrents by which it is fed, there
+      appears a succession of charming and romantic scenes&mdash;gaping chasms
+      with precipitous ochre-coloured walls; narrow fields laid out in terraces
+      on the slopes, or stretching in emerald strips along the ruddy
+      river-banks; orchards thick with almond and walnut trees; sacred grottoes,
+      into which the priestesses, seated at the corner of the roads, endeavour
+      to draw the pilgrims as they proceed on their way to make their prayers to
+      the goddess;* sanctuaries and mausolea of Adonis at Yanukh, on the
+      table-land of Mashnaka, and on the heights of Ghineh. According to the
+      common belief, the actual tomb of Adonis was to be found at Byblos
+      itself,** where the people were accustomed to assemble twice a year to
+      keep his festivals, which lasted for several days together.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Renan points out at Byblos the existence of one of these
+     caverns which gave shelter to the <i>kedeshoth</i>. Many of the
+     caves met with in the valley of the Nahr-Ibrah�m have
+     doubtless served for the same purpose, although their walls
+     contain no marks of the cult.
+
+     ** Melito placed it, however, near Aphaka, and, indeed,
+     there must have been as many different traditions on the
+     subject as there were celebrated sanctuaries.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At the summer solstice, the season when the wild boar had ripped open the
+      divine hunter, and the summer had already done damage to the spring, the
+      priests were accustomed to prepare a painted wooden image of a corpse made
+      ready for burial, which they hid in what were called the gardens of Adonis&mdash;terra-cotta
+      pots filled with earth in which wheat and barley, lettuce and fennel, were
+      sown. These were set out at the door of each house, or in the courts of
+      the temple, where the sprouting plants had to endure the scorching effect
+      of the sun, and soon withered away. For several days troops of women and
+      young girls, with their heads dishevelled or shorn, their garments in
+      rags, their faces torn with their nails, their breasts and arms scarified
+      with knives, went about over hill and dale in search of their idol, giving
+      utterance to cries of despair, and to endless appeals: &ldquo;Ah, Lord! Ah,
+      Lord! what is become of thy beauty.&rdquo; Once having found the image, they
+      brought it to the feet of the goddess, washed it while displaying its
+      wound, anointed it with sweet-smelling unguents, wrapped it in a linen and
+      woollen shroud, placed it on a catafalque, and, after expressing around
+      the bier their feelings of desolation, according to the rites observed at
+      fanerais, placed it solemnly in the tomb.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Theocritus has described in his fifth Idyll the laying out
+     and burial of Adonis as it was practised at Alexandria in
+     Egypt in the IIIrd century before our era.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The close and dreary summer passes away. With the first days of September
+      the autumnal rains begin to fall upon the hills, and washing away the
+      ochreous earth lying upon the slopes, descend in muddy torrents into the
+      hollows of the valleys. The Adonis river begins to swell with the ruddy
+      waters, which, on reaching the sea, do not readily blend with it. The wind
+      from the offing drives the river water back upon the coast, and forces it
+      to cling for a long time to the shore, where it forms a kind of crimson
+      fringe.* This was the blood of the hero, and the sight of this precious
+      stream stirred up anew the devotion of the people, who donned once more
+      their weeds of mourning until the priests were able to announce to them
+      that, by virtue of their supplications, Adonis was brought back from the
+      shades into new life. Shouts of joy immediately broke forth, and the
+      people who had lately sympathized with the mourning goddess in her tears
+      and cries of sorrow, now joined with her in expressions of mad and amorous
+      delight. Wives and virgins&mdash;all the women who had refused during the
+      week of mourning to make a sacrifice of their hair&mdash;were obliged to
+      atone for this fault by putting themselves at the disposal of the
+      strangers whom the festival had brought together, the reward of their
+      service becoming the property of the sacred treasury.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The same phenomenon occurs in spring. Maundrell saw it on
+     March 17, and Renan in the first days of February.
+
+     ** A similar usage was found in later times in the countries
+     colonised by or subjected to the influence of the
+     Phoenicians, especially in Cyprus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Berytus shared with Byblos the glory of having had El for its founder.*
+      The road which connects these two cities makes a lengthy detour in its
+      course along the coast, having to cross numberless ravines and rocky
+      summits: before reaching Palai-Byblos, it passes over a headland by a
+      series of steps cut into the rock, forming a kind of &ldquo;ladder&rdquo; similar to
+      that which is encountered lower down, between Acre and the plains of Tyre.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name Berytus was found by Hincks in the Egyptian texts
+     under the form. B�rutu, Be�rutu; it occurs frequently in the
+     Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The river Lykos runs like a kind of natural fosse along the base of this
+      steep headland. It forms at the present time a torrent, fed by the melting
+      snows of Mount Sannin, and is entirely unnavigable. It was better
+      circumstanced formerly in this respect, and even in the early years of the
+      Boman conquest, sailors from Arvad (Arados) were accustomed to sail up it
+      as far as one of the passes of the lower Lebanon, leading into Cole-Syria.
+      Berytus was installed at the base of a great headland which stands out
+      boldly into the sea, and forms the most striking promontory to be met with
+      in these regions from Carmel to the vicinity of Arvad. The port is nothing
+      but an open creek with a petty roadstead, but it has the advantage of a
+      good supply of fresh water, which pours down from the numerous springs to
+      which it is indebted for its name.* According to ancient legends, it was
+      given by El to one of his offspring called Poseidon by the Greeks.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name Beyrut has been often derived from a Phconician
+     word signifying <i>cypress</i>, and which may have been applied
+     to the pine tree. The Phoenicians themselves derived it from
+     B�r, &ldquo;wells.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      Adonis desired to take possession of it, but was frustrated in the
+      attempt, and the maritime Baal secured the permanence of his rule by
+      marrying one of his sisters&mdash;the Baalat-Beyrut who is represented as
+      a nymph on Gr�co-Roman coins.* The rule of the city extended as far as the
+      banks of the Tamur, and an old legend narrates that its patron fought in
+      ancient times with the deity of that river, hurling stones at him to
+      prevent his becoming master of the land to the north. The bar formed of
+      shingle and the dunes which contract the entrance were regarded as
+      evidences of this conflict.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The poet Nonnus has preserved a highly embellished account
+     of this rivalry, where Adonis is called Dionysos.
+
+     ** The original name appears to have been Tamur, Tamyr, from
+     a word signifying &ldquo;palm&rdquo; in the Phoenician language. The
+     myth of the conflict between Poseidon and the god of the
+     river, a Baal-Demarous, has been explained by Renan, who
+     accepts the identification of the river-deity with Baal-
+     Thamar, already mentioned by Movers.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Beyond the southern bank of the river, Sidon sits enthroned as &ldquo;the
+      firstborn of Canaan.&rdquo; In spite of this ambitious title it was at first
+      nothing but a poor fishing village founded by Bel, the Agenor of the
+      Greeks, on the southern slope of a spit of land which juts out obliquely
+      towards the south-west.* It grew from year to year, spreading out over the
+      plain, and became at length one of the most prosperous of the chief cities
+      of the country&mdash;a &ldquo;mother&rdquo; in Phoenicia.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Sidon is called &ldquo;the firstborn of Canaan&rdquo; in Genesis: the
+     name means a fishing-place, as the classical authors already
+     knew&mdash;&ldquo;nam piscem Phonices <i>sid�n</i> appellant.&rdquo;
+
+     ** In the coins of classic times it is called &ldquo;Sidon, the
+     mother&mdash;<i>Om</i>&mdash;of Kambe, Hippo, Citium, and Tyre.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      The port, once so celebrated, is shut in by three chains of half-sunken
+      reefs, which, running out from the northern end of the peninsula, continue
+      parallel to the coast for some hundreds of yards: narrow passages in these
+      reefs afford access to the harbour; one small island, which is always
+      above water, occupies the centre of this natural dyke of rocks, and
+      furnishes a site for a maritime quarter opposite to the continental city.*
+      The necropolis on the mainland extends to the east and north, and consists
+      of an irregular series of excavations made in a low line of limestone
+      cliffs which must have been lashed by the waves of the Mediterranean long
+      prior to the beginning of history. These tombs are crowded closely
+      together, ramifying into an inextricable maze, and are separated from each
+      other by such thin walls that one expects every moment to see them give
+      way, and bury the visitors in the ruin. Many date back to a very early
+      period, while all of them have been re-worked and re-appropriated over and
+      over again. The latest occupiers were contemporaries of the Macedonian
+      kings or the Roman C�sars. Space was limited and costly in this region of
+      the dead: the Sidonians made the best use they could of the tombs, burying
+      in them again and again, as the Egyptians were accustomed to do in their
+      cemeteries at Thebes and Memphis. The surrounding plain is watered by the
+      &ldquo;pleasant Bostr�nos,&rdquo; and is covered with gardens which are reckoned to be
+      the most beautiful in all Syria&mdash;at least after those of Damascus:
+      their praises were sung even in ancient days, and they had then earned for
+      the city the epithet of &ldquo;the flowery Sidon.&rdquo; **
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The only description of the port which we possess is that
+     in the romance of Olitophon and Leucippus by Achilles
+     Tatius.
+
+     ** The Bostr�nos, which is perhaps to be recognised under
+     the form Borinos in the Periplus of Scylax, is the modern
+     Nahr el-Awaly.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Here, also, an Astart� ruled over the destinies of the people, but a
+      chaste and immaculate Astart�, a self-restrained and warlike virgin,
+      sometimes identified with the moon, sometimes with the pale and frigid
+      morning star.* In addition to this goddess, the inhabitants worshipped a
+      Baal-Sidon, and other divinities of milder character&mdash;an Astart�
+      Shem-Baal, wife of the supreme Baal, and Eshmun, a god of medicine&mdash;each
+      of whom had his own particular temple either in the town itself or in some
+      neighbouring village in the mountain. Baal delighted in travel, and was
+      accustomed to be drawn in a chariot through the valleys of Phoenicia in
+      order to receive the prayers and offerings of his devotees. The immodest
+      Astart�, excluded, it would seem, from the official religion, had her
+      claims acknowledged in the cult offered to her by the people, but she
+      became the subject of no poetic or dolorous legend like her namesake at
+      Byblos, and there was no attempt to disguise her innately coarse character
+      by throwing over it a garb of sentiment. She possessed in the suburbs her
+      chapels and grottoes, hollowed out in the hillsides, where she was served
+      by the usual crowd of <i>Eph�b�</i> and sacred courtesans. Some half-dozen
+      towns or fortified villages, such as Bitz�ti,** the Lesser Sidon, and
+      Sarepta, were scattered along the shore, or on the lowest slopes of the
+      Lebanon.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Astart� is represented in the Bible as the goddess of the
+     Sidonians, and she is in fact the object of the invocations
+     addressed to the mistress Deity in the Sidonian
+     inscriptions, the patroness of the town. Kings and queens
+     were her priests and priestesses respectively.
+
+     ** Bitz�ti is not mentioned except in the Assyrian texts,
+     and has been identified with the modern region Ait ez-Ze�t�n
+     to the south-east of Sidon. It is very probably the Elaia of
+     Philo of Byblos, the Biais of Dionysios Periegetes, which
+     Renan is inclined to identify with Heldua, Khan-Khaldi, by
+     substituting Eldis as a correction.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Sidonian territory reached its limit at the Cape of Sarepta, where the
+      high-lands again meet the sea at the boundary of one of those basins into
+      which Phoenicia is divided. Passing beyond this cape, we come first upon a
+      Tyrian outpost, the Town of Birds;* then upon the village of Nazana** with
+      its river of the same name; beyond this upon a plain hemmed in by low
+      hills, cultivated to their summits; then on tombs and gardens in the
+      suburbs of Autu;*** and, further still, to a fleet of boats moored at a
+      short distance from the shore, where a group of reefs and islands
+      furnishes at one and the same time a site for the houses and temples of
+      Tyre, and a protection from its foes.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Phoenician name of Ornith�npolis is unknown to us: the
+     town is often mentioned by the geographers of classic times,
+     but with certain differences, some placing it to the north
+     and others to the south of Sarepta. It was near to the site
+     of Adlun, the Adnonum of the Latin itineraries, if it was
+     not actually the same place.
+
+     ** Nazana was both the name of the place and the river, as
+     Kasim�yeh and Khan Kasim�yeh, near the same locality, are
+     to-day.
+
+     *** Autu was identified by Brugsch with Avatha, which is
+     probably El-Aww�t�n, on the hill facing Tyre. Max M�ller,
+     who reads the word as Authu, Ozu, prefers the Uru or Ushu of
+     the Assyrian texts.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was already an ancient town at the beginning of the Egyptian conquest.
+      As in other places of ancient date, the inhabitants rejoiced in stories of
+      the origin of things in which the city figured as the most venerable in
+      the world. After the period of the creating gods, there followed
+      immediately, according to the current legends, two or three generations of
+      minor deities&mdash;heroes of light and flame&mdash;who had learned how to
+      subdue fire and turn it to their needs; then a race of giants, associated
+      with the giant peaks of Kasios, Lebanon, Hermon, and Brathy;* after which
+      were born two male children&mdash;twins: Samem-rum, the lord of the
+      supernal heaven, and Us�os, the hunter. Human beings at this time lived a
+      savage life, wandering through the woods, and given up to shameful vices.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The identification of the peak of Brathy is uncertain. The
+     name has been associated with Tabor: since it exactly
+     recalls the name of the cypress and of Berytus, it would be
+     more prudent, perhaps, to look for the name in that of one
+     of the peaks of the Lebanon near the latter town.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Samemrum took up his abode among them in that region which became in later
+      times the Tyrian coast, and showed them how to build huts, papyrus, or
+      other reeds: Us�os in the mean time pursued the avocation of a hunter of
+      wild beasts, living upon their flesh and clothing himself with their
+      skins. A conflict at length broke out between the two brothers, the
+      inevitable result of rivalry between the ever-wandering hunter and the
+      husbandman attached to the soil.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Us�os succeeded in holding his own till the day when fire and wind took
+      the part of his enemy against him.* The trees, shaken and made to rub
+      against each other by the tempest, broke into flame from the friction, and
+      the forest was set on fire. Us�os, seizing a leafy branch, despoiled it of
+      its foliage, and placing it in the water let it drift out to sea, bearing
+      him, the first of his race, with it.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The text simply states the material facts, the tempest and
+     the fire: the general movement of the narrative seems to
+     prove that the intervention of these elements is an episode
+     in the quarrel between the two brothers&mdash;that in which
+     Us�os is forced to fly from the region civilized by
+     Samemrum.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Landing on one of the islands, he set up two menhirs, dedicating them to
+      fire and wind that he might thenceforward gain their favour. He poured out
+      at their base the blood of animals he had slaughtered, and after his
+      death, his companions continued to perform the rites which he had
+      inaugurated.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0048" id="linkBimage-0048">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/267.jpg" alt="267.jpg the Ambrosian Rocks " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the original in the
+<i>Cabinet des M�dailles</i>.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0049" id="linkBimage-0049">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/268.jpg" alt="268.jpg " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the original in the
+<i>Cabinet des M�dailles</i>.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The town which he had begun to build on the sea-girt isle was called Tyre,
+      the &ldquo;Rock,&rdquo; and the two rough stones which he had set up remained for a
+      long time as a sort of talisman, bringing good luck to its inhabitants. It
+      was asserted of old that the island had not always been fixed, but that it
+      rose and fell, with the waves like a raft. Two peaks looked down upon it&mdash;the
+      &ldquo;Ambrosian Rocks&rdquo;&mdash;between which grew the olive tree of Astart�,
+      sheltered by a curtain of flame from external danger. An eagle perched
+      thereon watched over a viper coiled round the trunk: the whole island
+      would cease to float as soon as a mortal should succeed in sacrificing the
+      bird in honour of the gods. Us�os, the Herakles, destroyer of monsters,
+      taught the people of the coast how to build boats, and how to manage them;
+      he then made for the island and disembarked: the bird offered himself
+      spontaneously to his knife, and as soon as its blood had moistened the
+      earth, Tyre rooted itself fixedly opposite the mainland. Coins of the
+      Roman period represent the chief elements in this legend; sometimes the
+      eagle and olive tree, sometimes the olive tree and the stelo, and
+      sometimes the two stel� only. From this time forward the gods never ceased
+      to reside on the holy island; Astart� herself was born there, and one of
+      the temples there showed to the admiration of the faithful a fallen star&mdash;an
+      aerolite which she had brought back from one of her journeys.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Baal was called the Melkarth. king of the city, and the Greeks after�
+      wards identified him with their Herakles. His worship was of a severe and
+      exacting character: a fire burned perpetually in his sanctuary; his
+      priests, like those of the Egyptians, had their heads shaved; they wore
+      garments of spotless white linen, held pork in abomination, and refused
+      permission to married women to approach the altars.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The worship of Melkarth at Gados (Cadiz) and the functions
+     of his priests are described by Silius Italicus: as Gades
+     was a Tyrian colony, it has been naturally assumed that the
+     main features of the religion of Tyre were reproduced there,
+     and Silius&rsquo;s account of the Melkarth of Gades thus applies
+     to his namesake of the mother city.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0050" id="linkBimage-0050">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/269.jpg"
+       alt="269.jpg Tyre and Its Suburbs on the Mainland " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Festivals, similar to those of Adonis at Byblos, were held in his honour
+      twice a year: in the summer, when the sun burnt up the earth with his
+      glowing heat, he offered himself as an expiatory victim to the solar orb,
+      giving himself to the flames in order to obtain some mitigation of the
+      severity of the sky;* once the winter had brought with it a refreshing
+      coolness, he came back to life again, and his return was celebrated with
+      great joy. His temple stood in a prominent place on the largest of the
+      islands furthest away from the mainland. It served to remind the people of
+      the remoteness of their origin, for the priests relegated its foundation
+      almost to the period of the arrival of the Phoenicians on the shores of
+      the Mediterranean. The town had no supply of fresh water, and there was no
+      submarine spring like that of Arvad to provide a resource in time of
+      necessity; the inhabitants had, therefore, to resort to springs which were
+      fortunately to be found everywhere on the hillsides of the mainland. The
+      waters of the well of Eas el-A�n had been led down to the shore and dammed
+      up there, so that boats could procure a ready supply from this source in
+      time of peace: in time of war the inhabitants of Tyre had to trust to the
+      cisterns in which they had collected the rains that fell at certain
+      seasons.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The festival commemorating his death by fire was
+     celebrated at Tyre, where his tomb was shown, and in the
+     greater number of the Tyrian colonies.
+
+     ** Abisharri (Abimilki), King of Tyre, confesses to the
+     Pharaoh Amen�thes III. that in case of a siege his town
+     would neither have water nor wood. Aqueducts and conduits of
+     water are spoken of by Menander as existing in the time of
+     Shalmaneser; all modern historians agree in attributing
+     their construction to a very remote antiquity.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The strait separating the island from the mainland was some six or seven
+      hundred yards in breadth,* less than that of the Nile at several points of
+      its course through Middle Egypt, but it was as effective as a broader
+      channel to stop the movement of an army: a fleet alone would have a chance
+      of taking the city by surprise, or of capturing it after a lengthened
+      siege.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * According to the writers who were contemporary with
+     Alexander, the strait was 4 stadia wide (nearly 1/2 mile),
+     or 500 paces (about 3/8 mile), at the period when the
+     Macedonians undertook the siege of the town; the author
+     followed by Pliny says 700 paces, possibly over&mdash;mile wide.
+     From the observations of Poulain de Bossay, Renan thinks the
+     space between the island and the mainland might be nearly a
+     mile in width, but we should perhaps do well to reduce this
+     higher figure and adopt one agreeing better with the
+     statements of Diodorus and Quintus Curtius.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Like the coast region opposite Arvad, the shore which faced Tyre, lying
+      between the mouth of the Litany and ras el-A�n, was an actual suburb of
+      the city itself&mdash;with its gardens, its cultivated fields, its
+      cemeteries, its villas, and its fortifications. Here the inhabitants of
+      the island were accustomed to bury their dead, and hither they repaired
+      for refreshment during the heat of the summer. To the north the little
+      town of Mahalliba, on the southern bank of the Lit�ny, and almost hidden
+      from view by a turn in the hills, commanded the approaches to the Bekaa,
+      and the high-road to Coele-Syria.* To the south, at Ras el-A�n, Old Tyre
+      (Palastyrus) looked down upon the route leading into Galilee by way of the
+      mountains.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Mahalliba is the present Khurbet-Mahallib.
+
+     ** Palrotyrus has often been considered as a Tyre on the
+     mainland of greater antiquity than the town of the same name
+     on the island; it is now generally admitted that it was
+     merely an outpost, which is conjecturally placed by most
+     scholars in the neighbourhood of Ras el-A�n.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Eastwards Autu commanded the landing-places on the shore, and served to
+      protect the reservoirs; it lay under the shadow of a rock, on which was
+      built, facing the insular temple of Melkarth, protector of mariners, a
+      sanctuary of almost equal antiquity dedicated to his namesake of the
+      mainland.* The latter divinity was probably the representative of the
+      legendary Samemrum, who had built his village on the coast, while Us�os
+      had founded his on the ocean. He was the Baalsam�m of starry tunic, lord
+      of heaven and king of the sun.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * If the name has been preserved, as I believe it to be, in
+     that of El-Aww�t�n, the town must be that whose ruins we
+     find at the foot of Tell-Mash�k, and which are often
+     mistaken for those of Palastyrus. The temple on the summit
+     of the Tell was probably that of Heracles Astrochit�n
+     mentioned by Nonnus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As was customary, a popular Astart� was associated with these deities of
+      high degree, and tradition asserted that Melkarth purchased her favour by
+      the gift of the first robe of Tyrian purple which was ever dyed.
+      Priestesses of the goddess had dwellings in all parts of the plain, and in
+      several places the caves are still pointed out where they entertained the
+      devotees of the goddess. Behind Autu the ground rises abruptly, and along
+      the face of the escarpment, half hidden by trees and brushwood, are the
+      remains of the most important of the Tyrian burying-places, consisting of
+      half-filled-up pits, isolated caves, and dark galleries, where whole
+      families lie together in their last sleep. In some spots the chalky mass
+      has been literally honeycombed by the quarrying gravedigger, and regular
+      lines of chambers follow one another in the direction of the strata, after
+      the fashion of the rock-cut tombs of Upper Egypt. They present a bare and
+      dismal appearance both within and without. The entrances are narrow and
+      arched, the ceilings low, the walls bare and colourless, unrelieved by
+      moulding, picture, or inscription. At one place only, near the modern
+      village of Hanaweh, a few groups of figures and coarsely cut stelae are to
+      be found, indicating, it would seem, the burying-place of some chief of
+      very early times.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0051" id="linkBimage-0051">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/273.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="273.jpg the Sculptured Rocks of Hanaweh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Lortet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These figures run in parallel lines along the rocky sides of a wild
+      ravine. They vary from 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet in height, the bodies
+      being represented by rectangular pilasters, sometimes merely rough-hewn,
+      at others grooved with curved lines to suggest the folds of the Asiatic
+      garments; the head is carved full face, though the eyes are given in
+      profile, and the summary treatment of the modelling gives evidence of a
+      certain skill. Whether they are to be regarded as the product of a
+      primitive Amorite art or of a school of Phoenician craftsmen, we are
+      unable to determine. In the time of their prosperity the Tyrians certainly
+      pushed their frontier as far as this region. The wind-swept but fertile
+      country lying among the ramifications of the lowest spurs of the Lebanon
+      bears to this day innumerable traces of their indefatigable industry&mdash;remains
+      of dwellings, conduits and watercourses, cisterns, pits, millstones and
+      vintage-troughs, are scattered over the fields, interspersed with oil and
+      wine presses. The Phoenicians took naturally to agriculture, and carried
+      it to such a high state of perfection as to make it an actual science, to
+      which the neighbouring peoples of the Mediterranean were glad to
+      accommodate their modes of culture in later times.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Their taste for agriculture, and the comparative
+     perfection of their modes of culture, are proved by the
+     greatness of the remains still to be observed: &ldquo;The
+     Phoenicians constructed a winepress, a trough, to last for
+     ever.&rdquo; Their colonists at Carthage carried with them the same
+     clever methods, and the Romans borrowed many excellent
+     things in the way of agriculture from Carthaginian books,
+     especially from those of Mago.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Among no other people was the art of irrigation so successfully practised,
+      and from such a narrow strip of territory as belonged to them no other
+      cultivators could have gathered such abundant harvests of wheat and
+      barley, and such supplies of grapes, olives, and other fruits. From Arvad
+      to Tyre, and even beyond it, the littoral region and the central parts of
+      the valleys presented a long ribbon of verdure of varying breadth, where
+      fields of corn were blended with gardens and orchards and shady woods. The
+      whole region was independent and self-supporting, the inhabitants having
+      no need to address themselves to their neighbours in the interior, or to
+      send their children to seek their fortune in distant lands. To insure
+      prosperity, nothing was needed but a slight exercise of labour and freedom
+      from the devastating influence of war.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The position of the country was such as to secure it from attack, and from
+      the conflicts which laid waste the rest of Syria. Along almost the entire
+      eastern border of the country the Lebanon was a great wall of defence
+      running parallel to the coast, strengthened at each extremity by the
+      additional protection of the rivers Nahr el-Keb�r and Litany. Its slopes
+      were further defended by the forest, which, with its lofty trees and
+      brushwood, added yet another barrier to that afforded by rocks and snow.
+      Hunters&rsquo; or shepherds&rsquo; paths led here and there in tortuous courses from
+      one side of the mountain to the other. Near the middle of the country two
+      roads, practicable in all seasons, secured communications between the
+      littoral and the plain of the interior. They branched off on either side
+      from the central road in the neighbourhood of Tabakhi, south of Qodshu,
+      and served the needs of the wooded province of Magara.* This region was
+      inhabited by pillaging tribes, which the Egyptians called at one time
+      Lamnana, the Libanites,** at others Shausu, using for them the same
+      appellation as that which they bestowed upon the Bedouin of the desert.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Magara is mentioned in the <i>Anastasi Papyrus</i>, No. 1, and
+     Chabas has identified it with the plain of Macra, which
+     Strabo places in Syria, in the neighbourhood of Eloutheros.
+
+     ** The name Lamnana is given in a picture of the campaigns
+     of Seti I.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The roads through this province ran under the dense shade afforded by
+      oaks, cedars, and cypresses, in an obscurity favourable to the habits of
+      the wolves and hyamas which infested it, and even of those thick-maned
+      lions known to Asia at the time; and then proceeding in its course,
+      crossed the ridge in the neighbourhood of the snow-peak called Shaua,
+      which is probably the Sann�n of our times. While one of these roads,
+      running north along the lake of Yamuneh and through the gorge of Akura,
+      then proceeded along the Adonis* to Byblos, the other took a southern
+      direction, and followed the Nahr el-Kelb to the sea.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is the road pointed out by Renan as the easiest but
+     least known of those which cross the Lebanon; the remains of
+     an Assyrian inscription graven on the rocks near A�n el-
+     Asaf�r show that it was employed from a very early date, and
+     Renan thought that it was used by the armies which came from
+     the upper valley of the Orontes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Towards the mouth of the latter a wall of rock opposes the progress of the
+      river, and leaves at length but a narrow and precipitous defile for the
+      passage of its waters: a pathway cut into the cliff at a very remote date
+      leads almost perpendicularly from the bottom of the precipice to the
+      summit of the promontory. Commerce followed these short and direct routes,
+      but invading hosts very rarely took advantage of them, although they
+      offered access into the very heart of Phoenicia. Invaders would encounter
+      here, in fact, a little known and broken country, lending itself readily
+      to surprises and ambuscades; and should they reach the foot of the Lebanon
+      range, they would find themselves entrapped in a region of slippery
+      defiles, with steep paths at intervals cut into the rock, and almost
+      inaccessible to chariots or horses, and so narrow in places that a handful
+      of resolute men could have held them for a long time against whole
+      battalions. The enemy preferred to make for the two natural breaches at
+      the respective extremities of the line of defence, and for the two insular
+      cities which flanked the approaches to them&mdash;Tyre in the case of
+      those coming from Egypt, Arvad and Simyra for assailants from the
+      Euphrates. The Arvadians, bellicose by nature, would offer strong
+      resistance to the invader, and not permit themselves to be conquered
+      without a brave struggle with the enemy, however powerful he might be.*
+      When the disproportion of the forces which they could muster against the
+      enemy convinced them of the folly of attempting an open conflict, their
+      island-home offered them a refuge where they would be safe from any
+      attacks.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Th�tmosis III. was obliged to enter on a campaign against
+     Arvad in the year XXIX., in the year XXX., and probably
+     twice in the following years. Under Amen�thes III. and IV.
+     we see that these people took part in all the intrigues
+     directed against Egypt; they were the allies of the Khati
+     against Ramses II. in the campaign of the year V. and later
+     on we find them involved in most of the wars against
+     Assyria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Sometimes the burning and pillaging of their property on the mainland
+      might reduce them to throw themselves on the mercy of their foes, but such
+      submission did not last long, and they welcomed the slightest occasion for
+      regaining their liberty. Conquered again and again on account of the
+      smallness of their numbers, they were never discouraged by their reverses,
+      and Phoenicia owed all its military history for a long period to their
+      prowess. The Tyrians were of a more accommodating nature, and there is no
+      evidence, at least during the early centuries of their existence, of the
+      display of those obstinate and blind transports of bravery by which the
+      Arvadians were carried away.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * No campaign against Tyre is mentioned in any of the
+     Egyptian annals: the expedition of Th�tmosis III. against
+     Senzauru was directed against a town of Coele-Syria
+     mentioned in the Tel el-Amarna tablets with the orthography
+     Zinzar, the Sizara-Larissa of Gr�co-Roman times, the Shaizar
+     of the Arab Chronicles. On the contrary, the Tel el-Amarna
+     tablets contain several passages which manifest the fidelity
+     of Tyre and its governors to the King of Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their foreign policy was reduced to a simple arithmetical question, which
+      they discussed in the light of their industrial or commercial interests.
+      As soon as they had learned from a short experience that a certain Pharaoh
+      had at his disposal armies against which they could offer no serious
+      opposition, they at once surrendered to him, and thought only of obtaining
+      the greatest profit from the vassalage to which they were condemned. The
+      obligation to pay tribute did not appear to them so much in the light of a
+      burthen or a sacrifice, as a means of purchasing the right to go to and
+      fro freely in Egypt, or in the countries subject to its influence. The
+      commerce acquired by these privileges recouped them more than a
+      hundredfold for all that their overlord demanded from them. The other
+      cities of the coast&mdash;Sidon, Berytus, Byblos&mdash;usually followed
+      the example of Tyre, whether from mercenary motives, or from their
+      naturally pacific disposition, or from a sense of their impotence; and the
+      same intelligent resignation with which, as we know, they accepted the
+      supremacy of the great Egyptian empire, was doubtless displayed in earlier
+      centuries in their submission to the Babylonians. Their records show that
+      they did not accept this state of things merely through cowardice or
+      indolence, for they are represented as ready to rebel and shake off the
+      yoke of their foreign master when they found it incompatible with their
+      practical interests. But their resort to war was exceptional; they
+      generally preferred to submit to the powers that be, and to accept from
+      them as if on lease the strip of coast-line at the base of the Lebanon,
+      which served as a site for their warehouses and dockyards. Thus they did
+      not find the yoke of the stranger irksome&mdash;the sea opening up to them
+      a realm of freedom and independence which compensated them for the
+      limitations of both territory and liberty imposed upon them at home.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The epoch which was marked by their first venture on the Mediterranean,
+      and the motives which led to it, were alike unknown to them. The gods had
+      taught them navigation, and from the beginning of things they had taken to
+      the sea as fishermen, or as explorers in search of new lands.* They were
+      not driven by poverty to leave their continental abode, or inspired
+      thereby with a zeal for distant cruises. They had at home sufficient corn
+      and wine, oil and fruits, to meet all their needs, and even to administer
+      to a life of luxury. And if they lacked cattle, the abundance of fish
+      within their reach compensated for the absence of flesh-meat.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * According to one of the cosmogonies of Sanchoniathon,
+     Khus�r, who has been identified with Hephsestos, was the
+     inventor of the fishing-boat, and was the first among men
+     and gods who taught navigation. According to another legend,
+     Melkarth showed the Tyrians how to make a raft from the
+     branches of a fig tree, while the construction of the first
+     ships is elsewhere ascribed to the <i>Cabiri</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nor was it the number of commodiously situated ports on their coast which
+      induced them to become a seafaring people, for their harbours were badly
+      protected for the most part, and offered no shelter when the wind set in
+      from the north, the rugged shore presenting little resource against the
+      wind and waves in its narrow and shallow havens. It was the nature of the
+      country itself which contributed more than anything else to make them
+      mariners. The precipitous mountain masses which separate one valley from
+      another rendered communication between them difficult, while they served
+      also as lurking-places for robbers. Commerce endeavoured to follow,
+      therefore, the sea-route in preference to the devious ways of this
+      highwayman&rsquo;s region, and it accomplished its purpose the more readily
+      because the common occupation of sea-fishing had familiarised the people
+      with every nook and corner on the coast. The continual wash of the surge
+      had worn away the bases of the limestone cliffs, and the superincumbent
+      masses tumbling down into the sea formed lines of rocks, hardly rising
+      above the water-level, which fringed the headlands with perilous reefs,
+      against which the waves broke continuously at the slightest wind. It
+      required some bravery to approach them, and no little skill to steer one
+      of the frail boats, which these people were accustomed to employ from the
+      earliest times, scatheless amid the breakers. The coasting trade was
+      attracted from Arvad successively to Berytus, Sidon, and Tyre, and finally
+      to the other towns of the coast. It was in full operation, doubtless, from
+      the VIth Egyptian dynasty onwards, when the Pharaohs no longer hesitated
+      to embark troops at the mouth of the Nile for speedy transmission to the
+      provinces of Southern Syria, and it was by this coasting route that the
+      tin and amber of the north succeeded in reaching the interior of Egypt.
+      The trade was originally, it would seem, in the hands of those mysterious
+      Kef�tiu of whom the name only was known in later times. When the
+      Phoenicians established themselves at the foot of the Lebanon, they had
+      probably only to take the place of their predecessors and to follow the
+      beaten tracks which they had already made. We have every reason to believe
+      that they took to a seafaring life soon after their arrival in the
+      country, and that they adapted themselves and their civilization readily
+      to the exigencies of a maritime career.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Connexion between Phoenicia and Greece was fully
+     established at the outbreak of the Egyptian wars, and we may
+     safely assume their existence in the centuries immediately
+     preceding the second millennium before our era.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In their towns, as in most sea-ports, there was a considerable foreign
+      element, both of slaves and freemen, but the Egyptians confounded them all
+      under one name, Kef�tiu, whether they were Cypriotes, Asiatics, or
+      Europeans, or belonged to the true Tyrian and Sidonian race. The costume
+      of the Kaf�ti was similar to that worn by the people of the interior&mdash;the
+      loin-cloth, with or without a long upper garment: while in tiring the hair
+      they adopted certain refinements, specially a series of curls which the
+      men arranged in the form of an aigrette above their foreheads. This motley
+      collection of races was ruled over by an oligarchy of merchants and
+      shipowners, whose functions were hereditary, and who usually paid homage
+      to a single king, the representative of the tutelary god, and absolute
+      master of the city.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Under the Egyptian supremacy, the local princes did not
+     assume the royal title in the despatches which they
+     addressed to the kings of Egypt, but styled themselves
+     governors of their cities.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The industries pursued in Phoenicia were somewhat similar to those of
+      other parts of Syria; the stuffs, vases, and ornaments made at Tyre and
+      Sidon could not be distinguished from those of Hamath or of Carchemish.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0052" id="linkBimage-0052">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/282.jpg"
+       alt="282.jpg One of the Kaf�ti from The Tomb Of Rakhmir� " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the coloured sketches
+by Prisse d&rsquo;Avennes in
+the Natural Hist. Museum.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      All manufactures bore the impress of Babylonian influence, and their
+      implements, weights, measures, and system of exchange were the same as
+      those in use among the Chald�ans. The products of the country were,
+      however, not sufficient to freight the fleets which sailed from Phoenicia
+      every year bound for all parts of the known world, and additional supplies
+      had to be regularly obtained from neighbouring peoples, who thus became
+      used to pour into Tyre and Sidon the surplus of their manufactures, or of
+      the natural wealth of their country. The Phoenicians were also accustomed
+      to send caravans into regions which they could not reach in their caracks,
+      and to establish trading stations at the fords of rivers, or in the passes
+      over mountain ranges. We know of the existence of such emporia at Laish
+      near the sources of the Jordan, at Thapsacus, and at Nisibis, and they
+      must have served the purpose of a series of posts on the great highways of
+      the world. The settlements of the Phoenicians always assumed the character
+      of colonies, and however remote they might be from their fatherland, the
+      colonists never lost the manners and customs of their native country. They
+      collected together into their <i>okels</i> or storehouses such wares and
+      commodities as they could purchase in their new localities, and,
+      transmitting them periodically to the coast, shipped them thence to all
+      parts of the world.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Not only were they acquainted with every part of the Mediterranean, but
+      they had even made voyages beyond its limits. In the absence, however, of
+      any specific records of their naval enterprise, the routes they followed
+      must be a subject of conjecture. They were accustomed to relate that the
+      gods, after having instructed them in the art of navigation, had shown
+      them the way to the setting sun, and had led them by their example to make
+      voyages even beyond the mouths of the ocean. El of Byblos was the first to
+      leave Syria; he conquered Greece and Egypt, Sicily and Libya, civilizing
+      their inhabitants, and laying the foundation of cities everywhere. The
+      Sidonian Astart�, with her head surmounted by the horns of an ox, was the
+      next to begin her wanderings over the inhabited earth. Melkarth completed
+      the task of the gods by discovering and subjugating those countries which
+      had escaped the notice of his predecessors. Hundreds of local traditions,
+      to be found on all the shores of the Mediterranean down to Roman times,
+      bore witness to the pervasive influence of the old Canaanite colonisation.
+      At Cyprus, for instance, wo find traces of the cultus of Kinyras, King of
+      Byblos and father of Adonis; again, at Crete, it is the daughter of a
+      Prince of Sidon, Buropa, who is carried off by Zeus under the form of a
+      bull; it was Kadmos, sent forth to seek Buropa, who visited Cyprus,
+      Rhodes, and the Cyclades before building Thebes in Boeotia and dying in
+      the forests of Illyria. In short, wherever the Phoenicians had obtained a
+      footing, their audacious activity made such an indelible impression upon
+      the mind of the native inhabitants that they never forgot those vigorous
+      thick-set men with pale faces and dark beards, and soft and specious
+      speech, who appeared at intervals in their large and swift sailing
+      vessels. They made their way cautiously along the coast, usually keeping
+      in sight of land, making sail when the wind was favourable, or taking to
+      the oars for days together when occasion demanded it, anchoring at night
+      under the shelter of some headland, or in bad weather hauling their
+      vessels up the beach until the morrow. They did not shrink when it was
+      necessary from trusting themselves to the open sea, directing their course
+      by the Pole-star;* in this manner they often traversed long distances out
+      of sight of land, and they succeeded in making in a short time voyages
+      previously deemed long and costly.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Greeks for this reason called it Phonik�, the
+     Phoenician star; ancient writers refer to the use which the
+     Phoenicians made of the Pole-star to guide them in
+     navigation.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is hard to say whether they were as much merchants as pirates&mdash;indeed,
+      they hardly knew themselves&mdash;and their peaceful or warlike attitude
+      towards vessels which they encountered on the seas, or towards the people
+      whose countries they frequented, was probably determined by the
+      circumstances of the moment.* If on arrival at a port they felt themselves
+      no match for the natives, the instinct of the merchant prevailed, and that
+      of the pirate was kept in the background. They landed peaceably, gained
+      the good will of the native chief and his nobles by small presents, and
+      spreading out their wares, contented themselves, if they could do no
+      better, with the usual advantage obtained in an exchange of goods.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The manner in which the Phoenicians plied their trade is
+     strikingly described in the <i>Odyssey</i>, in the part where
+     Eumaios relates how he was carried off by a Sidonian vessel
+     and sold as a slave: cf. the passage which mentions the
+     ravages of the Greeks on the coast of the Delta. Herodotus
+     recalls the rape of Io, daughter of Inachos, by the
+     Phoenicians, who carried her and her companions into Egypt;
+     on the other hand, during one of their Egyptian expeditions
+     they had taken two priestesses from Thebes, and had
+     transported one of them to Dodona, the other into Libya.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They were never in a hurry, and would remain in one spot until they had
+      exhausted all the resources of the country, while they knew to a nicety
+      how to display their goods attractively before the expected customer.
+      Their wares comprised weapons and ornaments for men, axes, swords, incised
+      or damascened daggers with hilts of gold or ivory, bracelets, necklaces,
+      amulets of all kinds, enamelled vases, glass-work, stuffs dyed purple or
+      embroidered with gay colours. At times the natives, whose cupidity was
+      excited by the exhibition of such valuables, would attempt to gain
+      possession of them either by craft or by violence. They would kill the men
+      who had landed, or attempt to surprise the vessel during the night. But
+      more often it was the Phoenicians who took advantage of the friendliness
+      or the weakness of their hosts.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0053" id="linkBimage-0053">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/286.jpg" width="100%" alt="286.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      They would turn treacherously upon the unarmed crowd when absorbed in the
+      interest of buying and selling; robbing and killing the old men, they
+      would make prisoners of the young and strong, the women and children,
+      carrying them off to sell them in those markets where slaves were known to
+      fetch the highest price. This was a recognised trade, but it exposed the
+      Phoenicians to the danger of reprisals, and made them objects of an
+      undying hatred. When on these distant expeditions they were subject to
+      trivial disasters which might lead to serious consequences. A mast might
+      break, an oar might damage a portion of the bulwarks, a storm might force
+      them to throw overboard part of their cargo or their provisions; in such
+      predicaments they had no means of repairing the damage, and, unable to
+      obtain help in any of the places they might visit, their prospects were of
+      a desperate character. They soon, therefore, learned the necessity of
+      establishing cities of refuge at various points in the countries with
+      which they traded&mdash;stations where they could go to refit and
+      revictual their vessels, to fill up the complement of their crews, to take
+      in new freight, and, if necessary, pass the winter or wait for fair
+      weather before continuing their voyage. For this purpose they chose by
+      preference islands lying within easy distance of the mainland, like their
+      native cities of Tyre and Arvad, but possessing a good harbour or
+      roadstead. If an island were not available, they selected a peninsula with
+      a narrow isthmus, or a rock standing at the extremity of a promontory,
+      which a handful of men could defend against any attack, and which could be
+      seen from a considerable distance by their pilots. Most of their stations
+      thus happily situated became at length important towns. They were
+      frequented by the natives from the interior, who allied themselves with
+      the new-comers, and furnished them not only with objects of trade, but
+      with soldiers, sailors, and recruits for their army; and such was the
+      rapid spread of these colonies, that before long the Mediterranean was
+      surrounded by an almost unbroken chain of Phoenician strongholds and
+      trading stations.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0054" id="linkBimage-0054">
+      <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/288.jpg"></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="288th (80K)" src="images/288th.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      All the towns of the mother country&mdash;Arvad, Byblos, Berytus, Tyre,
+      and Sidon&mdash;possessed vessels engaged in cruising long before the
+      Egyptian conquest of Syria. We have no direct information from any
+      existing monument to show us what these vessels were like, but we are
+      familiar with the construction of the galleys which formed the fleets of
+      the Pharaohs of the XVIIIth dynasty. The art of shipbuilding had made
+      considerable progress since the times of the Memphite kings. Prom the
+      period when Egypt aspired to become one of the great powers of the world,
+      she doubtless endeavoured to bring her naval force to the same pitch of
+      perfection as her land forces could boast of, and her fleets probably
+      consisted of the best vessels which the dockyards of that day could turn
+      out. Phoenician vessels of this period may therefore be regarded with
+      reason as constructed on lines similar to those of the Egyptian ships,
+      differing from them merely in the minor details of the shape of the hull
+      and manner of rigging. The hull continued to be built long and narrow,
+      rising at the stem and stern. The bow was terminated by a sort of hook, to
+      which, in time of peace, a bronze ornament was attached, fashioned to
+      represent the head of a divinity, gazelle, or bull, while in time of war
+      this was superseded by a metal cut-water made fast to the hull by several
+      turns of stout rope, the blade rising some couple of yards above the level
+      of the deck.* The poop was ornamented with a projection firmly attached to
+      the body of the vessel, but curved inwards and terminated by an open
+      lotus-flower. An upper deck, surrounded by a wooden rail, was placed at
+      the bow and stern to serve as forecastle and quarterdecks respectively,
+      and in order to protect the vessel from the danger of heavy seas the ship
+      was strengthened by a structure to which we find nothing analogous in the
+      shipbuilding of classical times: an enormous cable attached to the
+      gammonings of the bow rose obliquely to a height of about a couple of
+      yards above the deck, and, passing over four small crutched masts, was
+      made fast again to the gammonings of the stern. The hull measured from the
+      blade of the cut-water to the stern-post some twenty to five and twenty
+      yards, but the lowest part of the hold did not exceed five feet in depth.
+      There was no cabin, and the ballast, arms, provisions, and spare-rigging
+      occupied the open hold.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * To get a clear idea of the details of this structure, we
+     have only to compare the appearance of ships with and
+     without a cut-water in the scenes at Thebes, representing
+     the celebration of a festival at the return of the fleet.
+
+     ** M. Glaser thinks that there were cabins for the crew
+     under the deck, and he recognises in the sixteen oblong
+     marks on the sides of the vessels at De�r el-Bahari so many
+     dead-lights; as there could not have been space for so many
+     cabins, I had concluded that these were ports for oars to be
+     used in time of battle, but on further consideration I saw
+     that they represented the ends of the beams supporting the
+     deck.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The bulwarks were raised to a height of some two feet, and the thwarts of
+      the rowers ran up to them on both the port and starboard sides, leaving an
+      open space in the centre for the long-boat, bales of merchandise,
+      soldiers, slaves, and additional passengers.* A double set of
+      steering-oars and a single mast completed the equipment. The latter, which
+      rose to a height of some twenty-six feet, was placed amidships, and was
+      held in an upright position by stays. The masthead was surmounted by two
+      arrangements which answered respectively to the top [&ldquo;gabie&rdquo;] and <i>calcet</i>
+      of the masts of a galley.** There were no shrouds on each side from the
+      masthead to the rail, but, in place of them, two stays ran respectively to
+      the bow and stern. The single square-sail was extended between two yards
+      some sixty to seventy feet long, and each made of two pieces spliced
+      together at the centre. The upper yard was straight, while the lower
+      curved upward at the ends. The yard was hoisted and lowered by two
+      halyards, which were made fast aft at the feet of the steersmen. The yard
+      was kept in its place by two lifts which came down from the masthead, and
+      were attached respectively about eight feet from the end of each yard-arm.
+      When the yard was hauled up it was further supported by six auxiliary
+      lifts, three being attached to each yard-arm. The lower yard, made fast to
+      the mast by a figure-of-eight knot, was secured by sixteen lifts, which,
+      like those of the upper yard, worked through the &ldquo;calcet.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * One of the bas-reliefs exhibits a long-boat in the water
+     at the time the fleet was at anchor at Puan�t. As we do not
+     find any vessel towing one after her, we naturally conclude
+     that the boat must have been stowed on board.
+
+     ** The &ldquo;gabie&rdquo; was a species of top where a sailor was placed
+     on the look-out. The &ldquo;calcet&rdquo; is, properly speaking, a
+     square block of wood containing the sheaves on which the
+     halyards travelled. The Egyptian apparatus had no sheaves,
+     and answers to the &ldquo;calcet&rdquo; on the masts of a galley only in
+     its serving the same purpose.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The crew comprised thirty rowers, fifteen on each side, four top-men, two
+      steersmen, a pilot at the bow, who signalled to the men at the helm the
+      course to steer, a captain and a governor of the slaves, who formed,
+      together with ten soldiers, a total of some fifty men.* In time of battle,
+      as the rowers would be exposed to the missiles of the enemy, the bulwarks
+      were further heightened by a mantlet, behind which the oars could be
+      freely moved, while the bodies of the men were fully protected, their
+      heads alone being visible above it. The soldiers were stationed as
+      follows: two of them took their places on the forecastle, a third was
+      perched on the masthead in a sort of cage improvised on the bars forming
+      the top, while the remainder were posted on the deck and poop, from which
+      positions and while waiting for the order to board they could pour a
+      continuous volley of arrows on the archers and sailors of the enemy.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * I have made this calculation from an examination of the
+     scenes in which ships are alternatively represented as at
+     anchor and under weigh. I know of vessels of smaller size,
+     and consequently with a smaller crew, but I know of none
+     larger or more fully manned.
+
+     ** The details are taken from the only representation of a
+     naval battle which we possess up to this moment, viz. that
+     of which I shall have occasion to speak further on in
+     connection with the reign of Ramses III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The first colony of which the Phoenicians made themselves masters was that
+      island of Cyprus whose low, lurid outline they could see on fine summer
+      evenings in the glow of the western sky. Some hundred and ten miles in
+      length and thirty-six in breadth, it is driven like a wedge into the angle
+      which Asia Minor makes with the Syrian coast: it throws out to the
+      north-east a narrow strip of land, somewhat like an extended finger
+      pointing to where the two coasts meet at the extremity of the gulf of
+      Issos. A limestone cliff, of almost uniform height throughout, bounds, for
+      half its length at least, the northern side of the island, broken
+      occasionally by short deep valleys, which open out into creeks deeply
+      embayed. A scattered population of fishermen exercised their calling in
+      this region, and small towns, of which we possess only the Greek or
+      Grecised names&mdash;Karpasia, Aphrodision, Kerynia, Lapethos&mdash;led
+      there a slumbering existence. Almost in the centre of the island two
+      volcanic peaks, Troodes and Olympos, face each other, and rise to a height
+      of nearly 7000 feet, the range of mountains to which they belong&mdash;that
+      of Aous&mdash;forming the framework of the island. The spurs of this range
+      fall by a gentle gradient towards the south, and spread out either into
+      stony slopes favourable to the culture of the vine, or into great maritime
+      flats fringed with brackish lagoons. The valley which lies on the northern
+      side of this chain runs from sea to sea in an almost unbroken level. A
+      scarcely perceptible watershed divides the valley into two basins similar
+      to those of Syria, the larger of the two lying opposite to the Phoenician
+      coast. The soil consists of black mould, as rich as that of Egypt, and
+      renewed yearly by the overflowing of the Pedi�os and its affluents. Thick
+      forests occupied the interior, promising inexhaustible resources to any
+      naval power. Even under the Koman emperors the Cypriotes boasted that they
+      could build and fit out a ship from the keel to the masthead without
+      looking to resources beyond those of their own island. The ash, pine,
+      cypress, and oak flourished on the sides of the range of Aous, while
+      cedars grew there to a greater height and girth than even on the Lebanon.
+      Wheat, barley, olive trees, vines, sweet-smelling woods for burning on the
+      altar, medicinal plants such as the poppy and the <i>ladanum</i>, henna
+      for staining with a deep orange colour the lips, eyelids, palm, nails, and
+      fingertips of the women, all found here a congenial habitat; while a
+      profusion everywhere of sweet-smelling flowers, which saturated the air
+      with their penetrating odours&mdash;spring violets, many-coloured
+      anemones, the lily, hyacinth, crocus, narcissus, and wild rose&mdash;led
+      the Greeks to bestow upon the island the designation of &ldquo;the balmy
+      Cyprus.&rdquo; Mines also contributed their share to the riches of which the
+      island could boast. Iron in small quantities, alum, asbestos, agate and
+      other precious stones, are still to be found there, and in ancient times
+      the neighbourhood of Tamassos yielded copper in such quantities that the
+      Romans were accustomed to designate this metal by the name &ldquo;Cyprium,&rdquo; and
+      the word passed from them into all the languages of Europe. It is not easy
+      to determine the race to which the first inhabitants of the island
+      belonged, if we are not to see in them a branch of the Kef�tiu, who
+      frequented the Asiatic shores of the Mediterranean from a very remote
+      period. In the time of Egyptian supremacy they called their country Asi,
+      and this name inclines one to connect the people with the �geans.* An
+      examination of the objects found in the most ancient tombs of the island
+      seems to confirm this opinion. These consist, for the most part, of
+      weapons and implements of stone&mdash;knives, hatchets, hammers, and
+      arrow-heads; and mingled with these rude objects a score of different
+      kinds of pottery, chiefly hand-made and of coarse design&mdash;pitchers
+      with contorted bowls, shallow buckets, especially of the milk-pail
+      variety, provided with spouts and with pairs of rudimentary handles.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * &ldquo;Asi,&rdquo; &ldquo;As�i,&rdquo; was at first sought for on the Asiatic
+     continent&mdash;at Is on the Euphrates, or in Palestine: the
+     discovery of the Canopic decree allows us to identify it
+     with Cyprus, and this has now been generally done. The
+     reading &ldquo;Asebi&rdquo; is still maintained by some.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0055" id="linkBimage-0055">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/294.jpg" width="100%" alt="294.jpg Map of Cyprus " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The pottery is red or black in colour, and the ornamentation of it
+      consists of incised geometrical designs. Copper and bronze, where we find
+      examples of these metals, do not appear to have been employed in the
+      manufacture of ornaments or arrow-heads, but usually in making daggers.
+      There is no indication anywhere of foreign influence, and yet Cyprus had
+      already at this time entered into relations with the civilized nations of
+      the continent.* According to Chald�an tradition, it was conquered about
+      the year 3800 B.C. by Sargon of Agad�: without insisting upon the reality
+      of this conquest, which in any case must have been ephemeral in its
+      nature, there is reason to believe that the island was subjected from an
+      early period to the influence of the various peoples which lived one after
+      another on the slopes of the Lebanon. Popular legend attributes to King
+      Kinyras and to the Giblites [i.e. the people of Byblos] the establishment
+      of the first Phoenician colonies in the southern region of the island&mdash;one
+      of them being at Paphos, where the worship of Adonis and Astart� continued
+      to a very late date. The natives preserved their own language and customs,
+      had their own chiefs, and maintained their national independence, while
+      constrained to submit at the same time to the presence of Phoenician
+      colonists or merchants on the coast, and in the neighbourhood of the mines
+      in the mountains. The trading centres of these settlers&mdash;Kition,
+      Amathus, Solius, Golgos, and Tamassos&mdash;were soon, however, converted
+      into strongholds, which ensured to Phonicia the monopoly of the immense
+      wealth contained in the island.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * An examination into the origin of the Cypriotes formed
+     part of the original scheme of this work, together with that
+     of the monuments of the various races scattered along the
+     coast of Asia Minor and the islands of the �gean; but I
+     have been obliged to curtail it, in order to keep within the
+     limits I had proscribed for myself, and I have merely
+     epitomised, as briefly as possible, the results of the
+     researches undertaken in those regions during the last few
+     years.
+
+     ** The Phoenician origin of these towns is proved by
+     passages from classical writers. The date of the
+     colonisation is uncertain, but with the knowledge we possess
+     of the efficient vessels belonging to the various Phoenician
+     towns, it would seem difficult not to allow that the coasts
+     at least of Cyprus must have been partially occupied at the
+     time of the Egyptian invasions.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Tyre and Sidon had no important centres of industry on that part of the
+      Canaanite coast which extended to the south of Carmel, and Egypt, even in
+      the time of the shepherd kings, would not have tolerated the existence on
+      her territory of any great emporium not subject to the immediate
+      supervision of her official agents. We know that the Libyan cliffs long
+      presented an obstacle to inroads into Egyptian territory, and baffled any
+      attempts to land to the westwards of the Delta: the Phoenicians
+      consequently turned with all the greater ardour to those northern regions
+      which for centuries had furnished them with most valuable products&mdash;bronze,
+      tin, amber, and iron, both native and wrought. A little to the north of
+      the Orontes, where the Syrian border is crossed and Asia Minor begins, the
+      coast turns due west and runs in that direction for a considerable
+      distance. The Phoenicians were accustomed to trade along this region, and
+      we may attribute, perhaps, to them the foundation of those obscure cities&mdash;Kibyra,
+      Masura, Euskopus, Sylion, Mygdal�, and Sidyma*&mdash;all of which
+      preserved their apparently Semitic names down to the time of the Roman
+      epoch. The whole of the important island of Rhodes fell into their power,
+      and its three ports, Ialysos, Lindos*, and Kamiros, afforded them a
+      well-situated base of operations for further colonisation. On leaving
+      Rhodes, the choice of two routes presented itself to them. To the
+      south-west they could see the distant outline of Karpathos, and on the far
+      horizon behind it the summits of the Cretan chain. Crete itself bars on
+      the south the entrance to the �gean, and is almost a little continent,
+      self-contained and self-sufficing.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * No direct evidence exists to lead us to attribute the
+     foundation of these towns to the Phoenicians, but the
+     Semitic origin of nearly all the names is an uncontested
+     fact.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0056" id="linkBimage-0056">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/297.jpg" alt="297.jpg the Murex Trunculus " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is made up of fertile valleys and mountains clothed with forests, and
+      its inhabitants could employ themselves in mines and fisheries. The
+      Phoenicians effected a settlement on the coast at Itanos, at Kairatos, and
+      at Arados, and obtained possession of the peak of Cythera, where, it is
+      said, they raised a sanctuary to Astart�. If, on leaving Rhodes, they had
+      chosen to steer due north, they would soon have come into contact with
+      numerous rocky islets scattered in the sea between the continents of Asia
+      and Europe, which would have furnished them with as many stations, less
+      easy of attack, and more readily defended than posts on the mainland. Of
+      these the Giblites occupied Melos, while the Sidonians chose Oliaros and
+      Thera, and we find traces of them in every island where any natural
+      product, such as metals, sulphur, alum, fuller&rsquo;s earth, emery, medicinal
+      plants, and shells for producing dyes, offered an attraction. The purple
+      used by the Tyrians for dyeing is secreted by several varieties of
+      molluscs common in the Eastern Mediterranean; those most esteemed by the
+      dyers were the <i>Murex trunculus</i> and the <i>Murex Brandaris</i>, and
+      solid masses made up of the detritus of these shells are found in enormous
+      quantities in the neighbourhood of many Phoenician towns. The colouring
+      matter was secreted in the head of the shellfish. To obtain it the shell
+      was broken by a blow from a hammer, and the small quantity of slightly
+      yellowish liquid which issued from the fracture was carefully collected
+      and stirred about in salt water for three days.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was then boiled in leaden vessels and reduced by simmering over a slow
+      fire; the remainder was strained through a cloth to free it from the
+      particles of flesh still floating in it, and the material to be dyed was
+      then plunged into the liquid. The usual tint thus imparted was that of
+      fresh blood, in some lights almost approaching to black; but careful
+      manipulation could produce shades of red, dark violet, and amethyst.
+      Phoenician settlements can be traced, therefore, by the heaps of shells
+      upon the shore, the Cyclades and the coasts of Greece being strewn with
+      this refuse. The veins of gold in the Pangaion range in Macedonia
+      attracted them off the Thracian coast* received also frequent visits from
+      them, and they carried their explorations even through the tortuous
+      channel of the Hellespont into the Propontis, drawn thither, no doubt by
+      the silver mines in the Bithynian mountains** which were already being
+      worked by Asiatic miners.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The fact that they worked the mines of Thasos is attested
+     by Herodotus.
+
+     ** Pronektos, on the Gulf of Ascania, was supposed to be a
+     Phoenician colony.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Beyond the calm waters of the Propontis, they encountered an obstacle to
+      their progress in another narrow channel, having more the character of a
+      wide river than of a strait; it was with difficulty that they could make
+      their way against the violence of its current, which either tended to
+      drive their vessels on shore, or to dash them against the reefs which
+      hampered the navigation of the channel. When, however, they succeeded in
+      making the passage safely, they found themselves upon a vast and stormy
+      sea, whose wooded shores extended east and west as far as eye could reach.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0058" id="linkBimage-0058">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/299.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="299.jpg One of the Daggers Discovered at Mycen�, Showing An Imitation of Egyptian Decoration " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the facsimile in Perrot-Chipiez.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      From the tribes who inhabited them, and who acted as intermediaries, the
+      Phoenician traders were able to procure tin, lead, amber, Caucasian gold,
+      bronze, and iron, all products of the extreme north&mdash;a region which
+      always seemed,to elude their persevering efforts to discover it. We cannot
+      determine the furthest limits reached by the Phoenician traders, since
+      they were wont to designate the distant countries and nations with which
+      they traded by the vague appellations of &ldquo;Isles of the Sea&rdquo; and &ldquo;Peoples
+      of the Sea,&rdquo; refusing to give more accurate information either from
+      jealousy or from a desire to hide from other nations the sources of their
+      wealth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0057" id="linkBimage-0057">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:10%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/298.jpg" alt="298.jpg Dagger of �hmosis " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by
+Faucher-
+Gudin.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The peoples with whom they traded were not mere barbarians, contented with
+      worthless objects of barter; their clients included the inhabitants of the
+      iEgean, who, if inferior to the great nations of the East, possessed an
+      independent and growing civilization, traces of which are still coming to
+      light from many quarters in the shape of tombs, houses, palaces, utensils,
+      ornaments, representations of the gods, and household and funerary
+      furniture,&mdash;not only in the Cyclades, but on the mainland of Asia
+      Minor and of Greece. No inferior goods or tinsel wares would have
+      satisfied the luxurious princes who reigned in such ancient cities as Troy
+      and Mycenae, and who wanted the best industrial products of Egypt and
+      Syria&mdash;costly stuffs, rare furniture, ornate and well-wrought
+      weapons, articles of jewellery, vases of curious and delicate design&mdash;such
+      objects, in fact, as would have been found in use among the sovereigns and
+      nobles of Memphis or of Babylon. For articles to offer in exchange they
+      were not limited to the natural or roughly worked products of their own
+      country. Their craftsmen, though less successful in general technique than
+      their Oriental contemporaries, exhibited considerable artistic
+      intelligence and an extraordinary manual skill. Accustomed at first merely
+      to copy the objects sold to them by the Phoenicians, they soon developed a
+      style of their own; the Mycenaean dagger in the illustration on page 299,
+      though several centuries later in date than that of the Pharaoh Ahmosis,
+      appears to be traceable to this ancient source of inspiration, although it
+      gives evidence of new elements in its method of decoration and in its
+      greater freedom of treatment. The inhabitants of the valleys of the Nile
+      and of the Orontes, and probably also those of the Euphrates and Tigris,
+      agreed in the, high value they set upon these artistic objects in gold,
+      silver, and bronze, brought to them from the further shores of the
+      Mediterranean, which, while reproducing their own designs, modified them
+      to a certain extent; for just as we now imitate types of ornamental work
+      in vogue among nations less civilized than ourselves, so the iEgean people
+      set themselves the task through their potters and engravers of reproducing
+      exotic models. The Phoenician traders who exported to Greece large
+      consignments of objects made under various influences in their own
+      workshops, or purchased in the bazaars of the ancient world, brought back
+      as a return cargo an equivalent number of works of art, bought in the
+      towns of the West, which eventually found their way into the various
+      markets of Asia and Africa. These energetic merchants were not the first
+      to ply this profitable trade of maritime carriers, for from the time of
+      the Memphite empire the products of northern regions had found their way,
+      through the intermediation of the Ha�inib�, as far south as the cities of
+      the Delta and the Thebaid. But this commerce could not be said to be
+      either regular or continuous; the transmission was carried on from one
+      neighbouring tribe to another, and the Syrian sailors were merely the last
+      in a long chain of intermediaries&mdash;a tribal war, a migration, the
+      caprice of some chief, being sufficient to break the communication, and
+      even cause the suspension of transit for a considerable period. The
+      Phoenicians desired to provide against such risks by undertaking
+      themselves to fetch the much-coveted objects from their respective
+      sources, or, where this was not possible, from the ports nearest the place
+      of their manufacture. Reappearing with each returning year in the
+      localities where they had established emporia, they accustomed the natives
+      to collect against their arrival such products as they could profitably
+      use in bartering with one or other of their many customers. They thus
+      established, on a fixed line of route, a kind of maritime trading service,
+      which placed all the shores of the Mediterranean in direct communication
+      with each other, and promoted the blending of the youthful West with the
+      ancient East.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0059" id="linkBimage-0059">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/302.jpg" width="100%" alt="302.jpg Tailpiece " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <br /> <a name="linkCimage-0005" id="linkCimage-0005">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/303.jpg" width="100%" alt="303.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY TH�TMOSIS I. AND HIS ARMY&mdash;H�TSHOPSIT�
+      AND TH�TMOSIS III.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Thutmosis I.&lsquo;s campaign in Syria&mdash;The organisation of the Egyptian
+      army: the infantry of the line, the archers, the horses, and the
+      charioteers&mdash;The classification of the troops according to their arms&mdash;Marching
+      and encampment in the enemy&rsquo;s country: battle array&mdash;Chariot-charges&mdash;The
+      enumeration and distribution of the spoil&mdash;The vice-royalty of Rush
+      and the adoption of Egyptian customs by the Ethiopian tribes.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The first successors of Thutmosis I.: Ahmasi and Hatshopsitit,
+      Th�tmosis II&mdash;The temple of De�r el-Bahari and the buildings of
+      Karnah&mdash;The Ladders of Incense&mdash;The expedition to P�an�t:
+      bartering with the natives, the return of the fleet.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Th�tmosis III.: his departure for Asia, the battle of Megiddo and the
+      subjection of Southern Syria&mdash;The year 23 to the year 28 of his reign&mdash;Conquest
+      of Lotan� and of Mit�nni&mdash;The campaign of the 33rd year of the king&rsquo;s
+      reign.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkC2HCH0001" id="linkC2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a> <a name="linkCimage-0006" id="linkCimage-0006">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/305.jpg" width="100%" alt="305.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER III&mdash;THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Th�tmosis I. and his army&mdash;H�tshops�t� and Th�tmosis III.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The account of the first expedition undertaken by Th�tmosis in Asia, a
+      region at that time new to the Egyptians, would be interesting if we could
+      lay our hands upon it. We should perhaps find in the midst of official
+      documents, or among the short phrases of funerary biographies, some
+      indication of the impression which the country produced upon its
+      conquerors.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      With the exception of a few merchants or adventurers, no one from Thebes
+      to Memphis had any other idea of Asia than that which could be gathered
+      from the scattered notices of it in the semi-historical romances of the
+      preceding age. The actual sight of the country must have been a
+      revelation; everything appearing new and paradoxical to men of whom the
+      majority had never left their fatherland, except on some warlike
+      expedition into Ethiopia or on some rapid raid along the coasts of the Red
+      Sea. Instead of their own narrow valley, extending between its two
+      mountain ranges, and fertilised by the periodical overflowing of the Nile
+      which recurred regularly almost to a day, they had before them wide
+      irregular plains, owing their fertility not to inundations, but to
+      occasional rains or the influence of insignificant streams; hills of
+      varying heights covered with vines and other products of cultivation;
+      mountains of different altitudes irregularly distributed, clothed with
+      forests, furrowed with torrents, their summits often crowned with snow
+      even in the hottest period of summer: and in this region of nature, where
+      everything was strange to them, they found nations differing widely from
+      each other in appearance and customs, towns with crenellated walls perched
+      upon heights difficult of access; and finally, a civilization far
+      excelling that which they encountered anywhere in Africa outside their own
+      boundaries. Th�tmosis succeeded in reaching on his first expedition a
+      limit which none of his successors was able to surpass, and the road taken
+      by him in this campaign&mdash;from Gaza to Megiddo, from Megiddo to
+      Qodsh�, from Qodsh� to Carchemish&mdash;was that which was followed
+      henceforward by the Egyptian troops in all their expeditions to the
+      Euphrates. Of the difficulties which he encountered on his way we have no
+      information. On arriving at Naharaim, however, we know that he came into
+      contact with the army of the enemy, which was under the command of a
+      single general&mdash;perhaps the King of Mitanni himself, or one of the
+      lieutenants of the &ldquo;Coss�an King of Babylon&rdquo;&mdash;who had collected
+      together most of the petty princes of the northern country to resist the
+      advance of the intruder. The contest was hotly fought out on both sides,
+      but victory at length remained with the invaders, and innumerable
+      prisoners fell into their hands. The veteran �hmosi, son of Ab�na, who was
+      serving in his last campaign, and his cousin, �hmosi Pannekhab�t,
+      distinguished themselves according to their wont. The former, having
+      seized upon a chariot, brought it, with the three soldiers who occupied
+      it, to the Pharaoh, and received once more &ldquo;the collar of gold;&rdquo; the
+      latter killed twenty-one of the enemy, carrying off their hands as
+      trophies, captured a chariot, took one prisoner, and obtained as reward a
+      valuable collection of jewellery, consisting of collars, bracelets,
+      sculptured lions, choice vases, and costly weapons. A stele, erected on
+      the banks of the Euphrates not far from the scene of the battle, marked
+      the spot which the conqueror wished to be recognised henceforth as the
+      frontier of his empire. He re-entered Thebes with immense booty, by which
+      gods as well as men profited, for he consecrated a part of it to the
+      embellishment of the temple of Amon, and the sight of the spoil
+      undoubtedly removed the lingering prejudices which the people had
+      cherished against expeditions beyond the isthmus. Th�tmosis was held up by
+      his subjects to the praise of posterity as having come into actual contact
+      with that country and its people, which had hitherto been known to the
+      Egyptians merely through the more or less veracious tales of exiles and
+      travellers. The aspect of the great river of the Naharaim, which could be
+      compared with the Nile for the volume of its waters, excited their
+      admiration. They were, however, puzzled by the fact that it flowed from
+      north to south, and even were accustomed to joke at the necessity of
+      reversing the terms employed in Egypt to express going up or down the
+      river. This first Syrian campaign became the model for most of those
+      subsequently undertaken by the Pharaohs. It took the form of a bold
+      advance of troops, directed from Zal� towards the north-east, in a
+      diagonal line through the country, who routed on the way any armies which
+      might be opposed to them, carrying by assault such towns as were easy of
+      capture, while passing by others which seemed strongly defended&mdash;pillaging,
+      burning, and slaying on every side. There was no suspension of
+      hostilities, no going into winter quarters, but a triumphant return of the
+      expedition at the end of four or five months, with the probability of
+      having to begin fresh operations in the following year should the
+      vanquished break out into revolt.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * From the account of the campaigns of Amen�thes II., I
+     thought we might conclude that this Pharaoh wintered in
+     Syria at least once; but the text does not admit of this
+     interpretation, and we must, therefore, for the present give
+     up the idea that the Pharaohs ever spent more than a few
+     months of the year on hostile territory.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The troops employed in these campaigns were superior to any others
+      hitherto put into the field. The Egyptian army, inured to war by its long
+      struggle with the Shepherd-kings, and kept in training since the reign of
+      �hmosis by having to repulse the perpetual incursions of the Ethiopian or
+      Libyan barbarians, had no difficulty, in overcoming the Syrians; not that
+      the latter were wanting in courage or discipline, but owing to their
+      limited supply of recruits, and the political disintegration of the
+      country, they could not readily place under arms such enormous numbers as
+      those of the Egyptians. Egyptian military organisation had remained
+      practically unchanged since early times: the army had always consisted,
+      firstly, of the militia who held fiefs, and were under the obligation of
+      personal service either to the prince of the nome or to the sovereign;
+      secondly, of a permanent force, which was divided into two corps,
+      distributed respectively between the Sa&rsquo;id and the Delta. Those companies
+      which were quartered on the frontier, or about the king either at Thebes
+      or at one of the royal residences, were bound to hold themselves in
+      readiness to muster for a campaign at any given moment. The number of
+      natives liable to be levied when occasion required, by &ldquo;generations,&rdquo; or
+      as we should say by classes, may have amounted to over a hundred thousand
+      men,* but they were never all called out, and it does not appear that the
+      army on active service ever contained more than thirty thousand men at a
+      time, and probably on ordinary occasions not much more than ten or fifteen
+      thousand.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The only numbers which we know are those given by
+     Herodotus for the Sa�te period, which are evidently
+     exaggerated. Coming down to modern times, we see that
+     Mehemet-Ali, from 1830 to 1840, had nearly 120,000 men in
+     Syria, Egypt, and the Sudan; and in 1841, at the time when
+     the treaties imposed upon him the ill-kept obligation of
+     reducing his army to 18,000 men, it still contained 81,000.
+     We shall probably not be far wrong in estimating the total
+     force which the Pharaohs of the XVIIIth dynasty, lords of
+     the whole valley of the Nile, and of part of Asia, had at
+     their disposal at 120,000 or 130,000 men; these, however,
+     were never all called out at once.
+
+     ** We have no direct information respecting the armies
+     acting in Syria; we only know that, at the battle of Qodsh�,
+     Ramses II. had against him 2500 chariots containing three
+     men each, making 7500 charioteers, besides a troop estimated
+     at the Ramesseum at 8000 men, at Luxor at 9000, so that the
+     Syrian army probably contained about 20,000 men. It would
+     seem that the Egyptian army was less numerous, and I
+     estimate it with great hesitation at about 15,000 or 18,000
+     men: it was considered a powerful army, while that of the
+     Hittites was regarded as an innumerable host. A passage in
+     the Anastasi Papyrus, No. 1, tells us the composition of a
+     corps led by Ramses II. against the tribes in the vicinity
+     of Qoco�r and the Rahan� valley; it consisted of 5000 men,
+     of whom 620 were Shardana, 1600 Qahak, 70 Masha�asha, and
+     880 Negroes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The infantry was, as we should expect, composed of troops of the line and
+      light troops. The former wore either short wigs arranged in rows of curls,
+      or a kind of padded cap by way of a helmet, thick enough to deaden blows;
+      the breast and shoulders were undefended, but a short loin-cloth was
+      wrapped round the hips, and the stomach and upper part of the thighs were
+      protected by a sort of triangular apron, sometimes scalloped at the sides,
+      and composed of leather thongs attached to a belt. A buckler of moderate
+      dimensions had been substituted for the gigantic shield of the earlier
+      Theban period; it was rounded at the top and often furnished with a solid
+      metal boss, which the experienced soldiers always endeavoured to present
+      to the enemy&rsquo;s lances and javelins. Their weapons consisted of pikes about
+      five feet long, with broad bronze or copper points, occasionally of
+      flails, axes, daggers, short curved swords, and spears; the trumpeters
+      were armed with daggers only, and the officers did not as a rule encumber
+      themselves with either buckler or pike, but bore and axe and dagger, an
+      occasionally a bow.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0007" id="linkCimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/311.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="311.jpg a Platoon (troop) of Egyptian Spearmen at De�r El-bahar� " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Naville.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The light infantry was composed chiefly of bowmen&mdash;<i>pid�t�</i>&mdash;the
+      celebrated archers of Egypt, whose long bows and arrows, used with deadly
+      skill, speedily became renowned throughout the East; the quiver, of the
+      use of which their ancestors were ignorant, had been borrowed from the
+      Asiatics, probably from the Hyks�s, and was carried hanging at the side or
+      slung over the shoulder. Both spearmen and archers were for the most part
+      pure-bred Egyptians, and were divided into regiments of unequal strength,
+      each of which usually bore the name of some god&mdash;as, for example, the
+      regiment of Ra or of Phtah, of Arnon or of S�tkh�*&mdash;in which the
+      feudal contingents, each commanded by its lord or his lieutenants, fought
+      side by side with the king&rsquo;s soldiers furnished from the royal domains.
+      The effective force of the army was made up by auxiliaries taken from the
+      tribes of the Sahara and from the negroes of the Upper Nile.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The army of Ramses II. at the battle of Qodsh� comprised
+     four corps, which bore the names of Amon, R�, Phtah, and
+     S�tkh�. Other lesser corps were named the <i>Tribe of
+     Pharaoh,</i> the <i>Tribe of the Beauty of the Solar dish.</i>
+     These, as far as I can judge, must have been troops raised
+     on the royal domains by a system of local recruiting, who
+     were united by certain common privileges and duties which
+     constituted them an hereditary militia, whence they were
+     called <i>tribes</i>.
+
+     ** These Ethiopian recruits are occasionally represented in
+     the Theban tombs of the XVIIIth dynasty, among others in the
+     tomb of Pahs�kh�r.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These auxiliaries were but sparingly employed in early times, but their
+      numbers were increased as wars became more frequent and necessitated more
+      troops to carry them on. The tribes from which they were drawn supplied
+      the Pharaohs with an inexhaustible reserve; they were courageous, active,
+      indefatigable, and inured to hardships, and if it had not been for their
+      turbulent nature, which incited them to continual internal dissensions,
+      they might readily have shaken off the yoke of the Egyptians. Incorporated
+      into the Egyptian army, and placed under the instruction of picked
+      officers, who subjected them to rigorous discipline, and accustomed them
+      to the evolutions of regular troops, they were transformed from
+      disorganised hordes into tried and invincible battalions.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The armies of H�tshops�t� already included Libyan
+     auxiliaries, some of which are represented at De�r el-
+     Bahar�; others of Asiatic origin are found under Amen�thes
+     IV., but they are not represented on the monuments among the
+     regular troops until the reign of Ramses II., when the
+     Shardana appear for the first time among the king&rsquo;s body-
+     guard.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0008" id="linkCimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/313.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="313.jpg a Platoon of Egyptian Archers at De�r El-bahar� " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The old army, which had conquered Nubia in the days of the Papis and
+      Usirtasens, had consisted of these three varieties of foot-soldiers only,
+      but since the invasion of the Shepherds, a new element had been
+      incorporated into the modern army in the-shape of the chariotry, which
+      answered to some extent to the cavalry of our day as regards their
+      tactical employment and efficacy. The horse, when once introduced into
+      Egypt, soon became fairly adapted to its environment. It retained both its
+      height and size, keeping the convex forehead&mdash;which gave the head a
+      slightly curved profile&mdash;the slender neck, the narrow hind-quarters,
+      the lean and sinewy legs, and the long flowing tail which had
+      characterised it in its native country. The climate, however, was
+      enervating, and constant care had to be taken, by the introduction of new
+      blood from Syria, to prevent the breed from deteriorating.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The numbers of horses brought from Syria either as spoils
+     of war or as tribute paid by the vanquished are frequently
+     recorded in the Annals of Th�tmosis III. Besides the usual
+     species, powerful stallions were imported from Northern
+     Syria, which were known by the Semitic name of Ab�ri, the
+     strong. In the tombs of the XVIIIth dynasty, the arrival of
+     Syrian horses in Egypt is sometimes represented.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0009" id="linkCimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/314.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="314.jpg the Egyptian Chariot Preserved in The Florence Museum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Petrie.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Pharaohs kept studs of horses in the principal cities of the Nile
+      valley, and the great feudal lords, following their example, vied with
+      each other in the possession of numerous breeding stables. The office of
+      superintendent to these establishments, which was at the disposal of the
+      Master of the Horse, became in later times one of the most important State
+      appointments.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In the story of the conquest of Egypt by the Ethiopian
+     Pi�nkhi, studs are indicated at Hermopolis, at Athribis, in
+     the towns to the east and in the centre of the Delta, and at
+     Sais. Diodorus Siculus relates that, in his time, the
+     foundations of 100 stables, each capable of containing 200
+     horses, were still to be seen on the western bank of the
+     river between Memphis and Thebes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0010" id="linkCimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/315.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="315.jpg the King Charging on his Chariot " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The first chariots introduced into Egypt were, like the horses, of foreign
+      origin, but when built by Egyptian workmen they soon became more elegant,
+      if not stronger than their models. Lightness was the quality chiefly aimed
+      at; and at length the weight was so reduced that it was possible for a man
+      to carry his chariot on his shoulders without fatigue. The materials for
+      them were on this account limited to oak or ash and leather; metal,
+      whether gold or silver, iron or bronze, being used but sparingly, and then
+      only for purposes of ornamentation. The wheels usually had six, but
+      sometimes eight spokes, or occasionally only four. The axle consisted of a
+      single stout pole of acacia. The framework of the chariot was composed of
+      two pieces of wood mortised together so as to form a semicircle or
+      half-ellipse, and closed by a straight bar; to this frame was fixed a
+      floor of sycomore wood or of plaited leather thongs. The sides of the
+      chariot were formed of upright panels, solid in front and open at the
+      sides, each provided with a handrail. The pole, which was of a single
+      piece of wood, was bent into an elbow at about one-fifth of its length
+      from the end, which was inserted into the centre of the axletree. On the
+      gigantic T thus formed was fixed the body of the chariot, the hinder part
+      resting on the axle, and the front attached to the bent part of the pole,
+      while the whole was firmly bound together with double leather thongs. A
+      yoke of hornbeam, shaped like a bow, to which the horses were harnessed,
+      was fastened to the other extremity of the pole. The Asiatics placed three
+      men in a chariot, but the Egyptians only two; the warrior&mdash;<i>sinni</i>&mdash;whose
+      business it was to fight, and the shield-bearer&mdash;<i>qazana</i>&mdash;who
+      protected his companion with a buckler during the engagement. A complete
+      set of weapons was carried in the chariot&mdash;lances, javelins, and
+      daggers, curved spear, club, and battle-axe&mdash;while two bow-cases as
+      well as two large quivers were hung at the sides. The chariot itself was
+      very liable to upset, the slightest cause being sufficient to overturn it.
+      Even when moving at a slow pace, the least inequality of the ground shook
+      it terribly, and when driven at full speed it was only by a miracle of
+      skill that the occupants could maintain their equilibrium. At such times
+      the charioteer would stand astride of the front panels, keeping his right
+      foot only inside the vehicle, and planting the other firmly on the pole,
+      so as to lessen the jolting, and to secure a wider base on which to
+      balance himself. To carry all this into practice long education was
+      necessary, for which there were special schools of instruction, and those
+      who were destined to enter the army were sent to these schools when little
+      more than children. To each man, as soon as he had thoroughly mastered all
+      the difficulties of the profession, a regulation chariot and pair of
+      horses were granted, for which he was responsible to the Pharaoh or to his
+      generals, and he might then return to his home until the next call to
+      arms. The warrior took precedence of the shield-bearer, and both were
+      considered superior to the foot-soldier; the chariotry, in fact, like the
+      cavalry of the present day, was the aristocratic branch of the army, in
+      which the royal princes, together with the nobles and their sons,
+      enlisted. No Egyptian ever willingly trusted himself to the back of a
+      horse, and it was only in the thick of a battle, when his chariot was
+      broken, and there seemed no other way of escaping from the m�l�e, that a
+      warrior would venture to mount one of his steeds. There appear, however,
+      to have been here and there a few horsemen, who acted as couriers or
+      aides-de-camp; they used neither saddle-cloth nor stirrups, but were
+      provided with reins with which to guide their animals, and their seat on
+      horseback was even less secure than the footing of the driver in his
+      chariot.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0011" id="linkCimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/318.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="318.jpg an Egyptian Learning to Ride, from a Bas-relief In the Bologna Museum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Flinders Petrie.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The infantry was divided into platoons of six to ten men each, commanded
+      by an officer and marshalled round an ensign, which represented either a
+      sacred animal, an emblem of the king or of his double, or a divine figure
+      placed upon the top of a pike; this constituted an object of worship to
+      the group of soldiers to whom it belonged. We are unable to ascertain how
+      many of these platoons, either of infantry or of chariotry, went to form a
+      company or a battalion, or by what ensigns the different grades were
+      distinguished from each other, or what was their relative order of rank.
+      Bodies of men, to the number of forty or fifty, are sometimes represented
+      on the monuments, but this may be merely by chance, or because the
+      draughtsman did not take the trouble to give the proper number accurately.
+      The inferior officers were equipped very much like the soldiers, with the
+      exception of the buckler, which they do not appear to have carried, and
+      certainly did not when on the march: the superior officers might be known
+      by their umbrella or flabellum, a distinction which gave them the right of
+      approaching the king&rsquo;s person.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0012" id="linkCimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/319.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="319.jpg the War-dance of The Timihu at De�r El-bahar� " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The military exercises to which all these troops were accustomed probably
+      differed but little from those which were in vogue with the armies of the
+      Ancient Empire; they consisted in wrestling, boxing, jumping, running
+      either singly or in line at regular distances from each other, manual
+      exercises, fencing, and shooting at a target; the war-dance had ceased to
+      be in use among the Egyptian regiments as a military exercise, but it was
+      practised by the Ethiopian and Libyan auxiliaries. At the beginning of
+      each campaign, the men destined to serve in it were called out by the
+      military scribes, who supplied them with arms from the royal arsenals.
+      Then followed the distribution of rations. The soldiers, each carrying a
+      small linen bag, came up in squads before the commissariat officers, and
+      each received his own allowance.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We see the distribution of arms made by the scribes and
+     other officials of the royal arsenals represented in the
+     pictures at Medinet-Abu. The calling out of the classes was
+     represented in the Egyptian tombs of the XVIIIth dynasty, as
+     well as the distribution of supplies.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Once in the enemy&rsquo;s country the army advanced in close order, the infantry
+      in columns of four, the officers in rear, and the chariots either on the
+      right or left flank, or in the intervals between divisions. Skirmishers
+      thrown out to the front cleared the line of march, while detached parties,
+      pushing right and left, collected supplies of cattle, grain, or
+      drinking-water from the fields and unprotected villages. The main body was
+      followed by the baggage train; it comprised not only supplies and stores,
+      but cooking-utensils, coverings, and the entire paraphernalia of the
+      carpenters&rsquo; and blacksmiths&rsquo; shops necessary for repairing bows, lances,
+      daggers, and chariot-poles, the whole being piled up in four-wheeled carts
+      drawn by asses or oxen. The army was accompanied by a swarm of
+      non-combatants, scribes, soothsayers, priests, heralds, musicians,
+      servants, and women of loose life, who were a serious cause of
+      embarrassment to the generals, and a source of perpetual danger to
+      military discipline. At nightfall they halted in a village, or more
+      frequently bivouacked in an entrenched camp, marked out to suit the
+      circumstances of the case. This entrenchment was always rectangular, its
+      length being twice as great as its width, and was surrounded by a ditch,
+      the earth from which, being banked up on the inside, formed a rampart from
+      five to six feet in height; the exterior of this was then entirely faced
+      with shields, square below, but circular in shape at the top. The entrance
+      to the camp was by a single gate in one of the longer sides, and a plank
+      served as a bridge across the trench, close to which two detachments
+      mounted guard, armed with clubs and naked swords.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0013" id="linkCimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/321.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="321.jpg a Column of Troops on the March, Chariots And Infantry " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The royal quarters were situated at one end of the camp. Here, within an
+      enclosure, rose an immense tent, where the Pharaoh found all the luxury to
+      which he was accustomed in his palaces, even to a portable chapel, in
+      which each morning he could pour out water and burn incense to his father,
+      Amon-R� of Thebes. The princes of the blood who formed his escort, his
+      shield-bearers and his generals, were crowded together hard by, and
+      beyond, in closely packed lines, were the horses and chariots, the draught
+      bullocks, the workshops and the stores.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0014" id="linkCimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/322.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="322.jpg an Egyptian Fortified Camp, Forced by the Enemy " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato. It represents
+     the camp of Ramses II. before Qodsh�: the upper angle of the
+     enclosure and part of the surrounding wall have been
+     destroyed by the Kh�ti, whose chariots are pouring in at the
+     breach. In the centre is the royal tent, surrounded by
+     scenes of military life. This picture has been sculptured
+     partly over an earlier one representing one of the episodes
+     of the battle; the latter had been covered with stucco, on
+     which the new subject was executed. Part of the stucco has
+     fallen away, and the king in his chariot, with a few other
+     figures, has reappeared, to the great detriment of the later
+     picture.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0015" id="linkCimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/322b.jpg" alt="322b.jpg Two Companies on the March"   width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The soldiers, accustomed from childhood to live in the open air, erected
+      no tents or huts of boughs for themselves in these temporary encampments,
+      but bivouacked in the open, and the sculptures on the fa�ades of the
+      Theban pylons give us a minute picture of the way in which they employed
+      themselves when off duty. Here one man, while cleaning his armour,
+      superintends the cooking. Another, similarly engaged, drinks from a skin
+      of wine held up by a slave. A third has taken his chariot to pieces, and t
+      is replacing some portion the worse for wear. Some are sharpening their
+      daggers or lances; others mend their loin-cloths or sandals, or exchange
+      blows with fists and sticks. The baggage, linen, arms, and provisions are
+      piled in disorder on the ground; horses, oxen, and asses are eating or
+      chewing the cud at their ease; while here and there a donkey, relieved of
+      his burden, rolls himself on the ground and brays with delight.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We are speaking of the camp of Th�tmosis III. near �l�na,
+     the day before the battle of Megiddo, and the words put into
+     the mouths of the soldiers to mark their vigilance are the
+     same as those which we find in the Ramesseum and at Luxor,
+     written above the guards of the camp where Ramses II. is
+     reposing.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0016" id="linkCimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/325.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="325.jpg Scenes from Military Life in an Egyptian Camp " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The success of the Egyptians in battle was due more to the courage and
+      hardihood of the men than to the strategical skill of their commanders. We
+      find no trace of manouvres, in the sense in which we understand the word,
+      either in their histories or on their bas-reliefs, but they joined battle
+      boldly with the enemy, and the result was decided by a more or less bloody
+      conflict. The heavy infantry was placed in the centre, the chariots were
+      massed on the flanks, while light troops thrown out to the front began the
+      action by letting fly volleys of arrows and stones, which through the
+      skill of the bowmen and slingers did deadly execution; then the pikemen
+      laid their spears in rest, and pressing straight forward, threw their
+      whole weight against the opposing troops. At the same moment the
+      charioteers set off at a gentle trot, and gradually quickened their pace
+      till they dashed at full speed upon the foe, amid the confused rumbling of
+      wheels and the sharp clash of metal.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0017" id="linkCimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/327.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="327.jpg Encounter Between Egyptian and Asiatic Chariots " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a drawing by Champolion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians, accustomed by long drilling to the performance of such
+      evolutions, executed these charges as methodically as though they were
+      still on their parade-ground at Thebes; if the disposition of the ground
+      were at all favourable, not a single chariot would break the line, and the
+      columns would sweep across the field without swerving or falling into
+      disorder. The charioteer had the reins tied round his body, and could, by
+      throwing his weight either to the right or the left, or by slackening or
+      increasing the pressure through a backward or forward motion, turn, pull
+      up, or start his horses by a simple movement of the loins: he went into
+      battle with bent bow, the string drawn back to his ear, the arrow levelled
+      ready to let fly, while the shield-bearer, clinging to the body of the
+      chariot with one hand, held out his buckler with the other to shelter his
+      comrade. It would seem that the Syrians were less skilful; their bows did
+      not carry so far as those of their adversaries, and consequently they came
+      within the enemy&rsquo;s range some moments before it was possible for them to
+      return the volley with effect. Their horses would be thrown down, their
+      drivers would fall wounded, and the disabled chariots would check the
+      approach of those following and overturn them, so that by the time the
+      main body came up with the enemy the slaughter would have been serious
+      enough to render victory hopeless. Nevertheless, more than one charge
+      would be necessary finally to overturn or scatter the Syrian chariots,
+      which, once accomplished, the Egyptian charioteer would turn against the
+      foot-soldiers, and, breaking up their ranks, would tread them down under
+      the feet of his horses.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The whole of the above description is based on incidents
+     from the various pictures of battles which appear on the
+     monuments of Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nor did the Pharaoh spare himself in the fight; his splendid dress, the
+      urasus on his forehead, and the nodding plumes of his horses made him a
+      mark for the blows of the enemy, and he would often find himself in
+      positions of serious danger. In a few hours, as a rule, the conflict would
+      come to an end.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0018" id="linkCimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/328b.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="328bth Ramses II." src="images/328bth.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Once the enemy showed signs of giving way, the Egyptian chariots dashed
+      upon them precipitously, and turned the retreat into a rout: the pursuit
+      was, however, never a long One; some fortress was always to be found close
+      at hand where the remnant of the defeated host could take refuge.* The
+      victors, moreover, would be too eager to secure the booty, and to strip
+      the bodies of the dead, to allow time for following up the foe.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * After the battle of Megiddo, the remnants of the Syrian
+     army took refuge in the city, where Th�tmosis III. besieged
+     them; similarly under Ramses II. the Hittite princes took
+     refuge in Qodsh� after their defeat.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The prisoners were driven along in platoons, their arms bound in strange
+      and contorted attitudes, each under the charge of his captor; then came
+      the chariots, arms, slaves, and provisions collected on the battle-field
+      or in the camp, then other trophies of a kind unknown in modern warfare.
+      When an Egyptian killed or mortally wounded any one, he cut off, not the
+      head, but the right hand or the phallus, and brought it to the royal
+      scribes. These made an accurate inventory of everything, and even Pharaoh
+      did not disdain to be present at the registration. The booty did not
+      belong to the persons who obtained it, but was thrown into a common stock
+      which was placed at the disposal of the sovereign: one part he reserved
+      for the gods, especially for his father Amon of Thebes, who had given him
+      the victory; another part he kept for himself, and the remainder was
+      distributed among his army. Each man received a reward in proportion to
+      his rank and services, such as male or female slaves, bracelets,
+      necklaces, arms, vases, or a certain measured weight of gold, known as the
+      &ldquo;gold of bravery.&rdquo; A similar sharing of the spoil took place after every
+      successful engagement: from Pharaoh to the meanest camp-follower, every
+      man who had contributed to the success of a campaign returned home richer
+      than he had set out, and the profits which he derived from a war were a
+      liberal compensation for the expenses in which it had involved him.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0020" id="linkCimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/330.jpg" width="100%" alt="330.jpg Counting of the Hands " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The results of the first expedition of Th�tmosis I. were of a decisive
+      character; so much so, indeed, that he never again, it would seem, found
+      it necessary during the remainder of his life to pass the isthmus.
+      Northern Syria, it is true, did not remain long under tribute, if indeed
+      it paid any at all after the departure of the Egyptians, but the southern
+      part of the country, feeling itself in the grip of the new master,
+      accepted its defeat: Gaza became the head-quarters of a garrison which
+      secured the door of Asia for future invasion,* and Pharaoh, freed from
+      anxiety in this quarter, gave his whole time to the consolidation of his
+      power in Ethiopia.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This fact is nowhere explicitly stated on the monuments:
+     we may infer it, however, from the way in which Th�tmosis
+     III. tells how he reached Gaza without opposition at the
+     beginning of his first campaign, and celebrated the
+     anniversary of his coronation there. On the other hand, we
+     learn from details in the lists that the mountains and
+     plains beyond Gaza were in a state of open rebellion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The river and desert tribes of this region soon forgot the severe lesson
+      which he had given them: as soon as the last Egyptian soldier had left
+      their territory they rebelled once more, and began a fresh series of
+      inroads which had to be repressed anew year after year. Th�tmosis I. had
+      several times to drive them back in the years II. and III., but was able
+      to make short work of their rebellions. An inscription at Tombos on the
+      Nile, in the very midst of the disturbed districts, told them in brave
+      words what he was, and what he had done since he had come to the throne.
+      Wherever he had gone, weapon in hand, &ldquo;seeking a warrior, he had found
+      none to withstand him; he had penetrated to valleys which were unknown to
+      his ancestors, the inhabitants of which had never beheld the wearers of
+      the double diadem.&rdquo; All this would have produced but little effect had he
+      not backed up his words by deeds, and taken decisive measures to restrain
+      the insolence of the barbarians. Tombos lies opposite to Hannek, at the
+      entrance to that series of rapids known as the Third Cataract. The course
+      of the Nile is here barred by a formidable dyke of granite, through which
+      it has hollowed out six winding channels of varying widths, dotted here
+      and there with huge polished boulders and verdant islets. When the
+      inundation is at its height, the rocks are covered and the rapids
+      disappear, with the exception of the lowest, which is named Lokoli, where
+      faint eddies mark the place of the more dangerous reefs; and were it not
+      that the fall here is rather more pronounced and the current somewhat
+      stronger, few would suspect the existence of a cataract at the spot. As
+      the waters go down, however, the channels gradually reappear. When the
+      river is at its lowest, the three westernmost channels dry up almost
+      completely, leaving nothing but a series of shallow pools; those on the
+      east still maintain their flow, but only one of them, that between the
+      islands of Tombos and Abad�n, remains navigable. Here Th�tmosis built,
+      under invocation of the gods of Heliopolis, one of those brickwork
+      citadels, with its rectangular keep, which set at nought all the efforts
+      and all the military science of the Ethiopians: attached to it was a
+      harbour, where each vessel on its way downstream put in for the purpose of
+      hiring a pilot.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The monarchs of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties had raised fortifications
+      at the approaches to Wady Haifa, and their engineers skilfully chose the
+      sites so as completely to protect from the ravages of the Nubian pirates
+      that part of the Nile which lay between Wady Haifa and Philse.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The foundation of this fortress is indicated in an
+     emphatic manner in the Tombos inscription: &ldquo;The masters of
+     the Great Castle (the gods of Heliopolis) have made a
+     fortress for the soldiers of the king, which the nine
+     peoples of Nubia combined could not carry by storm, for,
+     like a young panther before a bull which lowers its head,
+     the souls of his Majesty have blinded them with
+     fear.&rdquo; Quarries of considerable size, where Cailliaud
+     imagined he could distinguish an overturned colossus, show
+     the importance which the establishment had attained in
+     ancient times; the ruins of the town cover a fairly large
+     area near the modern village of Kerman.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Henceforward the garrison at Tombos was able to defend the mighty curve
+      described by the river through the desert of Mahas, together with the
+      island of Argo, and the confines of Dongola. The distance between Thebes
+      and this southern frontier was a long one, and communication was slow
+      during the winter months, when the subsidence of the waters had rendered
+      the task of navigation difficult for the Egyptian ships. The king was
+      obliged, besides, to concentrate his attention mainly on Asiatic affairs,
+      and was no longer able to watch the movements of the African races with
+      the same vigilance as his predecessors had exercised before Egyptian
+      armies had made their way as far as the banks of the Euphrates. Thutmosis
+      placed the control of the countries south of Assuan in the hands of a
+      viceroy, who, invested with the august title of &ldquo;Royal Son of K�sh,&rdquo; must
+      have been regarded as having the blood of R� himself running in his
+      veins.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The meaning of this title was at first misunderstood.
+     Champollion and Rosellini took it literally, and thought it
+     referred to Ethiopian princes, who were vassals or enemies
+     of Egypt. Birch persists in regarding them as Ethiopians
+     driven out by their subjects, restored by the Pharaohs as
+     viceroys, while admitting that they may have belonged to the
+     solar family.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Sura, the first of these viceroys whose name has reached us, was in office
+      at the beginning of the campaign of the year III.* He belonged, it would
+      seem, to a Theban family, and for several centuries afterwards his
+      successors are mentioned among the nobles who were in the habit of
+      attending the court. Their powers were considerable: they commanded
+      armies, built or restored temples, administered justice, and received the
+      homage of loyal sheikhs or the submission of rebellious ones.** The period
+      for which they were appointed was not fixed by law, and they held office
+      simply at the king&rsquo;s pleasure. During the XIXth dynasty it was usual to
+      confer this office, the highest in the state, on a son of the sovereign,
+      preferably the heir-apparent. Occasionally his appointment was purely
+      formal, and he continued in attendance on his father, while a trusty
+      substitute ruled in his place: often, however, he took the government on
+      himself, and in the regions of the Upper Nile served an apprenticeship to
+      the art of ruling.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * He is mentioned in the Seh�l inscriptions as &ldquo;the royal
+     son Sura.&rdquo; Nahi, who had been regarded as the first holder of
+     the office, and who was still in office under Thutmosis
+     III., had been appointed by Thutmosis I., but after Sura.
+
+     ** Under Thutmosis III., the viceroy Nahi restored the
+     temple at Semneh; under Tutankhamon, the viceroy Hui
+     received tribute from the Ethiopian princes, and presented
+     them to the sovereign.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0021" id="linkCimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/336.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="336.jpg a City of Modern Nubia--the Ancient Dongola " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This district was in a perpetual state of war&mdash;a war without danger,
+      but full of trickery and surprises: here he prepared himself for the
+      larger arena of the Syrian campaigns, learning the arts of generalship
+      more perfectly than was possible in the manouvres of the parade-ground.
+      Moreover, the appointment was dictated by religious as well as by
+      political considerations. The presumptive heir to the throne was to his
+      father what Horus had been to Osiris&mdash;his lawful successor, or, if
+      need be, his avenger, should some act of treason impose on him the duty of
+      vengeance: and was it not in Ethiopia that Horus had gained his first
+      victories over Typhon? To begin like Horus, and flesh his maiden steel on
+      the descendants of the accomplices of Sit, was, in the case of the future
+      sovereign, equivalent to affirming from the outset the reality of his
+      divine extraction.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In the <i>Orbiney Papyrus</i> the title of &ldquo;Prince of K�sh&rdquo; was
+     assigned to the heir-presumptive to the throne.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As at the commencement of the Theban dynasties, it was the river valley
+      only in these regions of the Upper Nile which belonged to the Pharaohs.
+      From this time onward it gave support to an Egyptian population as far as
+      the juncture of the two Niles: it was a second Egypt, but a poorer one,
+      whose cities presented the same impoverished appearance as that which we
+      find to-day in the towns of Nubia. The tribes scattered right and left in
+      the desert, or distributed beyond the confluence of the two Niles among
+      the plains of Sennar, were descended from the old indigenous races, and
+      paid valuable tribute every year in precious metals, ivory, timber, or the
+      natural products of their districts, under penalty of armed invasion.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The tribute of the Ganb�ti�, or people of the south, and
+          that of K�sh and of the �a�a��, is mentioned repeatedly
+          in the <i>Annales de Th�tmosis III.</i> for the year XXXI.,
+          for the year XXXIII., and for the year XXXIV. The
+          regularity with which this item recurs, unaccompanied by
+          any mention of war, following after each Syrian campaign,
+          shows that it was an habitual operation which was
+          registered as an understood thing. True, the inscription
+          does not give the item for every year, but then it only
+          dealt with Ethiopian affairs in so far as they were
+          subsidiary to events in Asia; the payment was none the
+          less an annual one, the amount varying in accordance with
+          local agreement.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Among these races were still to be found descendants of the Mazai� and
+      �a�a��, who in days gone by had opposed the advance of the victorious
+      Egyptians: the name of the Ua�a�� was, indeed, used as a generic term to
+      distinguish all those tribes which frequented the mountains between the
+      Nile and the Red Sea,* but the wave of conquest had passed far beyond the
+      boundaries reached in early campaigns, and had brought the Egyptians into
+      contact with nations with whom they had been in only indirect commercial
+      relations in former times.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Annals of Th�tmosis III. mention the tribute of P�an�t
+     for the peoples of the coast, the tribute of Ua�a�t for the
+     peoples of the mountain between the Nile and the sea, the
+     tribute of K�sh for the peoples of the south, or Ganb�ti�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0022" id="linkCimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/338.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="338.jpg Arrival of an Ethiopian Queen Bringing Tribute To The Viceroy of K�sii " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Some of these were light-coloured men of a type similar to that of the
+      modern Abyssinians or Gallas: they had the same haughty and imperious
+      carriage, the same well-developed and powerful frames, and the same love
+      of fighting. Most of the remaining tribes were of black blood, and such of
+      them as we see depicted on the monuments resemble closely the negroes
+      inhabiting Central Africa at the present day.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0023" id="linkCimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/339.jpg" width="100%" alt="339.jpg Typical Galla Woman " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      They have the same elongated skull, the low prominent forehead, hollow
+      temples, short flattened nose, thick lips, broad shoulders, and salient
+      breast, the latter contrasting sharply with the undeveloped appearance of
+      the lower part of the body, which terminates in thin legs almost devoid of
+      calves. Egyptian civilization had already penetrated among these tribes,
+      and, as far as dress and demeanour were concerned, their chiefs differed
+      in no way from the great lords who formed the escort of the Pharaoh. We
+      see these provincial dignitaries represented in the white robe and
+      petticoat of starched, pleated, and gauffered linen; an innate taste for
+      bright colours, even in those early times, being betrayed by the red or
+      yellow scarf in which they wrapped themselves, passing it over one
+      shoulder and round the waist, whence the ends depended and formed a kind
+      of apron. A panther&rsquo;s skin covered the back, and one or two
+      ostrich-feathers waved from the top of the head or were fastened on one
+      side to the fillet confining the hair, which was arranged in short curls
+      and locks, stiffened with gum and matted with grease, so as to form a sort
+      of cap or grotesque aureole round the skull. The men delighted to load
+      themselves with rings, bracelets, earrings, and necklaces, while from
+      their arms, necks, and belts hung long strings of glass beads, which
+      jingled with every movement of the wearer. They seem to have frequently
+      chosen a woman as their ruler, and her dress appears to have closely
+      resembled that of the Egyptian ladies. She appeared before her subjects in
+      a chariot drawn by oxen, and protected from the sun by an umbrella edged
+      with fringe. The common people went about nearly naked, having merely a
+      loin-cloth of some woven stuff or an animal&rsquo;s skin thrown round their
+      hips. Their heads were either shaven, or adorned with tufts of hair
+      stiffened with gum. The children of both sexes wore no clothes until the
+      age of puberty; the women wrapped themselves in a rude garment or in a
+      covering of linen, and carried their children on the hip or in a basket of
+      esparto grass on the back, supported by a leather band which passed across
+      the forehead. One characteristic of all these tribes was their love of
+      singing and dancing, and their use of the drum and cymbals; they were
+      active and industrious, and carefully cultivated the rich soil of the
+      plain, devoting themselves to the raising of cattle, particularly of oxen,
+      whose horns they were accustomed to train fantastically into the shapes of
+      lyres, bows, and spirals, with bifurcations at the ends, or with small
+      human figures as terminations. As in the case of other negro tribes, they
+      plied the blacksmith&rsquo;s and also the goldsmith&rsquo;s trade, working up both
+      gold and silver into rings, chains, and quaintly shaped vases, some
+      specimens of their art being little else than toys, similar in design to
+      those which delighted the Byzantine Caesars of later date.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0024" id="linkCimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/341.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="341.jpg Gold Epergne Representing Scenes from Ethiopian Life " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a painting on the tomb of H�i.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0026" id="linkCimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/345.jpg"
+       alt="345.jpg Queen M�tnofr�t in the G�zeh Museum " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by
+Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      A wall-painting remains of a gold epergne, which represents men and
+      monkeys engaged in gathering the fruit of a group of d�m-palms. Two
+      individuals lead each a tame giraffe by the halter, others kneeling on the
+      rim raise their hands to implore mercy from an unseen enemy, while negro
+      prisoners, grovelling on their stomachs, painfully attempt to raise their
+      head and shoulders from the ground. This, doubtless, represents a scene
+      from the everyday life of the people of the Upper Nile, and gives a
+      faithful picture of what took place among many of its tribes during a
+      rapid inroad of some viceroy of Kush or a raid by his lieutenants.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The resources which Th�tmosis I. was able to draw regularly from these
+      southern regions, in addition to the wealth collected during his Syrian
+      campaign, enabled him to give a great impulse to building work. The
+      tutelary deity of his capital&mdash;Amon-R�&mdash;who had ensured him the
+      victory in all his battles, had a prior claim on the bulk of the spoil; he
+      received it as a matter of course, and his temple at Thebes was thereby
+      considerably enlarged; we are not, however, able to estimate exactly what
+      proportion fell to other cities, such as Kummeh, Elephantine,* Abydos,**
+      and Memphis, where a few scattered blocks of stone still bear the name of
+      the king. Troubles broke out in Lower Egypt, but they were speedily
+      subdued by Th�tmosis, and he was able to end his days in the enjoyment of
+      a profound peace, undisturbed by any care save that of ensuring a regular
+      succession to his throne, and of restraining the ambitions of those who
+      looked to become possessed of his heritage.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Wiedemann found his name there
+     cut in a block of brown
+     freestone.
+
+     ** A stele at Abydos speaks of the
+     building operations carried on by
+     Th�tmosis I. in that town.
+
+     *** The expressions from which we
+     gather that his reign was disturbed
+     by outbreaks of internal rebellion
+     seem to refer to a period subsequent
+     to the Syrian expedition, and prior
+     to his alliance  with the Princess
+     H�tshops�t�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His position was, indeed, a curious one; although <i>de facto</i> absolute
+      in power, his children by Queen Ahmasi took precedence of him, for by her
+      mother&rsquo;s descent she had a better right to the crown than her husband, and
+      legally the king should have retired in favour of hie sons as soon as they
+      were old enough to reign. The eldest of them, Uazmos�, died early.* The
+      second, Amenmosu, lived at least to attain adolescence; he was allowed to
+      share the crown with his father from the fourth year of the latter&rsquo;s
+      reign, and he also held a military command in the Delta,** but before long
+      he also died, and Th�tmosis I. was left with only one son&mdash;a
+      Th�tmosis like himself&mdash;to succeed him. The mother of this prince was
+      a certain M�tnofrit,*** half-sister to the king on his father&rsquo;s side, who
+      enjoyed such a high rank in the royal family that her husband allowed her
+      to be portrayed in royal dress; her pedigree on the mother&rsquo;s side,
+      however, was not so distinguished, and precluded her son from being
+      recognised as heir-apparent, hence the occupation of the &ldquo;seat of Horus&rdquo;
+       reverted once more to a woman, H�tshops�t�, the eldest daughter of �hmasi.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Uazmos� is represented on the tomb of Pahiri at El-Kab,
+     where Mr. Griffith imagines he can trace two distinct
+     Uazmos�; for the present, I am of opinion that there was but
+     one, the son of Th�tmosis I. His funerary chapel was
+     discovered at Thebes; it is in a very bad state of
+     preservation.
+
+     ** Amenmos� is represented at El-Kab, by the side of his
+     brother Uazmos�. Also on a fragment where we find him, in
+     the fourth year of his father&rsquo;s reign, honoured with a
+     cartouche at Memphis, and consequently associated with his
+     father in the royal power.
+
+     *** M�tnofrit was supposed by Mariette to have been a
+     daughter of Th�tmosis II; the statue reproduced on p. 345
+     has shown us that she was wife of Th�tmosis I. and mother of
+     Th�tmosis II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      H�tshops�t� herself was not, however, of purely divine descent. Her
+      maternal ancestor, Sonisonb�, had not been a scion of the royal house, and
+      this flaw in her pedigree threatened to mar, in her case, the sanctity of
+      the solar blood. According to Egyptian belief, this defect of birth could
+      only be remedied by a miracle,* and the ancestral god, becoming incarnate
+      in the earthly father at the moment of conception, had to condescend to
+      infuse fresh virtue into his race in this manner.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      * A similar instance of divine substitution is known to us in the case of
+      two other sovereigns, viz. Amen�thes III., whose father, Titmosis IV., was
+      born under conditions analogous to those attending the birth of Th�tmosis
+      I.; and Ptolemy Caesarion, whose father, Julius C�sar, was not of Egyptian
+      blood.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0025" id="linkCimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/344.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="344.jpg Portrait of the Queen �hmasi " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Naville.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The inscriptions with which H�tshops�t� decorated her chapel relate how,
+      on that fateful night, Amon descended upon Ahmasi in a flood of perfume
+      and light. The queen received him favourably, and the divine spouse on
+      leaving her announced to her the approaching birth of a daughter, in whom
+      his valour and strength should be manifested once more here below. The
+      sequel of the story is displayed in a series of pictures before our eyes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The protecting divinities who preside over the birth of children conduct
+      the queen to her couch, and the sorrowful resignation depicted on her
+      face, together with the languid grace of her whole figure, display in this
+      portrait of her a finished work of art. The child enters the world amid
+      shouts of joy, and the propitious genii who nourish both her and her
+      double constitute themselves her nurses. At the appointed time, her
+      earthly father summons the great nobles to a solemn festival, and presents
+      to them his daughter, who is to reign with him over Egypt and the world.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The association of H�tshops�t� with her father on the
+     throne, has now been placed beyond doubt by the inscriptions
+     discovered and commented on by Naville in 1895.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0027" id="linkCimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/346.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="346.jpg Queen H�tshops�t� in Male Costume " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Naville.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      From henceforth H�tshops�t� adopts every possible device to conceal her
+      real sex. She changes the termination of her name, and calls herself
+      H�tshops��, the chief of the nobles, in lieu of H�tshops�t�, the chief of
+      the favourites. She becomes the King M�ker�, and on the occasion of all
+      public ceremonies she appears in male costume. We see her represented on
+      the Theban monuments with uncovered shoulders, devoid of breasts, wearing
+      the short loin-cloth and the keffieh, while the diadem rests on her
+      closely cut hair, and the false beard depends from her chin.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0028" id="linkCimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/347.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="347.jpg Bust of Queen H�tshops�t� " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Mertens.
+     This was the head of one of the sphinxes which formed an
+     avenue at De�r el-Bahar�; it was brought over by Lepsius and
+     is now in the Berlin Museum. The fragment has undergone
+     extensive restoration, but this has been done with the help
+     of fragments of other statues, in which the details here
+     lost were in a good state of preservation.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      She retained, however, the feminine pronoun in speaking of herself, and
+      also an epithet, inserted in her cartouche, which declared her to be the
+      betrothed of Amon&mdash;khn�m�t Ama�n�.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We know how greatly puzzled the early Egyptologists were
+     by this manner of depicting the queen, and how Champollion,
+     in striving to explain the monuments of the period, was
+     driven to suggest the existence of a regent, Amenenthes, the
+     male counterpart and husband of H�tshops�t�, whose name he
+     read Amense. This hypothesis, adopted by Rosellini, with
+     some slight modifications, was rejected by Birch. This
+     latter writer pointed out the identity of the two personages
+     separated by Champollion, and proved them to be one and the
+     same queen, the Amenses of Manetho; he called her Am�n-n�m-
+     hc, but he made her out to be a sister of Amen�thes I.,
+     associated on the throne with her brothers Th�tmosis I. and
+     Th�tmosis IL, and regent at the beginning of the reign of
+     Th�tmosis III. Hineks tried to show that she was the
+     daughter of Th�tmosis I., the wife of Th�tmosis II. and the
+     sister of Th�tmosis III.; it is only quite recently that her
+     true descent and place in the family tree has been
+     recognised. She was, not the sister, but the aunt of
+     Th�tmosis III. The queen, called by Birch Am�n-n�m-het, the
+     latter part of her name being dropped and the royal prenomen
+     being joined to her own name, was subsequently styled Ha-as�
+     or Hatas�, and this form is still adopted by some writers;
+     the true reading is H�tshops�t� or H�tshops�t�, then
+     H�tshops��, or H�tsheps��, as Naville has pointed out.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Her father united her while still young to her brother Th�tmosis, who
+      appears to have been her junior, and this fact doubtless explains the very
+      subordinate part which he plays beside the queen. When Th�tmosis I. died,
+      Egyptian etiquette demanded that a man should be at the head of affairs,
+      and this youth succeeded his father in office: but H�tshops�t�, while
+      relinquishing the semblance of power and the externals of pomp to her
+      husband,* kept the direction of the state entirely in her own hands. The
+      portraits of her which have been preserved represent her as having refined
+      features, with a proud and energetic expression. The oval of the face is
+      elongated, the cheeks a little hollow, and the eyes deep set under the
+      arch of the brow, while the lips are thin and tightly closed.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It is evident, from the expressions employed by Th�tmosis
+     I. in associating his daughter with himself on the throne,
+     that she was unmarried at the time, and Naville thinks that
+     she married her brother Th�tmosis II. after the death of her
+     father. It appears to me more probable that Th�tmosis I.
+     married her to her brother after she had been raised to the
+     throne, with a view to avoiding complications which might
+     have arisen in the royal family after his own death. The
+     inscription at Shutt-er-Ragel, which has furnished Mariette
+     with the hypothesis that Th�tmosis I. and Th�tmosis IL
+     reigned simultaneously, proves that the person mentioned in
+     it, a certain Pena�ti, flourished under both these Pharaohs,
+     but by no means shows that these two reigned together; he
+     exercised the functions which he held by their authority
+     during their successive reigns.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0029" id="linkCimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/348b.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="348b.jpg Painting on the Tomb of The Kings " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      She governed with so firm a hand that neither Egypt nor its foreign
+      vassals dared to make any serious attempt to withdraw themselves from her
+      authority. One raid, in which several prisoners were taken, punished a
+      rising of the Sha�s� in Central Syria, while the usual expeditions
+      maintained order among the peoples of Ethiopia, and quenched any attempt
+      which they might make to revolt. When in the second year of his reign the
+      news was brought to Thutmosis II. that the inhabitants of the Upper Nile
+      had ceased to observe the conditions which his father had imposed upon
+      them, he &ldquo;became furious as a panther,&rdquo; and assembling his troops set out
+      for war without further delay. The presence of the king with the army
+      filled the rebels with dismay, and a campaign of a few weeks put an end to
+      their attempt at rebelling.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The earlier kings of the XVIIIth dynasty had chosen for their last
+      resting-place a spot on the left bank of the Nile at Thebes, where the
+      cultivated land joined the desert, close to the pyramids built by their
+      predecessors. Probably, after the burial of Amen�thes, the space was fully
+      occupied, for Thutmosis I. had to seek his burying-ground some way up the
+      ravine, the mouth of which was blocked by their monuments. The Libyan
+      chain here forms a kind of amphitheatre of vertical cliffs, which descend
+      to within some ninety feet of the valley, where a sloping mass of detritus
+      connects them by a gentle declivity with the plain.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0030" id="linkCimage-0030">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/350.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="350.jpg the Amphitheatre at De�r El-bahar�, As It Appeared Bepoee Naville&rsquo;s Excavations " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The great lords and the queens in the times of the Antufs and the
+      Usirtasens had taken possession of this spot, but their chapels were by
+      this period in ruins, and their tombs almost all lay buried under the
+      waves of sand which the wind from the desert drives perpetually over the
+      summit of the cliffs. This site was seized on by the architects of
+      Th�tmosis, who laid there the foundations of a building which was destined
+      to be unique in the world. Its ground plan consisted of an avenue of
+      sphinxes, starting from the plain and running between the tombs till it
+      reached a large courtyard, terminated on the west by a colonnade, which
+      was supported by a double row of pillars.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0031" id="linkCimage-0031">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/351.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="351.jpg the Northern Collonade " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Bouclier, from a photograph supplied by Naville.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Above and beyond this was the vast middle platform,* connected with the
+      upper court by the central causeway which ran through it from end to end;
+      this middle platform, like that below it, was terminated on the west by a
+      double colonnade, through which access was gained to two chapels hollowed
+      out of the mountain-side, while on the north it was bordered with
+      excellent effect by a line of proto-Dorio columns ranged against the face
+      of the cliff.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The English nomenclature employed in describing this
+     temple is that used in the <i>Guide to Deir el-Bahari</i>,
+     published by the <i>Egypt Exploration Fund</i>.&mdash;Tr.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This northern colonnade was never completed, but the existing part is of
+      as exquisite proportions as anything that Greek art has ever produced. At
+      length we reach the upper platform, a nearly square courtyard, cutting on
+      one side into the mountain slope, the opposite side being enclosed by a
+      wall pierced by a single door, while to right and left ran two lines of
+      buildings destined for purposes connected with the daily worship of the
+      temple. The sanctuary was cut out of the solid rock, but the walls were
+      faced with white limestone; some of the chambers are vaulted, and all of
+      them decorated with bas-reliefs of exquisite workmanship, perhaps the
+      finest examples of this period. Th�tmosis I. scarcely did more than lay
+      the foundations of this magnificent building, but his mummy was buried in
+      it with great pomp, to remain there until a period of disturbance and
+      general insecurity obliged those in charge of the necropolis to remove the
+      body, together with those of his family, to some securer hiding-place.*
+      The king was already advanced in age at the time of his death, being over
+      fifty years old, to judge by the incisor teeth, which are worn and
+      corroded by the impurities of which the Egyptian bread was full.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Both E. de Roug� and Mariette were opposed to the view
+     that the temple was founded by Th�tmosis I., and Naville
+     agrees with them. Judging from the many new texts discovered
+     by Naville, I am inclined to think that Th�tmosis I. began
+     the structure, but from plans, it would appear, which had
+     not been so fully developed as they afterwards became. Prom
+     indications to be found here and there in the inscriptions
+     of the Ramesside period, I am not, moreover, inclined to
+     regard De�r el-B�h�ri as the funerary chapel of tombs which
+     were situated in some unknown place elsewhere, but I believe
+     that it included the burial-places of Th�tmosis I.,
+     Th�tmosis II., Queen H�tshops�t�, and of numerous
+     representatives of their family; indeed, it is probable that
+     Th�tmosis III. and his children found here also their last
+     resting-place.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0032" id="linkCimage-0032">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/353.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="353.jpg Head of the Mummy Of Th�tmosis I. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph taken by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The body, though small and emaciated, shows evidence of unusual muscular
+      strength; the head is bald, the features are refined, and the mouth still
+      bears an expression characteristic of shrewdness and cunning.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The coffin of Th�tmosis I. was usurped by the priest-king
+     Pinozm� I., son of Pi�nkhi, and the mummy was lost. I fancy
+     I have discovered it in mummy No. 5283, of which the head
+     presents a striking resemblance to those of Th�tmosis II.
+     and III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Th�tmosis II. carried on the works begun by his father, but did not long
+      survive him.* The mask on his coffin represents him with a smiling and
+      amiable countenance, and with the fine pathetic eyes which show his
+      descent from the Pharaohs of the XIIth dynasty.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The latest year up to the present known of this king is
+     the IInd, found upon the Aswan stele. Erman, followed by Ed.
+     Meyer, thinks that H�tshop-s�t� could not have been free
+     from complicity in the premature death of Th�tmosis II.; but
+     I am inclined to believe, from the marks of disease found on
+     the skin of his mummy, that the queen was innocent of the
+     crime here ascribed to her.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0033" id="linkCimage-0033">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/354.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="354.jpg Head of the Mummy Of Th�tmosis Ii. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph in the possession of
+     Emil Brugsch Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His statues bear the same expression, which indeed is that of the mummy
+      itself. He resembles Th�tmosis I., but his features are not so marked, and
+      are characterised by greater gentleness. He had scarcely reached the age
+      of thirty when he fell a victim to a disease of which the process of
+      embalming could not remove the traces. The skin is scabrous in patches,
+      and covered with scars, while the upper part of the skull is bald; the
+      body is thin and somewhat shrunken, and appears to have lacked vigour and
+      muscular power. By his marriage with his sister, Th�tmosis left daughters
+      only,* but he had one son, also a Th�tmosis, by a woman of low birth,
+      perhaps merely a slave, whose name was Isis.** H�tshops�t� proclaimed this
+      child her successor, for his youth and humble parentage could not excite
+      her jealousy. She betrothed him to her one surviving daughter, H�tshops�t�
+      II., and having thus settled the succession in the male line, she
+      continued to rule alone in the name of her nephew who was still a minor,
+      as she had done formerly in the case of her half-brother.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Two daughters of Queen H�tshops�t� I. are known, of whom
+     one, Nof�r�r�, died young, and H�tshops�t� II. Mar�tr�, who
+     was married to her half-brother on her father&rsquo;s side,
+     Th�tmosis III., who was thus her cousin as well. Amen�thes
+     II. was offspring of this marriage.
+
+     ** The name of the mother of Th�tmosis III. was revealed to
+     us on the wrappings found with the mummy of this king in the
+     hiding-place of De�r el-Bahar�; the absence of princely
+     titles, while it shows the humble extraction of the lady
+     Isis, explains at the same time the somewhat obscure
+     relations between H�tshops�t� and her nephew.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0034" id="linkCimage-0034">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/356.jpg"
+       alt="356.jpg the Coffin of Th�tmosis I. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph in
+the possession of Emil
+Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Her reign was a prosperous one, but whether the flourishing condition of
+      things was owing to the ability of her political administration or to her
+      fortunate choice of ministers, we are unable to tell. She pressed forward
+      the work of building with great activity, under the direction of her
+      architect Sanm�t, not only at De�r el-Bahar�, but at Karnak, and indeed
+      everywhere in Thebes. The plans of the building had been arranged under
+      Th�tmosis I., and their execution had been carried out so quickly, that in
+      many cases the queen had merely to see to the sculptural ornamentation on
+      the all but completed walls.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This work, however, afforded her sufficient excuse, according to Egyptian
+      custom, to attribute the whole structure to herself, and the opinion she
+      had of her own powers is exhibited with great naiveness in her
+      inscriptions. She loves to pose as premeditating her actions long
+      beforehand, and as never venturing on the smallest undertaking without
+      reference to her divine father.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This is what I teach to mortals who shall live in centuries to come, and
+      whose hearts shall inquire concerning the monument which I have raised to
+      my father, speaking and exclaiming as they contemplate it: as for me, when
+      I sat in the palace and thought upon him who created me, my heart prompted
+      me to raise to him two obelisks of electrum, whose apices should pierce
+      the firmaments, before the noble gateway which is between the two great
+      pylons of the King Th�tmosis I. And my heart led me to address these words
+      to those who shall see my monuments in after-years and who shall speak of
+      my great deeds: Beware of saying, &lsquo;I know not, I know not why it was
+      resolved to carve this mountain wholly of gold!&rsquo; These two obelisks, My
+      Majesty has made them of electrum for my father Anion, that my name may
+      remain and live on in this temple for ever and ever; for this single block
+      of granite has been cut, without let or obstacle, at the desire of My
+      Majesty, between the first of the second month of Pir�fc of the Vth year,
+      and the 30th of the fourth month of Shom� of the VIth year, which makes
+      seven months from the day when they began to, quarry it. One of these two
+      monoliths is still standing among the ruins of Karnak, and the grace of
+      its outline, the finish of its hieroglyphics, and the beauty of the
+      figures which cover it, amply justify the pride which the queen and her
+      brother felt in contemplating it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0035" id="linkCimage-0035">
+      <!-- IMG --></a> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="356b (132K)" src="images/356b.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0036" id="linkCimage-0036">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/356b-text.jpg" width="100%" alt="356b-text " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0037" id="linkCimage-0037">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/357.jpg" width="100%" alt="357.jpg the Statue of Sanm�t " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Mortens:
+     the original is in the Berlin Museum, whither Lepsius
+     brought it. Sanm�t is squatting and holding between his
+     arras and knees the young king Th�t-mosis III,, whose head
+     with the youthful side lock appears from under his chin.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The tops of the pyramids were gilt, so that &ldquo;they could be seen from both
+      banks of the river,&rdquo; and &ldquo;their brilliancy lit up the two lands of Egypt:&rdquo;
+       needless to say these metal apices have long disappeared.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0038" id="linkCimage-0038">
+      <!-- IMG --></a> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="358 (161K)" src="images/358.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Later on, in the the queen&rsquo;s reign, Amon enjoined a work which was more
+      difficult to carry out. On a day when H�tshops�t� had gone to the temple
+      to offer prayers, &ldquo;her supplications arose up before the throne of the
+      Lord of Karnak, and a command was heard in the sanctuary, a behest of the
+      god himself, that the ways which lead to P�an�t should be explored, and
+      that the roads to the &lsquo;Ladders of Incense&rsquo; should be trodden.&rdquo; *
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The word &ldquo;Ladders&rdquo; is the translation of the Egyptian word
+     &ldquo;Kh�ti�,&rdquo; employed in the text to designate the country laid
+     out in terraces where the incense trees grew; cf. with a
+     different meaning, the &ldquo;ladders&rdquo; of the eastern
+     Mediterranean.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Gums required for the temple service had hitherto reached the Theban
+      priests solely by means of foreign intermediaries; so that in the slow
+      transport across Africa they lost much of their freshness, besides being
+      defiled by passing through impure hands. In addition to these drawbacks,
+      the merchants confounded under the one term &ldquo;An�ti&rdquo; substances which
+      differed considerably both in value and character, several of them,
+      indeed, scarcely coming under the category of perfumes, and hence being
+      unacceptable to the gods. One kind, however, found favour with them above
+      all others, being that which still abounds in Somali-land at the present
+      day&mdash;a gum secreted by the incense sycomore.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * From the form of the trees depicted on the monument, it is
+     certain that the Egyptians went to P�an�t in search of the
+     <i>Boswellia Thurifera</i> Cart.; but they brought back with them
+     other products also, which they confounded together under
+     the name &ldquo;incense.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0039" id="linkCimage-0039">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/361.jpg"
+       alt="361.jpg an Inhabitant of the Land Of P�an�t " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Fauchon-Gudin,
+from a photograph by Gayet.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It was accounted a pious work to send and obtain it direct from the
+      locality in which it grew, and if possible to procure the plants
+      themselves for acclimatisation in the Nile valley. But the relations
+      maintained in former times with the people of these aromatic regions had
+      been suspended for centuries. &ldquo;None now climbed the &lsquo;Ladders of Incense,&rsquo;
+      none of the Egyptians; they knew of them from hearsay, from the stories of
+      people of ancient times, for these products were brought to the kings of
+      the Delta, thy fathers, to one or other of them, from the times of thy
+      ancestors the kings of the Said who lived of yore.&rdquo; All that could be
+      recalled of this country was summed up in the facts, that it lay to the
+      south or to the extreme east, that from thence many of the gods had come
+      into Egypt, while from out of it the sun rose anew every morning. Amon, in
+      his omniscience, took upon himself to describe it and give an exact
+      account of its position. &ldquo;The &lsquo;Ladders of Incense&rsquo; is a secret province of
+      Ton�tir, it is in truth a place of delight. I created it, and I thereto
+      lead Thy Majesty, together with M�t, H�thor, U�r�t, the Lady of P�an�t,
+      U�r�t-hika�, the magician and regent of the gods, that the aromatic gum
+      may be gathered at will, that the vessels may be laden joyfully with
+      living incense trees and with all the products of this earth.&rdquo; H�tshops�t�
+      chose out five well-built galleys, and manned them with picked crews. She
+      caused them to be laden with such merchandise as would be most attractive
+      to the barbarians, and placing the vessels under the command of a royal
+      envoy, she sent them forth on the Bed Sea in quest of the incense.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We are not acquainted with the name of the port from which the fleet set
+      sail, nor do we know the number of weeks it took to reach the land of
+      P�an�t, neither is there any record of the incidents which befell it by
+      the way. It sailed past the places frequented by the mariners of the XIIth
+      dynasty&mdash;Suak�n, Massowah, and the islands of the Ked Sea; it touched
+      at the country of the Il�m which lay to the west of the Bab el-Mandeb,
+      went safely through the Straits, and landed at last in the Land of
+      Perfumes on the Somali coast.* There, between the bay of Ze�lah and Bas
+      Hafun, stretched the Barbaric region, frequented in later times by the
+      merchants of Myos Hormos and of Berenice.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * That part of P�an�t where the Egyptians landed was at
+     first located in Arabia by Brugsch, then transferred to
+     Somali-land by Mariette, whose opinion was accepted by most
+     Egyptologists. Dumichen, basing his hypothesis on a passage
+     where P�an�t is mentioned as &ldquo;being on both sides of the
+     sea,&rdquo; desired to apply the name to the Arabian as well as to
+     the African coast, to Yemen and Hadhramaut as well as to
+     Somali-land; this suggestion was adopted by Lieblein, and
+     subsequently by Ed. Meyer, who believed that its inhabitants
+     were the ancestors of the Sabseans. Since then Krall has
+     endeavoured to shorten the distance between this country and
+     Egypt, and he places the P�an�t of H�tshops�t� between
+     Suakin and Massowah. This was, indeed, the part of the
+     country known under the XIIth dynasty at the time when it
+     was believed that the Nile emptied itself thereabouts into
+     the Red Sea, in the vicinity of the Island of the Serpent
+     King, but I hold, with Mariette, that the P�an�t where the
+     Egyptians of H�tshops�t�&rsquo;s time landed is the present
+     Somali-land&mdash;a view which is also shared by Navillo, but
+     which Brugsch, in the latter years of his life, abandoned.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The first stations which the latter encountered beyond Cape Direh&mdash;Avails,
+      Malao, Mundos, and Mosylon&mdash;were merely open roadsteads offering no
+      secure shelter; but beyond Mosylon, the classical navigators reported the
+      existence of several wadys, the last of which, the Elephant River, lying
+      between Bas el-E�l and Cape Guardafui, appears to have been large enough
+      not only to afford anchorage to several vessels of light draught, but to
+      permit of their performing easily any evolutions required. During the
+      Roman period, it was there, and there only, that the best kind of incense
+      could be obtained, and it was probably at this point also that the
+      Egyptians of H�tshops�t�&rsquo;s time landed. The Egyptian vessels sailed up the
+      river till they reached a place beyond the influence of the tide, and then
+      dropped anchor in front of a village scattered along a bank fringed with
+      sycomores and palms.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * I have shown, from a careful examination of the bas-
+     reliefs, that the Egyptians must have landed, not on the
+     coast itself, as was at first believed, but in the estuary
+     of a river, and this observation has been accepted as
+     decisive by most Egyptologists; besides this, newly
+     discovered fragments show the presence of a hippopotamus.
+     Since then I have sought to identify the landing-place of
+     the Egyptians with the most important of the creeks
+     mentioned by the Gr�co-Roman merchants as accessible for
+     their vessels, viz. that which they called the Elephant
+     River, near to the present Ras el-F�l.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The huts of the inhabitants were of circular shape, each being surmounted
+      with a conical roof; some of them were made of closely plaited osiers, and
+      there was no opening in any of them save the door. They were built upon
+      piles, as a protection from the rise of the river and from wild animals,
+      and access to them was gained by means of moveable ladders. Oxen chewing
+      the cud rested beneath them. The natives belonged to a light-coloured
+      race, and the portraits we possess of them resemble the Egyptian type in
+      every particular. They were tall and thin, and of a colour which varied
+      between brick-red and the darkest brown. Their beards were pointed, and
+      the hair was cut short in some instances, while in others it was arranged
+      in close rows of curls or in small plaits. The costume of the men
+      consisted of a loin-cloth only, while the dress of the women was a yellow
+      garment without sleeves, drawn in at the waist and falling halfway below
+      the knee.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The royal envoy landed under an escort of eight soldiers and an officer,
+      but, to prove his pacific intentions, he spread out upon a low table a
+      variety of presents, consisting of five bracelets two gold necklaces, a
+      dagger with strap and sheath complete, a battle-axe, and eleven strings of
+      glass beads.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0040" id="linkCimage-0040">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/363.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="363.jpg a Village on the Bank of The River, With Ladders Of Incense " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The inhabitants, dazzled by the display of so many valuable objects, ran
+      to meet the new-comers, headed by their sheikh, and expressed a natural
+      astonishment at the sight of the strangers. &ldquo;How is it,&rdquo; they exclaimed,
+      &ldquo;that you have reached this country hitherto unknown to men? Have you come
+      down by way of the sky, or have you sailed on the waters of the Ton�tir
+      Sea? You have followed the path of the sun, for as for the king of the
+      land of Egypt, it is not possible to elude him, and we live, yea, we
+      ourselves, by the breath which he gives us.&rdquo; The name of their chief was
+      Parih�, who was distinguished from his subjects by the boomerang which he
+      carried, and also by his dagger and necklace of beads: his right leg,
+      moreover, appears to have been covered with a kind of sheath composed of
+      rings of some yellow metal, probably gold.* He was accompanied by his wife
+      Ati, riding on an ass, from which she alighted in order to gain a closer
+      view of the strangers. She was endowed with a type of beauty much admired
+      by the people of Central Africa, being so inordinately fat that the shape
+      of her body was scarcely recognisable under the rolls of flesh which hung
+      down from it. Her daughter, who appeared to be still young, gave promise
+      of one day rivalling, if not exceeding, her mother in size.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Mariette compares this kind of armour to the &ldquo;dangabor&rdquo; of
+     the Congo tribes, but the &ldquo;dangabor &ldquo;is worn on the arm.
+     Livingstone saw a woman, the sister of Sebituaneh, the
+     highest lady of the Sesketeh, who wore on each leg eighteen
+     rings of solid brass as thick as the finger, and three rings
+     of copper above the knee. The weight of these shining rings
+     impeded her walking, and produced sores on her ankles; but
+     it was the fashion, and the inconvenience became nothing. As
+     to the pain, it was relieved by a bit of rag applied to the
+     lower rings.
+
+     ** These are two instances of abnormal fat production&mdash;the
+     earliest with which we are acquainted.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      After an exchange of compliments, the more serious business of the
+      expedition was introduced. The Egyptians pitched a tent, in which they
+      placed the objects of barter with which they were provided, and to prevent
+      these from being too great a temptation to the natives, they surrounded
+      the tent with a line of troops.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0041" id="linkCimage-0041">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/365.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="365.jpg Prince Parih� and the Princess of Puan�t " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The main conditions of the exchange were arranged at a banquet, in which
+      they spread before the barbarians a sumptuous display of Egyptian
+      delicacies, consisting of bread, beer, wine, meat, and carefully prepared
+      and flavoured vegetables. Payment for every object was to be made at the
+      actual moment of purchase. For several days there was a constant stream of
+      people, and asses groaned beneath their burdens. The Egyptian purchases
+      comprised the most varied objects: ivory tusks, gold, ebony, cassia,
+      myrrh, cynocephali and green monkeys, greyhounds, leopard skins, large
+      oxen, slaves, and last, but not least, thirty-one incense trees, with
+      their roots surrounded by a ball of earth and placed in large baskets. The
+      lading of the ships was a long and tedious affair. All available space
+      being at length exhausted, and as much cargo placed on board as was
+      compatible with the navigation of the vessel, the squadron set sail and
+      with all speed took its way northwards.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0042" id="linkCimage-0042">
+      <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/366.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img
+      alt="366th Embarkation of The Incense Sycomores On Board the Egyptian Fleet"
+       src="images/366th.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Bouclier, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians touched at several places on the coast on their return
+      journey, making friendly alliances with the inhabitants; the Him added a
+      quota to their freight, for which room was with difficulty found on board,&mdash;it
+      consisted not only of the inevitable gold, ivory, and skins, but also of
+      live leopards and a giraffe, together with plants and fruits unknown on
+      the banks of the Nile.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Lieblein thought that their country was explored, not by
+     the sailors who voyaged to P�an�t, but by a different body
+     who proceeded by land, and this view was accepted by Ed.
+     Meyer. The completed text proves that there was but a single
+     expedition, and that the explorers of P�an�t visited the
+     Il�m also. The giraffe which they gave does not appear in
+     the cargo of the vessels at P�an�t; the visit must,
+     therefore, have been paid on the return voyage, and the
+     giraffe was probably represented on the destroyed part of
+     the walls where Naville found the image of this animal
+     wandering at liberty among the woods.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The fleet at length made its reappearance in Egyptian ports, having on
+      board the chiefs of several tribes on whose coasts the sailors had landed,
+      and &ldquo;bringing back so much that the like had never been brought of the
+      products of P�an�t to other kings, by the supreme favour of the venerable
+      god, Amon R�, lord of Karnak.&rdquo; The chiefs mentioned were probably young
+      men of superior family, who had been confided to the officer in command of
+      the squadron by local sheikhs, as pledges to the Pharaoh of good will or
+      as commercial hostages. National vanity, no doubt, prompted the Egyptians
+      to regard them as vassals coming to do homage, and their gifts as tributes
+      denoting subjection. The Queen inaugurated a solemn festival in honour of
+      the explorers. The Theban militia was ordered out to meet them, the royal
+      flotilla escorting them as far as the temple landing-place, where a
+      procession was formed to carry the spoil to the feet of the god. The good
+      Theban folk, assembled to witness their arrival, beheld the march past of
+      the native hostages, the incense sycomores, the precious gum itself, the
+      wild animals, the giraffe, and the oxen, whose numbers were doubtless
+      increased a hundredfold in the accounts given to posterity with the usual
+      official exaggeration. The trees were planted at De�r el-Bahar�, where a
+      sacred garden was prepared for them, square trenches being cut in the rock
+      and filled with earth, in which the sycomore, by frequent watering, came
+      to flourish well.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Naville found these trenches still filled with vegetable
+     mould, and in several of them roots, which gave every
+     indication of the purpose to which the trenches were
+     applied. A scene represents seven of the incense sycomores
+     still growing in their pots, and offered by the queen to the
+     Majesty &ldquo;of this god Amonr� of Karnak.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      The great heaps of fresh resin were next the objects of special attention.
+      H�tshops�t� &ldquo;gave a bushel made of electrum to gauge the mass of gum, it
+      being the first time that they had the joy of measuring the perfumes for
+      Amon, lord of Karnak, master of heaven, and of presenting to him the
+      wonderful products of P�an�t. Thot, the lord of Hermo-polis, noted the
+      quantities in writing; Safkh�t�b�i verified the list. Her Majesty herself
+      prepared from it, with her own hands, a perfumed unguent for her limbs;
+      she gave forth the smell of the divine dew, her perfume reached even to
+      P�an�t, her skin became like wrought gold,* and her countenance shone like
+      the stars in the great festival hall, in the sight of the whole earth.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In order to understand the full force of the imagery here
+     employed, one must remember that the Egyptian artists
+     painted the flesh of women as light yellow.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      H�tshops�t� commanded the history of the expedition to be carved on the
+      wall of the colonnades which lay on the west side of the middle platform
+      of her funerary chapel: we there see the little fleet with sails spread,
+      winging its way to the unknown country, its safe arrival at its
+      destination, the meeting with the natives, the animated palavering, the
+      consent to exchange freely accorded; and thanks to the minuteness with
+      which the smallest details have been portrayed, we can as it were witness,
+      as if on the spot, all the phases of life on board ship, not only on
+      Egyptian vessels, but, as we may infer, those of other Oriental nations
+      generally. For we may be tolerably sure that when the Phoenicians ventured
+      into the distant parts of the Mediterranean, it was after a similar
+      fashion that they managed and armed their vessels.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0043" id="linkCimage-0043">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/369.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="369.jpg Some of the Incense Trees Brought from P�an�t To De�r El-baiiak� " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Although the natural features of the Asiatic or Greek coast on which they
+      effected a landing differed widely from those of P�an�t, the Phoenician
+      navigators were themselves provided with similar objects of exchange, and
+      in their commercial dealings with the natives the methods of procedure of
+      the European traders were doubtless similar to those of the Egyptians with
+      the barbarians of the Red Sea.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      H�tshops�t� reigned for at least eight years after this memorable
+      expedition, and traces of her further activity are to be observed in every
+      part of the Nile valley. She even turned her attention to the Delta, and
+      began the task of reorganising this part of her kingdom, which had been
+      much neglected by her predecessors. The wars between the Theban princes
+      and the lords of Avaris had lasted over a century, and during that time no
+      one had had either sufficient initiative or leisure to superintend the
+      public works, which were more needed here than in any other part of Egypt.
+      The canals were silted up with mud, the marshes and the desert had
+      encroached on the cultivated lands, the towns had become impoverished, and
+      there were some provinces whose population consisted solely of shepherds
+      and bandits. H�tshops�t� desired to remedy these evils, if only for the
+      purpose of providing a practicable road for her armies marching to Zal� <i>en
+      route</i> for Syria.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This follows from the great inscription at Stabl-Antar,
+     which is commonly interpreted as proving that the Shepherd-
+     kings still held sway in Egypt in the reign of Th�tmosis
+     III., and that they were driven out by him and his aunt. It
+     seems to me that the queen is simply boasting that she had
+     repaired the monuments which had been injured by the
+     Shepherds during the time they sojourned in Egypt, in the
+     land of Avaris. Up to the present time no trace of these
+     restorations has been found on the sites. The expedition to
+     P�an�t being mentioned in lines 13, 14, they must be of
+     later date than the year IX. of H�tshops�t� and Th�tmosis
+     III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      She also turned her attention to the mines of Sinai, which had not been
+      worked by the Egyptian kings since the end of the XIIth dynasty. In the
+      year XVI. an officer of the queen&rsquo;s household was despatched to the Wady
+      Magharah, the site of the ancient works, with orders to inspect the
+      valleys, examine the veins, and restore there the temple of the goddess
+      H�thor; having accomplished his mission, he returned, bringing with him a
+      consignment of those blue and green stones which were so highly esteemed
+      by the Egyptians.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile, Th�tmosis III. was approaching manhood, and his aunt, the
+      queen, instead of abdicating in his favour, associated him with herself
+      more frequently in the external acts of government.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The account of the youth of Th�tmosis III., such as
+     Brugsch made it out to be from an inscription of this king,
+     the exile of the royal child at B�to, his long sojourn in
+     the marshes, his triumphal return, must all be rejected.
+     Brugsch accepted as actual history a poetical passage where
+     the king identifies himself with Horus son of Isis, and
+     goes so far as to attribute to himself the adventures of the
+     god.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      She was forced to yield him precedence in those religious ceremonies which
+      could be performed by a man only, such as the dedication of one of the
+      city gates of Ombos, and the foundation and marking out of a temple at
+      Medinet-Hab�; but for the most part she obliged him to remain in the
+      background and take a secondary place beside her. We are unable to
+      determine the precise moment when this dual sovereignty came to an end. It
+      was still existent in the XVIth year of the reign, but it had ceased
+      before the XXIInd year. Death alone could take the sceptre from the hands
+      that held it, and Th�tmosis had to curb his impatience for many a long day
+      before becoming the real master of Egypt. He was about twenty-five years
+      of age when this event took place, and he immediately revenged himself for
+      the long repression he had undergone, by endeavouring to destroy the very
+      remembrance of her whom he regarded as a usurper. Every portrait of her
+      that he could deface without exposing himself to being accused of
+      sacrilege was cut away, and he substituted for her name either that of
+      Th�tmosis I. or of Th�tmosis II.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0044" id="linkCimage-0044">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/372.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="372.jpg Thutmosis Iii., from his Statue in the Turin Museum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A complete political change was effected both at home and abroad from the
+      first day of his accession to power. H�tshops�t� had been averse to war.
+      During the whole of her reign there had not been a single campaign
+      undertaken beyond the isthmus of Suez, and by the end of her life she had
+      lost nearly all that her father had gained in Syria; the people of Kharu
+      had shaken off the yoke,* probably at the instigation of the king of the
+      Amorites,** and nothing remained to Egypt of the Asiatic province but
+      Gaza, Shar�hana,*** and the neighbouring villages. The young king set out
+      with his army in the latter days of the year XXII. He reached Gaza on the
+      3rd of the month of Pakhons, in time to keep the anniversary of his
+      coronation in that town, and to inaugurate the 24th year of his reign by
+      festivals in honour of his father Amon.**** They lasted the usual length
+      of time, and all the departments of State took part in them, but it was
+      not a propitious moment for lengthy ceremonies.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * E. de Roug� thought that he had discovered, in a slightly
+     damaged inscription bearing upon the P�an�t expedition, the
+     mention of a tribute paid by the Lotan�. There is nothing in
+     the passage cited but the mention of the usual annual dues
+     paid by the chiefs of P�an�t and of the Il�m.
+
+     ** This is at least what may be inferred from the account of
+     the campaign, where the Prince of Qodsh�, a town of the
+     Ama�ru (Amorites), figures at the head of the coalition
+     formed against Th�tmosis III.
+
+     *** This is the conclusion to be adopted from the beginning
+     of the inscription of Th�tmosis III.: &ldquo;Now, during the
+     duration of these same years, the country of the Lotan� was
+     in discord until other times succeeded them, when the people
+     who were in the town of Shar�hana, from the town of Y�rza,
+     to the most distant regions of the earth, succeeded in
+     making a revolt against his Majesty.&rdquo;
+
+     **** The account of this campaign has been preserved to us
+     on a wall adjoining the granite sanctuary at Karnak.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The king left Gaza the following day, the 5th of Pakhons; he marched but
+      slowly at first, following the usual caravan route, and despatching troops
+      right and left to levy contributions on the cities of the Plain&mdash;Migdol,
+      Yapu (Jaffa), Lotan�, Ono&mdash;and those within reach on the mountain
+      spurs, or situated within the easily accessible wadys, such as Sauka
+      (Socho), Hadid, and Har�lu. On the 16th day he had not proceeded further
+      than Yahmu, where he received information which caused him to push quickly
+      forward. The lord of Qodsh� had formed an alliance with the Syrian princes
+      on the borders of Naharaim, and had extorted from them promises of help;
+      he had already gone so far as to summon contingents from the Upper
+      Orontes, the Litany, and the Upper Jordan, and was concentrating them at
+      Megiddo, where he proposed to stop the way of the invading army. Th�tmosis
+      called together his principal officers, and having imparted the news to
+      them, took counsel with them as to a plan of attack. Three alternative
+      routes were open to him. The most direct approached the enemy&rsquo;s position
+      on the front, crossing Mount Carmel by the saddle now known as the Umm
+      el-Fahm; but the great drawback attached to this route was its being so
+      restricted that the troops would be forced to advance in too thin a file;
+      and the head of the column would reach the plain and come into actual
+      conflict with the enemy while the rear-guard would only be entering the
+      defiles in the neighbourhood of Aluna. The second route bore a little to
+      the east, crossing the mountains beyond Dut�na and reaching the plain near
+      Ta�nach; but it offered the same disadvantages as the other. The third
+      road ran north of <i>Zaf�ti</i>, to meet the great highway which cuts the
+      hill-district of Nabl�s, skirting the foot of Tabor near Jen�n, a little
+      to the north of Megiddo. It was not so direct as the other two, but it was
+      easier for troops, and the king&rsquo;s generals advised that it should be
+      followed. The king was so incensed that he was tempted to attribute their
+      prudence to cowardice. &ldquo;By my life! by the love that R� hath for me, by
+      the favour that I enjoy from my master Amon, by the perpetual youth of my
+      nostril in life and power, My Majesty will go by the way of Aluna, and let
+      him that will go by the roads of which ye have spoken, and let him that
+      will follow My Majesty. What will be said among the vile enemies detested
+      of R�: &lsquo;Doth not His Majesty go by another way? For fear of us he gives us
+      a wide berth,&rsquo; they will cry.&rdquo; The king&rsquo;s counsellors did not insist
+      further. &ldquo;May thy father Amon of Thebes protect thee!&rdquo; they exclaimed; &ldquo;as
+      for us, we will follow Thy Majesty whithersoever thou goest, as it
+      befitteth a servant to follow his master.&rdquo; The word of command was given
+      to the men; Th�tmosis himself led the vanguard, and the whole army,
+      horsemen and foot-soldiers, followed in single file, wending their way
+      through the thickets which covered the southern slopes of Mount Carmel.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The position of the towns mentioned and of the three roads
+     has been discussed by E. de Roug�, also by P. de Saulcy, who
+     fixed the position of Yahmu at El-Kheimeh, and showed that
+     the Egyptian army must have passed through the defiles of
+     Umm el-Rahm. Conder disagreed with this opinion in certain
+     respects, and identified Aluna, Aruna, at first with
+     Arrabeh, and afterwards with Arraneh; he thought that
+     Th�tmosis came out upon Megiddo from the south-east, and he
+     placed Megiddo at Mejeddah, near Beisan, while Tomkins
+     placed Aruna in the Wady el-Arri�n. W. Max Millier seems to
+     place Yahinu too much to the north, in the neighbourhood of
+     Jett.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They pitched their camp on the evening of the 19th near Aluna, and on the
+      morning of the 20th they entered the wild defiles through which it was
+      necessary to pass in order to reach the enemy. The king had taken
+      precautionary measures against any possible attempt of the natives to cut
+      the main column during this crossing of the mountains. His position might
+      at any moment have become a critical one, had the allies taken advantage
+      of it and attacked each battalion as it issued on to the plain before it
+      could re-form. But the Prince of Qodsh�, either from ignorance of his
+      adversary&rsquo;s movements, or confident of victory in the open, declined to
+      take the initiative. Towards one o&rsquo;clock in the afternoon, the Egyptians
+      found themselves once more united on the further side of the range, close
+      to a torrent called the Qina, a little to the south of Megiddo. When the
+      camp was pitched, Th�tmosis announced his intention of engaging the enemy
+      on the morrow. A council of war was held to decide on the position that
+      each corps should occupy, after which the officers returned to their men
+      to see that a liberal supply of rations was served out, and to organise an
+      efficient system of patrols. They passed round the camp to the cry: &ldquo;Keep
+      a good heart: courage! Watch well, watch well! Keep alive in the camp!&rdquo;
+       The king refused to retire to rest until he had been assured that &ldquo;the
+      country was quiet, and also the host, both to south and north.&rdquo; By dawn
+      the next day the whole army was in motion. It was formed into a single
+      line, the right wing protected by the torrent, the left extended into the
+      plain, stretching beyond Megiddo towards the north-west. Th�tmosis and his
+      guards occupied the centre, standing &ldquo;armed in his chariot of electrum
+      like unto Horus brandishing his pike, and like Mont� the Theban god.&rdquo; The
+      Syrians, who had not expected such an early attack, were seized with
+      panic, and fled in the direction of the town, leaving their horses and
+      chariots on the field; but the citizens, fearing lest in the confusion the
+      Egyptians should effect an entrance with the fugitives, had closed their
+      gates and refused to open them. Some of the townspeople, however, let down
+      ropes to the leaders of the allied party, and drew them up to the top of
+      the ramparts: &ldquo;and would to heaven that the soldiers of His Majesty had
+      not so far forgotten themselves as to gather up the spoil left by the vile
+      enemy! They would then have entered Megiddo forthwith; for while the men
+      of the garrison were drawing up the Lord of Qodsh� and their own prince,
+      the fear of His Majesty was upon their limbs, and their hands failed them
+      by reason of the carnage which the royal urous carried into their ranks.&rdquo;
+       The victorious soldiery were dispersed over the fields, gathering together
+      the gilded and silvered chariots of the Syrian chiefs, collecting the
+      scattered weapons and the hands of the slain, and securing the prisoners;
+      then rallying about the king, they greeted him with acclamations and filed
+      past to deliver up the spoil. He reproached them for having allowed
+      themselves to be drawn away from the heat of pursuit. &ldquo;Had you carried
+      Megiddo, it would have been a favour granted to me by R� my father this
+      day; for all the kings of the country being shut up within it, it would
+      have been as the taking of a thousand towns to have seized Megiddo.&rdquo; The
+      Egyptians had made little progress in the art of besieging a stronghold
+      since the times of the XIIth dynasty. When scaling failed, they had no
+      other resource than a blockade, and even the most stubborn of the Pharaohs
+      would naturally shrink from the tedium of such an undertaking. Th�tmosis,
+      however, was not inclined to lose the opportunity of closing the campaign
+      by a decisive blow, and began the investment of the town according to the
+      prescribed modes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0045" id="linkCimage-0045">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/378.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="378.jpg an Egyptian Encampment Before a Besieged Town " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His men were placed under canvas, and working under the protection of
+      immense shields, supported on posts, they made a ditch around the walls,
+      strengthening it with a palisade. The king constructed also on the east
+      side a fort which he called &ldquo;Manakhpirr�-holds-the-Asiatics.&rdquo; Famine soon
+      told on the demoralised citizens, and their surrender brought about the
+      submission of the entire country. Most of the countries situated between
+      the Jordan and the sea&mdash;Shunem, Cana, Kinnereth, Hazor, Bedippa,
+      Laish, Merom, and Acre&mdash;besides the cities of the Haur�n&mdash;Hamath,
+      Magato, Ashtar�th, Ono-repha, and even Damascus itself&mdash;recognised
+      the suzerainty of Egypt, and their lords came in to the camp to do
+      homage.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The names of these towns are inscribed on the lists of
+     Karnak published by Mariette.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Syrian losses did not amount to more than 83 killed and 400 prisoners,
+      showing how easily they had been routed; but they had abandoned
+      considerable supplies, all of which had fallen into the hands of the
+      victors. Some 724 chariots, 2041 mares, 200 suits of armour, 602 bows, the
+      tent of the Prince of Qodsh� with its poles of cypress inlaid with gold,
+      besides oxen, cows, goats, and more than 20,000 sheep, were among the
+      spoil. Before quitting the plain of Bsdraelon, the king caused an official
+      survey of it to be made, and had the harvest reaped. It yielded 208,000
+      bushels of wheat, not taking into account what had been looted or damaged
+      by the marauding soldiery. The return homewards of the Egyptians must have
+      resembled the exodus of some emigrating tribe rather than the progress of
+      a regular army
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Th�tmosis caused a long list of the vanquished to be engraved on the walls
+      of the temple which he was building at Karnak, thus affording the good
+      people of Thebes an opportunity for the first time of reading on the
+      monuments the titles of the king&rsquo;s Syrian subjects written in
+      hieroglyphics. One hundred and nineteen names follow each other in
+      unbroken succession, some of them representing mere villages, while others
+      denoted powerful nations; the catalogue, however, was not to end even
+      here. Having once set out on a career of conquest, the Pharaoh had no
+      inclination to lay aside his arms. From the XXIIth year of his reign to
+      that of his death, we have a record of twelve military expeditions, all of
+      which he led in person. Southern Syria was conquered at the outset&mdash;the
+      whole of Khar� as far as the Lake of Grennesareth, and the Amorite power
+      was broken at one blow.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0046" id="linkCimage-0046">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/380.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="380.jpg Some of the Plants and Animals Brought Back From Puan�t " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The three succeeding campaigns consolidated the rule of Egypt in the
+      country of the Negeb, which lay to the south-west of the Dead Sea, in
+      Phoenicia, which prudently resigned itself to its fate, and in that part
+      of Lotanii occupying the northern part of the basin of the Orontes.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We know of these three campaigns from the indirect
+     testimony of the Annals, which end in the year XXIX. with
+     the mention of the fifth campaign. The only dated one is
+     referred to the year XXV., and we know of that of the Negeb
+     only by the <i>Inscription of Amenemhab�</i>, 11. 3-5: the
+     campaign began in the Negeb of Judah, but the king carried
+     it to Naharaim the same year.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      None of these expeditions appear to have been marked by any successes
+      comparable to the victory at Megiddo, for the coalition of the Syrian
+      chiefs did not survive the blow which they then sustained; but Qodsh� long
+      remained the centre of resistance, and the successive defeats which its
+      inhabitants suffered never disarmed for more than a short interval the
+      hatred which they felt for the Egyptian.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0047" id="linkCimage-0047">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/381.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="381.jpg Part of the Triumphal Lists Of Thutmosis Iii. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     On One Of The Pylons Of The Temple At Karnak. Drawn by
+     Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      During these years of glorious activity considerable tribute poured in to
+      both Memphis and Thebes; not only ingots of gold and silver, bars and
+      blocks of copper and lead, blocks of lapis-lazuli and valuable vases, but
+      horses, oxen, sheep, goats, and useful animals of every kind, in addition
+      to all of which we find, as in H�tshops�t�&rsquo;s reign, the mention of rare
+      plants and shrubs brought back from countries traversed by the armies in
+      their various expeditions. The Theban priests and <i>savants</i> exhibited
+      much interest in such curiosities, and their royal pupil gave orders to
+      his generals to collect for their benefit all that appeared either rare or
+      novel. They endeavoured to acclimatise the species or the varieties likely
+      to be useful, and in order to preserve a record of these experiments, they
+      caused a representation of the strange plants or animals to be drawn on
+      the walls of one of the chapels which they were then building to one of
+      their gods. These pictures may still be seen there in interminable lines,
+      portraying the specimens brought from the Upper Lotan� in the XXVth year
+      of Th�tmosis, and we are able to distinguish, side by side with many
+      plants peculiar to the regions of the Euphrates, others having their
+      habitat in the mountains and valleys of tropical Africa.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This return to an aggressive policy on the part of the Egyptians, after
+      the weakness they had exhibited during the later period of H�tshops�t�&rsquo;s
+      regency, seriously disconcerted the Asiatic sovereigns. They had vainly
+      flattered themselves that the invasion of Th�tmosis I. was merely the
+      caprice of an adventurous prince, and they hoped that when his love of
+      enterprise had expended itself, Egypt would permanently withdraw within
+      her traditional boundaries, and that the relations of Elam with Babylon,
+      Carchemish with Qodsh�, and the barbarians of the Persian Gulf with the
+      inhabitants of the Iranian table-land would resume their former course.
+      This vain delusion was dispelled by the advent of a new Th�tmosis, who
+      showed clearly by his actions that he intended to establish and maintain
+      the sovereignty of Egypt over the western dependencies, at least, of the
+      ancient Chald�an empire, that is to say, over the countries which bordered
+      the middle course of the Euphrates and the coasts of the Mediterranean.
+      The audacity of his marches, the valour of his men, the facility with
+      which in a few hours he had crushed the assembled forces of half Syria,
+      left no room to doubt that he was possessed of personal qualities and
+      material resources sufficient to carry out projects of the most ambitious
+      character. Babylon, enfeebled by the perpetual dissensions of its Coss�an
+      princes, was no longer in a position to contest with him the little
+      authority she still retained over the peoples of Naharaim or of
+      Coele-Syria; protected by the distance which separated her from the Nile
+      valley, she preserved a sullen neutrality, while Assyria hastened to form
+      a peaceful alliance with the invading power. Again and again its kings
+      sent to Th�tmosis presents in proportion to their resources, and the
+      Pharaoh naturally treated their advances as undeniable proofs of their
+      voluntary vassalage. Each time that he received from them a gift of metal
+      or lapis-lazuli, he proudly recorded their tribute in the annals of his
+      reign; and if, in exchange, he sent them some Egyptian product, it was in
+      smaller quantities, as might be expected from a lord to his vassal.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The &ldquo;tribute of Ass�r&rdquo; is mentioned in this way under the
+     years XXIII. and XXIV. The presents sent by the Pharaoh in
+     return are not mentioned in any Egyptian text, but there is
+     frequent reference to them in the Tel el-Amarna tablets. It
+     may be mentioned here that the name of Nineveh does not
+     occur on the Egyptian monuments, but only that of the town
+     N�i, in which Champollion wrongly recognised the later
+     capital of Assyria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Sometimes there would accompany the convoy, surrounded by an escort of
+      slaves and women, some princess, whom the king would place in his harem or
+      graciously pass on to one of his children; but when, on the other hand, an
+      even distant relative of the Pharaoh was asked in marriage for some king
+      on the banks of the Tigris or Euphrates, the request was met with a
+      disdainful negative: the daughters of the Sun were of too noble a race to
+      stoop to such alliances, and they would count it a humiliation to be sent
+      in marriage to a foreign court.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0048" id="linkCimage-0048">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/384.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="384.jpg Some of the Objects Carried in Tribute to The Syrians " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after Champollion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Free transit on the main road which ran diagonally through Khar� was
+      ensured by fortresses constructed at strategic points,* and from this time
+      forward Th�tmosis was able to bring the whole force of his army to bear
+      upon both Coele-Syria and Naharaim.** He encamped, in the year XXVII., on
+      the table-land separating the Afr�n and the Orontes from the Euphrates,
+      and from that centre devastated the district of ��n�t,*** which lay to the
+      west of Aleppo; then crossing &ldquo;the water of Naharaim&rdquo; in the neighbourhood
+      of Carchemish, he penetrated into the heart of Mitanni.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The castle, for instance, near Megiddo, previously
+     referred to, which, after having contributed to the siege of
+     the town, probably served to keep it in subjection.
+
+     ** The accounts of the campaigns of Th�tmosis III. have been
+     preserved in the Annals in a very mutilated condition, the
+     fragments of which were discovered at different times. They
+     are nothing but extracts from an official account, made for
+     Amon and his priests.
+
+     *** The province of the Tree �an�; cf. with this designation
+     the epithet &ldquo;Shad Erini,&rdquo; &ldquo;mountain of the cedar tree,&rdquo;
+      which the Assyrians bestowed on the Amanus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The following year he reappeared in the same region. Tunipa, which had
+      made an obstinate resistance, was taken, together with its king, and 329
+      of his nobles were forced to yield themselves prisoners. Th�tmosis &ldquo;with a
+      joyous heart&rdquo; was carrying them away captive, when it occurred to him that
+      the district of Zahi, which lay away for the most part from the great
+      military highroads, was a tempting prey teeming with spoil. The barns were
+      stored with wheat and barley, the cellars were filled with wine, the
+      harvest was not yet gathered in, and the trees bent under the weight of
+      their fruit. Having pillaged Senza�r� on the Orontes,* he made his way to
+      the westwards through the ravine formed by the Ishahr el-Keb�r, and
+      descended suddenly on the territory of Arvad. The towns once more escaped
+      pillage, but Thutmosis destroyed the harvests, plundered the orchards,
+      carried off the cattle, and pitilessly wasted the whole of the maritime
+      plain.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Senza�r� was thought by Ebers to be &ldquo;the double Tyre.&rdquo;
+      Brugsch considered it to be Tyre itself. It is, I believe,
+     the Sizara of classical writers, the Shaizar of the Arabs,
+     and is mentioned in one of the Tel el-Amarna tablets in
+     connection with N�i.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There was such abundance within the camp that the men were continually
+      getting drunk, and spent their time in anointing themselves with oil,
+      which they could do only in Egypt at the most solemn festivals. They
+      returned to Syria in the year XXX., and their good fortune again favoured
+      them. The stubborn Qodsh� was harshly dealt with; Simyra and Arvad, which
+      hitherto had held their own, now opened their gates to him; the lords of
+      Upper Lotan� poured in their contributions without delay, and gave up
+      their sons and brothers as hostages. In the year XXXI., the city of Anamut
+      in Tikhisa, on the shores of Lake Msrana, yielded in its turn;* on the 3rd
+      of Pakhons, the anniversary of his coronation, the Lotan� renewed their
+      homage to him in person.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The site of the Tikhisa country is imperfectly defined.
+     Nisrana was seemingly applied to the marshy lake into which
+     the Koweik flows, and it is perhaps to be found in the name
+     Kin-nesr�n. In this case Tikhisa would be the country near
+     the lake; the district of the Grseco-Roruan Chalkis is
+     situated on the right of the military road.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The return of the expedition was a sort of triumphal procession. At every
+      halting-place the troops found quarters and provisions prepared for them,
+      bread and cakes, perfumes, oil, wine, and honey being provided in such
+      quantities that they were obliged on their departure to leave the greater
+      part behind them. The scribes took advantage of this peaceful state of
+      affairs to draw up minute accounts of the products of Lotan�&mdash;corn,
+      barley, millet, fruits, and various kinds of oil&mdash;prompted doubtless
+      by the desire to arrive at a fairly just apportionment of the tribute.
+      Indeed, the results of the expedition were considered so satisfactory that
+      they were recorded on a special monument dedicated in the palace at
+      Thebes. The names of the towns and peoples might change with every war,
+      but the spoils suffered no diminution. In the year XXXIII., the kingdoms
+      situated to the west of the Euphrates were so far pacified that Thutmosis
+      was able without risk to carry his arms to Mesopotamia. He entered the
+      country by the fords of Carchemish, near to the spot where his
+      grandfather, Thutmosis I., had erected his stele half a century
+      previously. He placed another beside this, and a third to the eastward to
+      mark the point to which he had extended the frontier of his empire.. The
+      Mitanni, who exercised a sort of hegemony over the whole of Naharaim, were
+      this time the objects of his attack. Thirty-two of their towns fell one
+      after another, their kings were taken captive and the walls of their
+      cities were razed, without any serious resistance. The battalions of the
+      enemy were dispersed at the first shock, and Pharaoh &ldquo;pursued them for the
+      space of a mile, without one of them daring to look behind him, for they
+      thought only of escape, and fled before him like a flock of goats.&rdquo;
+       Thutmosis pushed forward as far certainly as the Balikh, and perhaps on to
+      the Khabur or even to the Hermus; and as he approached the frontier, the
+      king of Singar, a vassal of Assyria, sent him presents of lapis-lazuli.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When this prince had retired, another chief, the lord of the Great Kkati,
+      whose territory had not even been threatened by the invaders, deemed it
+      prudent to follow the example of the petty princes of the plain of the
+      Euphrates, and despatched envoys to the Pharaoh bearing presents of no
+      great value, but testifying to his desire to live on good terms with
+      Egypt. Still further on, the inhabitants of N�i begged the king&rsquo;s
+      acceptance of a troop of slaves and two hundred and sixty mares; he
+      remained among them long enough to erect a stele commemorating his
+      triumph, and to indulge in one of those extensive hunts which were the
+      delight of Oriental monarchs. The country abounded in elephants. The
+      soldiers were employed as beaters, and the king and his court succeeded in
+      killing one hundred and twenty head of big game, whose tusks were added to
+      the spoils. These numbers indicate how the extinction of such animals in
+      these parts was brought about. Beyond these regions, again, the sheikhs of
+      the Lamnani� came to meet the Pharaoh. They were a poor people, and had
+      but little to offer, but among their gifts were some birds of a species
+      unknown to the Egyptians, and two geese, with which, however, His Majesty
+      deigned to be satisfied.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The campaign of the year XXXI. It is mentioned in the
+     <i>Annals of Thulmosis III.</i>, 11. 17-27; the reference to the
+     elephant-hunt occurs only in the <i>Inscription of
+     Amenemhabi</i>, 11. 22, 23; an allusion to the defeat of the
+     kings of Mitanni is found in a mutilated inscription from
+     the tomb of Manakhpirr�sonb�. It was probably on his return
+     from this campaign that Th�tmosis caused the great list to
+     be engraved which, while it includes a certain number of
+     names assigned to places beyond the Euphrates, ought
+     necessarily to contain the cities of the Mitanni.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      END OF VOL. IV. <br />
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chald�a, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12), by G. Maspero
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT, CHALD�A ***
+
+***** This file should be named 17324-h.htm or 17324-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/3/2/17324/
+
+Produced by David Widger
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase &ldquo;Project
+Gutenberg&rdquo;), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  &ldquo;Project Gutenberg&rdquo; is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (&ldquo;the Foundation&rdquo;
+ or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase &ldquo;Project Gutenberg&rdquo; appears, or with which the phrase &ldquo;Project
+Gutenberg&rdquo; is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase &ldquo;Project Gutenberg&rdquo; associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+&ldquo;Plain Vanilla ASCII&rdquo; or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original &ldquo;Plain Vanilla ASCII&rdquo; or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, &ldquo;Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.&rdquo;
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+&ldquo;Defects,&rdquo; such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the &ldquo;Right
+of Replacement or Refund&rdquo; described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you &lsquo;AS-IS&rsquo; WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm&rsquo;s
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation&rsquo;s EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state&rsquo;s laws.
+
+The Foundation&rsquo;s principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation&rsquo;s web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+  </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/17324-h/images/001.jpg b/17324-h/images/001.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e17e9db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/001.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/002.jpg b/17324-h/images/002.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..12652d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/002.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/003.jpg b/17324-h/images/003.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2ddd449
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/003.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/005.jpg b/17324-h/images/005.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..58e488e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/005.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/014.jpg b/17324-h/images/014.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee76659
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/014.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/015.jpg b/17324-h/images/015.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee8dd57
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/015.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/017.jpg b/17324-h/images/017.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6085419
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/017.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/018.jpg b/17324-h/images/018.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..78246db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/018.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/023.jpg b/17324-h/images/023.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f42957c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/023.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/024.jpg b/17324-h/images/024.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a27e5f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/024.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/029.jpg b/17324-h/images/029.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee604a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/029.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/030.jpg b/17324-h/images/030.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ff4b772
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/030.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/032.jpg b/17324-h/images/032.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3be3808
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/032.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/033.jpg b/17324-h/images/033.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d72de2d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/033.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/036.jpg b/17324-h/images/036.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e37a8c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/036.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/039.jpg b/17324-h/images/039.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4a62c72
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/039.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/045.jpg b/17324-h/images/045.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..50f3e9d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/045.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/046.jpg b/17324-h/images/046.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..246fd45
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/046.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/047.jpg b/17324-h/images/047.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0fd44f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/047.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/048.jpg b/17324-h/images/048.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc9fc65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/048.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/050.jpg b/17324-h/images/050.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bd7f18b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/050.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/057.jpg b/17324-h/images/057.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c876002
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/057.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/059.jpg b/17324-h/images/059.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a6dd43e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/059.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/079.jpg b/17324-h/images/079.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c577e5a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/079.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/080.jpg b/17324-h/images/080.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e86d31a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/080.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/082.jpg b/17324-h/images/082.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1a2093
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/082.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/083.jpg b/17324-h/images/083.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..52fc232
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/083.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/084.jpg b/17324-h/images/084.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b5d39f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/084.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/093.jpg b/17324-h/images/093.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eb9cfd0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/093.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/106.jpg b/17324-h/images/106.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c6f59b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/106.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/107.jpg b/17324-h/images/107.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f534b6f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/107.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/109.jpg b/17324-h/images/109.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9e12b73
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/109.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/110.jpg b/17324-h/images/110.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..faf4bab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/110.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/113.jpg b/17324-h/images/113.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81e3f4e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/113.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/114.jpg b/17324-h/images/114.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e32d3cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/114.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/116.jpg b/17324-h/images/116.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..75c7e39
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/116.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/116a.jpg b/17324-h/images/116a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b971ded
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/116a.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/119.jpg b/17324-h/images/119.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a830a64
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/119.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/122.jpg b/17324-h/images/122.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc022c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/122.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/130.jpg b/17324-h/images/130.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4581510
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/130.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/132.jpg b/17324-h/images/132.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bd2167e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/132.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/135.jpg b/17324-h/images/135.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dfb89a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/135.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/136.jpg b/17324-h/images/136.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..64eb795
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/136.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/137.jpg b/17324-h/images/137.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df66d78
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/137.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/141.jpg b/17324-h/images/141.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc94030
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/141.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/144.jpg b/17324-h/images/144.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca1f800
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/144.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/146.jpg b/17324-h/images/146.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee4aa60
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/146.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/147.jpg b/17324-h/images/147.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..43cdff9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/147.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/150.jpg b/17324-h/images/150.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..811d8e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/150.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/153.jpg b/17324-h/images/153.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0717348
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/153.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/155.jpg b/17324-h/images/155.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..459414a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/155.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/156.jpg b/17324-h/images/156.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a8cdd64
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/156.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/157.jpg b/17324-h/images/157.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11f33f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/157.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/158.jpg b/17324-h/images/158.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..61b6e99
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/158.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/159.jpg b/17324-h/images/159.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c8a9018
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/159.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/162-table.jpg b/17324-h/images/162-table.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fb6b76e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/162-table.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/177.jpg b/17324-h/images/177.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ff097dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/177.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/180-map.jpg b/17324-h/images/180-map.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ff4e59d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/180-map.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/184.jpg b/17324-h/images/184.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a7f11e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/184.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/185.jpg b/17324-h/images/185.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d535566
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/185.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/187.jpg b/17324-h/images/187.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c6559c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/187.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/189.jpg b/17324-h/images/189.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e11de0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/189.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/191.jpg b/17324-h/images/191.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b0790e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/191.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/192.jpg b/17324-h/images/192.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a948306
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/192.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/196.jpg b/17324-h/images/196.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ec92562
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/196.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/197.jpg b/17324-h/images/197.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b1bab1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/197.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/199-map.jpg b/17324-h/images/199-map.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bad7bd9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/199-map.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/201.jpg b/17324-h/images/201.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e7ca78
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/201.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/202.jpg b/17324-h/images/202.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7dc7381
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/202.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/206.jpg b/17324-h/images/206.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81c354f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/206.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/208.jpg b/17324-h/images/208.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5578ca7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/208.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/211.jpg b/17324-h/images/211.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6924d5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/211.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/212.jpg b/17324-h/images/212.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..73f4d55
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/212.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/213.jpg b/17324-h/images/213.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1544ce7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/213.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/215.jpg b/17324-h/images/215.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f8610a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/215.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/216.jpg b/17324-h/images/216.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e89f062
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/216.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/218.jpg b/17324-h/images/218.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f22e8db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/218.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/219.jpg b/17324-h/images/219.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..995af9c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/219.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/220.jpg b/17324-h/images/220.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..191b99f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/220.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/222.jpg b/17324-h/images/222.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7dc4b7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/222.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/223.jpg b/17324-h/images/223.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2274dde
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/223.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/226.jpg b/17324-h/images/226.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e1df8a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/226.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/229.jpg b/17324-h/images/229.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a53dd4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/229.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/231.jpg b/17324-h/images/231.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f01ce58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/231.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/235.jpg b/17324-h/images/235.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c341359
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/235.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/238.jpg b/17324-h/images/238.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b3b007
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/238.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/240.jpg b/17324-h/images/240.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b08d7d2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/240.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/241-text.jpg b/17324-h/images/241-text.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a54983
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/241-text.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/241.jpg b/17324-h/images/241.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4592776
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/241.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/246.jpg b/17324-h/images/246.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5109d47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/246.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/248.jpg b/17324-h/images/248.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d906d5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/248.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/249.jpg b/17324-h/images/249.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8083e12
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/249.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/252.jpg b/17324-h/images/252.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..198b7c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/252.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/253.jpg b/17324-h/images/253.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e03ffe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/253.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/256.jpg b/17324-h/images/256.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bb0a6d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/256.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/256b.jpg b/17324-h/images/256b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f032615
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/256b.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/267.jpg b/17324-h/images/267.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..441c0cc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/267.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/268.jpg b/17324-h/images/268.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b54660
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/268.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/269.jpg b/17324-h/images/269.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b320fcf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/269.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/273.jpg b/17324-h/images/273.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..694b55d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/273.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/282.jpg b/17324-h/images/282.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..403dde2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/282.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/286.jpg b/17324-h/images/286.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4028231
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/286.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/288.jpg b/17324-h/images/288.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cca6542
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/288.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/288th.jpg b/17324-h/images/288th.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..895b064
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/288th.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/294.jpg b/17324-h/images/294.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..061b7cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/294.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/297.jpg b/17324-h/images/297.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0ed4c00
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/297.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/298.jpg b/17324-h/images/298.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8fdd5e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/298.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/299.jpg b/17324-h/images/299.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1d7b7d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/299.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/302.jpg b/17324-h/images/302.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2ddf9d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/302.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/303.jpg b/17324-h/images/303.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b489900
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/303.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/305.jpg b/17324-h/images/305.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..61c38b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/305.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/311.jpg b/17324-h/images/311.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b950b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/311.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/313.jpg b/17324-h/images/313.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d95185d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/313.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/314.jpg b/17324-h/images/314.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f09272
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/314.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/315.jpg b/17324-h/images/315.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0826e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/315.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/318.jpg b/17324-h/images/318.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e5f5ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/318.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/319.jpg b/17324-h/images/319.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ae402c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/319.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/321.jpg b/17324-h/images/321.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8019f11
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/321.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/322.jpg b/17324-h/images/322.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2ddf261
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/322.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/322b.jpg b/17324-h/images/322b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..502aa0f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/322b.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/325.jpg b/17324-h/images/325.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f2e2d50
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/325.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/327.jpg b/17324-h/images/327.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a0c1cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/327.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/328b.jpg b/17324-h/images/328b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dd040d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/328b.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/328bth.jpg b/17324-h/images/328bth.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..476f2ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/328bth.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/330.jpg b/17324-h/images/330.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ecb783e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/330.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/336.jpg b/17324-h/images/336.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e8c0e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/336.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/338.jpg b/17324-h/images/338.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1981a08
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/338.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/339.jpg b/17324-h/images/339.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a763e0a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/339.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/341.jpg b/17324-h/images/341.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..948a587
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/341.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/344.jpg b/17324-h/images/344.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4932c7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/344.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/345.jpg b/17324-h/images/345.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bab0368
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/345.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/346.jpg b/17324-h/images/346.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..928a3e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/346.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/347.jpg b/17324-h/images/347.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab76ef7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/347.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/348b.jpg b/17324-h/images/348b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5229fc1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/348b.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/350.jpg b/17324-h/images/350.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7cf8fb6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/350.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/351.jpg b/17324-h/images/351.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9932dee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/351.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/353.jpg b/17324-h/images/353.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..435d539
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/353.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/354.jpg b/17324-h/images/354.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..603e471
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/354.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/356.jpg b/17324-h/images/356.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..acfc9f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/356.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/356b-text.jpg b/17324-h/images/356b-text.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..771fbbd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/356b-text.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/356b.jpg b/17324-h/images/356b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f9a465f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/356b.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/357.jpg b/17324-h/images/357.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2aeb8b1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/357.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/358.jpg b/17324-h/images/358.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..80a5698
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/358.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/361.jpg b/17324-h/images/361.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11bd78e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/361.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/363.jpg b/17324-h/images/363.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..00f1c6f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/363.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/365.jpg b/17324-h/images/365.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d8c9fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/365.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/366.jpg b/17324-h/images/366.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..349f703
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/366.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/366th.jpg b/17324-h/images/366th.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ee5d5d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/366th.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/369.jpg b/17324-h/images/369.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d5e27a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/369.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/372.jpg b/17324-h/images/372.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bbe07a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/372.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/378.jpg b/17324-h/images/378.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b6cb195
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/378.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/380.jpg b/17324-h/images/380.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53600e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/380.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/381.jpg b/17324-h/images/381.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..47cdc65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/381.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/384.jpg b/17324-h/images/384.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5ebd151
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/384.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/cover.jpg b/17324-h/images/cover.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..013bc1c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/cover.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/cover2.jpg b/17324-h/images/cover2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d176b11
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/cover2.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/frontispiece.jpg b/17324-h/images/frontispiece.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..797c0c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/frontispiece.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/spines.jpg b/17324-h/images/spines.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee35490
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/spines.jpg
diff --git a/17324-h/images/titlepage.jpg b/17324-h/images/titlepage.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..70ff647
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17324-h/images/titlepage.jpg