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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12), by G. Maspero
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12)
+
+Author: G. Maspero
+
+Editor: A.H. Sayce
+
+Translator: M.L. McClure
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2005 [EBook #17324]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT, CHALDÆA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Spines]
+
+[Illustration: Cover]
+
+HISTORY OF EGYPT CHALDEA, SYRIA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA
+
+By G. MASPERO, Honorable Doctor of Civil Laws, and Fellow of Queen’s
+College, Oxford; Member of the Institute and Professor at the College of
+France
+
+Edited by A. H. SAYCE, Professor of Assyriology, Oxford
+
+Translated by M. L. McCLURE, Member of the Committee of the Egypt
+Exploration Fund
+
+
+CONTAINING OVER TWELVE HUNDRED COLORED PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+Volume IV.
+
+
+LONDON
+
+THE GROLIER SOCIETY
+
+PUBLISHERS
+
+[Illustration: Frontispiece]
+
+[Illustration: Titlepage]
+
+
+_THE FIRST CHALDEAN EMPIRE AND THE HYKSÔS IN EGYPT_
+
+_SYRIA: THE PART PLAYED BY IT IN THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD--
+BABYLON AND THE FIRST CHALDÆAN EMPIRE--THE DOMINION OF THE HYKSÔS:
+ÂHMOSIS._
+
+_Syria, owing to its geographical position, condemned to be subject to
+neighbouring powers-Lebanon, Anti-Lebanon, the valley of the Orontes
+and of the Litâny, and surrounding regions: the northern table-land, the
+country about Damascus, the Mediterranean coast, the Jordan and the Dead
+Sea-Civilization and primitive inhabitants, Semites and Asiatics: the
+almost entire absence of Egyptian influence, the predominance of that of
+Chaldæa._
+
+_Babylon, its ruins and its environs--It extends its rule over
+Mesopotamia; its earliest dynasty and its struggle with Central
+Chaldæa-Elam, its geographical position, its peoples; Kutur-Nakhunta
+conquers Larsam-Bimsin (Eri-Aku); Khammurabi founds the first Babylonian
+empire; Ids victories, his buildings, his canals--The Elamites in
+Syria: Kudurlagamar--Syria recognizes the authority of Hammurabi and his
+successors._
+
+_The Hyksôs conquer Egypt at the end of the XIVth dynasty; the founding
+of Avaris--Uncertainty both of ancients and moderns with regard to the
+origin of the Hyksôs: probability of their being the Khati--Their kings
+adopt the manners and civilization of the Egyptians: the monuments of
+Khiani and of Apôphis I. and II--The XVth dynasty._
+
+_Semitic incursions following the Hyksôs--The migration of the
+Phoenicians and the Israelites into Syria: Terah, Abraham and his
+sojourn in the land of Canaan--Isaac, Jacob, Joseph: the Israelites go
+down into Egypt and settle in the land of Goshen._
+
+_Thébes revolts against the Hyksôs: popular traditions as to the origin
+of the war, the romance of Apôphis and Saquinri--The Theban princesses
+and the last Icings of the XVIIth dynasty: Tiûdqni Kamosis, Ahmosis
+I.--The lords of El-Kab, and the part they played during the war of
+independence--The taking of Avaris and the expulsion of the Ilylcsôs._
+
+_The reorganization of Egypt--Ahmosis I. and his Nubian wars, the
+reopening of the quarries of Turah--Amenôthes I. and his mother
+Nofrîtari: the jewellery of Queen Âhhotpû--The wars of Amenôthes I.,
+the apotheosis of Nofrîtari--The accession of Thûtmosis I. and the
+re-generation of Egypt._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I--THE FIRST CHALDÆAN EMPIRE AND THE HYKSÔS IN EGYPT
+
+
+_Syria: the part played by it in the ancient world--Babylon and the
+first Chaldæan empire--The dominion of the Hyksôs: Âhmosis._
+
+
+Some countries seem destined from their origin to become the
+battle-fields of the contending nations which environ them. Into such
+regions, and to their cost, neighbouring peoples come from century to
+century to settle their quarrels and bring to an issue the questions of
+supremacy which disturb their little corner of the world. The nations
+around are eager for the possession of a country thus situated; it
+is seized upon bit by bit, and in the strife dismembered and trodden
+underfoot: at best the only course open to its inhabitants is to join
+forces with one of its invaders, and while helping the intruder to
+overcome the rest, to secure for themselves a position of permanent
+servitude. Should some unlooked-for chance relieve them from the
+presence of their foreign lord, they will probably be quite incapable of
+profiting by the respite which fortune puts in their way, or of making
+any effectual attempt to organize themselves in view of future attacks.
+They tend to become split up into numerous rival communities, of which
+even the pettiest will aim at autonomy, keeping up a perpetual frontier
+war for the sake of becoming possessed of or of retaining a glorious
+sovereignty over a few acres of corn in the plains, or some wooded
+ravines in the mountains. Year after year there will be scenes of bloody
+conflict, in which petty armies will fight petty battles on behalf of
+petty interests, but so fiercely, and with such furious animosity, that
+the country will suffer from the strife as much as, or even more than,
+from an invasion. There will be no truce to their struggles until they
+all fall under the sway of a foreign master, and, except in the interval
+between two conquests, they will have no national existence, their
+history being almost entirely merged in that of other nations.
+
+From remote antiquity Syria was in the condition just described,
+and thus destined to become subject to foreign rule. Chaldæa, Egypt,
+Assyria, and Persia presided in turn over its destinies, while Macedonia
+and the empires of the West were only waiting their opportunity to lay
+hold of it. By its position it formed a kind of meeting-place where most
+of the military nations of the ancient world were bound sooner or later
+to come violently into collision. Confined between the sea and the
+desert, Syria offers the only route of easy access to an army marching
+northwards from Africa into Asia, and all conquerors, whether attracted
+to Mesopotamia or to Egypt by the accumulated riches on the banks of the
+Euphrates or the Nile, were obliged to pass through it in order to reach
+the object of their cupidity. It might, perhaps, have escaped this fatal
+consequence of its position, had the formation of the country permitted
+its tribes to mass themselves together, and oppose a compact body to
+the invading hosts; but the range of mountains which forms its backbone
+subdivides it into isolated districts, and by thus restricting each
+tribe to a narrow existence maintained among them a mutual antagonism.
+The twin chains, the Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon, which divide the
+country down the centre, are composed of the same kind of calcareous
+rocks and sandstone, while the same sort of reddish clay has been
+deposited on their slopes by the glaciers of the same geological
+period.*
+
+     * Drake remarked in the Lebanon several varieties of
+     limestone, which have been carefully catalogued by Blanche
+     and Lartet. Above these strata, which belong to the Jurassic
+     formation, come reddish sandstone, then beds of very hard
+     yellowish limestone, and finally marl. The name Lebanon, in
+     Assyrian Libnana, would appear to signify “the white
+     mountain;” the Amorites called the Anti-Lebanon Saniru,
+     Shenir, according to the Assyrian texts and the Hebrew
+     books.
+
+Arid and bare on the northern side, they sent out towards the south
+featureless monotonous ridges, furrowed here and there by short narrow
+valleys, hollowed out in places into basins or funnel-shaped ravines,
+which are widened year by year by the down-rush of torrents. These
+ridges, as they proceed southwards, become clothed with verdure and
+offer a more varied outline, the ravines being more thickly wooded, and
+the summits less uniform in contour and colouring. Lebanon becomes white
+and ice-crowned in winter, but none of its peaks rises to the altitude
+of perpetual snows: the highest of them, Mount Timarun, reaches 10,526
+feet, while only three others exceed 9000.* Anti-Lebanon is, speaking
+generally, 1000 or 1300 feet lower than its neighbour: it becomes
+higher, however, towards the south, where the triple peak of Mount
+Hermon rises to a height of 9184 feet. The Orontes and the Litâny drain
+the intermediate space. The Orontes rising on the west side of the
+Anti-Lebanon, near the ruins of Baalbek, rushes northwards in such a
+violent manner, that the dwellers on its banks call it the rebel--Nahr
+el-Asi.** About a third of the way towards its mouth it enters a
+depression, which ancient dykes help to transform into a lake; it flows
+thence, almost parallel to the sea-coast, as far as the 36th degree of
+latitude. There it meets the last spurs of the Amanos, but, failing to
+cut its way through them, it turns abruptly to the west, and then to the
+south, falling into the Mediterranean after having received an increase
+to its volume from the waters of the Afrîn.
+
+     * Bukton-Drake, Unexplored Syria, vol. i. p. 88, attributed
+     to it an altitude of 9175 English feet; others estimate it
+     at 10,539 feet. The mountains which exceed 3000 metres are
+     Dahr el-Kozîb, 3046 metres; Jebel-Mislriyah, 3080 metres;
+     and Jebel-Makhmal or Makmal, 3040 metres. As a matter of
+     fact, these heights are not yet determined with the accuracy
+     desirable.
+
+     ** The Egyptians knew it in early times by the name of
+     Aûnrati, or Araûnti; it is mentioned in Assyrian
+     inscriptions under the name of Arantû. All are agreed in
+     acknowledging that this name is not Semitic, and an Aryan
+     origin is attributed to it, but without convincing proof;
+     according to Strabo (xvi. ii. § 7, p. 750), it was
+     originally called Typhon, and was only styled Orontes after
+     a certain Orontes had built the first bridge across it. The
+     name of Axios which it sometimes bears appears to have been
+     given to it by Greek colonists, in memory of a river in
+     Macedonia. This is probably the origin of the modern name of
+     Asi, and the meaning, _rebellious river_, which Arab
+     tradition attaches to the latter term, probably comes from a
+     popular etymology which likened Axios to Asi, the
+     identification was all the easier since it justifies the
+     epithet by the violence of its current.
+
+The Litâny rises a short distance from the Orontes; it flows at first
+through a wide and fertile plain, which soon contracts, however, and
+forces it into a channel between the spurs of the Lebanon and the
+Galilæan hills. The water thence makes its way between two cliffs of
+perpendicular rock, the ravine being in several places so narrow that
+the branches of the trees on the opposite sides interlace, and an active
+man could readily leap across it. Near Yakhmur some detached rocks
+appear to have been arrested in their fall, and, leaning like flying
+buttresses against the mountain face, constitute a natural bridge over
+the torrent. The basins of the two rivers lie in one valley, extending
+eighty leagues in length, divided by an almost imperceptible watershed
+into two beds of unequal slope. The central part of the valley is given
+up to marshes. It is only towards the south that we find cornfields,
+vineyards, plantations of mulberry and olive trees, spread out over the
+plain, or disposed in terraces on the hillsides. Towards the north,
+the alluvial deposits of, the Orontes have gradually formed a black
+and fertile soil, upon which grow luxuriant crops of cereals and other
+produce. Cole-Syria, after having generously nourished the Oriental
+empires which had preyed upon her, became one of the granaries of the
+Roman world, under the capable rule of the Cæsars.
+
+Syria is surrounded on all sides by countries of varying aspect and
+soil. That to the north, flanked by the Amanos, is a gloomy mountainous
+region, with its greatest elevation on the seaboard: it slopes gradually
+towards the interior, spreading out into chalky table-lands, dotted over
+with bare and rounded hills, and seamed with tortuous valleys which
+open out to the Euphrates, the Orontes, or the desert. Vast, slightly
+undulating plains succeed the table-lands: the soil is dry and stony,
+the streams are few in number and contain but little water. The Sajur
+flows into the Euphrates, the Afrîn and the Karasu when united yield
+their tribute to the Orontes, while the others for the most part pour
+their waters into enclosed basins. The Khalus of the Greeks sluggishly
+pursues its course southward, and after reluctantly leaving the gardens
+of Aleppo, finally loses itself on the borders of the desert in a small
+salt lake full of islets: about halfway between the Khalus and the
+Euphrates a second salt lake receives the Nahr ed-Dahab, the “golden
+river.” The climate is mild, and the temperature tolerably uniform. The
+sea-breeze which rises every afternoon tempers the summer heat: the
+cold in winter is never piercing, except when the south wind blows which
+comes from the mountains, and the snow rarely lies on the ground for
+more than twenty-four hours. It seldom rains during the autumn and
+winter months, but frequent showers fall in the early days of spring.
+Vegetation then awakes again, and the soil lends itself to cultivation
+in the hollows of the valleys and on the table-lands wherever
+irrigation is possible. The ancients dotted these now all but desert
+spaces with wells and cisterns; they intersected them with canals,
+and covered them with farms and villages, with fortresses and populous
+cities. Primæval forests clothed the slopes of the Amanos, and pinewood
+from this region was famous both at Babylon and in the towns of Lower
+Chaldæa. The plains produced barley and wheat in enormous quantities,
+the vine throve there, the gardens teemed with flowers and fruit, and
+pistachio and olive trees grew on every slope. The desert was always
+threatening to invade the plain, and gained rapidly upon it whenever
+a prolonged war disturbed cultivation, or when the negligence of the
+inhabitants slackened the work of defence: beyond the lakes and salt
+marshes it had obtained a secure hold. At the present time the greater
+part of the country between the Orontes and the Euphrates is nothing
+but a rocky table-land, ridged with low hills and dotted over with some
+impoverished oases, excepting at the foot of Anti-Lebanon, where two
+rivers, fed by innumerable streams, have served to create a garden of
+marvellous beauty. The Barada, dashing from cascade to cascade, flows
+for some distance through gorges before emerging on the plain: scarcely
+has it reached level ground than it widens out, divides, and forms
+around Damascus a miniature delta, into which a thousand interlacing
+channels carry refreshment and fertility. Below the town these streams
+rejoin the river, which, after having flowed merrily along for a day’s
+journey, is swallowed up in a kind of elongated chasm from whence it
+never again emerges. At the melting of the snows a regular lake is
+formed here, whose blue waters are surrounded by wide grassy margins
+“like a sapphire set in emeralds.” This lake dries up almost completely
+in summer, and is converted into swampy meadows, filled with gigantic
+rushes, among which the birds build their nests, and multiply as
+unmolested as in the marshes of Chaldæa. The Awaj, unfed by any
+tributary, fills a second deeper though smaller basin, while to
+the south two other lesser depressions receive the waters of the
+Anti-Lebanon and the Hauran. Syria is protected from the encroachments
+of the desert by a continuous barrier of pools and beds of reeds:
+towards the east the space reclaimed resembles a verdant promontory
+thrust boldly out into an ocean of sand. The extent of the cultivated
+area is limited on the west by the narrow strip of rock and clay which
+forms the littoral. From the mouth of the Litâny to that of the Orontes,
+the coast presents a rugged, precipitous, and inhospitable appearance.
+There are no ports, and merely a few ill-protected harbours, or narrow
+beaches lying under formidable headlands. One river, the Nahr el-Kebir,
+which elsewhere would not attract the traveller’s attention, is here
+noticeable as being the only stream whose waters flow constantly and
+with tolerable regularity; the others, the Leon, the Adonis,* and the
+Nahr el-Kelb,* can scarcely even be called torrents, being precipitated
+as it were in one leap from the Lebanon to the Mediterranean. Olives,
+vines, and corn cover the maritime plain, while in ancient times the
+heights were clothed with impenetrable forests of oak, pine, larch,
+cypress, spruce, and cedar. The mountain range drops in altitude towards
+the centre of the country and becomes merely a line of low hills,
+connecting Gebel Ansarieh with the Lebanon proper; beyond the latter
+it continues without interruption, till at length, above the narrow
+Phoenician coast road, it rises in the form of an almost insurmountable
+wall. Near to the termination of Coele-Syria, but separated from it
+by a range of hills, there opens out on the western slopes of Hermon a
+valley unlike any other in the world. At this point the surface of the
+earth has been rent in prehistoric times by volcanic action, leaving a
+chasm which has never since closed up. A river, unique in character--the
+Jordan--flows down this gigantic crevasse, fertilizing the valley formed
+by it from end to end.***
+
+     * The Adonis of classical authors is now Nahr-Ibrahim. We
+     have as yet no direct evidence as to the Phoenician name of
+     this river; it was probably identical with that of the
+     divinity worshipped on its banks. The fact of a river
+     bearing the name of a god is not surprising: the Belos, in
+     the neighbourhood of Acre, affords us a parallel case to the
+     Adonis.
+
+     ** The present Nahr el-Kelb is the Lykos of classical
+     authors. The Due de Luynes thought he recognized a
+     corruption of the Phoenician name in that of Alcobile, which
+     is mentioned hereabouts in the Itinerary of the pilgrim of
+     Bordeaux. The order of the Itinerary does not favour this
+     identification, and Alcobile is probably Jebail: it is none
+     the less probable that the original name of the Nahr el Kelb
+     contained from earliest times the Phoenician equivalent of
+     the Arab word _kelb_, “dog.”
+
+     *** The Jordan is mentioned in the Egyptian texts under the
+     name of Yorduna: the name appears to mean _the descender,
+     the down-flowing._
+
+Its principal source is at Tell el-Qadi, where it rises out of a
+basaltic mound whose summit is crowned by the ruins of Laish.*
+
+     * This source is mentioned by Josephus as being that of the
+     Little Jordan.
+
+[Illustration: 014.jpg THE MOST NORTHERN SOURCE OF THE JORDAN, THE
+NAIIR-EL-HASBANY]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by the Duc de Luynes.
+
+The water collects in an oval rocky basin hidden by bushes, and flows
+down among the brushwood to join the Nahr el-Hasbany, which brings the
+waters of the upper torrents to swell its stream; a little lower down it
+mingles with the Banias branch, and winds for some time amidst desolate
+marshy meadows before disappearing in the thick beds of rushes bordering
+Lake Huleh.*
+
+     * Lake Huleh is called the Waters of Merom, Mê-Merom, in the
+     Book of Joshua, xi. 5, 7; and Lake Sammochonitis in
+     Josephus. The name of Ulatha, which was given to the
+     surrounding country, shows that the modern word Huleh is
+     derived from an ancient form, of which unfortunately the
+     original has not come down to us.
+
+[Illustration 014b.jpg LAKE OF GENESARATH]
+
+At this point the Jordan reaches the level of the Mediterranean, but
+instead of maintaining it, the river makes a sudden drop on leaving the
+lake, cutting for itself a deeply grooved channel. It has a fall of
+some 300 feet before reaching the Lake of Grenesareth, where it is only
+momentarily arrested, as if to gather fresh strength for its headlong
+career southwards.
+
+[Illustration: 017.jpg ONE OF THE REACHES OF THE JORDAN]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from several photographs brought back by
+     Lortet.
+
+Here and there it makes furious assaults on its right and left banks,
+as if to escape from its bed, but the rocky escarpments which hem it in
+present an insurmountable barrier to it; from rapid to rapid it descends
+with such capricious windings that it covers a course of more than 62
+miles before reaching, the Dead Sea, nearly 1300 feet below the level of
+the Mediterranean.*
+
+     * The exact figures are: the Lake of Hûleh 7 feet above the
+     Mediterranean; the Lake of Genesareth 68245 feet, and the
+     Dead Sea 1292 feet below the sea-level; to the south of
+     the Dead Sea, towards the water-parting of the Akabah, the
+     ground is over 720 feet higher than the level of the Red
+     Sea.
+
+[Illustration: 018.jpg THE DEAD SEA AND THE MOUNTAINS OF MOAB, SEEN FKOM
+THE HEIGHTS OF ENGEDI]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by the Duc de Luynes.
+
+Nothing could offer more striking contrasts than the country on either
+bank. On the east, the ground rises abruptly to a height of about 3000
+feet, resembling a natural rampart flanked with towers and bastions:
+behind this extends an immense table-land, slightly undulating and
+intersected in all directions by the affluents of the Jordan and the
+Dead Sea--the Yarmuk,* the Jabbok,** and the Arnon.***
+
+     * The Yarmuk does not occur in the Bible, but we meet with
+     its name in the Talmud, and the Greeks adopted it under the
+     form Hieromax.
+
+     ** _Gen._ xxxii. 22; Numb, xxi. 24. The name has been
+     Grecized under the forms lôbacchos, labacchos, Iambykes. It
+     is the present Nahr Zerqa.
+
+     *** _Numb._ xxi. 13-26; Beut. ii. 24; the present Wady
+     Môjib. [Shephelah = “low country,” plain (Josh. xi. 16).
+     With the article it means the plain along the Mediterranean
+     from Joppa to Gaza.--Te.]
+
+The whole of this district forms a little world in itself, whose
+inhabitants, half shepherds, half bandits, live a life of isolation,
+with no ambition to take part in general history. West of the Jordan, a
+confused mass of hills rises into sight, their sparsely covered slopes
+affording an impoverished soil for the cultivation of corn, vines, and
+olives. One ridge--Mount Carmel--detached from the principal chain
+near the southern end of the Lake of Genesareth, runs obliquely to
+the north-west, and finally projects into the sea. North of this range
+extends Galilee, abounding in refreshing streams and fertile fields;
+while to the south, the country falls naturally into three parallel
+zones--the littoral, composed alternately of dunes and marshes--an
+expanse of plain, a “Shephelah,” dotted about with woods and watered by
+intermittent rivers,--and finally the mountains. The region of dunes
+is not necessarily barren, and the towns situated in it--Gaza, Jaffa,
+Ashdod, and Ascalon--are surrounded by flourishing orchards and gardens.
+The plain yields plentiful harvests every year, the ground needing no
+manure and very little labour. The higher ground and the hill-tops are
+sometimes covered with verdure, but as they advance southwards, they
+become denuded and burnt by the sun. The valleys, too, are watered only
+by springs, which are dried up for the most part during the summer, and
+the soil, parched by the continuous heat, can scarcely be distinguished
+from the desert. In fact, till the Sinaitic Peninsula and the frontiers
+of Egypt are reached, the eye merely encounters desolate and almost
+uninhabited solitudes, devastated by winter torrents, and overshadowed
+by the volcanic summits of Mount Seir. The spring rains, however,
+cause an early crop of vegetation to spring up, which for a few weeks
+furnishes the flocks of the nomad tribes with food.
+
+We may summarise the physical characteristics of Syria by saying that
+Nature has divided the country into five or six regions of unequal
+area, isolated by rivers and mountains, each one of which, however, is
+admirably suited to become the seat of a separate independent state.
+In the north, we have the country of the two rivers--the
+Naharaim--extending from the Orontes to the Euphrates and the Balikh, or
+even as far as the Khabur:* in the centre, between the two ranges of
+the Lebanon, lie Coele-Syria and its two unequal neighbours, Aram of
+Damascus and Phoenicia; while to the south is the varied collection of
+provinces bordering the valley of the Jordan.
+
+     * The Naharaim of the Egyptians was first identified with
+     Mesopotamia; it was located between the Orontes and the
+     Balikh or the Euphrates by Maspero. This opinion is now
+     adopted by the majority of Egyptologists, with slight
+     differences in detail. Ed. Meyer has accurately compared the
+     Egyptian Naharaim with the Parapotamia of the administration
+     of the Seleucidæ.
+
+It is impossible at the present day to assert, with any approach to
+accuracy, what peoples inhabited these different regions towards the
+fourth millennium before our era. Wherever excavations are made, relics
+are brought to light of a very ancient semi-civilization, in which we
+find stone weapons and implements, besides pottery, often elegant in
+contour, but for the most part coarse in texture and execution. These
+remains, however, are not accompanied by any monument of definite
+characteristics, and they yield no information with regard to the
+origin or affinities of the tribes who fashioned them.* The study of the
+geographical nomenclature in use about the XVIth century B.C. reveals
+the existence, at all events at that period, of several peoples and
+several languages. The mountains, rivers, towns, and fortresses in
+Palestine and Coele-Syria are designated by words of Semitic origin: it
+is easy to detect, even in the hieroglyphic disguise which they bear
+on the Egyptian geographical lists, names familiar to us in Hebrew or
+Assyrian.
+
+     * Researches with regard to the primitive inhabitants of
+     Syria and their remains have not as yet been prosecuted to
+     any extent. The caves noticed by Hedenborg at Ant-Elias,
+     near Tripoli, and by Botta at Nahr el-Kelb, and at Adlun by
+     the Duc de Luynes, have been successively explored by
+     Lartet, Tristram, Lortet, and Dawson. The grottoes of
+     Palestine proper, at Bethzur, at Gilgal near Jericho, and at
+     Tibneh, have been the subject of keen controversy ever since
+     their discovery. The Abbé Richard desired to identify the
+     flints of Gilgal and Tibneh with the stone knives used by
+     Joshua for the circumcision of the Israelites after the
+     passage of the Jordan (_Josh._ v- 2-9), some of which might
+     have been buried in that hero’s tomb.
+
+But once across the Orontes, other forms present themselves which reveal
+no affinities to these languages, but are apparently connected with one
+or other of the dialects of Asia Minor.* The tenacity with which the
+place-names, once given, cling to the soil, leads us to believe that a
+certain number at least of those we know in Syria were in use there long
+before they were noted down by the Egyptians, and that they must have
+been heirlooms from very early peoples. As they take a Semitic or
+non-Semitic form according to their geographical position, we may
+conclude that the centre and south were colonized by Semites, and the
+north by the immigrant tribes from beyond the Taurus. Facts are not
+wanting to support this conclusion, and they prove that it is not so
+entirely arbitrary as we might be inclined to believe. The Asiatic
+visitors who, under a king of the XIIth dynasty, came to offer gifts to
+Khnûmhotpû, the Lord of Beni-Hasan, are completely Semitic in type,
+and closely resemble the Bedouins of the present day. Their
+chief--Abisha--bears a Semitic name,** as too does the Sheikh Ammianshi,
+with whom Sinûhit took refuge.***
+
+     * The non-Semitic origin of the names of a number of towns
+     in Northern Syria preserved in the Egyptian lists, is
+     admitted by the majority of scholars who have studied the
+     question.
+
+     ** His name has been shown to be cognate with the Hebrew
+     Abishai (1 Sam. xxvi. 6-9; 2 Sam. ii. 18, 24; xxi. 17) and
+     with the Chaldæo-Assyrian Abeshukh.
+
+     *** The name Ammianshi at once recalls those of Ammisatana,
+     Ammiza-dugga, and perhaps Ammurabi, or Khammurabi, of one of
+     the Babylonian dynasties; it contains, with the element
+     Ammi, a final _anshi_. Chabas connects it with two Hebrew
+     words _Am-nesh_, which he does not translate.
+
+Ammianshi himself reigned over the province of Kadimâ, a word which in
+Semitic denotes the East. Finally, the only one of their gods known to
+us, Hadad, was a Semite deity, who presided over the atmosphere, and
+whom we find later on ruling over the destinies of Damascus. Peoples
+of Semitic speech and religion must, indeed, have already occupied the
+greater part of that region on the shores of the Mediterranean which we
+find still in their possession many centuries later, at the time of the
+Egyptian conquest.
+
+[Illustration: 028.jpg ASIATIC WOMEN FROM THE TOMB OF KHNÛMHOTPÛ]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+
+For a time Egypt preferred not to meddle in their affairs. When,
+however, the “lords of the sands” grew too insolent, the Pharaoh sent a
+column of light troops against them, and inflicted on them such a severe
+punishment, that the remembrance of it kept them within bounds for
+years. Offenders banished from Egypt sought refuge with the turbulent
+kinglets, who were in a perpetual state of unrest between Sinai and
+the Dead Sea. Egyptian sailors used to set out to traffic along the
+seaboard, taking to piracy when hard pressed; Egyptian merchants were
+accustomed to penetrate by easy stages into the interior. The accounts
+they gave of their journeys were not reassuring. The traveller had first
+to face the solitudes which confronted him before reaching the Isthmus,
+and then to avoid as best he might the attacks of the pillaging tribes
+who inhabited it.
+
+[Illustration: 024.jpg TWO ASIATICS FKOM THE TOMB OF KHNÛMHOPTÛ.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger
+
+Should he escape these initial perils, the Amu--an agricultural and
+settled people inhabiting the fertile region--would give the stranger
+but a sorry reception: he would have to submit to their demands, and
+the most exorbitant levies of toll did not always preserve caravans from
+their attacks.* The country seems to have been but thinly populated;
+tracts now denuded were then covered by large forests in which herds of
+elephants still roamed,** and wild beasts, including lions and leopards,
+rendered the route through them dangerous.
+
+     * The merchant who sets out for foreign lands “leaves his
+     possessions to his children--for fear of lions and
+     Asiatics.”
+
+     ** Thûtmosis III. went elephant-hunting near the Syrian town
+     of Niî.
+
+The notion that Syria was a sort of preserve for both big and small
+game was so strongly implanted in the minds of the Egyptians, that their
+popular literature was full of it: the hero of their romances betook
+himself there for the chase, as a prelude to meeting with the princess
+whom he was destined to marry,* or, as in the case of Kazarâti, chief
+of Assur, that he might encounter there a monstrous hyena with which to
+engage in combat.
+
+     * As, for instance, the hero in the _Story of the
+     Predestined Prince_, exiled from Egypt with his dog, pursues
+     his way hunting till he reaches the confines of Naharaim,
+     where he is to marry the prince’s daughter.
+
+These merchants’ adventures and explorations, as they were not followed
+by any military expedition, left absolutely no mark on the industries or
+manners of the primitive natives: those of them only who were close to
+the frontiers of Egypt came under her subtle charm and felt the power
+of her attraction, but this slight influence never penetrated beyond
+the provinces lying nearest to the Dead Sea. The remaining populations
+looked rather to Chaldæa, and received, though at a distance, the
+continuous impress of the kingdoms of the Euphrates. The tradition which
+attributes to Sargon of Agadê, and to his son Istaramsin, the subjection
+of the people of the Amanos and the Orontes, probably contains but a
+slight element of truth; but if, while awaiting further information, we
+hesitate to believe that the armies of these princes ever crossed the
+Lebanon or landed in Cyprus, we must yet admit the very early advent
+of their civilization in those western countries which are regarded as
+having been under their rule. More than three thousand years before
+our era, the Asiatics who figure on the tomb of Khnûmhotpû clothed
+themselves according to the fashions of Uru and Lagash, and affected
+long robes of striped and spotted stuffs. We may well ask if they had
+also borrowed the cuneiform syllabary for the purposes of their official
+correspondence,* and if the professional scribe with his stylus and clay
+tablet was to be found in their cities. The Babylonian courtiers were,
+no doubt, more familiar visitors among them than the Memphite nobles,
+while the Babylonian kings sent regularly to Syria for statuary stone,
+precious metals, and the timber required in the building of
+their monuments: Urbau and Gudea, as well as their successors and
+contemporaries, received large convoys of materials from the Amanos, and
+if the forests of Lebanon were more rarely utilised, it was not because
+their existence was unknown, but because distance rendered their
+approach more difficult and transport more costly. The Mediterranean
+marches were, in their language, classed as a whole under one
+denomination--Martu, Amurru,** the West--but there were distinctive
+names for each of the provinces into which they were divided.
+
+     * The most ancient cuneiform tablets of Syrian origin are
+     not older than the XVIth century before our era; they
+     contain the official, correspondence of the native princes
+     with the Pharaohs Amenôthes III. and IV. of the XVIIIth
+     dynasty, as will be seen later on in this volume; they were
+     discovered in the ruins of one of the palaces at Tel el-
+     Amarna in Egypt.
+
+     ** Formerly read Akharru. Martu would be the Sumerian and
+     Akharru the Semitic form, Akharru meaning _that which is
+     behind_. The discovery of the Tel el-Amarna tablets threw
+     doubt on the reading of the name Akharru: some thought that
+     it ought to be kept in any case; others, with more or less
+     certainty, think that it should be replaced by Amuru,
+     Amurru, the country of the Amorites. But the question has
+     now been settled by Babylonian contract and law tablets of
+     the period of Khaminurabi, in which the name is written _A-
+     mu-ur-ri (ki)_. Hommel originated the idea that Martu might
+     be an abbreviation of Amartu, that is, Amar with the
+     feminine termination of nouns in the Canaanitish dialect:
+     Martu would thus actually signify _the country of the
+     Amorites_.
+
+Probably even at that date they called the north Khati,* and Cole-Syria,
+Amurru, the land of the Amorites. The scattered references in their
+writings seem to indicate frequent intercourse with these countries, and
+that, too, as a matter of course which excited no surprise among their
+contemporaries: a journey from Lagash to the mountains of Tidanum and
+to Gubin, or to the Lebanon and beyond it to Byblos,** meant to them
+no voyage of discovery. Armies undoubtedly followed the routes already
+frequented by caravans and flotillas of trading boats, and the time came
+when kings desired to rule as sovereigns over nations with whom their
+subjects had peaceably traded.
+
+     * The name of the Khati, Khatti, is found in the _Book of
+     Omens_, which is supposed to contain an extract from the
+     annals of Sargon and Naramsin; as, however, the text which
+     we possess of it is merely a copy of the time of
+     Assurbanipal, it is possible that the word Khati is merely
+     the translation of a more ancient term, perhaps Martu.
+     Winckler thinks it to be included in Lesser Armenia and the
+     Melitônê of classical authors.
+
+     ** Gubin is probably the Kûpûna, Kûpnû, of the Egyptians,
+     the Byblos of Phoenicia. Amiaud had proposed a most unlikely
+     identification with Koptos in Egypt. In the time of Inê-Sin,
+     King of Ur, mention is found of Simurru, Zimyra.
+
+It does not appear, however, that the ancient rulers of Lagash ever
+extended their dominion so far. The governors of the northern cities, on
+the other hand, showed themselves more energetic, and inaugurated
+that march westwards which sooner or later brought the peoples of the
+Euphrates into collision with the dwellers on the Nile: for the first
+Babylonian empire without doubt comprised part if not the whole of
+Syria.*
+
+     * It is only since the discovery of the Tel el-Amarna
+     tablets that the fact of the dominant influence of Chaldæa
+     over Syria and of its conquest has been definitely realized.
+     It is now clear that the state of things of which the
+     tablets discovered in Egypt give us a picture, could only be
+     explained by the hypothesis of a Babylonish supremacy of
+     long duration over the peoples situated between the
+     Euphrates and the Mediterranean.
+
+Among the most celebrated names in ancient history, that of Babylon is
+perhaps the only one which still suggests to our minds a sense of vague
+magnificence and undefined dominion. Cities in other parts of the world,
+it is true, have rivalled Babylon in magnificence and power: Egypt could
+boast of more than one such city, and their ruins to this day present to
+our gaze more monuments worthy of admiration than Babylon ever contained
+in the days of her greatest prosperity. The pyramids of Memphis and the
+colossal statues of Thebes still stand erect, while the ziggurâts and
+the palaces of Chaldæa are but mounds of clay crumbling into the plain;
+but the Egyptian monuments are visible and tangible objects; we can
+calculate to within a few inches the area they cover and the elevation
+of their summits, and the very precision with which we can gauge their
+enormous size tends to limit and lessen their effect upon us. How is it
+possible to give free rein to the imagination when the subject of it is
+strictly limited by exact and determined measurements? At Babylon, on
+the contrary, there is nothing remaining to check the flight of fancy: a
+single hillock, scoured by the rains of centuries, marks the spot where
+the temple of Bel stood erect in its splendour; another represents the
+hanging gardens, while the ridges running to the right and left were
+once the ramparts.
+
+[Illustration: 029.jpg THE RUINS OF BABYLON]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a drawing reproduced in Hofer. It
+     shows the state of the ruins in the first half of our
+     century, before the excavations carried out at European
+     instigation.
+
+The vestiges of a few buildings remain above the mounds of rubble,
+and as soon as the pickaxe is applied to any spot, irregular layers of
+bricks, enamelled tiles, and inscribed tablets are brought to light--in
+fine, all those numberless objects which bear witness to the presence
+of man and to his long sojourn on the spot. But these vestiges are so
+mutilated and disfigured that the principal outlines of the buildings
+cannot be determined with any certainty, and afford us no data for
+guessing their dimensions. He who would attempt to restore the ancient
+appearance of the place would find at his disposal nothing but vague
+indications, from which he might draw almost any conclusion he pleased.
+
+[Illustration: 030.jpg PLAN OF THE RUINS OF BABYLON]
+
+     Prepared by Thuillier, from a plan reproduced in G.
+     Rawlinson, _Herodotus_
+
+Palaces and temples would take a shape in his imagination on a plan
+which never entered the architect’s mind; the sacred towers as they rose
+would be disposed in more numerous stages than they actually possessed;
+the enclosing walls would reach such an elevation that they must have
+quickly fallen under their own weight if they had ever been carried
+so high: the whole restoration, accomplished without any certain data,
+embodies the concept of something vast and superhuman, well befitting
+the city of blood and tears, cursed by the Hebrew prophets. Babylon was,
+however, at the outset, but a poor town, situated on both banks of the
+Euphrates, in a low-lying, flat district, intersected by canals and
+liable at times to become marshy. The river at this point runs almost
+directly north and south, between two banks of black mud, the base of
+which it is perpetually undermining. As long as the city existed, the
+vertical thrust of the public buildings and houses kept the river within
+bounds, and even since it was finally abandoned, the masses of _debris_
+have almost everywhere had the effect of resisting its encroachment;
+towards the north, however, the line of its ancient quays has given
+way and sunk beneath the waters, while the stream, turning its course
+westwards, has transferred to the eastern bank the gardens and mounds
+originally on the opposite side. E-sagilla, the temple of the lofty
+summit, the sanctuary of Merodach, probably occupied the vacant space in
+the depression between the Babil and the hill of the Kasr.*
+
+     * The temple of Merodach, called by the Greeks the temple of
+     Belos, has been placed on the site called Babîl by the two
+     Rawlinsons; and by Oppert; Hormuzd Rassam and Fr. Delitzsch
+     locate it between the hill of Junjuma and the Kasr, and
+     considers Babîl to be a palace of Nebuchadrezzar.
+
+In early times it must have presented much the same appearance as
+the sanctuaries of Central Chaldæa: a mound of crude brick formed the
+substructure of the dwellings of the priests and the household of the
+god, of the shops for the offerings and for provisions, of the treasury,
+and of the apartments for purification or for sacrifice, while the whole
+was surmounted by a ziggurât. On other neighbouring platforms rose the
+royal palace and the temples of lesser divinities,* elevated above the
+crowd of private habitations.
+
+     * As, for instance, the temple E-temenanki on the actual
+     hill of Amrân-ibn-Ali, the temple of Shamash, and others,
+     which there will be occasion to mention later on in dealing
+     with the second Chaldæan empire.
+
+[Illustration: 032.jpg THE KASK SEEN FROM THE SOUTH]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from the engraving by Thomas in Perrot-
+     Chipiez.
+
+The houses of the people were closely built around these stately piles,
+on either side of narrow lanes. A massive wall surrounded the whole,
+shutting out the view on all sides; it even ran along the bank of the
+Euphrates, for fear of a surprise from that quarter, and excluded the
+inhabitants from the sight of their own river. On the right bank rose
+a suburb, which was promptly fortified and enlarged, so as to become a
+second Babylon, almost equalling the first in extent and population.
+
+[Illustration: 033.jpg THE TELL OF BORSIPPA, THE PRESENT BIRS-NIMRUD]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after the plate published in
+     Ohesney.
+
+Beyond this, on the outskirts, extended gardens and fields, finding at
+length their limit at the territorial boundaries of two other towns,
+Kutha and Borsippa, whose black outlines are visible to the east and
+south-west respectively, standing isolated above the plain. Sippara on
+the north, Nippur on the south, and the mysterious Agadê, completed the
+circle of sovereign states which so closely hemmed in the city of Bel.
+We may surmise with all probability that the history of Babylon in early
+times resembled in the main that of the Egyptian Thebes. It was a small
+seigneury in the hands of petty princes ceaselessly at war with petty
+neighbours: bloody struggles, with alternating successes and reverses,
+were carried on for centuries with no decisive results, until the day
+came when some more energetic or fortunate dynasty at length crushed its
+rivals, and united under one rule first all the kingdoms of Northern and
+finally those of Southern Chaldæa.
+
+The lords of Babylon had, ordinarily, a twofold function, religious
+and military, the priest at first taking precedence of the soldier, but
+gradually yielding to the latter as the town increased in power.
+They were merely the priestly representatives or administrators of
+Babel--_shakannaku Babili_--and their authority was not considered
+legitimate until officially confirmed by the god. Each ruler was obliged
+to go in state to the temple of Bel Merodach within a year of his
+accession: there he had to take the hands of the divine statue, just
+as a vassal would do homage to his liege, and those only of the native
+sovereigns or the foreign conquerors could legally call themselves Kings
+of Babylon--_sharru Babili_--who had not only performed this rite, but
+renewed it annually.*
+
+     * The meaning of the ceremony in which the kings of Babylon
+     “took the hands of Bel” has been given by Winckler; Tiele
+     compares it very aptly with the rite performed by the
+     Egyptian kings--at Heliopolis, for example, when they
+     entered alone the sanctuary of Râ, and there contemplated
+     the god face to face. The rite was probably repeated
+     annually, at the time of the Zakmuku, that is, the New Year
+     festival.
+
+Sargon the Elder had lived in Babylon, and had built himself a palace
+there: hence the tradition of later times attributed to this city the
+glory of having been the capital of the great empire founded by the
+Akkadian dynasties. The actual sway of Babylon, though arrested to the
+south by the petty states of Lower Chaldæa, had not encountered to the
+north or north-west any enemy to menace seriously its progress in that
+semi-fabulous period of its history. The vast plain extending between
+the Euphrates and the Tigris is as it were a continuation of the
+Arabian desert, and is composed of a grey, or in parts a whitish, soil
+impregnated with selenite and common salt, and irregularly superimposed
+upon a bed of gypsum, from which asphalt oozes up here and there,
+forming slimy pits. Frost is of rare occurrence in winter, and rain is
+infrequent at any season; the sun soon burns up the scanty herbage
+which the spring showers have encouraged, but fleshy plants successfully
+resist its heat, such as the common salsola, the salsola soda, the
+pallasia, a small mimosa, and a species of very fragrant wormwood,
+forming together a vari-coloured vegetation which gives shelter to
+the ostrich and the wild ass, and affords the flocks of the nomads a
+grateful pasturage when the autumn has set in. The Euphrates bounds
+these solitudes, but without watering them. The river flows, as far as
+the eye can see, between two ranges of rock or bare hills, at the foot
+of which a narrow strip of alluvial soil supports rows of date-palms
+intermingled here and there with poplars, sumachs, and willows. Wherever
+there is a break in the two cliffs, or where they recede from the river,
+a series of shadufs takes possession of the bank, and every inch of the
+soil is brought under cultivation. The aspect of the country remains
+unchanged as far as the embouchure of the Khabur; but there a black
+alluvial soil replaces the saliferous clay, and if only the water were
+to remain on the land in sufficient quantity, the country would be
+unrivalled in the world for the abundance and variety of its crops.
+
+[Illustration: 036.jpg THE BANKS OF THE EUPHRATES AT ZULEIBEH]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from the plate in Chesney.
+
+The fields, which are regularly sown in the neighbourhood of the small
+towns, yield magnificent harvests of wheat and barley: while in the
+prairie-land beyond the cultivated ground the grass grows so high that
+it comes up to the horses’ girths. In some places the meadows are so
+covered with varieties of flowers, growing in dense masses, that the
+effect produced is that of a variegated carpet; dogs sent in among them
+in search of game, emerge covered with red, blue, and yellow pollen.
+This fragrant prairie-land is the delight of bees, which produce
+excellent and abundant honey, while the vine and olive find there a
+congenial soil. The population was unequally distributed in this region.
+Some half-savage tribes were accustomed to wander over the plain,
+dwelling in tents, and supporting life by the chase and by the rearing
+of cattle; but the bulk of the inhabitants were concentrated around the
+affluents of the Euphrates and Tigris, or at the foot of the northern
+mountains wherever springs could be found, as in Assur, Singar, Nisibis,
+Tilli,* Kharranu, and in all the small fortified towns and nameless
+townlets whose ruins are scattered over the tract of country between the
+Khabur and the Balikh. Kharranu, or Harran, stood, like an advance guard
+of Chaldæan civilization, near the frontiers of Syria and Asia Minor.**
+To the north it commanded the passes which opened on to the basins of
+the Upper Euphrates and Tigris; it protected the roads leading to the
+east and south-east in the direction of the table-land of Iran and the
+Persian Gulf, and it was the key to the route by which the commerce of
+Babylon reached the countries lying around the Mediterranean. We have no
+means of knowing what affinities as regards origin or race connected
+it with Uru, but the same moon-god presided over the destinies of both
+towns, and the Sin of Harran enjoyed in very early times a renown nearly
+equal to that of his namesake.
+
+     * Tilli, the only one of these towns mentioned with any
+     certainty in the inscriptions of the first Chaldæan empire,
+     is the Tela of classical authors, and probably the present
+     Werânshaher, near the sources of the Balikh.
+
+     ** Kharranu was identified by the earlier Assyriologists
+     with the Harran of the Hebrews (_Gen._ v. 12), the Carrhse
+     of classical authors, and this identification is still
+     generally accepted.
+
+He was worshipped under the symbol of a conical stone, probably an
+aerolite, surmounted by a gilded crescent, and the ground-plan of the
+town roughly described a crescent-shaped curve in honour of its patron.
+His cult, even down to late times, was connected with cruel practices;
+generations after the advent to power of the Abbasside caliphs, his
+faithful worshippers continued to sacrifice to him human victims, whose
+heads, prepared according to the ancient rite, were accustomed to give
+oracular responses.* The government of the surrounding country was
+in the hands of princes who were merely vicegerents:** Chaldæan
+civilization before the beginnings of history had more or less laid hold
+of them, and made them willing subjects to the kings of Babylon.***
+
+     * Without seeking to specify exactly which were the
+     doctrines introduced into Harranian religion subsequently to
+     the Christian era, we may yet affirm that the base of this
+     system of faith was merely a very distorted form of the
+     ancient Chaldæan worship practised in the town.
+
+     ** Only one vicegerent of Mesopotamia is known at present,
+     and he belongs to the Assyrian epoch. His seal is preserved
+     in the British Museum.
+
+     *** The importance of Harran in the development of the
+     history of the first Chaldæan empire was pointed out by
+     Winckler; but the theory according to which this town was
+     the capital of the kingdom, called by the Chaldæan and
+     Assyrian scribes “the kingdom of the world,” is justly
+     combated by Tiele.
+
+These sovereigns were probably at the outset somewhat obscure
+personages, without much prestige, being sometimes independent and
+sometimes subject to the rulers of neighbouring states, among others to
+those of Agadê. In later times, when Babylon had attained to universal
+power, and it was desired to furnish her kings with a continuous
+history, the names of these earlier rulers were sought out, and added
+to those of such foreign princes as had from time to time enjoyed the
+sovereignty over them--thus forming an interminable list which for
+materials and authenticity would well compare with that of the Thinite
+Pharaohs. This list has come down to us incomplete, and its remains do
+not permit of our determining the exact order of reigns, or the status
+of the individuals who composed it. We find in it, in the period
+immediately subsequent to the Deluge, mention of mythical heroes,
+followed by names which are still semi-legendary, such as Sargon the
+Elder; the princes of the series were, however, for the most part
+real beings, whose memories had been preserved by tradition, or whose
+monuments were still existing in certain localities. Towards the end of
+the XXVth century before our era, however, a dynasty rose into power of
+which all the members come within the range of history.*
+
+     * This dynasty, which is known to us in its entirety by the
+     two lists of G. Smith and by Pinches, was legitimately
+     composed of only eleven kings, and was known as the
+     Babylonian dynasty, although Sayce suspects it to be of
+     Arabian origin. It is composed as follows:--
+
+[Illustration: 039.jpg TABLE]
+
+The dates of this dynasty are not fixed with entire certainty. The first
+of them, Sumuabîm, has left us some contracts bearing the dates of one
+or other of the fifteen years of his reign, and documents of public or
+private interest abound in proportion as we follow down the line of his
+successors. Sumulaîlu, who reigned after him, was only distantly related
+to his predecessor; but from Sumulaîlu to Sam-shusatana the kingly power
+was transmitted from father to son without a break for nine generations,
+if we may credit the testimony of the official lists.*
+
+     * Simulaîlu, also written Samu-la-ilu, whom Mr. Pinches has
+     found in a contract tablet associated with Pungunila as
+     king, was not the son of Sumuabîm, since the lists do not
+     mention him as such; he must, however, have been connected
+     with some sort of relationship, or by marriage, with his
+     predecessor, since both are placed in the same dynasty. A
+     few contracts of Sumulaîlu are given by Meissner. Samsuiluna
+     calls him “my forefather (d-gula-mu), the fifth king before
+     me.”
+
+     Hommel believes that the order of the dynasties has been
+     reversed, and that the first upon the lists we possess was
+     historically the second; he thus places the Babylonian
+     dynasty between 2035 and 1731 B.C. His opinion has not been
+     generally adopted, but every Assyriologist dealing with this
+     period proposes a different date for the reigns in this
+     dynasty; to take only one characteristic example, Khammurabi
+     is placed by Oppert in the year 2394-2339, by Delitzsch-
+     Murdter in 2287-2232, by Winckler in 2264-2210, and by
+     Peiser in 2139-2084, and by Carl Niebuhr in 2081-2026.
+
+
+Contemporary records, however, prove that the course of affairs did
+not always run so smoothly. They betray the existence of at least
+one usurper--Immêru--who, even if he did not assume the royal titles,
+enjoyed the supreme power for several years between the reigns of Zabu
+and Abilsin. The lives of these rulers closely resembled those of their
+contemporaries of Southern Chaldæa. They dredged the ancient canals, or
+constructed new ones; they restored the walls of their fortresses, or
+built fresh strongholds on the frontier;* they religiously kept the
+festivals of the divinities belonging to their terrestrial domain, to
+whom they annually rendered solemn homage.
+
+     * Sumulaîlu had built six such large strongholds of brick,
+     which were repaired by Samsuiluna five generations later. A
+     contract of Sinmuballit is dated the year in which he built
+     the great wall of a strong place, the name of which is
+     unfortunately illegible on the fragment which we possess.
+
+They repaired the temples as a matter of course, and enriched them
+according to their means; we even know that Zabu, the third in order
+of the line of sovereigns, occupied himself in building the sanctuary
+Eulbar of Anunit, in Sippara. There is evidence that they possessed the
+small neighbouring kingdoms of Kishu, Sippara, and Kuta, and that they
+had consolidated them into a single state, of which Babylon was the
+capital. To the south their possessions touched upon those of the kings
+of Uru, but the frontier was constantly shifting, so that at one time an
+important city such as Nippur belonged to them, while at another it fell
+under the dominion of the southern provinces. Perpetual war was waged
+in the narrow borderland which separated the two rival states, resulting
+apparently in the balance of power being kept tolerably equal between
+them under the immediate successors of Sumuabîm* --the obscure Sumulaîlu,
+Zabum, the usurper Immeru, Abîlsin and Sinmuballit--until the reign of
+Khammurabi (the son of Sinmuballit), who finally made it incline to
+his side.** The struggle in which he was engaged, and which, after many
+vicissitudes, he brought to a successful issue, was the more decisive,
+since he had to contend against a skilful and energetic adversary who
+had considerable forces at his disposal. Birnsin*** was, in reality, of
+Elamite race, and as he held the province of Yamutbal in appanage, he
+was enabled to muster, in addition to his Chaldæan battalions, the army
+of foreigners who had conquered the maritime regions at the mouth of the
+Tigris and the Euphrates.
+
+     * None of these facts are as yet historically proved: we
+     may, however, conjecture with some probability what was the
+     general state of things, when we remember that the first
+     kings of Babylon were contemporaries of the last independent
+     sovereigns of Southern Chaldæa.
+
+     ** The name of this prince has been read in several ways--
+     Hammurabi, Khammurabi, by the earlier Assyriologists,
+     subsequently Hammuragash, Khammuragash, as being of Elamite
+     or Cossoan extraction: the reading Khammurabi is at present
+     the prevailing one. The bilingual list published by Pinches
+     makes Khammurabi an equivalent of the Semitic names Kimta-
+     rapashtum. Hence Halévy concluded that Khammurabi was a
+     series of ideograms, and that Kimtarapashtum was the true
+     reading of the name; his proposal, partially admitted by
+     Hommel, furnishes us with a mixed reading of Khammurapaltu,
+     Amraphel. [Hommel is now convinced of the identity of the
+     Amraphel of _Gen._ xiv. I with Khammurabi.--Te.] Sayce,
+     moreover, adopts the reading Khammurabi, and assigns to him
+     an Arabian origin. The part played by this prince was
+     pointed out at an early date by Menant. Recent discoveries
+     have shown the important share which he had in developing
+     the Chaldæan empire, and have, increased his reputation with
+     Assyriologists.
+
+     *** The name of this king has been the theme of heated
+     discussions: it was at first pronounced Aradsin, Ardusin, or
+     Zikarsin; it is now read in several different ways--Rimsin,
+     or Eriaku, Riaku, Rimagu. Others have made a distinction
+     between the two forms, and have made out of them the names
+     of two different kings. They are all variants of the same
+     name. I have adopted the form Rimsin, which is preferred by
+     a few Assyriologists. [The tablets recently discovered by
+     Mr. Pinches, referring to Kudur-lagamar and Tudkhula, which
+     he has published in a Paper road before the Victoria
+     Institute, Jan. 20, 1896, have shown that the true reading
+     is Eri-Aku. The Elamite name Eri-Aku, “servant of the moon-
+     god,” was changed by some of his subjects into the
+     Babylonian Rim-Sin, “Have mercy, O Moon-god!” just as
+     Abêsukh, the Hebrew Absihu’a (“the father of welfare”) was
+     transformed into the Babylonian Ebisum (“the actor”).--Ed.]
+
+
+It was not the first time that Elam had audaciously interfered in
+the affairs of her neighbours. In fabulous times, one of her mythical
+kings--Khumbaba the Ferocious--had oppressed. Uruk, and Gilgames with
+all his valour was barely able to deliver the town. Sargon the Elder is
+credited with having subdued Elam; the kings and vicegerents of Lagash,
+as well as those of Uru and. Larsam, had measured forces with Anshan,
+but with no decisive issue. From time to time they obtained an
+advantage, and we find recorded in the annals victories gained by Gudea,
+Inê-sin, or Bursin, but to be followed only by fresh reverses; at the
+close of such campaigns, and in order to seal the ensuing peace, à
+princess of Susa would be sent as a bride to one of the Chaldæan cities,
+or a Chaldæan lady of royal birth would enter the harem of a king of
+Anshân. Elam was protected along the course of the Tigris and on the
+shores of the Nâr-Marratum by a wide marshy region, impassable except
+at a few fixed and easily defended places. The alluvial plain extending
+behind the marshes was as rich and fertile as that of Chaldæa. Wheat and
+barley ordinarily yielded an hundred and at times two hundredfold; the
+towns were surrounded by a shadeless belt of palms; the almond, fig,
+acacia, poplar, and willow extended in narrow belts along the rivers’
+edge. The climate closely resembles that of Chaldaja: if the midday heat
+in summer is more pitiless, it is at least tempered by more frequent
+east winds. The ground, however, soon begins to rise, ascending
+gradually towards the north-east. The distant and uniform line of
+mountain-peaks grows loftier on the approach of the traveller, and the
+hills begin to appear one behind another, clothed halfway up with thick
+forests, but bare on their summits, or scantily covered with meagre
+vegetation. They comprise, in fact, six or seven parallel ranges,
+resembling natural ramparts piled up between the country of the Tigris
+and the table-land of Iran. The intervening valleys were formerly lakes,
+having had for the most part no communication with each other and no
+outlet into the sea. In the course of centuries they had dried up,
+leaving a thick deposit of mud in the hollows of their ancient beds,
+from which sprang luxurious and abundant harvests. The rivers--the
+Uknu,* the Ididi,** and the Ulaî***--which water this region are, on
+reaching more level ground, connected by canals, and are constantly
+shifting their beds in the light soil of the Susian plain: they soon
+attain a width equal to that of the Euphrates, but after a short time
+lose half their volume in swamps, and empty themselves at the present
+day into the Shatt-el-Arab. They flowed formerly into that part of the
+Persian Gulf which extended as far as Kornah, and the sea thus formed
+the southern frontier of the kingdom.
+
+     * The Uknu is the Kerkhah of the present day, the Choaspes
+     of the Greeks.
+
+     ** The Ididi was at first identified with the ancient
+     Pasitigris, which scholars then desired to distinguish from
+     the Eulseos: it is now known to be the arm of the Karun
+     which runs to Dizful, the Koprates of classical times, which
+     has sometimes been confounded with the Eulaws.
+
+     *** The Ulaî, mentioned in the Hebrew texts (Ban. viii. 2,
+     16), the Euloos of classical writers, also called
+     Pasitigris. It is the Karun of the present day, until its
+     confluence with the Shaûr, and subsequently the Shaûr
+     itself, which waters the foot of the Susian hills.
+
+From earliest times this country was inhabited by three distinct
+peoples, whose descendants may still be distinguished at the present
+day, and although they have dwindled in numbers and become mixed with
+elements of more recent origin, the resemblance to their forefathers
+is still very remarkable. There were, in the first place, the short
+and robust people of well-knit figure, with brown skins, black hair and
+eyes, who belonged to that negritic race which inhabited a considerable
+part of Asia in prehistoric times.*
+
+     * The connection of the negroid type of Susians with the
+     negritic races of India and Oceania, has been proved, in the
+     course of M. Dieulafoy’s expedition to the Susian plains and
+     the ancient provinces of Elam.
+
+[Illustration: 045.jpg MAP OF CHALDÆA AND ELAM.]
+
+[Illustration: 046.jpg AN ANCIENT SUSIAN OF NEGRETIC RACE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bas-relief of Sargon II. in
+     the Louvre.
+
+These prevailed in the lowlands and the valleys, where the warm, damp
+climate favoured their development; but they also spread into the
+mountain region, and had pushed their outposts as far as the first
+slopes of the Iranian table-land. They there contact with white-skinned
+of medium height, who were probably allied to the nations of Northern
+and Central Asia--to the Scythians,* for instance, if it is permissible
+to use a vague term employed by the Ancients.
+
+     * This last-mentioned people is, by some authors, for
+     reasons which, so far, can hardly be considered conclusive,
+     connected with the so-called Sumerian race, which we find
+     settled in Chaldæa. They are said to have been the first to
+     employ horses and chariots in warfare.
+
+[Illustration: 047.jpg NATIVE OF MIXED NEGRITIC RACE FROM SUSIANA]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph furnished by
+     Marcel Dieulafoy.
+
+
+Semites of the same stock as those of Chaldæa pushed forward as far as
+the east bank of the Tigris, and settling mainly among the marshes led a
+precarious life by fishing and pillaging.* The country of the plain
+was called Anzân, or Anshân,** and the mountain region Numma, or Ilamma,
+“the high lands:” these two names were subsequently used to denote the
+whole country, and Ilamma has survived in the Hebrew word Elam.*** Susa,
+the most important and flourishing town in the kingdom, was situated
+between the Ulaî and the Ididi, some twenty-five or thirty miles from
+the nearest of the mountain ranges.
+
+     * From the earliest times we meet beyond the Tigris with
+     names like that of Durilu, a fact which proves the existence
+     of races speaking a Semitic dialect in the countries under
+     the suzerainty of the King of Elam: in the last days of the
+     Chaldæan empire they had assumed such importance that the
+     Hebrews made out Elam to be one of the sons of Shem (_Gen._
+     x. 22).
+
+     ** Anzân, Anshân, and, by assimilation of the nasal with the
+     sibilant, Ashshân. This name has already been mentioned in
+     the inscriptions of the kings and vicegerents of Lagash and
+     in the _Book of Prophecies_ of the ancient Chaldæan
+     astronomers; it also occurs in the royal preamble of Cyrus
+     and his ancestors, who like him were styled “kings of
+     Anshân.” It had been applied to the whole country of Elam,
+     and afterwards to Persia. Some are of opinion that it was
+     the name of a part of Elam, viz. that inhabited by the
+     Turanian Medes who spoke the second language of the
+     Achæmenian inscriptions, the eastern half, bounded by the
+     Tigris and the Persian Gulf, consisting of a flat and swampy
+     land. These differences of opinion gave rise to a heated
+     controversy; it is now, however, pretty generally admitted
+     that Anzân-Anshân was really the plain of Elam, from the
+     mountains to the sea, and one set of authorities affirms
+     that the word Anzân may have meant “plain” in the language
+     of the country, while others hesitate as yet to pronounce
+     definitely on this point.
+
+     *** The meaning of “Nunima,” “Ilamma,” “Ilamtu,” in the
+     group of words used to indicate Elam, had been recognised
+     even by the earliest Assyriologists; the name originally
+     referred to the hilly country on the north and east of Susa.
+     To the Hebrews, Elam was one of the sons of Shem (Gen. x.
+     22). The Greek form of the name is Elymais, and some of the
+     classical geographers were well enough acquainted with the
+     meaning of the word to be able to distinguish the region to
+     which it referred from Susiana proper.
+
+[Illustration: 048.jpg THE TUMULUS OF SUSA, AS IT APPEARED TOWARDS THE
+MIDDLE OF THE XIXth CENTURY]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after a plate in Chesney.
+
+Its fortress and palace were raised upon the slopes of a mound which
+overlooked the surrounding country:* at its base, to the eastward,
+stretched the town, with its houses of sun-dried bricks.**
+
+     * Susa, in the language of the country, was called Shushun;
+     this name was transliterated into Chaldæo-Assyrian, by
+     Shushan, Shushi.
+
+     ** Strabo tells us, on the authority of Polycletus, that the
+     town had no walls in the time of Alexander, and extended
+     over a space two hundred stadia in length; in the
+     VIII century B.C. it was enclosed by walls with bastions,
+     which are shown on a bas-relief of Assurbanipal, but it was
+     surrounded by unfortified suburbs.
+
+Further up the course of the Uknu, lay the following cities: Madaktu,
+the Badaca of classical authors,* rivalling Susa in strength and
+importance; Naditu,** Til-Khumba,*** Dur-Undash,**** Khaidalu.^--all
+large walled towns, most of which assumed the title of royal cities.
+Elam in reality constituted a kind of feudal empire, composed of several
+tribes--the Habardip, the Khushshi, the Umliyash, the people of Yamutbal
+and of Yatbur^^--all independent of each other, but often united under
+the authority of one sovereign, who as a rule chose Susa as the seat of
+government.
+
+     * Madaktu, Mataktu, the Badaka of Diodorus, situated on the
+     Eulaaos, between Susa and Ecbatana, has been placed by
+     Rawlinson near the bifurcation of the Kerkhah, either at
+     Paipul or near Aiwân-i-Kherkah, where there are some rather
+     important and ancient ruins; Billerbeck prefers to put it at
+     the mouth of the valley of Zal-fer, on the site at present
+     occupied by the citadel of Kala-i-Riza.
+
+     ** Naditu is identified by Finzi with the village of
+     Natanzah, near Ispahan; it ought rather to be looked for in
+     the neighbourhood of Sarna.
+
+     *** Til-Khumba, the Mound of Khumba, so named after one of
+     the principal Elamite gods, was, perhaps, situated among the
+     ruins of Budbar, towards the confluence of the Ab-i-Kirind
+     and Kerkhah, or possibly higher up in the mountain, in the
+     vicinity of Asmanabad.
+
+     **** Dur-Undash, Dur-Undasi, has been identified, without
+     absolutely conclusive reason, with the fortress of Kala-i-
+     Dis on the Disful-Rud.
+
+     ^ Khaidalu, Khidalu, is perhaps the present fortress of Dis-
+     Malkan.
+
+     ^^ The countries of Yatbur and Yamutbal extended into the
+     plain between the marshes of the Tigris and the mountain;
+     the town of Durilu was near the Yamutbal region, if not in
+     that country itself. Umliyash lay between the Uknu and the
+     Tigris.
+
+[Illustration: 050.jpg Page Image]
+
+The language is not represented by any idioms now spoken, and its
+affinities with the Sumerian which some writers have attempted to
+establish, are too uncertain to make it safe to base any theory upon
+them.*
+
+     * A great part of the Susian inscriptions have been
+     collected by Fr. Lenormant. An attempt has been made to
+     identify the language in which they are written with the
+     Sumero-accadian, and authorities now generally agree in
+     considering the Arcæmenian inscriptions of the second type
+     as representative of its modern form. Hommel connects it
+     with Georgian, and includes it in a great linguistic family,
+     which comprises, besides these two idioms, the Hittite, the
+     Cappadocian, the Armenian of the Van inscriptions, and the
+     Cosstean. Oppert claims to have discovered on a tablet in
+     the British Museum a list of words belonging to one of the
+     idioms (probably Semitic) of Susiana, which differs alike
+     from the Suso-Medic and the Assyrian.
+
+The little that we know of Elamite religion reveals to us a mysterious
+world, full of strange names and vague forms. Over their hierarchy
+there presided a deity who was called Shushinak (the Susian), Dimesh or
+Samesh, Dagbag, As-siga, Adaene, and possibly Khumba and Æmmân, whom
+the Chaldæns identified with their god Ninip; his statue was concealed
+in a sanctuary inaccessible to the profane, but it was dragged from
+thence by Assurbanipal of Nineveh in the VIIth century B.C.* This deity
+was associated with six others of the first rank, who were divided into
+two triads--Shumudu, Lagamaru, Partikira; Ammankasibar, Uduran, and
+Sapak: of these names, the least repellent, Ammankasibar, may possibly
+be the Memnon of the Greeks. The dwelling of these divinities was near
+Susa, in the depths of a sacred forest to which the priests and kings
+alone had access: their images were brought out on certain days to
+receive solemn homage, and were afterwards carried back to their shrine
+accompanied by a devout and reverent multitude. These deities received
+a tenth of the spoil after any successful campaign--the offerings
+comprising statues of the enemies’ gods, valuable vases, ingots of
+gold and silver, furniture, and stuffs. The Elamite armies were well
+organized, and under a skilful general became irresistible. In other
+respects the Elamites closely resembled the Chaldæans, pursuing the same
+industries and having the same agricultural and commercial instincts. In
+the absence of any bas-reliefs and inscriptions peculiar to this people,
+we may glean from the monuments of Lagash and Babylon a fair idea of the
+extent of their civilization in its earliest stages.
+
+     * _Shushinak_ is an adjective derived from the name of the
+     town of Susa. The real name of the god was probably kept
+     secret and rarely uttered. The names which appear by the
+     side of Shushinak in the text published by H. Rawlinson, as
+     equivalents of the Babylonian Ninip, perhaps represent
+     different deities; we may well ask whether the deity may not
+     be the Khumba, Umma, Ummân, who recurs so frequently in the
+     names of men and places, and who has hitherto never been met
+     with alone in any formula or dedicatory tablet.
+
+The cities of the Euphrates, therefore, could have been sensible of but
+little change, when the chances of war transferred them from the rule of
+their native princes to that of an Elamite. The struggle once over, and
+the resulting evils repaired as far as practicable, the people of these
+towns resumed their usual ways, hardly conscious of the presence of
+their foreign ruler. The victors, for their part, became assimilated so
+rapidly with the vanquished, that at the close of a generation or so
+the conquering dynasty was regarded legitimate and national one, loyally
+attached to the traditions and religion of its adopted country. In the
+year 2285 B.C., towards the close of the reign of Nurrammân, or in
+the earlier part of that of Siniddinam, a King of Elam, by name
+Kudur-nakhunta, triumphantly marched through Chaldæa from end to end,
+devastating the country and sparing neither town nor temple: Uruk lost
+its statue of Nana, which was carried off as a trophy and placed in the
+sanctuary of Susa. The inhabitants long mourned the detention of their
+goddess, and a hymn of lamentation, probably composed for the occasion
+by one of their priests, kept the remembrance of the disaster fresh in
+their memories. “Until when, oh lady, shall the impious enemy ravage the
+country!--In thy queen-city, Uruk, the destruction is accomplished,--in
+Eulbar, the temple of thy oracle, blood has flowed like water,--upon the
+whole of thy lands has he poured out flame, and it is spread abroad like
+smoke.--Oh, lady, verily it is hard for me to bend under the yoke of
+misfortune!--? Oh, lady, thou hast wrapped me about, thou hast plunged
+me, in sorrow!--The impious mighty one has broken me in pieces like a
+reèd,--and I know not what to resolve, I trust not in myself,--like a
+bed of reeds I sigh day and night!--I, thy servant, I bow myself before
+thee!” It would appear that the whole of Chaldæa, including Babylon
+itself, was forced to acknowledge the supremacy of the invader;* a
+Susian empire thus absorbed Chaldæa, reducing its states to feudal
+provinces, and its princes to humble vassals. Kudur-nakhunta having
+departed, the people of Larsa exerted themselves to the utmost to repair
+the harm that he had done, and they succeeded but too well, since their
+very prosperity was the cause only a short time after of the outburst
+of another storm. Siniddinam, perhaps, desired to shake off the Elamite
+yoke. Simtishilkhak, one of the successors of Kudur-nakhunta, had
+conceded the principality of Yamutbal as a fief to Kudur-mabug, one
+of his sons. Kudur-mabug appears to have been a conqueror of no mean
+ability, for he claims, in his inscriptions, the possession of the whole
+of Syria.**
+
+     * The submission of Babylon is evident from the title Adda
+     Martu, “sovereign of the West,” assumed by several of the
+     Elamite princes (of. p. 65 of the present work): in order to
+     extend his authority beyond the Euphrates, it was necessary
+     for the King of Elam to be first of all master of Babylon.
+     In the early days of Assyriology it was supposed that this
+     period of Elamite supremacy coincided with the Median
+     dynasty of Berosus.
+
+     ** His preamble contains the titles _adda Martu,_ “prince of
+     Syria;” _adda lamutbal_, “prince of Yamutbal.” The word
+     _adda_ seems properly to mean “lather,” and the literal
+     translation of the full title would probably be “father of
+     Syria,” “_father_ of Yamutbal,” whence the secondary
+     meanings “master, lord, prince,” which have been
+     provisionally accepted by most Assyriologists. Tiele, and
+     Winckler after him, have suggested that Martu is here
+     equivalent to Yamutbal, and that it was merely used to
+     indicate the western part of Elam; Winckler afterwards
+     rejected this hypothesis, and has come round to the general
+     opinion.
+
+He obtained a victory over Siniddinam, and having dethroned him, placed
+the administration of the kingdom in the hands of his own son Eimsin.
+This prince, who was at first a feudatory, afterwards associated in the
+government with his father, and finally sole monarch after the
+latter’s death, married a princess of Chaldæan blood, and by this means
+legitimatized his usurpation in the eyes of his subjects. His domain,
+which lay on both sides of the Tigris and of the Euphrates, comprised,
+besides the principality of Yamutbal, all the towns dependent on Sumer
+and Accad--Uru, Larsa, Uruk, and Nippur, He acquitted himself as a good
+sovereign in the sight of gods and men: he repaired the brickwork in the
+temple of Nannar at Uru; he embellished the temple of Shamash at Larsa,
+and caused two statues of copper to be cast in honour of the god; he
+also rebuilt Lagash and Grirsu. The city of Uruk had been left a heap of
+ruins after the withdrawal of Kudur-nakhunta: he set about the work of
+restoration, constructed a sanctuary to Papsukal, raised the ziggurât of
+Nana, and consecrated to the goddess an entire set of temple furniture
+to replace that carried off by the Elamites. He won the adhesion of the
+priests by piously augmenting their revenues, and throughout his reign
+displayed remarkable energy. Documents exist which attribute to him the
+reduction of Durilu, on the borders of Elam and the Chaldæan states;
+others contain discreet allusions to a perverse enemy who disturbed
+his peace in the north, and whom he successfully repulsed. He drove
+Sinmuballit out of Ishin, and this victory so forcibly impressed
+his contemporaries, that they made it the starting-point of a new
+semi-official era; twenty-eight years after the event, private contracts
+still continued to be dated by reference to the taking of Ishin.
+Sinmuballit’s son, Khammurabi, was more fortunate. Eimsin vainly
+appealed for help against him to his relative and suzerain
+Kudur-lagamar, who had succeeded Simtishilkhak at Susa. Eimsin was
+defeated, and disappeared from the scene of action, leaving no trace
+behind him, though we may infer that he took refuge in his fief of
+Yamutbal. The conquest by Khammurabi was by no means achieved at one
+blow, the enemy offering an obstinate resistance. He was forced to
+destroy several fortresses, the inhabitants of which had either risen
+against him or had refused to do him homage, among them being those
+of Meîr* and Malgu. When the last revolt had been put down, all the
+countries speaking the language of Chaldæa and sharing its civilization
+were finally united into a single kingdom, of which Khammurabi
+proclaimed himself the head. Other princes who had preceded him had
+enjoyed the same opportunities, but their efforts had never been
+successful in establishing an empire of any duration; the various
+elements had been bound together for a moment, merely to be dispersed
+again after a short interval. The work of Khammurabi, on the contrary,
+was placed on a solid foundation, and remained unimpaired under his
+successors. Not only did he hold sway without a rival in the south as
+in the north, but the titles indicating the rights he had acquired over
+Sumer and Accad were inserted in his Protocol after those denoting his
+hereditary possessions,--the city of Bel and the four houses of the
+world. Khammurabi’s victory marks the close of those long centuries of
+gradual evolution during which the peoples of the Lower Euphrates passed
+from division to unity. Before his reign there had been as many states
+as cities, and as many dynasties as there were states; after him there
+was but one kingdom under one line of kings.
+
+     * Maîru, Meîr, has been identified with Shurippak; but it
+     is, rather, the town of Mar, now Tell-Id. A and Lagamal, the
+     Elamite Lagamar, were worshipped there. It was the seat of a
+     linen manufacture, and possessed large shipping.
+
+Khammurabi’s long reign of fifty-five years has hitherto yielded us but
+a small number of monuments--seals, heads of sceptres, alabaster vases,
+and pompous inscriptions, scarcely any of them being of historical
+interest. He was famous for the number of his campaigns, no details of
+which, however, have come to light, but the dedication of one of his
+statues celebrates his good fortune on the battlefield. “Bel has lent
+thee sovereign majesty: thou, what awaitest thou?--Sin has lent thee
+royalty: thou, what awaitest thou?--Ninip has lent thee his supreme
+weapon: thou, what awaitest thou?--The goddess of light, Ishtar,
+has lent thee the shock of arms and the fray: thou, what awaitest
+thou?--Shamash and Bamman are thy varlets: thou, what awaitest thou?--It
+is Khammurabi, the king, the powerful chieftain--who cuts the enemies
+in pieces,--the whirlwind of battle--who overthrows the country of the
+rebels--who stays combats, who crushes rebellions,--who destroys
+the stubborn like images of clay,--who overcomes the obstacles of
+inaccessible mountains.” The majority of these expeditions were, no
+doubt, consequent on the victory which destroyed the power of Kimsin.
+It would not have sufficed merely to drive back the Elamites beyond the
+Tigris; it was necessary to strike a blow within their own territory to
+avoid a recurrence of hostilities, which might have endangered the still
+recent work of conquest. Here, again, Khammurabi seems to have met with
+his habitual success.
+
+[Illustration: 057.jpg HEAD OF A SCEPTRE IN COPPER, BEARING THE NAME OF
+KHAM-MURABI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a rapid sketch made at the
+     British Museum.
+
+Ashnunak was a border district, and shared the fate of all the provinces
+on the eastern bank of the Tigris, being held sometimes by Elam and
+sometimes by Chaldæa; properly speaking, it was a country of Semitic
+speech, and was governed by viceroys owning allegiance, now to Babylon,
+now to Susa.* Khammurabi seized this province, and permanently secured
+its frontier by building along the river a line of fortresses surrounded
+by earthworks. Following the example of his predecessors, he set himself
+to restore and enrich the temples.
+
+     * Pognon discovered inscriptions of four of the vicegerents
+     of Ashnunak, which he assigns, with some hesitation, to the
+     time of Khammurabi, rather than to that of the kings of
+     Telloh. Three of these names are Semitic, the fourth
+     Sumerian; the language of the inscriptions bears a
+     resemblance to the Semitic dialect of Chaldæa.
+
+The house of Zamama and Ninni, at Kish, was out of repair, and the
+ziggurât threatened to fall; he pulled it down and rebuilt it, carrying
+it to such a height that its summit “reached the heavens.” Merodach had
+delegated to him the government of the faithful, and had raised him to
+the rank of supreme ruler over the whole of Chaldæa. At Babylon, close
+to the great lake which served as a reservoir for the overflow of the
+Euphrates, the king restored the sanctuary of Esagilla, the dimensions
+of which did not appear to him to be proportionate to the growing
+importance of the city. “He completed this divine dwelling with great
+joy and delight, he raised the summit to the firmament,” and then
+enthroned Merodach and his spouse, Zarpanit, within it, amid great
+festivities. He provided for the ever-recurring requirements of the
+national religion by frequent gifts; the tradition has come down to us
+of the granary for wheat which he built at Babylon, the sight of which
+alone rejoiced the heart of the god. While surrounding Sippar with a
+great wall and a fosse, to protect its earthly inhabitants, he did
+not forget Shamash and Malkatu, the celestial patrons of the town. He
+enlarged in their honour the mysterious Ebarra, the sacred seat of their
+worship, and that which no king from the earliest times had known how
+to build for his divine master, that did he generously for Shamash
+his master. He restored Ezida, the eternal dwelling of Merodach,
+at Borsippa; Eturka-lamma, the temple of Anu, Ninni, and Nana, the
+suzerains of Kish; and also Ezikalamma, the house of the goddess Ninna,
+in the village of Zarilab. In the southern provinces, but recently added
+to the crown,--at Larsa, Uruk, and Uru,--he displayed similar activity.
+
+[Illustration: 059.jpg Page Image]
+
+He had, doubtless, a political as well as a religious motive in all he
+did; for if he succeeded in winning the allegiance of the priests by
+the prodigality of his pious gifts, he could count on their gratitude in
+securing for him the people’s obedience, and thus prevent the outbreak
+of a revolt. He had, indeed, before him a difficult task in attempting
+to allay the ills which had been growing during centuries of civil
+discord and foreign conquest. The irrigation of the country demanded
+constant attention, and from earliest times its sovereigns had directed
+the work with real solicitude; but owing to the breaking up of the
+country into small states, their respective resources could not be
+combined in such general operations as were needed for controlling the
+inundations and effectually remedying the excess or the scarcity of
+water. Khammurabi witnessed the damage done to the whole province of
+Umliyash by one of those terrible floods which still sometimes ravage
+the regions of the Lower Tigris,* and possibly it may have been to
+prevent the recurrence of such a disaster that he undertook the work of
+canalization.
+
+     * Contracts dated the year of an inundation which laid waste
+     Umliyash; cf. in our own time, the inundation of April 10,
+     1831, which in a single night destroyed half the city of
+     Bagdad, and in which fifteen thousand persons lost their
+     lives either by drowning or by the collapse of their houses.
+
+He was the first that we know of who attempted to organize and reduce
+to a single system the complicated network of ditches and channels which
+intersected the territory belonging to the great cities between Babylon
+and the sea. Already, more than half a century previously, Siniddinam
+had enlarged the canal on which Larsa was situated, while Bimsin had
+provided an outlet for the “River of the Gods” into the Persian Gulf:*
+by the junction of the two a navigable channel was formed between the
+Euphrates and the marshes, and an outlet was thus made for the surplus
+waters of the inundation. Khammurabi informs us how Anu and Bel, having
+confided to him the government of Sumer and Accad, and having placed in
+his hands the reins of power, he dug the Nâr-Khammurabi, the source of
+wealth to the people, which brings abundance of water to the country
+of Sumir and Accad. “I turned both its banks into cultivated ground, I
+heaped up mounds of grain and I furnished perpetual water for the people
+of Sumir and Accad. The country of Sumer and Accad, I gathered together
+its nations who were scattered, I gave them pasture and drink, I ruled
+over them in riches and abundance, I caused them to inhabit a peaceful
+dwelling-place. Then it was that Khammurabi, the powerful king, the
+favourite of the great gods, I myself, according to the prodigious
+strength with which Merodach had endued me, I constructed a high
+fortress, upon mounds of earth; its summit rises to the height of the
+mountains, at the head of the Nâr-Khammurabi, the source of wealth to
+the people. This fortress I called Dur-Sinmuballit-abim-uâlidiya, the
+Fortress of Sinmuballit, the father who begat me, so that the name of
+Sinmuballit, the father who begat me, may endure in the habitations of
+the world.”
+
+     * Contract dated “the year the Tigris, river of the gods,
+     was canalized down to the sea”; i.e. as far as the point to
+     which the sea then penetrated in the environs of Kornah.
+
+This canal of Khammurabi ran from a little south of Babylon, joining
+those of Siniddinam and Rimsin, and probably cutting the alluvial plain
+in its entire length.* It drained the stagnant marshes on either side
+along its course, and by its fertilising effects, the dwellers on its
+banks were enabled to reap full harvests from the lands which previously
+had been useless for purposes of cultivation. A ditch of minor
+importance pierced the isthmus which separates the Tigris and the
+Euphrates in the neighbourhood of Sippar.** Khammurabi did not rest
+contented with these; a system of secondary canals doubtless completed
+the whole scheme of irrigation which he had planned after the
+achievement of his conquest, and his successors had merely to keep up
+his work in order to ensure an unrivalled prosperity to the empire.
+
+     * Delattre is of opinion that the canal dug by Khammurabi is
+     the Arakhtu of later epochs which began at Babylon and
+     extended as far as the Larsa canal. It must therefore be
+     approximately identified with the Shatt-en-Nil of the
+     present day, which joins Shatt-el-Kaher, the canal of
+     Siniddinam.
+
+     ** The canal which Khammurabi caused to be dug or dredged
+     may be the Nâr-Malkâ, or “royal canal,” which ran from the
+     Tigris to the Euphrates, passing Sippar on the way. The
+     digging of this canal is mentioned in a contract.
+
+Their efforts in this direction were not unsuccessful. Samsuîluna,
+the son of Khammurabi, added to the existing system two or three
+fresh canals, one at least of which still bore his name nearly fifteen
+centuries later; it is mentioned in the documents of the second Assyrian
+empire in the time of Assurbanipal, and it is possible that traces of
+it may still be found at the present day. Abiêshukh,* Ammisatana,**
+Ammizadugga,*** and Samsusatana,**** all either continued to elaborate
+the network planned by their ancestors, or applied themselves to the
+better distribution of the overflow in those districts where cultivation
+was still open to improvement.
+
+     * Abîshukh (the Hebrew Abishua) is the form of the name
+     which we find in contemporary contracts. The official lists
+     contain the variant Ebishu, Ebîshum.
+
+     ** Ammiditana is only a possible reading: others prefer
+     Ammisatana. The Nâr-Ammisatana is mentioned in a Sippar
+     contract. Another contract is dated “the year in which
+     Ammisatana, the king, repaired the canal of Samsuîluna.”
+
+     *** This was, at first, read Ammididugga. Ammizadugga is
+     mentioned in the date of a contract as having executed
+     certain works--of what nature it is not easy to say--on the
+     banks of the Tigris; another contract is dated “the year in
+     which Ammizadugga, the king, by supreme command of Sha-mash,
+     his master, [dug] the Ndr-Ammizadugga-nulchus-nishi (canal
+     of Ammizadugga), prosperity of men.” In the Minæan
+     inscriptions of Southern Arabia the name is found under the
+     form of Ammi-Zaduq.
+
+     **** Sometimes erroneously read Samdiusatana; but, as a
+     matter of fact, we have contracts of that time, in which a
+     royal name is plainly written as Samsusatana.
+
+We should know nothing of these kings had not the scribes of those times
+been in the habit of dating the contracts of private individuals by
+reference to important national events. They appear to have chosen
+by preference incidents in the religious life of the country; as, for
+instance, the restoration of a temple, the annual enthronisation of one
+of the great divinities, such as Shamash, Merodach, Ishtar, or Nana,
+as the eponymous god of the current year, the celebration of a solemn
+festival, or the consecration of a statue; while a few scattered
+allusions to works of fortification show that meanwhile the defence of
+the country was jealously watched over.* These sovereigns appear to have
+enjoyed long reigns, the shortest extending over a period of five and
+twenty years; and when at length the death of any king occurred, he was
+immediately replaced by his son, the notaries’ acts and the judicial
+documents which have come down to us betraying no confusion or abnormal
+delay in the course of affairs. We may, therefore, conclude that the
+last century and a half of the dynasty was a period of peace and
+of material prosperity. Chaldæa was thus enabled to fully reap the
+advantage of being united under the rule of one individual. It is quite
+possible that those cities--Uru, Larsa, Ishin, Uruk, and Nippur--which
+had played so important a part in the preceding centuries, suffered from
+the loss of their prestige, and from the blow dealt to their traditional
+pretensions.
+
+     * Samsuîluna repaired the five fortresses which his ancestor
+     Sumulaîlu had built. Contract dated “the year in which
+     Ammisatana, the king, built Dur-Ammisatana, near the Sin
+     river,” and “the year in which Ammisatana, the king, gave
+     its name to Dur-Iskunsin, near the canal of
+     Ammisatana.” Contract dated “the year in which the King
+     Ammisatana repaired Dur-Iskunsin.” Contract dated “the year in
+     which Samsuîluna caused ‘the wall of Uru and Uruk’ to be
+     built.”
+
+Up to this time they had claimed the privilege of controlling the
+history of their country, and they had bravely striven among themselves
+for the supremacy over the southern states; but the revolutions which
+had raised each in turn to the zenith of power, had never exalted any
+one of them to such an eminence as to deprive its rivals of all hope of
+supplanting it and of enjoying the highest place. The rise of Babylon
+destroyed the last chance which any of them had of ever becoming the
+capital; the new city was so favourably situated, and possessed so much
+wealth and so many soldiers, while its kings displayed such tenacious
+energy, that its neighbours were forced to bow before it and resign
+themselves to the subordinate position of leading provincial towns. They
+gave a loyal obedience to the officers sent them from the north, and
+sank gradually into obscurity, the loss of their political supremacy
+being somewhat compensated for by the religious respect in which they
+were always held. Their ancient divinities--Nana, Sin, Anu, and Ra--were
+adopted, if we may use the term, by the Babylonians, who claimed the
+protection of these gods as fully as they did that of Merodach or of
+Nebo, and prided themselves on amply supplying all their needs. As the
+inhabitants of Babylon had considerable resources at their disposal,
+their appeal to these deities might be regarded as productive of more
+substantial results than the appeal of a merely local kinglet. The
+increase of the national wealth and the concentration, under one head,
+of armies hitherto owning several chiefs, enabled the rulers, not
+of Babylon or Larsa alone, but of the whole of Chaldæa, to offer
+an invincible resistance to foreign enemies, and to establish their
+dominion in countries where their ancestors had enjoyed merely a
+precarious sovereignty. Hostilities never completely ceased between
+Elam and Babylon; if arrested for a time, they broke out again in
+some frontier disturbance, at times speedily suppressed, but at others
+entailing violent consequences and ending in a regular war. No document
+furnishes us with any detailed account of these outbreaks, but it
+would appear that the balance of power was maintained on the whole with
+tolerable regularity, both kingdoms at the close of each generation
+finding themselves in much the same position as they had occupied at its
+commencement. The two empires were separated from south to north by
+the sea and the Tigris, the frontier leaving the river near the present
+village of Amara and running in the direction of the mountains. Durîlu
+probably fell ordinarily under Chaldæan jurisdiction. Umliyash was
+included in the original domain of Kham-murabi, and there is no reason
+to believe that it was evacuated by his descendants. There is every
+probability that they possessed the plain east of the Tigris, comprising
+Nineveh and Arbela, and that the majority of the civilized peoples
+scattered over the lower slopes of the Kurdish mountains rendered them
+homage. They kept the Mesopotamian table-land under their suzerainty,
+and we may affirm, without exaggeration, that their power extended
+northwards as far as Mount Masios, and westwards to the middle course of
+the Euphrates.
+
+At what period the Chaldæans first crossed that river is as yet unknown.
+Many of their rulers in their inscriptions claim the title of suzerains
+over Syria, and we have no evidence for denying their pretensions.
+Kudur-mabug proclaims himself “adda” of Martu, Lord of the countries of
+the West, and we are in the possession of several facts which suggest
+the idea of a great Blamite empire, with a dominion extending for some
+period over Western Asia, the existence of which was vaguely hinted
+at by the Greeks, who attributed its glory to the fabulous Memnon.*
+Contemporary records are still wanting which might show whether
+Kudur-mabug inherited these distant possessions from one of his
+predecessors--such as Kudur-nakhunta, for instance--or whether he
+won them himself at the point of the sword; but a fragment of an old
+chronicle, inserted in the Hebrew Scriptures, speaks distinctly of
+another Elamite, who made war in person almost up to the Egyptian
+frontier.** This is the Kudur-lagamar (Chedorlaomer) who helped Eimsin
+against Hammurabi, but was unable to prevent his overthrow.
+
+     * We know that to Herodotus (v. 55) Susa was the city of
+     Memnon, and that Strabo attributes its foundation to
+     Tithonus, father of Memnon. According to Oppert, the word
+     Memnon is the equivalent of the Susian Umman-anîn, “the
+     house of the king:” Weissbach declares that “anin” does not
+     mean king, and contradicts Oppert’s view, though he does not
+     venture to suggest a new explanation of the name.
+
+     ** _Gen._ xiv. Prom the outset Assyriologists have never
+     doubted the historical accuracy of this chapter, and they
+     have connected the facts which it contains with those which
+     seem to be revealed by the Assyrian monuments. The two
+     Rawlinsons intercalate Kudur-lagamar between Kudur-nakhunta
+     and Kudur-mabug, and Oppert places him about the same
+     period. Fr. Lenormant regards him as one of the successors
+     of Kudur-mabug, possibly his immediate successor. G. Smith
+     does not hesitate to declare positively that the Kudur-mabug
+     and Kudur-nakhunta of the inscriptions are one and the same
+     with the Kudur-lagamar (Chedor-laomer) of the Bible.
+     Finally, Schrader, while he repudiates Smith’s view, agrees
+     in the main fact with the other Assyriologists. On the other
+     hand, the majority of modern Biblical critics have
+     absolutely refused to credit the story in Genesis. Sayce
+     thinks that the Bible story rests on an historic basis, and
+     his view is strongly confirmed by Pinches’discovery of a
+     Chaldæan document which mentions Kudur-lagamar and two of
+     his allies. The Hebrew historiographer reproduced an
+     authentic fact from the chronicles of Babylon, and connected
+     it with one of the events in the life of Abraham. The very
+     late date generally assigned to Gen. xiv. in no way
+     diminishes the intrinsic probability of the facts narrated
+     by the Chaldæan document which is preserved to us in the
+     pages of the Hebrew book.
+
+In the thirteenth year of his reign over the East, the cities of the
+Dead Sea--Sodom, Gomorrah, Adamah, Zeboîm, and Belâ--revolted against
+him: he immediately convoked his great vassals, Amraphel of Chaldæa,
+Ariôch of Ellasar,* Tida’lo the Guti, and marched with them to the
+confines of his dominions. Tradition has invested many of the tribes
+then inhabiting Southern Syria with semi-mythical names and attributes.
+They are represented as being giants--Rephalm; men of prodigious
+strength--Zuzîm; as having a buzzing and indistinct manner of
+speech--Zamzummîm; as formidable monsters**--Emîm or Anakîm, before
+whom other nations appeared as grasshoppers;*** as the Horîm who were
+encamped on the confines of the Sinaitic desert, and as the Amalekites
+who ranged over the mountains to the west of the Dead Sea. Kudur-lagamar
+defeated them one after another--the Rephaîm near to Ashtaroth-Karnaîm,
+the Zuzîm near Ham,**** the Amîm at Shaveh-Kiriathaim, and the Horîm
+on the spurs of Mount Seir as far as El-Paran; then retracing
+his footsteps, he entered the country of the Amalekites by way of
+En-mishpat, and pillaged the Amorites of Hazazôn-Tamar.
+
+     * Ellasar has been identified with Larsa since the
+     researches of Rawlin-son and Norris; the Goîm, over whom
+     Tidal was king, with the Guti.
+
+     ** Sayce considers Zuzîm and Zamzummîm to be two readings of
+     the same word Zamzum, written in cuneiform characters on the
+     original document. The sounds represented, in the Hebrew
+     alphabet, by the letters m and w, are expressed in the
+     Chaldæan syllabary by the same character, and a Hebrew or
+     Babylonian scribe, who had no other means of telling the
+     true pronunciation of a race-name mentioned in the story of
+     this campaign, would have been quite as much at a loss as
+     any modern scholar to say whether he ought to transcribe the
+     word as Z-m-z-m or as Z-w-z-vo; some scribes read it
+     _Zuzîm,_ others preferred _Zamzummîm._
+
+     *** _Numb._ xiii. 33.
+
+     **** In Deut. ii. 20 it is stated that the Zamzummîm lived
+     in the country of Ammon. Sayce points out that we often find
+     the variant Am for the character usually read _Ham_ or
+     _Kham_--the name Khammurabi, for instance, is often found
+     written Ammurabi; the Ham in the narrative of Genesis would,
+     therefore, be identical with the land of Ammon in
+     Deuteronomy, and the difference between the spelling of the
+     two would be due to the fact that the document reproduced in
+     the XIVIIth chapter of Genesis had been originally copied from
+     a cuneiform tablet in which the name of the place was
+     expressed by the sign _Ham-Am._
+
+In the mean time, the kings of the five towns had concentrated their
+troops in the vale of Siddîm, and were there resolutely awaiting
+Kudur-lagamar. They were, however, completely routed, some of the
+fugitives being swallowed up in the pits of bitumen with which the
+soil abounded, while others with difficulty reached the mountains.
+Kudur-lagamar sacked Sodom and Gomorrah, re-established his dominion on
+all sides, and returned laden with booty, Hebrew tradition adding
+that he was overtaken near the sources of the Jordan by the patriarch
+Abraham.*
+
+     * An attempt has been made to identify the three vassals of
+     Kudur-lagamar with kings mentioned on the Chaldæan
+     monuments. Tidcal, or, if we adopt the Septuagint variant,
+     Thorgal, has been considered by some as the bearer of a
+     Sumorian name, Turgal= “great chief,” “great son,” while
+     others put him on one side as not having been a Babylonian;
+     Pinches, Sayce, and Hommel identify him with Tudkhula, an
+     ally of Kudur-lagamar against Khammurabi. Schrader was the
+     first to suggest that Amraphel was really Khammurabi, and
+     emended the Amraphel of the biblical text into Amraphi or
+     Amrabi, in order to support this identification. Halévy,
+     while on the whole accepting this theory, derives the name
+     from the pronunciation Kimtarapashtum or Kimtarapaltum,
+     which he attributes to the name generally read Khammurabi,
+     and in this he is partly supported by Hommel, who reads
+     “Khammurapaltu.”
+
+After his victory over Kudur-lagamar, Khammurabi assumed the title of
+King of Martu,* which we find still borne by Ammisatana sixty years
+later.** We see repeated here almost exactly what took place in Ethiopia
+at the time of its conquest by Egypt: merchants had prepared the way for
+military occupation, and the civilization of Babylon had taken hold
+on the people long before its kings had become sufficiently powerful
+to claim them as vassals. The empire may be said to have been virtually
+established from the day when the states of the Middle and Lower
+Euphrates formed but one kingdom in the hands of a single ruler. We must
+not, however, imagine it to have been a compact territory, divided into
+provinces under military occupation, ruled by a uniform code of laws
+and statutes, and administered throughout by functionaries of various
+grades, who received their orders from Babylon or Susa, according as
+the chances of war favoured the ascendency of Chaldæa or Elam. It was
+in reality a motley assemblage of tribes and principalities, whose sole
+bond of union was subjection to a common yoke.
+
+     * It is, indeed, the sole title which he attributes to
+     himself on a stone tablet now in the British Museum.
+
+     ** In an inscription by this prince, copied probably about
+     the time of Nabonidus by the scribe Belushallîm, he is
+     called “king of the vast land of Martu.”
+
+They were under obligation to pay tribute, and furnish military
+contingents and show other external marks of obedience, but their
+particular constitution, customs, and religion were alike respected:
+they had to purchase, at the cost of a periodical ransom, the right to
+live in their own country after their own fashion, and the head of the
+empire forbore all interference in their affairs, except in cases where
+the internecine quarrels and dissensions threatened the security of his
+suzerainty. Their subordination lasted as best it could, sometimes for a
+year or for ten years, at the end of which period they would neglect
+the obligations of their vassalage, or openly refuse to fulfil them:
+a revolt would then break out at one point or another, and it was
+necessary to suppress it without delay to prevent the bad example
+from spreading far and wide. The empire was maintained by perpetual
+re-conquests, and its extent varied with the energy shown by its chiefs,
+or with the resources which were for the moment available.
+
+Separated from the confines of the empire by only a narrow isthmus,
+Egypt loomed on the horizon, and appeared to beckon to her rival. Her
+natural fertility, the industry of her inhabitants, the stores of gold
+and perfumes which she received from the heart of Ethiopia, were well
+known by the passage to and fro of her caravans, and the recollection of
+her treasures must have frequently provoked the envy of Asiatic courts.
+Egypt had, however, strangely declined from her former greatness, and
+the line of princes who governed her had little in common with the
+Pharaohs who had rendered her name so formidable under the XIIth
+dynasty. She was now under the rule of the Xoites, whose influence was
+probably confined to the Delta, and extended merely in name over
+the Said and Nubia. The feudal lords, ever ready to reassert their
+independence as soon as the central power waned, shared between them the
+possession of the Nile valley below Memphis: the princes of Thebes, who
+were probably descendants of Usirtasen, owned the largest fiefdom, and
+though some slight scruple may have prevented them from donning
+the pschënt or placing their names within a cartouche, they assumed
+notwithstanding the plenitude of royal power. A favourable opportunity
+was therefore offered to an invader, and the Chaldæans might have
+attacked with impunity a people thus divided among themselves.* They
+stopped short, however, at the southern frontier of Syria, or if they
+pushed further forward, it was without any important result: distance
+from head-quarters, or possibly reiterated attacks of the Elamites,
+prevented them from placing in the field an adequate force for such a
+momentous undertaking. What they had not dared to venture, others more
+audacious were to accomplish. At this juncture, so runs the Egyptian
+record, “there came to us a king named Timaios. Under this king, then,
+I know not wherefore, the god caused to blow upon us a baleful wind, and
+in the face of all probability bands from the East, people of ignoble
+race, came upon us unawares, attacked the country, and subdued it easily
+and without fighting.”
+
+     * The theory that the divisions of Egypt, under the XIVth
+     dynasty, and the discords between its feudatory princes,
+     were one of the main causes of the success of the Shepherds,
+     is now admitted to be correct.
+
+It is possible that they owed this rapid victory to the presence
+in their armies of a factor hitherto unknown to the African--the
+war-chariot--and before the horse and his driver the Egyptians gave way
+in a body.* The invaders appeared as a cloud of locusts on the banks of
+the Nile. Towns and temples were alike pillaged, burnt, and ruined;
+they massacred all they could of the male population, reduced to slavery
+those of the women and children whose lives they spared, and then
+proclaimed as king Salatis, one of their chiefs.** He established a
+semblance of regular government, chose Memphis as his capital, and
+imposed a tax upon the vanquished. Two perils, however, immediately
+threatened the security of his triumph: in the south the Theban lords,
+taking matters into their own hands after the downfall of the Xoites,
+refused the oath of allegiance to Salatis, and organized an obstinate
+resistance;*** in the north he had to take measures to protect
+himself against an attack of the Chaldæans or of the Élamites who were
+oppressing Chaldæa.****
+
+     * The horse was unknown, or at any rate had not been
+     employed in. Egypt prior to the invasion; we find it,
+     however, in general use immediately after the expulsion of
+     the Shepherds, see the tomb of Pihiri. Moreover, all
+     historians agree in admitting that it was introduced into
+     the country under the rule of the Shepherds. The use of the
+     war-chariot in Chaldæa at an epoch prior to the Hyksôs
+     invasion, is proved by a fragment of the Vulture Stele; it
+     is therefore, natural to suppose that the Hyksôs used the
+     chariot in war, and that the rapidity of their conquest was
+     due to it.
+
+     ** The name Salatis (var. Saitôs) seems to be derived from a
+     Semitic word, Siialît = “the chief,” “the governor;” this
+     was the title which Joseph received when Pharaoh gave him
+     authority over the whole of Egypt (Gen. xli. 43). Salatis
+     may not, therefore, have been the real name of the first
+     Hyksôs king, but his title, which the Egyptians
+     misunderstood, and from which they evolved a proper name:
+     Uhlemann has, indeed, deduced from this that Manetho, being
+     familiar with the passage referring to Joseph, had forged
+     the name of Salatis. Ebers imagined that he could decipher
+     the Egyptian form of this prince’s name on the Colossus of
+     Tell-Mokdam, where Naville has since read with certainty the
+     name of a Pharaoh of the XIIIth and XIVth dynasties,
+     Nahsiri.
+
+     *** The text of Manetho speaks of taxes which he imposed on
+     the high and low lands, which would seem to include the
+     Thebaid in the kingdom; it is, however, stated in the next
+     few pages that the successors of Salatis waged an incessant
+     war against the Egyptians, which can only refer to
+     hostilities against the Thebans. We are forced, therefore,
+     to admit, either that Manetho took the title of lord of the
+     high and low lands which belonged to Salatis, literally, or
+     that the Thebans, after submitting at first, subsequently
+     refused to pay tribute, thus provoking a war.
+
+     **** Manetho here speaks of Assyrians; this is an error
+     which is to be explained by the imperfect state of
+     historical knowledge in Greece at the time of the Macedonian
+     supremacy. We need not for this reason be led to cast doubt
+     upon the historic value of the narrative: we must remember
+     the suzerainty which the kings of Babylon exercised over
+     Syria, and read _Chaldæans_ where Manetho has written
+     _Assyrians_. In Herodotus “Assyria” is the regular term for
+     “Babylonia,” and Babylonia is called “the land of the
+     Assyrians.”
+
+From the natives of the Delta, who were temporarily paralysed by their
+reverses, he had, for the moment, little to fear: restricting himself,
+therefore, to establishing forts at the strategic points in the Nile
+valley in order to keep the Thebans in check, he led the main body of
+his troops to the frontier on the isthmus. Pacific immigrations had
+already introduced Asiatic settlers into the Delta, and thus prepared
+the way for securing the supremacy of the new rulers; in the midst of
+these strangers, and on the ruins of the ancient town of Hâwârît-Avaris,
+in the Sethro’ifce nome--a place connected by tradition with the myth
+of Osiris and Typhon--Salatis constructed an immense entrenched camp,
+capable of sheltering two hundred and forty thousand men. He visited it
+yearly to witness the military manoeuvres, to pay his soldiers, and
+to preside over the distribution of rations. This permanent garrison
+protected him from a Chaldæan invasion, a not unlikely event as long as
+Syria remained under the supremacy of the Babylonian kings; it furnished
+his successors also with an inexhaustible supply of trained soldiers,
+thus enabling them to complete the conquest of Lower Egypt. Years
+elapsed before the princes of the south would declare themselves
+vanquished, and five kings--Anôn, Apachnas, Apôphis I., Iannas, and
+Asses--passed their lifetime “in a perpetual warfare, desirous of
+tearing up Egypt to the very root.” These Theban kings, who were
+continually under arms against the barbarians, were subsequently classed
+in a dynasty by themselves, the XVth of Manetho, but they at last
+succumbed to the invader, and Asses became master of the entire country.
+His successors in their turn formed a dynasty, the XVIth, the few
+remaining monuments of which are found scattered over the length and
+breadth of the valley from the shores of the Mediterranean to the rocks
+of the first cataract.
+
+The Egyptians who witnessed the advent of this Asiatic people called
+them by the general term Amûû, Asiatics, or Monâtiû, the men of the
+desert.* They had already given the Bedouin the opprobrious epithet of
+Shaûsû--pillagers or robbers--which aptly described them;** and they
+subsequently applied the same name to the intruders--Hiq Shaûsû--from
+which the Greeks derived their word Hyksôs, or Hykoussôs, for this
+people.***
+
+     * The meaning of the term _Monîti_ was discovered by E. de
+     Rougé, who translated it _Shepherd_, and applied it to the
+     Hyksôs; from thence it passed into the works of all the
+     Egyptologists who concerned themselves with this question,
+     but _Shepherd_ has not been universally accepted as the
+     meaning of the word. It is generally agreed that it was a
+     generic term, indicating the races with which their
+     conquerors were supposed to be connected, and not the
+     particular term of which Manetho’s word _Hoiveves_ would be
+     the literal translation.
+
+     ** The name seems, in fact, to be derived from a word which
+     meant “to rob,” “to pillage.” The name Shausu, Shosu, was
+     not used by the Egyptians to indicate a particular race. It
+     was used of all Bedouins, and in general of all the
+     marauding tribes who infested the desert or the mountains.
+     The Shausu most frequently referred to on the monuments are
+     those from the desert between Egypt and Syria, but there is
+     a reference, in the time of Ramses II., to those from the
+     Lebanon and the valley of Orontes. Krall finds an allusion
+     to them in a word (_Shosim_) in _Judges_ ii. 14, which is
+     generally translated by a generic expression, “the
+     spoilers.”
+
+     *** Manetho declares that the people were called Hyksôs,
+     from _Syk_, which means “king” in the sacred language, and
+     _sôs_, which means “shepherd” in the popular language. As a
+     matter of fact, the word _Hyku_ means “prince “in the
+     classical language of Egypt, or, as Manetho styles it, the
+     _sacred language_, i.e. in the idiom of the old religious,
+     historical, and literary texts, which in later ages the
+     populace no longer understood. Shôs, on the contrary,
+     belongs to the spoken language of the later time, and does
+     not occur in the ancient inscriptions, so that Manetho’s
+     explanation is valueless; there is but one material fact to
+     be retained from his evidence, and that is the name _Hyk-
+     Shôs_ or _Hyku-Shôs_ given by its inventors to the alien
+     kings. Cham-pollion and Rosellini were the first to identify
+     these Shôs with the Shaûsû whom they found represented on
+     the monuments, and their opinion, adopted by some, seems to
+     me an extremely plausible one: the Egyptians, at a given
+     moment, bestowed the generic name of Shaûsû on these
+     strangers, just as they had given those of Amûû and Manâtiû.
+     The texts or writers from whom Manetho drew his information
+     evidently mentioned certain kings _hyku_-Shaûsû; other
+     passages, or, the same passages wrongly interpreted, were
+     applied to the race, and were rendered _hyku_-Shaûsû = “the
+     _prisoners_ taken from the Shaûsû,” a substantive derived
+     from the root _haka_ = “to take” being substituted for the
+     noun _hyqu_ = “prince.” Josephus declares, on the authority
+     of Manetho, that some manuscripts actually suggested this
+     derivation--a fact which is easily explained by the custom
+     of the Egyptian record offices. I may mention, in passing,
+     that Mariette recognised in the element “_Sôs_” an Egyptian
+     word _shôs_ = “soldiers,” and in the name of King Mîrmâshâû,
+     which he read Mîrshôsû, an equivalent of the title Hyq-
+     Shôsû.
+
+But we are without any clue as to their real name, language, or origin.
+The writers of classical times were unable to come to an agreement on
+these questions: some confounded the Hyksôs with the Phoenicians, others
+regarded them as Arabs.* Modern scholars have put forward at least
+a dozen contradictory hypotheses on the matter. The Hyksôs have been
+asserted to have been Canaanites, Elamites, Hittites, Accadians,
+Scythians. The last opinion found great favour with the learned, as
+long as they could believe that the sphinxes discovered by Mariette
+represented Apôphis or one of his predecessors. As a matter of fact,
+these monuments present all the characteristics of the Mongoloid type
+of countenance--the small and slightly oblique eyes, the arched but
+somewhat flattened nose, the pronounced cheekbones and well-covered
+jaw, the salient chin and full lips slightly depressed at the corners.**
+These peculiarities are also observed in the three heads found at
+Damanhur, in the colossal torso dug up at Mit-Farês in the Fayum, in
+the twin figures of the Nile removed to the Bulaq Museum from Tanis, and
+upon the remains of a statue in the collection at the Villa Ludovisi in
+Rome. The same foreign type of face is also found to exist among the
+present inhabitants of the villages scattered over the eastern part
+of the Delta, particularly on the shores of Lake Menzaleh, and the
+conclusion was drawn that these people were the direct descendants of
+the Hyksôs.
+
+     * Manetho takes them to be Phoenicians, but he adds that
+     certain writers thought them to be Arabs: Brugsch favours
+     this latter view, but the Arab legend of a conquest of Egypt
+     by Sheddâd and the Adites is of recent origin, and was
+     inspired by traditions in regard to the Hyksôs current
+     during the Byzantine epoch; we cannot, therefore, allow it
+     to influence us. We must wait before expressing a definite
+     opinion in regard to the facts which Glaser believes he has
+     obtained from the Minoan inscriptions which date from the
+     time of the Hyksôs.
+
+     ** Mariette, who was the first to describe these curious
+     monuments, recognised in them all the incontestable
+     characteristics of a Semitic type, and the correctness of
+     his view was, at first, universally admitted. Later on Hamy
+     imagined that he could distinguish traces of Mongolian
+     influences, and Er. Lenormant, and then Mariette himself
+     came round to this view; it has recently been supported in
+     England by Flower, and in Germany by Virchow.
+
+This theory was abandoned, however, when it was ascertained that the
+sphinxes of San had been carved, many centuries before the invasion, for
+Amenemhâît III., a king of the XIIth dynasty. In spite of the facts we
+possess, the problem therefore still remains unsolved, and the origin of
+the Hyksôs is as mysterious as ever. We gather, however, that the third
+millennium before our era was repeatedly disturbed by considerable
+migratory movements. The expeditions far afield of Elamite and Chaldæan
+princes could not have taken place without seriously perturbing the
+regions over which they passed. They must have encountered by the
+way many nomadic or unsettled tribes whom a slight shock would easily
+displace. An impulse once given, it needed but little to accelerate
+or increase the movement: a collision with one horde reacted on its
+neighbours, who either displaced or carried others with them, and the
+whole multitude, gathering momentum as they went, were precipitated in
+the direction first given.*
+
+     * The Hyksôs invasion has been regarded as a natural result
+     of the Elamite conquest.
+
+A tradition, picked up by Herodotus on his travels, relates that the
+Phoenicians had originally peopled the eastern and southern shores of
+the Persian Gulf;* it was also said that Indathyrses, a Scythian king,
+had victoriously scoured the whole of Asia, and had penetrated as far as
+Egypt.** Either of these invasions may have been the cause of the Syrian
+migration. In. comparison with the meagre information which has come
+down to us under the form of legends, it is provoking to think how much
+actual fact has been lost, a tithe of which would explain the cause
+of the movement and the mode of its execution. The least improbable
+hypothesis is that which attributes the appearance of the Shepherds
+about the XXIIIrd century B.C., to the arrival in Naharaim of those
+Khati who subsequently fought so obstinately against the armies both of
+the Pharaohs and the Ninevite kings. They descended from the mountain
+region in which the Halys and the Euphrates take their rise, and if the
+bulk of them proceeded no further than the valleys of the Taurus and the
+Amanos, some at least must have pushed forward as far as the provinces
+on the western shores of the Dead Sea. The most adventurous among them,
+reinforced by the Canaanites and other tribes who had joined them on
+their southward course, crossed the isthmus of Suez, and finding a
+people weakened by discord, experienced no difficulty in replacing the
+native dynasties by their own barbarian chiefs.***
+
+     * It was to the exodus of this race, in the last analysis,
+     that the invasion of the shepherds may be attributed
+
+     ** A certain number of commentators are of opinion that the
+     wars attributed to Indathyrses have been confounded with
+     what Herodotus tells of the exploits of Madyes, and are
+     nothing more than a distorted remembrance of the great
+     Scythian invasion which took place in the latter half of the
+     VIIth century B.C.
+
+     *** At the present time, those scholars who admit the
+     Turanian origin of the Hyksôs are of opinion that only the
+     nucleus of the race, the royal tribe, was composed of
+     Mongols, while the main body consisted of elements of all
+     kinds--Canaanitish, or, more generally, Semitic.
+
+[Illustration: 079.jpg PALLATE OF HYKSÔS SCRIBE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Mertons.
+     It is the palette of a scribe, now in the Berlin Museum, and
+     given by King Apôpi II Âusirrî to a scribe named Atu.
+
+Both their name and origin were doubtless well known to the Egyptians,
+but the latter nevertheless disdained to apply to them any term but that
+of “she-maû,” * strangers, and in referring to them used the same
+vague appellations which they applied to the Bedouin of the Sinaitic
+peninsula,--Monâtiû, the shepherds, or Sâtiû, the archers. They
+succeeded in hiding the original name of their conquerors so thoroughly,
+that in the end they themselves forgot it, and kept the secret of it
+from posterity.
+
+The remembrance of the cruelties with which the invaders sullied their
+conquest lived long after them; it still stirred the anger of Manetho
+after a lapse of twenty centuries.** The victors were known as the
+“Plagues” or “Pests,” and every possible crime and impiety was attributed
+to them.
+
+     * The term _shamamil,_ variant of _sliemaû,_ is applied to
+     them by Queen Hâtshopsîtu: the same term is employed shortly
+     afterward by Thutmosis III., to indicate the enemies whom he
+     had defeated at Megiddo.
+
+     ** He speaks of them in contemptuous terms as _men of
+     ignoble race_. The epithet _Aîti, Iaîti, Iadîti_, was applied
+     to the Nubians by the writer of the inscription of Ahmosi-
+     si-Abîna, and to the Shepherds of the Delta by the author of
+     the _Sallier Papyrus_. Brugsch explained it as “the rebels,”
+      or “disturbers,” and Goodwin translated it “invaders”;
+     Chabas rendered it by “plague-stricken,” an interpretation
+     which was in closer conformity with its etymological
+     meaning, and Groff pointed out that the malady called Ait,
+     or Adit in Egyptian, is the malignant fever still frequently
+     to be met with at the present day in the marshy cantons of
+     the Delta, and furnished the proper rendering, which is “The
+     Fever-stricken.”
+
+[Illustration: 080.jpg A HYKSÔS PRISONER GUIDING THE PLOUGH, AT EL-KAB]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+But the brutalities attending the invasion once past, the invaders
+soon lost their barbarity and became rapidly civilized. Those of them
+stationed in the encampment at Avaris retained the military qualities
+and characteristic energy of their race; the remainder became
+assimilated to their new compatriots, and were soon recognisable merely
+by their long hair, thick beard, and marked features. Their sovereigns
+seemed to have realised from the first that it was more to their
+interest to exploit the country than to pillage it; as, however, none of
+them was competent to understand the intricacies of the treasury, they
+were forced to retain the services of the majority of the scribes, who
+had managed the public accounts under the native kings.* Once schooled
+to the new state of affairs, they readily adopted the refinements of
+civilized life.
+
+     * The same thing took place on every occasion when Egypt was
+     conquered by an alien race: the Persian Achæmenians and
+     Greeks made use of the native employés, as did the Romans
+     after them; and lastly, the Mussulmans, Arabs, and Turks.
+
+The court of the Pharaohs, with its pomp and its usual assemblage of
+officials, both great and small, was revived around the person of
+the new sovereign;* the titles of the Amenemhâîts and the Usirtasens,
+adapted to these “princes of foreign lands,” ** legitimatised them as
+descendants of Horus and sons of the Sun.*** They respected the
+local religions, and went so far as to favour those of the gods whose
+attributes appeared to connect them with some of their own barbarous
+divinities. The chief deity of their worship was Baal, the lord of
+all,**** a cruel and savage warrior; his resemblance to Sit, the brother
+and enemy of Osiris, was so marked, that he was identified with the
+Egyptian deity, with the emphatic additional title of Sutkhû, the Great
+Sit.^
+
+     * The narrative of the _Sallier Papyrus,_ No. 1, shows us
+     the civil and military chiefs collected round the Shepherd-
+     king Apôpi, and escorting him in the solemn processions in
+     honour of the gods. They are followed by the scribes and
+     magicians, who give him advice on important occasions.
+
+     ** Hiqu Situ: this is the title of Abîsha at Beni-Hassan,
+     which is also assumed by Khiani on several small monuments;
+     Steindorff has attempted to connect it with the name of the
+     Hyksôs.
+
+     *** The preamble of the two or three Shepherd-kings of whom
+     we know anything, contains the two cartouches, the special
+     titles, and the names of Horus, which formed part of the
+     title of the kings of pure Egyptian race; thus Apôphis IL is
+     proclaimed to be the living Horus, who joins the two earths
+     in peace, the good god, Aqnunrî, son of the Sun, Apôpi, who
+     lives for ever, on the statues of Mîrmâshâu, which he had
+     appropriated, and on the pink granite table of offerings in
+     the Gizeh Museum.
+
+     **** The name of Baal, transcribed Baâlu, is found on that
+     of a certain Petebaâlû, “the Gift of Baal,” who must have
+     flourished in the time of the last shepherd-kings, or rather
+     under the Theban kings of the XVIIth dynasty, who were their
+     contemporaries, whose conclusions have been adopted by
+     Brugsch.
+
+     ^ Sutikhû, Sutkhû, are lengthened forms of Sûtû, or Sîtû;
+     and Chabas, who had at first denied the existence of the
+     final _Jehû_, afterwards himself supplied the philological
+     arguments which proved the correctness of the reading: he
+     rightly refused, however, to recognise in Sutikhû or Sutkhû
+     --the name of the conquerors’ god--a transliteration of the
+     Phoenician Sydyk, and would only see in it that of the
+     nearest Egyptian deity. This view is now accepted as the
+     right one, and Sutkhû is regarded as the indigenous
+     equivalent of the great Asiatic god, elsewhere called Baal,
+     or supreme lord. [Professor Pétrie found a scarab bearing
+     the cartouche of “Sutekh” Apepi I. at Koptos.--Te.]
+
+He was usually represented as a fully armed warrior, wearing a helmet
+of circular form, ornamented with two plumes; but he also borrowed
+the emblematic animal of Sît, the fennec, and the winged griffin which
+haunted the deserts of the Thebaid. His temples were erected in the
+cities of the Delta, side by side with the sanctuaries of the feudal
+gods, both at Bubastis and at Tanis. Tanis, now made the capital,
+reopened its palaces, and acquired a fresh impetus from the royal
+presence within its walls. Apôphis Aq-nûnrî, one of its kings, dedicated
+several tables of offerings in that city, and engraved his cartouches
+upon the sphinxes and standing colossi of the Pharaohs of the XIIth and
+XIIIth dynasties.
+
+[Illustration: 082.jpg TABLE OF OFFERINGS BEARING THE NAME OF APÔTI
+ÂQNÛNRÎ]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by E. Brugsch.
+
+[Illustration: 083.jpg Page Image]
+
+He was, however, honest enough to leave the inscriptions of his
+predecessors intact, and not to appropriate to himself the credit of
+works belonging to the Amenemhâîts or to Mirmâshâû. Khianî, who is
+possibly the Iannas of Manetho, was not, however, so easily satisfied.*
+The statue bearing his inscription, of which the lower part was
+discovered by Naville at Bubastis, appears to have been really carved
+for himself or for one of his contemporaries. It is a work possessing no
+originality, though of very commendable execution, such as would render
+it acceptable to any museum; the artist who conceived it took ‘his
+inspiration with considerable cleverness from the best examples
+turned out by the schools of the Delta under the Sovkhotpfts and the
+Nofirhotpûs. But a small grey granite lion, also of the reign of Khianî,
+which by a strange fate had found its way to Bagdad, does not raise our
+estimation of the modelling of animals in the Hyksôs period.
+
+     * Naville, who reads the name Râyan or Yanrâ, thinks that
+     this prince must be the Annas or Iannas mentioned by Manetho
+     as being one of the six shepherd-kings of the XVth dynasty.
+     Mr. Pétrie proposed to read Khian, Khianî, and the fragment
+     discovered at Gebeleîn confirms this reading, as well as a
+     certain number of cylinders and scarabs. Mr. Pétrie prefers
+     to place this Pharaoh in the VIIIth dynasty, and makes him
+     one of the leaders in the foreign occupation to which he
+     supposes Egypt to have submitted at that time; but it is
+     almost certain that he ought to be placed among the Hyksôs
+     of the XVIth dynasty. The name Khianî, more correctly
+     Khiyanî or Kheyanî, is connected by Tomkins, and Hilprecht
+     with that of a certain Khayanû or Khayan, son of Gabbar, who
+     reigned in Amanos in the time of Salmanasar II., King of
+     Assyria.
+
+[Illustration: 084.jpg BROKEN STATUE OF KHIANI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Naville.
+
+It is heavy in form, and the muzzle in no way recalls the fine profile
+of the lions executed by the sculptors of earlier times. The pursuit
+of science and the culture of learning appear to have been more
+successfully perpetuated than the fine arts; a treatise on mathematics,
+of which a copy has come down to us, would seem to have been recopied,
+if not remodelled, in the twenty-second year of Apôphis IL Aûsirrî. If
+we only possessed more monuments or documents treating of this period,
+we should doubtless perceive that their sojourn on the banks of the
+Nile was instrumental in causing a speedy change in the appearance and
+character of the Hyksôs. The strangers retained to a certain extent
+their coarse countenances and rude manners: they showed no aptitude for
+tilling the soil or sowing grain, but delighted in the marshy expanses
+of the Delta, where they gave themselves up to a semi-savage life
+of hunting and of tending cattle. The nobles among them, clothed and
+schooled after the Egyptian fashion, and holding fiefs, or positions at
+court, differed but little from the native feudal chiefs. We see here a
+case of what generally happens when a horde of barbarians settles down
+in a highly organised country which by a stroke of fortune they may have
+conquered; as soon as the Hyksôs had taken complete possession of Egypt,
+Egypt in her turn took possession of them, and those who survived the
+enervating effect of her civilization were all but transformed into
+Egyptians.
+
+If, in the time of the native Pharaohs, Asiatic tribes had been drawn
+towards Egypt, where they were treated as subjects or almost as slaves,
+the attraction which she possessed for them must have increased in
+intensity under the shepherds. They would now find the country in the
+hands of men of the same races as themselves--Egyptianised, it is true,
+but not to such an extent as to have completely lost their own language
+and the knowledge of their own extraction. Such immigrants were the more
+readily welcomed, since there lurked a feeling among the Hyksôs that it
+was necessary to strengthen themselves against the slumbering hostility
+of the indigenous population. The royal palace must have more than once
+opened its gates to Asiatic counsellors and favourites. Canaanites and
+Bedouin must often have been enlisted for the camp at Avaris. Invasions,
+famines, civil wars, all seem to have conspired to drive into Egypt not
+only isolated individuals, but whole families and tribes. That of the
+Beni-Israel, or Israelites, who entered the country about this time, has
+since acquired a unique position in the world’s history. They belonged
+to that family of Semitic extraction which we know by the monuments
+and tradition to have been scattered in ancient times along the western
+shores of the Persian Gulf and on the banks of the Euphrates. Those
+situated nearest to Chaldæa and to the sea probably led a settled
+existence; they cultivated the soil, they employed themselves in
+commerce and industries, their vessels--from Dilmun, from Mâgan, and
+from Milukhkha--coasted from one place to another, and made their way to
+the cities of Sumer and Accad. They had been civilized from very early
+times, and some of their towns were situated on islands, so as to
+be protected from sudden incursions. Other tribes of the same family
+occupied the interior of the continent; they lived in tents, and
+delighted in the unsettled life of nomads. There appeared to be in this
+distant corner of Arabia an inexhaustible reserve of population, which
+periodically overflowed its borders and spread over the world. It was
+from this very region that we see the Kashdim, the true Chaldæans,
+issuing ready armed for combat,--a people whose name was subsequently
+used to denote several tribes settled between the lower waters of the
+Tigris and the Euphrates. It was there, among the marshes on either side
+of these rivers, that the Aramoans established their first settlements
+after quitting the desert. There also the oldest legends of the race
+placed the cradle of the Phoenicians; it was even believed, about the
+time of Alexander, that the earliest ruins attributable to this people
+had been discovered on the Bahrein Islands, the largest of which, Tylos
+and Arados, bore names resembling the two great ports of Tyre and Arvad.
+We are indebted to tradition for the cause of their emigration and the
+route by which they reached the Mediterranean. The occurrence of violent
+earthquakes forced them to leave their home; they travelled as far as
+the Lake of Syria, where they halted for some time; then resuming their
+march, did not rest till they had reached the sea, where they founded
+Sidon. The question arises as to the position of the Lake of Syria on
+whose shores they rested, some believing it to be the Bahr-î-Nedjif
+and the environs of Babylon; others, the Lake of Bambykês near the
+Euphrates, the emigrants doubtless having followed up the course of that
+river, and having approached the country of their destination on its
+north-eastern frontier. Another theory would seek to identify the lake
+with the waters of Merom, the Lake of Galilee, or the Dead Sea; in this
+case the horde must have crossed the neck of the Arabian peninsula,
+from the Euphrates to the Jordan, through one of those long valleys,
+sprinkled with oases, which afforded an occasional route for caravans.*
+Several writers assure us that the Phoenician tradition of this exodus
+was misunderstood by Herodotus, and that the sea which they remembered
+on reaching Tyre was not the Persian Gulf, but the Dead Sea. If this had
+been the case, they need not have hesitated to assign their departure to
+causes mentioned in other documents. The Bible tells us that, soon after
+the invasion of Kudur-lagamar, the anger of God being kindled by the
+wickedness of Sodom and Gomorrah, He resolved to destroy the five cities
+situated in the valley of Siddim. A cloud of burning brimstone broke
+over them and consumed them; when the fumes and smoke, as “of a
+furnace,” had passed away, the very site of the towns had disappeared.**
+Previous to their destruction, the lake into which the Jordan empties
+itself had had but a restricted area: the subsidence of the southern
+plain, which had been occupied by the impious cities, doubled the size
+of the lake, and enlarged it to its present dimensions. The earthquake
+which caused the Phoenicians to leave their ancestral home may have been
+the result of this cataclysm, and the sea on whose shores they sojourned
+would thus be our Dead Sea.
+
+     * They would thus have arrived at the shores of Lake Merom,
+     or at the shores either of the Dead Sea or of the Lake of
+     Gennesareth; the Arab traditions speak of an itinerary which
+     would have led the emigrants across the desert, but they
+     possess no historic value is so far as these early epochs
+     are concerned.
+
+     ** _Gen._ xix. 24-29; the whole of this episode belongs to
+     the Jehovistic narrative.
+
+One fact, however, appears to be certain in the midst of many
+hypotheses, and that is that the Phoenicians had their origin in the
+regions bordering on the Persian Gulf. It is useless to attempt, with
+the inadequate materials as yet in our possession, to determine by what
+route they reached the Syrian coast, though we may perhaps conjecture
+the period of their arrival. Herodotus asserts that the Tyrians placed
+the date of the foundation of their principal temple two thousand
+three hundred years before the time of his visit, and the erection of a
+sanctuary for their national deity would probably take place very soon
+after their settlement at Tyre: this would bring their arrival there to
+about the XXVIIIth century before our era. The Elamite and Babylonian
+conquests would therefore have found the Phoenicians already established
+in the country, and would have had appreciable effect upon them.
+
+The question now arises whether the Beni-Israel belonged to the group of
+tribes which included the Phoenicians, or whether they were of Chaldæan
+race. Their national traditions leave no doubt upon that point. They are
+regarded as belonging to an important race, which we find dispersed over
+the country of Padan-Aram, in Northern Mesopotamia, near the base of
+Mount Masios, and extending on both sides of the Euphrates.*
+
+     * The country of Padan-Aram is situated between the
+     Euphrates and the upper reaches of the Khabur, on both sides
+     of the Balikh, and is usually explained as the “plain” or
+     “table-land” of Aram, though the etymology is not certain;
+     the word seems to be preserved in that of Tell-Faddân, near
+     Harrân.
+
+Their earliest chiefs bore the names of towns or of peoples,--N
+akhor, Peleg, and Serug:* all were descendants of Arphaxad,** and it
+was related that Terakh, the direct ancestor of the Israelites, had
+dwelt in Ur-Kashdîm, the Ur or Uru of the Chaldæans.*** He is said to
+have had three sons--Abraham, Nakhôr, and Harân. Harân begat Lot, but
+died before his father in Ur-Kashdîm, his own country; Abraham and
+Nakhor both took wives, but Abraham’s wife remained a long time barren.
+Then Terakh, with his son Abraham, his grandson Lot, the son of Harân,
+and his daughter-in-law Sarah,**** went forth from Ur-Kashdîm (Ur of the
+Chaldees) to go into the land of Canaan.
+
+     * Nakhôr has been associated with the ancient village of
+     Khaura, or with the ancient village of Hâditha-en-Naura, to
+     the south of Anah; Peleg probably corresponds with Phalga or
+     Phaliga, which was situated at the mouth of the Khabur;
+     Serug with the present Sarudj in the neighbourhood of
+     Edessa, and the other names in the genealogy were probably
+     borrowed from as many different localities.
+
+     ** The site of Arphaxad is doubtful, as is also its meaning:
+     its second element is undoubtedly the name of the Chaldæans,
+     but the first is interpreted in several ways--“frontier of
+     the Chaldæans,” “domain of the Chaldæans.” The similarity of
+     sound was the cause of its being for a long time associated
+     with the Arrapakhitis of classical times; the tendency is
+     now to recognise in it the country nearest to the ancient
+     domain of the Chaldæans, i.e. Babylonia proper.
+
+     *** Ur-Kashdîm has long been sought for in the north, either
+     at Orfa, in accordance with the tradition of the Syrian
+     Churches still existing in the East, or in a certain Ur of
+     Mesopotamia, placed by Ammianus Marcellinus between Nisibis
+     and the Tigris; at the present day Halévy still looks for it
+     on the Syrian bank of the Euphrates, to the south-east of
+     Thapsacus. Rawlin-son’s proposal to identify it with the
+     town of Uru has been successively accepted by nearly all
+     Assyriologists. Sayce remarks that the worship of Sin, which
+     was common to both towns, established a natural link between
+     them, and that an inhabitant of Uru would have felt more at
+     home in Harrân than in any other town.
+
+     **** The names of Sarah and Abraham, or rather the earlier
+     form, Abram, have been found, the latter under the form
+     Abirâmu, in the contracts of the first Chaldæan empire.
+
+And they came unto Kharân, and dwelt there, and Terakh died in Kharân.*
+It is a question whether Kharân is to be identified with Harrân in
+Mesopotamia, the city of the god Sin; or, which is more probable, with
+the Syrian town of Haurân, in the neighbourhood of Damascus. The tribes
+who crossed the Euphrates became subsequently a somewhat important
+people. They called themselves, or were known by others, as the ‘Ibrîm,
+or Hebrews, the people from beyond the river;** and this appellation,
+which we are accustomed to apply to the children of Israel only,
+embraced also, at the time when the term was most extended, the
+Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, Ishmaelites, Midianites, and many other
+tribes settled on the borders of the desert to the east and south of the
+Dead Sea.
+
+     * Gen. xi. 27-32. In the opinion of most critics, verses 27,
+     31 32 form part of the document which was the basis of the
+     various narratives still traceable in the Bible; it is
+     thought that the remaining verses bear the marks of a later
+     redaction, or that they may be additions of a later date.
+     The most important part of the text, that relating the
+     migration from Ur-Kashdîm to Kharân, belongs, therefore, to
+     the very oldest part of the national tradition, and may be
+     regarded as expressing the knowledge which the Hebrews of
+     the times of the Kings possessed concerning the origin of
+     their race.
+
+     ** The most ancient interpretation identified this nameless
+     river with the Euphrates; an identification still admitted
+     by most critics; others prefer to recognise it as being the
+     Jordan. Halévy prefers to identify it with one of the rivers
+     of Damascus, probably the Abana.
+
+These peoples all traced their descent from Abraham, the son of Terakh,
+but the children of Israel claimed the privilege of being the only
+legitimate issue of his marriage with Sarah, giving naïve or derogatory
+accounts of the relations which connected the others with their common
+ancestor; Ammon and Moab were, for instance, the issue of the incestuous
+union of Lot and his daughters. Midian and his sons were descended from
+Keturah, who was merely a concubine, Ishmael was the son of an Egyptian
+slave, while the “hairy” Esau had sold his birthright and the primacy of
+the Edomites to his brother Jacob, and consequently to the Israelites,
+for a dish of lentils. Abraham left Kharân at the command of Jahveh, his
+God, receiving from Him a promise that his posterity should be blessed
+above all others. Abraham pursued his way into the heart of Canaan
+till he reached Shechem, and there, under the oaks of Moreh, Jahveh,
+appearing to him a second time, announced to him that He would give the
+whole land to his posterity as an inheritance. Abraham virtually took
+possession of it, and wandered over it with his flocks, building altars
+at Shechem, Bethel, and Mamre, the places where God had revealed Himself
+to him, treating as his equals the native chiefs, Abîmelech of Gerar and
+Melchizedek of Jerusalem,* and granting the valley of the Jordan as
+a place of pasturage to his nephew Lot, whose flocks had increased
+immensely.** His nomadic instinct having led him into Egypt, he was here
+robbed of his wife by Pharaoh.***
+
+     * Cf. the meeting with Melchizedek after the victory over
+     the Elamites (_Gen_. xiv. 18-20) and the agreement with
+     Abîmelech about the well (Gen. xxi. 22-34). The mention of
+     the covenant of Abraham with Abîmelech belongs to the oldest
+     part of the national tradition, and is given to us in the
+     Jehovistic narrative. Many critics have questioned the
+     historical existence of Melchizedek, and believed that the
+     passage in which he is mentioned is merely a kind of parable
+     intended to show the head of the race paying tithe of the
+     spoil to the priest of the supreme God residing at
+     Jerusalem; the information, however, furnished by the Tel-
+     el-Amarna tablets about the ancient city of Jerusalem and
+     the character of its early kings have determined Sayce to
+     pronounce Melchizedek to be an historical personage.
+
+     ** _Gen._ xiii. 1-13. Lot has been sometimes connected of
+     late with the people called on the Egyptian monuments
+     Rotanu, or Lotanu, whom we shall have occasion to mention
+     frequently further on: he is supposed to have been their
+     eponymous hero. Lôtan, which is the name of an Edomite clan,
+     (_Gen_. xxxvi. 20, 29), is a racial adjective, derived from
+     Lot.
+
+     *** _Gen._ xii. 9-20, xiii. 1. Abraham’s visit to Egypt
+     reproduces the principal events of that of Jacob.
+
+[Illustration: 093.jpg THE TRADITIONAL OAK OF ABRAHAM AT HEBRON]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph brought home by Lortet.
+
+
+On his return he purchased the field of Ephron, near Kirjath-Arba, and
+the cave of Machpelah, of which he made a burying-place for his family*
+Kirjath-Arba, the Hebron of subsequent times, became from henceforward
+his favourite dwelling-place, and he was residing there when the
+Elamites invaded the valley of Siddîm, and carried off Lot among their
+prisoners.
+
+     * _Gen_. xiii. 18, xxiii. (Elohistic narrative). The tombs
+     of the patriarchs are believed by the Mohammedans to exist
+     to the present day in the cave which is situated within the
+     enclosure of the mosque at Hebron, and the tradition on
+     which this belief is based goes back to early Christian
+     times.
+
+Abraham set out in pursuit of them, and succeeded in delivering his
+nephew.* God (Jahveh) not only favoured him on every occasion, but
+expressed His will to extend over Abraham’s descendants His sheltering
+protection. He made a covenant with him, enjoining the use on the
+occasion of the mysterious rites employed among the nations when
+effecting a treaty of peace. Abraham offered up as victims a heifer, a
+goat, and a three-year-old ram, together with a turtle-dove and a young
+pigeon; he cut the animals into pieces, and piling them in two heaps,
+waited till the evening. “And when the sun was going down, a deep sleep
+fell upon Abraham; and lo, an horror of great darkness fell upon him,”
+ and a voice from on high said to him: “Know of a surety that thy seed
+shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall serve them;
+and they shall afflict them four hundred years; and also that nation,
+whom they shall serve, will I judge: and afterward shall they come out
+with great substance.... And it came to pass, that when the sun went
+down, and it was dark, behold a smoking furnace, and a burning lamp that
+passed between those pieces.” Jahveh sealed the covenant by consuming the
+offering.
+
+     * _Gen._ xiv. 12-24. 2 Gen. xv., Jehovistic narrative.
+
+Two less important figures fill the interval between the Divine
+prediction of servitude and its accomplishment. The birth of one of
+them, Isaac, was ascribed to the Divine intervention at a period when
+Sarah had given up all hope of becoming a mother. Abraham was sitting
+at his tent door in the heat of the day, when three men presented
+themselves before him, whom he invited to repose under the oak while he
+prepared to offer them hospitality. After their meal, he who seemed to
+be the chief of the three promised to return within a year, when Sarah
+should be blessed with the possession of a son. The announcement came
+from Jahveh, but Sarah was ignorant of the fact, and laughed to herself
+within the tent on hearing this amazing prediction; for she said, “After
+I am waxed old shall I have pleasure, my lord being old also?” The child
+was born, however, and was called Isaac, “the laugher,” in remembrance
+of Sarah’s mocking laugh.* There is a remarkable resemblance between his
+life and that of his father.** Like Abraham he dwelt near Hebron,***
+and departing thence wandered with his household round the wells of
+Beersheba. Like him he was threatened with the loss of his wife.
+
+     * _Gen_. xviii. 1-16, according to the Jehovistic narrative.
+     _Gen_. xvii. 15-22 gives another account, in which the
+     Elohistic writer predicts the birth of Isaac in a différent
+     way. The name of Isaac, “the laugher,” possibly abridged
+     from Isaak-el, “he on whom God smiles,” is explained in
+     three different ways: first, by the laugh of Abraham (ch.
+     xvii. 17); secondly, by that of Sarah (xviii. 12) when her
+     son’s birth was foretold to her; and lastly, by the laughter
+     of those who made sport of the delayed maternity of Sarah
+     (xxi. 6).
+
+     ** Many critics see in the life of Isaac a colourless copy
+     of that of Abraham, while others, on the contrary, consider
+     that the primitive episodes belonged to the former, and that
+     the parallel portions of the two lives were borrowed from
+     the biography of the son to augment that of his father.
+
+     *** _Gen_. xxxv. 27, Elohistic narrative.
+
+Like him, also, he renewed relations with Abîmelech of Gerar.* He married
+his relative Rebecca, the granddaughter of Nâkhor and the sister of
+Laban.** After twenty years of barrenness, his wife gave birth to twins,
+Esau and Jacob, who contended with each other from their mother’s womb,
+and whose descendants kept up a perpetual feud. We know how Esau, under
+the influence of his appetite, deprived himself of the privileges of
+his birthright, and subsequently went forth to become the founder of
+the Edomites. Jacob spent a portion of his youth in Padan-Aram; here he
+served Laban for the hands of his cousins Rachel and Leah; then, owing
+to the bad faith of his uncle, he left him secretly, after twenty
+years’ service, taking with him his wives and innumerable flocks. At
+first he wandered aimlessly along the eastern bank of the Jordan,
+where Jahveh revealed Himself to him in his troubles. Laban pursued and
+overtook him, and, acknowledging his own injustice, pardoned him for
+having taken flight. Jacob raised a heap of stones on the site of
+their encounter, known at Mizpah to after-ages as the “Stone of Witness
+“--G-al-Ed (Galeed).*** This having been accomplished, his difficulties
+began with his brother Esau, who bore him no good will.
+
+     * _Gen._ xxvi. 1--31, Jehovistic narrative. In _Gen._ xxv.
+     11 an Elohistic interpolation makes Isaac also dwell in the
+     south, near to the “Well of the Living One Who seeth me.”
+
+     ** _Gen._ xxiv., where two narratives appear to have been
+     amalgamated; in the second of these, Abraham seems to have
+     played no part, and Eliezer apparently conducted Rebecca
+     direct to her husband Isaac (vers. 61-67).
+
+     *** _Gen._ xxxi. 45-54, where the writer evidently traces
+     the origin of the word Gilead to Gal-Ed. We gather from the
+     context that the narrative was connected with the cairn at
+     Mizpah which separated the Hebrew from the Aramæan speaking
+     peoples.
+
+One night, at the ford of the Jabbok, when he had fallen behind his
+companions, “there wrestled a man with him until the breaking of the
+day,” without prevailing against him. The stranger endeavoured to escape
+before daybreak, but only succeeded in doing so at the cost of giving
+Jacob his blessing. “What is thy name? And he said, Jacob. And he
+said, Thy name shall be called no more Jacob, but Israel: for thou hast
+striven with God and with men, and hast prevailed.” Jacob called the
+place Penîel, “for,” said he, “I have seen God face to face, and my life
+is preserved.” The hollow of his thigh was “strained as he wrestled with
+him,” and he became permanently lame.* Immediately after the struggle
+he met Esau, and endeavoured to appease him by his humility, building a
+house for him, and providing booths for his cattle, so as to secure for
+his descendants the possession of the land. From this circumstance the
+place received the name of Succôth--the “Booths “--by which appellation
+it was henceforth known. Another locality where Jahveh had met Jacob
+while he was pitching his tents, derived from this fact the designation
+of the “Two Hosts”--Mahanaîm.** On the other side of the river, at
+Shechem,*** at Bethel,**** and at Hebron, near to the burial-place of
+his family, traces of him are everywhere to be found blent with those of
+Abraham.
+
+     * _Gen._ xxxii. 22-32. This is the account of the Jehovistic
+     writer. The Elohist gives a different version of the
+     circumstances which led to the change of name from Jacob to
+     Israel; he places the scene at Bethel, and suggests no
+     precise etymology for the name Israel (_Gen._ xxxv. 9-15).
+
+     ** _Gen._ xxxii. 2, 3, where the theophany is indicated
+     rather than directly stated.
+
+     *** _Gen._ xxxiii. 18-20. Here should be placed the episode
+     of Dinah seduced by an Amorite prince, and the consequent
+     massacre of the inhabitants by Simeon and Levi (_Gen._
+     xxxiv.). The almost complete dispersion of the two tribes of
+     Simeon and Levi is attributed to this massacre: cf. _Gen._
+     xlix. 5-7.
+
+     **** _Gen._ xxxv. 1-15, where is found the Elohistic version
+     (9-15) of the circumstances which led to the change of name
+     from Jacob to Israel.
+
+By his two wives and their maids he had twelve sons. Leah was the mother
+of Keuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, and Zabulon; Gad. and Asher
+were the children of his slave Zilpah; while Joseph and Benjamin were
+the only sons of Rachel--Dan and Naphtali being the offspring of her
+servant Bilhah. The preference which his father showed to him caused
+Joseph to be hated by his brothers; they sold him to a caravan of
+Midianites on their way to Egypt, and persuaded Jacob that a wild beast
+had devoured him. Jahveh was, however, with Joseph, and “made all that
+he did to prosper in his hand.” He was bought by Potiphar, a great
+Egyptian lord and captain of Pharaoh’s guard, who made him his overseer;
+his master’s wife, however, “cast her eyes upon Joseph,” but finding
+that he rejected her shameless advances, she accused him of having
+offered violence to her person. Being cast into prison, he astonished
+his companions in misfortune by his skill in reading dreams, and was
+summoned to Court to interpret to the king his dream of the seven lean
+kine who had devoured the seven fat kine, which he did by representing
+the latter as seven years of abundance, of which the crops should be
+swallowed up by seven years of famine. Joseph was thereupon raised by
+Pharaoh to the rank of prime minister. He stored up the surplus of the
+abundant harvests, and as soon as the famine broke out, distributed
+the corn to the hunger-stricken people in exchange for their silver and
+gold, and for their flocks and fields. Hence it was,that the whole
+of the Nile valley, with the exception of the lands belonging to the
+priests, gradually passed into the possession of the royal treasury.
+Meanwhile his brethren, who also suffered from the famine, came down
+into Egypt to buy corn. Joseph revealed himself to them, pardoned the
+wrong they had done him, and presented them to the Pharaoh. “And Pharaoh
+said unto Joseph, Say unto thy brethren, This do ye; lade your beasts,
+and go, get you unto the land of Canaan: and take your father and your
+household, and come unto me: and I will give you the good of the land of
+Egypt, and ye shall eat the fat of the land.” Jacob thereupon raised his
+camp and came to Beersheba, where he offered sacrifices to the God
+of his father Isaac; and Jahveh commanded him to go down into Egypt,
+saying, “I will there make of thee a great nation: I will go down with
+thee into Egypt: and I will also surely bring thee up again: and Joseph
+shall put his hand upon thine eyes.” The whole family were installed by
+Pharaoh in the province of Goshen, as far as possible from the centres
+of the native population, “for every shepherd is an abomination unto the
+Egyptians.”
+
+In the midst of these stern yet touching narratives in which the Hebrews
+of the times of the Kings delighted to trace the history of their remote
+ancestors, one important fact arrests our attention: the Beni-Israel
+quitted Southern Syria and settled on the banks of the Nile. They
+had remained for a considerable time in what was known later as the
+mountains of Judah. Hebron had served as their rallying-point; the broad
+but scantily watered wadys separating the cultivated lands from the
+desert, were to them a patrimony, which they shared with the inhabitants
+of the neighbouring towns. Every year, in the spring, they led their
+flocks to browse on the thin herbage growing in the bottoms of the
+valleys, removing them to another district only when the supply of
+fodder was exhausted. The women span, wove, fashioned garments, baked
+bread, cooked the viands, and devoted themselves to the care of the
+younger children, whom they suckled beyond the usual period. The men
+lived like the Bedouin--periods of activity alternating regularly with
+times of idleness, and the daily routine, with its simple duties and
+casual work, often gave place to quarrels for the possession of some
+rich pasturage or some never-failing well.
+
+A comparatively ancient tradition relates that the Hebrews arrived in
+Egypt during the reign of Aphôbis, a Hyksôs king, doubtless one of the
+Apôpi, and possibly the monarch who restored the monuments of the Theban
+Pharaohs, and engraved his name on the sphinxes of Amenemhâît III. and
+on the colossi of Mîrmâshâû.* The land which the Hebrews obtained is
+that which, down to the present day, is most frequently visited by
+nomads, who find there an uncertain hospitality.
+
+     * The year XVII. of Apôphis has been pointed out as the date
+     of their arrival, and this combination, probably proposed by
+     some learned Jew of Alexandria, was adopted by Christian
+     chroniclers. It is unsupported by any fact of Egyptian
+     history, but it rests on a series of calculations founded on
+     the information contained in the Bible. Starting from the
+     assumption that the Exodus must have taken place under
+     Ahmosîs, and that the children of Israel had been four
+     hundred and thirty years on the banks of the Nile, it was
+     found that the beginning of their sojourn fell under the
+     reign of the Apôphis mentioned by Josephus, and, to be still
+     more correct, in the XVIIth year of that prince.
+
+The tribes of the isthmus of Suez are now, in fact, constantly shifting
+from one continent to another, and their encampments in any place are
+merely temporary. The lord of the soil must, if he desire to keep them
+within his borders, treat them with the greatest prudence and tact.
+Should the government displease them in any way, or appear to curtail
+their liberty, they pack up their tents and take flight into the desert.
+The district occupied by them one day is on the next vacated and left to
+desolation. Probably the same state of things existed in ancient times,
+and the border nomes on the east of the Delta were in turn inhabited or
+deserted by the Bedouin of the period. The towns were few in number,
+but a series of forts protected the frontier. These were mere
+village-strongholds perched on the summit of some eminence, and
+surrounded by a strip of cornland. Beyond the frontier extended a region
+of bare rock, or a wide plain saturated with the ill-regulated surplus
+water of the inundation. The land of Goshen was bounded by the cities of
+Heliopolis on the south, Bubastis on the west, and Tanis and Mendes on
+the north: the garrison at Avaris could easily keep watch over it and
+maintain order within it, while they could at the same time defend it
+from the incursions of the Monatiû and the Hîrû-Shâîtû.*
+
+     * Goshen comprised the provinces situated on the borders of
+     the cultivable cornland, and watered by the infiltration of
+     the Nile, which caused the growth of a vegetation sufficient
+     to support the flocks during a few weeks; and it may also
+     have included the imperfectly irrigated provinces which were
+     covered with pools and reedy swamps after each inundation.
+
+The Beni-Israel throve in these surroundings so well adapted to their
+traditional tastes. Even if their subsequent importance as a nation
+has been over-estimated, they did not at least share the fate of many
+foreign tribes, who, when transplanted into Egypt, waned and died out,
+or, at the end of two or three generations, became merged in the native
+population.* In pursuing their calling as shepherds, almost within sight
+of the rich cities of the Nile valley, they never forsook the God of
+their fathers to bow down before the Enneads or Triads of Egypt; whether
+He was already known to them as Jahveh, or was worshipped under the
+collective name of Elohîm, they served Him with almost unbroken fidelity
+even in the presence of Râ and Osiris, of Phtah and Sûtkhû.
+
+     * We are told that when the Hebrews left Ramses, they were
+     “about six hundred thousand on foot that were men, beside
+     children. And a mixed multitude went up also with them; and
+     flocks and herds, even very much cattle” (_Exod._ xii. 37,
+     38).
+
+The Hyksôs conquest had not in any way modified the feudal system of the
+country. The Shepherd-kings must have inherited the royal domain just as
+they found it at the close of the XIVth dynasty, but doubtless the whole
+Delta, from Avaris to Sais, and from Memphis to Buto, was their personal
+appanage. Their direct authority probably extended no further south than
+the pyramids, and their supremacy over the fiefs of the Said was at best
+precarious. The turbulent lords who shared among them the possession of
+the valley had never lost their proud or rebellious spirit, and under
+the foreign as under the native Pharaohs regulated their obedience
+to their ruler by the energy he displayed, or by their regard for
+the resources at his disposal. Thebes had never completely lost the
+ascendency which it obtained over them at the fall of the Memphite
+dynasty. The accession of the Xoite dynasty, and the arrival of the
+Shepherd-kings, in relegating Thebes unceremoniously to a second rank,
+had not discouraged it, or lowered its royal prestige in its own eyes or
+in those of others: the lords of the south instinctively rallied around
+it, as around their natural citadel, and their resources, combined with
+its own, rendered it as formidable a power as that of the masters of the
+Delta. If we had fuller information as to the history of this period, we
+should doubtless see that the various Theban princes took occasion, as
+in the Heracleopolitan epoch, to pick a quarrel with their sovereign
+lord, and did not allow themselves to be discouraged by any check.*
+
+     * The length of time during which Egypt was subject to
+     Asiatic rule is not fully known. Historians are agreed in
+     recognizing the three epochs referred to in the narrative of
+     Manetho as corresponding with (1) the conquest and the six
+     first Hyksôs kings, including the XVth Theban dynasty; (2)
+     the complete submission of Egypt to the XVIth foreign
+     dynasty; (3) the war of independence during the XVIIth
+     dynasty, which consisted of two parallel series of kings,
+     the one Shepherds (Pharaohs), the other Thebans. There has
+     been considerable discussion as to the duration of the
+     oppression. The best solution is still that given by Erman,
+     according to whom the XVth dynasty lasted 284, the XVIth
+     234, and the XVIIth 143 years, or, in all, 661 years. The
+     invasion must, therefore, have taken place about 2346 B.C.,
+     or about the time when the Elamite power was at its highest.
+     The advent of the XVIth dynasty would fall about 2062 B.C.,
+     and the commencement of the war of independence between 1730
+     and 1720 B.C.
+
+The period of hegemony attributed by the chronicles to the Hyksôs of the
+XVIth dynasty was not probably, as far as they were concerned, years of
+perfect tranquillity, or of undisputed authority. In inscribing their
+sole names on the lists, the compilers denoted merely the shorter
+or longer period during which their Theban vassals failed in their
+rebellious efforts, and did not dare to assume openly the title or
+ensigns of royalty. A certain Apôphis, probably the same who took the
+prsenomen of Aqnûnrî, was reigning at Tanis when the decisive revolt
+broke out, and Saqnûnrî Tiûâa I., who was the leader on the occasion,
+had no other title of authority over the provinces of the south than
+that of _hiqu,_ or regent. We are unacquainted with the cause of the
+outbreak or with its sequel, and the Egyptians themselves seem to have
+been not much better informed on the subject than ourselves. They gave
+free flight to their fancy, and accommodated the details to their taste,
+not shrinking from the introduction of daring fictions into the account.
+A romance, which was very popular with the literati four or five hundred
+years later, asserted that the real cause of the war was a kind of
+religious quarrel. “It happened that the land of Egypt belonged to
+the Fever-stricken, and, as there was no supreme king at that time, it
+happened then that King Saqnûnrî was regent of the city of the south,
+and that the Fever-stricken of the city of Râ were under the rule of
+Râ-Apôpi in Avaris. The Whole Land tribute to the latter in manufactured
+products, and the north did the same in all the good things of the
+Delta. Now, the King Râ-Apôpi took to himself Sûtkhû for lord, and he
+did not serve any other god in the Whole Land except Sûtkhû, and he
+built a temple of excellent and everlasting work at the gate of the King
+Râ-Apôpi, and he arose every morning to sacrifice the daily victims,
+and the chief vassals were there with garlands of flowers, as it was
+accustomed to be done for the temple of Phrâ-Harmâkhis.” Having finished
+the temple, he thought of imposing upon the Thebans the cult of his god,
+but as he shrank from employing force in such a delicate matter, he had
+recourse to stratagem. He took counsel with his princes and generals,
+but they were unable to propose any plan. The college of diviners and
+scribes was more complaisant: “Let a messenger go to the regent of the
+city of the South to tell him: The King Râ-Apôpi commands thee: ‘That
+the hippopotami which are in the pool of the town are to be exterminated
+in the pool, in order that slumber may come to me by day and by night.’
+He will not be able to reply good or bad, and thou shalt send him
+another messenger: The King Râ-Apôpi commands thee: ‘If the chief of the
+South does not reply to my message, let him serve no longer any god but
+Sûtkhû. But if he replies to it, and will do that which I tell him
+to do, then I will impose nothing further upon him, and I will not in
+future bow before any other god of the Whole Land than Amonrâ, king of
+the gods!’” Another Pharaoh of popular romance, Nectanebo, possessed,
+at a much later date, mares which conceived at the neighing of the
+stallions of Babylon, and his friend Lycerus had a cat which went forth
+every night to wring the necks of the cocks of Memphis:* the hippopotami
+of the Theban lake, which troubled the rest of the King of Tanis, were
+evidently of close kin to these extraordinary animals.
+
+     * Found in a popular story, which came in later times to be
+     associated with the traditions connected with Æsop.
+
+The sequel is unfortunately lost. We may assume, however, without much
+risk of error, that Saqnûnrî came forth safe and sound from the ordeal;
+that Apôpi was taken in his own trap, and saw himself driven to the dire
+extremity of giving up Sûtkhû for Amonrâ or of declaring war. He was
+likely to adopt the latter alternative, and the end of the manuscript
+would probably have related his defeat.
+
+[Illustration: 106.jpg PALLATE OF Tiûâa]
+
+     Drawn from the original by Faucher-Gudin.
+
+Hostilities continued for a century and a half from the time when
+Saqnûnrî Tiûâa declared himself son of the Sun and king of the
+two Egypts. From the moment in which he surrounded his name with a
+cartouche, the princes of the Said threw in their lot with him, and the
+XVIIth dynasty had its beginning on the day of his proclamation. The
+strife at first was undecisive and without marked advantage to either
+side: at length the Pharaoh whom the Greek copyists of Manetho call
+Alisphragmouthosis, defeated the barbarians, drove them away from
+Memphis and from the western plains of the Delta, and shut them up in
+their entrenched camp at Avaris, between the Sebennytic branch of the
+Nile and the Wady Tumilât. The monuments bearing on this period of
+strife and misery are few in number, and it is a fortunate circumstance
+if some insignificant object tarns up which would elsewhere be passed
+over as unworthy of notice. One of the officials of Tiûâa I. has left us
+his writing palette, on which the cartouches of his master are incised
+with a rudeness baffling description.
+
+We have also information of a prince of the blood, a king’s son, Tûaû,
+who accompanied this same Pharaoh in his expeditions; and the Gîzeh
+Museum is proud of having in its possession the i wooden sabre which
+this individual placed on the mummy of a certain Aqhorû, to enable him
+to defend himself against the monsters of the lower world. A second
+Saqnûnrî Tiûâa succeeded the first, and like him was buried in a little
+brick pyramid on the border of the Theban necropolis. At his death the
+series of rulers was broken, and we meet with several names which
+are difficult to classify--Sakhontinibrî, Sanakhtû-niri, Hotpûrî,
+Manhotpûrî, Eâhotpû.*
+
+     * Hotpûrî and Manhotpûrî are both mentioned in the fragments
+     of a fantastic story (copied during the XXth dynasty), bits
+     of which are found in most European museums. In one of these
+     fragments, preserved in the Louvre, mention is made of
+     Hotpûrî’s tomb, certainly situated at Thebes; we possess
+     scarabs of this king, and Pétrie discovered at Coptos a
+     fragment of a stele bearing his name and titles, and
+     describing the works which he executed in the temples of the
+     town. The XIVth year of Manhotpûrî is mentioned in a passage
+     of the story as being the date of the death of a personage
+     born under Hotpûrî. These two kings belong, as far as we are
+     able to judge, to the middle of the XVIIth dynasty; I am
+     inclined to place beside them the Pharaoh Nûbhotpûrî, of
+     whom we possess a few rather coarse scarabs.
+
+As we proceed, however, information becomes more plentiful, and the list
+of reigns almost complete. The part which the princesses of older
+times played in the transmission of power had, from the XIIth dynasty
+downward, considerably increased in importance, and threatened to
+overshadow that of the princes. The question presents itself whether,
+during these centuries of perpetual warfare, there had not been a moment
+when, all the males of the family having perished, the women alone
+were left to perpetuate the solar race on the earth and to keep the
+succession unbroken. As soon as the veil over this period of history
+begins to be lifted, we distinguish among the personages emerging from
+the obscurity as many queens as kings presiding over the destinies of
+Egypt. The sons took precedence of the daughters when both were the
+offspring of a brother and sister born of the same parents, and when,
+consequently, they were of equal rank; but, on the other hand, the sons
+forfeited this equality when there was any inferiority in origin on the
+maternal side, and their prospect of succession to the throne diminished
+in proportion to their mother’s remoteness from the line of Râ. In the
+latter case all their sisters, born of marriages which to us appear
+incestuous, took precedence of them, and the eldest daughter became the
+legitimate Pharaoh, who sat in the seat of Horus on the death of her
+father, or even occasionally during his lifetime. The prince whom she
+married governed for her, and discharged those royal duties which could
+be legally performed by a man only,--such as offering worship to the
+supreme gods, commanding the army, and administering justice; but his
+wife never ceased to be sovereign, and however small the intelligence
+or firmness of which she might be possessed, her husband was obliged
+to leave to her, at all events on certain occasions, the direction of
+affairs.
+
+[Illustration: 109.jpg NOFRÎTARI, FROM TUE WOODEN STATUETTE IN THE TURIN
+MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Plinders
+     Pétrie.
+
+At her death her children inherited the crown: their father had formally
+to invest the eldest of them with royal, authority in the room of the
+deceased, and with him he shared the externals, if not the reality, of
+power.* It is doubtful whether the third Saq-nûnrî Tiûâa known to us--he
+who added an epithet to his name, and was commonly known as Tiûâqni,
+“Tiûâa the brave” ** --united in his person all the requisites of a
+Pharaoh qualified to reign in his own right. However this may have been,
+at all events his wife, Queen Ahhotpû, possessed them.
+
+     * Thus we find Thûtmosis I. formally enthroning his daughter
+     Hât-shopsîtû, towards the close of his reign.
+
+     ** It would seem that the epithet Qeni ( = the brave, the
+     robust) did not form an indispensable part of his name, any
+     more than Ahmosi did of the names of members of the family
+     of Ahmosis, the conqueror of the Shepherds. It is to him
+     that the Tiûâa cartouche refers, which is to be found on the
+     statue mentioned by Daninos-Pasha, published by Bouriant,
+     and on which we find Ahmosis, a princess of the same name,
+     together with Queen Ahhotpû I.
+
+His eldest son Ahmosû died prematurely; the two younger brothers, Kamosû
+and a second Ahmosû, the Amosis of the Greeks, assumed the crown after
+him. It is possible, as frequently happened, that their young sister
+Ahmasi-Nofrîtari entered the harem of both brothers consecutively.
+
+[Illustration: 110.jpg THE HEAD OF SAQNURI]
+
+     Drawn by Bouclier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+We cannot be sure that she was united to Kamosû, but at all events she
+became the wife of Ahmosis, and the rights which she possessed, together
+with those which her husband had inherited from their mother Ahhotpû,
+gave him a legal claim such as was seldom enjoyed by the Pharaohs of
+that period, so many of them being sovereigns merely _de facto,_ while
+he was doubly king by right.
+
+Tiûâqni, Kamosû,* and Ahmosis** quickly succeeded each other. Tiûâqni
+very probably waged war against the Shepherds, and it is not known
+whether he fell upon the field of battle or was the victim of some plot;
+the appearance of his mummy proves that he died a violent death when
+about forty years of age. Two or three men, whether assassins or
+soldiers, must have surrounded and despatched him before help was
+available. A blow from an axe must have severed part of his left cheek,
+exposed the teeth, fractured the jaw, and sent him senseless to the
+ground; another blow must have seriously injured the skull, and a dagger
+or javelin has cut open the forehead on the right side, a little above
+the eye. His body must have remained lying where it fell for some
+time: when found, decomposition had set in, and the embalming had to
+be hastily performed as best it might. The hair is thick, rough, and
+matted; the face had been shaved on the morning of his death, but by
+touching the cheek we can ascertain how harsh and abundant the hair must
+have been. The mummy is that of a fine, vigorous man, who might have
+lived to a hundred years, and he must have defended himself resolutely
+against his assailants; his features bear even now an expression of
+fury. A flattened patch of exuded brain appears above one eye, the
+forehead is wrinkled, and the lips, which are drawn back in a circle
+about the gums, reveal the teeth still biting into the tongue. Kamosû
+did not reign long; we know nothing of the events of his life, but we
+owe to him one of the prettiest examples of the Egyptian goldsmith’s
+art--the gold boat mounted on a carriage of wood and bronze, which
+was to convey his double on its journeys through Hades. This boat was
+afterwards appropriated by his mother Ahhotpû.
+
+     * With regard to Kamosû, we possess, in addition to the
+     miniature bark which was discovered on the sarcophagus of
+     Queen Ahhotpû, and which is now in the museum at Gîzeh, a
+     few scattered references to his worship existing on the
+     monuments, on a stele at Gîzeh, on a table of offerings in
+     the Marseilles Museum, and in the list of princes worshipped
+     by the “servants of the Necropolis.” His pyramid was at Drah-
+     Abu’l-Neggah, beside those of Ilûâa and Amenôthês I.
+
+     ** The name Amosû or Ahmosi is usually translated “Child of
+     the Moon-god” the real meaning is, “the Moon-god has brought
+     forth,” “him” or “her” (referring to the person who bears
+     the name) being understood.
+
+Ahmosisa must have been about twenty-five years of age when he ascended
+the throne; he was of medium height, as his body when mummied measured
+only 5 feet 6 inches in length, but the development of the neck and
+chest indicates extraordinary strength. The head is small in proportion
+to the bust, the forehead low and narrow, the cheek-bones project, and
+the hair is thick and wavy. The face exactly resembles that of Tiûâcrai,
+and the likeness alone would proclaim the affinity, even if we were
+ignorant of the close relationship which united these two Pharaohs.*
+Ahmosis seems to have been a strong, active, warlike man; he was
+successful in all the wars in which we know him to have been engaged,
+and he ousted the Shepherds from the last towns occupied by them. It is
+possible that modern writers have exaggerated the credit due to Ahmosis
+for expelling the Hyksôs. He found the task already half accomplished,
+and the warfare of his forefathers for at least a century must have
+prepared the way for his success; if he appears to have played the most
+important _rôle_ in the history of the deliverance, it is owing to our
+ignorance of the work of others, and he thus benefits by the oblivion
+into which their deeds have passed. Taking this into consideration, we
+must still admit that the Shepherds, even when driven into Avaris, were
+not adversaries to be despised. Forced by the continual pressure of the
+Egyptian armies into this corner of the Delta, they were as a compact
+body the more able to make a protracted resistance against very superior
+forces.
+
+     * Here again my description is taken from the present
+     appearance of the mummy, which is now in the Gîzeh Museum.
+     It is evident, from the inspection which I have made, that
+     Ahmosis was about fifty years old at the time of his death,
+     and, allowing him to have reigned twenty-five years, he must
+     have been twenty-five or twenty-six when he came to the
+     throne.
+
+[Illustration: 113.jpg THE SMALL GOLD VOTIVE BARQUE OF PHARAOH KAMOSÛ,
+IN THE GÎZEH MUSEUM.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The impenetrable marshes of Menzaleh on the north, and the desert of the
+Red Sea on the south, completely covered both their wings; the shifting
+network of the branches of the Nile, together with the artificial
+canals, protected them as by a series of moats in front, while Syria in
+their rear offered them inexhaustible resources for revictualling their
+troops, or levying recruits among tribes of kindred race. As long as
+they could hold their ground there, a re-invasion was always possible;
+one victory would bring them to Memphis, and the whole valley would
+again fall under then-suzerainty. Ahmosis, by driving them from their
+last stronghold, averted this danger. It is, therefore, not without
+reason that the official chroniclers of later times separated him from
+his ancestors and made him the head of a new dynasty.
+
+[Illustration: 114.jpg Page Image]
+
+His predecessors had in reality been merely Pharaohs on sufferance,
+ruling in the south within the confines of their Theban principality,
+gaining in power, it is true, with every generation, but never able to
+attain to the suzerainty of the whole country. They were reckoned in
+the XVIIth dynasty together with the Hyksôs sovereigns of uncontested
+legitimacy, while their successors were chosen to constitute
+the XVIIIth, comprising Pharaohs with full powers, tolerating no
+competitors, and uniting under their firm rule the two regions of
+which Egypt was composed--the possessions of Sit and the possessions of
+Horus.*
+
+     * Manetho, or his abridgers, call the king who drove out the
+     Shepherds Amôsis or Tethmôsis. Lepsius thought he saw
+     grounds for preferring the second reading, and identified
+     this Tethmôsis with Thûtmosi Manakhpirri, the ïhûtmosis III.
+     of our lists; Ahmosis could only have driven out the greater
+     part of the nation. This theory, to which Naville still
+     adheres, as also does Stindorff, was disputed nearly fifty
+     years ago by E. de Rougé; nowadays we are obliged to admit
+     that, subsequent to the Vth year of Ahmosis, there were no
+     longer Shepherd-kings in Egypt, even though a part of the
+     conquering race may have remained in the country in a state
+     of slavery, as we shall soon have occasion to observe.
+
+The war of deliverance broke out on the accession of Ahmosis, and
+continued during the first five years of his reign.* One of his
+lieutenants, the king’s namesake--Âhmosi-si-Abîna--who belonged to the
+family of the lords of Nekhabît, has left us an account, in one of the
+inscriptions in his tomb, of the numerous exploits in which he took part
+side by side with his royal master, and thus, thanks to this fortunate
+record of his vanity, we are not left in complete ignorance of the
+events which took place during this crucial struggle between the Asiatic
+settlers and their former subjects. Nekhabît had enjoyed considerable
+prosperity in the earlier ages of Egyptian history, marking as it
+did the extreme southern limit of the kingdom, and forming an outpost
+against the barbarous tribes of Nubia. As soon as the progress of
+conquest had pushed the frontier as far south as the first cataract,
+it declined in importance, and the remembrance of its former greatness
+found an echo only in proverbial expressions or in titles used at the
+Pharaonic court.* The nomes situated to the south of Thebes, unlike
+those of Middle Egypt, did not comprise any extensive fertile or
+well-watered territory calculated to enrich its possessors or to afford
+sufficient support for a large population: they consisted of long strips
+of alluvial soil, shut in between the river and the mountain range,
+but above the level of the inundation, and consequently difficult to
+irrigate.
+
+     * This is evident from passage in the biography of Ahmosi-
+     si-Abîna, where it is stated that, after the taking of
+     Avaris, the king passed into Asia in the year VI. The first
+     few lines of the _Great Inscription of El-Kab_ seem to refer
+     to four successive campaigns, i.e. four years of warfare up
+     to the taking of Avaris, and to a fifth year spent in
+     pursuing the Shepherds into Syria.
+
+     ** The vulture of Nekhabît is used to indicate the south,
+     while the urseus of Buto denotes the extreme north; the
+     title Râ-Nekhnît, “Chief of Nekhnît,” which is,
+     hypothetically, supposed to refer to a judicial function, is
+     none the less associated with the expression, “Nekhabît-
+     Tekhnît,” as an indication of the south, and, therefore,
+     can be traced to the prehistoric epoch when Nekhabît was the
+     primary designation of the south.
+
+[Illustration: 116.jpg THE WALLS OF EL-KAB SEEN FROM THE TOMB OF PIHIRI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+
+[Illustration: 116a.jpg COLLECTION OF VASES] MODELLED AND PAINTED IN THE
+GRAND TEMPLE. PHILAE ISLAND.
+
+These nomes were cultivated, moreover, by a poor and sparse population.
+It needed a fortuitous combination of circumstances to relieve them from
+their poverty-stricken condition--either a war, which would bring into
+prominence their strategic positions; or the establishment of
+markets, such as those of Syênê and Elephantine, where the commerce
+of neighbouring regions would naturally centre; or the erection, as at
+Ombos or Adfû, of a temple which would periodically attract a crowd
+of pilgrims. The principality of the Two Feathers comprised, besides
+Nekhabît, ât least two such towns--Anît, on its northern boundary, and
+Nekhnît almost facing Nekhabît on the left bank of the river.* These
+three towns sometimes formed separate estates for as many independent
+lords:** even when united they constituted a fiefdom of but restricted
+area and of slender revenues, its chiefs ranking below those of the
+great feudal princes of Middle Egypt. The rulers of this fiefdom led an
+obscure existence during the whole period of the Memphite empire, and
+when at length Thebes gained the ascendency, they rallied to the latter
+and acknowledged her suzerainty. One of them, Sovkûnakhîti, gained the
+favour of Sovkhotpû III. Sakhemûaztaûirî, who granted him lands which
+made the fortune of his house; another of them, Aï, married Khonsu,
+one of the daughters of Sovkûmsaûf I. and his Queen Nûbkhâs, and it is
+possible that the misshapen pyramid of Qûlah, the most southern in Egypt
+proper, was built for one of these royally connected personages.
+
+     * Nekhnît is the Hieracônpolis of Greek and Roman times,
+     Hâît-Baûkû, the modern name of which is Kom-el-Ahmar.
+
+     ** Pihiri was, therefore, prince of Nekhabît and of Anît at
+     one and the same time, whereas the town of Nekhnît had its
+     own special rulers, several of whom are known to us from the
+     tombs at Kom-el-Ahmar.
+
+The descendants of Aï attached themselves faithfully to the Pharaohs
+of the XVIIth dynasty, and helped them to the utmost in their struggle
+against the invaders. Their capital, Nekhabît, was situated between the
+Nile and the Arabian chain, at the entrance to a valley which penetrates
+some distance into the desert, and leads to the gold-mines on the Red
+Sea. The town profited considerably from the precious metals brought
+into it by the caravans, and also from the extraction of natron, which
+from prehistoric times was largely employed in embalming. It had been
+a fortified place from the outset, and its walls, carefully repaired
+by successive ages, were still intact at the beginning of this century.
+They described at this time a rough quadrilateral, the two longer sides
+of which measured some 1900 feet in length, the two shorter being about
+one-fourth less. The southern face was constructed in a fashion common
+in brick buildings in Egypt, being divided into alternate panels of
+horizontally laid courses, and those in which the courses were concave;
+on the north and west façades the bricks were so laid as to present
+an undulating arrangement running uninterruptedly from one end to the
+other. The walls are 33 feet thick, and their average height 27 feet;
+broad and easy steps lead to the foot-walk on the top. The gates are
+unsymmetrically placed, there being one on the north, east, and west
+sides respectively; while the southern side is left without an opening.
+These walls afforded protection to a dense but unequally distributed
+population, the bulk of which was housed towards the north and west
+sides, where the remains of an immense number of dwellings may still
+be seen. The temples were crowded together in a small square enclosure,
+concentric with the walls of the enceinte, and the principal sanctuary
+was dedicated to Nekhabît, the vulture goddess, who gave her name to the
+city.* This enclosure formed a kind of citadel, where the garrison could
+hold out when the outer part had fallen into the enemy’s hands. The
+times were troublous; the open country was repeatedly wasted by war, and
+the peasantry had more than once to seek shelter behind the protecting
+ramparts of the town, leaving their lands to lie fallow.
+
+     * A part of the latter temple, that which had been rebuilt
+     in the Saîte epoch, was still standing at the beginning of
+     the XIXth century, with columns bearing the cartouches of
+     Hakori; it was destroyed about the year 1825, and
+     Champollion found only the foundations of the walls.
+
+[Illustration: 119.jpg THE RUINS OF THE PYRAMID OF QÛLAH, NEAR
+MOHAMMERIEH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+
+Famine constantly resulted from these disturbances, and it taxed all the
+powers of the ruling prince to provide at such times for his people. A
+chief of the Commissariat, Bebî by name, who lived about this period,
+gives us a lengthy account of the number of loaves, oxen, goats, and
+pigs, which he allowed to all the inhabitants both great and little,
+down even to the quantity of oil and incense, which he had taken care to
+store up for them: his prudence was always justified by the issue, for
+“during the many years in which the famine recurred, he distributed
+grain in the city to all those who hungered.”
+
+Babaî, the first of the lords of El-Kab whose name has come down to
+us, was a captain in the service of Saqnûnrî Tiûâqni.* His son Ahmosi,
+having approached the end of his career, cut a tomb for himself in the
+hill which overlooks the northern side of the town. He relates on
+the walls of his sepulchre, for the benefit of posterity, the most
+praiseworthy actions of his long life. He had scarcely emerged from
+childhood when he was called upon to act for his father, and before his
+marriage he was appointed to the command of the barque _The Calf._ From
+thence he was promoted to the ship _The North_, and on account of his
+activity he was chosen to escort his namesake the king on foot, whenever
+he drove in his chariot. He repaired to his post at the moment when the
+decisive war against the Hyksôs broke out.
+
+     * There are still some doubts as to the descent of this
+     Ahmosi. Some authorities hold that Babai was the name of his
+     father and Abîna that of his grandfather; others think that
+     Babai was his father and Abîna his mother; others, again,
+     make out Babai and Abîna to be variants of the same name,
+     probably a Semitic one, borne by the father of Ahmosi; the
+     majority of modern Egyptologists (including myself) regard
+     this last hypothesis as being the most probable one.
+
+The tradition current in the time of the Ptolemies reckoned the number
+of men under the command of King Ahmosis when he encamped before
+Avaris at 480,000. This immense multitude failed to bring matters to a
+successful issue, and the siege dragged on indefinitely. The king afc
+length preferred to treat with the Shepherds, and gave them permission
+to retreat into Syria safe and sound, together with their wives, their
+children, and all their goods. This account, however, in no way agrees
+with the all too brief narration of events furnished by the inscription
+in the tomb. The army to which Egypt really owed its deliverance was
+not the undisciplined rabble of later tradition, but, on the contrary,
+consisted of troops similar to those which subsequently invaded Syria,
+some 15,000 to 20,000 in number, fully equipped and ably officered,
+supported, moreover, by a fleet ready to transfer them across the canals
+and arms of the river in a vigorous condition and ready for the battle.*
+
+     * It may be pointed out that Ahmosi, son of Abîna, was a
+     sailor and a leader of sailors; that he passed from one
+     vessel to another, until he was at length appointed to the
+     command of one of the most important ships in the royal
+     fleet. Transport by water always played considerable part in
+     the wars which were carried on in Egyptian territory; I have
+     elsewhere drawn attention to campaigns conducted in this
+     manner under the Horacleopolitan dynasties, and we shall see
+     that the Ethiopian conquerors adopted the same mode of
+     transit in the course of their invasion of Egypt.
+
+As soon as this fleet arrived at the scene of hostilities, the
+engagement began. Ahmosi-si-Abîna conducted the manouvres under the
+king’s eye, and soon gave such evidence of his capacity, that he was
+transferred by royal favour to the _Rising in Memphis_--a vessel with
+a high freeboard. He was shortly afterwards appointed to a post in a
+division told off for duty on the river Zadiku, which ran under the
+walls of the enemy’s fortress.* Two successive and vigorous attacks
+made in this quarter were barren of important results. Ahmosi-si-Abîna
+succeeded in each of the attacks in killing an enemy, bringing back as
+trophies a hand of each of his victims, and his prowess, made known to
+the king by one of the heralds, twice procured for him, “the gold of
+valour,” probably in the form of collars, chains, or bracelets.**
+
+     * The name of this canal was first recognised by Brugsch,
+     then misunderstood and translated “the water bearing the
+     name of the water of Avaris.” It is now road “Zadikû,” and,
+     with the Egyptian article, Pa-zadikû, or Pzadikû. The name
+     is of Semitic origin, and is derived from the root meaning
+     “to be just;” we do not know to which of the watercourses
+     traversing the east of the Delta it ought to be applied.
+
+     ** The fact that the attacks from this side were not
+     successful is proved by the sequel. If they had succeeded,
+     as is usually supposed, the Egyptians would not have fallen
+     back on another point further south in order to renew the
+     struggle.
+
+[Illustration: 122.jpg THE TOMBS OF THE PRINCES OF NEKHABÎT, IN THE
+HILLSIDE ABOVE EL-KAB]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The assault having been repulsed in this quarter, the Egyptians made
+their way towards the south, and came into conflict with the enemy at
+the village of Taqimît.* Here, again, the battle remained undecided,
+but Ahmosi-si-Abîna had an adventure. He had taken a prisoner, and in
+bringing him back lost himself, fell into a muddy ditch, and, when he
+had freed himself from the dirt as well as he could, pursued his way
+by mistake for some time in the direction of Avaris. He found out his
+error, however, before it was too late, came back to the camp safe
+and sound, and received once more some gold as a reward of his brave
+conduct. A second attack upon the town was crowned with complete
+success; it was taken by storm, given over to pillage, and
+Ahmosi-si-Abîna succeeded in capturing one man and three women, who were
+afterwards, at the distribution of the spoil, given to him as slaves.**
+The enemy evacuated in haste the last strongholds which they held in
+the east of the Delta, and took refuge in the Syrian provinces on the
+Egyptian frontier. Whether it was that they assumed here a menacing
+attitude, or whether Ahmosis hoped to deal them a crushing blow before
+they could find time to breathe, or to rally around them sufficient
+forces to renew the offensive, he made up his mind to cross the
+frontier, which he did in the 5th year of his reign.
+
+     * The site of Taqimît is unknown.
+
+     ** The prisoner who was given to Ahmosis after the victory,
+     is probably Paâmû, the Asiatic, mentioned in the list of his
+     slaves which he had engraved on one of the walls of his
+     tomb.
+
+It was the first time for centuries that a Pharaoh had trusted himself
+in Asia, and the same dread of the unknown which had restrained his
+ancestors of the XIIth dynasty, doubtless arrested Ahmosis also on the
+threshold of the continent. He did not penetrate further than the border
+provinces of Zahi, situated on the edge of the desert, and contented
+himself with pillaging the little town of Sharûhana.* Ahmosi-si-Abîna
+was again his companion, together with his cousin, Ahmosi-Pannekhabit,
+then at the beginning of his career, who brought away on this occasion
+two young girls for his household.**
+
+     * Sharûhana, which is mentioned again under Thûtmosis III.
+     is not the plain of Sharon, as Birch imagined, but the
+     Sharuhen of the Biblical texts, in the tribe of Simeon
+     (_Josh._ xix. 6), as Brugsch recognised it to be. It is
+     probably identical with the modern Tell-esh-Sheriâh, which
+     lies north-west of Beersheba.
+
+     ** Ahmosi Pannekhabit lay in tomb No. 2, at El-Kab. His
+     history is briefly told on one of the walls, and on two
+     sides of the pedestal of his statues. We have one of these,
+     or rather two plates from the pedestal of one of them, in
+     the Louvre; the other is in a good state of preservation,
+     and belongs to Mr. Finlay. The inscription is found in a
+     mutilated condition on the wall of the tomb, but the three
+     monuments which have come down to us are sufficiently
+     complementary to one another to enable us to restore nearly
+     the whole of the original text.
+
+The expedition having accomplished its purpose, the Egyptians returned
+home with their spoil, and did not revisit Asia for a long period. If
+the Hyksôs generals had fostered in their minds the idea that they could
+recover their lost ground, and easily re-enter upon the possession of
+their African domain, this reverse must have cruelly disillusioned them.
+They must have been forced to acknowledge that their power was at an
+end, and to renounce all hope of returning to the country which had so
+summarily ejected them. The majority of their own people did not follow
+them into exile, but remained attached to the soil on which they
+lived, and the tribes which had successively settled down beside
+them--including the Beni-Israel themselves--no longer dreamed of
+a return to their fatherland. The condition of these people varied
+according to their locality. Those who had taken up a position in the
+plain of the Delta were subjected to actual slavery. Ahmosis destroyed
+the camp at Avails, quartered his officers in the towns, and constructed
+forts at strategic points, or rebuilt the ancient citadels to resist the
+incursions of the Bedouin. The vanquished people in the Delta, hemmed in
+as they were by a network of fortresses, were thus reduced to a rabble
+of serfs, to be taxed and subjected to the _corvée_ without mercy.
+But further north, the fluctuating population which roamed between the
+Sebennytic and Pelusiac branches of the Nile were not exposed to such
+rough treatment. The marshes of the coast-line afforded them a safe
+retreat, in which they could take refuge at the first threat of
+exactions on the part of the royal emissaries. Secure within dense
+thickets, upon islands approached by interminable causeways, often
+covered with water, or by long tortuous canals concealed in the thick
+growth of reeds, they were able to defy with impunity the efforts of the
+most disciplined troops, and treason alone could put them at the mercy
+of their foes. Most of the Pharaohs felt that the advantages to be
+gained by conquering them would be outweighed by the difficulty of
+the enterprise; all that could result from a campaign would be the
+destruction of one or two villages, the acquisition of a few hundred
+refractory captives, of some ill-favoured cattle, and a trophy of nets
+and worm-eaten boats. The kings, therefore, preferred to keep a close
+watch over these undisciplined hordes, and as long as their depredations
+were kept within reasonable limits, they were left unmolested to their
+wild and precarious life.
+
+The Asiatic invasion had put a sudden stop to the advance of Egyptian
+rule in the vast plains of the Upper Nile. The Theban princes, to whom
+Nubia was directly subject, had been too completely engrossed in
+the wars against their hereditary enemy, to devote much time to the
+continuation of that work of colonization in the south which had been
+carried on so vigorously by their forefathers of the XIIth and XIIIth
+dynasties. The inhabitants of the Nile valley, as far as the second
+cataract, rendered them obedience, but without any change in the
+conditions and mode of their daily life, which appear to have remained
+unaltered for centuries. The temples of Usirtasen and Amenemhaît
+were allowed to fall into decay one after another, the towns waned in
+prosperity, and were unable to keep their buildings and monuments in
+repair; the inundation continued to bring with it periodically its
+fleet of boats, which the sailors of Kûsh had laden with timber, gum,
+elephants’ tusks, and gold dust: from time to time a band of Bedouin from
+Uaûaît or Mazaiû would suddenly bear down upon some village and carry
+off its spoils; the nearest garrison would be called to its aid, or, on
+critical occasions, the king himself, at the head of his guards, would
+fall on the marauders and drive them back into the mountains. Ahrnosis,
+being greeted on his return from Syria by the news of such an outbreak,
+thought it a favourable moment to impress upon the nomadic tribes of
+Nubia the greatness of his conquest. On this occasion it was the people
+of Khonthanûnofir, settled in the wadys east of the Nile, above Semneh,
+which required a lesson. The army which had just expelled the Hyksôs was
+rapidly conveyed to the opposite borders of the country by the fleet,
+the two Ahmosi of Nekhabît occupying the highest posts. The Egyptians,
+as was customary, landed at the nearest point to the enemy’s territory,
+and succeeded in killing a few of the rebels. Ahmosi-si-Abîna brought
+back two prisoners and three hands, for which he was rewarded by a gift
+of two female Bedouin slaves, besides the “gold of valour.” This victory
+in the south following on such decisive success in the north, filled the
+heart of the Pharaoh with pride, and the view taken of it by those who
+surrounded him is evident even in the brief sentences of the narrative.
+He is described as descending the river on the royal galley, elated
+in spirit and flushed by his triumph in Nubia, which had followed so
+closely on the deliverance of the Delta. But scarcely had he reached
+Thebes, when an unforeseen catastrophe turned his confidence into alarm,
+and compelled him to retrace his steps. It would appear that at the
+very moment when he was priding himself on the successful issue of his
+Ethiopian expedition, one of the sudden outbreaks, which frequently
+occurred in those regions, had culminated in a Sudanese invasion of
+Egypt. We are not told the name of the rebel leader, nor those of the
+tribes who took part in it. The Egyptian people, threatened in a moment
+of such apparent security by this inroad of barbarians, regarded them
+as a fresh incursion of the Hyksôs, and applied to these southerners
+the opprobrious term of “Fever-stricken,” already used to denote their
+Asiatic conquerors. The enemy descended the Nile, committing terrible
+atrocities, and polluting every sanctuary of the Theban gods which came
+within their reach. They had reached a spot called Tentoâ,* before they
+fell in with the Egyptian troops. Ahmosi-si-Abîna again distinguished
+himself in the engagement. The vessel which he commanded, probably the
+_Rising in Memphis_, ran alongside the chief galliot of the Sudanese
+fleet, and took possession of it after a struggle, in which Ahmosi
+made two of the enemy’s sailors prisoners with his own hand. The king
+generously rewarded those whose valour had thus turned the day in his
+favour, for the danger had appeared to him critical; he allotted to
+every man on board the victorious vessel five slaves, and five ancra of
+land situated in his native province of each respectively. The invasion
+was not without its natural consequences to Egypt itself.
+
+     * The name of this locality does not occur elsewhere; it
+     would seem to refer, not to a village, but rather to a
+     canal, or the branch of a river, or a harbour somewhere
+     along the Nile. I am unable to locate it definitely, but am
+     inclined to think we ought to look for it, if not in Egypt
+     itself, at any rate in that part of Nubia which is nearest
+     to Egypt. M. Revillout, taking up a theory which had been
+     abandoned by Chabas, recognising in this expedition an
+     offensive incursion of the Shepherds, suggests that Tantoâ
+     may be the modern Tantah in the Delta.
+
+A certain Titiânu, who appears to have been at the head of a powerful
+faction, rose in rebellion at some place not named in the narrative, but
+in the rear of the army. The rapidity with which Ahmosis repulsed the
+Nubians, and turned upon his new enemy, completely baffled the latter’s
+plans, and he and his followers were cut to pieces, but the danger
+had for the moment been serious.* It was, if not the last expedition
+undertaken in this reign, at least the last commanded by the Pharaoh in
+person. By his activity and courage Ahmosis had well earned the right to
+pass the remainder of his days in peace.
+
+     * The wording of the text is so much condensed that it is
+     difficult to be sure of its moaning. Modern scholars agree
+     with Brugsch that Titiânu is the name of a man, but several
+     Egyptologists believe its bearer to have been chief of the
+     Ethiopian tribes, while others think him to have been a
+     rebellious Egyptian prince, or a king of the Shepherds, or
+     give up the task of identification in despair. The tortuous
+     wording of the text, and the expressions which occur in it,
+     seem to indicate that the rebel was a prince of the royal
+     blood, and even that the name he bears was not his real one.
+     Later on we shall find that, on a similar occasion, the
+     official documents refer to a prince who took part in a plot
+     against Ramses III. by the fictitious name of Pentauîrît;
+     Titiânu was probably a nickname of the same kind inserted in
+     place of the real name. It seems that, in cases of high
+     treason, the criminal not only lost his life, but his name
+     was proscribed both in this world and in the next.
+
+A revival of military greatness always entailed a renaissance in art,
+followed by an age of building activity. The claims of the gods upon the
+spoils of war must be satisfied before those of men, because the victory
+and the booty obtained through it were alike owing to the divine help
+given in battle. A tenth, therefore, of the slaves, cattle, and precious
+metals was set apart for the service of the gods, and even fields,
+towns, and provinces were allotted to them, the produce of which was
+applied to enhance the importance of their cult or to repair and enlarge
+their temples. The main body of the building was strengthened, halls and
+pylons were added to the original plan, and the impulse once given to
+architectural work, the co-operation of other artificers soon
+followed. Sculptors and painters whose art had been at a standstill for
+generations during the centuries of Egypt’s humiliation, and whose
+hands had lost their cunning for want of practice, were now once more in
+demand. They had probably never completely lost the technical knowledge
+of their calling, and the ancient buildings furnished them with various
+types of models, which they had but to copy faithfully in order to
+revive their old traditions. A few years after this revival a new school
+sprang up, whose originality became daily more patent, and whose leaders
+soon showed themselves to be in no way inferior to the masters of the
+older schools. Ahmosis could not be accused of ingratitude to the gods;
+as soon as his wars allowed him the necessary leisure, he began his work
+of temple-building. The accession to power of the great Theban families
+had been of little advantage to Thebes itself. Its Pharaohs, on assuming
+the sovereignty of the whole valley, had not hesitated to abandon their
+native city, and had made Heracleopolis, the Fayum or even Memphis,
+their seat of government, only returning to Thebes in the time of the
+XIIIth dynasty, when the decadence of their power had set in. The honour
+of furnishing rulers for its country had often devolved on Thebes,
+but the city had reaped but little benefit from the fact; this time,
+however, the tide of fortune was to be turned. The other cities of Egypt
+had come to regard Thebes as their metropolis from the time when they
+had temples. The main body of the building was strengthened, halls and
+pylons were added to the original plan, and the impulse once given to
+architectural work, the co-operation of other artificers soon
+followed. Sculptors and painters whose art had been at a standstill for
+generations during the centuries of Egypt’s humiliation, and whose
+hands had lost their cunning for want of practice, were now once more in
+demand. They had probably never completely lost the technical knowledge
+of their calling, and the ancient buildings furnished them with various
+types of models, which they had but to copy faithfully in order to
+revive their old traditions. A few years after this revival a new school
+sprang up, whose originality became daily more patent, and whose leaders
+soon showed themselves to be in no way inferior to the masters of the
+older schools. Ahmosis could not be accused of ingratitude to the gods;
+as soon as his wars allowed him the necessary leisure, he began his work
+of temple-building. The accession to power of the great Theban families
+had been of little advantage to Thebes itself. Its Pharaohs, on assuming
+the sovereignty of the whole valley, had not hesitated to abandon their
+native city, and had made Heracleopolis, the Fayum or even Memphis,
+their seat of government, only returning to Thebes in the time of the
+XIIIth dynasty, when the decadence of their power had set in. The honour
+of furnishing rulers for its country had often devolved on Thebes,
+but the city had reaped but little benefit from the fact; this time,
+however, the tide of fortune was to be turned.
+
+[Illustration: 130.jpg PAINTING IN TOMB OF THE KINGS THEBES]
+
+The other cities of Egypt had come to regard Thebes as their metropolis
+from the time when they had learned to rally round its princes to wage
+war against the Hyksôs. It had been the last town to lay down arms at
+the time of the invasion, and the first to take them up again in the
+struggle for liberty. Thus the Egypt which vindicated her position among
+the nations of the world was not the Egypt of the Memphite dynasties. It
+was the great Egypt of the Amenemhâîts and the Usirtasens, still further
+aggrandised by recent victories. Thebes was her natural capital, and
+its kings could not have chosen a more suitable position from whence to
+command effectually the whole empire. Situated at an equal distance from
+both frontiers, the Pharaoh residing there, on the outbreak of a war
+either in the north or south, had but half the length of the country to
+traverse in order to reach the scene of action. Ahmosis spared no pains
+to improve the city, but his resources did not allow of his embarking on
+any very extensive schemes; he did not touch the temple of Amon, and
+if he undertook any buildings in its neighbourhood, they must have been
+minor edifices. He could, indeed, have had but little leisure to attempt
+much else, for it was not till the XXIInd year of his reign that he was
+able to set seriously to work.*
+
+     * In the inscription of the year XXII., Âhmosis expressly
+     states that he opened new chambers in the quarries of Tûrah
+     for the works in connection with the Theban Amon, as well as
+     for those of the temple of the Memphite Phtah.
+
+An opportunity then occurred to revive a practice long fallen into
+disuse under the foreign kings, and to set once more in motion an
+essential part of the machinery of Egyptian administration. The quarries
+of Turah, as is well known, enjoyed the privilege of furnishing the
+finest materials to the royal architects; nowhere else could be found
+limestone of such whiteness, so easy to cut, or so calculated to lend
+itself to the carving of delicate inscriptions and bas-reliefs. The
+commoner veins had never ceased to be worked by private enterprise,
+gangs of quarrymen being always employed, as at the present day, in
+cutting small stone for building purposes, or in ruthlessly chipping it
+to pieces to burn for lime in the kilns of the neighbouring villages;
+but the finest veins were always kept for State purposes. Contemporary
+chroniclers might have formed a very just estimate of national
+prosperity by the degree of activity shown in working these royal
+preserves; when the amount of stone extracted was lessened, prosperity
+was on the wane, and might be pronounced to be at its lowest ebb when
+the noise of the quarryman’s hammer finally ceased to be heard.
+
+[Illustration: 132.jpg A CONVOY OF TÛRAH QUARRYMEN DRAWING STONE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Vyse-Perring.
+
+Every dynasty whose resources were such as to justify their resumption
+of the work proudly recorded the fact on stelae which lined
+the approaches to the masons’ yards. Ahmosis reopened the Tûrah
+quarry-chambers, and procured for himself “good stone and white” for the
+temples of Anion at Thebes and of Phtah at Memphis. No monument has as
+yet been discovered to throw any light on the fate of Memphis subsequent
+to the time of the Amenemhâîts. It must have suffered quite as much
+as any city of the Delta from the Shepherd invasion, and from the wars
+which preceded their expulsion, since it was situated on the highway
+of an invading army, and would offer an attraction for pillagers. By a
+curious turn of fortune it was the “Fankhûi,” or Asiatic prisoners, who
+were set to quarry the stone for the restoration of the monuments which
+their own forefathers had reduced to ruins.* The bas-reliefs sculptured
+on the stelæ of Ahmosis show them in full activity under the _corvée;_
+we see here the stone block detached from the quarry being squared by
+the chisel, or transported on a sledge drawn by oxen.
+
+     * The _Fankhûi_ are, properly speaking, all white prisoners,
+     without distinction of race. Their name is derived from the
+     root _fôkhu, fankhu_ = to bind, press, carry off, steal,
+     destroy; if it is sometimes used in the sense of
+     Phoenicians, it is only in the Ptolemaic epoch. Here the
+     term “Fankhûi” refers to the Shepherds and Asiatics made
+     prisoners in the campaign of the year V. against Sharuhana.
+
+Ahmosis had several children by his various wives; six at least owned
+Nofrîtari for their mother and possessed near claims to the crown, but
+she may have borne him others whose existence is unrecorded. The eldest
+appears to have been a son, Sipiri; he received all the honours due to
+an hereditary prince, but died without having reigned, and his second
+brother, Amenhotpû--called by the Greeks Amenôthes*--took his place.
+
+     * The form Amenôphis, which is usually employed, is,
+     properly speaking, the equivalent of the name
+     _Amenemaupitu,_ or Amenaupîti, which belongs to a king of
+     the XXIst Tanite dynasty; the true Greek transcription of
+     the Ptolemaic epoch, corresponding to the pronunciation
+     _Amehotpe,_ or _Amenhopte,_ is Amenôthes. Under the XVIIIth
+     dynasty the cuneiform transcription of the tablets of Tel-el
+     Amarna, Amankhatbi, seems to indicate the pronunciation
+     Amanhautpi, Amanhatpi, side by side with the pronunciation
+     Aman-hautpu, Amenhotpu.
+
+Ahmosis was laid to rest in the chapel which he had prepared for himself
+in the cemetery of Drah-abu’l-Neggah, among the modest pyramids of the
+XIth, XIIIth, and XVIIth dynasties.* He was venerated as a god, and
+his cult was continued for six or eight centuries later, until the
+increasing insecurity of the Theban necropolis at last necessitated
+the removal of the kings from their funeral chambers.** The coffin of
+Ahmosis was found to be still intact, though it was a poorly made one,
+shaped to the contours of the body, and smeared over with yellow; it
+represents the king with the false beard depending from his chin, and
+his breast covered with a pectoral ornament, the features, hair,
+and accessories being picked out in blue. His name has been hastily
+inscribed in ink on the front of the winding-sheet, and when the lid was
+removed, garlands of faded pink flowers were still found about the neck,
+laid there as a last offering by the priests who placed the Pharaoh and
+his compeers in their secret burying-place.
+
+     * The precise site is at present unknown: we see, however,
+     that it was in this place, when wo observe that Ahmosis was
+     worshipped by the Servants of the Necropolis, amongst the
+     kings and princes of his family who were buried at Drah-
+     abu’l-Neggah.
+
+     ** His priests and the minor _employés_ of his cult are
+     mentioned on a stele in the museum at Turin, and on a brick
+     in the Berlin Museum. He is worshipped as a god, along with
+     Osiris, Horus, and Isis, on a stele in the Lyons Museum,
+     brought from Abydos: he had, probably, during one of his
+     journeys across Egypt, made a donation to the temple of that
+     city, on condition that he should be worshipped there for
+     ever; for a stele at Marseilles shows him offering homage to
+     Osiris in the bark of the god itself, and another stele in
+     the Louvre informs us that Pharaoh Thûtmosis IV. several
+     times sent one of his messengers to Abydos for the purpose
+     of presenting land to Osiris and to his own ancestor
+     Ahmosis.
+
+[Illustration: 135.jpg COFFIN OF AHMOSIS IN THE GÎZEH MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+Amenôthes I. had not attained his majority when his father “thus winged
+his way to heaven,” leaving him as heir to the throne.* Nofrîtari
+assumed the authority; after having shared the royal honours for nearly
+twenty-five years with her husband, she resolutely refused to resign
+them.** She was thus the first of those queens by divine right who,
+scorning the inaction of the harem, took on themselves the right to
+fulfil the active duties of a sovereign, and claimed the recognition of
+the equality or superiority of their titles to those of their husbands
+or sons.
+
+     * The last date known is that of the year XXII. at Tûrah;
+     Manetho’s lists give, in one place, twenty-five years and
+     four months after the expulsion; in another, twenty-six
+     years in round numbers, as the total duration of his reign,
+     which has every appearance of probability.
+
+     ** There is no direct evidence to prove that Amenôthes I.
+     was a minor when he came to the throne; still the
+     presumptions in favour of this hypothesis, afforded by the
+     monuments, are so strong that many historians of ancient
+     Egypt have accepted it. Queen Nofrîtari is represented as
+     reigning, side by side with her reigning son, on some few
+     Theban tombs which can be attributed to their epoch.
+
+[Illustration: 136.jpg NOFRITARI, HIE BLACK-SKINNED GODDESS]
+
+     Drawn by Bouclier, from the photograph by M. de Mertens
+     taken in the Berlin Museum.
+
+The aged Ahhotpu, who, like Nofrîtari, was of pure royal descent, and
+who might well have urged her superior rank, had been content to retire
+in favour of her children; she lived to the tenth year of her grandson’s
+reign, respected by all her family, but abstaining from all interference
+in political affairs. When at length she passed away, full of days and
+honour, she was embalmed with special care, and her body was placed in
+a gilded mummy-case, the head of which presented a faithful copy of
+her features. Beside her were piled the jewels she had received in her
+lifetime from her husband and son. The majority of them a fan with a
+handle plated with gold, a mirror of gilt bronze with ebony handle,
+bracelets and ankle-rings, some of solid and some of hollow gold, edged
+with fine chains of plaited gold wire, others formed of beads of gold,
+lapis-lazuli, cornelian, and green felspar, many of them engraved with
+the cartouche of Ahmosis. Belonging also to Ahmosis we have a beautiful
+quiver, in which figures of the king and the gods stand out in high
+relief on a gold plaque, delicately chased with a graving tool; the
+background is formed of small pieces of lapis and blue glass, cunningly
+cut to fit each other. One bracelet in particular, found on the
+queen’s wrist, consisted of three parallel bands of solid gold set with
+turquoises, and having, a vulture with extended wings on the front. The
+queen’s hair was held in place by a gold circlet, scarcely as large as
+a bracelet; a cartouche was affixed to the circlet, bearing the name of
+Ahmosis in blue paste, and flanked by small sphinxes, one on each side,
+as supporters. A thick flexible chain of gold was passed several times
+round her neck, and attached to it as a pendant was a beautiful scarab,
+partly of gold and partly of blue porcelain striped with gold. The
+breast ornament was completed by a necklace of several rows of twisted
+cords, from which depended antelopes pursued by tigers, sitting
+jackals, hawks, vultures, and the winged urasus, all attached to the
+winding-sheet by means of a small ring soldered on the back of each
+animal. The fastening of this necklace was formed of the heads of two
+gold hawks, the details of the heads being worked out in blue enamel.
+Both weapons and amulets were found among the jewels, including three
+gold flies suspended by a thin chain, nine gold and silver axes, a
+lion’s head in gold of most minute workmanship, a sceptre of black wood
+plated with gold, daggers to defend the deceased from the dangers of the
+unseen world, boomerangs of hard wood, and the battle-axe of Ahmosis.
+Besides these, there were two boats, one of gold and one of silver,
+originally intended for the Pharaoh Kamosû--models of the skiff in which
+his mummy crossed the Nile to reach its last resting-place, and to sail
+in the wake of the gods on the western sea.
+
+[Illustration: 136b.jpg THE JEWELS AND WEAPONS OF QUEEN ÂHHHOTPÛ I. IN
+THE GÎZEH MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Bechard.
+
+Nofrîtari thus reigned conjointly with Amenôthes, and even if we have no
+record of any act in which she was specially concerned, we know at least
+that her rule was a prosperous one, and that her memory was revered by
+her subjects. While the majority of queens were relegated after death to
+the crowd of shadowy ancestors to whom habitual sacrifice was offered,
+the worshippers not knowing even to which sex these royal personages
+belonged, the remembrance of Nofrîtari always remained distinct in their
+minds, and her cult spread till it might be said to have become a kind
+of popular religion. In this veneration Ahmosis was rarely associated
+with the queen, but Amenôthes and several of her other children shared
+in it--her son Sipiri, for instance, and her daughters Sîtamon,*
+Sîtkamosi, and Marîtamon; Nofrîtari became, in fact, an actual goddess,
+taking her place beside Amon, Khonsû, and Maut,** the members of
+the Theban Triad, or standing alone as an object of worship for her
+devotees.
+
+     * Sîtamon is mentioned, with her mother, on the Karnak stele
+     and on the coffin of Bûtehamon.
+
+     ** She is worshipped with the Theban Triad by Brihor, at
+     Karnak, in the temple of Khonsû.
+
+[Illustration: 141.jpg THE TWO COFFINS OF AHHOTP II. AND NOFRITARI
+STANDING IN TUB VESTIBULE OF THE OLD BÛLAK MUSEUM.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+
+She was identified with Isis, Hathor, and the mistresses of Hades, and
+adopted their attributes, even to the black or blue coloured skin of
+these funerary divinities.*
+
+     * Her statue in the Turin Museum represents her as having
+     black skin. She is also painted black standing before
+     Amenôthes (who is white) in the Deir el-Medineh tomb, now
+     preserved in the Berlin Museum, in that of Nibnûtîrû, and hi
+     that of Unnofir, at Sheikh Abd el-Qûrnah. Her face is
+     painted blue in the tomb of Kasa. The representations of
+     this queen with a black skin have caused her to be taken for
+     a negress, the daughter of an Ethiopian Pharaoh, or at any
+     rate the daughter of a chief of some Nubian tribe; it was
+     thought that Ahmosis must have married her to secure the
+     help of the negro tribes in his wars, and that it was owing
+     to this alliance that he succeeded in expelling the Hyksôs.
+     Later discoveries have not confirmed these hypotheses.
+     Nofrîtari was most probably an Egyptian of unmixed race, as
+     we have seen, and daughter of Ahhotpû I., and the black or
+     blue colour of her skin is merely owing to her
+     identification with the goddesses of the dead.
+
+Considerable endowments were given for maintaining worship at her tomb,
+and were administered by a special class of priests. Her mummy reposed
+among those of the princes of her family, in the hiding-place at
+Deîr-el-Baharî: it was enclosed in an enormous wooden sarcophagus
+covered with linen and stucco, the lower part being shaped to the body,
+while the upper part representing the head and arms could be lifted off
+in one piece. The shoulders are covered with a network in relief, the
+meshes of which are painted blue on a yellow background. The Queen’s
+hands are crossed over her breast, and clasp the _crux ansata_, the
+symbol of life. The whole mummy-case measures a little over nine feet
+from the sole of the feet to the top of the head, which is furthermore
+surmounted by a cap, and two long ostrich-feathers. The appearance is
+not so much that of a coffin as of one of those enormous caryatides
+which we sometimes find adorning the front of a temple.
+
+We may perhaps attribute to the influence of Nofrîtari the lack of zest
+evinced by Amenôthes for expeditions into Syria. Even the most energetic
+kings had always shrunk from penetrating much beyond the isthmus. Those
+who ventured so far as to work the mines of Sinai had nevertheless
+felt a secret fear of invading Asia proper--a dread which they never
+succeeded in overcoming. When the raids of the Bedouin obliged the
+Egyptian sovereign to cross the frontier into their territory, he would
+retire as soon as possible, without attempting any permanent conquest.
+After the expulsion of the Hyksôs, Ahmosis seemed inclined to pursue a
+less timorous course. He made an advance on Sharûhana and pillaged it,
+and the booty he brought back ought to have encouraged him to attempt
+more important expeditions; but he never returned to this region, and it
+would seem that when his first enthusiasm had subsided, he was paralysed
+by the same fear which had fallen on his ancestors. Nofrîtari may have
+counselled her son not to break through the traditions which his father
+had so strictly followed, for Amenôthes I. confined his campaigns to
+Africa, and the traditional battle-fields there. He embarked for the
+land of Kûsh on the vessel of Ahmosi-si-Abîna “for the purpose of
+enlarging the frontiers of Egypt.” It was, we may believe, a thoroughly
+conventional campaign, conducted according to the strictest precedents
+of the XIIth dynasty. The Pharaoh, as might be expected, came into
+personal contact with the enemy, and slew their chief with his own
+hand; the barbarian warriors sold their lives dearly, but were unable
+to protect their country from pillage, the victors carrying off whatever
+they could seize--men, women, and cattle. The pursuit of the enemy had
+led the army some distance into the desert, as far as a halting-place
+called the “Upper cistern”--_Khnûmît hirît_; instead of retracing his
+steps to the Nile squadron, and returning slowly by boat, Amenôthes
+resolved to take a short cut homewards. Ahmosi conducted him back
+overland in two days, and was rewarded for his speed by the gift of
+a quantity of gold, and two female slaves. An incursion into Libya
+followed quickly on the Ethiopian campaign.
+
+[Illustration: 144.jpg STATUE OF AMENÔTHES I. IN THE TURIN MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph supplied by Flinders
+     Pétrie.
+
+The tribe of the Kihaka, settled between Lake Mareotis and the Oasis of
+Amon, had probably attacked in an audacious manner the western provinces
+of the Delta; a raid was organized against them, and the issue was
+commemorated by a small wooden stele, on which we see the victor
+represented as brandishing his sword over a barbarian lying prostrate at
+his feet. The exploits of Amenôthes appear to have ended with this raid,
+for we possess no monument recording any further victory gained by him.
+This, however, has not prevented his contemporaries from celebrating him
+as a conquering and ‘victorious king. He is portrayed standing erect in
+his chariot ready to charge, or as carrying off two barbarians whom he
+holds half suffocated in his sinewy arms, or as gleefully smiting the
+princes of foreign lands. He acquitted himself of the duties of the
+chase as became a true Pharaoh, for we find him depicted in the act of
+seizing a lion by the tail and raising him suddenly in mid-air previous
+to despatching him. These are, indeed, but conventional pictures of
+war, to which we must not attach an undue importance. Egypt had need of
+repose in order to recover from the losses it had sustained during the
+years of struggle with the invaders. If Amenôthes courted peace from
+preference and not from political motives, his own generation profited
+as much by his indolence as the preceding one had gained by the energy
+of Ahrnosis. The towns in his reign resumed their ordinary life,
+agriculture flourished, and commerce again followed its accustomed
+routes. Egypt increased its resources, and was thus able to prepare
+for future conquest. The taste for building had not as yet sufficiently
+developed to become a drain upon the public treasury. We have, however,
+records showing that Amenôthes excavated a cavern in the mountain
+of Ibrîm in Nubia, dedicated to Satît, one of the goddesses of the
+cataract.
+
+[Illustration: 146.jpg Page Image]
+
+It is also stated that he worked regularly the quarries of Silsileh,
+but we do not know for what buildings the sandstone thus extracted was
+destined.* Karnak was also adorned with chapels, and with at least one
+colossus,** while several chambers built of the white limestone of Tûrah
+were added to Ombos. Thebes had thus every reason to cherish the memory
+of this pacific king.
+
+     * A bas-relief on the western bank of the river represents
+     him deified: Panaîti, the name of a superintendent of the
+     quarries who lived in his reign, has been preserved in
+     several graffiti, while another graffito gives us only the
+     protocol of the sovereign, and indicates that the quarries
+     were worked in his reign.
+
+     ** The chambers of white limestone are marked I, K, on
+     Mariette’s plan; it is possible that they may have been
+     merely decorated under Thûtmosis III., whose cartouches
+     alternate with those of Amenôthes I. The colossus is now in
+     front of the third Pylon, and Wiedemann concluded from this
+     fact that Amenôthes had begun extensive works for enlarging
+     the temple of Amon; Mariette believed, with greater
+     probability, that the colossus formerly stood at the
+     entrance to the XIIth dynasty temple, but was removed to its
+     present position by Thûtmosis III.
+
+As Nofrîtari had been metamorphosed into a form of Isis, Amenôthes was
+similarly represented as Osiris, the protector of the Necropolis, and he
+was depicted as such with the sombre colour of the funerary divinities;
+his image, moreover, together with those of the other gods, was used
+to decorate the interiors of coffins, and to protect the mummies of his
+devotees.*
+
+     * Wiedemann has collected several examples, to which it
+     would be easy to add others. The names of the king are in
+     this case constantly accompanied by unusual epithets, which
+     are enclosed in one or other of his cartouches: Mons.
+     Kevillout, deceived by these unfamiliar forms, has made out
+     of one of these variants, on a painted cloth in the Louvre,
+     a new Amenôthes, whom he styles Amenôthes V.
+
+[Illustration: 147.jpg THE COFFIN AND MUMMY OF AMENOTHES]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+
+One of his statues, now in the Turin Museum, represents him sitting on
+his throne in the posture of a king giving audience to his subjects, or
+in that of a god receiving the homage of his worshippers. The modelling
+of the bust betrays a flexibility of handling which is astonishing in a
+work of art so little removed from barbaric times; the head is a marvel
+of delicacy and natural grace. We feel that the sculptor has taken a
+delight in chiselling the features of his sovereign, and in reproducing
+the benevolent and almost dreamy expression which characterised them.*
+The cult of Amenôthes lasted for seven or eight centuries, until the
+time when his coffin was removed and placed with those of the other
+members of his family in the place where it remained concealed until our
+own times.**
+
+     * Another statue of very fine workmanship, but mutilated, is
+     preserved in the Gizeh Museum; this statue is of the time of
+     Seti I., and, as is customary, represents Amenôthes in the
+     likeness of the king then reigning.
+
+     ** We know, from the Abbott Papyrus, that the pyramid of
+     Amenôthes I. was situated at Dr-ah Abou’l-Neggah, among
+     those of the Pharaohs of the XIth, XIIth, and XVIIth
+     dynasties. The remains of it have not yet been discovered.
+
+It is shaped to correspond with the form of the human body and painted
+white; the face resembles that of his statue, and the eyes of enamel,
+touched with kohl, give it a wonderful appearance of animation. The body
+is swathed in orange-coloured linen, kept in place by bands of brownish
+linen, and is further covered by a mask of wood and cartonnage, painted
+to match the exterior of the coffin. Long garlands of faded flowers deck
+the mummy from head to foot. A wasp, attracted by their scent, must have
+settled upon them at the moment of burial, and become imprisoned by the
+lid; the insect has been completely preserved from corruption by the
+balsams of the embalmer, and its gauzy wings have passed un-crumpled
+through the long centuries.
+
+Amenôthes had married Ahhotpû II, his sister by the same father and
+mother;* Ahmasi, the daughter born of this union, was given in marriage
+to Thûtmosis, one of her brothers, the son of a mere concubine, by name
+Sonisonbû.** Ahmasi, like her ancestor Nofrîtari, had therefore the
+right to exercise all the royal functions, and she might have claimed
+precedence of her husband. Whether from conjugal affection or from
+weakness of character, she yielded, however, the priority to Thûtmosis,
+and allowed him to assume the sole government.
+
+     * Ahhotpû II. may be seen beside her husband on several
+     monuments. The proof that she was full sister of Amenôthes
+     I. is furnished by the title of “hereditary princess” which
+     is given to her daughter Àhmasi; this princess would not
+     have taken precedence of her brother and husband Thûtmosis,
+     who was the son of an inferior wife, had she not been the
+     daughter of the only legitimate spouse of Amenôthes I. The
+     marriage had already taken place before the accession of
+     Thûtmosis I., as Ahmasi figures in a document dated the
+     first year of his reign.
+
+     ** The absence of any cartouche shows that Sonisonbû did not
+     belong to the royal family, and the very form of the name
+     points her out to have been of the middle classes, and
+     merely a concubine. The accession of her son, however,
+     ennobled her, and he represents her as a queen on the walls
+     of the temple at Deîr el-Baharî; even then he merely styles
+     her “Royal Mother,” the only title she could really claim,
+     as her inferior position in the harem prevented her from
+     using that of “Royal Spouse.”
+
+[Illustration: 150.jpg THÛTMOSIS I., FROM A STATUE IN THE GÎZEH MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the photograph taken by Émil
+     Brugsch-Bey.
+
+He was crowned at Thebes on the 21st of the third month of Pirît; and
+a circular, addressed to the representatives of the ancient seignorial
+families and to the officers of the crown, announced the names assumed
+by the new sovereign. “This is the royal rescript to announce to you
+that my Majesty has arisen king of the two Egypts, on the seat of the
+Horus of the living, without equal, for ever, and that my titles are
+as follows: The vigorous bull Horus, beloved of Mâît, the Lord of
+the Vulture and of the Uraeus who raises itself as a flame, most
+valiant,--the golden Horns, whose years are good and who puts life
+into all hearts, king of the two Egypts, Akhopirkerî, son of the Sun,
+Thûtmosis, living for ever.* Cause, therefore, sacrifices to be offered
+to the gods of the south and of Elephantine,** and hymns to be chanted
+for the well-being of the King Akhopirkerî, living for ever, and then
+cause the oath to be taken in the name of my Majesty, born of the royal
+mother Sonisonbû, who is in good health.--This is sent to thee that thou
+mayest know that the royal house is prosperous, and in good health and
+condition, the 1st year, the 21st of the third month of Pirît, the day
+of coronation.”
+
+
+     * This is really the protocol of the king, as we find it on
+     the monuments, with his two Horus names and his solar
+     titles.
+
+     ** The copy of the letter which has come down to us is
+     addressed to the commander of Elephantine: hence the mention
+     of the gods of that town. The names of the divinities must
+     have been altered to suit each district, to which the order
+     to offer sacrifices for the prosperity of the new sovereign
+     was sent.
+
+The new king was tall in stature, broad-shouldered, well knit, and
+capable of enduring the fatigues of war without flagging. His statues
+represent him as having a full, round face, long nose, square chin,
+rather thick lips, and a smiling but firm expression. Thûtmosis brought
+with him on ascending the throne the spirit of the younger generation,
+who, born shortly after the deliverance from the Hyksôs, had grown up
+in the peaceful days of Amenôthes, and, elated by the easy victories
+obtained over the nations of the south, were inspired by ambitions
+unknown to the Egyptians of earlier times. To this younger race Africa
+no longer offered a sufficiently wide or attractive field; the whole
+country was their own as far as the confluence of the two Niles, and the
+Theban gods were worshipped at Napata no less devoutly than at Thebes
+itself. What remained to be conquered in that direction was scarcely
+worth the trouble of reducing to a province or of annexing as a colony;
+it comprised a number of tribes hopelessly divided among themselves,
+and consequently, in spite of their renowned bravery, without power of
+resistance. Light columns of troops, drafted at intervals on either
+side of the river, ensured order among the submissive, or despoiled the
+refractory of their possessions in cattle, slaves, and precious stones.
+Thûtmosis I. had to repress, however, very shortly after his accession,
+a revolt of these borderers at the second and third cataracts, but they
+were easily overcome in a campaign of a few days’ duration, in which the
+two Âhmosis of Al-Kab took an honourable part. There was, as usual, an
+encounter of the two fleets in the middle of the river: the young king
+himself attacked the enemy’s chief, pierced him with his first arrow,
+and made a considerable number of prisoners. Thûtmosis had the corpse of
+the chief suspended as a trophy in front of the royal ship, and sailed
+northwards towards Thebes, where, however, he was not destined to
+remain long.* An ample field of action presented itself to him in the
+north-east, affording scope for great exploits, as profitable as they
+were glorious.**
+
+     * That this expedition must be placed at the beginning of
+     the king’s reign, in his first year, is shown by two facts:
+     (1) It precedes the Syrian campaign in the biography of the
+     two Âhmosis of El-Kab; (2) the Syrian campaign must have
+     ended in the second year of the reign, since Thûtmosis I.,
+     on the stele of Tombos which bears that date, gives
+     particulars of the course of the Euphrates, and records the
+     submission of the countries watered by that river. The date
+     of the invasion may be placed between 2300 and 2250 B.C.; if
+     we count 661 years for the three dynasties together, as
+     Erman proposes, we find that the accession of Ahmosis would
+     fall between 1640 and 1590. I should place it provisionally
+     in the year 1600, in order not to leave the position of the
+     succeeding reigns uncertain; I estimate the possible error
+     at about half a century.
+
+     ** It is impossible at present to draw up a correct table of
+     the native or foreign sovereigns who reigned over Egypt
+     during the time of the Hyksôs. I have given the list of the
+     kings of the XIIIth and XIVth dynasties which are known to
+     us from the Turin Papyrus. I here append that of the
+     Pharaohs of the following dynasties, who are mentioned
+     either in the fragments of Manetho or on the monuments:
+
+[Illustration: 153.jpg Table]
+
+Syria offered to Egyptian cupidity a virgin prey in its large commercial
+towns inhabited by an industrious population, who by maritime trade
+and caravan traffic had amassed enormous wealth. The country had been
+previously subdued by the Chaldæans, who still exercised an undisputed
+influence over it, and it was but natural that the conquerors of the
+Hyksôs should act in their turn as invaders. The incursion of Asiatics
+into Egypt thus provoked a reaction which issued in an Egyptian invasion
+of Asiatic soil. Thûtmosis and his contemporaries had inherited none of
+the instinctive fear of penetrating into Syria which influenced Ahmosis
+and his successor: the Theban legions were, perhaps, slow to advance,
+but once they had trodden the roads of Palestine, they were not likely
+to forego the delights of conquest. From that time forward there was
+perpetual warfare and pillaging expeditions from the plains of the Blue
+Nile to those of the Euphrates, so that scarcely a year passed without
+bringing to the city of Amon its tribute of victories and riches gained
+at the point of the sword. One day the news would be brought that the
+Amorites or the Khâti had taken the field, to be immediately followed by
+the announcement that their forces had been shattered against the valour
+of the Egyptian battalions. Another day, Pharaoh would re-enter the city
+with the flower of his generals and veterans; the chiefs whom he had
+taken prisoners, sometimes with his own hand, would be conducted through
+the streets, and then led to die at the foot of the altars, while
+fantastic processions of richly clothed captives, beasts led by halters,
+and slaves bending under the weight of the spoil would stretch in an
+endless line behind him.
+
+[Illustration: 154.jpg SIGNS, ARMS AND INSTRUMENTS]
+
+Meanwhile the Timihû, roused by some unknown cause, would attack the
+outposts stationed on the frontier, or news would come that the Peoples
+of the Sea had landed on the western side of the Delta; the Pharaoh had
+again to take the field, invariably with the same speedy and successful
+issue. The Libyans seemed to fare no better than the Syrians, and before
+long those who had survived the defeat would be paraded before the
+Theban citizens, previous to being sent to join the Asiatic prisoners
+in the mines or quarries; their blue eyes and fair hair showing from
+beneath strangely shaped helmets, while their white skins, tall stature,
+and tattooed bodies excited for a few hours the interest and mirth of
+the idle crowd. At another time, one of the customary raids into the
+land of Kûsh would take place, consisting of a rapid march across the
+sands of the Ethiopian desert and a cruise along the coasts of Pûanîfc.
+This would be followed by another triumphal procession, in which fresh
+elements of interest would appear, heralded by flourish of trumpets and
+roll of drums: Pharaoh would re-enter the city borne on the shoulders of
+his officers, followed by negroes heavily chained, or coupled in such
+a way that it was impossible for them to move without grotesque
+contortions, while the acclamations of the multitude and the chanting of
+the priests would resound from all sides as the _cortege_ passed through
+the city gates on its way to the temple of Amon. Egypt, roused as it
+were to warlike frenzy, hurled her armies across all her frontiers
+simultaneously, and her sudden appearance in the heart of Syria gave a
+new turn to human history. The isolation of the kingdoms of the ancient
+world was at an end; the conflict of the nations was about to begin.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II--SYRIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EGYPTIAN CONQUEST
+
+
+_SYRIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EGYPTIAN CONQUEST_
+
+_NINEVEH AND THE FIRST COSSÆAN KINGS-THE PEOPLES OF SYRIA, THEIR TOWNS,
+THEIR CIVILIZATION, THEIR RELIGION-PHOENICIA._
+
+_The dynasty of Uruazagga-The Cossseans: their country, their gods,
+their conquest of Chaldæa-The first sovereigns of Assyria, and the first
+Cossæan Icings: Agumhakrimê._
+
+_The Egyptian names for Syria: Kharâ, Zahi, Lotanû, Kefâtiu-The military
+highway from the Nile to the Euphrates: first section from Zalu to
+Gaza-The Canaanites: their fortresses, their agricultural character: the
+forest between Jaffa and Mount Carmel, Megiddo-The three routes beyond
+Megiddo: Qodshu-Alasia, Naharaim, Garchemish; Mitanni and the countries
+beyond the Euphrates._
+
+_Disintegration of the Syrian, Canaanite, Amorite, and Khdti
+populations; obliteration of types-Influence of Babylon on
+costumes, customs, and religion--Baalim and Astarte, plant-gods and
+stone-gods-Religion, human sacrifices, festivals; sacred stones--Tombs
+and the fate of man after death-Phoenician cosmogony._
+
+_Phoenicia--Arad, Marathus, Simyra, Botrys--Byblos, its temple, its
+goddess, the myth of Adonis: Aphaka and the valley of the Nahr-Ibrahim,
+the festivals of the death and resurrection of Adonis--Berytus and
+its god El; Sidon and its suburbs--Tyre: its foundation, its gods, its
+necropolis, its domain in the Lebanon._
+
+_Isolation of the Phoenicians with regard to the other nations of Syria;
+their love of the sea and the causes which developed it--Legendary
+accounts of the beginning of their colonization--Their commercial
+proceedings, their banks and factories; their ships--Cyprus, its wealth,
+its occupations--The Phoenician colonies in Asia Minor and the Ægean
+Sea: purple dye--The nations of the Ægean._
+
+
+[Illustration: 158.jpg Page Image]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II--SYRIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EGYPTIAN CONQUEST
+
+Nineveh and the first Cossæan kings--The peoples of Syria, their towns,
+their civilization, their religion--Phoenicia.
+
+The world beyond the Arabian desert presented to the eyes of the
+enterprising Pharaohs an active and bustling scene. Babylonian
+civilization still maintained its hold there without a rival, but
+Babylonian rule had ceased to exercise any longer a direct control,
+having probably disappeared with the sovereigns who had introduced it.
+When Ammisatana died, about the year 2099, the line of Khammurabi became
+extinct, and a family from the Sea-lands came into power.*
+
+     * The origin of this second dynasty and the reading of its
+     name still afford matter for discussion. Amid the many
+     conflicting opinions, it behoves us to remember that
+     Gulkishar, the only prince of this dynasty whose title we
+     possess, calls himself _King of the Country of the Sea_,
+     that is to say, of the marshy country at the mouth of the
+     Euphrates: this simple fact directs us to seek the cradle of
+     the family in those districts of Southern Chaldæa. Sayce
+     rejects this identification on philological and
+     chronological grounds, and sees in Gulkishar, “King of the
+     Sea-lands,” a vassal Kaldâ prince.
+
+This unexpected revolution of affairs did not by any means restore
+to the cities of Lower Chaldæa the supreme authority which they once
+possessed. Babylon had made such good use of its centuries of rule that
+it had gained upon its rivals, and was not likely now to fall back into
+a secondary place. Henceforward, no matter what dynasty came into power,
+as soon as the fortune of war had placed it upon the throne, Babylon
+succeeded in adopting it, and at once made it its own. The new lord of
+the country, Ilumaîlu, having abandoned his patrimonial inheritance,
+came to reside near to Merodach.*
+
+     * The name has been read An-ma-an or Anman by Pinches,
+     subsequently Ilumaîlu, Mailu, finally Anumaîlu and perhaps
+     Humaîlu. The true reading of it is still unknown. Hommel
+     believed he had discovered in Hilprecht’s book an
+     inscription belonging to the reign of this prince; but
+     Hilprecht has shown that it belonged to a king of Erech,
+     An-a-an, anterior to the time of An-ma-an.
+
+He was followed during the four next centuries by a dynasty of ten
+princes, in uninterrupted succession. Their rule was introduced and
+maintained without serious opposition. The small principalities of the
+south were theirs by right, and the only town which might have caused
+them any trouble--Assur--was dependent on them, being satisfied with the
+title of vicegerents for its princes,--Khallu, Irishum, Ismidagan and
+his son Sarnsiramman I., Igurkapkapu and his son Sarnsiramman II.* As
+to the course of events beyond the Khabur, and any efforts Ilumaîlu’s
+descendants may have made to establish their authority in the direction
+of the Mediterranean, we have no inscriptions to inform us, and must
+be content to remain in ignorance. The last two of these princes,
+Melamkurkurra and Eâgamîl, were not connected with each other, and had
+no direct relationship with their predecessors.** The shortness of their
+reigns presents a striking contrast with the length of those preceding
+them, and probably indicates a period of war or revolution. When these
+princes disappeared, we know not how or why, about the year 1714 B.C.,
+they were succeeded by a king of foreign extraction; and one of the
+semi-barbarous race of Kashshu ascended the throne which had been
+occupied since the days of Khammurabi by Chaldæans of ancient stock.***
+
+     * Inscription of Irishum, son of Khallu, on a brick found at
+     Kalah-Shergat, and an inscription of Sarnsiramman II., son
+     of Igurkapkapu, on another brick from the same place.
+     Sarnsiramman I. and his father Ismidagan are mentioned in
+     the great inscription of Tiglath-pileser II., as having
+     lived 641 years before King Assurdân, who himself had
+     preceded Tiglath-pileser by sixty years: they thus reigned
+     between 1900 and 1800 years before our era, according to
+     tradition, whose authenticity we have no other means of
+     verifying.
+
+     ** The name of the last is read Eâgamîl, for want of
+     anything better: Oppert makes it Eâgâ, simply transcribing
+     the signs; and Hilprecht, who took up the question again
+     after him, has no reading to propose.
+
+     *** I give here the list of the kings of the second dynasty,
+     from the documents discovered by Pinches: No monument
+     remains of any of these princes, and even the reading of
+     their names is merely provisional: those placed between
+     brackets represent Delitzsch’s readings. A Gulkishar is
+     mentioned in an inscription of Belnadiuabal; but Jensen is
+     doubtful if the Gulkishar mentioned in this place is
+     identical with the one in the lists.
+
+[Illustration: Table]
+
+These Kashshu, who spring up suddenly out of obscurity, had from the
+earliest times inhabited the mountainous districts of Zagros, on the
+confines of Elymai’s and Media, where the Cossæans of the classical
+historians flourished in the time of Alexander.*
+
+* The Kashshu are identified with the Cossæans by Sayce, by Schrader,
+by Fr. Delitzsch, by Halévy, by Tiele, by Hommel, and by Jensen. Oppert
+maintains that they answer to the Kissians of Herodotus, that is to say,
+to the inhabitants of the district of which Susa is the capital. Lehmann
+supports this opinion. Winckler gives none, and several Assyriologists
+incline to that of Kiepert, according to which the Kissians are
+identical with the Cossæans.
+
+It was a rugged and unattractive country, protected by nature and easy
+to defend, made up as it was of narrow tortuous valleys, of plains of
+moderate extent but of rare fertility, of mountain chains whose grim
+sides were covered with forests, and whose peaks were snow-crowned
+during half the year, and of rivers, or, more correctly speaking,
+torrents, for the rains and the melting of the snow rendered them
+impassable in spring and autumn. The entrance to this region was by two
+or three well-fortified passes: if an enemy were unwilling to incur the
+loss of time and men needed to carry these by main force, he had to make
+a detour by narrow goat-tracks, along which the assailants were obliged
+to advance in single file, as best they could, exposed to the assaults
+of a foe concealed among the rocks and trees. The tribes who were
+entrenched behind this natural rampart made frequent and unexpected
+raids upon the marshy meadows and fat pastures of Chaldæa: they dashed
+through the country, pillaging and burning all that came in their way,
+and then, quickly regaining their hiding-places, were able to place
+their booty in safety before the frontier garrisons had recovered
+from the first alarm.* These tribes were governed by numerous chiefs
+acknowledging a single king--_ianzi_--whose will was supreme over
+nearly the whole country:** some of them had a slight veneer of Chaldæan
+civilization, while among the rest almost every stage of barbarism might
+be found. The remains of their language show that it was remotely allied
+to the dialect of Susa, and contained many Semitic words.*** What is
+recorded of their religion reaches us merely at second hand, and the
+groundwork of it has doubtless been modified by the Babylonian scribes
+who have transmitted it to us.****
+
+     * It was thus in the time of Alexander and his successors,
+     and the information given by the classical historians about
+     this period is equally applicable to earlier times, as we
+     may conclude from the numerous passages from Assyrian
+     inscriptions which have been collected by Fr. Delitzsch.
+
+     ** Delitzsch conjectures that _Ianzi_, or _Ianzu_, had
+     become a kind of proper name, analogous to the term
+     _Pharaoh_ employed by the Egyptians.
+
+     *** A certain number of Cossæan words has been preserved and
+     translated, some in one of the royal Babylonian lists, and
+     some on a tablet in the British Museum, discovered and
+     interpreted by Fr. Delitzsch. Several Assyriologists think
+     that they showed a marked affinity with the idiom of the
+     Susa inscriptions, and with that of the Achæmenian
+     inscriptions of the second type; others deny the proposed
+     connection, or suggest that the Cossæan language was a
+     Semitic dialect, related to the Chaldæo-Assyrian. Oppert,
+     who was the first to point out the existence of this
+     dialect, thirty years ago, believed it to be the Elamite; he
+     still persists in his opinion, and has published several
+     notes in defence of it.
+
+     **** It has been studied by Pr. Delitzsch, who insists on
+     the influence which daily intercourse with the Chaldæans had
+     on it after the conquest; Halévy, in most of the names of
+     the gods given as Cossæan, sees merely the names of Chaldæan
+     divinities slightly disguised in the writing.
+
+They worshipped twelve great gods, of whom the chief--Kashshu, the lord
+of heaven-gave his name to the principal tribe, and possibly to the
+whole race:* Shûmalia, queen of the snowy heights, was enthroned beside
+him,** and the divinities next in order were, as in the cities of the
+Euphrates, the Moon, the Sun (Sakh or Shuriash), the air or the
+tempest (Ubriash), and Khudkha.*** Then followed the stellar deities or
+secondary incarnations of the sun,--Mirizir, who represented both Istar
+and Beltis; and Khala, answering to Gula.****
+
+     * The existence of Kashshu is proved by the name of
+     Kashshunadinakhé: Ashshur also bore a name identical with
+     that of his worshippers.
+
+     ** She is mentioned in a rescript of Nebuchadrezzar I., at
+     the head of the gods of Namar, that is to say, the Cossæan
+     deities, as “the lady of the shining mountains, the
+     inhabitants of the summits, the frequenter of peaks.” She is
+     called Shimalia in Rawlinson, but Delitzsch has restored her
+     name which was slightly mutilated; one of her statues was
+     taken by Samsirammân III., King of Assyria, in one of that
+     sovereign’s campaigns against Chaldæa.
+
+     *** All these identifications are furnished by the glossary
+     of Delitzsch. Ubriash, under the form of Buriash, is met
+     with in a large number of proper names, Burnaburiash,
+     Shagashaltiburiash, Ulamburiash, Kadashmanburiash, where the
+     Assyrian scribe translates it _Bel-matâti_, lord of the
+     world: Buriash is, therefore, an epithet of the god who was
+     called Rammân in Chaldæa. The name of the moon-god is
+     mutilated, and only the initial syllable Shi... remains,
+     followed by an indistinct sign: it has not yet been
+     restored.
+
+     **** Halévy considers Khala, or Khali, as a harsh form of
+     Gula: if this is the case, the Cossæans must have borrowed
+     the name, and perhaps the goddess herself, from their
+     Chaldæan neighbours.
+
+The Chaldæan Ninip corresponded both to Gidar and Maruttash, Bel to
+Kharbe and Turgu, Merodach to Shipak, Nergal to Shugab.* The Cossæan
+kings, already enriched by the spoils of their neighbours, and supported
+by a warlike youth, eager to enlist under their banner at the first
+call,** must have been often tempted to quit their barren domains and to
+swoop down on the rich country which lay at their feet. We are ignorant
+of the course of events which, towards the close of the XVIIIth century
+B.C., led to their gaining possession of it. The Cossæan king who seized
+on Babylon was named Gandish, and the few inscriptions we possess of
+his reign are cut with a clumsiness that betrays the barbarism of the
+conqueror. They cover the pivot stones on which Sargon of Agadê or one
+of the Bursins had hung the doors of the temple of Nippur, but which
+Gandish dedicated afresh in order to win for himself, in the eyes of
+posterity, the credit of the work of these sovereigns.***
+
+     * Hilprecht has established the identity of Turgu with Bel
+     of Nippur.
+
+     ** Strabo relates, from some forgotten historian of
+     Alexander, that the Cossæans “had formerly been able to
+     place as many as thirteen thousand archers in line, in the
+     wars which they waged with the help of the Elymæans against
+     the inhabitants of Susa and Babylon.”
+
+     *** The full name of this king, Gandish or Gandash, which is
+     furnished by the royal lists, is written Gaddash on a
+     monument in the British Museum discovered by Pinches, whose
+     conclusions have been erroneously denied by Winckler. A
+     process of abbreviation, of which there are examples in the
+     names of other kings of the same dynasty, reduced the name
+     to Gandê in the current language.
+
+Bel found favour in the eyes of the Cossæans who saw in him Kharbê or
+Turgu, the recognised patron of their royal family: for this reason
+Gandish and his successors regarded Bel with peculiar devotion. These
+kings did all they could for the decoration and endowment of the ancient
+temple of Ekur, which had been somewhat neglected by the sovereigns
+of purely Babylonian extraction, and this devotion to one of the most
+venerated Chaldæan sanctuaries contributed largely towards their winning
+the hearts of the conquered people.*
+
+     * Hilpreoht calls attention on this point to the fact that
+     no one has yet discovered at Nippur a single ex-voto
+     consecrated by any king of the two first Babylonian
+     dynasties.
+
+The Cossæan rule over the countries of the Euphrates was doubtless
+similar in its beginnings to that which the Hyksôs exercised at first
+over the nomes of Egypt. The Cossæan kings did not merely bring with
+them an army to protect their persons, or to occupy a small number of
+important posts; they were followed by the whole nation, and
+spread themselves over the entire country. The bulk of the invaders
+instinctively betook themselves to districts where, if they could not
+resume the kind of life to which they were accustomed in their own land,
+they could, at least give full rein to their love of a free and wild
+existence. As there were no mountains in the country, they turned to the
+marshes, and, like the Hyksôs in Egypt, made themselves at home about
+the mouths of the rivers, on the half-submerged low lands, and on the
+sandy islets of the lagoons which formed an undefined borderland between
+the alluvial region and the Persian Gulf. The covert afforded, by the
+thickets furnished scope for the chase which these hunters had been
+accustomed to pursue in the depths of their native forests, while
+fishing, on the other hand, supplied them with an additional element of
+food. When their depredations drew down upon them reprisals from their
+neighbours, the mounds occupied, by their fortresses, and surrounded
+by muddy swamps, offered them almost as secure retreats as their former
+strongholds on the lofty sides of the Zagros. They made alliances with
+the native Aramæans--with those Kashdi, properly called Chaldæans, whose
+name we have imposed upon all the nations who, from a very early
+date, bore rule on the banks of the Lower Euphrates. Here they formed
+themselves into a State--Karduniash--whose princes at times rebelled,
+against all external authority, and at other times acknowledged the
+sovereignty of the Babylonian monarchs.*
+
+     * The state of Karduniash, whose name appears for the first
+     time on the monuments of the Cossæan period, has been
+     localised in a somewhat vague manner, in the south of
+     Babylonia, in the country of the Kashdi, and afterwards
+     formally identified with the _Countries of the Sea_, and
+     with the principality which was called Bît-Yâkin in the
+     Assyrian period. In the Tel-el-Amarna tablets the name is
+     already applied to the entire country occupied by the
+     Cossæan kings or their descendants, that is to say, to the
+     whole of Babylonia. Sargon II. at that time distinguishes
+     between an Upper and a Lower Karduniash; and in consequence
+     the earliest Assyriologists considered it as an Assyrian
+     designation of Babylon, or of the district surrounding it,
+     an opinion which was opposed by Delitzsch, as he believed it
+     to be an indigenous term which at first indicated the
+     district round Babylon, and afterwards the whole of
+     Babylonia. From one frequent spelling of the name, the
+     meaning appears to have been _Fortress of Duniash_; to this
+     Delitzsch preferred the translation _Garden of Duniash_,
+     from an erroneous different reading--Ganduniash: Duniash, at
+     first derived from a Chaldæan God _Dun_, whose name may
+     exist in _Dunghi_, is a Cossæan name, which the Assyrians
+     translated, as they did Buriash, _Belmatâti_, lord of the
+     country. Winckler rejects the ancient etymology, and
+     proposes to divide the word as Kardu-niash and to see in it
+     a Cossæan translation of the expression _mât-kaldi_, country
+     of the Caldæans: Hommel on his side, as well as Delitzsch,
+     had thought of seeking in the Chaldæans proper--_Kaldi_ for
+     _Kashdi_, or _Kash-da_, “domain of the Cossæans “--the
+     descendants of the Cossæans of Karduniash, at least as far
+     as race is concerned. In the cuneiform texts the name is
+     written Kara--D. P. Duniyas, “the Wall of the god
+     Duniyas” (cf. the Median Wall or Wall of Semiramis which
+     defended Babylonia on the north).
+
+The people of Sumir and Akkad, already a composite of many different
+races, absorbed thus another foreign element, which, while modifying
+its homogeneity, did not destroy its natural character. Those Cossæan
+tribes who had not quitted their own country retained their original
+barbarism, but the hope of plunder constantly drew them from their
+haunts, and they attacked and devastated the cities of the plain
+unhindered by the thought that they were now inhabited by their
+fellow-countrymen. The raid once over, many of them did not return home,
+but took service under some distant foreign ruler--the Syrian princes
+attracting many, who subsequently became the backbone of their armies,*
+while others remained at Babylon and enrolled themselves in the
+body-guard of the kings.
+
+     * Halévy has at least proved that the Khabiri mentioned in.
+     the Tel el-Amarna tablets were Cossæans, contrary to the
+     opinion of Sayce, who makes them tribes grouped round
+     Hebron, which W. Max Müller seems to accept; Winckler,
+     returning to an old opinion, believes them to have been
+     Hebrews.
+
+To the last they were an undisciplined militia, dangerous, and difficult
+to please: one day they would hail their chiefs with acclamations, to
+kill them the next in one of those sudden outbreaks in which they were
+accustomed to make and unmake their kings.* The first invaders were
+not long in acquiring, by means of daily intercourse with the old
+inhabitants, the new civilization: sooner or later they became blended
+with the natives, losing all their own peculiarities, with the exception
+of their outlandish names, a few heroic legends,** and the worship of
+two or three gods--Shûmalia, Shugab, and Shukamuna.
+
+     * This is the opinion of Hommel, supported by the testimony
+     of the _Synchronous Hist._: in this latter document the
+     Cossæans are found revolting against King Kadashmankharbé,
+     and replacing him on the throne by a certain Nazibugash, who
+     was of obscure origin.
+
+     ** Pr. Delitzsch and Schrader compare their name with that
+     of Kush, who appears in the Bible as the father of Nimrod
+     (_Gen._ x. 8-12); Hommel and Sayce think that the history of
+     Nimrod is a reminiscence of the Cossæan rule. Jensen is
+     alone in his attempt to attribute to the Cossæans the first
+     idea of the epic of Gilgames.
+
+As in the case of the Hyksôs in Africa, the barbarian conquerors thus
+became merged in the more civilized people which they had subdued. This
+work of assimilation seems at first to have occupied the whole attention
+of both races, for the immediate successors of Gandish were unable
+to retain under their rule all the provinces of which the empire was
+formerly composed. They continued to possess the territory situated on
+the middle course of the Euphrates as far as the mouth of the Balikh,
+but they lost the region extending to the east of the Khabur, at
+the foot of the Masios, and in the upper basin of the Tigris: the
+vicegerents of Assur also withdrew from them, and, declaring that they
+owed no obedience excepting to the god of their city, assumed the royal
+dignity. The first four of these kings whose names have come down to
+us, Sulili, Belkapkapu, Adasi, and Belbâni,* appear to have been but
+indifferent rulers, but they knew bow to hold their own against the
+attacks of their neighbours, and when, after a century of weakness and
+inactivity, Babylon reasserted herself, and endeavoured to recover her
+lost territory, they had so completely established their independence
+that every attack on it was unsuccessful. The Cossæan king at that
+time--an active and enterprising prince, whose name was held in honour
+up to the days of the Ninevite supremacy--was Agumkakrimê, the son of
+Tassigurumash.**
+
+     * These four names do not so much represent four consecutive
+     reigns as two separate traditions which were current
+     respecting the beginnings of Assyrian royalty. The most
+     ancient of them gives the chief place to two personages
+     named Belkapkapu and Sulili; this tradition has been
+     transmitted to us by Rammânnirâri III., because it connected
+     the origin of his race with these kings. The second
+     tradition placed a certain Belbâni, the son of Adasi, in the
+     room of Belkapkapu and Sulili: Esarhaddon made use of it in
+     order to ascribe to his own family an antiquity at least
+     equal to that of the family to which Rammânnirâri III.
+     belonged. Each king appropriated from the ancient popular
+     traditions those names which seemed to him best calculated
+     to enhance the prestige of his dynasty, but we cannot tell
+     how far the personages selected enjoyed an authentic
+     historical existence: it is best to admit them at least
+     provisionally into the royal series, without trusting too
+     much to what is related of them.
+
+     ** The tablet discovered by Pinches is broken after the
+     fifth king of the dynasty. The inscription of Agumkakrimê,
+     containing a genealogy of this prince which goes back as far
+     as the fifth generation, has led to the restoration of the
+     earlier part of the list as follows:
+
+     Gandish, Gaddash, Adumitasii .... 1655-? B.C.
+     Gandê ........................... 1714-1707 B.C.
+     Tassigurumash.................... ?
+     Agumrabi, his son................ 1707-1685
+     Agumkakrimê ..................... ?
+     [A]guyashi ...................... 1685-1663
+     Ushshi, his son.................. 1663-1655
+
+This “brilliant scion of Shukamuna” entitled himself lord of the Kashshu
+and of Akkad, of Babylon the widespread, of Padan, of Alman, and of the
+swarthy Guti.* Ashnunak had been devastated; he repeopled it, and the
+four “houses of the world” rendered him obedience; on the other hand,
+Elam revolted from its allegiance, Assur resisted him, and if he still
+exercised some semblance of authority over Northern Syria, it was owing
+to a traditional respect which the towns of that country voluntarily
+rendered to him, but which did not involve either subjection or control.
+The people of Khâni still retained possession of the statues of Merodach
+and of his consort Zarpanit, which had been stolen, we know not how,
+some time previously from Chaldæa.** Agumkakrimê recovered them and
+replaced them in their proper temple. This was an important event, and
+earned him the good will of the priests.
+
+     * The translation _black-headed_, i.e. dark-haired and
+     complexioned, _Guti_, is uncertain; Jensen interprets the
+     epithet _nishi saldati_ to mean “the Guti, stupid (foolish?
+     culpable?) people.” The Guti held both banks of the lower
+     Zab, in the mountains on the east of Assyria. Delitzsch has
+     placed Padan and Alman in the mountains to the east of the
+     Diyâleh; Jensen places them in the chain of the Khamrîn, and
+     Winckler compares Alman or Halman with the Holwân of the
+     present day.
+
+     ** The Khâni have been placed by Delitzsch in the
+     neighbourhood of Mount Khâna, mentioned in the accounts of
+     the Assyrian campaigns, that is to say, in the Amanos,
+     between the Euphrates and the bay of Alexandretta: he is
+     inclined to regard the name as a form of that of the Khâti.
+
+The king reorganised public worship; he caused new fittings for the
+temples to be made to take the place of those which had disappeared, and
+the inscription which records this work enumerates with satisfaction the
+large quantities of crystal, jasper, and lapis-lazuli which he lavished
+on the sanctuary, the utensils of silver and gold which he dedicated,
+together with the “seas” of wrought bronze decorated with monsters and
+religious emblems.* This restoration of the statues, so flattering to
+the national pride and piety, would have been exacted and insisted upon
+by a Khammurabi at the point of the sword, but Agumkakrimê doubtless
+felt that he was not strong enough to run the risk of war; he therefore
+sent an embassy to the Khâni, and such was the prestige which the name
+of Babylon still possessed, from the deserts of the Caspian to the
+shores of the Mediterranean, that he was able to obtain a concession
+from that people which he would probably have been powerless to extort
+by force of arms.**
+
+     * We do not possess the original of the inscription which
+     tells us of these facts, but merely an early copy.
+
+     ** Strictly speaking, one might suppose that a war took
+     place; but most Assyriologists declare unhesitatingly that
+     there was merely an embassy and a diplomatic negotiation.
+
+The Egyptians had, therefore, no need to anticipate Chaldæan
+interference when, forsaking their ancient traditions, they penetrated
+for the first time into the heart of Syria. Not only was Babylon no
+longer supreme there, but the coalition of those cities on which she had
+depended for help in subduing the West was partially dissolved, and the
+foreign princes who had succeeded to her patrimony were so far conscious
+of their weakness, that they voluntarily kept aloof from the countries
+in which, previous to their advent, Babylon had held undivided sway. The
+Egyptian conquest of Syria had already begun in the days of Agumkakrimê,
+and it is possible that dread of the Pharaoh was one of the chief causes
+which influenced the Cossæans to return a favourable answer to the
+Khâni. Thûtmosis I., on entering Syria, encountered therefore only the
+native levies, and it must be admitted that, in spite of their renowned
+courage, they were not likely to prove formidable adversaries in
+Egyptian estimation. Not one of the local Syrian dynasties was
+sufficiently powerful to collect all the forces of the country around
+its chief, so as to oppose a compact body of troops to the attack of
+the African armies. The whole country consisted of a collection of
+petty states, a complex group of peoples and territories which even the
+Egyptians themselves never completely succeeded in disentangling. They
+classed the inhabitants, however, under three or four very comprehensive
+names--Kharû, Zahi, Lotanû, and Kefâtiû--all of which frequently recur
+in the inscriptions, but without having always that exactness of meaning
+we look for in geographical terms. As was often the case in similar
+circumstances, these names were used at first to denote the districts
+close to the Egyptian frontier with which the inhabitants of the Delta
+had constant intercourse. The Kefâtiû seem to have been at the outset
+the people of the sea-coast, more especially of the region occupied
+later by the Phoenicians, but all the tribes with whom the Phoenicians
+came in contact on the Asiatic and European border were before long
+included under the same name.*
+
+     * The Kefâtiû, whose name was first read Kefa, and later
+     Kefto, were originally identified with the inhabitants of
+     Cyprus or Crete, and subsequently with those of Cilicia,
+     although the decree of Canopus locates them in Phoenicia.
+
+Zahi originally comprised that portion of the desert and of the maritime
+plain on the north-east of Egypt which was coasted by the fleets, or
+traversed by the armies of Egypt, as they passed to and fro between
+Syria and the banks of the Nile. This region had been ravaged by Ahmosis
+during his raid upon Sharuhana, the year after the fall of Avaris. To
+the south-east of Zahi lay Kharû; it included the greater part of Mount
+Seir, whose wadys, thinly dotted over with oases, were inhabited by
+tribes of more or less stationary habits. The approaches to it were
+protected by a few towns, or rather fortified villages, built in the
+neighbourhood of springs, and surrounded by cultivated fields and
+poverty-stricken gardens; but the bulk of the people lived in tents
+or in caves on the mountain-sides. The Egyptians constantly confounded
+those Khauri, whom the Hebrews in after-times found scattered among
+the children of Edom, with the other tribes of Bedouin marauders, and
+designated them vaguely as Shaûsû. Lotanû lay beyond, to the north of
+Kharû and to the north-east of Zahi, among the hills which separate the
+“Shephelah” from the Jordan.*
+
+     * The name of Lotanû or Rotanû has been assigned by Brugsch
+     to the Assyrians, but subsequently, by connecting it, more
+     ingeniously than plausibly, with the Assyrian _iltânu_, he
+     extended it to all the peoples of the north; we now know
+     that in the texts it denotes the whole of Syria, and, more
+     generally, all the peoples dwelling in the basins of the
+     Orontes and the Euphrates. The attempt to connect the name
+     Rotanû or Lotanû with that of the Edomite tribe of Lotan
+     (Gen. xxxvi. 20, 22) was first made by P. de Saulcy; it was
+     afterwards taken up by Haigh and adopted by Renan.
+
+As it was more remote from the isthmus, and formed the Egyptian horizon
+in that direction, all the new countries with which the Egyptians became
+acquainted beyond its northern limits were by degrees included under the
+one name of Lotanû, and this term was extended to comprise successively
+the entire valley of the Jordan, then that of the Orontes, and finally
+even that of the Euphrates. Lotanû became thenceforth a vague and
+fluctuating term, which the Egyptians applied indiscriminately to widely
+differing Asiatic nations, and to which they added another indefinite
+epithet when they desired to use it in a more limited sense: that part
+of Syria nearest to Egypt being in this case qualified as Upper Lotanû,
+while the towns and kingdoms further north were described as being in
+Lower Lotanû. In the same way the terms Zahi and Kharû were extended to
+cover other and more northerly regions. Zahi was applied to the coast as
+far as the mouth of the Nahr el-Kebir and to the country of the Lebanon
+which lay between the Mediterranean and the middle course of the
+Orontes. Kharû ran parallel to Zahi, but comprised the mountain
+district, and came to include most of the countries which were at first
+ranged under Upper Lotanû; it was never applied to the region beyond the
+neighbourhood of Mount Tabor, nor to the trans-Jordanie provinces. The
+three names in their wider sense preserved the same relation to each
+other as before, Zahi lying to the west and north-west of Kharû, and
+Lower Lotanû to the north of Kharû and north-east of Zahi, but the
+extension of meaning did not abolish the old conception of their
+position, and hence arose confusion in the minds of those who employed
+them; the scribes, for instance, who registered in some far-off Theban
+temple the victories of the Pharaoh would sometimes write Zahi where
+they should have inscribed Kharû, and it is a difficult matter for us
+always to detect their mistakes. It would be unjust to blame them too
+severely for their inaccuracies, for what means had they of determining
+the relative positions of that confusing collection of states with which
+the Egyptians came in contact as soon as they had set foot on Syrian
+soil?
+
+A choice of several routes into Asia, possessing unequal advantages, was
+open to the traveller, but the most direct of them passed through the
+town of Zalû. The old entrenchments running from the Ked Sea to the
+marshes of the Pelusiac branch still protected the isthmus, and beyond
+these, forming an additional defence, was a canal on the banks of which
+a fortress was constructed. This was occupied by the troops who guarded
+the frontier, and no traveller was allowed to pass without having
+declared his name and rank, signified the business which took him into
+Syria or Egypt, and shown the letters with which he was entrusted.*
+
+     * The notes of an official living at Zalu in the time of
+     Mîneptah are preserved on the back of pls. v., vi. of the
+     _Anastasi Papyrus III_,; his business was to keep a register
+     of the movements of the comers and goers between Egypt and
+     Syria during a few days of the month Pakhons, in the year
+     III.
+
+It was from Zalû that the Pharaohs set out with their troops, when
+summoned to Kharû by a hostile confederacy; it was to Zalû they returned
+triumphant after the campaign, and there, at the gates of the town,
+they were welcomed by the magnates of the kingdom. The road ran for some
+distance over a region which was covered by the inundation of the Nile
+during six months of the year; it then turned eastward, and for some
+distance skirted the sea-shore, passing between the Mediterranean
+and the swamp which writers of the Greek period called the Lake of
+Sirbonis.*
+
+     * The Sirbonian Lake is sometimes half full of water,
+     sometimes almost entirely dry; at the present time it bears
+     the name of Sebkhat Berdawil, from King Baldwin I. of
+     Jerusalem, who on his return from his Egyptian campaign died
+     on its shores, in 1148, before he could reach El-Artsh.
+
+[Illustration: 177.jpg THE FORTRESS AND BRIDGE OF ZALU]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+This stage of the journey was beset with difficulties, for the Sirbonian
+Lake did not always present the same aspect, and its margins were
+constantly shifting. When the canals which connected it with the open
+sea happened to become obstructed, the sheet of water subsided from
+evaporation, leaving in many places merely an expanse of shifting
+mud, often concealed under the sand which the wind brought up from the
+desert. Travellers ran imminent risk of sinking in this quagmire,
+and the Greek historians tell of large armies being almost entirely
+swallowed up in it. About halfway along the length of the lake rose the
+solitary hill of Mount Casios; beyond this the sea-coast widened till
+it became a vast slightly undulating plain, covered with scanty herbage,
+and dotted over with wells containing an abundant supply of water,
+which, however, was brackish and disagreeable to drink.
+
+[Illustration: 178.jpg Map]
+
+Beyond these lay a grove of palms, a brick prison, and a cluster of
+miserable houses, bounded by a broad wady, usually dry. The bed of the
+torrent often served as the boundary between Africa and Asia, and
+the town was for many years merely a convict prison, where ordinary
+criminals, condemned to mutilation and exile, were confined; indeed, the
+Greeks assure us that it owed its name of Rhinocolûra to the number of
+noseless convicts who were to be seen there.*
+
+     * The ruins of the ancient town, which were of considerable
+     extent, are half buried under the sand, out of which an
+     Egyptian naos of the Ptolemaic period has been dug, and
+     placed near the well which supplies the fort, where it
+     serves as a drinking trough for the horses. Brugsch believed
+     he could identify its site with that of the Syrian town
+     Hurnikheri, which he erroneously reads Harinkola; the
+     ancient form of the name is unknown, the Greek form varies
+     between Rhinocorûra and Rhinocolûra. The story of the
+     mutilated convicts is to be found in Diodorus Siculus, as
+     well as in Strabo; it rests on a historical fact. Under the
+     XVIIIth dynasty Zalû was used as a place of confinement for
+     dishonest officials. For this purpose it was probably
+     replaced by Rhinocolûra, when the Egyptian frontier was
+     removed from the neighbourhood of Selle to that of El-Arîsh.
+
+At this point the coast turns in a north-easterly direction, and is
+flanked with high sand-hills, behind which the caravans pursue their
+way, obtaining merely occasional glimpses of the sea. Here and there,
+under the shelter of a tower or a half-ruined fortress, the traveller
+would have found wells of indifferent water, till on reaching the
+confines of Syria he arrived at the fortified village of Raphia,
+standing like a sentinel to guard the approach to Egypt. Beyond Raphia
+vegetation becomes more abundant, groups of sycamores and mimosas and
+clusters of date-palms appear on the horizon, villages surrounded with
+fields and orchards are seen on all sides, while the bed of a river,
+blocked with gravel and fallen rocks, winds its way between the last
+fringes of the desert and the fruitful Shephelah;* on the further bank
+of the river lay the suburbs of Gaza, and, but a few hundred yards
+beyond, Gaza itself came into view among the trees standing on its
+wall-crowned hill.**
+
+     * The term Shephelah signifies the plain; it is applied by
+     the Biblical writers to the plain bordering the coast, from
+     the heights of Gaza to those of Joppa, which were inhabited
+     at a later period by the Philistines (_Josh_. xi. 16; _Jer_.
+     xxxii. 44 and xxxiii. 13).
+
+     ** Guérin describes at length the road from Gaza to Raphia.
+     The only town of importance between them in the Greek period
+     was Iênysos, the ruins of which are to be found near Khan
+     Yunes, but the Egyptian name for this locality is unknown:
+     Aunaugasa, the name of which Brugsch thought he could
+     identify with it, should be placed much farther away, in
+     Northern or in Coele-Syria.
+
+The Egyptians, on their march from the Nile valley, were wont to stop
+at this spot to recover from their fatigues; it was their first
+halting-place beyond the frontier, and the news which would reach them
+here prepared them in some measure for what awaited them further on.
+The army itself, the “troop of Râ,” was drawn from four great races, the
+most distinguished of which came, of course, from the banks of the Nile:
+the Amû, born of Sokhît, the lioness-headed goddess, were classed in
+the second rank; the Nahsi, or negroes of Ethiopia, were placed in the
+third; while the Timihû, or Libyans, with the white tribes of the
+north, brought up the rear. The Syrians belonged to the second of these
+families, that next in order to the Egyptians, and the name of Amu,
+which for centuries had been given them, met so satisfactorily all
+political, literary, or commercial requirements, that the administrators
+of the Pharaohs never troubled themselves to discover the various
+elements concealed beneath the term. We are, however, able at the
+present time to distinguish among them several groups of peoples and
+languages, all belonging to the same family, but possessing distinctive
+characteristics. The kinsfolk of the Hebrews, the children of Ishmael
+and Edom, the Moabites and Ammonites, who were all qualified as Shaûsû,
+had spread over the region to the south and east of the Dead Sea, partly
+in the desert, and partly on the confines of the cultivated land. The
+Canaanites were not only in possession of the coast from Gaza to a point
+beyond the Nahr el-Kebir, but they also occupied almost the whole valley
+of the Jordan, besides that of the Litâny, and perhaps that of the Upper
+Orontes.* There were Aramaean settlements at Damascus, in the plains of
+the Lower Orontes, and in Naharaim.**
+
+     * I use the term Canaanite with the meaning most frequently
+     attached to it, according to the Hebrew use (_Gen_. x. 15-
+     19). This word is found several times in the Egyptian texts
+     under the forms Kinakhna, Kinakhkhi, and probably Kûnakhaîû,
+     in the cuneiform texts of Tel el-Amarna.
+
+     ** As far as I know, the term Aramæan is not to be found in
+     any Egyptian text of the time of the Pharaohs: the only
+     known example of it is a writer’s error corrected by Chabas.
+     W. Max Müller very justly observes that the mistake is
+     itself a proof of the existence of the name and of the
+     acquaintance of the Egyptians with it.
+
+The country beyond the Aramaean territory, including the slopes of the
+Amanos and the deep valleys of the Taurus, was inhabited by peoples of
+various origin; the most powerful of these, the Khâti, were at this time
+slowly forsaking the mountain region, and spreading by degrees over the
+country between the Afrîn and the Euphrates.*
+
+The Canaanites were the most numerous of all these groups, and had
+they been able to amalgamate under a single king, or even to organize
+a lasting confederacy, it would have been impossible for the Egyptian
+armies to have broken through the barrier thus raised between them and
+the rest of Asia; but, unfortunately, so far from showing the slightest
+tendency towards unity or concentration, the Canaanites were more
+hopelessly divided than any of the surrounding nations. Their mountains
+contained nearly as many states as there were valleys, while in the
+plains each town represented a separate government, and was built on a
+spot carefully selected for purposes of defence. The land, indeed, was
+chequered with these petty states, and so closely were they crowded
+together, that a horseman, travelling at leisure, could easily pass
+through two or three of them in a day’s journey.**
+
+     * Thûtmosis III. shows that, at any rate, they were
+     established in these regions about the XVIth century B.C.
+     The Egyptian pronunciation of their name is _Khîti_, with
+     the feminine _Khîtaît, Khîtit_; but the Tel el-Amarna texts
+     employ the vocalisation _Khâti, Khâte_, which must be more
+     correct than that of the Egyptians, The form _Khîti_ seems
+     to me to be explicable by an error of popular etymology.
+     Egyptian ethnical appellations in _îti_ formed their plural
+     by _-âtiû, -âteê, -âti, -âte_, so that if _Khâte, Khâti_,
+     were taken for a plural, it would naturally have suggested
+     to the scribes the form _Khîti_ for the singular.
+
+     ** Thûtmosis III., speaking to his soldiers, tells them that
+     all the chiefs the projecting spur of some mountain, or on a
+     solitary and more or less irregularly shaped eminence in the
+     midst of a plain, and the means of defence in the country
+     are shut up in Megiddo, so that “to take it is to take a
+     thousand cities:” this is evidently a hyperbole in the mouth
+     of the conqueror, but the exaggeration itself shows how
+     numerous were the chiefs and consequently the small states
+     in Central and Southern Syria.
+
+Not only were the royal cities fenced with walls, but many of the
+surrounding villages were fortified, while the watch-towers, or
+_migdols_* built at the bends of the roads, at the fords over the
+rivers, and at the openings of the ravines, all testified to the
+insecurity of the times and the aptitude for self-defence shown by the
+inhabitants.
+
+     * This Canaanite word was borrowed by the Egyptians from the
+     Syrians at the beginning of their Asiatic wars; they
+     employed it in forming the names of the military posts which
+     they established on the eastern frontier of the Delta: it
+     appears for the first time among Syrian places in the list
+     of cities conquered by Thûtmosis III.
+
+[Illustration: 184.jpg THE CANAANITE FORTRESSES]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+The aspect of these migdols, or forts, must have appeared strange to the
+first Egyptians who beheld them. These strongholds bore no resemblance
+to the large square or oblong enclosures to which they were accustomed,
+and which in their eyes represented the highest skill of the engineer.
+In Syria, however, the positions suitable for the construction of
+fortresses hardly ever lent themselves to a symmetrical plan. The
+usual sites had to be adapted in each case to suit the particular
+configuration of the ground.
+
+[Illustration: 185.jpg THE WALLED CITY OF DAPÛR, IN GALILEE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken at Karnak by
+     Beato.
+
+It was usually a mere wall of stone or dried brick, with towers at
+intervals; the wall measuring from nine to twelve feet thick at the
+base, and from thirty to thirty-six feet high, thus rendering an assault
+by means of portable ladders, nearly impracticable.*
+
+     * This is, at least, the result of investigations made by
+     modern engineers who have studied these questions of
+     military archæology.
+
+The gateway had the appearance of a fortress in itself. It was
+composed of three large blocks of masonry, forming a re-entering face,
+considerably higher than the adjacent curtains, and pierced near the top
+with square openings furnished with mantlets, so as to give both a front
+and flank view of the assailants. The wooden doors in the receded face
+were covered with metal and raw hides, thus affording a protection
+against axe or fire.*
+
+     * Most of the Canaanite towns, taken by Ramses II. in the
+     campaign of his VIIIth year were fortified in this manner.
+     It must have been the usual method of fortification, as it
+     seems to have served as a type for conventional
+     representation, and was sometimes used to denote cities
+     which had fortifications of another kind. For instance,
+     Dapûr-Tabor is represented in this way, while a picture on
+     another monument, which is reproduced in the illustration on
+     page 185, represents what seems to have been the particular
+     form of its encompassing walls.
+
+The building was strong enough not only to defy the bands of adventurers
+who roamed the country, but was able to resist for an indefinite time
+the operations of a regular siege. Sometimes, however, the inhabitants
+when constructing their defences did not confine themselves to this
+rudimentary plan, but threw up earthworks round the selected site. On
+the most exposed side they raised an advance wall, not exceeding twelve
+or fifteen feet in height, at the left extremity of which the entrance
+was so placed that the assailants, in endeavouring to force their way
+through, were obliged to expose an unprotected flank to the defenders.
+By this arrangement it was necessary to break through two lines of
+fortification before the place could be entered. Supposing the enemy to
+have overcome these first obstacles, they would find themselves at
+their next point of attack confronted with a citadel which contained,
+in addition to the sanctuary of the principal god, the palace of the
+sovereign himself. This also had a double enclosing wall and massively
+built gates, which could be forced only at the expense of fresh losses,
+unless the cowardice or treason of the garrison made the assault an easy
+one.*
+
+     * The type of town described in the text is based on a
+     representation on the walls of Karnak, where the siege of
+     Dapûr-Tabor by Ramses II. is depicted. Another type is given
+     in the case of Ascalon.
+
+[Illustration: 187.jpg THE MIGDOL OF RAMSES III. AT THEBES, IN THE
+TEMPLE OF MEDINET-ABUL]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Dévéria
+     in 1865.
+
+Of these bulwarks of Canaanite civilization, which had been thrown up by
+hundreds on the route of the invading hosts, not a trace is to be seen
+to-day. They may have been razed to the ground during one of those
+destructive revolutions to which the country was often exposed, or
+their remains may lie hidden underneath the heaps of ruins which thirty
+centuries of change have raised over them.*
+
+     * The only remains of a Canaanite fortification which can be
+     assigned to the Egyptian period are those which Professor
+     F. I. Petrie brought to light in the ruins of Tell el-Hesy,
+     and in which he rightly recognised the remains of Lachish.
+
+The records of victories graven on the walls of the Theban temples
+furnish, it is true, a general conception of their appearance, but the
+notions of them which we should obtain from this source would be of
+a very confused character had not one of the last of the conquering
+Pharaohs, Ramses III., taken it into his head to have one built at
+Thebes itself, to contain within it, in addition to his funerary chapel,
+accommodation for the attendants assigned to the conduct of his worship.
+In the Greek and Roman period a portion of this fortress was demolished,
+but the external wall of defence still exists on the eastern side,
+together with the gate, which is commanded on the right by a projection
+of the enclosing-wall, and flanked by two guard-houses, rectangular in
+shape, and having roofs which jut out about a yard beyond the wall of
+support. Having passed through these obstacles, we find ourselves face
+to face with a _migdol_ of cut stone, nearly square in form, with two
+projecting wings, the court between their loop-holed walls being made to
+contract gradually from the point of approach by a series of abutments.
+A careful examination of the place, indeed, reveals more than one
+arrangement which the limited knowledge of the Egyptians would hardly
+permit us to expect. We discover, for instance, that the main body of
+the building is made to rest upon a sloping sub-structure which rises to
+a height of some sixteen feet.
+
+This served two purposes: it increased, in the first place, the strength
+of the defence against sapping; and in the second, it caused the
+weapons launched by the enemy to rebound with violence from its inclined
+surface, thus serving to keep the assailants at a distance. The whole
+structure has an imposing look, and it must be admitted that the royal
+architects charged with carrying out their sovereign’s idea brought to
+their task an attention to detail for which the people from whom the
+plan was borrowed had no capacity, and at the same time preserved the
+arrangements of their model so faithfully that we can readily realise
+what it must have been. Transport this migdol of Ramses III. into Asia,
+plant it upon one of those hills which the Canaanites were accustomed to
+select as a site for their fortifications, spread out at its base some
+score of low and miserable hovels, and we have before us an improvised
+pattern of a village which recalls in a striking manner Zerîn or Beîtîn,
+or any other small modern town which gathers the dwellings of its
+fellahin round some central stone building--whether it be a hostelry for
+benighted travellers, or an ancient castle of the Crusading age.
+
+[Illustration: 189.jpg THE MODERN VILLAGE OF BEÎTÎN (ANCIENT BETHEL),
+SEEN FROM THE SOUTH-WEST.]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+
+There were on the littoral, to the north of Gaza, two large walled
+towns, Ascalon and Joppa, in whose roadsteads merchant vessels were
+accustomed to take hasty refuge in tempestuous weather.* There were to
+be found on the plains also, and on the lower slopes of the mountains,
+a number of similar fortresses and villages, such as Iurza, Migdol,
+Lachish, Ajalon, Shocho, Adora, Aphukîn, Keilah, Gezer, and Ono; and,
+in the neighbourhood of the roads which led to the fords of the Jordan,
+Gibeah, Beth-Anoth, and finally Urusalim, our Jerusalem.** A tolerably
+dense population of active and industrious husbandmen maintained
+themselves upon the soil.
+
+     * Ascalon was not actually on the sea. Its port, “Maiumas
+     Ascalonis,” was probably merely a narrow bay or creek, now,
+     for a long period, filled up by the sand. Neither the site
+     nor the remains of the port have been discovered. The name
+     of the town is always spelled in Egyptian with an “s “--
+     Askaluna, which gives us the pronunciation of the time. The
+     name of Joppa is written Yapu, Yaphu, and the gardens which
+     then surrounded the town are mentioned in the _Anastasi
+     Papyrus I_.
+
+     ** Urusalim is mentioned only in the Tel el-Amarna tablets,
+     alongside of Kilti or Keilah, Ajalon, and Lachish. The
+     remaining towns are noticed in the great lists of Thûtmosis
+     III.
+
+[Illustration: 191.jpg Page image]
+
+The plough which they employed was like that used by the Egyptians and
+Babylonians, being nothing but a large hoe to which a couple of oxen
+were harnessed.* The scarcity of rain, except in certain seasons,
+and the tendency of the rivers to run low, contributed to make the
+cultivators of the soil experts in irrigation and agriculture. Almost
+the only remains of these people which have come down ti us consist of
+indestructible wells and cisterns, or wine and oil presses hollowed out
+of the rock.**
+
+     * This is the form of plough still employed by the Syrians
+     in some places.
+
+     ** Monuments of this kind are encountered at every step in
+     Judaea, but it is very difficult to date them. The aqueduct
+     of Siloam, which goes back perhaps to the time of Hezekiah.
+
+Fields of wheat and barley extended along the flats of the valleys,
+broken in upon here and there by orchards, in which the white and pink
+almond, the apple, the fig, the pomegranate, and the olive flourished
+side by side.
+
+[Illustration: 192.jpg AMPHITHEATRE OF HILLS]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a plate in Chesney.
+
+Jerusalem, possibly in part to be attributed to the reign of Solomon,
+are the only instances to which anything like a certain date may be
+assigned. But these are long posterior to the XVIIIth dynasty. Good
+judges, however, attribute some of these monuments to a very distant
+period: the masonry of the wells of Beersheba is very ancient, if not as
+it is at present, at least as it was when it was repaired in the time of
+the Cæsars; the olive and wine presses hewn in the rock do not all date
+back to the Roman empire, but many belong to a still earlier period, and
+modern descriptions correspond with what we know of such presses from
+the Bible.
+
+If the slopes of the valley rose too precipitously for cultivation,
+stone dykes were employed to collect the falling earth, and thus to
+transform the sides of the hills into a series of terraces rising one
+above the other. Here the vines, planted in lines or in trellises,
+blended their clusters with the fruits of the orchard-trees. It was,
+indeed, a land of milk and honey, and its topographical nomenclature in
+the Egyptian geographical lists reflects as in a mirror the agricultural
+pursuits of its ancient inhabitants: one village, for instance, is
+called Aubila, “the meadow;” while others bear such names as Ganutu,
+“the gardens;” Magraphut, “the mounds;” and Karman, “the vineyard.” The
+further we proceed towards the north, we find, with a diminishing
+aridity, the hillsides covered with richer crops, and the valleys decked
+out with a more luxuriant and warmly coloured vegetation. Shechem lies
+in an actual amphitheatre of verdure, which is irrigated by countless
+unfailing streams; rushing brooks babble on every side, and the vapour
+given off by them morning and evening covers the entire landscape with
+a luminous haze, where the outline of each object becomes blurred, and
+quivers in a manner to which we are accustomed in our Western lands.*
+Towns grew and multiplied upon this rich and loamy soil, but as these
+lay outside the usual track of the invading hosts--which preferred to
+follow the more rugged but shorter route leading straight to Carmel
+across the plain--the records of the conquerors only casually mention a
+few of them, such as Bîtshaîlu, Birkana, and Dutîna.**
+
+     * Shechem is not mentioned in the Egyptian geographical
+     lists, but Max Müller thinks he has discovered it in the
+     name of the mountain of Sikima which figures in the
+     _Anastasi Papyrus_, No. 1.
+
+     ** Bîtshaîlu, identified by Chabas with Bethshan, and with
+     Shiloh by Mariette and Maspero, is more probably Bethel,
+     written Bît-sha-îlu, either with _sh_, the old relative
+     pronoun of the Phoenician, or with the Assyrian _sha_; on
+     the latter supposition one must suppose, as Sayce does, that
+     the compiler of the Egyptian lists had before him sources of
+     information in the cuneiform character. Birkana appears to
+     be the modern Brukin, and Dutîna is certainly Dothain, now
+     Tell-Dothân.
+
+Beyond Ono reddish-coloured sandy clay took the place of the dark and
+compact loam: oaks began to appear, sparsely at first, but afterwards
+forming vast forests, which the peasants of our own days have thinned
+and reduced to a considerable extent. The stunted trunks of these trees
+are knotted and twisted, and the tallest of them do not exceed some
+thirty feet in height, while many of them may be regarded as nothing
+more imposing than large bushes.* Muddy rivers, infested with
+crocodiles, flowed slowly through the shady woods, spreading out their
+waters here and there in pestilential swamps. On reaching the seaboard,
+their exit was impeded by the sands which they brought down with them,
+and the banks which were thus formed caused the waters to accumulate
+in lagoons extending behind the dunes. For miles the road led through
+thickets, interrupted here and there by marshy places and clumps of
+thorny shrubs. Bands of Shaûsû were accustomed to make this route
+dangerous, and even the bravest heroes shrank from venturing alone along
+this route. Towards Aluna the way began to ascend Mount Carmel by a
+narrow and giddy track cut in the rocky side of the precipice.**
+
+     * The forest was well known to the geographers of the Græco-
+     Roman period, and was still in existence at the time of the
+     Crusades.
+
+     ** This defile is described at length in the _Anastasi
+     Papyrus_, No. 1, and the terms used by the writer are in
+     themselves sufficient evidence of the terror with which the
+     place inspired the Egyptians. The annals of Thûtmosis III.
+     are equally explicit as to the difficulties which an army
+     had to encounter here. I have placed this defile near the
+     point which is now called Umm-el-Fahm, and this site seems
+     to me to agree better with the account of the expedition of
+     Thûtmosis III. than that of Arraneh proposed by Conder.
+
+Beyond the Mount, it led by a rapid descent into a plain covered with
+corn and verdure, and extending in a width of some thirty miles, by a
+series of undulations, to the foot of Tabor, where it came to an
+end. Two side ranges running almost parallel--little Hermon and
+Glilboa--disposed in a line from east to west, and united by an almost
+imperceptibly rising ground, serve rather to connect the plain of
+Megiddo with the valley of the Jordan than to separate them. A single
+river, the Kishon, cuts the route diagonally--or, to speak more
+correctly, a single river-bed, which is almost waterless for nine months
+of the year, and becomes swollen only during the winter rains with the
+numerous torrents bursting from the hillsides. As the flood approaches
+the sea it becomes of more manageable proportions, and finally
+distributes its waters among the desolate lagoons formed behind the
+sand-banks of the open and wind-swept bay, towered over by the sacred
+summit of Carmel.*
+
+     * In the lists of Thûtmosis III. we find under No. 48 the
+     town of Rosh-Qodshu, the “Sacred Cape,” which was evidently
+     situated at the end of the mountain range, or probably on
+     the site of Haifah; the name itself suggests the veneration
+     with which Carmel was invested from the earliest times.
+
+No corner of the world has been the scene of more sanguinary
+engagements, or has witnessed century after century so many armies
+crossing its borders and coming into conflict with one another. Every
+military leader who, after leaving Africa, was able to seize Gaza and
+Ascalon, became at once master of Southern Syria. He might, it is true,
+experience some local resistance, and come into conflict with bands
+or isolated outposts of the enemy, but as a rule he had no need to
+anticipate a battle before he reached the banks of the Kishon.
+
+[Illustration: 196.jpg THE EVERGREEN OAKS BETWEEN JOPPA AND CARMEL]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a pencil sketch by Lortet.
+
+Here, behind a screen of woods and mountain, the enemy would concentrate
+his forces and prepare resolutely to meet the attack. If the invader
+succeeded in overcoming resistance at this point, the country lay open
+to him as far as the Orontes; nay, often even to the Euphrates. The
+position was too important for its defence to have been neglected. A
+range of forts, Ibleâm, Taanach, and Megiddo,* drawn like a barrier
+across the line of advance, protected its southern face, and beyond
+these a series of strongholds and villages followed one another at
+intervals in the bends of the valleys or on the heights, such as Shunem,
+Kasuna, Anaharath, the two Aphuls, Cana, and other places which we find
+mentioned on the triumphal lists, but of which, up to the present, the
+sites have not been fixed.
+
+     * Megiddo, the “Legio” of the Roman period, has been
+     identified since Robinson’s time with Khurbet-Lejûn, and
+     more especially with the little mound known by the name of
+     Tell-el-Mutesallim. Conder proposed to place its site more
+     to the east, in the valley of the Jordan, at Khurbet-el-
+     Mujeddah.
+
+[Illustration: 197.jpg ACRE AND THE FRINGE OF REEFS SHELTERING THE
+ANCIENT PORT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Lortet.
+
+From this point the conqueror had a choice of three routes. One ran
+in an oblique direction to the west, and struck the Mediterranean near
+Acre, leaving on the left the promontory of Carmel, with the sacred
+town, Rosh-Qodshu, planted on its slope.
+
+[Illustration: 198.jpg Map]
+
+Acre was the first port where a fleet could find safe anchorage after
+leaving the mouths of the Nile, and whoever was able to make himself
+master of it had in his hands the key of Syria, for it stood in the same
+commanding position with regard to the coast as that held by Megiddo
+in respect of the interior. Its houses were built closely together on a
+spit of rock which projected boldly into the sea, while fringes of reefs
+formed for it a kind of natural breakwater, behind which ships could
+find a safe harbourage from the attacks of pirates or the perils of bad
+weather. From this point the hills come so near the shore that one is
+sometimes obliged to wade along the beach to avoid a projecting spur,
+and sometimes to climb a zig-zag path in order to cross a headland. In
+more than one place the rock has been hollowed into a series of
+rough steps, giving it the appearance of a vast ladder.* Below this
+precipitous path the waves dash with fury, and when the wind sets
+towards the land every thud causes the rocky wall to tremble, and
+detaches fragments from its surface. The majority of the towns, such as
+Aksapu (Ecdippa), Mashal, Lubina, Ushu-Shakhan, lay back from the sea on
+the mountain ridges, out of the reach of pirates; several, however,
+were built on the shore, under the shelter of some promontory, and the
+inhabitants of these derived a miserable subsistence from fishing and
+the chase. Beyond the Tyrian Ladder Phoenician territory began. The
+country was served throughout its entire length, from town to town,
+by the coast road, which turning at length to the right, and passing
+through the defile formed by the Nahr-el-Kebîr, entered the region of
+the middle Orontes.
+
+     * Hence the name Tyrian Ladder, which is applied to one of
+     these passes, either Ras-en-Nakurah or Ras-el-Abiad.
+
+[Illustration: 201.jpg THE TOWN OF QODSHU]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+The second of the roads leading from Megiddo described an almost
+symmetrical curve eastwards, crossing the Jordan at Beth-shan, then
+the Jab-bok, and finally reaching Damascus after having skirted at some
+distance the last of the basaltic ramparts of the Haurân. Here extended
+a vast but badly watered pasture-land, which attracted the Bedouin from
+every side, and scattered over it were a number of walled towns, such as
+Hamath, Magato, Ashtaroth, and Ono-Eepha.*
+
+     * Proof that the Egyptians knew this route, followed even to
+     this day in certain circumstances, is furnished by the lists
+     of Thûtmosis III., in which the principal stations which it
+     comprises are enumerated among the towns given up after the
+     victory of Megiddo. Dimasqu was identified with Damascus by
+     E. de Rougé, and Astarotu with Ashtarôth-Qarnaim. Hamatu is
+     probably Hamath of the Gadarenes; Magato, the Maged of the
+     Maccabees, is possibly the present Mukatta; and Ono-Repha,
+     Raphôn, Raphana, Arpha of Decapolis, is the modern Er-Rafeh.
+
+Probably Damascus was already at this period the dominant authority over
+the region watered by these two rivers, as well as over the villages
+nestling in the gorges of Hermon,--Abila, Helbôn of the vineyards, and
+Tabrûd,--but it had not yet acquired its renown for riches and power.
+Protected by the Anti-Lebanon range from its turbulent neighbours, it
+led a sort of vegetative existence apart from invading hosts, forgotten
+and hushed to sleep, as it were, in the shade of its gardens.
+
+The third road from Megiddo took the shortest way possible. After
+crossing the Kishon almost at right angles to its course, it ascended
+by a series of steep inclines to arid plains, fringed or intersected
+by green and flourishing valleys, which afforded sites for numerous
+towns,--Pahira, Merom near Lake Huleh, Qart-Nizanu, Beerotu, and Lauîsa,
+situated in the marshy district at the head-waters of the Jordan.* From
+this point forward the land begins to fall, and taking a hollow shape,
+is known as Coele-Syria, with its luxuriant vegetation spread between
+the two ranges of the Lebanon. It was inhabited then, as at the time of
+the Babylonian conquest, by the Amorites, who probably included Damascus
+also in their domain.**
+
+     * Pahira is probably Safed; Qart-Nizanu, the “flowery city,”
+      the Kartha of Zabulon; and Bcerôt, the Berotha of Josephus,
+     near Merom. Maroma and Lauîsa, Laisa, have been identified
+     with Merom and Laish.
+
+     ** The identification of the country of Amâuru with that of
+     the Amorites was admitted from the first. The only doubt was
+     as to the locality occupied by these Amorites: the mention
+     of Qodshu on the Orontes, in the country of the Amurru,
+     showed that Coele-Syria was the region in question. In the
+     Tel el-Amarna tablets the name Amurru is applied also to the
+     country east of the Phoenician coast, and we have seen that
+     there is reason to believe that it was used by the
+     Babylonians to denote all Syria. If the name given by the
+     cuneiform inscriptions to Damascus and its neighbourhood,
+     “Gar-Imirîshu,” “Imirîshu,” “Imirîsh,” really means “the
+     Fortress of the Amorites,” we should have in this fact a
+     proof that this people were in actual possession of the
+     Damascene Syria. This must have been taken from them by the
+     Hittites towards the XXth century before our era, according
+     to Hommel; about the end of the XVIIIth dynasty, according
+     to Lenormant. If, on the other hand, the Assyrians read the
+     name “Sha-imiri-shu,” with the signification, “the town of
+     its asses,” it is simply a play upon words, and has no
+     bearing upon the primitive meaning of the name.
+
+[Illustration: 202.jpg THE TYRIAN LADDER AT RAS EL-ABIAD]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+
+Their capital, the sacred Qodshu, was situated on the left bank of the
+Orontes, about five miles from the lake which for a long time bore its
+name, Bahr-el-Kades.* It crowned one of those barren oblong eminences
+which are so frequently met with in Syria. A muddy stream, the Tannur,
+flowed, at some distance away, around its base, and, emptying itself
+into the Orontes at a point a little to the north, formed a natural
+defence for the town on the west. Its encompassing walls, slightly
+elliptic in form, were strengthened by towers, and surrounded by two
+concentric ditches which kept the sapper at a distance.
+
+     * The name Qodshu-Kadesh was for a long time read Uatesh,
+     Badesh, Atesh, and, owing to a confusion with Qodi, Ati, or
+     Atet. The town was identified by Champollion with Bactria,
+     then transferred to Mesopotamia by Bosollini, in the land of
+     Omira, which, according to Pliny, was close to the Taurus,
+     not far from the Khabur or from the province of Aleppo:
+     Osburn tried to connect it with Hadashah (_Josh_. xv. 21),
+     an Amorite town in the southern part of the tribe of Judah;
+     while Hincks placed it in Edessa. The reading Kedesh,
+     Kadesh, Qodshu, the result of the observations of Lepsius,
+     has finally prevailed. Brugsch connected this name with that
+     of Bahr el-Kades, a designation attached in the Middle Ages
+     to the lake through which the Orontes flows, and placed the
+     town on its shores or on a small island on the lake. Thomson
+     pointed out Tell Neby-Mendeh, the ancient Laodicea of the
+     Lebanon, as satisfying the requirements of the site. Conder
+     developed this idea, and showed that all the conditions
+     prescribed by the Egyptian texts in regard to Qodshu find
+     here, and here alone, their application. The description
+     given in the text is based on Conder’s observations.
+
+[Illustration: 206.jpt THE DYKE AT BAIIK EL-KADES IN ITS PRESENT
+CONDITION]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+
+A dyke running across the Orontes above the town caused the waters to
+rise and to overflow in a northern direction, so as to form a shallow
+lake, which acted as an additional protection from the enemy. Qodshu was
+thus a kind of artificial island, connected with the surrounding country
+by two flying bridges, which could be opened or shut at pleasure. Once
+the bridges were raised and the gates closed, the boldest enemy had
+no resource left but to arm himself with patience and settle down to
+a lengthened siege. The invader, fresh from a victory at Megiddo, and
+following up his good fortune in a forward movement, had to reckon upon
+further and serious resistance at this point, and to prepare himself for
+a second conflict. The Amorite chiefs and their allies had the advantage
+of a level and firm ground for the evolutions of their chariots during
+the attack, while, if they were beaten, the citadel afforded them a
+secure rallying-place, whence, having gathered their shattered troops,
+they could regain their respective countries, or enter, with the help
+of a few devoted men, upon a species of guerilla warfare in which they
+excelled.
+
+The road from Damascus led to a point south of Quodshu, while that
+from Phonicia came right up to the town itself or to its immediate
+neighbourhood. The dyke of Bahr el-Kades served to keep the plain in a
+dry condition, and thus secured for numerous towns, among which Hamath
+stood out pre-eminently, a prosperous existence. Beyond Hamath, and to
+the left, between the Orontes and the sea, lay the commercial kingdom of
+Alasia, protected from the invader by bleak mountains.*
+
+     * The site of Alasia, Alashia, was determined from the Tel
+     el-Amarna tablets by Maspero. Niebuhr had placed it to the
+     west of Cilicia, opposite the island of Eleousa mentioned by
+     Strabo. Conder connected it with the scriptural Elishah, and
+     W. Max Millier confounds it with Asi or Cyprus.
+
+On the right, between the Orontes and the Balikh, extended the land of
+rivers, Naharaim. Towns had grown up here thickly,--on the sides of the
+torrents from the Amanos, along the banks of rivers, near springs or
+wells--wherever, in fact, the presence of water made culture possible.
+The fragments of the Egyptian chronicles which have come down to us
+number these towns by the hundred,* and yet of how many more must the
+records have perished with the crumbling Theban walls upon which the
+Pharaohs had their names incised! Khalabu was the Aleppo of our own
+day,** and grouped around it lay Turmanuna, Tunipa, Zarabu, Nîi,
+Durbaniti, Nirabu, Sarmata,*** and a score of others which depended upon
+it, or upon one of its rivals. The boundaries of this portion of the
+Lower Lotanû have come down to us in a singularly indefinite form, and
+they must also, moreover, have been subject to continual modifications
+from the results of tribal conflicts.
+
+     * Two hundred and thirty names belonging to Naharaim are
+     still legible on the lists of Thûtmosis III., and a hundred
+     others have been effaced from the monument.
+
+     ** Khalabu was identified by Chabas with Khalybôn, the
+     modern Aleppo, and his opinion has been adopted by most
+     Egyptologists.
+
+     *** Tunipa has been found in Tennib, Tinnab, by Noldoke;
+     Zarabu in Zarbi, and Sarmata in Sarmeda, by Tomkins;
+     Durbaniti in Deîr el-Banât, the Castrum Puellarum of the
+     chroniclers of the Crusades; Nirabu in Nirab, and Tirabu in
+     Tereb, now el-Athrib. Nirab is mentioned by Nicholas of
+     Damascus. Nîi, long confounded with Nineveh, was identified
+     by Lenormant with Ninus Vetus, Membidj, and by Max Millier
+     with Balis on the Euphrates: I am inclined to make it Kefer-
+     Naya, between Aleppo and Turmanin.
+
+[Illustration: 208.jpg Map]
+
+We are at a loss to know whether the various principalities were
+accustomed to submit to the leadership of a single individual, or
+whether we are to relegate to the region of popular fancy that Lord
+of Naharaim of whom the Egyptian scribes made such a hero in their
+fantastic narratives.*
+
+     * In the “Story of the Predestined Prince” the heroine is
+     daughter of the Prince of Naharaim, who seems to exercise
+     authority over all the chiefs of the country; as the
+     manuscript does not date back further than the XXth dynasty,
+     we are justified in supposing that the Egyptian writer had a
+     knowledge of the Hittite domination, during which the King
+     of the Khâti was actually the ruler of all Naharaim.
+
+Carchemish represented in this region the position occupied by Megiddo
+in relation to Kharû, and by Qodshu among the Amorites; that is to say,
+it was the citadel and sanctuary of the surrounding country. Whoever
+could make himself master of it would have the whole country at his
+feet.
+
+[Illustration: 211.jpg Site of Carchemish]
+
+It lay upon the Euphrates, the winding of the river protecting it on its
+southern and south-eastern sides, while around its northern front ran
+a deep stream, its defence being further completed by a double ditch
+across the intervening region. Like Qodshu, it was thus situated in the
+midst of an artificial island beyond the reach of the battering-ram or
+the sapper. The encompassing wall, which tended to describe an ellipse,
+hardly measured two miles in circumference; but the suburbs extending,
+in the midst of villas and gardens, along the river-banks furnished in
+time of peace an abode for the surplus population. The wall still rises
+some five and twenty to thirty feet above the plain. Two mounds divided
+by a ravine command its north-western side, their summits being occupied
+by the ruins of two fine buildings--a temple and a palace.* Carchemish
+was the last stage in a conqueror’s march coming from the south.
+
+     * Karkamisha, Gargamish, was from the beginning associated
+     with the Carchemish of the Bible; but as the latter was
+     wrongly identified with Circesium, it was naturally located
+     at the confluence of the Khabur with the Euphrates. Hincks
+     fixed the site at Rum-Kaleh. G. Rawlinson referred it
+     cursorily to Hierapolis-Mabog, which position Maspero
+     endeavoured to confirm. Finzi, and after him G. Smith,
+     thought to find the site at Jerabis, the ancient Europos,
+     and excavations carried on there by the English have brought
+     to light in this place Hittite monuments which go back in
+     part to the Assyrian epoch. This identification is now
+     generally accepted, although there is still no direct proof
+     attainable, and competent judges continue to prefer the site
+     of Membij. I fall in with the current view, but with all
+     reserve.
+
+[Illustration: 212.jpg THE TELL OF JERABIS IN ITS PRESENT CONDITION]
+
+     Reproduced by Faucher-Gudin, from a cut in the _Graphic_.
+
+For an invader approaching from the east or north it formed his first
+station. He had before him, in fact, a choice of the three chief fords
+for crossing the Euphrates. That of Thapsacus, at the bend of the river
+where it turns eastward to the Arabian plain, lay too far to the
+south, and it could be reached only after a march through a parched
+and desolate region where the army would run the risk of perishing from
+thirst.
+
+[Illustration: 213.jpg A NORTHERN SYRIAN]
+
+     Drawn by faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+For an invader proceeding from Asia Minor, or intending to make his
+way through the defiles of the Taurus, Samosata offered a convenient
+fording-place; but this route would compel the general, who had Naharaim
+or the kingdoms of Chaldæa in view, to make a long detour, and
+although the Assyrians used it at a later period, at the time of their
+expeditions to the valleys of the Halys, the Egyptians do not seem ever
+to have travelled by this road. Carchemish, the place of the third ford,
+was about equally distant from Thapsacus and Samosata, and lay in a
+rich and fertile province, which was so well watered that a drought or
+a famine would not be likely to enter into the expectations of its
+inhabitants. Hither pilgrims, merchants, soldiers, and all the wandering
+denizens of the world were accustomed to direct their steps, and the
+habit once established was perpetuated for centuries. On the left
+bank of the river, and almost opposite Carchemish, lay the region of
+Mitânni,* which was already occupied by a people of a different race,
+who used a language cognate, it would seem, with the imperfectly
+classified dialects spoken by the tribes of the Upper Tigris and Upper
+Euphrates.** Harran bordered on Mitânni, and beyond Harran one may
+recognise, in the vaguely defined Singar, Assur, Arrapkha, and Babel,
+states that arose out of the dismemberment of the ancient Chaldæan
+Empire.***
+
+     * Mitânni is mentioned on several Egyptian monuments; but
+     its importance was not recognised until after the discovery
+     of the Tel el-Amarna tablets and of its situation. The fact
+     that a letter from the Prince of Mitânni is stated in a
+     Hieratic docket to have come from Naharaim has been used as
+     a proof that the countries were identical; I have shown that
+     the docket proves only that Mitânni formed a part of
+     Naharaim. It extended over the province of Edessa and
+     Harran, stretching out towards the sources of the Tigris.
+     Niebuhr places it on the southern slope of the Masios, in
+     Mygdonia; Th. Reinach connects it with the Matiôni, and asks
+     whether this was not the region occupied by this people
+     before their emigration towards the Caspian.
+
+     ** Several of the Tel el-Amarna tablets are couched in this
+     language.
+
+     *** These names were recognised from the first in the
+     inscriptions of Thûtmosis III. and in those of other
+     Pharaohs of the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties.
+
+The Carchemish route was, of course, well known to caravans, but armed
+bodies had rarely occasion to make use of it. It was a far cry from
+Memphis to Carchemish, and for the Egyptians this town continued to be
+a limit which they never passed, except incidentally, when they had to
+chastise some turbulent tribe, or to give some ill-guarded town to the
+flames.*
+
+     * A certain number of towns mentioned in the lists of
+     Thûtmosis III. were situated beyond the Euphrates, and they
+     belonged some to Mitânni and some to the regions further
+     away.
+
+[Illustration: 215.jpg THE HEADS OF THREE AMORITE CAPTIVES]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+It would be a difficult task to define with any approach to accuracy the
+distribution of the Canaanites, Amorites, and Aramæans, and to indicate
+the precise points where they came into contact with their rivals of
+non-Semitic stock. Frontiers between races and languages can never be
+very easily determined, and this is especially true of the peoples of
+Syria. They are so broken up and mixed in this region, that even in
+neighbourhoods where one predominant tribe is concentrated, it is easy
+to find at every step representatives of all the others. Four or five
+townships, singled out at random from the middle of a province,
+would often be found to belong to as many different races, and their
+respective inhabitants, while living within a distance of a mile or two,
+would be as great strangers to each other as if they were separated by
+the breadth of a continent.
+
+[Illustration: 216.jpg MIXTURE OF SYRIAN RACES]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+It would appear that the breaking up of these populations had not been
+carried so far in ancient as in modern times, but the confusion must
+already have been great if we are to judge from the number of different
+sites where we encounter evidences of people of the same language
+and blood. The bulk of the Khâti had not yet departed from the Taurus
+region, but some stray bands of them, carried away by the movement which
+led to the invasion of the Hyksôs, had settled around Hebron, where
+the rugged nature of the country served to protect them from their
+neighbours.*
+
+     * In very early times they are described as dwelling near
+     Hebron or in the mountains of Judah. Since we have learned
+     from the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments that the Khâti
+     dwelt in Northern Syria, the majority of commentators have
+     been indisposed to admit the existence of southern Hittites;
+     this name, it is alleged, having been introduced into the
+     Biblical around text through a misconception of the original
+     documents, where the term Hittite was the equivalent of
+     Canaanite.
+
+The Amorites* had their head-quarters Qodshul in Coele-Syria, but one
+section of them had taken up a position on the shores of the Lake of
+Tiberias in Galilee, others had established themselves within a short
+distance of Jaffa** on the Mediterranean, while others had settled in
+the neighbourhood of the southern Hittites in such numbers that their
+name in the Hebrew Scriptures was at times employed to designate the
+western mountainous region about the Dead Sea and the valley of the
+Jordan. Their presence was also indicated on the table-lands bordering
+the desert of Damascus, in the districts frequented by Bedouin of the
+tribe of Terah, Ammon and Moab, on the rivers Yarmuk and Jabbok, and at
+Edrei and Heshbon.***
+
+     * Ed. Meyer has established the fact that the term Amorite,
+     as well as the parallel word Canaanite, was the designation
+     of the inhabitants of Palestine before the arrival of the
+     Hebrews: the former belonged to the prevailing tradition in
+     the kingdom of Israel, the latter to that which was current
+     in Judah. This view confirms the conclusion which may be
+     drawn from the Egyptian monuments as to the power of
+     expansion and the diffusion of the people.
+
+     ** These were the Amorites which the tribe of Dan at a later
+     period could not dislodge from the lands which had been
+     allotted to them.
+
+     *** This was afterwards the domain of Sihon, King of the
+     Amorites, and that of Og.
+
+The fuller, indeed, our knowledge is of the condition of Syria at the
+time of the Egyptian conquest, the more we are forced to recognise the
+mixture of races therein, and their almost infinite subdivisions. The
+mutual jealousies, however, of these elements of various origin were
+not so inveterate as to put an obstacle in the way, I will not say of
+political alliances, but of daily intercourse and frequent contracts.
+Owing to intermarriages between the tribes, and the continual crossing
+of the results of such unions, peculiar characteristics were at length
+eliminated, and a uniform type of face was the result. From north
+to south one special form of countenance, that which we usually call
+Semitic, prevailed among them.
+
+[Illustration: 218.jpg A CARICATURE OF THE SYRIAN TYPE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+The Syrian and Egyptian monuments furnish us everywhere, under different
+ethnical names, with representations of a broad-shouldered people of
+high stature, slender-figured in youth, but with a fatal tendency
+to obesity in old age. Their heads are large, somewhat narrow, and
+artificially flattened or deformed, like those of several modern tribes
+in the Lebanon. Their high cheek-bones stand out from their hollow
+cheeks, and their blue or black eyes are buried under their enormous
+eyebrows. The lower part of the face is square and somewhat heavy, but
+it is often concealed by a thick and curly beard. The forehead is rather
+low and retreating, while the nose has a distinctly aquiline curve. The
+type is not on the whole so fine as the Egyptian, but it is not so heavy
+as that of the Chaldæans in the time of Gudea. The Theban artists have
+represented it in their battle-scenes, and while individualising every
+soldier or Asiatic prisoner with a happy knack so as to avoid monotony,
+they have with much intelligence impressed upon all of them the marks of
+a common parentage.
+
+[Illustration: 219.jpg]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the original wooden object.
+
+One feels that the artists must have recognised them as belonging to one
+common family. They associated with their efforts after true and exact
+representation a certain caustic humour, which impelled them often to
+substitute for a portrait a more or less jocose caricature of their
+adversaries. On the walls of the Pylons, and in places where the majesty
+of a god restrained them from departing too openly from their official
+gravity, they contented themselves with exaggerating from panel to panel
+the contortions and pitiable expressions of the captive chiefs as they
+followed behind the triumphal chariot of the Pharaoh on his return from
+his Syrian campaigns.*
+
+     * An illustration of this will be found in the line of
+     prisoners, brought by Seti I. from his great Asiatic
+     campaign, which is depicted on the outer face of the north
+     wall of the hypostyle at Karnak.
+
+Where religious scruples offered no obstacle they abandoned themselves
+to the inspiration of the moment, and gave themselves freely up to
+caricature. It is an Amorite or Canaanite--that thick-lipped, flat-nosed
+slave, with his brutal lower jaw and smooth conical skull--who serves
+for the handle of a spoon in the museum of the Louvre. The stupefied air
+with which he trudges under his burden is rendered in the most natural
+manner, and the flattening to which his forehead had been subjected
+in infancy is unfeelingly accentuated. The model which served for this
+object must have been intentionally brutalised and disfigured in order
+to excite the laughter of Pharaoh’s subjects.*
+
+     * Dr. Regnault thinks that the head was artificially
+     deformed in infancy: the bandage necessary to effect it must
+     have been applied very low on the forehead in front, and to
+     the whole occiput behind. If this is the case, the instance
+     is not an isolated one, for a deformation of a similar
+     character is found in the case of the numerous Semites
+     represented on the tomb of Rakhmiri: a similar practice
+     still obtains in certain parts of modern Syria.
+
+[Illustration: 220.jpg SYRIANS DRESSED IN THE LOIN-CLOTH AND DOUBLE
+SHAWL]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+The idea of uniformity with which we are impressed when examining the
+faces of these people is confirmed and extended when we come to study
+their costumes. Men and women--we may say all Syrians according to
+their condition of life--had a choice between only two or three modes
+of dress, which, whatever the locality, or whatever the period, seemed
+never to change. On closer examination slight shades of difference in
+cut and arrangement may, however, be detected, and it may be affirmed
+that fashion ran even in ancient Syria through as many capricious
+evolutions as with ourselves; but these variations, which were evident
+to the eyes of the people of the time, are not sufficiently striking to
+enable us to classify the people, or to fix their date. The peasants and
+the lower class of citizens required no other clothing than a loin-cloth
+similar to that of the Egyptians,* or a shirt of a yellow or white
+colour, extending below the knees, and furnished with short sleeves. The
+opening for the neck was cruciform, and the hem was usually ornamented
+with coloured needlework or embroidery. The burghers and nobles wore
+over this a long strip of cloth, which, after passing closely round the
+hips and chest, was brought up and spread over the shoulders as a sort
+of cloak. This was not made of the light material used in Egypt, which
+offered no protection from cold or rain, but was composed of a thick,
+rough wool, like that employed in Chaldæa, and was commonly adorned with
+stripes or bands of colour, in addition to spots and other conspicuous
+designs.
+
+     * The Asiatic loin-cloth differs from the Egyptian in having
+     pendent cords; the Syrian fellahin still wear it when at
+     work.
+
+Rich and fashionable folk substituted for this cloth two large
+shawls--one red and the other blue--in which they dexterously arrayed
+themselves so as to alternate the colours: a belt of soft leather
+gathered the folds around the figure. Red morocco buskins, a soft cap,
+a handkerchief, a _kejfîyeh_ confined by a fillet, and sometimes a wig
+after the Egyptian fashion, completed the dress.
+
+[Illustration: 222a.jpg]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a figure on the tomb of Ramses III.
+
+Beards were almost universal among the men, but the moustache was of
+rare occurrence. In many of the figures represented on the monuments
+we find that the head was carefully shaved, while in others the hair
+was allowed to grow, arranged in curls, frizzed and shining with oil or
+sweet-smelling pomade, sometimes thrown back behind the ears and falling
+on the neck in bunches or curly masses, sometimes drawn out in stiff
+spikes so as to serve as a projecting cover over the face.
+
+[Illustration: 222b.jpg A SYRIAN WITH HAIR TIRED PENT-HOUSE FASHION]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Champollion.
+
+The women usually tired their hair in three great masses, of which the
+thickest was allowed to fall freely down the back; while the other two
+formed a kind of framework for the face, the ends descending on each
+side as far as the breast. Some of the women arranged their hair after
+the Egyptian manner, in a series of numerous small tresses, brought
+together at the ends so as to form a kind of plat, and terminating in
+a flower made of metal or enamelled terracotta. A network of glass
+ornaments, arranged on a semicircle of beads, or on a background of
+embroidered stuff, was frequently used as a covering for the top of the
+head.*
+
+     * Examples of Syrian feminine costume are somewhat rare on
+     the Egyptian monuments. In the scenes of the capturing of
+     towns we see a few. Here the women are represented on the
+     walls imploring the mercy of the besieger. Other figures are
+     those of prisoners being led captive into Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: 223.jpg Page Image]
+
+The shirt had no sleeves, and the fringed garment which covered it
+left half of the arm exposed. Children of tender years had their heads
+shaved, as a head-dress, and rejoiced in no more clothing than the
+little ones among the Egyptians. With the exception of bracelets,
+anklets, rings on the fingers, and occasionally necklaces and earrings,
+the Syrians, both men and women, wore little jewellery. The Chaldæa
+women furnished them with models of fashion to which they accommodated
+themselves in the choice of stuffs, colours, cut of their mantles or
+petticoats, arrangement of the hair, and the use of cosmetics for the
+eyes and cheeks. In spite of distance, the modes of Babylon reigned
+supreme. The Syrians would have continued to expose their right shoulder
+to the weather as long as it pleased the people of the Lower Euphrates
+to do the same; but as soon as the fashion changed in the latter region,
+and it became customary to cover the shoulder, and to wrap the upper
+part of the person in two or three thicknesses of heavy wool, they at
+once accommodated themselves to the new mode, although it served to
+restrain the free motion of the body. Among the upper classes, at least,
+domestic arrangements were modelled upon the fashions observed in the
+palaces of the nobles of Car-chemish or Assur: the same articles of
+toilet, the same ranks of servants and scribes, the same luxurious
+habits, and the same use of perfumes were to be found among both.*
+
+     * An example of the fashion of leaving the shoulder bare is
+     found even in the XXth dynasty. The Tel el-Amarna tablets
+     prove that, as far as the scribes were concerned, the
+     customs and training of Syria and Chaldæa were identical.
+     The Syrian princes are there represented as employing the
+     cuneiform character in their correspondence, being
+     accompanied by scribes brought up after the Chaldæan manner.
+     We shall see later on that the king of the Khati, who
+     represented in the time of Ramses II. the type of an
+     accomplished Syrian, had attendants similar to those of the
+     Chaldæan kings.
+
+From all that we can gather, in short, from the silence as well as from
+the misunderstandings of the Egyptian chroniclers, Syria stands before
+us as a fruitful and civilized country, of which one might be thankful
+to be a native, in spite of continual wars and frequent revolutions.
+
+The religion of the Syrians was subject to the same influences as their
+customs; we are, as yet, far from being able to draw a complete picture
+of their theology, but such knowledge as we do possess recalls the same
+names and the same elements as are found in the religious systems of
+Chaldæa. The myths, it is true, are still vague and misty, at least
+to our modern ideas: the general characteristics of the principal
+divinities alone stand out, and seem fairly well defined. As with the
+other Semitic races, the deity in a general sense, the primordial type
+of the godhead, was called _El_ or _Ilû_, and his feminine counterpart
+_Ilât_, but we find comparatively few cities in which these nearly
+abstract beings enjoyed the veneration of the faithful.* The gods
+of Syria, like those of Egypt and of the countries watered by the
+Euphrates, were feudal princes distributed over the surface of the
+earth, their number corresponding with that of the independent states.
+Each nation, each tribe, each city, worshipped its own lord--_Adoni_**
+--or its master--_Baal_*** --and each of these was designated by a
+special title to distinguish him from neighbouring _Baalîm_, or masters.
+
+     * The frequent occurrence of the term _Ilû_ or _El_ in names
+     of towns in Southern Syria seems to indicate pretty
+     conclusively that the inhabitants of these countries used
+     this term by preference to designate their supreme god.
+     Similarly we meet with it in Aramaic names, and later on
+     among the Nabathseans; it predominates at Byblos and Berytus
+     in Phoenicia and among the Aramaic peoples of North Syria;
+     in the Samalla country, for instance, during the VIIIth
+     century B.C.
+
+     ** The extension of this term to Syrian countries is proved
+     in the Israelitish epoch by Canaanitish names, such as
+     Adonizedek and Adonibezek, or Jewish names such as Adonijah,
+     Adonikam, Adoniram-Adoram.
+
+     *** Movers tried to prove that there was one particular god
+     named Baal, and his ideas, popularised in Prance by M. de
+     Vogiié, prevailed for some time: since then scholars have
+     gone back to the view of Münter and of the writers at the
+     beginning of this century, who regarded the term Baal as a
+     common epithet applicable to all gods.
+
+The Baal who ruled at Zebub was styled “Master of Zebub,” or
+Baal-Zebub;* and the Baal of Hermon, who was an ally of Gad, goddess
+of fortune, was sometimes called Baal-Hermon, or “Master of Hermon,”
+ sometimes Baal-G-ad, or “Master of Gad;” ** the Baal of Shechem,
+at the time of the Israelite invasion, was “Master of the
+Covenant”--Baal-Berîth--doubtless in memory of some agreement which he
+had concluded with his worshippers in regard to the conditions of their
+allegiance.***
+
+     * Baal-Zebub was worshipped at Ekxon during the Philistine
+     supremacy.
+
+     ** The mountain of Baal-Hermon is the mountain of Baniâs,
+     where the Jordan has one of its sources, and the town of
+     Baal-Hermon is Baniâs itself. The variant Baal-Gad occurs
+     several times in the Biblical books.
+
+     *** Baal-Berith, like Baal-Zebub, only occurs, so far as we
+     know at present, in the Hebrew Scriptures, where, by the
+     way, the first element, Baal, is changed to El, El-Berith.
+
+[Illustration: 226.jpg LOTANÛ WOMEN AND CHILDREN FROM THE TOMB OF
+RAKHMIEÎ]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from coloured sketches by Prisse
+     d’Avennes.
+
+The prevalent conception of the essence and attributes of these deities
+was not the same in all their sanctuaries, but the more exalted among
+them were regarded as personifying the sky in the daytime or at night,
+the atmosphere, the light,* or the sun, Shamash, as creator and
+prime mover of the universe; and each declared himself to be
+king--_melek_--over the other gods.** Bashuf represented the lightning
+and the thunderbolt;*** Shalmân, Hadad, and his double Bimmôn held sway
+over the air like the Babylonian.
+
+     * This appears under the name _Or_ or _Ur_ in the Samalla
+     inscriptions of the VIIIth century B.C.; it is, so far, a
+     unique instance among the Semites.
+
+     ** We find the term applied in the Bible to the national god
+     of the Ammonites, under the forms _Moloch, Molech, Mikôm,
+     Milkâm_, and especially with the article, _Ham-molek_; the
+     real name hidden beneath this epithet was probably _Amnôn or
+     Ammân_, and, strictly speaking, the God Moloch only exists
+     in the imagination of scholars. The epithet was used among
+     the Oanaanites in the name Melchizedek, a similar form to
+     Adonizedek, Abimelech, Ahimelech; it was in current use
+     among the Phoenicians, in reference to the god of Tyre,
+     Melek-Karta or Melkarth, and in many proper names, such as
+     Melekiathon, Baalmelek, Bodmalek, etc., not to mention the
+     god Milichus worshipped in Spain, who was really none other
+     than Melkarth.
+
+     *** Resheph has been vocalised _Rashuf_ in deference to the
+     Egyptian orthography Rashupu. It was a name common to a
+     whole family of lightning and storm-gods, and M. de Rougé
+     pointed out long ago the passage in the Great Inscription of
+     Ramses III. at Medinet-Habu, in which the soldiers who man
+     the chariots are compared to the Rashupu; the Rabbinic
+     Hebrew still employs this plural form in the sense of
+     “demons.” The Phoenician inscriptions contain references to
+     several local Rashufs; the way in which this god is coupled
+     with the goddess Qodshu on the Egyptian stelæ leads me to
+     think that, at the epoch now under consideration, he was
+     specially worshipped by the Amorites, just as his equivalent
+     Hadad was by the inhabitants of Damascus, neighbours of the
+     Amorites, and perhaps themselves Amorites.
+
+Rammânu;* Dagon, patron god of fishermen and husbandmen, seems to
+have watched over the fruitfulness of the sea and the land.** We are
+beginning to learn the names of the races whom they specially protected:
+Rashuf the Amorites, Hadad and Rimmon the Aramæans of Damascus, Dagon
+the peoples of the coast between Ashkelon and the forest of Carmel.
+Rashûf is the only one whose appearance is known to us. He possessed the
+restless temperament usually attributed to the thunder-gods, and was,
+accordingly, pictured as a soldier armed with javelin and mace, bow and
+buckler; a gazelle’s head with pointed horns surmounts his helmet, and
+sometimes, it may be, serves him as a cap.
+
+     * Hadad and Rimmon are represented in Assyrio-Chaldæan by
+     one and the same ideogram, which may be read either Dadda-
+     Hadad or Eammânu. The identity of the expressions employed
+     shows how close the connection between the two divinities
+     must have been, even if they were not similar in all
+     respects; from the Hebrew writings we know of the temple of
+     Rimmon at Damascus (_2 Kings_ v. 18) and that one of the
+     kings of that city was called Tabrimmôn = “llimmon is good”
+      (_1 Kings_ xv. 18), while Hadad gave his name to no less
+     than ten kings of the same city. Even as late as the Græco-
+     Roman epoch, kingship over the other gods was still
+     attributed both to Rimmon and to Hadad, but this latter was
+     identified with the sun.
+
+     ** The documents which we possess in regard to Dagon date
+     from the Hebrew epoch, and represent him as worshipped by
+     the Philistines. We know, however, from the Tel el-Amarna
+     tablets, of a Dagantakala, a name which proves the presence
+     of the god among the Canaanites long before the Philistine
+     invasion, and we find two Beth-Dagons--one in the plain of
+     Judah, the other in the tribe of Asher; Philo of Byblos
+     makes Dagon a Phoenician deity, and declares him to be the
+     genius of fecundity, master of grain and of labour. The
+     representation of his statue which appears on the Græco-
+     Roman coins of Abydos, reminds us of the fish-god of
+     Chaldæa.
+
+Each god had for his complement a goddess, who was proclaimed
+“mistress” of the city, _Baalat_, or “queen,” _Milkat_, of heaven, just
+as the god himself was recognised as “master” or “king.” * As a rule, the
+goddess was contented with the generic name of Astartê; but to this was
+often added some epithet, which lent her a distinct personality, and
+prevented her from being confounded with the Astartês of neighbouring
+cities, her companions or rivals.**
+
+     * Among goddesses to whom the title “Baalat “was referred,
+     we have the goddess of Byblos, Baalat-Gebal, also the
+     goddess of Berytus, Baalat-Berîth, or Beyrut. The epithet
+     “queen of heaven “is applied to the Phoenician Astartê by
+     Hebrew (_Jer._ vii. 18, xliv. 18-29) and classic writers.
+     The Egyptians, when they adopted these Oanaanitish
+     goddesses, preserved the title, and called each of them
+     _nibît pit,_ “lady of heaven.” In the Phoenician inscriptions
+     their names are frequently preceded by the word _Rabbat:
+     rabbat Baalat-Gebal_, “(my) lady Baalat-Gebal.”
+
+     ** The Hebrew writers frequently refer to the Canaanite
+     goddesses by the general title “the Ashtarôth” or “Astartês,”
+      and a town in Northern Syria bore the significant name of
+     Istarâti = “the Ishtars, the Ashtarôth,” a name which finds
+     a parallel in Anathôth = “the Anats,” a title assumed by a
+     town of the tribe of Benjamin; similarly, the Assyrio-
+     Chaldæans called their goddesses by the plural of Ishtar.
+     The inscription on an Egyptian amulet in the Louvre tells us
+     of a personage of the XXth dynasty, who, from his name,
+     Rabrabîna, must have been of Syrian origin, and who styled
+     himself “Prophet of the Astartês,” Honnutir Astiratu.
+
+[Illustration: 229.jpg ASTARTE AS A SPHINX]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a copy of an original in chased
+     gold.
+
+Thus she would be styled the “good” Astartê, Ashtoreth Naamah, or the
+“horned” Astartê, Ashtoreth Qarnaîm, because of the lunar crescent which
+appears on her forehead, as a sort of head-dress.* She was the goddess
+of good luck, and was called Gad;** she was Anat,*** or Asîti,**** the
+chaste and the warlike.
+
+     * The two-horned Astartê gave her name to a city beyond the
+     Jordan, of which she was, probably, the eponymous goddess:
+     (Gen xiv. 5) she would seem to be represented on the curious
+     monument called by the Arabs “the stone of Job,” which was
+     discovered by M. Schumacher in the centre of the Hauran. It
+     was an analogous goddess whom the Egyptians sometimes
+     identified with their Hâthor, and whom they represented as
+     crowned with a crescent.
+
+     ** Gad, the goddess of fortune, is mainly known to us in
+     connection with the Aramæans; we find mention made of her by
+     the Hebrew writers, and geographical names, such as Baal-Gad
+     and Migdol-Gad, prove that she must have been worshipped at
+     a very early date in the Canaanite countries.
+
+     *** Anat, or Anaîti, or Aniti, has been found in a
+     Phoenician inscription, which enables us to reconstruct the
+     history of the goddess. Her worship was largely practised
+     among the Canaanites, as is proved by the existence in the
+     Hebrew epoch of several towns, such as Beth-Anath, Beth-
+     Anoth, Anathôth; at least one of which, Bît-Anîti, is
+     mentioned in the Egyptian geographical lists. The appearance
+     of Anat-Anîti is known to us, as she is represented in
+     Egyptian dress on several stelæ of the XIXth and XXth
+     dynasties. Her name, like that of Astartê, had become a
+     generic term, in the plural form Anathôth, for a whole group
+     of goddesses.
+
+     **** Asîti is represented at Radesieh, on a stele of the
+     time of Seti I.; she enters into the composition of a
+     compound name, _Asîtiiàkhûrû_ (perhaps “the goddess of Asiti
+     is enflamed with anger “), which we find on a monument in
+     the Vienna Museum. W. Max Müller makes her out to have been
+     a divinity of the desert, and the place in which the picture
+     representing her was found would seem to justify this
+     hypothesis; the Egyptians connected her, as well as the
+     other Astartês, with Sit-Typhon, owing to her cruel and
+     warlike character.
+
+[Illustration: 231.jpg Page Image]
+
+The statues sometimes represent her as a sphinx with a woman’s head,
+but more often as a woman standing on a lion passant, either nude,
+or encircled round the hips by merely a girdle, her hands filled
+with flowers or with serpents, her features framed in a mass of heavy
+tresses--a faithful type of the priestesses who devoted themselves to
+her service, the _Qedeshôt_. She was the goddess of love in its animal,
+or rather in its purely physical, aspect, and in this capacity was
+styled Qaddishat the Holy, like the hetairæ of her family; Qodshu,
+the Amorite capital, was consecrated to her service, and she was there
+associated with Rashuf, the thunder-god.*
+
+     * Qaddishat is know to us from the Egyptian monuments
+     referred to above. The name was sometimes written Qodshû,
+     like that of the town: E. de Bougé argued from this that
+     Qaddishat must have been the eponymous divinity of Qodshû,
+     and that her real name was Kashit or Kesh; he recalls,
+     however, the _rôle_ played by the Qedeshoth, and admits that
+     “the Holy here means the prostitute.”
+
+But she often comes before us as a warlike Amazon, brandishing a club,
+lance, or shield, mounted on horseback like a soldier, and wandering
+through the desert in quest of her prey.* This dual temperament rendered
+her a goddess of uncertain attributes and of violent contrasts; at times
+reserved and chaste, at other times shameless and dissolute, but always
+cruel, always barren, for the countless multitude of her excesses for
+ever shut her out from motherhood: she conceives without ceasing, but
+never brings forth children.** The Baalim and Astartês frequented
+by choice the tops of mountains, such as Lebanon, Carmel, Hermon, or
+Kasios:*** they dwelt near springs, or hid themselves in the depths of
+forests.**** They revealed themselves to mortals through the heavenly
+bodies, and in all the phenomena of nature: the sun was a Baal, the moon
+was Astartê, and the whole host of heaven was composed of more or less
+powerful genii, as we find in Chaldæa.
+
+     * A fragment of a popular tale preserved in the British
+     Museum, and mentioned by Birch, seems to show us Astartê in
+     her character of war-goddess, and the sword of Astartê is
+     mentioned by Chabas. A bas-relief at Edfû represents her
+     standing upright in her chariot, drawn by horses, and
+     trampling her enemies underfoot: she is there identified
+     with Sokhît the warlike, destroyer of men.
+
+     ** This conception of the Syrian goddesses had already
+     become firmly established at the period with which we are
+     dealing, for an Egyptian magical formula defines Anîti and
+     Astartê as “the great goddesses who conceiving do not bring
+     forth young, for the Horuses have sealed them and Sit hath
+     established them.”
+
+     *** The Baal of Lebanon is mentioned in an archaic
+     Phoenician inscription, and the name “Holy Cape” (_Rosh-
+     Qodshu_), borne in the time of Thûtmosis III. either by
+     Haifa or by a neighbouring town, proves that Carmel was held
+     sacred as far back as the Egyptian epoch. Baal-Hermon has
+     already been mentioned.
+
+     **** The source of the Jordan, near Baniâs, was the seat of
+     a Baal whom the Greeks identified with Pan. This was
+     probably the Baal-Gad who often lent his name to the
+     neighbouring town of Baal-Hermon: many of the rivers of
+     Phoenicia were called after the divinities worshipped in the
+     nearest city, e.g. the Adonis, the Bêlos, the Asclepios, the
+     Damûras.
+
+They required that offerings and prayers should be brought to them
+at the high places,* but they were also pleased--and especially the
+goddesses--to lodge in trees; tree-trunks, sometimes leafy, sometimes
+bare and branchless (_ashêrah_), long continued to be living emblems
+of the local Astartês among the peoples of Southern Syria. Side by side
+with these plant-gods we find everywhere, in the inmost recesses of the
+temples, at cross-roads, and in the open fields, blocks of stone hewn
+into pillars, isolated boulders, or natural rocks, sometimes of meteoric
+origin, which were recognised by certain mysterious marks to be the
+house of the god, the Betyli or Beth-els in which he enclosed a part of
+his intelligence and vital force.
+
+     * These are the “high places” (bamôth) so frequently
+     referred to by the Hebrew prophets, and which we find in the
+     country of Moab, according to the Mesha inscription, and in
+     the place-name Bamoth-Baal; many of them seem to have served
+     for Canaanitish places of worship before they were resorted
+     to by the children of Israel.
+
+The worship of these gods involved the performance of ceremonies more
+bloody and licentious even than those practised by other races. The
+Baalim thirsted after blood, nor would they be satisfied with any common
+blood such as generally contented their brethren in Chaldæa or Egypt:
+they imperatively demanded human as well as animal sacrifices. Among
+several of the Syrian nations they had a prescriptive right to the
+firstborn male of each family;* this right was generally commuted,
+either by a money payment or by subjecting the infant to circumcision.**
+
+     * This fact is proved, in so far as the Hebrew people is
+     concerned, by the texts of the Pentateuch and of the
+     prophets; amongst the Moabites also it was his eldest son
+     whom King Mosha took to offer to his god. We find the same
+     custom among other Syrian races: Philo of Byblos tells us,
+     in fact, that El-Kronos, god of Byblos, sacrificed his
+     firstborn son and set the example of this kind of offering.
+
+     ** Redemption by a payment in money was the case among the
+     Hebrews, as also the substitution of an animal in the place
+     of a child; as to redemption by circumcision, cf. the story
+     of Moses and Zipporah, where the mother saves her son from
+     Jahveh by circumcising him. Circumcision was practised among
+     the Syrians of Palestine in the time of Herodotus.
+
+At important junctures, however, this pretence of bloodshed would fail
+to appease them, and the death of the child alone availed. Indeed, in
+times of national danger, the king and nobles would furnish, not merely
+a single victim, but as many as the priests chose to demand.* While they
+were being burnt alive on the knees of the statue, or before the sacred
+emblem, their cries of pain were drowned by the piping of flutes or the
+blare of trumpets, the parents standing near the altar, without a sign
+of pity, and dressed as for a festival: the ruler of the world could
+refuse nothing to prayers backed by so precious an offering, and by a
+purpose so determined to move him. Such sacrifices were, however, the
+exception, and the shedding of their own blood by his priests sufficed,
+as a rule, for the daily wants of the god. Seizing their knives, they
+would slash their arms and breasts with the view of compelling, by this
+offering of their own persons, the good will of the Baalim.**
+
+     * If we may credit Tertullian, the custom of offering up
+     children as sacrifices lasted down to the proconsulate of
+     Tiberius.
+
+     ** Cf., for the Hebraic epoch, the scene where the priests
+     of Baal, in a trial of power with Elijah before Ahab,
+     offered up sacrifices on the highest point of Carmel, and
+     finding that their offerings did not meet with the usual
+     success, “cut themselves... with knives and lancets till the
+     blood gushed out upon them.”
+
+The Astartês of all degrees and kinds were hardly less cruel; they
+imposed frequent flagellations, self-mutilation, and sometimes even
+emasculation, on their devotees. Around the majority of these goddesses
+was gathered an infamous troop of profligates (_kedeshîm_), “dogs of
+love” (_kelabîm_), and courtesans (_kedeshôt_). The temples bore little
+resemblance to those of the regions of the Lower Euphrates: nowhere do
+we find traces of those _ziggurat_ which serve to produce the peculiar
+jagged outline characteristic of Chaldæan cities. The Syrian edifices
+were stone buildings, which included, in addition to the halls and
+courts reserved for religious rites, dwelling-rooms for the priesthood,
+and storehouses for provisions: though not to be compared in size with
+the sanctuaries of Thebes, they yet answered the purpose of strongholds
+in time of need, and were capable of resisting the attacks of a
+victorious foe.* A numerous staff, consisting of priests, male and
+female singers, porters, butchers, slaves, and artisans, was assigned
+to each of these temples: here the god was accustomed to give forth his
+oracles, either by the voice of his prophets, or by the movement of his
+statues.** The greater number of the festivals celebrated in them
+were closely connected with the pastoral and agricultural life of
+the country; they inaugurated, or brought to a close, the principal
+operations of the year--the sowing of seed, the harvest, the vintage,
+the shearing of the sheep. At Shechem, when the grapes were ripe, the
+people flocked out of the town into the vineyards, returning to the
+temple for religious observances and sacred banquets when the fruit had
+been trodden in the winepress.***
+
+     * The story of Abimelech gives us some idea of what the
+     Canaanite temple of Baal-Berîth at Shechem was like.
+
+     ** As to the regular organisation of Baal-worship, we
+     possess only documents of a comparatively late period.
+
+     *** It is probable that the vintage festival, celebrated at
+     Shiloh in the time of the Judges, dated back to a period of
+     Canaanite history prior to the Hebrew invasion, i.e. to the
+     time of the Egyptian supremacy.
+
+In times of extraordinary distress, such as a prolonged drought or a
+famine, the priests were wont to ascend in solemn procession to the high
+places in order to implore the pity of their divine masters, from whom
+they strove to extort help, or to obtain the wished-for rain, by their
+dances, their lamentations, and the shedding of their blood.*
+
+     *Cf., in the Hebraic period, the scene where the priests of
+     Baal go up to the top of Mount Carmel with the prophet
+     Elijah.
+
+Almost everywhere, but especially in the regions east of the Jordan,
+were monuments which popular piety surrounded with a superstitious
+reverence. Such were the isolated boulders, or, as we should call
+them, “menhirs,” reared on the summit of a knoll, or on the edge of
+a tableland; dolmens, formed of a flat slab placed on the top of two
+roughly hewn supports, cromlechs, or, that is to say, stone circles, in
+the centre of which might be found a beth-el. We know not by whom were
+set up these monuments there, nor at what time: the fact that they
+are in no way different from those which are to be met with in Western
+Europe and the north of Africa has given rise to the theory that they
+were the work of some one primeval race which wandered ceaselessly
+over the ancient world. A few of them may have marked the tombs of
+some forgotten personages, the discovery of human bones beneath them
+confirming such a conjecture; while others seem to have been holy places
+and altars from the beginning. The nations of Syria did not in all cases
+recognise the original purpose of these monuments, but regarded them as
+marking the seat of an ancient divinity, or the precise spot on which he
+had at some time manifested himself. When the children of Israel caught
+sight of them again on their return from Egypt, they at once recognised
+in them the work of their patriarchs. The dolmen at Shechem was the
+altar which Abraham had built to the Eternal after his arrival in the
+country of Canaan. Isaac had raised that at Beersheba, on the very spot
+where Jehovah had appeared in order to renew with him the covenant that
+He had made with Abraham. One might almost reconstruct a map of the
+wanderings of Jacob from the altars which he built at each of his
+principal resting-places--at Gilead [Galeed], at Ephrata, at Bethel, and
+at Shechem.* Each of such still existing objects probably had a history
+of its own, connecting it inseparably with some far-off event in the
+local annals.
+
+     * The heap of stones at Galeed, in Aramaic _Jegar-
+     Sahadutha_, “the heap of witness,” marked the spot where
+     Laban and Jacob were reconciled; the stele on the way to
+     Ephrata was the tomb of Rachel; the altar and stele at
+     Bethel marked the spot where God appeared unto Jacob.
+
+[Illustration: 235.jpg TRANSJORDANIAN DOLMEN]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+
+[Illustration: 238.jpg A CROMLECH IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF HESBAN, IN THE
+COUNTRY OF MOAB]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+
+Most of them were objects of worship: they were anointed with oil, and
+victims were slaughtered in their honour; the faithful even came at
+times to spend the night and sleep near them, in order to obtain in
+their dreams glimpses of the future.*
+
+     * The menhir of Bethel was the identical one whereon Jacob
+     rested his head on the night in which Jehovah appeared to
+     him in a dream. In Phoenicia there was a legend which told
+     how Usôos set up two stellæ to the elements of wind and fire,
+     and how he offered the blood of the animals he had killed in
+     the chase as a libation.
+
+Men and beasts were supposed to be animated, during their lifetime, by
+a breath or soul which ran in their veins along with their blood, and
+served to move their limbs; the man, therefore, who drank blood or ate
+bleeding flesh assimilated thereby the soul which inhered in it. After
+death the fate of this soul was similar to that ascribed to the spirits
+of the departed in Egypt and Chaldæa. The inhabitants of the ancient
+world were always accustomed to regard the surviving element in man as
+something restless and unhappy--a weak and pitiable double, doomed to
+hopeless destruction if deprived of the succour of the living.
+They imagined it as taking up its abode near the body wrapped in a
+half-conscious lethargy; or else as dwelling with the other _rephaim_
+(departed spirits) in some dismal and gloomy kingdom, hidden in the
+bowels of the earth, like the region ruled by the Chaldæan Allât, its
+doors gaping wide to engulf new arrivals, but allowing none to escape
+who had once passed the threshold.*
+
+     * The expression _rephaim_ means “the feeble”; it was the
+     epithet applied by the Hebrews to a part of the primitive
+     races of Palestine.
+
+There it wasted away, a prey to sullen melancholy, under the sway of
+inexorable deities, chief amongst whom, according to the Phoenician
+idea, was Mout (Death),* the grandson of El; there the slave became the
+equal of his former master, the rich man no longer possessed anything
+which could raise him above the poor, and dreaded monarchs were greeted
+on their entrance by the jeers of kings who had gone down into the night
+before them.
+
+     *Among the Hebrews his name was Maweth, who feeds the
+     departed like sheep, and himself feeds on them in hell. Some
+     writers have sought to identify this or some analogous god
+     with the lion represented on a stele of Piraeus which
+     threatens to devour the body of a dead man.
+
+[Illustration: 240.jpg A CORNER OF THE PHOENICIAN NECKROPOLIS AT ADLUN]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph in Lortet.
+
+The corpse, after it had been anointed with perfumes and enveloped in
+linen, and impregnated with substances which retarded its decomposition,
+was placed in some natural grotto or in a cave hollowed out of the solid
+rock: sometimes it was simply laid on the bare earth, sometimes in a
+sarcophagus or coffin, and on it, or around it, were piled amulets,
+jewels, objects of daily use, vessels filled with perfume, or household
+utensils, together with meat and drink. The entrance was then closed,
+and on the spot a cippus was erected--in popular estimation sometimes
+held to represent the soul--or a monument was set up on a scale
+proportionate to the importance of the family to which the dead man had
+belonged.* On certain days beasts ceremonially pure were sacrificed at
+the tomb, and libations poured out, which, carried into the next world
+by virtue of the prayers of those who offered them, and by the aid of
+the gods to whom the prayers were addressed, assuaged the hunger
+and thirst of the dead man.** The chapels and stellæ which marked the
+exterior of these “eternal” *** houses have disappeared in the course
+of the various wars by which Syria suffered so heavily: in almost all
+cases, therefore, we are ignorant as to the sites of the various cities
+of the dead in which the nobles and common people of the Canaanite and
+Amorite towns were laid to rest.****
+
+     * The pillar or stele was used among both Hebrews and
+     Phoenicians to mark the graves of distinguished persons.
+     Among the Semites speaking Aramaic it was called _nephesh_,
+     especially when it took the form of a pyramid; the word
+     means “breath,” “soul,” and clearly shows the ideas
+     associated with the object.
+
+     ** An altar was sometimes placed in front of the sarcophagus
+     to receive these offerings.
+
+     *** This expression, which is identical with that used by
+     the Egyptians of the same period, is found in one of the
+     Phoenician inscriptions at Malta.
+
+     **** The excavations carried out by M. Gautier in 1893-94,
+     on the little island of Bahr-el-Kadis, at one time believed
+     to have been the site of the town of Qodshu, have revealed
+     the existence of a number of tombs in the enclosure which
+     forms the central part of the tumulus: some of these may
+     possibly date from the Amorite epoch, but they are very poor
+     in remains, and contain no object which permits us to fix
+     the date with accuracy.
+
+In Phoenicia alone do we meet with burial-places which, after the
+vicissitudes and upheavals of thirty centuries, still retain something
+of their original arrangement. Sometimes the site chosen was on level
+ground: perpendicular shafts or stairways cut in the soil led down
+to low-roofed chambers, the number of which varied according to
+circumstances: they were often arranged in two stories, placed one above
+the other, fresh vaults being probably added as the old ones were filled
+up. They were usually rectangular in shape, with horizontal or slightly
+arched ceilings; niches cut in the walls received the dead body and the
+objects intended for its use in the next world, and were then closed
+with a slab of stone. Elsewhere some isolated hill or narrow gorge, with
+sides of fine homogeneous limestone, was selected.*
+
+     * Such was the necropolis at Adlûn, the last rearrangement
+     of which took place during the Græco-Roman period, but
+     which externally bears so strong a resemblance to an
+     Egyptian necropolis of the XVIIIth or XIXth dynasty, that we
+     may, without violating the probabilities, trace its origin
+     back to the time of the Pharaonic conquest.
+
+In this case the doors were placed in rows on a sort of façade similar
+to that of the Egyptian rock-tomb, generally without any attempt at
+external ornament. The vaults were on the ground-level, but were not
+used as chapels for the celebration of festivals in honour of the
+dead: they were walled up after every funeral, and all access to them
+forbidden, until such time as they were again required for the purposes
+of burial. Except on these occasions of sad necessity, those whom “the
+mouth of the pit had devoured” dreaded the visits of the living, and
+resorted to every means afforded by their religion to protect themselves
+from them. Their inscriptions declare repeatedly that neither gold nor
+silver, nor any object which could excite the greed of robbers, was to
+be found within their graves; they threaten any one who should dare to
+deprive them of such articles of little value as belonged to them, or to
+turn them out of their chambers in order to make room for others, with
+all sorts of vengeance, divine and human. These imprecations have not,
+however, availed to save them from the desecration the danger of which
+they foresaw, and there are few of their tombs which were not occupied
+by a succession of tenants between the date of their first making and
+the close of the Roman supremacy. When the modern explorer chances to
+discover a vault which has escaped the spade of the treasure-seeker,
+it is hardly ever the case that the bodies whose remains are unearthed
+prove to be those of the original proprietors.
+
+[Illustration: 242.jpg VALLEY OF THE TOMB OF THE KINGS]
+
+[Illustration: 242-text.jpg]
+
+The gods and legends of Chaldæa had penetrated to the countries of
+Amauru and Canaan, together with the language of the conquerors and
+their system of writing: the stories of Adapa’s struggles against the
+south-west wind, or of the incidents which forced Irishkigal, queen of
+the dead, to wed Nergal, were accustomed to be read at the courts
+of Syrian princes. Chaldæan theology, therefore, must have exercised
+influence on individual Syrians and on their belief; but although we
+are forced to allow the existence of such influence, we cannot define
+precisely the effects produced by it. Only on the coast and in the
+Phoenician cities do the local religions seem to have become formulated
+at a fairly early date, and crystallised under pressure of this
+influence into cosmogonie theories. The Baalim and Astartês reigned
+there as on the banks of the Jordan or Orontes, and in each town
+Baal was “the most high,” master of heaven and eternity, creator of
+everything which exists, though the character of his creating acts was
+variously defined according to time and place. Some regarded him as the
+personification of Justice, Sydyk, who established the universe with the
+help of eight indefatigable Cabiri. Others held the whole world to be
+the work of a divine family, whose successive generations gave birth
+to the various elements. The storm-wind, Colpias, wedded to Chaos, had
+begotten two mortals, Ulom (Time) and Kadmôn (the First-Born), and these
+in their turn engendered Qên and Qênath, who dwelt in Phoenicia: then
+came a drought, and they lifted up their heads to the Sun, imploring
+him, as Lord of the Heavens (_Baalsamîn_), to put an end to their woes.
+At Tyre it was thought that Chaos existed at the beginning, but chaos
+of a dark and troubled nature, over which a Breath (_rûakh_) floated
+without affecting it; “and this Chaos had no ending, and it was thus for
+centuries and centuries.--Then the Breath became enamoured of its own
+principles, and brought about a change in itself, and this change was
+called Desire:--now Desire was the principle which created all things,
+and the Breath knew not its own creation.--The Breath and Chaos,
+therefore, became united, and Mot the Clay was born, and from this clay
+sprang all the seed of creation, and Mot was the father of all things;
+now Mot was like an egg in shape.--And the Sun, the Moon, the stars,
+the great planets, shone forth.* There were living beings devoid of
+intelligence, and from these living beings came intelligent beings,
+who were called _Zophesamîn_, or ‘watchers of the heavens.’Now the
+thunder-claps in the war of separating elements awoke these intelligent
+beings as it were from a sleep, and then the males and the females began
+to stir themselves and to seek one another on the land and in the sea.”
+
+     * Mot, the clay formed by the corruption of earth and water,
+     is probably a Phoenician form of a word which means _water_
+     in the Semitic languages. Cf. the Egyptian theory, according
+     to which the clay, heated by the sun, was supposed to have
+     given birth to animated beings; this same clay modelled by
+     Khnûmû into the form of an egg was supposed to have produced
+     the heavens and the earth.
+
+A scholar of the Roman epoch, Philo of Byblos, using as a basis some
+old documents hidden away in the sanctuaries, which had apparently been
+classified by Sanchoniathon, a priest long before his time, has handed
+these theories of the cosmogony down to us: after he has explained how
+the world was brought out of Chaos, he gives a brief summary of the dawn
+of civilization in Phoenicia and the legendary period in its history.
+No doubt he interprets the writings from which he compiled his work in
+accordance with the spirit of his time: he has none the less preserved
+their substance more or less faithfully. Beneath the veneer of
+abstraction with which the Greek tongue and mind have overlaid the
+fragment thus quoted, we discern that groundwork of barbaric ideas
+which is to be met with in most Oriental theologies, whether Egyptian
+or Babylonian. At first we have a black mysterious Chaos, stagnating
+in eternal waters, the primordial Nû or Apsû; then the slime which
+precipitates in this chaos and clots into the form of an egg, like the
+mud of the Nile under the hand? of Khnûmû; then the hatching forth of
+living organisms and indolent generations of barely conscious creatures,
+such as the Lakhmû, the Anshar, and the Illinu of Chaldæan speculation;
+finally the abrupt appearance of intelligent beings.
+
+[Illustration: 246.jpg]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the original in the _Cabinet
+     des Médailles_.
+
+The Phoenicians, however, accustomed as they were to the Mediterranean,
+with its blind outbursts of fury, had formed an idea of Chaos which
+differed widely from that of most of the inland races, to whom it
+presented itself as something silent and motionless: they imagined it
+as swept by a mighty wind, which, gradually increasing to a roaring
+tempest, at length succeeded in stirring the chaos to its very depths,
+and in fertilizing its elements amidst the fury of the storm. No sooner
+had the earth been thus brought roughly into shape, than the whole
+family of the north winds swooped down upon it, and reduced it to
+civilized order. It was but natural that the traditions of a seafaring
+race should trace its descent from the winds.
+
+In Phoenicia the sea is everything: of land there is but just enough
+to furnish a site for a score of towns, with their surrounding belt
+of gardens. Mount Lebanon, with its impenetrable forests, isolated it
+almost entirely from Coele-Syria, and acted as the eastward boundary of
+the long narrow quadrangle hemmed in between the mountains and the rocky
+shore of the sea. At frequent intervals, spurs run out at right angles
+from the principal chain, forming steep headlands on the sea-front:
+these cut up the country, small to begin with, into five or six still
+smaller provinces, each one of which possessed from time immemorial its
+own independent cities, its own religion, and its own national history.
+To the north were the Zahi, a race half sailors, half husbandmen, rich,
+brave, and turbulent, ever ready to give battle to their neighbours,
+or rebel against an alien master, be he who he might. Arvad,* which was
+used by them as a sort of stronghold or sanctuary, was huddled together
+on an island some two miles from the coast: it was only about a thousand
+yards in circumference, and the houses, as though to make up for the
+limited space available for their foundations, rose to a height of five
+stories. An Astartê reigned there, as also a sea-Baal, half man, half
+fish, but not a trace of a temple or royal palace is now to be found.**
+
+     * The name Arvad was identified in the Egyptian inscriptions
+     by Birch, who, with Hincks, at first saw in the name a
+     reference to the peoples of Ararat; Birch’s identification,
+     is now accepted by all Egyptologists. The name is written
+     Aruada or Arada in the Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+
+     ** The Arvad Astartê had been identified by the Egyptians
+     with their goddess Bastît. The sea-Baal, who has been
+     connected by some with Dagon of Askalon, is represented on
+     the earliest Arvadian coins. He has a fish-like tail, the
+     body and bearded head of a man, with an Assyrian headdress;
+     on his breast we sometimes find a circular opening which
+     seems to show the entrails.
+
+The whole island was surrounded by a stone wall, built on the outermost
+ledges of the rocks, which were levelled to form its foundation. The
+courses of the masonry were irregular, laid without cement or mortar of
+any kind. This bold piece of engineering served the double purpose of
+sea-wall and rampart, and was thus fitted to withstand alike the onset
+of hostile fleets and the surges of the Mediterranean.*
+
+     * The antiquity of the wall of Arvad, recognised by
+     travellers of the last century, is now universally admitted
+     by all archæologists.
+
+[Illustration: 248.jpg]
+
+There was no potable water on the island, and for drinking purposes the
+inhabitants were obliged to rely on the fall of rain, which they stored
+in cisterns--still in use among their descendants. In the event of
+prolonged drought they were obliged to send to the mainland opposite; in
+time of war they had recourse to a submarine spring, which bubbles up
+in mid-channel. Their divers let down a leaden bell, to the top of which
+was fitted a leathern pipe, and applied it to the orifice of the spring;
+the fresh water coming up through the sand was collected in this bell,
+and rising in the pipe, reached the surface uncontaminated by salt
+water.*
+
+     * Renan tells us that “M. Gaillardot, when crossing from the
+     island to the mainland, noticed a spring of sweet water
+     bubbling up from the bottom of the sea.... Thomson and
+     Walpole noticed the same spring or similar springs a little
+     to the north of Tortosa.”
+
+[Illustration: 249.jpg Page Image]
+
+The harbour opened to the east, facing the mainland: it was divided
+into two basins by a stone jetty, and was doubtless insufficient for
+the sea-traffic, but this was the less felt inasmuch as there was a safe
+anchorage outside it--the best, perhaps, to be found in these waters.
+Opposite to Arvad, on an almost continuous line of coast some ten or
+twelve miles in length, towns and villages occurred at short intervals,
+such as Marath, Antarados, Enhydra, and Karnê, into which the surplus
+population of the island overflowed. Karnê possessed a harbour,
+and would have been a dangerous neighbour to the Arvadians had they
+themselves not occupied and carefully fortified it.*
+
+     * Marath, now Amrît, possesses some ancient ruins which have
+     been described by Renan. Antarados, which prior to the
+     Græco-Roman era was a place of no importance, occupies the
+     site of Tortosa. Enhydra is not known, and Karnê has been
+     replaced by Karnûn to the north of Tortosa. None of the
+     “neighbours of Arados” are mentioned by name in the Assyrian
+     texts; but W. Max Müller has demonstrated that the Egyptian
+     form _Aratût_ or _Aratiût_ corresponds with a Semitic plural
+     _Arvadôt_, and consequently refers not only to Arad itself,
+     but also to the fortified cities and towns which formed its
+     continental suburbs.
+
+The cities of the dead lay close together in the background, on the
+slope of the nearest chain of hills; still further back lay a plain
+celebrated for its fertility and the luxuriance of its verdure: Lebanon,
+with its wooded peaks, was shut in on the north and south, but on the
+east the mountain sloped downwards almost to the sea-level, furnishing a
+pass through which ran the road which joined the great military highway
+not far from Qodshu. The influence of Arvad penetrated by means of this
+pass into the valley of the Orontes, and is believed to have gradually
+extended as far as Hamath itself--in other words, over the whole of
+Zahi. For the most part, however, its rule was confined to the coast
+between G-abala and the Nahr el-Kebîr; Simyra at one time acknowledged
+its suzerainty, at another became a self-supporting and independent
+state, strong enough to compel the respect of its neighbours.* Beyond
+the Orontes, the coast curves abruptly inward towards the west, and a
+group of wind-swept hills ending in a promontory called Phaniel,** the
+reputed scene of a divine manifestation, marked the extreme limit of
+Arabian influence to the north, if, indeed, it ever reached so far.
+
+     * Simyra is the modern Surnrah, near the Nahr el-Kebîr.
+
+     ** The name has only come down to us under its Greek form,
+     but its original form, Phaniel or Penûel, is easily arrived
+     at from the analogous name used in Canaan to indicate
+     localities where there had been a theophany. Renan questions
+     whether Phaniel ought not to be taken in the same sense as
+     the Pnê-Baal of the Carthaginian inscriptions, and applied
+     to a goddess to whom the promontory had been dedicated; he
+     also suggests that the modern name _Cap Madonne_ may be a
+     kind of echo of the title _Rabbath_ borne by this goddess
+     from the earliest times.
+
+Half a dozen obscure cities flourished here, Arka,* Siani,** Mahallat,
+Kaiz, Maîza, and Botrys,*** some of them on the seaboard, others inland
+on the bend of some minor stream. Botrys,**** the last of the six,
+barred the roads which cross the Phaniel headland, and commanded the
+entrance to the holy ground where Byblos and Berytus celebrated each
+year the amorous mysteries of Adonis.
+
+     * Arka is perhaps referred to in the tablets of Tel el-
+     Amarna under the form Irkata or Irkat; it also appears in
+     the Bible (Gen. x. 17) and in the Assyrian texts. It is the
+     Cassarea of classical geographers, which has now resumed its
+     old Phoenician name of Tell-Arka.
+
+     ** Sianu or Siani is mentioned in the Assyrian texts and in
+     the Bible; Strabo knew it under the name of Sinna, and a
+     village near Arka was called Sin or Syn as late as the XVth
+     century.
+
+     *** According to the Assyrian inscriptions, these were the
+     names of the three towns which formed the Tripolis of
+     Græco-Roman times.
+
+     **** Botrys is the hellenized form of the name Bozruna or
+     Bozrun, which appears on the tablets of Tel el-Amarna; the
+     modern name, Butrun or Batrun, preserves the final letter
+     which the Greeks had dropped.
+
+Gublu, or--as the Greeks named it--Byblos,* prided itself on being the
+most ancient city in the world. The god El had founded it at the dawning
+of time, on the flank of a hill which is visible from some distance
+out at sea. A small bay, now filled up, made it an important shipping
+centre. The temple stood on the top of the hill, a few fragments of its
+walls still serving to mark the site; it was, perhaps, identical with
+that of which we find the plan engraved on certain imperial coins.**
+
+     * _Gublu_ or _Gubli_ is the pronunciation indicated for this
+     name in the Tel el-Amarna tablets; the Egyptians transcribed
+     it _Kupuna_ or _Kupna_ by substituting _n_ for _l_. The
+     Greek name Byblos was obtained from Gublu by substituting a
+     _b_ for the _g_.
+
+     ** Renan carried out excavations in the hill of Kassubah
+     which brought to light some remains of a Græco-Roman temple:
+     he puts forward, subject to correction, the hypothesis which
+     I have adopted above.
+
+Two flights of steps led up to it from the lower quarters of the town,
+one of which gave access to a chapel in the Greek style, surmounted by
+a triangular pediment, and dating, at the earliest, from the time of the
+Seleucides; the other terminated in a long colonnade, belonging to the
+same period, added as a new façade to an earlier building, apparently in
+order to bring it abreast of more modern requirements.
+
+[Illustration: 252.jpg]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the original in the _Cabinet
+     des Médailles_.
+
+The sanctuary which stands hidden behind this incongruous veneer is, as
+represented on the coins, in a very archaic style, and is by no means
+wanting in originality or dignity. It consists of a vast rectangular
+court surrounded by cloisters. At the point where lines drawn from the
+centres of the two doors seem to cross one another stands a conical
+stone mounted on a cube of masonry, which is the beth-el animated by
+the spirit of the god: an open-work balustrade surrounds and protects it
+from the touch of the profane. The building was perhaps not earlier
+than the Assyrian or Persian era, but in its general plan it evidently
+reproduced the arrangements of some former edifice.*
+
+     * The author of the _De Deâ Syrâ_ classed the temple of
+     Byblos among the Phoenician temples of the old order, which
+     were almost as ancient as the temples of Egypt, and it is
+     probable that from the Egyptian epoch onwards the plan of
+     this temple must have been that shown on the coins; the
+     cloister arcades ought, however, to be represented by
+     pillars or by columns supporting architraves, and the fact
+     of their presence leads me to the conclusion that the temple
+     did not exist in the form known to us at a date earlier than
+     the last Assyrian period.
+
+At an early time El was spoken of as the first king of G-ablu in the
+same manner as each one of his Egyptian fellow-gods had been in their
+several nomes, and the story of his exploits formed the inevitable
+prelude to the beginning of human history. Grandson of Eliûn who had
+brought Chaos into order, son of Heaven and Earth, he dispossessed,
+vanquished, and mutilated his father, and conquered the most distant
+regions one after another--the countries beyond the Euphrates, Libya,
+Asia Minor and Greece: one year, when the plague was ravaging his
+empire, he burnt his own son on the altar as an expiatory victim, and
+from that time forward the priests took advantage of his example
+to demand the sacrifice of children in moments of public danger or
+calamity.
+
+[Illustration: 253.jpg]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the original in the _Cabinet
+     des Médailles_.
+
+He was represented as a man with two faces, whose eyes opened and shut
+in an eternal alternation of vigilance and repose: six wings grew from
+his shoulders, and spread fan-like around him. He was the incarnation of
+time, which destroys all things in its rapid flight; and of the summer
+sun, cruel and fateful, which eats up the green grass and parches the
+fields. An Astartê reigned with him over Byblos--Baalat-Gublu, his own
+sister; like him, the child of Earth and Heaven. In one of her aspects
+she was identified with the moon, the personification of coldness
+and chastity, and in her statues or on her sacred pillars she was
+represented with the crescent or cow-horns of the Egyptian Hâthor; but
+in her other aspect she appeared as the amorous and wanton goddess in
+whom the Greeks recognised the popular concept of Aphroditê. Tradition
+tells us how, one spring morning, she caught sight of and desired the
+youthful god known by the title of _Adoni_, or “My Lord.” We scarce know
+what to make of the origin of Adonis, and of the legends which treat him
+as a hero--the representation of him as the incestuous offspring of
+a certain King Kinyras and his own daughter Myrrha is a comparatively
+recent element grafted on the original myth; at any rate, the happiness
+of two lovers had lasted but a few short weeks when a sudden end was put
+to it by the tusks of a monstrous wild boar. Baalat-Gublu wept over her
+lover’s body and buried it; then her grief triumphed over death, and
+Adonis, ransomed by her tears, rose from the tomb, his love no whit less
+passionate than it had been before the catastrophe. This is nothing else
+than the Chaldæan legend of Ishtar and Dûmûzi presented in a form more
+fully symbolical of the yearly marriage of Earth and Heaven. Like the
+Lady of Byblos at her master’s approach, Earth is thrilled by the first
+breath of spring, and abandons herself without shame to the caresses of
+Heaven: she welcomes him to her arms, is fructified by him, and pours
+forth the abundance of her flowers and fruits. Them comes summer and
+kills the spring: Earth is burnt up and withers, she strips herself
+of her ornaments, and her fruitfulness departs till the gloom and icy
+numbness of winter have passed away. Each year the cycle of the seasons
+brings back with it the same joy, the same despair, into the life of
+the world; each year Baalat falls in love with her Adonis and loses him,
+only to bring him back to life and lose him again in the coming year.
+
+The whole neighbourhood of Byblos, and that part of Mount Lebanon in
+which it lies, were steeped in memories of this legend from the very
+earliest times. We know the precise spot where the goddess first caught
+sight of her lover, where she unveiled herself before him, and where at
+the last she buried his mutilated body, and chanted her lament for the
+dead. A river which flows southward not far off was called the Adonis,
+and the valley watered by it was supposed to have been the scene of this
+tragic idyll. The Adonis rises near Aphaka,* at the base of a narrow
+amphitheatre, issuing from the entrance of an irregular grotto, the
+natural shape of which had, at some remote period, been altered by the
+hand of man; in three cascades it bounds into a sort of circular basin,
+where it gathers to itself the waters of the neighbouring springs, then
+it dashes onwards under the single arch of a Roman bridge, and descends
+in a series of waterfalls to the level of the valley below.
+
+     * Aphaka means “spring” in Syriac. The site of the temple and
+     town of Aphaka, where a temple of Aphroditê and Adonis still
+     stood in the time of the Emperor Julian, had long been
+     identified either with Fakra, or with El-Yamuni. Seetzen was
+     the first to place it at El-Afka, and his proposed
+     identification has been amply confirmed by the researches of
+     Penan.
+
+[Illustration: 256.jpg VALLEY OF THE ADONIS]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+
+[Illustration: 256a.jpg THE AMPHITHEATRE OF APHAKA AND THE SOURCE OF THE
+NAHH-IBRAHIM]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+
+The temple rises opposite the source of the stream on an artificial
+mound, a meteorite fallen from heaven having attracted the attention of
+the faithful to the spot. The mountain falls abruptly away, its summit
+presenting a red and bare appearance, owing to the alternate action
+of summer sun and winter frost. As the slopes approach the valley they
+become clothed with a garb of wild vegetation, which bursts forth from
+every fissure, and finds a foothold on every projecting rock: the base
+of the mountain is hidden in a tangled mass of glowing green, which the
+moist yet sunny Spring calls forth in abundance whenever the slopes are
+not too steep to retain a shallow layer of nourishing mould. It would
+be hard to find, even among the most picturesque spots of Europe, a
+landscape in which wildness and beauty are more happily combined, or
+where the mildness of the air and sparkling coolness of the streams
+offer a more perfect setting for the ceremonies attending the worship of
+Astartê.*
+
+     * The temple had been rebuilt during the Roman period, as
+     were nearly all the temples of this region, upon the site of
+     a more ancient structure; this was probably the edifice
+     which the author of _De Deâ Syrâ_ considered to be the
+     temple of Venus, built by Kinyras within a day’s journey of
+     Byblos in the Lebanon.
+
+In the basin of the river and of the torrents by which it is fed, there
+appears a succession of charming and romantic scenes--gaping chasms
+with precipitous ochre-coloured walls; narrow fields laid out in
+terraces on the slopes, or stretching in emerald strips along the
+ruddy river-banks; orchards thick with almond and walnut trees; sacred
+grottoes, into which the priestesses, seated at the corner of the roads,
+endeavour to draw the pilgrims as they proceed on their way to make
+their prayers to the goddess;* sanctuaries and mausolea of Adonis at
+Yanukh, on the table-land of Mashnaka, and on the heights of Ghineh.
+According to the common belief, the actual tomb of Adonis was to be
+found at Byblos itself,** where the people were accustomed to assemble
+twice a year to keep his festivals, which lasted for several days
+together.
+
+     * Renan points out at Byblos the existence of one of these
+     caverns which gave shelter to the _kedeshoth_. Many of the
+     caves met with in the valley of the Nahr-Ibrahîm have
+     doubtless served for the same purpose, although their walls
+     contain no marks of the cult.
+
+     ** Melito placed it, however, near Aphaka, and, indeed,
+     there must have been as many different traditions on the
+     subject as there were celebrated sanctuaries.
+
+At the summer solstice, the season when the wild boar had ripped open
+the divine hunter, and the summer had already done damage to the spring,
+the priests were accustomed to prepare a painted wooden image of a
+corpse made ready for burial, which they hid in what were called the
+gardens of Adonis--terra-cotta pots filled with earth in which wheat and
+barley, lettuce and fennel, were sown. These were set out at the door of
+each house, or in the courts of the temple, where the sprouting plants
+had to endure the scorching effect of the sun, and soon withered away.
+For several days troops of women and young girls, with their heads
+dishevelled or shorn, their garments in rags, their faces torn with
+their nails, their breasts and arms scarified with knives, went about
+over hill and dale in search of their idol, giving utterance to cries of
+despair, and to endless appeals: “Ah, Lord! Ah, Lord! what is become of
+thy beauty.” Once having found the image, they brought it to the feet
+of the goddess, washed it while displaying its wound, anointed it with
+sweet-smelling unguents, wrapped it in a linen and woollen shroud,
+placed it on a catafalque, and, after expressing around the bier their
+feelings of desolation, according to the rites observed at fanerais,
+placed it solemnly in the tomb.*
+
+     * Theocritus has described in his fifth Idyll the laying out
+     and burial of Adonis as it was practised at Alexandria in
+     Egypt in the IIIrd century before our era.
+
+The close and dreary summer passes away. With the first days of
+September the autumnal rains begin to fall upon the hills, and washing
+away the ochreous earth lying upon the slopes, descend in muddy torrents
+into the hollows of the valleys. The Adonis river begins to swell with
+the ruddy waters, which, on reaching the sea, do not readily blend with
+it. The wind from the offing drives the river water back upon the coast,
+and forces it to cling for a long time to the shore, where it forms a
+kind of crimson fringe.* This was the blood of the hero, and the sight
+of this precious stream stirred up anew the devotion of the people, who
+donned once more their weeds of mourning until the priests were able
+to announce to them that, by virtue of their supplications, Adonis was
+brought back from the shades into new life. Shouts of joy immediately
+broke forth, and the people who had lately sympathized with the mourning
+goddess in her tears and cries of sorrow, now joined with her in
+expressions of mad and amorous delight. Wives and virgins--all the
+women who had refused during the week of mourning to make a sacrifice of
+their hair--were obliged to atone for this fault by putting themselves
+at the disposal of the strangers whom the festival had brought together,
+the reward of their service becoming the property of the sacred
+treasury.**
+
+     * The same phenomenon occurs in spring. Maundrell saw it on
+     March 17, and Renan in the first days of February.
+
+     ** A similar usage was found in later times in the countries
+     colonised by or subjected to the influence of the
+     Phoenicians, especially in Cyprus.
+
+Berytus shared with Byblos the glory of having had El for its founder.*
+The road which connects these two cities makes a lengthy detour in its
+course along the coast, having to cross numberless ravines and rocky
+summits: before reaching Palai-Byblos, it passes over a headland by a
+series of steps cut into the rock, forming a kind of “ladder” similar
+to that which is encountered lower down, between Acre and the plains of
+Tyre.
+
+     * The name Berytus was found by Hincks in the Egyptian texts
+     under the form. Bîrutu, Beîrutu; it occurs frequently in the
+     Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+
+The river Lykos runs like a kind of natural fosse along the base of
+this steep headland. It forms at the present time a torrent, fed by
+the melting snows of Mount Sannin, and is entirely unnavigable. It was
+better circumstanced formerly in this respect, and even in the early
+years of the Boman conquest, sailors from Arvad (Arados) were accustomed
+to sail up it as far as one of the passes of the lower Lebanon, leading
+into Cole-Syria. Berytus was installed at the base of a great headland
+which stands out boldly into the sea, and forms the most striking
+promontory to be met with in these regions from Carmel to the vicinity
+of Arvad. The port is nothing but an open creek with a petty roadstead,
+but it has the advantage of a good supply of fresh water, which pours
+down from the numerous springs to which it is indebted for its name.*
+According to ancient legends, it was given by El to one of his offspring
+called Poseidon by the Greeks.
+
+     * The name Beyrut has been often derived from a Phconician
+     word signifying _cypress_, and which may have been applied
+     to the pine tree. The Phoenicians themselves derived it from
+     Bîr, “wells.”
+
+Adonis desired to take possession of it, but was frustrated in the
+attempt, and the maritime Baal secured the permanence of his rule by
+marrying one of his sisters--the Baalat-Beyrut who is represented as a
+nymph on Græco-Roman coins.* The rule of the city extended as far
+as the banks of the Tamur, and an old legend narrates that its patron
+fought in ancient times with the deity of that river, hurling stones at
+him to prevent his becoming master of the land to the north. The
+bar formed of shingle and the dunes which contract the entrance were
+regarded as evidences of this conflict.**
+
+     * The poet Nonnus has preserved a highly embellished account
+     of this rivalry, where Adonis is called Dionysos.
+
+     ** The original name appears to have been Tamur, Tamyr, from
+     a word signifying “palm” in the Phoenician language. The
+     myth of the conflict between Poseidon and the god of the
+     river, a Baal-Demarous, has been explained by Renan, who
+     accepts the identification of the river-deity with Baal-
+     Thamar, already mentioned by Movers.
+
+Beyond the southern bank of the river, Sidon sits enthroned as “the
+firstborn of Canaan.” In spite of this ambitious title it was at first
+nothing but a poor fishing village founded by Bel, the Agenor of the
+Greeks, on the southern slope of a spit of land which juts out obliquely
+towards the south-west.* It grew from year to year, spreading out over
+the plain, and became at length one of the most prosperous of the chief
+cities of the country--a “mother” in Phoenicia.**
+
+     * Sidon is called “the firstborn of Canaan” in Genesis: the
+     name means a fishing-place, as the classical authors already
+     knew--“nam piscem Phonices _sidôn_ appellant.”
+
+     ** In the coins of classic times it is called “Sidon, the
+     mother--_Om_--of Kambe, Hippo, Citium, and Tyre.”
+
+The port, once so celebrated, is shut in by three chains of half-sunken
+reefs, which, running out from the northern end of the peninsula,
+continue parallel to the coast for some hundreds of yards: narrow
+passages in these reefs afford access to the harbour; one small island,
+which is always above water, occupies the centre of this natural dyke
+of rocks, and furnishes a site for a maritime quarter opposite to the
+continental city.* The necropolis on the mainland extends to the east
+and north, and consists of an irregular series of excavations made in a
+low line of limestone cliffs which must have been lashed by the waves
+of the Mediterranean long prior to the beginning of history. These tombs
+are crowded closely together, ramifying into an inextricable maze, and
+are separated from each other by such thin walls that one expects every
+moment to see them give way, and bury the visitors in the ruin. Many
+date back to a very early period, while all of them have been re-worked
+and re-appropriated over and over again. The latest occupiers were
+contemporaries of the Macedonian kings or the Roman Cæsars. Space was
+limited and costly in this region of the dead: the Sidonians made the
+best use they could of the tombs, burying in them again and again, as
+the Egyptians were accustomed to do in their cemeteries at Thebes and
+Memphis. The surrounding plain is watered by the “pleasant Bostrênos,”
+ and is covered with gardens which are reckoned to be the most beautiful
+in all Syria--at least after those of Damascus: their praises were sung
+even in ancient days, and they had then earned for the city the epithet
+of “the flowery Sidon.” **
+
+     * The only description of the port which we possess is that
+     in the romance of Olitophon and Leucippus by Achilles
+     Tatius.
+
+     ** The Bostrênos, which is perhaps to be recognised under
+     the form Borinos in the Periplus of Scylax, is the modern
+     Nahr el-Awaly.
+
+Here, also, an Astartê ruled over the destinies of the people, but a
+chaste and immaculate Astartê, a self-restrained and warlike virgin,
+sometimes identified with the moon, sometimes with the pale and frigid
+morning star.* In addition to this goddess, the inhabitants worshipped
+a Baal-Sidon, and other divinities of milder character--an Astartê
+Shem-Baal, wife of the supreme Baal, and Eshmun, a god of medicine--each
+of whom had his own particular temple either in the town itself or in
+some neighbouring village in the mountain. Baal delighted in travel, and
+was accustomed to be drawn in a chariot through the valleys of Phoenicia
+in order to receive the prayers and offerings of his devotees. The
+immodest Astartê, excluded, it would seem, from the official religion,
+had her claims acknowledged in the cult offered to her by the people,
+but she became the subject of no poetic or dolorous legend like her
+namesake at Byblos, and there was no attempt to disguise her innately
+coarse character by throwing over it a garb of sentiment. She possessed
+in the suburbs her chapels and grottoes, hollowed out in the hillsides,
+where she was served by the usual crowd of _Ephébæ_ and sacred
+courtesans. Some half-dozen towns or fortified villages, such as
+Bitzîti,** the Lesser Sidon, and Sarepta, were scattered along the
+shore, or on the lowest slopes of the Lebanon.
+
+     * Astartê is represented in the Bible as the goddess of the
+     Sidonians, and she is in fact the object of the invocations
+     addressed to the mistress Deity in the Sidonian
+     inscriptions, the patroness of the town. Kings and queens
+     were her priests and priestesses respectively.
+
+     ** Bitzîti is not mentioned except in the Assyrian texts,
+     and has been identified with the modern region Ait ez-Zeîtûn
+     to the south-east of Sidon. It is very probably the Elaia of
+     Philo of Byblos, the Biais of Dionysios Periegetes, which
+     Renan is inclined to identify with Heldua, Khan-Khaldi, by
+     substituting Eldis as a correction.
+
+Sidonian territory reached its limit at the Cape of Sarepta, where the
+high-lands again meet the sea at the boundary of one of those basins
+into which Phoenicia is divided. Passing beyond this cape, we come first
+upon a Tyrian outpost, the Town of Birds;* then upon the village of
+Nazana** with its river of the same name; beyond this upon a plain
+hemmed in by low hills, cultivated to their summits; then on tombs and
+gardens in the suburbs of Autu;*** and, further still, to a fleet of
+boats moored at a short distance from the shore, where a group of reefs
+and islands furnishes at one and the same time a site for the houses and
+temples of Tyre, and a protection from its foes.
+
+     * The Phoenician name of Ornithônpolis is unknown to us: the
+     town is often mentioned by the geographers of classic times,
+     but with certain differences, some placing it to the north
+     and others to the south of Sarepta. It was near to the site
+     of Adlun, the Adnonum of the Latin itineraries, if it was
+     not actually the same place.
+
+     ** Nazana was both the name of the place and the river, as
+     Kasimîyeh and Khan Kasimîyeh, near the same locality, are
+     to-day.
+
+     *** Autu was identified by Brugsch with Avatha, which is
+     probably El-Awwâtîn, on the hill facing Tyre. Max Müller,
+     who reads the word as Authu, Ozu, prefers the Uru or Ushu of
+     the Assyrian texts.
+
+It was already an ancient town at the beginning of the Egyptian
+conquest. As in other places of ancient date, the inhabitants rejoiced
+in stories of the origin of things in which the city figured as the most
+venerable in the world. After the period of the creating gods, there
+followed immediately, according to the current legends, two or three
+generations of minor deities--heroes of light and flame--who had learned
+how to subdue fire and turn it to their needs; then a race of giants,
+associated with the giant peaks of Kasios, Lebanon, Hermon, and Brathy;*
+after which were born two male children--twins: Samem-rum, the lord of
+the supernal heaven, and Usôos, the hunter. Human beings at this time
+lived a savage life, wandering through the woods, and given up to
+shameful vices.
+
+     * The identification of the peak of Brathy is uncertain. The
+     name has been associated with Tabor: since it exactly
+     recalls the name of the cypress and of Berytus, it would be
+     more prudent, perhaps, to look for the name in that of one
+     of the peaks of the Lebanon near the latter town.
+
+[Illustration: 267.jpg THE AMBROSIAN ROCKS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the original in the _Cabinet
+     des Médailles_.
+
+Samemrum took up his abode among them in that region which became
+in later times the Tyrian coast, and showed them how to build huts,
+papyrus, or other reeds: Usôos in the mean time pursued the avocation
+of a hunter of wild beasts, living upon their flesh and clothing
+himself with their skins. A conflict at length broke out between the two
+brothers, the inevitable result of rivalry between the ever-wandering
+hunter and the husbandman attached to the soil.
+
+Usôos succeeded in holding his own till the day when fire and wind took
+the part of his enemy against him.* The trees, shaken and made to rub
+against each other by the tempest, broke into flame from the friction,
+and the forest was set on fire. Usôos, seizing a leafy branch, despoiled
+it of its foliage, and placing it in the water let it drift out to sea,
+bearing him, the first of his race, with it.
+
+     * The text simply states the material facts, the tempest and
+     the fire: the general movement of the narrative seems to
+     prove that the intervention of these elements is an episode
+     in the quarrel between the two brothers--that in which
+     Usôos is forced to fly from the region civilized by
+     Samemrum.
+
+Landing on one of the islands, he set up two menhirs, dedicating them to
+fire and wind that he might thenceforward gain their favour. He poured
+out at their base the blood of animals he had slaughtered, and after
+his death, his companions continued to perform the rites which he had
+inaugurated.
+
+[Illustration: 268.jpg]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the original in the _Cabinet
+     des Médailles_.
+
+The town which he had begun to build on the sea-girt isle was called
+Tyre, the “Rock,” and the two rough stones which he had set up remained
+for a long time as a sort of talisman, bringing good luck to its
+inhabitants. It was asserted of old that the island had not always been
+fixed, but that it rose and fell, with the waves like a raft. Two peaks
+looked down upon it--the “Ambrosian Rocks”--between which grew the olive
+tree of Astartê, sheltered by a curtain of flame from external danger.
+An eagle perched thereon watched over a viper coiled round the trunk:
+the whole island would cease to float as soon as a mortal should succeed
+in sacrificing the bird in honour of the gods. Usôos, the Herakles,
+destroyer of monsters, taught the people of the coast how to build
+boats, and how to manage them; he then made for the island and
+disembarked: the bird offered himself spontaneously to his knife, and
+as soon as its blood had moistened the earth, Tyre rooted itself fixedly
+opposite the mainland. Coins of the Roman period represent the chief
+elements in this legend; sometimes the eagle and olive tree, sometimes
+the olive tree and the stelo, and sometimes the two stelæ only. From
+this time forward the gods never ceased to reside on the holy island;
+Astartê herself was born there, and one of the temples there showed to
+the admiration of the faithful a fallen star--an aerolite which she had
+brought back from one of her journeys.
+
+[Illustration: 269.jpg TYRE AND ITS SUBURBS ON THE MAINLAND]
+
+Baal was called the Melkarth. king of the city, and the Greeks after»
+wards identified him with their Herakles. His worship was of a severe
+and exacting character: a fire burned perpetually in his sanctuary; his
+priests, like those of the Egyptians, had their heads shaved; they wore
+garments of spotless white linen, held pork in abomination, and refused
+permission to married women to approach the altars.*
+
+     * The worship of Melkarth at Gados (Cadiz) and the functions
+     of his priests are described by Silius Italicus: as Gades
+     was a Tyrian colony, it has been naturally assumed that the
+     main features of the religion of Tyre were reproduced there,
+     and Silius’s account of the Melkarth of Gades thus applies
+     to his namesake of the mother city.
+
+Festivals, similar to those of Adonis at Byblos, were held in his honour
+twice a year: in the summer, when the sun burnt up the earth with his
+glowing heat, he offered himself as an expiatory victim to the solar
+orb, giving himself to the flames in order to obtain some mitigation
+of the severity of the sky;* once the winter had brought with it a
+refreshing coolness, he came back to life again, and his return was
+celebrated with great joy. His temple stood in a prominent place on the
+largest of the islands furthest away from the mainland. It served to
+remind the people of the remoteness of their origin, for the priests
+relegated its foundation almost to the period of the arrival of the
+Phoenicians on the shores of the Mediterranean. The town had no supply
+of fresh water, and there was no submarine spring like that of Arvad to
+provide a resource in time of necessity; the inhabitants had, therefore,
+to resort to springs which were fortunately to be found everywhere on
+the hillsides of the mainland. The waters of the well of Eas el-Aîn
+had been led down to the shore and dammed up there, so that boats could
+procure a ready supply from this source in time of peace: in time of war
+the inhabitants of Tyre had to trust to the cisterns in which they had
+collected the rains that fell at certain seasons.**
+
+     * The festival commemorating his death by fire was
+     celebrated at Tyre, where his tomb was shown, and in the
+     greater number of the Tyrian colonies.
+
+     ** Abisharri (Abimilki), King of Tyre, confesses to the
+     Pharaoh Amenôthes III. that in case of a siege his town
+     would neither have water nor wood. Aqueducts and conduits of
+     water are spoken of by Menander as existing in the time of
+     Shalmaneser; all modern historians agree in attributing
+     their construction to a very remote antiquity.
+
+The strait separating the island from the mainland was some six or seven
+hundred yards in breadth,* less than that of the Nile at several points
+of its course through Middle Egypt, but it was as effective as a broader
+channel to stop the movement of an army: a fleet alone would have
+a chance of taking the city by surprise, or of capturing it after a
+lengthened siege.
+
+     * According to the writers who were contemporary with
+     Alexander, the strait was 4 stadia wide (nearly 1/2 mile),
+     or 500 paces (about 3/8 mile), at the period when the
+     Macedonians undertook the siege of the town; the author
+     followed by Pliny says 700 paces, possibly over--mile wide.
+     From the observations of Poulain de Bossay, Renan thinks the
+     space between the island and the mainland might be nearly a
+     mile in width, but we should perhaps do well to reduce this
+     higher figure and adopt one agreeing better with the
+     statements of Diodorus and Quintus Curtius.
+
+Like the coast region opposite Arvad, the shore which faced Tyre, lying
+between the mouth of the Litany and ras el-Aîn, was an actual suburb
+of the city itself--with its gardens, its cultivated fields, its
+cemeteries, its villas, and its fortifications. Here the inhabitants of
+the island were accustomed to bury their dead, and hither they repaired
+for refreshment during the heat of the summer. To the north the little
+town of Mahalliba, on the southern bank of the Litâny, and almost hidden
+from view by a turn in the hills, commanded the approaches to the Bekaa,
+and the high-road to Coele-Syria.* To the south, at Ras el-Aîn, Old Tyre
+(Palastyrus) looked down upon the route leading into Galilee by way of
+the mountains.**
+
+     * Mahalliba is the present Khurbet-Mahallib.
+
+     ** Palrotyrus has often been considered as a Tyre on the
+     mainland of greater antiquity than the town of the same name
+     on the island; it is now generally admitted that it was
+     merely an outpost, which is conjecturally placed by most
+     scholars in the neighbourhood of Ras el-Aîn.
+
+Eastwards Autu commanded the landing-places on the shore, and served to
+protect the reservoirs; it lay under the shadow of a rock, on which was
+built, facing the insular temple of Melkarth, protector of mariners,
+a sanctuary of almost equal antiquity dedicated to his namesake of the
+mainland.* The latter divinity was probably the representative of the
+legendary Samemrum, who had built his village on the coast, while Usôos
+had founded his on the ocean. He was the Baalsamîm of starry tunic, lord
+of heaven and king of the sun.
+
+     * If the name has been preserved, as I believe it to be, in
+     that of El-Awwâtîn, the town must be that whose ruins we
+     find at the foot of Tell-Mashûk, and which are often
+     mistaken for those of Palastyrus. The temple on the summit
+     of the Tell was probably that of Heracles Astrochitôn
+     mentioned by Nonnus.
+
+As was customary, a popular Astartê was associated with these deities of
+high degree, and tradition asserted that Melkarth purchased her favour
+by the gift of the first robe of Tyrian purple which was ever dyed.
+Priestesses of the goddess had dwellings in all parts of the plain, and
+in several places the caves are still pointed out where they entertained
+the devotees of the goddess. Behind Autu the ground rises abruptly, and
+along the face of the escarpment, half hidden by trees and brushwood,
+are the remains of the most important of the Tyrian burying-places,
+consisting of half-filled-up pits, isolated caves, and dark galleries,
+where whole families lie together in their last sleep. In some spots the
+chalky mass has been literally honeycombed by the quarrying gravedigger,
+and regular lines of chambers follow one another in the direction of
+the strata, after the fashion of the rock-cut tombs of Upper Egypt.
+They present a bare and dismal appearance both within and without. The
+entrances are narrow and arched, the ceilings low, the walls bare and
+colourless, unrelieved by moulding, picture, or inscription. At one
+place only, near the modern village of Hanaweh, a few groups of figures
+and coarsely cut stelae are to be found, indicating, it would seem, the
+burying-place of some chief of very early times.
+
+[Illustration: 273.jpg THE SCULPTURED ROCKS OF HANAWEH]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Lortet.
+
+These figures run in parallel lines along the rocky sides of a wild
+ravine. They vary from 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet in height, the bodies
+being represented by rectangular pilasters, sometimes merely rough-hewn,
+at others grooved with curved lines to suggest the folds of the Asiatic
+garments; the head is carved full face, though the eyes are given in
+profile, and the summary treatment of the modelling gives evidence of
+a certain skill. Whether they are to be regarded as the product of a
+primitive Amorite art or of a school of Phoenician craftsmen, we are
+unable to determine. In the time of their prosperity the Tyrians
+certainly pushed their frontier as far as this region. The wind-swept
+but fertile country lying among the ramifications of the lowest spurs of
+the Lebanon bears to this day innumerable traces of their indefatigable
+industry--remains of dwellings, conduits and watercourses, cisterns,
+pits, millstones and vintage-troughs, are scattered over the fields,
+interspersed with oil and wine presses. The Phoenicians took naturally
+to agriculture, and carried it to such a high state of perfection as
+to make it an actual science, to which the neighbouring peoples of the
+Mediterranean were glad to accommodate their modes of culture in later
+times.*
+
+     * Their taste for agriculture, and the comparative
+     perfection of their modes of culture, are proved by the
+     greatness of the remains still to be observed: “The
+     Phoenicians constructed a winepress, a trough, to last for
+     ever.” Their colonists at Carthage carried with them the same
+     clever methods, and the Romans borrowed many excellent
+     things in the way of agriculture from Carthaginian books,
+     especially from those of Mago.
+
+Among no other people was the art of irrigation so successfully
+practised, and from such a narrow strip of territory as belonged to them
+no other cultivators could have gathered such abundant harvests of wheat
+and barley, and such supplies of grapes, olives, and other fruits. From
+Arvad to Tyre, and even beyond it, the littoral region and the central
+parts of the valleys presented a long ribbon of verdure of varying
+breadth, where fields of corn were blended with gardens and orchards and
+shady woods. The whole region was independent and self-supporting, the
+inhabitants having no need to address themselves to their neighbours in
+the interior, or to send their children to seek their fortune in distant
+lands. To insure prosperity, nothing was needed but a slight exercise of
+labour and freedom from the devastating influence of war.
+
+The position of the country was such as to secure it from attack, and
+from the conflicts which laid waste the rest of Syria. Along almost the
+entire eastern border of the country the Lebanon was a great wall of
+defence running parallel to the coast, strengthened at each extremity
+by the additional protection of the rivers Nahr el-Kebîr and Litany. Its
+slopes were further defended by the forest, which, with its lofty trees
+and brushwood, added yet another barrier to that afforded by rocks and
+snow. Hunters’ or shepherds’ paths led here and there in tortuous courses
+from one side of the mountain to the other. Near the middle of the
+country two roads, practicable in all seasons, secured communications
+between the littoral and the plain of the interior. They branched off on
+either side from the central road in the neighbourhood of Tabakhi, south
+of Qodshu, and served the needs of the wooded province of Magara.* This
+region was inhabited by pillaging tribes, which the Egyptians called at
+one time Lamnana, the Libanites,** at others Shausu, using for them the
+same appellation as that which they bestowed upon the Bedouin of the
+desert.
+
+     * Magara is mentioned in the _Anastasi Papyrus_, No. 1, and
+     Chabas has identified it with the plain of Macra, which
+     Strabo places in Syria, in the neighbourhood of Eloutheros.
+
+     ** The name Lamnana is given in a picture of the campaigns
+     of Seti I.
+
+The roads through this province ran under the dense shade afforded by
+oaks, cedars, and cypresses, in an obscurity favourable to the habits of
+the wolves and hyamas which infested it, and even of those thick-maned
+lions known to Asia at the time; and then proceeding in its course,
+crossed the ridge in the neighbourhood of the snow-peak called Shaua,
+which is probably the Sannîn of our times. While one of these roads,
+running north along the lake of Yamuneh and through the gorge of Akura,
+then proceeded along the Adonis* to Byblos, the other took a southern
+direction, and followed the Nahr el-Kelb to the sea.
+
+     * This is the road pointed out by Renan as the easiest but
+     least known of those which cross the Lebanon; the remains of
+     an Assyrian inscription graven on the rocks near Aîn el-
+     Asafîr show that it was employed from a very early date, and
+     Renan thought that it was used by the armies which came from
+     the upper valley of the Orontes.
+
+Towards the mouth of the latter a wall of rock opposes the progress of
+the river, and leaves at length but a narrow and precipitous defile for
+the passage of its waters: a pathway cut into the cliff at a very remote
+date leads almost perpendicularly from the bottom of the precipice to
+the summit of the promontory. Commerce followed these short and direct
+routes, but invading hosts very rarely took advantage of them, although
+they offered access into the very heart of Phoenicia. Invaders would
+encounter here, in fact, a little known and broken country, lending
+itself readily to surprises and ambuscades; and should they reach the
+foot of the Lebanon range, they would find themselves entrapped in a
+region of slippery defiles, with steep paths at intervals cut into the
+rock, and almost inaccessible to chariots or horses, and so narrow in
+places that a handful of resolute men could have held them for a long
+time against whole battalions. The enemy preferred to make for the two
+natural breaches at the respective extremities of the line of defence,
+and for the two insular cities which flanked the approaches to
+them--Tyre in the case of those coming from Egypt, Arvad and Simyra
+for assailants from the Euphrates. The Arvadians, bellicose by nature,
+would offer strong resistance to the invader, and not permit themselves
+to be conquered without a brave struggle with the enemy, however
+powerful he might be.* When the disproportion of the forces which they
+could muster against the enemy convinced them of the folly of attempting
+an open conflict, their island-home offered them a refuge where they
+would be safe from any attacks.
+
+     * Thûtmosis III. was obliged to enter on a campaign against
+     Arvad in the year XXIX., in the year XXX., and probably
+     twice in the following years. Under Amenôthes III. and IV.
+     we see that these people took part in all the intrigues
+     directed against Egypt; they were the allies of the Khati
+     against Ramses II. in the campaign of the year V. and later
+     on we find them involved in most of the wars against
+     Assyria.
+
+Sometimes the burning and pillaging of their property on the mainland
+might reduce them to throw themselves on the mercy of their foes, but
+such submission did not last long, and they welcomed the slightest
+occasion for regaining their liberty. Conquered again and again on
+account of the smallness of their numbers, they were never discouraged
+by their reverses, and Phoenicia owed all its military history for a
+long period to their prowess. The Tyrians were of a more accommodating
+nature, and there is no evidence, at least during the early centuries of
+their existence, of the display of those obstinate and blind transports
+of bravery by which the Arvadians were carried away.*
+
+     * No campaign against Tyre is mentioned in any of the
+     Egyptian annals: the expedition of Thûtmosis III. against
+     Senzauru was directed against a town of Coele-Syria
+     mentioned in the Tel el-Amarna tablets with the orthography
+     Zinzar, the Sizara-Larissa of Græco-Roman times, the Shaizar
+     of the Arab Chronicles. On the contrary, the Tel el-Amarna
+     tablets contain several passages which manifest the fidelity
+     of Tyre and its governors to the King of Egypt.
+
+Their foreign policy was reduced to a simple arithmetical question,
+which they discussed in the light of their industrial or commercial
+interests. As soon as they had learned from a short experience that
+a certain Pharaoh had at his disposal armies against which they could
+offer no serious opposition, they at once surrendered to him, and
+thought only of obtaining the greatest profit from the vassalage to
+which they were condemned. The obligation to pay tribute did not appear
+to them so much in the light of a burthen or a sacrifice, as a means
+of purchasing the right to go to and fro freely in Egypt, or in the
+countries subject to its influence. The commerce acquired by these
+privileges recouped them more than a hundredfold for all that their
+overlord demanded from them. The other cities of the coast--Sidon,
+Berytus, Byblos--usually followed the example of Tyre, whether from
+mercenary motives, or from their naturally pacific disposition, or from
+a sense of their impotence; and the same intelligent resignation with
+which, as we know, they accepted the supremacy of the great Egyptian
+empire, was doubtless displayed in earlier centuries in their submission
+to the Babylonians. Their records show that they did not accept this
+state of things merely through cowardice or indolence, for they are
+represented as ready to rebel and shake off the yoke of their foreign
+master when they found it incompatible with their practical interests.
+But their resort to war was exceptional; they generally preferred to
+submit to the powers that be, and to accept from them as if on lease the
+strip of coast-line at the base of the Lebanon, which served as a site
+for their warehouses and dockyards. Thus they did not find the yoke of
+the stranger irksome--the sea opening up to them a realm of freedom
+and independence which compensated them for the limitations of both
+territory and liberty imposed upon them at home.
+
+The epoch which was marked by their first venture on the Mediterranean,
+and the motives which led to it, were alike unknown to them. The gods
+had taught them navigation, and from the beginning of things they had
+taken to the sea as fishermen, or as explorers in search of new lands.*
+They were not driven by poverty to leave their continental abode, or
+inspired thereby with a zeal for distant cruises. They had at home
+sufficient corn and wine, oil and fruits, to meet all their needs, and
+even to administer to a life of luxury. And if they lacked cattle, the
+abundance of fish within their reach compensated for the absence of
+flesh-meat.
+
+     * According to one of the cosmogonies of Sanchoniathon,
+     Khusôr, who has been identified with Hephsestos, was the
+     inventor of the fishing-boat, and was the first among men
+     and gods who taught navigation. According to another legend,
+     Melkarth showed the Tyrians how to make a raft from the
+     branches of a fig tree, while the construction of the first
+     ships is elsewhere ascribed to the _Cabiri_.
+
+Nor was it the number of commodiously situated ports on their coast
+which induced them to become a seafaring people, for their harbours were
+badly protected for the most part, and offered no shelter when the
+wind set in from the north, the rugged shore presenting little resource
+against the wind and waves in its narrow and shallow havens. It was the
+nature of the country itself which contributed more than anything else
+to make them mariners. The precipitous mountain masses which separate
+one valley from another rendered communication between them difficult,
+while they served also as lurking-places for robbers. Commerce
+endeavoured to follow, therefore, the sea-route in preference to the
+devious ways of this highwayman’s region, and it accomplished its
+purpose the more readily because the common occupation of sea-fishing
+had familiarised the people with every nook and corner on the coast.
+The continual wash of the surge had worn away the bases of the limestone
+cliffs, and the superincumbent masses tumbling down into the sea formed
+lines of rocks, hardly rising above the water-level, which fringed
+the headlands with perilous reefs, against which the waves broke
+continuously at the slightest wind. It required some bravery to approach
+them, and no little skill to steer one of the frail boats, which these
+people were accustomed to employ from the earliest times, scatheless
+amid the breakers. The coasting trade was attracted from Arvad
+successively to Berytus, Sidon, and Tyre, and finally to the other
+towns of the coast. It was in full operation, doubtless, from the VIth
+Egyptian dynasty onwards, when the Pharaohs no longer hesitated to
+embark troops at the mouth of the Nile for speedy transmission to the
+provinces of Southern Syria, and it was by this coasting route that the
+tin and amber of the north succeeded in reaching the interior of
+Egypt. The trade was originally, it would seem, in the hands of those
+mysterious Kefâtiu of whom the name only was known in later times. When
+the Phoenicians established themselves at the foot of the Lebanon, they
+had probably only to take the place of their predecessors and to follow
+the beaten tracks which they had already made. We have every reason to
+believe that they took to a seafaring life soon after their arrival in
+the country, and that they adapted themselves and their civilization
+readily to the exigencies of a maritime career.*
+
+     * Connexion between Phoenicia and Greece was fully
+     established at the outbreak of the Egyptian wars, and we may
+     safely assume their existence in the centuries immediately
+     preceding the second millennium before our era.
+
+In their towns, as in most sea-ports, there was a considerable foreign
+element, both of slaves and freemen, but the Egyptians confounded them
+all under one name, Kefâtiu, whether they were Cypriotes, Asiatics, or
+Europeans, or belonged to the true Tyrian and Sidonian race. The
+costume of the Kafîti was similar to that worn by the people of the
+interior--the loin-cloth, with or without a long upper garment: while in
+tiring the hair they adopted certain refinements, specially a series
+of curls which the men arranged in the form of an aigrette above
+their foreheads. This motley collection of races was ruled over by an
+oligarchy of merchants and shipowners, whose functions were hereditary,
+and who usually paid homage to a single king, the representative of the
+tutelary god, and absolute master of the city.*
+
+     * Under the Egyptian supremacy, the local princes did not
+     assume the royal title in the despatches which they
+     addressed to the kings of Egypt, but styled themselves
+     governors of their cities.
+
+The industries pursued in Phoenicia were somewhat similar to those of
+other parts of Syria; the stuffs, vases, and ornaments made at Tyre and
+Sidon could not be distinguished from those of Hamath or of Carchemish.
+
+[Illustration 282.jpg ONE OF THE KAFÎTI FROM THE TOMB OF RAKHMIRÎ]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the coloured sketches by Prisse
+     d’Avennes in the Natural Hist. Museum.
+
+All manufactures bore the impress of Babylonian influence, and their
+implements, weights, measures, and system of exchange were the same
+as those in use among the Chaldæans. The products of the country
+were, however, not sufficient to freight the fleets which sailed
+from Phoenicia every year bound for all parts of the known world, and
+additional supplies had to be regularly obtained from neighbouring
+peoples, who thus became used to pour into Tyre and Sidon the surplus
+of their manufactures, or of the natural wealth of their country. The
+Phoenicians were also accustomed to send caravans into regions which
+they could not reach in their caracks, and to establish trading stations
+at the fords of rivers, or in the passes over mountain ranges. We
+know of the existence of such emporia at Laish near the sources of the
+Jordan, at Thapsacus, and at Nisibis, and they must have served the
+purpose of a series of posts on the great highways of the world. The
+settlements of the Phoenicians always assumed the character of colonies,
+and however remote they might be from their fatherland, the colonists
+never lost the manners and customs of their native country. They
+collected together into their _okels_ or storehouses such wares and
+commodities as they could purchase in their new localities, and,
+transmitting them periodically to the coast, shipped them thence to all
+parts of the world.
+
+Not only were they acquainted with every part of the Mediterranean, but
+they had even made voyages beyond its limits. In the absence, however,
+of any specific records of their naval enterprise, the routes they
+followed must be a subject of conjecture. They were accustomed to relate
+that the gods, after having instructed them in the art of navigation,
+had shown them the way to the setting sun, and had led them by their
+example to make voyages even beyond the mouths of the ocean. El of
+Byblos was the first to leave Syria; he conquered Greece and Egypt,
+Sicily and Libya, civilizing their inhabitants, and laying the
+foundation of cities everywhere. The Sidonian Astartê, with her head
+surmounted by the horns of an ox, was the next to begin her wanderings
+over the inhabited earth. Melkarth completed the task of the gods by
+discovering and subjugating those countries which had escaped the notice
+of his predecessors. Hundreds of local traditions, to be found on all
+the shores of the Mediterranean down to Roman times, bore witness to the
+pervasive influence of the old Canaanite colonisation. At Cyprus, for
+instance, wo find traces of the cultus of Kinyras, King of Byblos and
+father of Adonis; again, at Crete, it is the daughter of a Prince of
+Sidon, Buropa, who is carried off by Zeus under the form of a bull; it
+was Kadmos, sent forth to seek Buropa, who visited Cyprus, Rhodes, and
+the Cyclades before building Thebes in Boeotia and dying in the forests
+of Illyria. In short, wherever the Phoenicians had obtained a footing,
+their audacious activity made such an indelible impression upon the
+mind of the native inhabitants that they never forgot those vigorous
+thick-set men with pale faces and dark beards, and soft and specious
+speech, who appeared at intervals in their large and swift sailing
+vessels. They made their way cautiously along the coast, usually keeping
+in sight of land, making sail when the wind was favourable, or taking to
+the oars for days together when occasion demanded it, anchoring at night
+under the shelter of some headland, or in bad weather hauling their
+vessels up the beach until the morrow. They did not shrink when it was
+necessary from trusting themselves to the open sea, directing their
+course by the Pole-star;* in this manner they often traversed long
+distances out of sight of land, and they succeeded in making in a short
+time voyages previously deemed long and costly.
+
+     * The Greeks for this reason called it Phonikê, the
+     Phoenician star; ancient writers refer to the use which the
+     Phoenicians made of the Pole-star to guide them in
+     navigation.
+
+It is hard to say whether they were as much merchants as
+pirates--indeed, they hardly knew themselves--and their peaceful or
+warlike attitude towards vessels which they encountered on the seas,
+or towards the people whose countries they frequented, was probably
+determined by the circumstances of the moment.* If on arrival at a
+port they felt themselves no match for the natives, the instinct of the
+merchant prevailed, and that of the pirate was kept in the background.
+They landed peaceably, gained the good will of the native chief and
+his nobles by small presents, and spreading out their wares, contented
+themselves, if they could do no better, with the usual advantage
+obtained in an exchange of goods.
+
+     * The manner in which the Phoenicians plied their trade is
+     strikingly described in the _Odyssey_, in the part where
+     Eumaios relates how he was carried off by a Sidonian vessel
+     and sold as a slave: cf. the passage which mentions the
+     ravages of the Greeks on the coast of the Delta. Herodotus
+     recalls the rape of Io, daughter of Inachos, by the
+     Phoenicians, who carried her and her companions into Egypt;
+     on the other hand, during one of their Egyptian expeditions
+     they had taken two priestesses from Thebes, and had
+     transported one of them to Dodona, the other into Libya.
+
+They were never in a hurry, and would remain in one spot until they had
+exhausted all the resources of the country, while they knew to a nicety
+how to display their goods attractively before the expected customer.
+Their wares comprised weapons and ornaments for men, axes, swords,
+incised or damascened daggers with hilts of gold or ivory, bracelets,
+necklaces, amulets of all kinds, enamelled vases, glass-work, stuffs
+dyed purple or embroidered with gay colours. At times the natives, whose
+cupidity was excited by the exhibition of such valuables, would attempt
+to gain possession of them either by craft or by violence. They would
+kill the men who had landed, or attempt to surprise the vessel during
+the night. But more often it was the Phoenicians who took advantage of
+the friendliness or the weakness of their hosts.
+
+[Illustration: 286.jpg Page Image]
+
+They would turn treacherously upon the unarmed crowd when absorbed in
+the interest of buying and selling; robbing and killing the old men,
+they would make prisoners of the young and strong, the women and
+children, carrying them off to sell them in those markets where slaves
+were known to fetch the highest price. This was a recognised trade, but
+it exposed the Phoenicians to the danger of reprisals, and made them
+objects of an undying hatred. When on these distant expeditions
+they were subject to trivial disasters which might lead to serious
+consequences. A mast might break, an oar might damage a portion of the
+bulwarks, a storm might force them to throw overboard part of their
+cargo or their provisions; in such predicaments they had no means of
+repairing the damage, and, unable to obtain help in any of the places
+they might visit, their prospects were of a desperate character. They
+soon, therefore, learned the necessity of establishing cities of refuge
+at various points in the countries with which they traded--stations
+where they could go to refit and revictual their vessels, to fill up the
+complement of their crews, to take in new freight, and, if necessary,
+pass the winter or wait for fair weather before continuing their voyage.
+For this purpose they chose by preference islands lying within easy
+distance of the mainland, like their native cities of Tyre and Arvad,
+but possessing a good harbour or roadstead. If an island were not
+available, they selected a peninsula with a narrow isthmus, or a rock
+standing at the extremity of a promontory, which a handful of men could
+defend against any attack, and which could be seen from a considerable
+distance by their pilots. Most of their stations thus happily situated
+became at length important towns. They were frequented by the natives
+from the interior, who allied themselves with the new-comers, and
+furnished them not only with objects of trade, but with soldiers,
+sailors, and recruits for their army; and such was the rapid spread of
+these colonies, that before long the Mediterranean was surrounded by an
+almost unbroken chain of Phoenician strongholds and trading stations.
+
+[Illustration: 288.jpg AN EGYPTIAN TRADING VESSEL OF THE FIRST HALF OF
+THE XVIIIth DYNASTY]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+All the towns of the mother country--Arvad, Byblos, Berytus, Tyre, and
+Sidon--possessed vessels engaged in cruising long before the Egyptian
+conquest of Syria. We have no direct information from any existing
+monument to show us what these vessels were like, but we are familiar
+with the construction of the galleys which formed the fleets of the
+Pharaohs of the XVIIIth dynasty. The art of shipbuilding had made
+considerable progress since the times of the Memphite kings. Prom the
+period when Egypt aspired to become one of the great powers of the
+world, she doubtless endeavoured to bring her naval force to the same
+pitch of perfection as her land forces could boast of, and her fleets
+probably consisted of the best vessels which the dockyards of that
+day could turn out. Phoenician vessels of this period may therefore be
+regarded with reason as constructed on lines similar to those of the
+Egyptian ships, differing from them merely in the minor details of the
+shape of the hull and manner of rigging. The hull continued to be built
+long and narrow, rising at the stem and stern. The bow was terminated
+by a sort of hook, to which, in time of peace, a bronze ornament was
+attached, fashioned to represent the head of a divinity, gazelle, or
+bull, while in time of war this was superseded by a metal cut-water made
+fast to the hull by several turns of stout rope, the blade rising some
+couple of yards above the level of the deck.* The poop was ornamented
+with a projection firmly attached to the body of the vessel, but
+curved inwards and terminated by an open lotus-flower. An upper deck,
+surrounded by a wooden rail, was placed at the bow and stern to serve
+as forecastle and quarterdecks respectively, and in order to protect
+the vessel from the danger of heavy seas the ship was strengthened by
+a structure to which we find nothing analogous in the shipbuilding of
+classical times: an enormous cable attached to the gammonings of the
+bow rose obliquely to a height of about a couple of yards above the
+deck, and, passing over four small crutched masts, was made fast again
+to the gammonings of the stern. The hull measured from the blade of the
+cut-water to the stern-post some twenty to five and twenty yards, but
+the lowest part of the hold did not exceed five feet in depth. There was
+no cabin, and the ballast, arms, provisions, and spare-rigging occupied
+the open hold.**
+
+     * To get a clear idea of the details of this structure, we
+     have only to compare the appearance of ships with and
+     without a cut-water in the scenes at Thebes, representing
+     the celebration of a festival at the return of the fleet.
+
+     ** M. Glaser thinks that there were cabins for the crew
+     under the deck, and he recognises in the sixteen oblong
+     marks on the sides of the vessels at Deîr el-Bahari so many
+     dead-lights; as there could not have been space for so many
+     cabins, I had concluded that these were ports for oars to be
+     used in time of battle, but on further consideration I saw
+     that they represented the ends of the beams supporting the
+     deck.
+
+The bulwarks were raised to a height of some two feet, and the thwarts
+of the rowers ran up to them on both the port and starboard sides,
+leaving an open space in the centre for the long-boat, bales of
+merchandise, soldiers, slaves, and additional passengers.* A double set
+of steering-oars and a single mast completed the equipment. The latter,
+which rose to a height of some twenty-six feet, was placed amidships,
+and was held in an upright position by stays. The masthead was
+surmounted by two arrangements which answered respectively to the top
+[“gabie”] and _calcet_ of the masts of a galley.** There were no shrouds
+on each side from the masthead to the rail, but, in place of them, two
+stays ran respectively to the bow and stern. The single square-sail was
+extended between two yards some sixty to seventy feet long, and each
+made of two pieces spliced together at the centre. The upper yard
+was straight, while the lower curved upward at the ends. The yard was
+hoisted and lowered by two halyards, which were made fast aft at the
+feet of the steersmen. The yard was kept in its place by two lifts which
+came down from the masthead, and were attached respectively about eight
+feet from the end of each yard-arm. When the yard was hauled up it was
+further supported by six auxiliary lifts, three being attached to each
+yard-arm. The lower yard, made fast to the mast by a figure-of-eight
+knot, was secured by sixteen lifts, which, like those of the upper yard,
+worked through the “calcet.”
+
+     * One of the bas-reliefs exhibits a long-boat in the water
+     at the time the fleet was at anchor at Puanît. As we do not
+     find any vessel towing one after her, we naturally conclude
+     that the boat must have been stowed on board.
+
+     ** The “gabie” was a species of top where a sailor was placed
+     on the look-out. The “calcet” is, properly speaking, a
+     square block of wood containing the sheaves on which the
+     halyards travelled. The Egyptian apparatus had no sheaves,
+     and answers to the “calcet” on the masts of a galley only in
+     its serving the same purpose.
+
+The crew comprised thirty rowers, fifteen on each side, four top-men,
+two steersmen, a pilot at the bow, who signalled to the men at the helm
+the course to steer, a captain and a governor of the slaves, who formed,
+together with ten soldiers, a total of some fifty men.* In time of
+battle, as the rowers would be exposed to the missiles of the enemy,
+the bulwarks were further heightened by a mantlet, behind which the oars
+could be freely moved, while the bodies of the men were fully protected,
+their heads alone being visible above it. The soldiers were stationed
+as follows: two of them took their places on the forecastle, a third was
+perched on the masthead in a sort of cage improvised on the bars forming
+the top, while the remainder were posted on the deck and poop, from
+which positions and while waiting for the order to board they could pour
+a continuous volley of arrows on the archers and sailors of the enemy.**
+
+     * I have made this calculation from an examination of the
+     scenes in which ships are alternatively represented as at
+     anchor and under weigh. I know of vessels of smaller size,
+     and consequently with a smaller crew, but I know of none
+     larger or more fully manned.
+
+     ** The details are taken from the only representation of a
+     naval battle which we possess up to this moment, viz. that
+     of which I shall have occasion to speak further on in
+     connection with the reign of Ramses III.
+
+The first colony of which the Phoenicians made themselves masters was
+that island of Cyprus whose low, lurid outline they could see on fine
+summer evenings in the glow of the western sky. Some hundred and ten
+miles in length and thirty-six in breadth, it is driven like a wedge
+into the angle which Asia Minor makes with the Syrian coast: it throws
+out to the north-east a narrow strip of land, somewhat like an extended
+finger pointing to where the two coasts meet at the extremity of the
+gulf of Issos. A limestone cliff, of almost uniform height throughout,
+bounds, for half its length at least, the northern side of the island,
+broken occasionally by short deep valleys, which open out into creeks
+deeply embayed. A scattered population of fishermen exercised their
+calling in this region, and small towns, of which we possess only the
+Greek or Grecised names--Karpasia, Aphrodision, Kerynia, Lapethos--led
+there a slumbering existence. Almost in the centre of the island two
+volcanic peaks, Troodes and Olympos, face each other, and rise to
+a height of nearly 7000 feet, the range of mountains to which they
+belong--that of Aous--forming the framework of the island. The spurs of
+this range fall by a gentle gradient towards the south, and spread out
+either into stony slopes favourable to the culture of the vine, or into
+great maritime flats fringed with brackish lagoons. The valley which
+lies on the northern side of this chain runs from sea to sea in an
+almost unbroken level. A scarcely perceptible watershed divides the
+valley into two basins similar to those of Syria, the larger of the
+two lying opposite to the Phoenician coast. The soil consists of black
+mould, as rich as that of Egypt, and renewed yearly by the overflowing
+of the Pediæos and its affluents. Thick forests occupied the interior,
+promising inexhaustible resources to any naval power. Even under the
+Koman emperors the Cypriotes boasted that they could build and fit out
+a ship from the keel to the masthead without looking to resources beyond
+those of their own island. The ash, pine, cypress, and oak flourished
+on the sides of the range of Aous, while cedars grew there to a greater
+height and girth than even on the Lebanon. Wheat, barley, olive trees,
+vines, sweet-smelling woods for burning on the altar, medicinal plants
+such as the poppy and the _ladanum_, henna for staining with a deep
+orange colour the lips, eyelids, palm, nails, and fingertips of the
+women, all found here a congenial habitat; while a profusion everywhere
+of sweet-smelling flowers, which saturated the air with their
+penetrating odours--spring violets, many-coloured anemones, the lily,
+hyacinth, crocus, narcissus, and wild rose--led the Greeks to bestow
+upon the island the designation of “the balmy Cyprus.” Mines also
+contributed their share to the riches of which the island could boast.
+Iron in small quantities, alum, asbestos, agate and other precious
+stones, are still to be found there, and in ancient times the
+neighbourhood of Tamassos yielded copper in such quantities that the
+Romans were accustomed to designate this metal by the name “Cyprium,”
+ and the word passed from them into all the languages of Europe. It is
+not easy to determine the race to which the first inhabitants of the
+island belonged, if we are not to see in them a branch of the Kefâtiu,
+who frequented the Asiatic shores of the Mediterranean from a very
+remote period. In the time of Egyptian supremacy they called their
+country Asi, and this name inclines one to connect the people with the
+Ægeans.* An examination of the objects found in the most ancient tombs
+of the island seems to confirm this opinion. These consist, for the most
+part, of weapons and implements of stone--knives, hatchets, hammers, and
+arrow-heads; and mingled with these rude objects a score of different
+kinds of pottery, chiefly hand-made and of coarse design--pitchers with
+contorted bowls, shallow buckets, especially of the milk-pail variety,
+provided with spouts and with pairs of rudimentary handles.
+
+     * “Asi,” “Asîi,” was at first sought for on the Asiatic
+     continent--at Is on the Euphrates, or in Palestine: the
+     discovery of the Canopic decree allows us to identify it
+     with Cyprus, and this has now been generally done. The
+     reading “Asebi” is still maintained by some.
+
+[Illustration: 294.jpg Map of Cyprus]
+
+The pottery is red or black in colour, and the ornamentation of it
+consists of incised geometrical designs. Copper and bronze, where we
+find examples of these metals, do not appear to have been employed
+in the manufacture of ornaments or arrow-heads, but usually in making
+daggers. There is no indication anywhere of foreign influence, and
+yet Cyprus had already at this time entered into relations with the
+civilized nations of the continent.* According to Chaldæan tradition,
+it was conquered about the year 3800 B.C. by Sargon of Agadê: without
+insisting upon the reality of this conquest, which in any case must have
+been ephemeral in its nature, there is reason to believe that the island
+was subjected from an early period to the influence of the various
+peoples which lived one after another on the slopes of the Lebanon.
+Popular legend attributes to King Kinyras and to the Giblites [i.e. the
+people of Byblos] the establishment of the first Phoenician colonies in
+the southern region of the island--one of them being at Paphos, where
+the worship of Adonis and Astartê continued to a very late date. The
+natives preserved their own language and customs, had their own chiefs,
+and maintained their national independence, while constrained to submit
+at the same time to the presence of Phoenician colonists or merchants on
+the coast, and in the neighbourhood of the mines in the mountains. The
+trading centres of these settlers--Kition, Amathus, Solius, Golgos, and
+Tamassos--were soon, however, converted into strongholds, which
+ensured to Phonicia the monopoly of the immense wealth contained in the
+island.**
+
+     * An examination into the origin of the Cypriotes formed
+     part of the original scheme of this work, together with that
+     of the monuments of the various races scattered along the
+     coast of Asia Minor and the islands of the Ægean; but I
+     have been obliged to curtail it, in order to keep within the
+     limits I had proscribed for myself, and I have merely
+     epitomised, as briefly as possible, the results of the
+     researches undertaken in those regions during the last few
+     years.
+
+     ** The Phoenician origin of these towns is proved by
+     passages from classical writers. The date of the
+     colonisation is uncertain, but with the knowledge we possess
+     of the efficient vessels belonging to the various Phoenician
+     towns, it would seem difficult not to allow that the coasts
+     at least of Cyprus must have been partially occupied at the
+     time of the Egyptian invasions.
+
+Tyre and Sidon had no important centres of industry on that part of the
+Canaanite coast which extended to the south of Carmel, and Egypt,
+even in the time of the shepherd kings, would not have tolerated the
+existence on her territory of any great emporium not subject to the
+immediate supervision of her official agents. We know that the Libyan
+cliffs long presented an obstacle to inroads into Egyptian territory,
+and baffled any attempts to land to the westwards of the Delta: the
+Phoenicians consequently turned with all the greater ardour to those
+northern regions which for centuries had furnished them with most
+valuable products--bronze, tin, amber, and iron, both native and
+wrought. A little to the north of the Orontes, where the Syrian border
+is crossed and Asia Minor begins, the coast turns due west and runs
+in that direction for a considerable distance. The Phoenicians were
+accustomed to trade along this region, and we may attribute, perhaps, to
+them the foundation of those obscure cities--Kibyra, Masura, Euskopus,
+Sylion, Mygdalê, and Sidyma*--all of which preserved their apparently
+Semitic names down to the time of the Roman epoch. The whole of the
+important island of Rhodes fell into their power, and its three ports,
+Ialysos, Lindos*, and Kamiros, afforded them a well-situated base of
+operations for further colonisation. On leaving Rhodes, the choice of
+two routes presented itself to them. To the south-west they could see
+the distant outline of Karpathos, and on the far horizon behind it the
+summits of the Cretan chain. Crete itself bars on the south the entrance
+to the Ægean, and is almost a little continent, self-contained and
+self-sufficing.
+
+     * No direct evidence exists to lead us to attribute the
+     foundation of these towns to the Phoenicians, but the
+     Semitic origin of nearly all the names is an uncontested
+     fact.
+
+[Illustration: 297.jpg THE MUREX TRUNCULUS]
+
+It is made up of fertile valleys and mountains clothed with forests,
+and its inhabitants could employ themselves in mines and fisheries. The
+Phoenicians effected a settlement on the coast at Itanos, at Kairatos,
+and at Arados, and obtained possession of the peak of Cythera, where, it
+is said, they raised a sanctuary to Astartê. If, on leaving Rhodes, they
+had chosen to steer due north, they would soon have come into contact
+with numerous rocky islets scattered in the sea between the continents
+of Asia and Europe, which would have furnished them with as many
+stations, less easy of attack, and more readily defended than posts on
+the mainland. Of these the Giblites occupied Melos, while the Sidonians
+chose Oliaros and Thera, and we find traces of them in every island
+where any natural product, such as metals, sulphur, alum, fuller’s
+earth, emery, medicinal plants, and shells for producing dyes, offered
+an attraction. The purple used by the Tyrians for dyeing is secreted by
+several varieties of molluscs common in the Eastern Mediterranean; those
+most esteemed by the dyers were the _Murex trunculus_ and the _Murex
+Brandaris_, and solid masses made up of the detritus of these shells
+are found in enormous quantities in the neighbourhood of many Phoenician
+towns. The colouring matter was secreted in the head of the shellfish.
+To obtain it the shell was broken by a blow from a hammer, and the small
+quantity of slightly yellowish liquid which issued from the fracture was
+carefully collected and stirred about in salt water for three days.
+
+[Illustration: 298.jpg DAGGER OF ÂHMOSIS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin.
+
+It was then boiled in leaden vessels and reduced by simmering over a
+slow fire; the remainder was strained through a cloth to free it from
+the particles of flesh still floating in it, and the material to be dyed
+was then plunged into the liquid. The usual tint thus imparted was that
+of fresh blood, in some lights almost approaching to black; but careful
+manipulation could produce shades of red, dark violet, and amethyst.
+Phoenician settlements can be traced, therefore, by the heaps of shells
+upon the shore, the Cyclades and the coasts of Greece being strewn
+with this refuse. The veins of gold in the Pangaion range in Macedonia
+attracted them off the Thracian coast* received also frequent visits
+from them, and they carried their explorations even through the tortuous
+channel of the Hellespont into the Propontis, drawn thither, no doubt by
+the silver mines in the Bithynian mountains** which were already being
+worked by Asiatic miners.
+
+     * The fact that they worked the mines of Thasos is attested
+     by Herodotus.
+
+     ** Pronektos, on the Gulf of Ascania, was supposed to be a
+     Phoenician colony.
+
+Beyond the calm waters of the Propontis, they encountered an obstacle to
+their progress in another narrow channel, having more the character of a
+wide river than of a strait; it was with difficulty that they could make
+their way against the violence of its current, which either tended to
+drive their vessels on shore, or to dash them against the reefs which
+hampered the navigation of the channel. When, however, they succeeded in
+making the passage safely, they found themselves upon a vast and stormy
+sea, whose wooded shores extended east and west as far as eye could
+reach.
+
+[Illustration: 299.jpg ONE OF THE DAGGERS DISCOVERED AT MYCENÆ, SHOWING
+AN IMITATION OF EGYPTIAN DECORATION]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the facsimile in Perrot-Chipiez.
+
+From the tribes who inhabited them, and who acted as intermediaries,
+the Phoenician traders were able to procure tin, lead, amber, Caucasian
+gold, bronze, and iron, all products of the extreme north--a region
+which always seemed,to elude their persevering efforts to discover
+it. We cannot determine the furthest limits reached by the Phoenician
+traders, since they were wont to designate the distant countries and
+nations with which they traded by the vague appellations of “Isles
+of the Sea” and “Peoples of the Sea,” refusing to give more accurate
+information either from jealousy or from a desire to hide from other
+nations the sources of their wealth.
+
+The peoples with whom they traded were not mere barbarians, contented
+with worthless objects of barter; their clients included the inhabitants
+of the iEgean, who, if inferior to the great nations of the East,
+possessed an independent and growing civilization, traces of which are
+still coming to light from many quarters in the shape of tombs, houses,
+palaces, utensils, ornaments, representations of the gods, and household
+and funerary furniture,--not only in the Cyclades, but on the mainland
+of Asia Minor and of Greece. No inferior goods or tinsel wares would
+have satisfied the luxurious princes who reigned in such ancient cities
+as Troy and Mycenae, and who wanted the best industrial products of
+Egypt and Syria--costly stuffs, rare furniture, ornate and well-wrought
+weapons, articles of jewellery, vases of curious and delicate
+design--such objects, in fact, as would have been found in use among the
+sovereigns and nobles of Memphis or of Babylon. For articles to offer in
+exchange they were not limited to the natural or roughly worked products
+of their own country. Their craftsmen, though less successful in general
+technique than their Oriental contemporaries, exhibited considerable
+artistic intelligence and an extraordinary manual skill. Accustomed at
+first merely to copy the objects sold to them by the Phoenicians,
+they soon developed a style of their own; the Mycenaean dagger in the
+illustration on page 299, though several centuries later in date than
+that of the Pharaoh Ahmosis, appears to be traceable to this ancient
+source of inspiration, although it gives evidence of new elements in
+its method of decoration and in its greater freedom of treatment. The
+inhabitants of the valleys of the Nile and of the Orontes, and probably
+also those of the Euphrates and Tigris, agreed in the, high value they
+set upon these artistic objects in gold, silver, and bronze, brought
+to them from the further shores of the Mediterranean, which, while
+reproducing their own designs, modified them to a certain extent; for
+just as we now imitate types of ornamental work in vogue among nations
+less civilized than ourselves, so the iEgean people set themselves the
+task through their potters and engravers of reproducing exotic models.
+The Phoenician traders who exported to Greece large consignments
+of objects made under various influences in their own workshops, or
+purchased in the bazaars of the ancient world, brought back as a return
+cargo an equivalent number of works of art, bought in the towns of the
+West, which eventually found their way into the various markets of Asia
+and Africa. These energetic merchants were not the first to ply this
+profitable trade of maritime carriers, for from the time of the Memphite
+empire the products of northern regions had found their way, through the
+intermediation of the Haûinibû, as far south as the cities of the
+Delta and the Thebaid. But this commerce could not be said to be
+either regular or continuous; the transmission was carried on from one
+neighbouring tribe to another, and the Syrian sailors were merely the
+last in a long chain of intermediaries--a tribal war, a migration, the
+caprice of some chief, being sufficient to break the communication,
+and even cause the suspension of transit for a considerable period.
+The Phoenicians desired to provide against such risks by undertaking
+themselves to fetch the much-coveted objects from their respective
+sources, or, where this was not possible, from the ports nearest the
+place of their manufacture. Reappearing with each returning year in
+the localities where they had established emporia, they accustomed the
+natives to collect against their arrival such products as they could
+profitably use in bartering with one or other of their many customers.
+They thus established, on a fixed line of route, a kind of maritime
+trading service, which placed all the shores of the Mediterranean in
+direct communication with each other, and promoted the blending of the
+youthful West with the ancient East.
+
+[Illustration: 302.jpg TAILPIECE]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III--THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY
+
+
+
+THÛTMOSIS I. AND HIS ARMY--HÂTSHOPSITÛ AND THÛTMOSIS III.
+
+
+_Thutmosis I.’s campaign in Syria--The organisation of the Egyptian
+army: the infantry of the line, the archers, the horses, and the
+charioteers--The classification of the troops according to their
+arms--Marching and encampment in the enemy’s country: battle
+array--Chariot-charges--The enumeration and distribution of the
+spoil--The vice-royalty of Rush and the adoption of Egyptian customs by
+the Ethiopian tribes._
+
+_The first successors of Thutmosis I.: Ahmasi and Hatshopsitit,
+Thûtmosis II--The temple of Deîr el-Bahari and the buildings
+of Karnah--The Ladders of Incense--The expedition to Pûanît: bartering
+with the natives, the return of the fleet._
+
+_Thûtmosis III.: his departure for Asia, the battle of Megiddo and
+the subjection of Southern Syria--The year 23 to the year 28 of his
+reign--Conquest of Lotanû and of Mitânni--The campaign of the 33rd year
+of the king’s reign._
+
+
+[Illustration: 305.jpg Page Image]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III--THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY
+
+
+_Thûtmosis I. and his army--Hâtshopsîtû and Thûtmosis III._
+
+
+The account of the first expedition undertaken by Thûtmosis in Asia,
+a region at that time new to the Egyptians, would be interesting if
+we could lay our hands upon it. We should perhaps find in the midst of
+official documents, or among the short phrases of funerary biographies,
+some indication of the impression which the country produced upon its
+conquerors.
+
+With the exception of a few merchants or adventurers, no one from Thebes
+to Memphis had any other idea of Asia than that which could be gathered
+from the scattered notices of it in the semi-historical romances of
+the preceding age. The actual sight of the country must have been a
+revelation; everything appearing new and paradoxical to men of whom
+the majority had never left their fatherland, except on some warlike
+expedition into Ethiopia or on some rapid raid along the coasts of the
+Red Sea. Instead of their own narrow valley, extending between its two
+mountain ranges, and fertilised by the periodical overflowing of the
+Nile which recurred regularly almost to a day, they had before them
+wide irregular plains, owing their fertility not to inundations, but
+to occasional rains or the influence of insignificant streams; hills of
+varying heights covered with vines and other products of cultivation;
+mountains of different altitudes irregularly distributed, clothed with
+forests, furrowed with torrents, their summits often crowned with snow
+even in the hottest period of summer: and in this region of nature,
+where everything was strange to them, they found nations differing
+widely from each other in appearance and customs, towns with crenellated
+walls perched upon heights difficult of access; and finally, a
+civilization far excelling that which they encountered anywhere in
+Africa outside their own boundaries. Thûtmosis succeeded in reaching on
+his first expedition a limit which none of his successors was able
+to surpass, and the road taken by him in this campaign--from Gaza to
+Megiddo, from Megiddo to Qodshû, from Qodshû to Carchemish--was that
+which was followed henceforward by the Egyptian troops in all their
+expeditions to the Euphrates. Of the difficulties which he encountered
+on his way we have no information. On arriving at Naharaim, however,
+we know that he came into contact with the army of the enemy, which
+was under the command of a single general--perhaps the King of Mitanni
+himself, or one of the lieutenants of the “Cossæan King of Babylon”--who
+had collected together most of the petty princes of the northern country
+to resist the advance of the intruder. The contest was hotly fought out
+on both sides, but victory at length remained with the invaders, and
+innumerable prisoners fell into their hands. The veteran Âhmosi, son
+of Abîna, who was serving in his last campaign, and his cousin, Âhmosi
+Pannekhabît, distinguished themselves according to their wont. The
+former, having seized upon a chariot, brought it, with the three
+soldiers who occupied it, to the Pharaoh, and received once more “the
+collar of gold;” the latter killed twenty-one of the enemy, carrying
+off their hands as trophies, captured a chariot, took one prisoner, and
+obtained as reward a valuable collection of jewellery, consisting of
+collars, bracelets, sculptured lions, choice vases, and costly weapons.
+A stele, erected on the banks of the Euphrates not far from the scene of
+the battle, marked the spot which the conqueror wished to be recognised
+henceforth as the frontier of his empire. He re-entered Thebes with
+immense booty, by which gods as well as men profited, for he consecrated
+a part of it to the embellishment of the temple of Amon, and the sight
+of the spoil undoubtedly removed the lingering prejudices which the
+people had cherished against expeditions beyond the isthmus. Thûtmosis
+was held up by his subjects to the praise of posterity as having come
+into actual contact with that country and its people, which had hitherto
+been known to the Egyptians merely through the more or less veracious
+tales of exiles and travellers. The aspect of the great river of the
+Naharaim, which could be compared with the Nile for the volume of its
+waters, excited their admiration. They were, however, puzzled by the
+fact that it flowed from north to south, and even were accustomed
+to joke at the necessity of reversing the terms employed in Egypt to
+express going up or down the river. This first Syrian campaign became
+the model for most of those subsequently undertaken by the Pharaohs. It
+took the form of a bold advance of troops, directed from Zalû towards
+the north-east, in a diagonal line through the country, who routed on
+the way any armies which might be opposed to them, carrying by assault
+such towns as were easy of capture, while passing by others which seemed
+strongly defended--pillaging, burning, and slaying on every side. There
+was no suspension of hostilities, no going into winter quarters, but a
+triumphant return of the expedition at the end of four or five months,
+with the probability of having to begin fresh operations in the
+following year should the vanquished break out into revolt.*
+
+     * From the account of the campaigns of Amenôthes II., I
+     thought we might conclude that this Pharaoh wintered in
+     Syria at least once; but the text does not admit of this
+     interpretation, and we must, therefore, for the present give
+     up the idea that the Pharaohs ever spent more than a few
+     months of the year on hostile territory.
+
+The troops employed in these campaigns were superior to any others
+hitherto put into the field. The Egyptian army, inured to war by its
+long struggle with the Shepherd-kings, and kept in training since the
+reign of Âhmosis by having to repulse the perpetual incursions of the
+Ethiopian or Libyan barbarians, had no difficulty, in overcoming the
+Syrians; not that the latter were wanting in courage or discipline,
+but owing to their limited supply of recruits, and the political
+disintegration of the country, they could not readily place under arms
+such enormous numbers as those of the Egyptians. Egyptian military
+organisation had remained practically unchanged since early times: the
+army had always consisted, firstly, of the militia who held fiefs, and
+were under the obligation of personal service either to the prince of
+the nome or to the sovereign; secondly, of a permanent force, which was
+divided into two corps, distributed respectively between the Sa’id and
+the Delta. Those companies which were quartered on the frontier, or
+about the king either at Thebes or at one of the royal residences, were
+bound to hold themselves in readiness to muster for a campaign at any
+given moment. The number of natives liable to be levied when occasion
+required, by “generations,” or as we should say by classes, may have
+amounted to over a hundred thousand men,* but they were never all
+called out, and it does not appear that the army on active service
+ever contained more than thirty thousand men at a time, and probably on
+ordinary occasions not much more than ten or fifteen thousand.**
+
+     * The only numbers which we know are those given by
+     Herodotus for the Saïte period, which are evidently
+     exaggerated. Coming down to modern times, we see that
+     Mehemet-Ali, from 1830 to 1840, had nearly 120,000 men in
+     Syria, Egypt, and the Sudan; and in 1841, at the time when
+     the treaties imposed upon him the ill-kept obligation of
+     reducing his army to 18,000 men, it still contained 81,000.
+     We shall probably not be far wrong in estimating the total
+     force which the Pharaohs of the XVIIIth dynasty, lords of
+     the whole valley of the Nile, and of part of Asia, had at
+     their disposal at 120,000 or 130,000 men; these, however,
+     were never all called out at once.
+
+     ** We have no direct information respecting the armies
+     acting in Syria; we only know that, at the battle of Qodshû,
+     Ramses II. had against him 2500 chariots containing three
+     men each, making 7500 charioteers, besides a troop estimated
+     at the Ramesseum at 8000 men, at Luxor at 9000, so that the
+     Syrian army probably contained about 20,000 men. It would
+     seem that the Egyptian army was less numerous, and I
+     estimate it with great hesitation at about 15,000 or 18,000
+     men: it was considered a powerful army, while that of the
+     Hittites was regarded as an innumerable host. A passage in
+     the Anastasi Papyrus, No. 1, tells us the composition of a
+     corps led by Ramses II. against the tribes in the vicinity
+     of Qocoîr and the Rahanû valley; it consisted of 5000 men,
+     of whom 620 were Shardana, 1600 Qahak, 70 Mashaûasha, and
+     880 Negroes.
+
+The infantry was, as we should expect, composed of troops of the line
+and light troops. The former wore either short wigs arranged in rows
+of curls, or a kind of padded cap by way of a helmet, thick enough to
+deaden blows; the breast and shoulders were undefended, but a short
+loin-cloth was wrapped round the hips, and the stomach and upper part
+of the thighs were protected by a sort of triangular apron, sometimes
+scalloped at the sides, and composed of leather thongs attached to a
+belt. A buckler of moderate dimensions had been substituted for the
+gigantic shield of the earlier Theban period; it was rounded at the
+top and often furnished with a solid metal boss, which the experienced
+soldiers always endeavoured to present to the enemy’s lances and
+javelins. Their weapons consisted of pikes about five feet long, with
+broad bronze or copper points, occasionally of flails, axes, daggers,
+short curved swords, and spears; the trumpeters were armed with daggers
+only, and the officers did not as a rule encumber themselves with either
+buckler or pike, but bore and axe and dagger, an occasionally a bow.
+
+[Illustration: 311.jpg A PLATOON (TROOP) OF EGYPTIAN SPEARMEN AT DEÎR
+EL-BAHARÎ]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Naville.
+
+The light infantry was composed chiefly of bowmen--_pidâtû_--the
+celebrated archers of Egypt, whose long bows and arrows, used with
+deadly skill, speedily became renowned throughout the East; the quiver,
+of the use of which their ancestors were ignorant, had been borrowed
+from the Asiatics, probably from the Hyksôs, and was carried hanging at
+the side or slung over the shoulder. Both spearmen and archers were for
+the most part pure-bred Egyptians, and were divided into regiments of
+unequal strength, each of which usually bore the name of some god--as,
+for example, the regiment of Ra or of Phtah, of Arnon or of Sûtkhû*--in
+which the feudal contingents, each commanded by its lord or his
+lieutenants, fought side by side with the king’s soldiers furnished
+from the royal domains. The effective force of the army was made up by
+auxiliaries taken from the tribes of the Sahara and from the negroes of
+the Upper Nile.**
+
+     * The army of Ramses II. at the battle of Qodshû comprised
+     four corps, which bore the names of Amon, Râ, Phtah, and
+     Sûtkhû. Other lesser corps were named the _Tribe of
+     Pharaoh,_ the _Tribe of the Beauty of the Solar dish._
+     These, as far as I can judge, must have been troops raised
+     on the royal domains by a system of local recruiting, who
+     were united by certain common privileges and duties which
+     constituted them an hereditary militia, whence they were
+     called _tribes_.
+
+     ** These Ethiopian recruits are occasionally represented in
+     the Theban tombs of the XVIIIth dynasty, among others in the
+     tomb of Pahsûkhîr.
+
+These auxiliaries were but sparingly employed in early times, but their
+numbers were increased as wars became more frequent and necessitated
+more troops to carry them on. The tribes from which they were drawn
+supplied the Pharaohs with an inexhaustible reserve; they were
+courageous, active, indefatigable, and inured to hardships, and if it
+had not been for their turbulent nature, which incited them to continual
+internal dissensions, they might readily have shaken off the yoke of
+the Egyptians. Incorporated into the Egyptian army, and placed under
+the instruction of picked officers, who subjected them to rigorous
+discipline, and accustomed them to the evolutions of regular troops,
+they were transformed from disorganised hordes into tried and invincible
+battalions.*
+
+     * The armies of Hâtshopsîtû already included Libyan
+     auxiliaries, some of which are represented at Deîr el-
+     Baharî; others of Asiatic origin are found under Amenôthes
+     IV., but they are not represented on the monuments among the
+     regular troops until the reign of Ramses II., when the
+     Shardana appear for the first time among the king’s body-
+     guard.
+
+[Illustration: 313.jpg A PLATOON OF EGYPTIAN ARCHERS AT DEÎR EL-BAHARÎ]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+The old army, which had conquered Nubia in the days of the Papis and
+Usirtasens, had consisted of these three varieties of foot-soldiers
+only, but since the invasion of the Shepherds, a new element had been
+incorporated into the modern army in the-shape of the chariotry, which
+answered to some extent to the cavalry of our day as regards their
+tactical employment and efficacy. The horse, when once introduced into
+Egypt, soon became fairly adapted to its environment. It retained both
+its height and size, keeping the convex forehead--which gave the head a
+slightly curved profile--the slender neck, the narrow hind-quarters, the
+lean and sinewy legs, and the long flowing tail which had characterised
+it in its native country. The climate, however, was enervating, and
+constant care had to be taken, by the introduction of new blood from
+Syria, to prevent the breed from deteriorating.*
+
+     * The numbers of horses brought from Syria either as spoils
+     of war or as tribute paid by the vanquished are frequently
+     recorded in the Annals of Thûtmosis III. Besides the usual
+     species, powerful stallions were imported from Northern
+     Syria, which were known by the Semitic name of Abîri, the
+     strong. In the tombs of the XVIIIth dynasty, the arrival of
+     Syrian horses in Egypt is sometimes represented.
+
+[Illustration: 314.jpg THE EGYPTIAN CHARIOT PRESERVED IN THE FLORENCE
+MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Petrie.
+
+The Pharaohs kept studs of horses in the principal cities of the Nile
+valley, and the great feudal lords, following their example, vied with
+each other in the possession of numerous breeding stables. The office of
+superintendent to these establishments, which was at the disposal of
+the Master of the Horse, became in later times one of the most important
+State appointments.*
+
+     * In the story of the conquest of Egypt by the Ethiopian
+     Piônkhi, studs are indicated at Hermopolis, at Athribis, in
+     the towns to the east and in the centre of the Delta, and at
+     Sais. Diodorus Siculus relates that, in his time, the
+     foundations of 100 stables, each capable of containing 200
+     horses, were still to be seen on the western bank of the
+     river between Memphis and Thebes.
+
+[Illustration: 315.jpg THE KING CHARGING ON HIS CHARIOT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+The first chariots introduced into Egypt were, like the horses, of
+foreign origin, but when built by Egyptian workmen they soon became more
+elegant, if not stronger than their models. Lightness was the quality
+chiefly aimed at; and at length the weight was so reduced that it
+was possible for a man to carry his chariot on his shoulders without
+fatigue. The materials for them were on this account limited to oak or
+ash and leather; metal, whether gold or silver, iron or bronze, being
+used but sparingly, and then only for purposes of ornamentation. The
+wheels usually had six, but sometimes eight spokes, or occasionally only
+four. The axle consisted of a single stout pole of acacia. The framework
+of the chariot was composed of two pieces of wood mortised together so
+as to form a semicircle or half-ellipse, and closed by a straight bar;
+to this frame was fixed a floor of sycomore wood or of plaited leather
+thongs. The sides of the chariot were formed of upright panels, solid
+in front and open at the sides, each provided with a handrail. The pole,
+which was of a single piece of wood, was bent into an elbow at about
+one-fifth of its length from the end, which was inserted into the centre
+of the axletree. On the gigantic T thus formed was fixed the body of the
+chariot, the hinder part resting on the axle, and the front attached
+to the bent part of the pole, while the whole was firmly bound together
+with double leather thongs. A yoke of hornbeam, shaped like a bow, to
+which the horses were harnessed, was fastened to the other extremity of
+the pole. The Asiatics placed three men in a chariot, but the Egyptians
+only two; the warrior--_sinni_--whose business it was to fight, and
+the shield-bearer--_qazana_--who protected his companion with a buckler
+during the engagement. A complete set of weapons was carried in
+the chariot--lances, javelins, and daggers, curved spear, club, and
+battle-axe--while two bow-cases as well as two large quivers were hung
+at the sides. The chariot itself was very liable to upset, the slightest
+cause being sufficient to overturn it. Even when moving at a slow pace,
+the least inequality of the ground shook it terribly, and when driven
+at full speed it was only by a miracle of skill that the occupants could
+maintain their equilibrium. At such times the charioteer would stand
+astride of the front panels, keeping his right foot only inside the
+vehicle, and planting the other firmly on the pole, so as to lessen
+the jolting, and to secure a wider base on which to balance himself.
+To carry all this into practice long education was necessary, for which
+there were special schools of instruction, and those who were destined
+to enter the army were sent to these schools when little more than
+children. To each man, as soon as he had thoroughly mastered all the
+difficulties of the profession, a regulation chariot and pair of horses
+were granted, for which he was responsible to the Pharaoh or to his
+generals, and he might then return to his home until the next call to
+arms. The warrior took precedence of the shield-bearer, and both were
+considered superior to the foot-soldier; the chariotry, in fact, like
+the cavalry of the present day, was the aristocratic branch of the army,
+in which the royal princes, together with the nobles and their sons,
+enlisted. No Egyptian ever willingly trusted himself to the back of a
+horse, and it was only in the thick of a battle, when his chariot was
+broken, and there seemed no other way of escaping from the mêlée, that a
+warrior would venture to mount one of his steeds. There appear, however,
+to have been here and there a few horsemen, who acted as couriers or
+aides-de-camp; they used neither saddle-cloth nor stirrups, but were
+provided with reins with which to guide their animals, and their seat
+on horseback was even less secure than the footing of the driver in his
+chariot.
+
+[Illustration: 318.jpg AN EGYPTIAN LEARNING TO RIDE, FROM A BAS-RELIEF
+IN THE BOLOGNA MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Flinders Petrie.
+
+The infantry was divided into platoons of six to ten men each, commanded
+by an officer and marshalled round an ensign, which represented either
+a sacred animal, an emblem of the king or of his double, or a divine
+figure placed upon the top of a pike; this constituted an object of
+worship to the group of soldiers to whom it belonged. We are unable
+to ascertain how many of these platoons, either of infantry or of
+chariotry, went to form a company or a battalion, or by what ensigns the
+different grades were distinguished from each other, or what was their
+relative order of rank. Bodies of men, to the number of forty or fifty,
+are sometimes represented on the monuments, but this may be merely by
+chance, or because the draughtsman did not take the trouble to give the
+proper number accurately. The inferior officers were equipped very much
+like the soldiers, with the exception of the buckler, which they do not
+appear to have carried, and certainly did not when on the march: the
+superior officers might be known by their umbrella or flabellum, a
+distinction which gave them the right of approaching the king’s person.
+
+[Illustration: 319.jpg THE WAR-DANCE OF THE TIMIHU AT DEÎR EL-BAHARÎ]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+The military exercises to which all these troops were accustomed
+probably differed but little from those which were in vogue with the
+armies of the Ancient Empire; they consisted in wrestling, boxing,
+jumping, running either singly or in line at regular distances from
+each other, manual exercises, fencing, and shooting at a target; the
+war-dance had ceased to be in use among the Egyptian regiments as a
+military exercise, but it was practised by the Ethiopian and Libyan
+auxiliaries. At the beginning of each campaign, the men destined to
+serve in it were called out by the military scribes, who supplied them
+with arms from the royal arsenals. Then followed the distribution of
+rations. The soldiers, each carrying a small linen bag, came up in
+squads before the commissariat officers, and each received his own
+allowance.*
+
+     * We see the distribution of arms made by the scribes and
+     other officials of the royal arsenals represented in the
+     pictures at Medinet-Abu. The calling out of the classes was
+     represented in the Egyptian tombs of the XVIIIth dynasty, as
+     well as the distribution of supplies.
+
+Once in the enemy’s country the army advanced in close order, the
+infantry in columns of four, the officers in rear, and the chariots
+either on the right or left flank, or in the intervals between
+divisions. Skirmishers thrown out to the front cleared the line of
+march, while detached parties, pushing right and left, collected
+supplies of cattle, grain, or drinking-water from the fields and
+unprotected villages. The main body was followed by the baggage train;
+it comprised not only supplies and stores, but cooking-utensils,
+coverings, and the entire paraphernalia of the carpenters’ and
+blacksmiths’ shops necessary for repairing bows, lances, daggers, and
+chariot-poles, the whole being piled up in four-wheeled carts drawn by
+asses or oxen. The army was accompanied by a swarm of non-combatants,
+scribes, soothsayers, priests, heralds, musicians, servants, and
+women of loose life, who were a serious cause of embarrassment to the
+generals, and a source of perpetual danger to military discipline. At
+nightfall they halted in a village, or more frequently bivouacked in an
+entrenched camp, marked out to suit the circumstances of the case. This
+entrenchment was always rectangular, its length being twice as great as
+its width, and was surrounded by a ditch, the earth from which, being
+banked up on the inside, formed a rampart from five to six feet in
+height; the exterior of this was then entirely faced with shields,
+square below, but circular in shape at the top. The entrance to the camp
+was by a single gate in one of the longer sides, and a plank served as a
+bridge across the trench, close to which two detachments mounted guard,
+armed with clubs and naked swords.
+
+[Illustration: 321.jpg A COLUMN OF TROOPS ON THE MARCH, CHARIOTS AND
+INFANTRY]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The royal quarters were situated at one end of the camp. Here, within an
+enclosure, rose an immense tent, where the Pharaoh found all the luxury
+to which he was accustomed in his palaces, even to a portable chapel,
+in which each morning he could pour out water and burn incense to his
+father, Amon-Râ of Thebes. The princes of the blood who formed his
+escort, his shield-bearers and his generals, were crowded together hard
+by, and beyond, in closely packed lines, were the horses and chariots,
+the draught bullocks, the workshops and the stores.
+
+[Illustration: 322.jpg AN EGYPTIAN FORTIFIED CAMP, FORCED BY THE ENEMY]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato. It represents
+     the camp of Ramses II. before Qodshû: the upper angle of the
+     enclosure and part of the surrounding wall have been
+     destroyed by the Khâti, whose chariots are pouring in at the
+     breach. In the centre is the royal tent, surrounded by
+     scenes of military life. This picture has been sculptured
+     partly over an earlier one representing one of the episodes
+     of the battle; the latter had been covered with stucco, on
+     which the new subject was executed. Part of the stucco has
+     fallen away, and the king in his chariot, with a few other
+     figures, has reappeared, to the great detriment of the later
+     picture.
+
+[Illustration: 322b.jpg TWO COMPANIES ON THE MARCH]
+
+The soldiers, accustomed from childhood to live in the open air,
+erected no tents or huts of boughs for themselves in these temporary
+encampments, but bivouacked in the open, and the sculptures on the
+façades of the Theban pylons give us a minute picture of the way in
+which they employed themselves when off duty. Here one man, while
+cleaning his armour, superintends the cooking. Another, similarly
+engaged, drinks from a skin of wine held up by a slave. A third has
+taken his chariot to pieces, and t is replacing some portion the worse
+for wear. Some are sharpening their daggers or lances; others mend their
+loin-cloths or sandals, or exchange blows with fists and sticks. The
+baggage, linen, arms, and provisions are piled in disorder on the
+ground; horses, oxen, and asses are eating or chewing the cud at their
+ease; while here and there a donkey, relieved of his burden, rolls
+himself on the ground and brays with delight.*
+
+     * We are speaking of the camp of Thûtmosis III. near Âlûna,
+     the day before the battle of Megiddo, and the words put into
+     the mouths of the soldiers to mark their vigilance are the
+     same as those which we find in the Ramesseum and at Luxor,
+     written above the guards of the camp where Ramses II. is
+     reposing.
+[Illustration: 325.jpg SCENES FROM MILITARY LIFE IN AN EGYPTIAN CAMP]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+The success of the Egyptians in battle was due more to the courage and
+hardihood of the men than to the strategical skill of their commanders.
+We find no trace of manouvres, in the sense in which we understand the
+word, either in their histories or on their bas-reliefs, but they joined
+battle boldly with the enemy, and the result was decided by a more or
+less bloody conflict. The heavy infantry was placed in the centre, the
+chariots were massed on the flanks, while light troops thrown out to
+the front began the action by letting fly volleys of arrows and stones,
+which through the skill of the bowmen and slingers did deadly execution;
+then the pikemen laid their spears in rest, and pressing straight
+forward, threw their whole weight against the opposing troops. At the
+same moment the charioteers set off at a gentle trot, and gradually
+quickened their pace till they dashed at full speed upon the foe, amid
+the confused rumbling of wheels and the sharp clash of metal.
+
+[Illustration: 327.jpg ENCOUNTER BETWEEN EGYPTIAN AND ASIATIC CHARIOTS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a drawing by Champolion.
+
+The Egyptians, accustomed by long drilling to the performance of such
+evolutions, executed these charges as methodically as though they were
+still on their parade-ground at Thebes; if the disposition of the ground
+were at all favourable, not a single chariot would break the line, and
+the columns would sweep across the field without swerving or falling
+into disorder. The charioteer had the reins tied round his body, and
+could, by throwing his weight either to the right or the left, or by
+slackening or increasing the pressure through a backward or forward
+motion, turn, pull up, or start his horses by a simple movement of the
+loins: he went into battle with bent bow, the string drawn back to
+his ear, the arrow levelled ready to let fly, while the shield-bearer,
+clinging to the body of the chariot with one hand, held out his buckler
+with the other to shelter his comrade. It would seem that the Syrians
+were less skilful; their bows did not carry so far as those of their
+adversaries, and consequently they came within the enemy’s range some
+moments before it was possible for them to return the volley with
+effect. Their horses would be thrown down, their drivers would fall
+wounded, and the disabled chariots would check the approach of those
+following and overturn them, so that by the time the main body came up
+with the enemy the slaughter would have been serious enough to render
+victory hopeless. Nevertheless, more than one charge would be necessary
+finally to overturn or scatter the Syrian chariots, which, once
+accomplished, the Egyptian charioteer would turn against the
+foot-soldiers, and, breaking up their ranks, would tread them down under
+the feet of his horses.*
+
+     * The whole of the above description is based on incidents
+     from the various pictures of battles which appear on the
+     monuments of Ramses II.
+
+Nor did the Pharaoh spare himself in the fight; his splendid dress, the
+urasus on his forehead, and the nodding plumes of his horses made him
+a mark for the blows of the enemy, and he would often find himself in
+positions of serious danger. In a few hours, as a rule, the conflict
+would come to an end.
+
+[Illustration: 328.jpg Ramses II.]
+
+[Illustration: 328-text.jpg]
+
+Once the enemy showed signs of giving way, the Egyptian chariots dashed
+upon them precipitously, and turned the retreat into a rout: the pursuit
+was, however, never a long One; some fortress was always to be found
+close at hand where the remnant of the defeated host could take refuge.*
+The victors, moreover, would be too eager to secure the booty, and to
+strip the bodies of the dead, to allow time for following up the foe.
+
+     * After the battle of Megiddo, the remnants of the Syrian
+     army took refuge in the city, where Thûtmosis III. besieged
+     them; similarly under Ramses II. the Hittite princes took
+     refuge in Qodshû after their defeat.
+
+The prisoners were driven along in platoons, their arms bound in strange
+and contorted attitudes, each under the charge of his captor; then came
+the chariots, arms, slaves, and provisions collected on the battle-field
+or in the camp, then other trophies of a kind unknown in modern warfare.
+When an Egyptian killed or mortally wounded any one, he cut off, not
+the head, but the right hand or the phallus, and brought it to the
+royal scribes. These made an accurate inventory of everything, and even
+Pharaoh did not disdain to be present at the registration. The booty did
+not belong to the persons who obtained it, but was thrown into a common
+stock which was placed at the disposal of the sovereign: one part he
+reserved for the gods, especially for his father Amon of Thebes, who
+had given him the victory; another part he kept for himself, and the
+remainder was distributed among his army. Each man received a reward
+in proportion to his rank and services, such as male or female slaves,
+bracelets, necklaces, arms, vases, or a certain measured weight of gold,
+known as the “gold of bravery.” A similar sharing of the spoil took
+place after every successful engagement: from Pharaoh to the meanest
+camp-follower, every man who had contributed to the success of a
+campaign returned home richer than he had set out, and the profits which
+he derived from a war were a liberal compensation for the expenses in
+which it had involved him.
+
+[Illustration: 330.jpg COUNTING OF THE HANDS]
+
+The results of the first expedition of Thûtmosis I. were of a decisive
+character; so much so, indeed, that he never again, it would seem,
+found it necessary during the remainder of his life to pass the isthmus.
+Northern Syria, it is true, did not remain long under tribute, if
+indeed it paid any at all after the departure of the Egyptians, but
+the southern part of the country, feeling itself in the grip of the new
+master, accepted its defeat: Gaza became the head-quarters of a garrison
+which secured the door of Asia for future invasion,* and Pharaoh, freed
+from anxiety in this quarter, gave his whole time to the consolidation
+of his power in Ethiopia.
+
+     * This fact is nowhere explicitly stated on the monuments:
+     we may infer it, however, from the way in which Thûtmosis
+     III. tells how he reached Gaza without opposition at the
+     beginning of his first campaign, and celebrated the
+     anniversary of his coronation there. On the other hand, we
+     learn from details in the lists that the mountains and
+     plains beyond Gaza were in a state of open rebellion.
+
+The river and desert tribes of this region soon forgot the severe lesson
+which he had given them: as soon as the last Egyptian soldier had left
+their territory they rebelled once more, and began a fresh series of
+inroads which had to be repressed anew year after year. Thûtmosis I. had
+several times to drive them back in the years II. and III., but was able
+to make short work of their rebellions. An inscription at Tombos on the
+Nile, in the very midst of the disturbed districts, told them in brave
+words what he was, and what he had done since he had come to the throne.
+Wherever he had gone, weapon in hand, “seeking a warrior, he had found
+none to withstand him; he had penetrated to valleys which were unknown
+to his ancestors, the inhabitants of which had never beheld the wearers
+of the double diadem.” All this would have produced but little effect
+had he not backed up his words by deeds, and taken decisive measures
+to restrain the insolence of the barbarians. Tombos lies opposite to
+Hannek, at the entrance to that series of rapids known as the Third
+Cataract. The course of the Nile is here barred by a formidable dyke
+of granite, through which it has hollowed out six winding channels of
+varying widths, dotted here and there with huge polished boulders and
+verdant islets. When the inundation is at its height, the rocks are
+covered and the rapids disappear, with the exception of the lowest,
+which is named Lokoli, where faint eddies mark the place of the more
+dangerous reefs; and were it not that the fall here is rather more
+pronounced and the current somewhat stronger, few would suspect the
+existence of a cataract at the spot. As the waters go down, however, the
+channels gradually reappear. When the river is at its lowest, the three
+westernmost channels dry up almost completely, leaving nothing but a
+series of shallow pools; those on the east still maintain their flow,
+but only one of them, that between the islands of Tombos and Abadîn,
+remains navigable. Here Thûtmosis built, under invocation of the gods of
+Heliopolis, one of those brickwork citadels, with its rectangular keep,
+which set at nought all the efforts and all the military science of the
+Ethiopians: attached to it was a harbour, where each vessel on its way
+downstream put in for the purpose of hiring a pilot.*
+
+The monarchs of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties had raised fortifications
+at the approaches to Wady Haifa, and their engineers skilfully chose the
+sites so as completely to protect from the ravages of the Nubian pirates
+that part of the Nile which lay between Wady Haifa and Philse.*
+
+     * The foundation of this fortress is indicated in an
+     emphatic manner in the Tombos inscription: “The masters of
+     the Great Castle (the gods of Heliopolis) have made a
+     fortress for the soldiers of the king, which the nine
+     peoples of Nubia combined could not carry by storm, for,
+     like a young panther before a bull which lowers its head,
+     the souls of his Majesty have blinded them with
+     fear.” Quarries of considerable size, where Cailliaud
+     imagined he could distinguish an overturned colossus, show
+     the importance which the establishment had attained in
+     ancient times; the ruins of the town cover a fairly large
+     area near the modern village of Kerman.
+
+Henceforward the garrison at Tombos was able to defend the mighty curve
+described by the river through the desert of Mahas, together with the
+island of Argo, and the confines of Dongola. The distance between Thebes
+and this southern frontier was a long one, and communication was slow
+during the winter months, when the subsidence of the waters had rendered
+the task of navigation difficult for the Egyptian ships. The king
+was obliged, besides, to concentrate his attention mainly on Asiatic
+affairs, and was no longer able to watch the movements of the African
+races with the same vigilance as his predecessors had exercised before
+Egyptian armies had made their way as far as the banks of the Euphrates.
+Thutmosis placed the control of the countries south of Assuan in the
+hands of a viceroy, who, invested with the august title of “Royal Son of
+Kûsh,” must have been regarded as having the blood of Râ himself running
+in his veins.*
+
+     * The meaning of this title was at first misunderstood.
+     Champollion and Rosellini took it literally, and thought it
+     referred to Ethiopian princes, who were vassals or enemies
+     of Egypt. Birch persists in regarding them as Ethiopians
+     driven out by their subjects, restored by the Pharaohs as
+     viceroys, while admitting that they may have belonged to the
+     solar family.
+
+Sura, the first of these viceroys whose name has reached us, was in
+office at the beginning of the campaign of the year III.* He belonged,
+it would seem, to a Theban family, and for several centuries afterwards
+his successors are mentioned among the nobles who were in the habit
+of attending the court. Their powers were considerable: they commanded
+armies, built or restored temples, administered justice, and received
+the homage of loyal sheikhs or the submission of rebellious ones.** The
+period for which they were appointed was not fixed by law, and they held
+office simply at the king’s pleasure. During the XIXth dynasty it was
+usual to confer this office, the highest in the state, on a son of the
+sovereign, preferably the heir-apparent. Occasionally his appointment
+was purely formal, and he continued in attendance on his father, while
+a trusty substitute ruled in his place: often, however, he took the
+government on himself, and in the regions of the Upper Nile served an
+apprenticeship to the art of ruling.
+
+     * He is mentioned in the Sehêl inscriptions as “the royal
+     son Sura.” Nahi, who had been regarded as the first holder of
+     the office, and who was still in office under Thutmosis
+     III., had been appointed by Thutmosis I., but after Sura.
+
+     ** Under Thutmosis III., the viceroy Nahi restored the
+     temple at Semneh; under Tutankhamon, the viceroy Hui
+     received tribute from the Ethiopian princes, and presented
+     them to the sovereign.
+
+[Illustration: 336.jpg A CITY OF MODERN NUBIA--THE ANCIENT DONGOLA]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Insinger.
+
+This district was in a perpetual state of war--a war without danger, but
+full of trickery and surprises: here he prepared himself for the larger
+arena of the Syrian campaigns, learning the arts of generalship more
+perfectly than was possible in the manouvres of the parade-ground.
+Moreover, the appointment was dictated by religious as well as by
+political considerations. The presumptive heir to the throne was to his
+father what Horus had been to Osiris--his lawful successor, or, if need
+be, his avenger, should some act of treason impose on him the duty of
+vengeance: and was it not in Ethiopia that Horus had gained his first
+victories over Typhon? To begin like Horus, and flesh his maiden steel
+on the descendants of the accomplices of Sit, was, in the case of the
+future sovereign, equivalent to affirming from the outset the reality of
+his divine extraction.*
+
+     * In the _Orbiney Papyrus_ the title of “Prince of Kûsh” was
+     assigned to the heir-presumptive to the throne.
+
+As at the commencement of the Theban dynasties, it was the river valley
+only in these regions of the Upper Nile which belonged to the Pharaohs.
+From this time onward it gave support to an Egyptian population as far
+as the juncture of the two Niles: it was a second Egypt, but a poorer
+one, whose cities presented the same impoverished appearance as that
+which we find to-day in the towns of Nubia. The tribes scattered right
+and left in the desert, or distributed beyond the confluence of the two
+Niles among the plains of Sennar, were descended from the old indigenous
+races, and paid valuable tribute every year in precious metals, ivory,
+timber, or the natural products of their districts, under penalty of
+armed invasion.*
+
+     * The tribute of the Ganbâtiû, or people of the south, and
+          that of Kûsh and of the Ûaûaîû, is mentioned repeatedly
+          in the _Annales de Thûtmosis III._ for the year XXXI.,
+          for the year XXXIII., and for the year XXXIV. The
+          regularity with which this item recurs, unaccompanied by
+          any mention of war, following after each Syrian campaign,
+          shows that it was an habitual operation which was
+          registered as an understood thing. True, the inscription
+          does not give the item for every year, but then it only
+          dealt with Ethiopian affairs in so far as they were
+          subsidiary to events in Asia; the payment was none the
+          less an annual one, the amount varying in accordance with
+          local agreement.
+
+Among these races were still to be found descendants of the Mazaiû and
+Ûaûaîû, who in days gone by had opposed the advance of the victorious
+Egyptians: the name of the Uaûaîû was, indeed, used as a generic term to
+distinguish all those tribes which frequented the mountains between the
+Nile and the Red Sea,* but the wave of conquest had passed far beyond
+the boundaries reached in early campaigns, and had brought the Egyptians
+into contact with nations with whom they had been in only indirect
+commercial relations in former times.
+
+     * The Annals of Thûtmosis III. mention the tribute of Pûanît
+     for the peoples of the coast, the tribute of Uaûaît for the
+     peoples of the mountain between the Nile and the sea, the
+     tribute of Kûsh for the peoples of the south, or Ganbâtiû.
+
+[Illustration: 338.jpg ARRIVAL OF AN ETHIOPIAN QUEEN BRINGING TRIBUTE TO
+THE VICEROY OF KÛSII]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+Some of these were light-coloured men of a type similar to that of the
+modern Abyssinians or Gallas: they had the same haughty and imperious
+carriage, the same well-developed and powerful frames, and the same love
+of fighting. Most of the remaining tribes were of black blood, and such
+of them as we see depicted on the monuments resemble closely the negroes
+inhabiting Central Africa at the present day.
+
+[Illustration: 339.jpg TYPICAL GALLA WOMAN]
+
+They have the same elongated skull, the low prominent forehead, hollow
+temples, short flattened nose, thick lips, broad shoulders, and salient
+breast, the latter contrasting sharply with the undeveloped appearance
+of the lower part of the body, which terminates in thin legs almost
+devoid of calves. Egyptian civilization had already penetrated among
+these tribes, and, as far as dress and demeanour were concerned, their
+chiefs differed in no way from the great lords who formed the escort
+of the Pharaoh. We see these provincial dignitaries represented in the
+white robe and petticoat of starched, pleated, and gauffered linen;
+an innate taste for bright colours, even in those early times, being
+betrayed by the red or yellow scarf in which they wrapped themselves,
+passing it over one shoulder and round the waist, whence the ends
+depended and formed a kind of apron. A panther’s skin covered the back,
+and one or two ostrich-feathers waved from the top of the head or
+were fastened on one side to the fillet confining the hair, which was
+arranged in short curls and locks, stiffened with gum and matted with
+grease, so as to form a sort of cap or grotesque aureole round the
+skull. The men delighted to load themselves with rings, bracelets,
+earrings, and necklaces, while from their arms, necks, and belts hung
+long strings of glass beads, which jingled with every movement of the
+wearer. They seem to have frequently chosen a woman as their ruler, and
+her dress appears to have closely resembled that of the Egyptian
+ladies. She appeared before her subjects in a chariot drawn by oxen,
+and protected from the sun by an umbrella edged with fringe. The common
+people went about nearly naked, having merely a loin-cloth of some woven
+stuff or an animal’s skin thrown round their hips. Their heads were
+either shaven, or adorned with tufts of hair stiffened with gum. The
+children of both sexes wore no clothes until the age of puberty; the
+women wrapped themselves in a rude garment or in a covering of linen,
+and carried their children on the hip or in a basket of esparto grass on
+the back, supported by a leather band which passed across the forehead.
+One characteristic of all these tribes was their love of singing and
+dancing, and their use of the drum and cymbals; they were active and
+industrious, and carefully cultivated the rich soil of the plain,
+devoting themselves to the raising of cattle, particularly of oxen,
+whose horns they were accustomed to train fantastically into the shapes
+of lyres, bows, and spirals, with bifurcations at the ends, or with
+small human figures as terminations. As in the case of other negro
+tribes, they plied the blacksmith’s and also the goldsmith’s trade,
+working up both gold and silver into rings, chains, and quaintly shaped
+vases, some specimens of their art being little else than toys, similar
+in design to those which delighted the Byzantine Caesars of later date.
+
+[Illustration: 341.jpg GOLD EPERGNE REPRESENTING SCENES FROM ETHIOPIAN
+LIFE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a painting on the tomb of Hûi.
+
+A wall-painting remains of a gold epergne, which represents men and
+monkeys engaged in gathering the fruit of a group of dôm-palms. Two
+individuals lead each a tame giraffe by the halter, others kneeling on
+the rim raise their hands to implore mercy from an unseen enemy, while
+negro prisoners, grovelling on their stomachs, painfully attempt
+to raise their head and shoulders from the ground. This, doubtless,
+represents a scene from the everyday life of the people of the Upper
+Nile, and gives a faithful picture of what took place among many of its
+tribes during a rapid inroad of some viceroy of Kush or a raid by his
+lieutenants.
+
+The resources which Thûtmosis I. was able to draw regularly from these
+southern regions, in addition to the wealth collected during his Syrian
+campaign, enabled him to give a great impulse to building work. The
+tutelary deity of his capital--Amon-Râ--who had ensured him the victory
+in all his battles, had a prior claim on the bulk of the spoil; he
+received it as a matter of course, and his temple at Thebes was thereby
+considerably enlarged; we are not, however, able to estimate exactly
+what proportion fell to other cities, such as Kummeh, Elephantine,*
+Abydos,** and Memphis, where a few scattered blocks of stone still bear
+the name of the king. Troubles broke out in Lower Egypt, but they were
+speedily subdued by Thûtmosis, and he was able to end his days in the
+enjoyment of a profound peace, undisturbed by any care save that of
+ensuring a regular succession to his throne, and of restraining the
+ambitions of those who looked to become possessed of his heritage.***
+
+     * Wiedemann found his name there cut in a block of brown
+     freestone.
+
+     ** A stele at Abydos speaks of the building operations
+     carried on by Thûtmosis I. in that town.
+
+     *** The expressions from which we gather that his reign was
+     disturbed by outbreaks of internal rebellion seem to refer
+     to a period subsequent to the Syrian expedition, and prior
+     to his alliance with the Princess Hâtshopsîtû.
+
+His position was, indeed, a curious one; although _de facto_ absolute in
+power, his children by Queen Ahmasi took precedence of him, for by her
+mother’s descent she had a better right to the crown than her husband,
+and legally the king should have retired in favour of hie sons as soon
+as they were old enough to reign. The eldest of them, Uazmosû, died
+early.* The second, Amenmosu, lived at least to attain adolescence; he
+was allowed to share the crown with his father from the fourth year of
+the latter’s reign, and he also held a military command in the Delta,**
+but before long he also died, and Thûtmosis I. was left with only one
+son--a Thûtmosis like himself--to succeed him. The mother of this prince
+was a certain Mûtnofrit,*** half-sister to the king on his father’s
+side, who enjoyed such a high rank in the royal family that her husband
+allowed her to be portrayed in royal dress; her pedigree on the mother’s
+side, however, was not so distinguished, and precluded her son from
+being recognised as heir-apparent, hence the occupation of the “seat of
+Horus” reverted once more to a woman, Hâtshopsîtû, the eldest daughter
+of Âhmasi.
+
+     * Uazmosû is represented on the tomb of Pahiri at El-Kab,
+     where Mr. Griffith imagines he can trace two distinct
+     Uazmosû; for the present, I am of opinion that there was but
+     one, the son of Thûtmosis I. His funerary chapel was
+     discovered at Thebes; it is in a very bad state of
+     preservation.
+
+     ** Amenmosû is represented at El-Kab, by the side of his
+     brother Uazmosû. Also on a fragment where we find him, in
+     the fourth year of his father’s reign, honoured with a
+     cartouche at Memphis, and consequently associated with his
+     father in the royal power.
+
+     *** Mûtnofrit was supposed by Mariette to have been a
+     daughter of Thûtmosis IL; the statue reproduced on p. 345
+     has shown us that she was wife of Thûtmosis I. and mother of
+     Thûtmosis II.
+
+Hâtshopsîtû herself was not, however, of purely divine descent. Her
+maternal ancestor, Sonisonbû, had not been a scion of the royal house,
+and this flaw in her pedigree threatened to mar, in her case, the
+sanctity of the solar blood. According to Egyptian belief, this defect
+of birth could only be remedied by a miracle,* and the ancestral god,
+becoming incarnate in the earthly father at the moment of conception,
+had to condescend to infuse fresh virtue into his race in this manner.
+
+
+* A similar instance of divine substitution is known to us in the case
+of two other sovereigns, viz. Amenôthes III., whose father, Titmosis
+IV., was born under conditions analogous to those attending the birth of
+Thûtmosis I.; and Ptolemy Caesarion, whose father, Julius Cæsar, was not
+of Egyptian blood.
+
+
+[Illustration: 344.jpg PORTRAIT OF THE QUEEN ÂHMASI]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Naville.
+
+The inscriptions with which Hâtshopsîtû decorated her chapel relate how,
+on that fateful night, Amon descended upon Ahmasi in a flood of perfume
+and light. The queen received him favourably, and the divine spouse on
+leaving her announced to her the approaching birth of a daughter, in
+whom his valour and strength should be manifested once more here below.
+The sequel of the story is displayed in a series of pictures before our
+eyes.
+
+[Illustration: 345.jpg QUEEN MÛTNOFRÎT IN THE GÎZEH MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The protecting divinities who preside over the birth of children conduct
+the queen to her couch, and the sorrowful resignation depicted on her
+face, together with the languid grace of her whole figure, display in
+this portrait of her a finished work of art. The child enters the world
+amid shouts of joy, and the propitious genii who nourish both her and
+her double constitute themselves her nurses. At the appointed time,
+her earthly father summons the great nobles to a solemn festival, and
+presents to them his daughter, who is to reign with him over Egypt and
+the world.*
+
+     * The association of Hâtshopsîtû with her father on the
+     throne, has now been placed beyond doubt by the inscriptions
+     discovered and commented on by Naville in 1895.
+
+[Illustration: 346.jpg QUEEN HÂTSHOPSÎTÛ IN MALE COSTUME]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Naville.
+
+From henceforth Hâtshopsîtû adopts every possible device to conceal her
+real sex. She changes the termination of her name, and calls herself
+Hâtshopsîû, the chief of the nobles, in lieu of Hâtshopsîtû, the chief
+of the favourites. She becomes the King Mâkerî, and on the occasion
+of all public ceremonies she appears in male costume. We see her
+represented on the Theban monuments with uncovered shoulders, devoid of
+breasts, wearing the short loin-cloth and the keffieh, while the diadem
+rests on her closely cut hair, and the false beard depends from her
+chin.
+
+[Illustration: 347.jpg BUST OF QUEEN HÂTSHOPSÎTÛ]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Mertens.
+     This was the head of one of the sphinxes which formed an
+     avenue at Deîr el-Baharî; it was brought over by Lepsius and
+     is now in the Berlin Museum. The fragment has undergone
+     extensive restoration, but this has been done with the help
+     of fragments of other statues, in which the details here
+     lost were in a good state of preservation.
+
+She retained, however, the feminine pronoun in speaking of herself, and
+also an epithet, inserted in her cartouche, which declared her to be the
+betrothed of Amon--khnûmît Amaûnû.*
+
+     * We know how greatly puzzled the early Egyptologists were
+     by this manner of depicting the queen, and how Champollion,
+     in striving to explain the monuments of the period, was
+     driven to suggest the existence of a regent, Amenenthes, the
+     male counterpart and husband of Hâtshopsîtû, whose name he
+     read Amense. This hypothesis, adopted by Rosellini, with
+     some slight modifications, was rejected by Birch. This
+     latter writer pointed out the identity of the two personages
+     separated by Champollion, and proved them to be one and the
+     same queen, the Amenses of Manetho; he called her Amûn-nûm-
+     hc, but he made her out to be a sister of Amenôthes I.,
+     associated on the throne with her brothers Thûtmosis I. and
+     Thûtmosis IL, and regent at the beginning of the reign of
+     Thûtmosis III. Hineks tried to show that she was the
+     daughter of Thûtmosis I., the wife of Thûtmosis II. and the
+     sister of Thûtmosis III.; it is only quite recently that her
+     true descent and place in the family tree has been
+     recognised. She was, not the sister, but the aunt of
+     Thûtmosis III. The queen, called by Birch Amûn-nûm-het, the
+     latter part of her name being dropped and the royal prenomen
+     being joined to her own name, was subsequently styled Ha-asû
+     or Hatasû, and this form is still adopted by some writers;
+     the true reading is Hâtshopsîtû or Hâtshopsîtû, then
+     Hâtshopsîû, or Hâtshepsîû, as Naville has pointed out.
+
+Her father united her while still young to her brother Thûtmosis, who
+appears to have been her junior, and this fact doubtless explains the
+very subordinate part which he plays beside the queen. When Thûtmosis
+I. died, Egyptian etiquette demanded that a man should be at the head of
+affairs, and this youth succeeded his father in office: but Hâtshopsîtû,
+while relinquishing the semblance of power and the externals of pomp to
+her husband,* kept the direction of the state entirely in her own hands.
+The portraits of her which have been preserved represent her as having
+refined features, with a proud and energetic expression. The oval of
+the face is elongated, the cheeks a little hollow, and the eyes deep set
+under the arch of the brow, while the lips are thin and tightly closed.
+
+     * It is evident, from the expressions employed by Thûtmosis
+     I. in associating his daughter with himself on the throne,
+     that she was unmarried at the time, and Naville thinks that
+     she married her brother Thûtmosis II. after the death of her
+     father. It appears to me more probable that Thûtmosis I.
+     married her to her brother after she had been raised to the
+     throne, with a view to avoiding complications which might
+     have arisen in the royal family after his own death. The
+     inscription at Shutt-er-Ragel, which has furnished Mariette
+     with the hypothesis that Thûtmosis I. and Thûtmosis IL
+     reigned simultaneously, proves that the person mentioned in
+     it, a certain Penaîti, flourished under both these Pharaohs,
+     but by no means shows that these two reigned together; he
+     exercised the functions which he held by their authority
+     during their successive reigns.
+
+[Illustration: 348.jpg PAINTING ON THE TOMB OF THE KINGS]
+
+She governed with so firm a hand that neither Egypt nor its foreign
+vassals dared to make any serious attempt to withdraw themselves from
+her authority. One raid, in which several prisoners were taken, punished
+a rising of the Shaûsû in Central Syria, while the usual expeditions
+maintained order among the peoples of Ethiopia, and quenched any attempt
+which they might make to revolt. When in the second year of his reign
+the news was brought to Thutmosis II. that the inhabitants of the Upper
+Nile had ceased to observe the conditions which his father had imposed
+upon them, he “became furious as a panther,” and assembling his troops
+set out for war without further delay. The presence of the king with the
+army filled the rebels with dismay, and a campaign of a few weeks put an
+end to their attempt at rebelling.
+
+The earlier kings of the XVIIIth dynasty had chosen for their last
+resting-place a spot on the left bank of the Nile at Thebes, where the
+cultivated land joined the desert, close to the pyramids built by their
+predecessors. Probably, after the burial of Amenôthes, the space was
+fully occupied, for Thutmosis I. had to seek his burying-ground some way
+up the ravine, the mouth of which was blocked by their monuments. The
+Libyan chain here forms a kind of amphitheatre of vertical cliffs, which
+descend to within some ninety feet of the valley, where a sloping mass
+of detritus connects them by a gentle declivity with the plain.
+
+[Illustration: 350.jpg THE AMPHITHEATRE AT DEÎR EL-BAHARÎ, AS IT
+APPEARED BEPOEE NAVILLe’s EXCAVATIONS]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The great lords and the queens in the times of the Antufs and the
+Usirtasens had taken possession of this spot, but their chapels were by
+this period in ruins, and their tombs almost all lay buried under the
+waves of sand which the wind from the desert drives perpetually over
+the summit of the cliffs. This site was seized on by the architects
+of Thûtmosis, who laid there the foundations of a building which was
+destined to be unique in the world. Its ground plan consisted of an
+avenue of sphinxes, starting from the plain and running between the
+tombs till it reached a large courtyard, terminated on the west by a
+colonnade, which was supported by a double row of pillars.
+
+[Illustration: 351.jpg THE NORTHERN COLLONADE]
+
+     Drawn by Bouclier, from a photograph supplied by Naville.
+
+Above and beyond this was the vast middle platform,* connected with the
+upper court by the central causeway which ran through it from end to
+end; this middle platform, like that below it, was terminated on the
+west by a double colonnade, through which access was gained to two
+chapels hollowed out of the mountain-side, while on the north it was
+bordered with excellent effect by a line of proto-Dorio columns ranged
+against the face of the cliff.
+
+     * The English nomenclature employed in describing this
+     temple is that used in the _Guide to Deir el-Bahari_,
+     published by the _Egypt Exploration Fund_.--Tr.
+
+This northern colonnade was never completed, but the existing part is of
+as exquisite proportions as anything that Greek art has ever produced.
+At length we reach the upper platform, a nearly square courtyard,
+cutting on one side into the mountain slope, the opposite side being
+enclosed by a wall pierced by a single door, while to right and left ran
+two lines of buildings destined for purposes connected with the daily
+worship of the temple. The sanctuary was cut out of the solid rock,
+but the walls were faced with white limestone; some of the chambers
+are vaulted, and all of them decorated with bas-reliefs of exquisite
+workmanship, perhaps the finest examples of this period. Thûtmosis I.
+scarcely did more than lay the foundations of this magnificent building,
+but his mummy was buried in it with great pomp, to remain there until a
+period of disturbance and general insecurity obliged those in charge of
+the necropolis to remove the body, together with those of his family, to
+some securer hiding-place.* The king was already advanced in age at the
+time of his death, being over fifty years old, to judge by the incisor
+teeth, which are worn and corroded by the impurities of which the
+Egyptian bread was full.
+
+     * Both E. de Rougé and Mariette were opposed to the view
+     that the temple was founded by Thûtmosis I., and Naville
+     agrees with them. Judging from the many new texts discovered
+     by Naville, I am inclined to think that Thûtmosis I. began
+     the structure, but from plans, it would appear, which had
+     not been so fully developed as they afterwards became. Prom
+     indications to be found here and there in the inscriptions
+     of the Ramesside period, I am not, moreover, inclined to
+     regard Deîr el-Bâhâri as the funerary chapel of tombs which
+     were situated in some unknown place elsewhere, but I believe
+     that it included the burial-places of Thûtmosis I.,
+     Thûtmosis II., Queen Hâtshopsîtû, and of numerous
+     representatives of their family; indeed, it is probable that
+     Thûtmosis III. and his children found here also their last
+     resting-place.
+
+[Illustration: 353.jpg HEAD OF THE MUMMY OF THÛTMOSIS I.]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph taken by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The body, though small and emaciated, shows evidence of unusual muscular
+strength; the head is bald, the features are refined, and the mouth
+still bears an expression characteristic of shrewdness and cunning.*
+
+     * The coffin of Thûtmosis I. was usurped by the priest-king
+     Pinozmû I., son of Piônkhi, and the mummy was lost. I fancy
+     I have discovered it in mummy No. 5283, of which the head
+     presents a striking resemblance to those of Thûtmosis II.
+     and III.
+
+Thûtmosis II. carried on the works begun by his father, but did not long
+survive him.* The mask on his coffin represents him with a smiling and
+amiable countenance, and with the fine pathetic eyes which show his
+descent from the Pharaohs of the XIIth dynasty.
+
+     * The latest year up to the present known of this king is
+     the IInd, found upon the Aswan stele. Erman, followed by Ed.
+     Meyer, thinks that Hâtshop-sîtû could not have been free
+     from complicity in the premature death of Thûtmosis II.; but
+     I am inclined to believe, from the marks of disease found on
+     the skin of his mummy, that the queen was innocent of the
+     crime here ascribed to her.
+
+[Illustration: 354.jpg HEAD OF THE MUMMY OF THÛTMOSIS II.]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph in the possession of
+     Emil Brugsch Bey.
+
+His statues bear the same expression, which indeed is that of the mummy
+itself. He resembles Thûtmosis I., but his features are not so marked,
+and are characterised by greater gentleness. He had scarcely reached the
+age of thirty when he fell a victim to a disease of which the process of
+embalming could not remove the traces. The skin is scabrous in patches,
+and covered with scars, while the upper part of the skull is bald; the
+body is thin and somewhat shrunken, and appears to have lacked vigour
+and muscular power. By his marriage with his sister, Thûtmosis left
+daughters only,* but he had one son, also a Thûtmosis, by a woman of
+low birth, perhaps merely a slave, whose name was Isis.** Hâtshopsîtû
+proclaimed this child her successor, for his youth and humble parentage
+could not excite her jealousy. She betrothed him to her one surviving
+daughter, Hâtshopsîtû II., and having thus settled the succession in the
+male line, she continued to rule alone in the name of her nephew who was
+still a minor, as she had done formerly in the case of her half-brother.
+
+     * Two daughters of Queen Hâtshopsîtû I. are known, of whom
+     one, Nofîrûrî, died young, and Hâtshopsîtû II. Marîtrî, who
+     was married to her half-brother on her father’s side,
+     Thûtmosis III., who was thus her cousin as well. Amenôthes
+     II. was offspring of this marriage.
+
+     ** The name of the mother of Thûtmosis III. was revealed to
+     us on the wrappings found with the mummy of this king in the
+     hiding-place of Deîr el-Baharî; the absence of princely
+     titles, while it shows the humble extraction of the lady
+     Isis, explains at the same time the somewhat obscure
+     relations between Hâtshopsîtû and her nephew.
+
+Her reign was a prosperous one, but whether the flourishing condition
+of things was owing to the ability of her political administration or
+to her fortunate choice of ministers, we are unable to tell. She pressed
+forward the work of building with great activity, under the direction
+of her architect Sanmût, not only at Deîr el-Baharî, but at Karnak, and
+indeed everywhere in Thebes. The plans of the building had been arranged
+under Thûtmosis I., and their execution had been carried out so quickly,
+that in many cases the queen had merely to see to the sculptural
+ornamentation on the all but completed walls.
+
+This work, however, afforded her sufficient excuse, according to
+Egyptian custom, to attribute the whole structure to herself, and the
+opinion she had of her own powers is exhibited with great naiveness in
+her inscriptions. She loves to pose as premeditating her actions long
+beforehand, and as never venturing on the smallest undertaking without
+reference to her divine father.
+
+[Illustration: 356.jpg The Coffin Of Thûtmosis I.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph in the possession
+     of Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+This is what I teach to mortals who shall live in centuries to come, and
+whose hearts shall inquire concerning the monument which I have raised
+to my father, speaking and exclaiming as they contemplate it: as for me,
+when I sat in the palace and thought upon him who created me, my heart
+prompted me to raise to him two obelisks of electrum, whose apices
+should pierce the firmaments, before the noble gateway which is between
+the two great pylons of the King Thûtmosis I. And my heart led me to
+address these words to those who shall see my monuments in after-years
+and who shall speak of my great deeds: Beware of saying, ‘I know not,
+I know not why it was resolved to carve this mountain wholly of gold!’
+These two obelisks, My Majesty has made them of electrum for my father
+Anion, that my name may remain and live on in this temple for ever and
+ever; for this single block of granite has been cut, without let or
+obstacle, at the desire of My Majesty, between the first of the second
+month of Pirîfc of the Vth year, and the 30th of the fourth month of
+Shomû of the VIth year, which makes seven months from the day when they
+began to, quarry it. One of these two monoliths is still standing among
+the ruins of Karnak, and the grace of its outline, the finish of its
+hieroglyphics, and the beauty of the figures which cover it, amply
+justify the pride which the queen and her brother felt in contemplating
+it.
+
+[Illustration: 356b Avenue Of Rams And Pylon At Karnak]
+
+[Illustration: 356b-text]
+
+[Illustration: 357.jpg THE STATUE OF SANMÛT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Mortens:
+     the original is in the Berlin Museum, whither Lepsius
+     brought it. Sanmût is squatting and holding between his
+     arras and knees the young king Thût-mosis III,, whose head
+     with the youthful side lock appears from under his chin.
+
+The tops of the pyramids were gilt, so that “they could be seen from
+both banks of the river,” and “their brilliancy lit up the two lands of
+Egypt:” needless to say these metal apices have long disappeared.
+
+[Illustration: 338.jpg Page Image]
+
+     Drawn by Fauoher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+Later on, in the the queen’s reign, Amon enjoined a work which was more
+difficult to carry out. On a day when Hâtshopsîtû had gone to the temple
+to offer prayers, “her supplications arose up before the throne of the
+Lord of Karnak, and a command was heard in the sanctuary, a behest of
+the god himself, that the ways which lead to Pûanît should be explored,
+and that the roads to the ‘Ladders of Incense’ should be trodden.” *
+
+     * The word “Ladders” is the translation of the Egyptian word
+     “Khâtiû,” employed in the text to designate the country laid
+     out in terraces where the incense trees grew; cf. with a
+     different meaning, the “ladders” of the eastern
+     Mediterranean.
+
+Gums required for the temple service had hitherto reached the Theban
+priests solely by means of foreign intermediaries; so that in the slow
+transport across Africa they lost much of their freshness, besides being
+defiled by passing through impure hands. In addition to these drawbacks,
+the merchants confounded under the one term “Anîti” substances which
+differed considerably both in value and character, several of them,
+indeed, scarcely coming under the category of perfumes, and hence being
+unacceptable to the gods. One kind, however, found favour with them
+above all others, being that which still abounds in Somali-land at the
+present day--a gum secreted by the incense sycomore.*
+
+     * From the form of the trees depicted on the monument, it is
+     certain that the Egyptians went to Pûanît in search of the
+     _Boswellia Thurifera_ Cart.; but they brought back with them
+     other products also, which they confounded together under
+     the name “incense.”
+
+It was accounted a pious work to send and obtain it direct from the
+locality in which it grew, and if possible to procure the plants
+themselves for acclimatisation in the Nile valley. But the relations
+maintained in former times with the people of these aromatic regions
+had been suspended for centuries. “None now climbed the ‘Ladders of
+Incense,’ none of the Egyptians; they knew of them from hearsay, from
+the stories of people of ancient times, for these products were brought
+to the kings of the Delta, thy fathers, to one or other of them, from
+the times of thy ancestors the kings of the Said who lived of yore.” All
+that could be recalled of this country was summed up in the facts, that
+it lay to the south or to the extreme east, that from thence many of the
+gods had come into Egypt, while from out of it the sun rose anew every
+morning. Amon, in his omniscience, took upon himself to describe it and
+give an exact account of its position. “The ‘Ladders of Incense’ is a
+secret province of Tonûtir, it is in truth a place of delight. I created
+it, and I thereto lead Thy Majesty, together with Mût, Hâthor, Uîrît,
+the Lady of Pûanît, Uîrît-hikaû, the magician and regent of the gods,
+that the aromatic gum may be gathered at will, that the vessels may be
+laden joyfully with living incense trees and with all the products of
+this earth.” Hâtshopsîtû chose out five well-built galleys, and
+manned them with picked crews. She caused them to be laden with such
+merchandise as would be most attractive to the barbarians, and placing
+the vessels under the command of a royal envoy, she sent them forth on
+the Bed Sea in quest of the incense.
+
+We are not acquainted with the name of the port from which the fleet set
+sail, nor do we know the number of weeks it took to reach the land of
+Pûanît, neither is there any record of the incidents which befell it
+by the way. It sailed past the places frequented by the mariners of
+the XIIth dynasty--Suakîn, Massowah, and the islands of the Ked Sea;
+it touched at the country of the Ilîm which lay to the west of the Bab
+el-Mandeb, went safely through the Straits, and landed at last in the
+Land of Perfumes on the Somali coast.* There, between the bay of Zeîlah
+and Bas Hafun, stretched the Barbaric region, frequented in later times
+by the merchants of Myos Hormos and of Berenice.
+
+     * That part of Pûanît where the Egyptians landed was at
+     first located in Arabia by Brugsch, then transferred to
+     Somali-land by Mariette, whose opinion was accepted by most
+     Egyptologists. Dumichen, basing his hypothesis on a passage
+     where Pûanît is mentioned as “being on both sides of the
+     sea,” desired to apply the name to the Arabian as well as to
+     the African coast, to Yemen and Hadhramaut as well as to
+     Somali-land; this suggestion was adopted by Lieblein, and
+     subsequently by Ed. Meyer, who believed that its inhabitants
+     were the ancestors of the Sabseans. Since then Krall has
+     endeavoured to shorten the distance between this country and
+     Egypt, and he places the Pûanît of Hâtshopsîtû between
+     Suakin and Massowah. This was, indeed, the part of the
+     country known under the XIIth dynasty at the time when it
+     was believed that the Nile emptied itself thereabouts into
+     the Red Sea, in the vicinity of the Island of the Serpent
+     King, but I hold, with Mariette, that the Pûanît where the
+     Egyptians of Hâtshopsîtû’s time landed is the present
+     Somali-land--a view which is also shared by Navillo, but
+     which Brugsch, in the latter years of his life, abandoned.
+
+[Illustration: 361.jpg AN INHABITANT OF THE LAND OF PÛANÎT]
+
+     Drawn by Fauchon-Gudin, from a photograph by Gayet.
+
+The first stations which the latter encountered beyond Cape
+Direh--Avails, Malao, Mundos, and Mosylon--were merely open roadsteads
+offering no secure shelter; but beyond Mosylon, the classical navigators
+reported the existence of several wadys, the last of which, the Elephant
+River, lying between Bas el-Eîl and Cape Guardafui, appears to have been
+large enough not only to afford anchorage to several vessels of light
+draught, but to permit of their performing easily any evolutions
+required. During the Roman period, it was there, and there only, that
+the best kind of incense could be obtained, and it was probably at this
+point also that the Egyptians of Hâtshopsîtû’s time landed. The Egyptian
+vessels sailed up the river till they reached a place beyond the
+influence of the tide, and then dropped anchor in front of a village
+scattered along a bank fringed with sycomores and palms.*
+
+     * I have shown, from a careful examination of the bas-
+     reliefs, that the Egyptians must have landed, not on the
+     coast itself, as was at first believed, but in the estuary
+     of a river, and this observation has been accepted as
+     decisive by most Egyptologists; besides this, newly
+     discovered fragments show the presence of a hippopotamus.
+     Since then I have sought to identify the landing-place of
+     the Egyptians with the most important of the creeks
+     mentioned by the Græco-Roman merchants as accessible for
+     their vessels, viz. that which they called the Elephant
+     River, near to the present Ras el-Fîl.
+
+The huts of the inhabitants were of circular shape, each being
+surmounted with a conical roof; some of them were made of closely
+plaited osiers, and there was no opening in any of them save the door.
+They were built upon piles, as a protection from the rise of the
+river and from wild animals, and access to them was gained by means of
+moveable ladders. Oxen chewing the cud rested beneath them. The natives
+belonged to a light-coloured race, and the portraits we possess of them
+resemble the Egyptian type in every particular. They were tall and thin,
+and of a colour which varied between brick-red and the darkest brown.
+Their beards were pointed, and the hair was cut short in some instances,
+while in others it was arranged in close rows of curls or in small
+plaits. The costume of the men consisted of a loin-cloth only, while the
+dress of the women was a yellow garment without sleeves, drawn in at the
+waist and falling halfway below the knee.
+
+The royal envoy landed under an escort of eight soldiers and an officer,
+but, to prove his pacific intentions, he spread out upon a low table a
+variety of presents, consisting of five bracelets two gold necklaces, a
+dagger with strap and sheath complete, a battle-axe, and eleven strings
+of glass beads.
+
+[Illustration: 303.jpg A VILLAGE ON THE BANK OF THE RIVER, WITH LADDERS
+OF INCENSE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+The inhabitants, dazzled by the display of so many valuable objects, ran
+to meet the new-comers, headed by their sheikh, and expressed a natural
+astonishment at the sight of the strangers. “How is it,” they exclaimed,
+“that you have reached this country hitherto unknown to men? Have you
+come down by way of the sky, or have you sailed on the waters of the
+Tonûtir Sea? You have followed the path of the sun, for as for the king
+of the land of Egypt, it is not possible to elude him, and we live, yea,
+we ourselves, by the breath which he gives us.” The name of their chief
+was Parihû, who was distinguished from his subjects by the boomerang
+which he carried, and also by his dagger and necklace of beads: his
+right leg, moreover, appears to have been covered with a kind of
+sheath composed of rings of some yellow metal, probably gold.* He was
+accompanied by his wife Ati, riding on an ass, from which she alighted
+in order to gain a closer view of the strangers. She was endowed with
+a type of beauty much admired by the people of Central Africa, being so
+inordinately fat that the shape of her body was scarcely recognisable
+under the rolls of flesh which hung down from it. Her daughter, who
+appeared to be still young, gave promise of one day rivalling, if not
+exceeding, her mother in size.**
+
+     * Mariette compares this kind of armour to the “dangabor” of
+     the Congo tribes, but the “dangabor “is worn on the arm.
+     Livingstone saw a woman, the sister of Sebituaneh, the
+     highest lady of the Sesketeh, who wore on each leg eighteen
+     rings of solid brass as thick as the finger, and three rings
+     of copper above the knee. The weight of these shining rings
+     impeded her walking, and produced sores on her ankles; but
+     it was the fashion, and the inconvenience became nothing. As
+     to the pain, it was relieved by a bit of rag applied to the
+     lower rings.
+
+     ** These are two instances of abnormal fat production--the
+     earliest with which we are acquainted.
+
+After an exchange of compliments, the more serious business of the
+expedition was introduced. The Egyptians pitched a tent, in which they
+placed the objects of barter with which they were provided, and to
+prevent these from being too great a temptation to the natives, they
+surrounded the tent with a line of troops.
+
+[Illustration: 365.jpg PRINCE PARIHÛ AND THE PRINCESS OF PUANÎT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The main conditions of the exchange were arranged at a banquet, in
+which they spread before the barbarians a sumptuous display of Egyptian
+delicacies, consisting of bread, beer, wine, meat, and carefully
+prepared and flavoured vegetables. Payment for every object was to be
+made at the actual moment of purchase. For several days there was a
+constant stream of people, and asses groaned beneath their burdens. The
+Egyptian purchases comprised the most varied objects: ivory tusks, gold,
+ebony, cassia, myrrh, cynocephali and green monkeys, greyhounds, leopard
+skins, large oxen, slaves, and last, but not least, thirty-one incense
+trees, with their roots surrounded by a ball of earth and placed in
+large baskets. The lading of the ships was a long and tedious affair.
+All available space being at length exhausted, and as much cargo placed
+on board as was compatible with the navigation of the vessel, the
+squadron set sail and with all speed took its way northwards.
+
+[Illustration: 366.jpg THE EMBARKATION OF THE INCENSE SYCOMORES ON
+BOARD THE EGYPTIAN FLEET]
+
+     Drawn by Bouclier, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+The Egyptians touched at several places on the coast on their return
+journey, making friendly alliances with the inhabitants; the Him added
+a quota to their freight, for which room was with difficulty found on
+board,--it consisted not only of the inevitable gold, ivory, and skins,
+but also of live leopards and a giraffe, together with plants and fruits
+unknown on the banks of the Nile.*
+
+     * Lieblein thought that their country was explored, not by
+     the sailors who voyaged to Pûanît, but by a different body
+     who proceeded by land, and this view was accepted by Ed.
+     Meyer. The completed text proves that there was but a single
+     expedition, and that the explorers of Pûanît visited the
+     Ilîm also. The giraffe which they gave does not appear in
+     the cargo of the vessels at Pûanît; the visit must,
+     therefore, have been paid on the return voyage, and the
+     giraffe was probably represented on the destroyed part of
+     the walls where Naville found the image of this animal
+     wandering at liberty among the woods.
+
+The fleet at length made its reappearance in Egyptian ports, having
+on board the chiefs of several tribes on whose coasts the sailors had
+landed, and “bringing back so much that the like had never been brought
+of the products of Pûanît to other kings, by the supreme favour of
+the venerable god, Amon Râ, lord of Karnak.” The chiefs mentioned were
+probably young men of superior family, who had been confided to the
+officer in command of the squadron by local sheikhs, as pledges to the
+Pharaoh of good will or as commercial hostages. National vanity, no
+doubt, prompted the Egyptians to regard them as vassals coming to do
+homage, and their gifts as tributes denoting subjection. The Queen
+inaugurated a solemn festival in honour of the explorers. The Theban
+militia was ordered out to meet them, the royal flotilla escorting them
+as far as the temple landing-place, where a procession was formed to
+carry the spoil to the feet of the god. The good Theban folk, assembled
+to witness their arrival, beheld the march past of the native hostages,
+the incense sycomores, the precious gum itself, the wild animals,
+the giraffe, and the oxen, whose numbers were doubtless increased a
+hundredfold in the accounts given to posterity with the usual official
+exaggeration. The trees were planted at Deîr el-Baharî, where a sacred
+garden was prepared for them, square trenches being cut in the rock and
+filled with earth, in which the sycomore, by frequent watering, came to
+flourish well.*
+
+     * Naville found these trenches still filled with vegetable
+     mould, and in several of them roots, which gave every
+     indication of the purpose to which the trenches were
+     applied. A scene represents seven of the incense sycomores
+     still growing in their pots, and offered by the queen to the
+     Majesty “of this god Amonrâ of Karnak.”
+
+The great heaps of fresh resin were next the objects of special
+attention. Hâtshopsîtû “gave a bushel made of electrum to gauge the mass
+of gum, it being the first time that they had the joy of measuring the
+perfumes for Amon, lord of Karnak, master of heaven, and of presenting
+to him the wonderful products of Pûanît. Thot, the lord of Hermo-polis,
+noted the quantities in writing; Safkhîtâbûi verified the list. Her
+Majesty herself prepared from it, with her own hands, a perfumed unguent
+for her limbs; she gave forth the smell of the divine dew, her perfume
+reached even to Pûanît, her skin became like wrought gold,* and her
+countenance shone like the stars in the great festival hall, in the
+sight of the whole earth.”
+
+     * In order to understand the full force of the imagery here
+     employed, one must remember that the Egyptian artists
+     painted the flesh of women as light yellow.
+
+Hâtshopsîtû commanded the history of the expedition to be carved on the
+wall of the colonnades which lay on the west side of the middle platform
+of her funerary chapel: we there see the little fleet with sails
+spread, winging its way to the unknown country, its safe arrival at its
+destination, the meeting with the natives, the animated palavering, the
+consent to exchange freely accorded; and thanks to the minuteness
+with which the smallest details have been portrayed, we can as it were
+witness, as if on the spot, all the phases of life on board ship, not
+only on Egyptian vessels, but, as we may infer, those of other
+Oriental nations generally. For we may be tolerably sure that when the
+Phoenicians ventured into the distant parts of the Mediterranean, it was
+after a similar fashion that they managed and armed their vessels.
+
+[Illustration: 369.jpg SOME OF THE INCENSE TREES BROUGHT FROM PÛANÎT TO
+DEÎR EL-BAIIAKÎ]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+Although the natural features of the Asiatic or Greek coast on which
+they effected a landing differed widely from those of Pûanît, the
+Phoenician navigators were themselves provided with similar objects of
+exchange, and in their commercial dealings with the natives the methods
+of procedure of the European traders were doubtless similar to those of
+the Egyptians with the barbarians of the Red Sea.
+
+Hâtshopsîtû reigned for at least eight years after this memorable
+expedition, and traces of her further activity are to be observed in
+every part of the Nile valley. She even turned her attention to the
+Delta, and began the task of reorganising this part of her kingdom,
+which had been much neglected by her predecessors. The wars between the
+Theban princes and the lords of Avaris had lasted over a century, and
+during that time no one had had either sufficient initiative or leisure
+to superintend the public works, which were more needed here than in any
+other part of Egypt. The canals were silted up with mud, the marshes and
+the desert had encroached on the cultivated lands, the towns had become
+impoverished, and there were some provinces whose population consisted
+solely of shepherds and bandits. Hâtshopsîtû desired to remedy these
+evils, if only for the purpose of providing a practicable road for her
+armies marching to Zalû _en route_ for Syria.*
+
+     * This follows from the great inscription at Stabl-Antar,
+     which is commonly interpreted as proving that the Shepherd-
+     kings still held sway in Egypt in the reign of Thûtmosis
+     III., and that they were driven out by him and his aunt. It
+     seems to me that the queen is simply boasting that she had
+     repaired the monuments which had been injured by the
+     Shepherds during the time they sojourned in Egypt, in the
+     land of Avaris. Up to the present time no trace of these
+     restorations has been found on the sites. The expedition to
+     Pûanît being mentioned in lines 13, 14, they must be of
+     later date than the year IX. of Hâtshopsîtû and Thûtmosis
+     III.
+
+She also turned her attention to the mines of Sinai, which had not been
+worked by the Egyptian kings since the end of the XIIth dynasty. In the
+year XVI. an officer of the queen’s household was despatched to the
+Wady Magharah, the site of the ancient works, with orders to inspect the
+valleys, examine the veins, and restore there the temple of the goddess
+Hâthor; having accomplished his mission, he returned, bringing with
+him a consignment of those blue and green stones which were so highly
+esteemed by the Egyptians.
+
+Meanwhile, Thûtmosis III. was approaching manhood, and his aunt, the
+queen, instead of abdicating in his favour, associated him with herself
+more frequently in the external acts of government.*
+
+     * The account of the youth of Thûtmosis III., such as
+     Brugsch made it out to be from an inscription of this king,
+     the exile of the royal child at Bûto, his long sojourn in
+     the marshes, his triumphal return, must all be rejected.
+     Brugsch accepted as actual history a poetical passage where
+     the king identifies himself with Horus son of Isis, and
+     goes so far as to attribute to himself the adventures of the
+     god.
+
+She was forced to yield him precedence in those religious ceremonies
+which could be performed by a man only, such as the dedication of one of
+the city gates of Ombos, and the foundation and marking out of a temple
+at Medinet-Habû; but for the most part she obliged him to remain in
+the background and take a secondary place beside her. We are unable to
+determine the precise moment when this dual sovereignty came to an end.
+It was still existent in the XVIth year of the reign, but it had ceased
+before the XXIInd year. Death alone could take the sceptre from the
+hands that held it, and Thûtmosis had to curb his impatience for many
+a long day before becoming the real master of Egypt. He was about
+twenty-five years of age when this event took place, and he immediately
+revenged himself for the long repression he had undergone, by
+endeavouring to destroy the very remembrance of her whom he regarded as
+a usurper. Every portrait of her that he could deface without exposing
+himself to being accused of sacrilege was cut away, and he substituted
+for her name either that of Thûtmosis I. or of Thûtmosis II.
+
+[Illustration: 372.jpg THUTMOSIS III., FROM HIS STATUE IN THE TURIN
+MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie.
+
+A complete political change was effected both at home and abroad from
+the first day of his accession to power. Hâtshopsîtû had been averse to
+war. During the whole of her reign there had not been a single campaign
+undertaken beyond the isthmus of Suez, and by the end of her life she had
+lost nearly all that her father had gained in Syria; the people of Kharu
+had shaken off the yoke,* probably at the instigation of the king of the
+Amorites,** and nothing remained to Egypt of the Asiatic province but
+Gaza, Sharûhana,*** and the neighbouring villages. The young king set
+out with his army in the latter days of the year XXII. He reached Gaza
+on the 3rd of the month of Pakhons, in time to keep the anniversary
+of his coronation in that town, and to inaugurate the 24th year of his
+reign by festivals in honour of his father Amon.**** They lasted the
+usual length of time, and all the departments of State took part in
+them, but it was not a propitious moment for lengthy ceremonies.
+
+     * E. de Rougé thought that he had discovered, in a slightly
+     damaged inscription bearing upon the Pûanît expedition, the
+     mention of a tribute paid by the Lotanû. There is nothing in
+     the passage cited but the mention of the usual annual dues
+     paid by the chiefs of Pûanît and of the Ilîm.
+
+     ** This is at least what may be inferred from the account of
+     the campaign, where the Prince of Qodshû, a town of the
+     Amaûru (Amorites), figures at the head of the coalition
+     formed against Thûtmosis III.
+
+     *** This is the conclusion to be adopted from the beginning
+     of the inscription of Thûtmosis III.: “Now, during the
+     duration of these same years, the country of the Lotanû was
+     in discord until other times succeeded them, when the people
+     who were in the town of Sharûhana, from the town of Yûrza,
+     to the most distant regions of the earth, succeeded in
+     making a revolt against his Majesty.”
+
+     **** The account of this campaign has been preserved to us
+     on a wall adjoining the granite sanctuary at Karnak.
+
+The king left Gaza the following day, the 5th of Pakhons; he marched
+but slowly at first, following the usual caravan route, and despatching
+troops right and left to levy contributions on the cities of the
+Plain--Migdol, Yapu (Jaffa), Lotanû, Ono--and those within reach on the
+mountain spurs, or situated within the easily accessible wadys, such as
+Sauka (Socho), Hadid, and Harîlu. On the 16th day he had not proceeded
+further than Yahmu, where he received information which caused him to
+push quickly forward. The lord of Qodshû had formed an alliance with the
+Syrian princes on the borders of Naharaim, and had extorted from them
+promises of help; he had already gone so far as to summon contingents
+from the Upper Orontes, the Litany, and the Upper Jordan, and was
+concentrating them at Megiddo, where he proposed to stop the way of the
+invading army. Thûtmosis called together his principal officers, and
+having imparted the news to them, took counsel with them as to a plan
+of attack. Three alternative routes were open to him. The most direct
+approached the enemy’s position on the front, crossing Mount Carmel by
+the saddle now known as the Umm el-Fahm; but the great drawback attached
+to this route was its being so restricted that the troops would be
+forced to advance in too thin a file; and the head of the column would
+reach the plain and come into actual conflict with the enemy while the
+rear-guard would only be entering the defiles in the neighbourhood
+of Aluna. The second route bore a little to the east, crossing the
+mountains beyond Dutîna and reaching the plain near Taânach; but it
+offered the same disadvantages as the other. The third road ran north
+of _Zafîti_, to meet the great highway which cuts the hill-district of
+Nablûs, skirting the foot of Tabor near Jenîn, a little to the north of
+Megiddo. It was not so direct as the other two, but it was easier for
+troops, and the king’s generals advised that it should be followed. The
+king was so incensed that he was tempted to attribute their prudence to
+cowardice. “By my life! by the love that Râ hath for me, by the favour
+that I enjoy from my master Amon, by the perpetual youth of my nostril
+in life and power, My Majesty will go by the way of Aluna, and let him
+that will go by the roads of which ye have spoken, and let him that will
+follow My Majesty. What will be said among the vile enemies detested of
+Râ: ‘Doth not His Majesty go by another way? For fear of us he gives
+us a wide berth,’ they will cry.” The king’s counsellors did not insist
+further. “May thy father Amon of Thebes protect thee!” they exclaimed;
+“as for us, we will follow Thy Majesty whithersoever thou goest, as it
+befitteth a servant to follow his master.” The word of command was given
+to the men; Thûtmosis himself led the vanguard, and the whole army,
+horsemen and foot-soldiers, followed in single file, wending their way
+through the thickets which covered the southern slopes of Mount Carmel.*
+
+     * The position of the towns mentioned and of the three roads
+     has been discussed by E. de Rougé, also by P. de Saulcy, who
+     fixed the position of Yahmu at El-Kheimeh, and showed that
+     the Egyptian army must have passed through the defiles of
+     Umm el-Rahm. Conder disagreed with this opinion in certain
+     respects, and identified Aluna, Aruna, at first with
+     Arrabeh, and afterwards with Arraneh; he thought that
+     Thûtmosis came out upon Megiddo from the south-east, and he
+     placed Megiddo at Mejeddah, near Beisan, while Tomkins
+     placed Aruna in the Wady el-Arriân. W. Max Millier seems to
+     place Yahinu too much to the north, in the neighbourhood of
+     Jett.
+
+They pitched their camp on the evening of the 19th near Aluna, and on
+the morning of the 20th they entered the wild defiles through which it
+was necessary to pass in order to reach the enemy. The king had taken
+precautionary measures against any possible attempt of the natives to
+cut the main column during this crossing of the mountains. His position
+might at any moment have become a critical one, had the allies taken
+advantage of it and attacked each battalion as it issued on to the plain
+before it could re-form. But the Prince of Qodshû, either from ignorance
+of his adversary’s movements, or confident of victory in the open,
+declined to take the initiative. Towards one o’clock in the afternoon,
+the Egyptians found themselves once more united on the further side of
+the range, close to a torrent called the Qina, a little to the south of
+Megiddo. When the camp was pitched, Thûtmosis announced his intention of
+engaging the enemy on the morrow. A council of war was held to decide
+on the position that each corps should occupy, after which the officers
+returned to their men to see that a liberal supply of rations was served
+out, and to organise an efficient system of patrols. They passed round
+the camp to the cry: “Keep a good heart: courage! Watch well, watch
+well! Keep alive in the camp!” The king refused to retire to rest until
+he had been assured that “the country was quiet, and also the host, both
+to south and north.” By dawn the next day the whole army was in motion.
+It was formed into a single line, the right wing protected by the
+torrent, the left extended into the plain, stretching beyond Megiddo
+towards the north-west. Thûtmosis and his guards occupied the centre,
+standing “armed in his chariot of electrum like unto Horus brandishing
+his pike, and like Montû the Theban god.” The Syrians, who had not
+expected such an early attack, were seized with panic, and fled in the
+direction of the town, leaving their horses and chariots on the field;
+but the citizens, fearing lest in the confusion the Egyptians should
+effect an entrance with the fugitives, had closed their gates and
+refused to open them. Some of the townspeople, however, let down ropes
+to the leaders of the allied party, and drew them up to the top of the
+ramparts: “and would to heaven that the soldiers of His Majesty had not
+so far forgotten themselves as to gather up the spoil left by the vile
+enemy! They would then have entered Megiddo forthwith; for while the men
+of the garrison were drawing up the Lord of Qodshû and their own prince,
+the fear of His Majesty was upon their limbs, and their hands failed
+them by reason of the carnage which the royal urous carried into
+their ranks.” The victorious soldiery were dispersed over the fields,
+gathering together the gilded and silvered chariots of the Syrian
+chiefs, collecting the scattered weapons and the hands of the slain, and
+securing the prisoners; then rallying about the king, they greeted him
+with acclamations and filed past to deliver up the spoil. He reproached
+them for having allowed themselves to be drawn away from the heat of
+pursuit. “Had you carried Megiddo, it would have been a favour granted
+to me by Râ my father this day; for all the kings of the country being
+shut up within it, it would have been as the taking of a thousand towns
+to have seized Megiddo.” The Egyptians had made little progress in the
+art of besieging a stronghold since the times of the XIIth dynasty. When
+scaling failed, they had no other resource than a blockade, and even the
+most stubborn of the Pharaohs would naturally shrink from the tedium of
+such an undertaking. Thûtmosis, however, was not inclined to lose the
+opportunity of closing the campaign by a decisive blow, and began the
+investment of the town according to the prescribed modes.
+
+[Illustration: 378.jpg AN EGYPTIAN ENCAMPMENT BEFORE A BESIEGED TOWN]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+His men were placed under canvas, and working under the protection of
+immense shields, supported on posts, they made a ditch around the walls,
+strengthening it with a palisade. The king constructed also on the east
+side a fort which he called “Manakhpirrî-holds-the-Asiatics.” Famine
+soon told on the demoralised citizens, and their surrender brought about
+the submission of the entire country. Most of the countries situated
+between the Jordan and the sea--Shunem, Cana, Kinnereth, Hazor, Bedippa,
+Laish, Merom, and Acre--besides the cities of the Haurân--Hamath,
+Magato, Ashtarôth, Ono-repha, and even Damascus itself--recognised the
+suzerainty of Egypt, and their lords came in to the camp to do homage.*
+
+     * The names of these towns are inscribed on the lists of
+     Karnak published by Mariette.
+
+The Syrian losses did not amount to more than 83 killed and 400
+prisoners, showing how easily they had been routed; but they had
+abandoned considerable supplies, all of which had fallen into the hands
+of the victors. Some 724 chariots, 2041 mares, 200 suits of armour, 602
+bows, the tent of the Prince of Qodshû with its poles of cypress inlaid
+with gold, besides oxen, cows, goats, and more than 20,000 sheep, were
+among the spoil. Before quitting the plain of Bsdraelon, the king caused
+an official survey of it to be made, and had the harvest reaped. It
+yielded 208,000 bushels of wheat, not taking into account what had been
+looted or damaged by the marauding soldiery. The return homewards of the
+Egyptians must have resembled the exodus of some emigrating tribe rather
+than the progress of a regular army
+
+Thûtmosis caused a long list of the vanquished to be engraved on the
+walls of the temple which he was building at Karnak, thus affording the
+good people of Thebes an opportunity for the first time of reading
+on the monuments the titles of the king’s Syrian subjects written in
+hieroglyphics. One hundred and nineteen names follow each other in
+unbroken succession, some of them representing mere villages, while
+others denoted powerful nations; the catalogue, however, was not to end
+even here. Having once set out on a career of conquest, the Pharaoh had
+no inclination to lay aside his arms. From the XXIIth year of his reign
+to that of his death, we have a record of twelve military expeditions,
+all of which he led in person. Southern Syria was conquered at the
+outset--the whole of Kharû as far as the Lake of Grennesareth, and the
+Amorite power was broken at one blow.
+
+[Illustration: 380.jpg SOME OF THE PLANTS AND ANIMALS BROUGHT BACK FROM
+PUANÎT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+The three succeeding campaigns consolidated the rule of Egypt in the
+country of the Negeb, which lay to the south-west of the Dead Sea, in
+Phoenicia, which prudently resigned itself to its fate, and in that part
+of Lotanii occupying the northern part of the basin of the Orontes.**
+
+     * We know of these three campaigns from the indirect
+     testimony of the Annals, which end in the year XXIX. with
+     the mention of the fifth campaign. The only dated one is
+     referred to the year XXV., and we know of that of the Negeb
+     only by the _Inscription of Amenemhabî_, 11. 3-5: the
+     campaign began in the Negeb of Judah, but the king carried
+     it to Naharaim the same year.
+
+None of these expeditions appear to have been marked by any successes
+comparable to the victory at Megiddo, for the coalition of the Syrian
+chiefs did not survive the blow which they then sustained; but Qodshû
+long remained the centre of resistance, and the successive defeats which
+its inhabitants suffered never disarmed for more than a short interval
+the hatred which they felt for the Egyptian.
+
+[Illustration: 381.jpg PART OF THE TRIUMPHAL LISTS OF THUTMOSIS III.]
+
+     On One Of The Pylons Of The Temple At Karnak. Drawn by
+     Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+During these years of glorious activity considerable tribute poured in
+to both Memphis and Thebes; not only ingots of gold and silver, bars and
+blocks of copper and lead, blocks of lapis-lazuli and valuable vases,
+but horses, oxen, sheep, goats, and useful animals of every kind, in
+addition to all of which we find, as in Hâtshopsîtû’s reign, the mention
+of rare plants and shrubs brought back from countries traversed by the
+armies in their various expeditions. The Theban priests and _savants_
+exhibited much interest in such curiosities, and their royal pupil gave
+orders to his generals to collect for their benefit all that appeared
+either rare or novel. They endeavoured to acclimatise the species or
+the varieties likely to be useful, and in order to preserve a record of
+these experiments, they caused a representation of the strange plants or
+animals to be drawn on the walls of one of the chapels which they were
+then building to one of their gods. These pictures may still be seen
+there in interminable lines, portraying the specimens brought from
+the Upper Lotanû in the XXVth year of Thûtmosis, and we are able to
+distinguish, side by side with many plants peculiar to the regions of
+the Euphrates, others having their habitat in the mountains and valleys
+of tropical Africa.
+
+This return to an aggressive policy on the part of the Egyptians, after
+the weakness they had exhibited during the later period of Hâtshopsîtû’s
+regency, seriously disconcerted the Asiatic sovereigns. They had vainly
+flattered themselves that the invasion of Thûtmosis I. was merely the
+caprice of an adventurous prince, and they hoped that when his love of
+enterprise had expended itself, Egypt would permanently withdraw within
+her traditional boundaries, and that the relations of Elam with Babylon,
+Carchemish with Qodshû, and the barbarians of the Persian Gulf with the
+inhabitants of the Iranian table-land would resume their former course.
+This vain delusion was dispelled by the advent of a new Thûtmosis, who
+showed clearly by his actions that he intended to establish and maintain
+the sovereignty of Egypt over the western dependencies, at least, of
+the ancient Chaldæan empire, that is to say, over the countries which
+bordered the middle course of the Euphrates and the coasts of the
+Mediterranean. The audacity of his marches, the valour of his men, the
+facility with which in a few hours he had crushed the assembled forces
+of half Syria, left no room to doubt that he was possessed of personal
+qualities and material resources sufficient to carry out projects of
+the most ambitious character. Babylon, enfeebled by the perpetual
+dissensions of its Cossæan princes, was no longer in a position to
+contest with him the little authority she still retained over the
+peoples of Naharaim or of Coele-Syria; protected by the distance which
+separated her from the Nile valley, she preserved a sullen neutrality,
+while Assyria hastened to form a peaceful alliance with the invading
+power. Again and again its kings sent to Thûtmosis presents in
+proportion to their resources, and the Pharaoh naturally treated their
+advances as undeniable proofs of their voluntary vassalage. Each time
+that he received from them a gift of metal or lapis-lazuli, he proudly
+recorded their tribute in the annals of his reign; and if, in exchange,
+he sent them some Egyptian product, it was in smaller quantities, as
+might be expected from a lord to his vassal.*
+
+     * The “tribute of Assûr” is mentioned in this way under the
+     years XXIII. and XXIV. The presents sent by the Pharaoh in
+     return are not mentioned in any Egyptian text, but there is
+     frequent reference to them in the Tel el-Amarna tablets. It
+     may be mentioned here that the name of Nineveh does not
+     occur on the Egyptian monuments, but only that of the town
+     Nîi, in which Champollion wrongly recognised the later
+     capital of Assyria.
+
+Sometimes there would accompany the convoy, surrounded by an escort of
+slaves and women, some princess, whom the king would place in his harem
+or graciously pass on to one of his children; but when, on the other
+hand, an even distant relative of the Pharaoh was asked in marriage for
+some king on the banks of the Tigris or Euphrates, the request was met
+with a disdainful negative: the daughters of the Sun were of too noble
+a race to stoop to such alliances, and they would count it a humiliation
+to be sent in marriage to a foreign court.
+
+[Illustration: 384.jpg SOME OF THE OBJECTS CARRIED IN TRIBUTE TO THE
+SYRIANS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after Champollion.
+
+Free transit on the main road which ran diagonally through Kharû was
+ensured by fortresses constructed at strategic points,* and from this
+time forward Thûtmosis was able to bring the whole force of his army
+to bear upon both Coele-Syria and Naharaim.** He encamped, in the year
+XXVII., on the table-land separating the Afrîn and the Orontes from the
+Euphrates, and from that centre devastated the district of Ûânît,***
+which lay to the west of Aleppo; then crossing “the water of Naharaim”
+ in the neighbourhood of Carchemish, he penetrated into the heart of
+Mitanni.
+
+     * The castle, for instance, near Megiddo, previously
+     referred to, which, after having contributed to the siege of
+     the town, probably served to keep it in subjection.
+
+     ** The accounts of the campaigns of Thûtmosis III. have been
+     preserved in the Annals in a very mutilated condition, the
+     fragments of which were discovered at different times. They
+     are nothing but extracts from an official account, made for
+     Amon and his priests.
+
+     *** The province of the Tree Ûanû; cf. with this designation
+     the epithet “Shad Erini,” “mountain of the cedar tree,”
+      which the Assyrians bestowed on the Amanus.
+
+The following year he reappeared in the same region. Tunipa, which had
+made an obstinate resistance, was taken, together with its king, and 329
+of his nobles were forced to yield themselves prisoners. Thûtmosis “with
+a joyous heart” was carrying them away captive, when it occurred to him
+that the district of Zahi, which lay away for the most part from the
+great military highroads, was a tempting prey teeming with spoil. The
+barns were stored with wheat and barley, the cellars were filled with
+wine, the harvest was not yet gathered in, and the trees bent under the
+weight of their fruit. Having pillaged Senzaûrû on the Orontes,* he
+made his way to the westwards through the ravine formed by the Ishahr
+el-Kebîr, and descended suddenly on the territory of Arvad. The towns
+once more escaped pillage, but Thutmosis destroyed the harvests,
+plundered the orchards, carried off the cattle, and pitilessly wasted
+the whole of the maritime plain.
+
+     * Senzaûrû was thought by Ebers to be “the double Tyre.”
+      Brugsch considered it to be Tyre itself. It is, I believe,
+     the Sizara of classical writers, the Shaizar of the Arabs,
+     and is mentioned in one of the Tel el-Amarna tablets in
+     connection with Nîi.
+
+There was such abundance within the camp that the men were continually
+getting drunk, and spent their time in anointing themselves with oil,
+which they could do only in Egypt at the most solemn festivals. They
+returned to Syria in the year XXX., and their good fortune again
+favoured them. The stubborn Qodshû was harshly dealt with; Simyra and
+Arvad, which hitherto had held their own, now opened their gates to him;
+the lords of Upper Lotanû poured in their contributions without delay,
+and gave up their sons and brothers as hostages. In the year XXXI., the
+city of Anamut in Tikhisa, on the shores of Lake Msrana, yielded in its
+turn;* on the 3rd of Pakhons, the anniversary of his coronation, the
+Lotanû renewed their homage to him in person.
+
+     * The site of the Tikhisa country is imperfectly defined.
+     Nisrana was seemingly applied to the marshy lake into which
+     the Koweik flows, and it is perhaps to be found in the name
+     Kin-nesrîn. In this case Tikhisa would be the country near
+     the lake; the district of the Grseco-Roruan Chalkis is
+     situated on the right of the military road.
+
+The return of the expedition was a sort of triumphal procession. At
+every halting-place the troops found quarters and provisions prepared
+for them, bread and cakes, perfumes, oil, wine, and honey being provided
+in such quantities that they were obliged on their departure to leave
+the greater part behind them. The scribes took advantage of this
+peaceful state of affairs to draw up minute accounts of the products of
+Lotanû--corn, barley, millet, fruits, and various kinds of oil--prompted
+doubtless by the desire to arrive at a fairly just apportionment of
+the tribute. Indeed, the results of the expedition were considered so
+satisfactory that they were recorded on a special monument dedicated in
+the palace at Thebes. The names of the towns and peoples might change
+with every war, but the spoils suffered no diminution. In the year
+XXXIII., the kingdoms situated to the west of the Euphrates were so
+far pacified that Thutmosis was able without risk to carry his arms to
+Mesopotamia. He entered the country by the fords of Carchemish, near to
+the spot where his grandfather, Thutmosis I., had erected his stele half
+a century previously. He placed another beside this, and a third to the
+eastward to mark the point to which he had extended the frontier of his
+empire.. The Mitanni, who exercised a sort of hegemony over the whole of
+Naharaim, were this time the objects of his attack. Thirty-two of their
+towns fell one after another, their kings were taken captive and the
+walls of their cities were razed, without any serious resistance. The
+battalions of the enemy were dispersed at the first shock, and Pharaoh
+“pursued them for the space of a mile, without one of them daring to
+look behind him, for they thought only of escape, and fled before him
+like a flock of goats.” Thutmosis pushed forward as far certainly as the
+Balikh, and perhaps on to the Khabur or even to the Hermus; and as he
+approached the frontier, the king of Singar, a vassal of Assyria, sent
+him presents of lapis-lazuli.
+
+When this prince had retired, another chief, the lord of the Great
+Kkati, whose territory had not even been threatened by the invaders,
+deemed it prudent to follow the example of the petty princes of the
+plain of the Euphrates, and despatched envoys to the Pharaoh bearing
+presents of no great value, but testifying to his desire to live on good
+terms with Egypt. Still further on, the inhabitants of Nîi begged the
+king’s acceptance of a troop of slaves and two hundred and sixty mares;
+he remained among them long enough to erect a stele commemorating his
+triumph, and to indulge in one of those extensive hunts which were the
+delight of Oriental monarchs. The country abounded in elephants. The
+soldiers were employed as beaters, and the king and his court succeeded
+in killing one hundred and twenty head of big game, whose tusks were
+added to the spoils. These numbers indicate how the extinction of such
+animals in these parts was brought about. Beyond these regions, again,
+the sheikhs of the Lamnaniû came to meet the Pharaoh. They were a poor
+people, and had but little to offer, but among their gifts were some
+birds of a species unknown to the Egyptians, and two geese, with which,
+however, His Majesty deigned to be satisfied.*
+
+     * The campaign of the year XXXI. It is mentioned in the
+     _Annals of Thulmosis III._, 11. 17-27; the reference to the
+     elephant-hunt occurs only in the _Inscription of
+     Amenemhabi_, 11. 22, 23; an allusion to the defeat of the
+     kings of Mitanni is found in a mutilated inscription from
+     the tomb of Manakhpirrîsonbû. It was probably on his return
+     from this campaign that Thûtmosis caused the great list to
+     be engraved which, while it includes a certain number of
+     names assigned to places beyond the Euphrates, ought
+     necessarily to contain the cities of the Mitanni.
+
+END OF VOL. IV.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12), by G. Maspero
+
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+
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diff --git a/17324-8.zip b/17324-8.zip
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+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?>
+
+<!DOCTYPE html
+   PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+   "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" >
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en">
+  <head>
+    <title>
+      History of Egypt, by Maspero, Volume 4
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve">
+
+    body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify}
+    P { text-indent: 2em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; }
+    H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; }
+    hr  { width: 50%; text-align: center;}
+    .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; }
+    blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+    .mynote    {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;}
+    .toc       { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;}
+    .toc2      { margin-left: 20%;}
+    .figleft   {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;}
+    .figright  {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;}
+    div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; }
+    pre     { font-family: Times; font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;}
+
+</style>
+  </head>
+  <body>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12), by G. Maspero
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12)
+
+Author: G. Maspero
+
+Editor: A.H. Sayce
+
+Translator: M.L. McClure
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2005 [EBook #17324]
+Last Updated: September 7, 2016
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT, CHALDÆA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Widger
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/spines.jpg" width="100%" alt="Spines " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/cover.jpg" width="100%" alt="Cover " />
+    </div>
+    <h1>
+      HISTORY OF EGYPT <br /><br /> CHALDEA, SYRIA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA
+    </h1>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      By G. MASPERO, <br /><br /> Honorable Doctor of Civil Laws, and Fellow of
+      Queen&rsquo;s College, <br /> Oxford; Member of the Institute and Professor at
+      the College of France
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      Edited by A. H. SAYCE, <br /> Professor of Assyriology, Oxford
+    </h3>
+    <h4>
+      Translated by M. L. McCLURE, <br /> Member of the Committee of the Egypt
+      Exploration Fund
+    </h4>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      CONTAINING OVER TWELVE HUNDRED COLORED PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      Volume IV.
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      LONDON <br /> THE GROLIER SOCIETY <br /> PUBLISHERS
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="100%" alt="Frontispiece " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="100%" alt="Titlepage " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="001 (154K)" src="images/001.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="002 (117K)" src="images/002.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <b><i>THE FIRST CHALDEAN EMPIRE AND THE HYKSÔS IN EGYPT</i></b>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>SYRIA: THE PART PLAYED BY IT IN THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD&mdash;
+      BABYLON AND THE FIRST CHALDÆAN EMPIRE&mdash;THE DOMINION OF THE HYKSÔS:
+      ÂHMOSIS.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Syria, owing to its geographical position, condemned to be subject to
+      neighbouring powers-Lebanon, Anti-Lebanon, the valley of the Orontes and
+      of the Litâny, and surrounding regions: the northern table-land, the
+      country about Damascus, the Mediterranean coast, the Jordan and the Dead
+      Sea-Civilization and primitive inhabitants, Semites and Asiatics: the
+      almost entire absence of Egyptian influence, the predominance of that of
+      Chaldæa.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Babylon, its ruins and its environs&mdash;It extends its rule over
+      Mesopotamia; its earliest dynasty and its struggle with Central
+      Chaldæa-Elam, its geographical position, its peoples; Kutur-Nakhunta
+      conquers Larsam-Bimsin (Eri-Aku); Khammurabi founds the first Babylonian
+      empire; Ids victories, his buildings, his canals&mdash;The Elamites in
+      Syria: Kudurlagamar&mdash;Syria recognizes the authority of Hammurabi and
+      his successors.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The Hyksôs conquer Egypt at the end of the XIVth dynasty; the founding
+      of Avaris&mdash;Uncertainty both of ancients and moderns with regard to
+      the origin of the Hyksôs: probability of their being the Khati&mdash;Their
+      kings adopt the manners and civilization of the Egyptians: the monuments
+      of Khiani and of Apôphis I. and II&mdash;The XVth dynasty.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Semitic incursions following the Hyksôs&mdash;The migration of the
+      Phoenicians and the Israelites into Syria: Terah, Abraham and his sojourn
+      in the land of Canaan&mdash;Isaac, Jacob, Joseph: the Israelites go down
+      into Egypt and settle in the land of Goshen.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Thébes revolts against the Hyksôs: popular traditions as to the origin
+      of the war, the romance of Apôphis and Saquinri&mdash;The Theban
+      princesses and the last Icings of the XVIIth dynasty: Tiûdqni Kamosis,
+      Ahmosis I.&mdash;The lords of El-Kab, and the part they played during the
+      war of independence&mdash;The taking of Avaris and the expulsion of the
+      Ilylcsôs.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The reorganization of Egypt&mdash;Ahmosis I. and his Nubian wars, the
+      reopening of the quarries of Turah&mdash;Amenôthes I. and his mother
+      Nofrîtari: the jewellery of Queen Âhhotpû&mdash;The wars of Amenôthes I.,
+      the apotheosis of Nofrîtari&mdash;The accession of Thûtmosis I. and the
+      re-generation of Egypt.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <blockquote>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <br />
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I&mdash;THE FIRST CHALDÆAN EMPIRE AND
+        THE HYKSÔS IN EGYPT </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkB2HCH0001"> CHAPTER II&mdash;SYRIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE
+        EGYPTIAN CONQUEST </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkC2HCH0001"> CHAPTER III&mdash;THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN
+        DYNASTY </a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <br /> <br />
+      </p>
+      <hr />
+      <p>
+        <br /> <br />
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <big><b>List of Illustrations</b></big>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <br />
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0001"> Spines </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0002"> Cover </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0003"> Frontispiece </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0004"> Titlepage </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0005"> 014.jpg the Most Northern Source of The
+        Jordan, The Naiir-el-hasbany </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0006"> 015.jpg Lake of Genesarath </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0007"> 017.jpg One of the Reaches Of The Jordan </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0008"> 018.jpg the Dead Sea and The Mountains of
+        Moab, Seen Fkom The Heights of Engedi </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0009"> 023.jpg Asiatic Women from the Tomb of
+        KhnÛmhotpÛ </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0010"> 024.jpg Two Asiatics Fkom the Tomb of
+        KhnÛmhoptÛ. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0011"> 029.jpg the Ruins of Babylon </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0012"> 030.jpg Plan of the Ruins Of Babylon </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0013"> 032.jpg the Kask Seen from The South </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0014"> 033.jpg the Tell of Borsippa, The Present
+        Birs-nimrud </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0015"> 036.jpg the Banks of The Euphrates at
+        Zuleibeh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0016"> 039.jpg Table </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0017"> 045.jpg Map of ChaldÆa and Elam. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0018"> 046.jpg an Ancient Susian of Negretic Race
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0019"> 047.jpg Native of Mixed Negritic Race from
+        Susiana </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0020"> 048.jpg the Tumulus of Susa, As It Appeared
+        Towards The Middle of the Xixth Century </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0021"> 050.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0022"> 057.jpg Head of a Sceptre in Copper, Bearing
+        the Name Of Kham-murabi </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0023"> 059.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0024"> 079.jpg Pallate of HyksÔs Scribe </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0025"> 080.jpg a HyksÔs Prisoner Guiding the Plough,
+        at El-kab </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0026"> 082.jpg Table of Offerings Bearing the Name
+        Of ApÔti ÂqnÛnrÎ </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0027"> 083.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0028"> 084.jpg Broken Statue of Khiani </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0029"> 093.jpg the Traditional Oak of Abraham at
+        Hebron </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0030"> 106.jpg Pallate of Tiû.a </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0031"> 109.jpg NofrÎtari, from Tue Wooden Statuette
+        in the Turin Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0032"> 110.jpg the Head of Saqnuri </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0033"> 113.jpg the Small Gold Votive Barque of
+        Pharaoh KamosÛ, In the GÎzeh Museum. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0034"> 114.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0035"> 116.jpg the Walls of El-kab Seen from The
+        Tomb Of Pihiri </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0036"> 116a.jpg Collection of Vases Modelled and
+        Painted in The Grand Temple. Philae Island. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0037"> 119.jpg the Ruins of The Pyramid Of QÛlah,
+        Near Mohammerieh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0038"> 122.jpg the Tombs of The Princes Of NekhabÎt,
+        in The Hillside Above El-kab </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0039"> 130.jpg Painting in Tomb of the Kings Thebes
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0040"> 132.jpg a Convoy of TÛrah Quarrymen Drawing
+        Stone </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0041"> 135.jpg Coffin of Ahmosis in the GÎzeh Museum
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0042"> 136.jpg Nofritari, Hie Black-skinned Goddess
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0043"> 137.jpg the Jewels and Weapons of Queen
+        ÂhhhotpÛ I. In The GÎzeh Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0044"> 141.jpg the Two Coffins of Ahhotp Ii. And
+        Nofritari Standing in Tub Vestibule of the Old BÛlak Museum. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0045"> 144.jpg Statue of AmenÔthes I. In the Turin
+        Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0046"> 146.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0047"> 147.jpg the Coffin and Mummy of Amenothes
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0048"> 150.jpg ThÛtmosis I., from a Statue in the
+        GÎzeh Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0049"> 153.jpg Table </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0050"> 155.jpg Signs, Arms and Instruments </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0005"> 158.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0006"> Table </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0007"> 177.jpg the Fortress and Bridge of Zalu </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0008"> 180.jpg Map </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0009"> 184.jpg the Canaanite Fortresses </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0010"> 185.jpg the Walled City of DapÛr, in Galilee
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0011"> 187.jpg the Migdol of Ramses Iii. At Thebes,
+        in The Temple of Medinet-abul </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0012"> 189.jpg the Modern Village of BeÎtÎn
+        (ancient Bethel), Seen from the South-west. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0013"> 191.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0014"> 192.jpg Amphitheatre of Hills </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0015"> 196.jpg the Evergreen Oaks Between Joppa and
+        Carmel </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0016"> 197.jpg Acre and the Fringe of Reefs
+        Sheltering The Ancient Port </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0017"> 199.jpg Map </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0018"> 201.jpg the Town of Qodshu </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0019"> 202.jpg the Tyrian Ladder at Ras El-abiad
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0020"> 206.jpg the Dyke at Baiik El-kades in Its
+        Present Condition </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0021"> 208.jpg Map </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0022"> 211.jpg Site of Carchemish </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0023"> 212.jpg the Tell of Jerabis in Its Present
+        Condition </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0024"> 213.jpg a Northern Syrian </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0025"> 215.jpg the Heads of Three Amorite Captives
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0026"> 216.jpg Mixture of Syrian Races </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0027"> 218.jpg a Caricature of the Syrian Type </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0028"> 219.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0029"> 220.jpg Syrians Dressed in the Loin-cloth
+        and Double Shawl </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0030"> 222a.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0032"> 223.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0033"> 226.jpg LotanÛ Women and Children from the
+        Tomb Of RakhmieÎ </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0034"> 229.jpg Astarte As a Sphinx </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0035"> 231.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0036"> 235.jpg Transjordanian Dolmen </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0037"> 238.jpg a Cromlech in the Neighbourhood of
+        Hesban, In The Country of Moab </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0038"> 240.jpg a Corner of the Phoenician
+        Neckropolis at Adlun </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0039"> 241.jpg Valley of the Tomb Of The Kings </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0040"> 241-text.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0041"> 246.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0042"> 248.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0043"> 249.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0044"> 252.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0045"> 253.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0046"> 256.jpg Valley of the Adonis </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0047"> 256a.jpg the Amphitheatre of Aphaka and The
+        Source Of The Nahh-ibrahim </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0048"> 267.jpg the Ambrosian Rocks </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0049"> 268.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0050"> 269.jpg Tyre and Its Suburbs on the Mainland
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0051"> 273.jpg the Sculptured Rocks of Hanaweh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0052"> 282.jpg One of the KafÎti from The Tomb Of
+        RakhmirÎ </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0053"> 286.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0054"> 288.jpg an Egyptian Trading Vessel of the
+        First Half Of The Xviiith Dynasty </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0055"> 294.jpg Map of Cyprus </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0056"> 297.jpg the Murex Trunculus </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0057"> 298.jpg Dagger of Âhmosis </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0058"> 299.jpg One of the Daggers Discovered at
+        MycenÆ, Showing An Imitation of Egyptian Decoration </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0059"> 302.jpg Tailpiece </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0005"> 303.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0006"> 305.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0007"> 311.jpg a Platoon (troop) of Egyptian
+        Spearmen at DeÎr El-baharÎ </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0008"> 313.jpg a Platoon of Egyptian Archers at
+        DeÎr El-baharÎ </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0009"> 314.jpg the Egyptian Chariot Preserved in
+        The Florence Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0010"> 315.jpg the King Charging on his Chariot
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0011"> 318.jpg an Egyptian Learning to Ride, from a
+        Bas-relief In the Bologna Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0012"> 319.jpg the War-dance of The Timihu at DeÎr
+        El-baharÎ </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0013"> 321.jpg a Column of Troops on the March,
+        Chariots And Infantry </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0014"> 322.jpg an Egyptian Fortified Camp, Forced
+        by the Enemy </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0015"> 322b.jpg Two Companies on the March </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0016"> 325.jpg Scenes from Military Life in an
+        Egyptian Camp </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0017"> 327.jpg Encounter Between Egyptian and
+        Asiatic Chariots </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0018"> 328.jpg Ramses II. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0020"> 330.jpg Counting of the Hands </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0021"> 336.jpg a City of Modern Nubia&mdash;the
+        Ancient Dongola </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0022"> 338.jpg Arrival of an Ethiopian Queen
+        Bringing Tribute To The Viceroy of KÛsii </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0023"> 339.jpg Typical Galla Woman </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0024"> 341.jpg Gold Epergne Representing Scenes
+        from Ethiopian Life </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0025"> 344.jpg Portrait of the Queen Âhmasi </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0026"> 345.jpg Queen MÛtnofrÎt in the GÎzeh Museum
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0027"> 346.jpg Queen HÂtshopsÎtÛ in Male Costume
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0028"> 347.jpg Bust of Queen HÂtshopsÎtÛ </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0029"> 348.jpg Painting on the Tomb of The Kings
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0030"> 350.jpg the Amphitheatre at DeÎr El-baharÎ,
+        As It Appeared Bepoee Naville&rsquo;s Excavations </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0031"> 351.jpg the Northern Collonade </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0032"> 353.jpg Head of the Mummy Of ThÛtmosis I.
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0033"> 354.jpg Head of the Mummy Of ThÛtmosis Ii.
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0034"> 356.jpg the Coffin of Thûtmosis I. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0035"> 356b Avenue of Rams and Pylon at Karnak </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0036"> 356b-text </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0037"> 357.jpg the Statue of SanmÛt </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0038"> 358.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0039"> 361.jpg an Inhabitant of the Land Of PÛanÎt
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0040"> 363.jpg a Village on the Bank of The River,
+        With Ladders Of Incense </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0041"> 365.jpg Prince ParihÛ and the Princess of
+        PuanÎt </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0042"> 366.jpg the Embarkation of The Incense
+        Sycomores On Board the Egyptian Fleet </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0043"> 369.jpg Some of the Incense Trees Brought
+        from PÛanÎt To DeÎr El-baiiakÎ </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0044"> 372.jpg Thutmosis Iii., from his Statue in
+        the Turin Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0045"> 378.jpg an Egyptian Encampment Before a
+        Besieged Town </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0046"> 380.jpg Some of the Plants and Animals
+        Brought Back From PuanÎt </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0047"> 381.jpg Part of the Triumphal Lists Of
+        Thutmosis Iii. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0048"> 384.jpg Some of the Objects Carried in
+        Tribute to The Syrians </a>
+      </p>
+    </blockquote>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="003 (232K)" src="images/003.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="005 (269K)" src="images/005.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER I<br /> <br /> THE FIRST CHALDÆAN EMPIRE AND THE HYKSÔS IN EGYPT
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Syria: the part played by it in the ancient world&mdash;Babylon and the
+      first Chaldæan empire&mdash;The dominion of the Hyksôs: Âhmosis.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Some countries seem destined from their origin to become the battle-fields
+      of the contending nations which environ them. Into such regions, and to
+      their cost, neighbouring peoples come from century to century to settle
+      their quarrels and bring to an issue the questions of supremacy which
+      disturb their little corner of the world. The nations around are eager for
+      the possession of a country thus situated; it is seized upon bit by bit,
+      and in the strife dismembered and trodden underfoot: at best the only
+      course open to its inhabitants is to join forces with one of its invaders,
+      and while helping the intruder to overcome the rest, to secure for
+      themselves a position of permanent servitude. Should some unlooked-for
+      chance relieve them from the presence of their foreign lord, they will
+      probably be quite incapable of profiting by the respite which fortune puts
+      in their way, or of making any effectual attempt to organize themselves in
+      view of future attacks. They tend to become split up into numerous rival
+      communities, of which even the pettiest will aim at autonomy, keeping up a
+      perpetual frontier war for the sake of becoming possessed of or of
+      retaining a glorious sovereignty over a few acres of corn in the plains,
+      or some wooded ravines in the mountains. Year after year there will be
+      scenes of bloody conflict, in which petty armies will fight petty battles
+      on behalf of petty interests, but so fiercely, and with such furious
+      animosity, that the country will suffer from the strife as much as, or
+      even more than, from an invasion. There will be no truce to their
+      struggles until they all fall under the sway of a foreign master, and,
+      except in the interval between two conquests, they will have no national
+      existence, their history being almost entirely merged in that of other
+      nations.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      From remote antiquity Syria was in the condition just described, and thus
+      destined to become subject to foreign rule. Chaldæa, Egypt, Assyria, and
+      Persia presided in turn over its destinies, while Macedonia and the
+      empires of the West were only waiting their opportunity to lay hold of it.
+      By its position it formed a kind of meeting-place where most of the
+      military nations of the ancient world were bound sooner or later to come
+      violently into collision. Confined between the sea and the desert, Syria
+      offers the only route of easy access to an army marching northwards from
+      Africa into Asia, and all conquerors, whether attracted to Mesopotamia or
+      to Egypt by the accumulated riches on the banks of the Euphrates or the
+      Nile, were obliged to pass through it in order to reach the object of
+      their cupidity. It might, perhaps, have escaped this fatal consequence of
+      its position, had the formation of the country permitted its tribes to
+      mass themselves together, and oppose a compact body to the invading hosts;
+      but the range of mountains which forms its backbone subdivides it into
+      isolated districts, and by thus restricting each tribe to a narrow
+      existence maintained among them a mutual antagonism. The twin chains, the
+      Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon, which divide the country down the centre,
+      are composed of the same kind of calcareous rocks and sandstone, while the
+      same sort of reddish clay has been deposited on their slopes by the
+      glaciers of the same geological period.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Drake remarked in the Lebanon several varieties of
+     limestone, which have been carefully catalogued by Blanche
+     and Lartet. Above these strata, which belong to the Jurassic
+     formation, come reddish sandstone, then beds of very hard
+     yellowish limestone, and finally marl. The name Lebanon, in
+     Assyrian Libnana, would appear to signify &ldquo;the white
+     mountain;&rdquo; the Amorites called the Anti-Lebanon Saniru,
+     Shenir, according to the Assyrian texts and the Hebrew
+     books.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Arid and bare on the northern side, they sent out towards the south
+      featureless monotonous ridges, furrowed here and there by short narrow
+      valleys, hollowed out in places into basins or funnel-shaped ravines,
+      which are widened year by year by the down-rush of torrents. These ridges,
+      as they proceed southwards, become clothed with verdure and offer a more
+      varied outline, the ravines being more thickly wooded, and the summits
+      less uniform in contour and colouring. Lebanon becomes white and
+      ice-crowned in winter, but none of its peaks rises to the altitude of
+      perpetual snows: the highest of them, Mount Timarun, reaches 10,526 feet,
+      while only three others exceed 9000.* Anti-Lebanon is, speaking generally,
+      1000 or 1300 feet lower than its neighbour: it becomes higher, however,
+      towards the south, where the triple peak of Mount Hermon rises to a height
+      of 9184 feet. The Orontes and the Litâny drain the intermediate space. The
+      Orontes rising on the west side of the Anti-Lebanon, near the ruins of
+      Baalbek, rushes northwards in such a violent manner, that the dwellers on
+      its banks call it the rebel&mdash;Nahr el-Asi.** About a third of the way
+      towards its mouth it enters a depression, which ancient dykes help to
+      transform into a lake; it flows thence, almost parallel to the sea-coast,
+      as far as the 36th degree of latitude. There it meets the last spurs of
+      the Amanos, but, failing to cut its way through them, it turns abruptly to
+      the west, and then to the south, falling into the Mediterranean after
+      having received an increase to its volume from the waters of the Afrîn.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Bukton-Drake, Unexplored Syria, vol. i. p. 88, attributed
+     to it an altitude of 9175 English feet; others estimate it
+     at 10,539 feet. The mountains which exceed 3000 metres are
+     Dahr el-Kozîb, 3046 metres; Jebel-Mislriyah, 3080 metres;
+     and Jebel-Makhmal or Makmal, 3040 metres. As a matter of
+     fact, these heights are not yet determined with the accuracy
+     desirable.
+
+     ** The Egyptians knew it in early times by the name of
+     Aûnrati, or Araûnti; it is mentioned in Assyrian
+     inscriptions under the name of Arantû. All are agreed in
+     acknowledging that this name is not Semitic, and an Aryan
+     origin is attributed to it, but without convincing proof;
+     according to Strabo (xvi. ii. § 7, p. 750), it was
+     originally called Typhon, and was only styled Orontes after
+     a certain Orontes had built the first bridge across it. The
+     name of Axios which it sometimes bears appears to have been
+     given to it by Greek colonists, in memory of a river in
+     Macedonia. This is probably the origin of the modern name of
+     Asi, and the meaning, <i>rebellious river</i>, which Arab
+     tradition attaches to the latter term, probably comes from a
+     popular etymology which likened Axios to Asi, the
+     identification was all the easier since it justifies the
+     epithet by the violence of its current.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Litâny rises a short distance from the Orontes; it flows at first
+      through a wide and fertile plain, which soon contracts, however, and
+      forces it into a channel between the spurs of the Lebanon and the Galilæan
+      hills. The water thence makes its way between two cliffs of perpendicular
+      rock, the ravine being in several places so narrow that the branches of
+      the trees on the opposite sides interlace, and an active man could readily
+      leap across it. Near Yakhmur some detached rocks appear to have been
+      arrested in their fall, and, leaning like flying buttresses against the
+      mountain face, constitute a natural bridge over the torrent. The basins of
+      the two rivers lie in one valley, extending eighty leagues in length,
+      divided by an almost imperceptible watershed into two beds of unequal
+      slope. The central part of the valley is given up to marshes. It is only
+      towards the south that we find cornfields, vineyards, plantations of
+      mulberry and olive trees, spread out over the plain, or disposed in
+      terraces on the hillsides. Towards the north, the alluvial deposits of,
+      the Orontes have gradually formed a black and fertile soil, upon which
+      grow luxuriant crops of cereals and other produce. Cole-Syria, after
+      having generously nourished the Oriental empires which had preyed upon
+      her, became one of the granaries of the Roman world, under the capable
+      rule of the Cæsars.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Syria is surrounded on all sides by countries of varying aspect and soil.
+      That to the north, flanked by the Amanos, is a gloomy mountainous region,
+      with its greatest elevation on the seaboard: it slopes gradually towards
+      the interior, spreading out into chalky table-lands, dotted over with bare
+      and rounded hills, and seamed with tortuous valleys which open out to the
+      Euphrates, the Orontes, or the desert. Vast, slightly undulating plains
+      succeed the table-lands: the soil is dry and stony, the streams are few in
+      number and contain but little water. The Sajur flows into the Euphrates,
+      the Afrîn and the Karasu when united yield their tribute to the Orontes,
+      while the others for the most part pour their waters into enclosed basins.
+      The Khalus of the Greeks sluggishly pursues its course southward, and
+      after reluctantly leaving the gardens of Aleppo, finally loses itself on
+      the borders of the desert in a small salt lake full of islets: about
+      halfway between the Khalus and the Euphrates a second salt lake receives
+      the Nahr ed-Dahab, the &ldquo;golden river.&rdquo; The climate is mild, and the
+      temperature tolerably uniform. The sea-breeze which rises every afternoon
+      tempers the summer heat: the cold in winter is never piercing, except when
+      the south wind blows which comes from the mountains, and the snow rarely
+      lies on the ground for more than twenty-four hours. It seldom rains during
+      the autumn and winter months, but frequent showers fall in the early days
+      of spring. Vegetation then awakes again, and the soil lends itself to
+      cultivation in the hollows of the valleys and on the table-lands wherever
+      irrigation is possible. The ancients dotted these now all but desert
+      spaces with wells and cisterns; they intersected them with canals, and
+      covered them with farms and villages, with fortresses and populous cities.
+      Primæval forests clothed the slopes of the Amanos, and pinewood from this
+      region was famous both at Babylon and in the towns of Lower Chaldæa. The
+      plains produced barley and wheat in enormous quantities, the vine throve
+      there, the gardens teemed with flowers and fruit, and pistachio and olive
+      trees grew on every slope. The desert was always threatening to invade the
+      plain, and gained rapidly upon it whenever a prolonged war disturbed
+      cultivation, or when the negligence of the inhabitants slackened the work
+      of defence: beyond the lakes and salt marshes it had obtained a secure
+      hold. At the present time the greater part of the country between the
+      Orontes and the Euphrates is nothing but a rocky table-land, ridged with
+      low hills and dotted over with some impoverished oases, excepting at the
+      foot of Anti-Lebanon, where two rivers, fed by innumerable streams, have
+      served to create a garden of marvellous beauty. The Barada, dashing from
+      cascade to cascade, flows for some distance through gorges before emerging
+      on the plain: scarcely has it reached level ground than it widens out,
+      divides, and forms around Damascus a miniature delta, into which a
+      thousand interlacing channels carry refreshment and fertility. Below the
+      town these streams rejoin the river, which, after having flowed merrily
+      along for a day&rsquo;s journey, is swallowed up in a kind of elongated chasm
+      from whence it never again emerges. At the melting of the snows a regular
+      lake is formed here, whose blue waters are surrounded by wide grassy
+      margins &ldquo;like a sapphire set in emeralds.&rdquo; This lake dries up almost
+      completely in summer, and is converted into swampy meadows, filled with
+      gigantic rushes, among which the birds build their nests, and multiply as
+      unmolested as in the marshes of Chaldæa. The Awaj, unfed by any tributary,
+      fills a second deeper though smaller basin, while to the south two other
+      lesser depressions receive the waters of the Anti-Lebanon and the Hauran.
+      Syria is protected from the encroachments of the desert by a continuous
+      barrier of pools and beds of reeds: towards the east the space reclaimed
+      resembles a verdant promontory thrust boldly out into an ocean of sand.
+      The extent of the cultivated area is limited on the west by the narrow
+      strip of rock and clay which forms the littoral. From the mouth of the
+      Litâny to that of the Orontes, the coast presents a rugged, precipitous,
+      and inhospitable appearance. There are no ports, and merely a few
+      ill-protected harbours, or narrow beaches lying under formidable
+      headlands. One river, the Nahr el-Kebir, which elsewhere would not attract
+      the traveller&rsquo;s attention, is here noticeable as being the only stream
+      whose waters flow constantly and with tolerable regularity; the others,
+      the Leon, the Adonis,* and the Nahr el-Kelb,* can scarcely even be called
+      torrents, being precipitated as it were in one leap from the Lebanon to
+      the Mediterranean. Olives, vines, and corn cover the maritime plain, while
+      in ancient times the heights were clothed with impenetrable forests of
+      oak, pine, larch, cypress, spruce, and cedar. The mountain range drops in
+      altitude towards the centre of the country and becomes merely a line of
+      low hills, connecting Gebel Ansarieh with the Lebanon proper; beyond the
+      latter it continues without interruption, till at length, above the narrow
+      Phoenician coast road, it rises in the form of an almost insurmountable
+      wall. Near to the termination of Coele-Syria, but separated from it by a
+      range of hills, there opens out on the western slopes of Hermon a valley
+      unlike any other in the world. At this point the surface of the earth has
+      been rent in prehistoric times by volcanic action, leaving a chasm which
+      has never since closed up. A river, unique in character&mdash;the Jordan&mdash;flows
+      down this gigantic crevasse, fertilizing the valley formed by it from end
+      to end.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Adonis of classical authors is now Nahr-Ibrahim. We
+     have as yet no direct evidence as to the Phoenician name of
+     this river; it was probably identical with that of the
+     divinity worshipped on its banks. The fact of a river
+     bearing the name of a god is not surprising: the Belos, in
+     the neighbourhood of Acre, affords us a parallel case to the
+     Adonis.
+
+     ** The present Nahr el-Kelb is the Lykos of classical
+     authors. The Due de Luynes thought he recognized a
+     corruption of the Phoenician name in that of Alcobile, which
+     is mentioned hereabouts in the Itinerary of the pilgrim of
+     Bordeaux. The order of the Itinerary does not favour this
+     identification, and Alcobile is probably Jebail: it is none
+     the less probable that the original name of the Nahr el Kelb
+     contained from earliest times the Phoenician equivalent of
+     the Arab word <i>kelb</i>, &ldquo;dog.&rdquo;
+
+     *** The Jordan is mentioned in the Egyptian texts under the
+     name of Yorduna: the name appears to mean <i>the descender,
+     the down-flowing.</i>
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Its principal source is at Tell el-Qadi, where it rises out of a basaltic
+      mound whose summit is crowned by the ruins of Laish.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This source is mentioned by Josephus as being that of the
+     Little Jordan.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/014.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="014.jpg the Most Northern Source of The Jordan, The Naiir-el-hasbany " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by the Duc de Luynes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The water collects in an oval rocky basin hidden by bushes, and flows down
+      among the brushwood to join the Nahr el-Hasbany, which brings the waters
+      of the upper torrents to swell its stream; a little lower down it mingles
+      with the Banias branch, and winds for some time amidst desolate marshy
+      meadows before disappearing in the thick beds of rushes bordering Lake
+      Huleh.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Lake Huleh is called the Waters of Merom, Mê-Merom, in the
+     Book of Joshua, xi. 5, 7; and Lake Sammochonitis in
+     Josephus. The name of Ulatha, which was given to the
+     surrounding country, shows that the modern word Huleh is
+     derived from an ancient form, of which unfortunately the
+     original has not come down to us.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/015.jpg" width="100%" alt="15.jpg Lake of Genesarath " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      At this point the Jordan reaches the level of the Mediterranean, but
+      instead of maintaining it, the river makes a sudden drop on leaving the
+      lake, cutting for itself a deeply grooved channel. It has a fall of some
+      300 feet before reaching the Lake of Grenesareth, where it is only
+      momentarily arrested, as if to gather fresh strength for its headlong
+      career southwards.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/017.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="017.jpg One of the Reaches Of The Jordan " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from several photographs brought back by
+     Lortet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Here and there it makes furious assaults on its right and left banks, as
+      if to escape from its bed, but the rocky escarpments which hem it in
+      present an insurmountable barrier to it; from rapid to rapid it descends
+      with such capricious windings that it covers a course of more than 62
+      miles before reaching, the Dead Sea, nearly 1300 feet below the level of
+      the Mediterranean.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The exact figures are: the Lake of Hûleh 7 feet above the
+     Mediterranean; the Lake of Genesareth 68245 feet, and the
+     Dead Sea 1292 feet below the sea-level; to the south of
+     the Dead Sea, towards the water-parting of the Akabah, the
+     ground is over 720 feet higher than the level of the Red
+     Sea.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/018.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="018.jpg the Dead Sea and The Mountains of Moab, Seen Fkom The Heights of Engedi " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by the Duc de Luynes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nothing could offer more striking contrasts than the country on either
+      bank. On the east, the ground rises abruptly to a height of about 3000
+      feet, resembling a natural rampart flanked with towers and bastions:
+      behind this extends an immense table-land, slightly undulating and
+      intersected in all directions by the affluents of the Jordan and the Dead
+      Sea&mdash;the Yarmuk,* the Jabbok,** and the Arnon.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Yarmuk does not occur in the Bible, but we meet with
+     its name in the Talmud, and the Greeks adopted it under the
+     form Hieromax.
+
+     ** <i>Gen.</i> xxxii. 22; Numb, xxi. 24. The name has been
+     Grecized under the forms lôbacchos, labacchos, Iambykes. It
+     is the present Nahr Zerqa.
+
+     *** <i>Numb.</i> xxi. 13-26; Beut. ii. 24; the present Wady
+     Môjib. [Shephelah = &ldquo;low country,&rdquo; plain (Josh. xi. 16).
+     With the article it means the plain along the Mediterranean
+     from Joppa to Gaza.&mdash;Te.]
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The whole of this district forms a little world in itself, whose
+      inhabitants, half shepherds, half bandits, live a life of isolation, with
+      no ambition to take part in general history. West of the Jordan, a
+      confused mass of hills rises into sight, their sparsely covered slopes
+      affording an impoverished soil for the cultivation of corn, vines, and
+      olives. One ridge&mdash;Mount Carmel&mdash;detached from the principal
+      chain near the southern end of the Lake of Genesareth, runs obliquely to
+      the north-west, and finally projects into the sea. North of this range
+      extends Galilee, abounding in refreshing streams and fertile fields; while
+      to the south, the country falls naturally into three parallel zones&mdash;the
+      littoral, composed alternately of dunes and marshes&mdash;an expanse of
+      plain, a &ldquo;Shephelah,&rdquo; dotted about with woods and watered by intermittent
+      rivers,&mdash;and finally the mountains. The region of dunes is not
+      necessarily barren, and the towns situated in it&mdash;Gaza, Jaffa,
+      Ashdod, and Ascalon&mdash;are surrounded by flourishing orchards and
+      gardens. The plain yields plentiful harvests every year, the ground
+      needing no manure and very little labour. The higher ground and the
+      hill-tops are sometimes covered with verdure, but as they advance
+      southwards, they become denuded and burnt by the sun. The valleys, too,
+      are watered only by springs, which are dried up for the most part during
+      the summer, and the soil, parched by the continuous heat, can scarcely be
+      distinguished from the desert. In fact, till the Sinaitic Peninsula and
+      the frontiers of Egypt are reached, the eye merely encounters desolate and
+      almost uninhabited solitudes, devastated by winter torrents, and
+      overshadowed by the volcanic summits of Mount Seir. The spring rains,
+      however, cause an early crop of vegetation to spring up, which for a few
+      weeks furnishes the flocks of the nomad tribes with food.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We may summarise the physical characteristics of Syria by saying that
+      Nature has divided the country into five or six regions of unequal area,
+      isolated by rivers and mountains, each one of which, however, is admirably
+      suited to become the seat of a separate independent state. In the north,
+      we have the country of the two rivers&mdash;the Naharaim&mdash;extending
+      from the Orontes to the Euphrates and the Balikh, or even as far as the
+      Khabur:* in the centre, between the two ranges of the Lebanon, lie
+      Coele-Syria and its two unequal neighbours, Aram of Damascus and
+      Phoenicia; while to the south is the varied collection of provinces
+      bordering the valley of the Jordan.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Naharaim of the Egyptians was first identified with
+     Mesopotamia; it was located between the Orontes and the
+     Balikh or the Euphrates by Maspero. This opinion is now
+     adopted by the majority of Egyptologists, with slight
+     differences in detail. Ed. Meyer has accurately compared the
+     Egyptian Naharaim with the Parapotamia of the administration
+     of the Seleucidæ.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is impossible at the present day to assert, with any approach to
+      accuracy, what peoples inhabited these different regions towards the
+      fourth millennium before our era. Wherever excavations are made, relics
+      are brought to light of a very ancient semi-civilization, in which we find
+      stone weapons and implements, besides pottery, often elegant in contour,
+      but for the most part coarse in texture and execution. These remains,
+      however, are not accompanied by any monument of definite characteristics,
+      and they yield no information with regard to the origin or affinities of
+      the tribes who fashioned them.* The study of the geographical nomenclature
+      in use about the XVIth century B.C. reveals the existence, at all events
+      at that period, of several peoples and several languages. The mountains,
+      rivers, towns, and fortresses in Palestine and Coele-Syria are designated
+      by words of Semitic origin: it is easy to detect, even in the hieroglyphic
+      disguise which they bear on the Egyptian geographical lists, names
+      familiar to us in Hebrew or Assyrian.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Researches with regard to the primitive inhabitants of
+     Syria and their remains have not as yet been prosecuted to
+     any extent. The caves noticed by Hedenborg at Ant-Elias,
+     near Tripoli, and by Botta at Nahr el-Kelb, and at Adlun by
+     the Duc de Luynes, have been successively explored by
+     Lartet, Tristram, Lortet, and Dawson. The grottoes of
+     Palestine proper, at Bethzur, at Gilgal near Jericho, and at
+     Tibneh, have been the subject of keen controversy ever since
+     their discovery. The Abbé Richard desired to identify the
+     flints of Gilgal and Tibneh with the stone knives used by
+     Joshua for the circumcision of the Israelites after the
+     passage of the Jordan (<i>Josh.</i> v- 2-9), some of which might
+     have been buried in that hero&rsquo;s tomb.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But once across the Orontes, other forms present themselves which reveal
+      no affinities to these languages, but are apparently connected with one or
+      other of the dialects of Asia Minor.* The tenacity with which the
+      place-names, once given, cling to the soil, leads us to believe that a
+      certain number at least of those we know in Syria were in use there long
+      before they were noted down by the Egyptians, and that they must have been
+      heirlooms from very early peoples. As they take a Semitic or non-Semitic
+      form according to their geographical position, we may conclude that the
+      centre and south were colonized by Semites, and the north by the immigrant
+      tribes from beyond the Taurus. Facts are not wanting to support this
+      conclusion, and they prove that it is not so entirely arbitrary as we
+      might be inclined to believe. The Asiatic visitors who, under a king of
+      the XIIth dynasty, came to offer gifts to Khnûmhotpû, the Lord of
+      Beni-Hasan, are completely Semitic in type, and closely resemble the
+      Bedouins of the present day. Their chief&mdash;Abisha&mdash;bears a
+      Semitic name,** as too does the Sheikh Ammianshi, with whom Sinûhit took
+      refuge.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The non-Semitic origin of the names of a number of towns
+     in Northern Syria preserved in the Egyptian lists, is
+     admitted by the majority of scholars who have studied the
+     question.
+
+     ** His name has been shown to be cognate with the Hebrew
+     Abishai (1 Sam. xxvi. 6-9; 2 Sam. ii. 18, 24; xxi. 17) and
+     with the Chaldæo-Assyrian Abeshukh.
+
+     *** The name Ammianshi at once recalls those of Ammisatana,
+     Ammiza-dugga, and perhaps Ammurabi, or Khammurabi, of one of
+     the Babylonian dynasties; it contains, with the element
+     Ammi, a final <i>anshi</i>. Chabas connects it with two Hebrew
+     words <i>Am-nesh</i>, which he does not translate.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ammianshi himself reigned over the province of Kadimâ, a word which in
+      Semitic denotes the East. Finally, the only one of their gods known to us,
+      Hadad, was a Semite deity, who presided over the atmosphere, and whom we
+      find later on ruling over the destinies of Damascus. Peoples of Semitic
+      speech and religion must, indeed, have already occupied the greater part
+      of that region on the shores of the Mediterranean which we find still in
+      their possession many centuries later, at the time of the Egyptian
+      conquest.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/023.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="023.jpg Asiatic Women from the Tomb of KhnÛmhotpÛ " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      For a time Egypt preferred not to meddle in their affairs. When, however,
+      the &ldquo;lords of the sands&rdquo; grew too insolent, the Pharaoh sent a column of
+      light troops against them, and inflicted on them such a severe punishment,
+      that the remembrance of it kept them within bounds for years. Offenders
+      banished from Egypt sought refuge with the turbulent kinglets, who were in
+      a perpetual state of unrest between Sinai and the Dead Sea. Egyptian
+      sailors used to set out to traffic along the seaboard, taking to piracy
+      when hard pressed; Egyptian merchants were accustomed to penetrate by easy
+      stages into the interior. The accounts they gave of their journeys were
+      not reassuring. The traveller had first to face the solitudes which
+      confronted him before reaching the Isthmus, and then to avoid as best he
+      might the attacks of the pillaging tribes who inhabited it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/024.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="024.jpg Two Asiatics Fkom the Tomb of KhnÛmhoptÛ. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Should he escape these initial perils, the Amu&mdash;an agricultural and
+      settled people inhabiting the fertile region&mdash;would give the stranger
+      but a sorry reception: he would have to submit to their demands, and the
+      most exorbitant levies of toll did not always preserve caravans from their
+      attacks.* The country seems to have been but thinly populated; tracts now
+      denuded were then covered by large forests in which herds of elephants
+      still roamed,** and wild beasts, including lions and leopards, rendered
+      the route through them dangerous.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The merchant who sets out for foreign lands &ldquo;leaves his
+     possessions to his children&mdash;for fear of lions and
+     Asiatics.&rdquo;
+
+     ** Thûtmosis III. went elephant-hunting near the Syrian town
+     of Niî.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The notion that Syria was a sort of preserve for both big and small game
+      was so strongly implanted in the minds of the Egyptians, that their
+      popular literature was full of it: the hero of their romances betook
+      himself there for the chase, as a prelude to meeting with the princess
+      whom he was destined to marry,* or, as in the case of Kazarâti, chief of
+      Assur, that he might encounter there a monstrous hyena with which to
+      engage in combat.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * As, for instance, the hero in the <i>Story of the
+     Predestined Prince</i>, exiled from Egypt with his dog, pursues
+     his way hunting till he reaches the confines of Naharaim,
+     where he is to marry the prince&rsquo;s daughter.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These merchants&rsquo; adventures and explorations, as they were not followed by
+      any military expedition, left absolutely no mark on the industries or
+      manners of the primitive natives: those of them only who were close to the
+      frontiers of Egypt came under her subtle charm and felt the power of her
+      attraction, but this slight influence never penetrated beyond the
+      provinces lying nearest to the Dead Sea. The remaining populations looked
+      rather to Chaldæa, and received, though at a distance, the continuous
+      impress of the kingdoms of the Euphrates. The tradition which attributes
+      to Sargon of Agadê, and to his son Istaramsin, the subjection of the
+      people of the Amanos and the Orontes, probably contains but a slight
+      element of truth; but if, while awaiting further information, we hesitate
+      to believe that the armies of these princes ever crossed the Lebanon or
+      landed in Cyprus, we must yet admit the very early advent of their
+      civilization in those western countries which are regarded as having been
+      under their rule. More than three thousand years before our era, the
+      Asiatics who figure on the tomb of Khnûmhotpû clothed themselves according
+      to the fashions of Uru and Lagash, and affected long robes of striped and
+      spotted stuffs. We may well ask if they had also borrowed the cuneiform
+      syllabary for the purposes of their official correspondence,* and if the
+      professional scribe with his stylus and clay tablet was to be found in
+      their cities. The Babylonian courtiers were, no doubt, more familiar
+      visitors among them than the Memphite nobles, while the Babylonian kings
+      sent regularly to Syria for statuary stone, precious metals, and the
+      timber required in the building of their monuments: Urbau and Gudea, as
+      well as their successors and contemporaries, received large convoys of
+      materials from the Amanos, and if the forests of Lebanon were more rarely
+      utilised, it was not because their existence was unknown, but because
+      distance rendered their approach more difficult and transport more costly.
+      The Mediterranean marches were, in their language, classed as a whole
+      under one denomination&mdash;Martu, Amurru,** the West&mdash;but there
+      were distinctive names for each of the provinces into which they were
+      divided.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The most ancient cuneiform tablets of Syrian origin are
+     not older than the XVIth century before our era; they
+     contain the official, correspondence of the native princes
+     with the Pharaohs Amenôthes III. and IV. of the XVIIIth
+     dynasty, as will be seen later on in this volume; they were
+     discovered in the ruins of one of the palaces at Tel el-
+     Amarna in Egypt.
+
+     ** Formerly read Akharru. Martu would be the Sumerian and
+     Akharru the Semitic form, Akharru meaning <i>that which is
+     behind</i>. The discovery of the Tel el-Amarna tablets threw
+     doubt on the reading of the name Akharru: some thought that
+     it ought to be kept in any case; others, with more or less
+     certainty, think that it should be replaced by Amuru,
+     Amurru, the country of the Amorites. But the question has
+     now been settled by Babylonian contract and law tablets of
+     the period of Khaminurabi, in which the name is written <i>A-
+     mu-ur-ri (ki)</i>. Hommel originated the idea that Martu might
+     be an abbreviation of Amartu, that is, Amar with the
+     feminine termination of nouns in the Canaanitish dialect:
+     Martu would thus actually signify <i>the country of the
+     Amorites</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Probably even at that date they called the north Khati,* and Cole-Syria,
+      Amurru, the land of the Amorites. The scattered references in their
+      writings seem to indicate frequent intercourse with these countries, and
+      that, too, as a matter of course which excited no surprise among their
+      contemporaries: a journey from Lagash to the mountains of Tidanum and to
+      Gubin, or to the Lebanon and beyond it to Byblos,** meant to them no
+      voyage of discovery. Armies undoubtedly followed the routes already
+      frequented by caravans and flotillas of trading boats, and the time came
+      when kings desired to rule as sovereigns over nations with whom their
+      subjects had peaceably traded.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of the Khati, Khatti, is found in the <i>Book of
+     Omens</i>, which is supposed to contain an extract from the
+     annals of Sargon and Naramsin; as, however, the text which
+     we possess of it is merely a copy of the time of
+     Assurbanipal, it is possible that the word Khati is merely
+     the translation of a more ancient term, perhaps Martu.
+     Winckler thinks it to be included in Lesser Armenia and the
+     Melitônê of classical authors.
+
+     ** Gubin is probably the Kûpûna, Kûpnû, of the Egyptians,
+     the Byblos of Phoenicia. Amiaud had proposed a most unlikely
+     identification with Koptos in Egypt. In the time of Inê-Sin,
+     King of Ur, mention is found of Simurru, Zimyra.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It does not appear, however, that the ancient rulers of Lagash ever
+      extended their dominion so far. The governors of the northern cities, on
+      the other hand, showed themselves more energetic, and inaugurated that
+      march westwards which sooner or later brought the peoples of the Euphrates
+      into collision with the dwellers on the Nile: for the first Babylonian
+      empire without doubt comprised part if not the whole of Syria.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It is only since the discovery of the Tel el-Amarna
+     tablets that the fact of the dominant influence of Chaldæa
+     over Syria and of its conquest has been definitely realized.
+     It is now clear that the state of things of which the
+     tablets discovered in Egypt give us a picture, could only be
+     explained by the hypothesis of a Babylonish supremacy of
+     long duration over the peoples situated between the
+     Euphrates and the Mediterranean.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Among the most celebrated names in ancient history, that of Babylon is
+      perhaps the only one which still suggests to our minds a sense of vague
+      magnificence and undefined dominion. Cities in other parts of the world,
+      it is true, have rivalled Babylon in magnificence and power: Egypt could
+      boast of more than one such city, and their ruins to this day present to
+      our gaze more monuments worthy of admiration than Babylon ever contained
+      in the days of her greatest prosperity. The pyramids of Memphis and the
+      colossal statues of Thebes still stand erect, while the ziggurâts and the
+      palaces of Chaldæa are but mounds of clay crumbling into the plain; but
+      the Egyptian monuments are visible and tangible objects; we can calculate
+      to within a few inches the area they cover and the elevation of their
+      summits, and the very precision with which we can gauge their enormous
+      size tends to limit and lessen their effect upon us. How is it possible to
+      give free rein to the imagination when the subject of it is strictly
+      limited by exact and determined measurements? At Babylon, on the contrary,
+      there is nothing remaining to check the flight of fancy: a single hillock,
+      scoured by the rains of centuries, marks the spot where the temple of Bel
+      stood erect in its splendour; another represents the hanging gardens,
+      while the ridges running to the right and left were once the ramparts.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/029.jpg" width="100%" alt="029.jpg the Ruins of Babylon " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a drawing reproduced in Hofer. It
+     shows the state of the ruins in the first half of our
+     century, before the excavations carried out at European
+     instigation.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The vestiges of a few buildings remain above the mounds of rubble, and as
+      soon as the pickaxe is applied to any spot, irregular layers of bricks,
+      enamelled tiles, and inscribed tablets are brought to light&mdash;in fine,
+      all those numberless objects which bear witness to the presence of man and
+      to his long sojourn on the spot. But these vestiges are so mutilated and
+      disfigured that the principal outlines of the buildings cannot be
+      determined with any certainty, and afford us no data for guessing their
+      dimensions. He who would attempt to restore the ancient appearance of the
+      place would find at his disposal nothing but vague indications, from which
+      he might draw almost any conclusion he pleased.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0012" id="linkimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/030.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="030.jpg Plan of the Ruins Of Babylon " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Prepared by Thuillier, from a plan reproduced in G.
+     Rawlinson, <i>Herodotus</i>
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Palaces and temples would take a shape in his imagination on a plan which
+      never entered the architect&rsquo;s mind; the sacred towers as they rose would
+      be disposed in more numerous stages than they actually possessed; the
+      enclosing walls would reach such an elevation that they must have quickly
+      fallen under their own weight if they had ever been carried so high: the
+      whole restoration, accomplished without any certain data, embodies the
+      concept of something vast and superhuman, well befitting the city of blood
+      and tears, cursed by the Hebrew prophets. Babylon was, however, at the
+      outset, but a poor town, situated on both banks of the Euphrates, in a
+      low-lying, flat district, intersected by canals and liable at times to
+      become marshy. The river at this point runs almost directly north and
+      south, between two banks of black mud, the base of which it is perpetually
+      undermining. As long as the city existed, the vertical thrust of the
+      public buildings and houses kept the river within bounds, and even since
+      it was finally abandoned, the masses of <i>debris</i> have almost
+      everywhere had the effect of resisting its encroachment; towards the
+      north, however, the line of its ancient quays has given way and sunk
+      beneath the waters, while the stream, turning its course westwards, has
+      transferred to the eastern bank the gardens and mounds originally on the
+      opposite side. E-sagilla, the temple of the lofty summit, the sanctuary of
+      Merodach, probably occupied the vacant space in the depression between the
+      Babil and the hill of the Kasr.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The temple of Merodach, called by the Greeks the temple of
+     Belos, has been placed on the site called Babîl by the two
+     Rawlinsons; and by Oppert; Hormuzd Rassam and Fr. Delitzsch
+     locate it between the hill of Junjuma and the Kasr, and
+     considers Babîl to be a palace of Nebuchadrezzar.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In early times it must have presented much the same appearance as the
+      sanctuaries of Central Chaldæa: a mound of crude brick formed the
+      substructure of the dwellings of the priests and the household of the god,
+      of the shops for the offerings and for provisions, of the treasury, and of
+      the apartments for purification or for sacrifice, while the whole was
+      surmounted by a ziggurât. On other neighbouring platforms rose the royal
+      palace and the temples of lesser divinities,* elevated above the crowd of
+      private habitations.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * As, for instance, the temple E-temenanki on the actual
+     hill of Amrân-ibn-Ali, the temple of Shamash, and others,
+     which there will be occasion to mention later on in dealing
+     with the second Chaldæan empire.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0013" id="linkimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/032.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="032.jpg the Kask Seen from The South " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from the engraving by Thomas in Perrot-
+     Chipiez.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The houses of the people were closely built around these stately piles, on
+      either side of narrow lanes. A massive wall surrounded the whole, shutting
+      out the view on all sides; it even ran along the bank of the Euphrates,
+      for fear of a surprise from that quarter, and excluded the inhabitants
+      from the sight of their own river. On the right bank rose a suburb, which
+      was promptly fortified and enlarged, so as to become a second Babylon,
+      almost equalling the first in extent and population.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0014" id="linkimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/033.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="033.jpg the Tell of Borsippa, The Present Birs-nimrud " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after the plate published in
+     Ohesney.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Beyond this, on the outskirts, extended gardens and fields, finding at
+      length their limit at the territorial boundaries of two other towns, Kutha
+      and Borsippa, whose black outlines are visible to the east and south-west
+      respectively, standing isolated above the plain. Sippara on the north,
+      Nippur on the south, and the mysterious Agadê, completed the circle of
+      sovereign states which so closely hemmed in the city of Bel. We may
+      surmise with all probability that the history of Babylon in early times
+      resembled in the main that of the Egyptian Thebes. It was a small
+      seigneury in the hands of petty princes ceaselessly at war with petty
+      neighbours: bloody struggles, with alternating successes and reverses,
+      were carried on for centuries with no decisive results, until the day came
+      when some more energetic or fortunate dynasty at length crushed its
+      rivals, and united under one rule first all the kingdoms of Northern and
+      finally those of Southern Chaldæa.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The lords of Babylon had, ordinarily, a twofold function, religious and
+      military, the priest at first taking precedence of the soldier, but
+      gradually yielding to the latter as the town increased in power. They were
+      merely the priestly representatives or administrators of Babel&mdash;<i>shakannaku
+      Babili</i>&mdash;and their authority was not considered legitimate until
+      officially confirmed by the god. Each ruler was obliged to go in state to
+      the temple of Bel Merodach within a year of his accession: there he had to
+      take the hands of the divine statue, just as a vassal would do homage to
+      his liege, and those only of the native sovereigns or the foreign
+      conquerors could legally call themselves Kings of Babylon&mdash;<i>sharru
+      Babili</i>&mdash;who had not only performed this rite, but renewed it
+      annually.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The meaning of the ceremony in which the kings of Babylon
+     &ldquo;took the hands of Bel&rdquo; has been given by Winckler; Tiele
+     compares it very aptly with the rite performed by the
+     Egyptian kings&mdash;at Heliopolis, for example, when they
+     entered alone the sanctuary of Râ, and there contemplated
+     the god face to face. The rite was probably repeated
+     annually, at the time of the Zakmuku, that is, the New Year
+     festival.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Sargon the Elder had lived in Babylon, and had built himself a palace
+      there: hence the tradition of later times attributed to this city the
+      glory of having been the capital of the great empire founded by the
+      Akkadian dynasties. The actual sway of Babylon, though arrested to the
+      south by the petty states of Lower Chaldæa, had not encountered to the
+      north or north-west any enemy to menace seriously its progress in that
+      semi-fabulous period of its history. The vast plain extending between the
+      Euphrates and the Tigris is as it were a continuation of the Arabian
+      desert, and is composed of a grey, or in parts a whitish, soil impregnated
+      with selenite and common salt, and irregularly superimposed upon a bed of
+      gypsum, from which asphalt oozes up here and there, forming slimy pits.
+      Frost is of rare occurrence in winter, and rain is infrequent at any
+      season; the sun soon burns up the scanty herbage which the spring showers
+      have encouraged, but fleshy plants successfully resist its heat, such as
+      the common salsola, the salsola soda, the pallasia, a small mimosa, and a
+      species of very fragrant wormwood, forming together a vari-coloured
+      vegetation which gives shelter to the ostrich and the wild ass, and
+      affords the flocks of the nomads a grateful pasturage when the autumn has
+      set in. The Euphrates bounds these solitudes, but without watering them.
+      The river flows, as far as the eye can see, between two ranges of rock or
+      bare hills, at the foot of which a narrow strip of alluvial soil supports
+      rows of date-palms intermingled here and there with poplars, sumachs, and
+      willows. Wherever there is a break in the two cliffs, or where they recede
+      from the river, a series of shadufs takes possession of the bank, and
+      every inch of the soil is brought under cultivation. The aspect of the
+      country remains unchanged as far as the embouchure of the Khabur; but
+      there a black alluvial soil replaces the saliferous clay, and if only the
+      water were to remain on the land in sufficient quantity, the country would
+      be unrivalled in the world for the abundance and variety of its crops.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0015" id="linkimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/036.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="036.jpg the Banks of The Euphrates at Zuleibeh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from the plate in Chesney.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The fields, which are regularly sown in the neighbourhood of the small
+      towns, yield magnificent harvests of wheat and barley: while in the
+      prairie-land beyond the cultivated ground the grass grows so high that it
+      comes up to the horses&rsquo; girths. In some places the meadows are so covered
+      with varieties of flowers, growing in dense masses, that the effect
+      produced is that of a variegated carpet; dogs sent in among them in search
+      of game, emerge covered with red, blue, and yellow pollen. This fragrant
+      prairie-land is the delight of bees, which produce excellent and abundant
+      honey, while the vine and olive find there a congenial soil. The
+      population was unequally distributed in this region. Some half-savage
+      tribes were accustomed to wander over the plain, dwelling in tents, and
+      supporting life by the chase and by the rearing of cattle; but the bulk of
+      the inhabitants were concentrated around the affluents of the Euphrates
+      and Tigris, or at the foot of the northern mountains wherever springs
+      could be found, as in Assur, Singar, Nisibis, Tilli,* Kharranu, and in all
+      the small fortified towns and nameless townlets whose ruins are scattered
+      over the tract of country between the Khabur and the Balikh. Kharranu, or
+      Harran, stood, like an advance guard of Chaldæan civilization, near the
+      frontiers of Syria and Asia Minor.** To the north it commanded the passes
+      which opened on to the basins of the Upper Euphrates and Tigris; it
+      protected the roads leading to the east and south-east in the direction of
+      the table-land of Iran and the Persian Gulf, and it was the key to the
+      route by which the commerce of Babylon reached the countries lying around
+      the Mediterranean. We have no means of knowing what affinities as regards
+      origin or race connected it with Uru, but the same moon-god presided over
+      the destinies of both towns, and the Sin of Harran enjoyed in very early
+      times a renown nearly equal to that of his namesake.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Tilli, the only one of these towns mentioned with any
+     certainty in the inscriptions of the first Chaldæan empire,
+     is the Tela of classical authors, and probably the present
+     Werânshaher, near the sources of the Balikh.
+
+     ** Kharranu was identified by the earlier Assyriologists
+     with the Harran of the Hebrews (<i>Gen.</i> v. 12), the Carrhse
+     of classical authors, and this identification is still
+     generally accepted.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was worshipped under the symbol of a conical stone, probably an
+      aerolite, surmounted by a gilded crescent, and the ground-plan of the town
+      roughly described a crescent-shaped curve in honour of its patron. His
+      cult, even down to late times, was connected with cruel practices;
+      generations after the advent to power of the Abbasside caliphs, his
+      faithful worshippers continued to sacrifice to him human victims, whose
+      heads, prepared according to the ancient rite, were accustomed to give
+      oracular responses.* The government of the surrounding country was in the
+      hands of princes who were merely vicegerents:** Chaldæan civilization
+      before the beginnings of history had more or less laid hold of them, and
+      made them willing subjects to the kings of Babylon.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Without seeking to specify exactly which were the
+     doctrines introduced into Harranian religion subsequently to
+     the Christian era, we may yet affirm that the base of this
+     system of faith was merely a very distorted form of the
+     ancient Chaldæan worship practised in the town.
+
+     ** Only one vicegerent of Mesopotamia is known at present,
+     and he belongs to the Assyrian epoch. His seal is preserved
+     in the British Museum.
+
+     *** The importance of Harran in the development of the
+     history of the first Chaldæan empire was pointed out by
+     Winckler; but the theory according to which this town was
+     the capital of the kingdom, called by the Chaldæan and
+     Assyrian scribes &ldquo;the kingdom of the world,&rdquo; is justly
+     combated by Tiele.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These sovereigns were probably at the outset somewhat obscure personages,
+      without much prestige, being sometimes independent and sometimes subject
+      to the rulers of neighbouring states, among others to those of Agadê. In
+      later times, when Babylon had attained to universal power, and it was
+      desired to furnish her kings with a continuous history, the names of these
+      earlier rulers were sought out, and added to those of such foreign princes
+      as had from time to time enjoyed the sovereignty over them&mdash;thus
+      forming an interminable list which for materials and authenticity would
+      well compare with that of the Thinite Pharaohs. This list has come down to
+      us incomplete, and its remains do not permit of our determining the exact
+      order of reigns, or the status of the individuals who composed it. We find
+      in it, in the period immediately subsequent to the Deluge, mention of
+      mythical heroes, followed by names which are still semi-legendary, such as
+      Sargon the Elder; the princes of the series were, however, for the most
+      part real beings, whose memories had been preserved by tradition, or whose
+      monuments were still existing in certain localities. Towards the end of
+      the XXVth century before our era, however, a dynasty rose into power of
+      which all the members come within the range of history.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This dynasty, which is known to us in its entirety by the
+     two lists of G. Smith and by Pinches, was legitimately
+     composed of only eleven kings, and was known as the
+     Babylonian dynasty, although Sayce suspects it to be of
+     Arabian origin. It is composed as follows:&mdash;
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0016" id="linkimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/039.jpg" width="100%" alt="039.jpg Table " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The dates of this dynasty are not fixed with entire certainty. The first
+      of them, Sumuabîm, has left us some contracts bearing the dates of one or
+      other of the fifteen years of his reign, and documents of public or
+      private interest abound in proportion as we follow down the line of his
+      successors. Sumulaîlu, who reigned after him, was only distantly related
+      to his predecessor; but from Sumulaîlu to Sam-shusatana the kingly power
+      was transmitted from father to son without a break for nine generations,
+      if we may credit the testimony of the official lists.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Simulaîlu, also written Samu-la-ilu, whom Mr. Pinches has
+     found in a contract tablet associated with Pungunila as
+     king, was not the son of Sumuabîm, since the lists do not
+     mention him as such; he must, however, have been connected
+     with some sort of relationship, or by marriage, with his
+     predecessor, since both are placed in the same dynasty. A
+     few contracts of Sumulaîlu are given by Meissner. Samsuiluna
+     calls him &ldquo;my forefather (d-gula-mu), the fifth king before
+     me.&rdquo;
+
+     Hommel believes that the order of the dynasties has been
+     reversed, and that the first upon the lists we possess was
+     historically the second; he thus places the Babylonian
+     dynasty between 2035 and 1731 B.C. His opinion has not been
+     generally adopted, but every Assyriologist dealing with this
+     period proposes a different date for the reigns in this
+     dynasty; to take only one characteristic example, Khammurabi
+     is placed by Oppert in the year 2394-2339, by Delitzsch-
+     Murdter in 2287-2232, by Winckler in 2264-2210, and by
+     Peiser in 2139-2084, and by Carl Niebuhr in 2081-2026.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Contemporary records, however, prove that the course of affairs did not
+      always run so smoothly. They betray the existence of at least one usurper&mdash;Immêru&mdash;who,
+      even if he did not assume the royal titles, enjoyed the supreme power for
+      several years between the reigns of Zabu and Abilsin. The lives of these
+      rulers closely resembled those of their contemporaries of Southern
+      Chaldæa. They dredged the ancient canals, or constructed new ones; they
+      restored the walls of their fortresses, or built fresh strongholds on the
+      frontier;* they religiously kept the festivals of the divinities belonging
+      to their terrestrial domain, to whom they annually rendered solemn homage.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Sumulaîlu had built six such large strongholds of brick,
+     which were repaired by Samsuiluna five generations later. A
+     contract of Sinmuballit is dated the year in which he built
+     the great wall of a strong place, the name of which is
+     unfortunately illegible on the fragment which we possess.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They repaired the temples as a matter of course, and enriched them
+      according to their means; we even know that Zabu, the third in order of
+      the line of sovereigns, occupied himself in building the sanctuary Eulbar
+      of Anunit, in Sippara. There is evidence that they possessed the small
+      neighbouring kingdoms of Kishu, Sippara, and Kuta, and that they had
+      consolidated them into a single state, of which Babylon was the capital.
+      To the south their possessions touched upon those of the kings of Uru, but
+      the frontier was constantly shifting, so that at one time an important
+      city such as Nippur belonged to them, while at another it fell under the
+      dominion of the southern provinces. Perpetual war was waged in the narrow
+      borderland which separated the two rival states, resulting apparently in
+      the balance of power being kept tolerably equal between them under the
+      immediate successors of Sumuabîm* &mdash;the obscure Sumulaîlu, Zabum, the
+      usurper Immeru, Abîlsin and Sinmuballit&mdash;until the reign of
+      Khammurabi (the son of Sinmuballit), who finally made it incline to his
+      side.** The struggle in which he was engaged, and which, after many
+      vicissitudes, he brought to a successful issue, was the more decisive,
+      since he had to contend against a skilful and energetic adversary who had
+      considerable forces at his disposal. Birnsin*** was, in reality, of
+      Elamite race, and as he held the province of Yamutbal in appanage, he was
+      enabled to muster, in addition to his Chaldæan battalions, the army of
+      foreigners who had conquered the maritime regions at the mouth of the
+      Tigris and the Euphrates.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * None of these facts are as yet historically proved: we
+     may, however, conjecture with some probability what was the
+     general state of things, when we remember that the first
+     kings of Babylon were contemporaries of the last independent
+     sovereigns of Southern Chaldæa.
+
+     ** The name of this prince has been read in several ways&mdash;
+     Hammurabi, Khammurabi, by the earlier Assyriologists,
+     subsequently Hammuragash, Khammuragash, as being of Elamite
+     or Cossoan extraction: the reading Khammurabi is at present
+     the prevailing one. The bilingual list published by Pinches
+     makes Khammurabi an equivalent of the Semitic names Kimta-
+     rapashtum. Hence Halévy concluded that Khammurabi was a
+     series of ideograms, and that Kimtarapashtum was the true
+     reading of the name; his proposal, partially admitted by
+     Hommel, furnishes us with a mixed reading of Khammurapaltu,
+     Amraphel. [Hommel is now convinced of the identity of the
+     Amraphel of <i>Gen.</i> xiv. I with Khammurabi.&mdash;Te.] Sayce,
+     moreover, adopts the reading Khammurabi, and assigns to him
+     an Arabian origin. The part played by this prince was
+     pointed out at an early date by Menant. Recent discoveries
+     have shown the important share which he had in developing
+     the Chaldæan empire, and have, increased his reputation with
+     Assyriologists.
+
+     *** The name of this king has been the theme of heated
+     discussions: it was at first pronounced Aradsin, Ardusin, or
+     Zikarsin; it is now read in several different ways&mdash;Rimsin,
+     or Eriaku, Riaku, Rimagu. Others have made a distinction
+     between the two forms, and have made out of them the names
+     of two different kings. They are all variants of the same
+     name. I have adopted the form Rimsin, which is preferred by
+     a few Assyriologists. [The tablets recently discovered by
+     Mr. Pinches, referring to Kudur-lagamar and Tudkhula, which
+     he has published in a Paper road before the Victoria
+     Institute, Jan. 20, 1896, have shown that the true reading
+     is Eri-Aku. The Elamite name Eri-Aku, &ldquo;servant of the moon-
+     god,&rdquo; was changed by some of his subjects into the
+     Babylonian Rim-Sin, &ldquo;Have mercy, O Moon-god!&rdquo; just as
+     Abêsukh, the Hebrew Absihu&rsquo;a (&ldquo;the father of welfare&rdquo;) was
+     transformed into the Babylonian Ebisum (&ldquo;the actor&rdquo;).&mdash;Ed.]
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0018" id="linkimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/046.jpg"
+       alt="046.jpg an Ancient Susian of Negretic Race " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a bas-relief of
+Sargon II. in the Louvre.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It was not the first time that Elam had audaciously interfered in the
+      affairs of her neighbours. In fabulous times, one of her mythical kings&mdash;Khumbaba
+      the Ferocious&mdash;had oppressed. Uruk, and Gilgames with all his valour
+      was barely able to deliver the town. Sargon the Elder is credited with
+      having subdued Elam; the kings and vicegerents of Lagash, as well as those
+      of Uru and. Larsam, had measured forces with Anshan, but with no decisive
+      issue. From time to time they obtained an advantage, and we find recorded
+      in the annals victories gained by Gudea, Inê-sin, or Bursin, but to be
+      followed only by fresh reverses; at the close of such campaigns, and in
+      order to seal the ensuing peace, à princess of Susa would be sent as a
+      bride to one of the Chaldæan cities, or a Chaldæan lady of royal birth
+      would enter the harem of a king of Anshân. Elam was protected along the
+      course of the Tigris and on the shores of the Nâr-Marratum by a wide
+      marshy region, impassable except at a few fixed and easily defended
+      places. The alluvial plain extending behind the marshes was as rich and
+      fertile as that of Chaldæa. Wheat and barley ordinarily yielded an hundred
+      and at times two hundredfold; the towns were surrounded by a shadeless
+      belt of palms; the almond, fig, acacia, poplar, and willow extended in
+      narrow belts along the rivers&rsquo; edge. The climate closely resembles that of
+      Chaldaja: if the midday heat in summer is more pitiless, it is at least
+      tempered by more frequent east winds. The ground, however, soon begins to
+      rise, ascending gradually towards the north-east. The distant and uniform
+      line of mountain-peaks grows loftier on the approach of the traveller, and
+      the hills begin to appear one behind another, clothed halfway up with
+      thick forests, but bare on their summits, or scantily covered with meagre
+      vegetation. They comprise, in fact, six or seven parallel ranges,
+      resembling natural ramparts piled up between the country of the Tigris and
+      the table-land of Iran. The intervening valleys were formerly lakes,
+      having had for the most part no communication with each other and no
+      outlet into the sea. In the course of centuries they had dried up, leaving
+      a thick deposit of mud in the hollows of their ancient beds, from which
+      sprang luxurious and abundant harvests. The rivers&mdash;the Uknu,* the
+      Ididi,** and the Ulaî***&mdash;which water this region are, on reaching
+      more level ground, connected by canals, and are constantly shifting their
+      beds in the light soil of the Susian plain: they soon attain a width equal
+      to that of the Euphrates, but after a short time lose half their volume in
+      swamps, and empty themselves at the present day into the Shatt-el-Arab.
+      They flowed formerly into that part of the Persian Gulf which extended as
+      far as Kornah, and the sea thus formed the southern frontier of the
+      kingdom.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Uknu is the Kerkhah of the present day, the Choaspes
+     of the Greeks.
+
+     ** The Ididi was at first identified with the ancient
+     Pasitigris, which scholars then desired to distinguish from
+     the Eulseos: it is now known to be the arm of the Karun
+     which runs to Dizful, the Koprates of classical times, which
+     has sometimes been confounded with the Eulaws.
+
+     *** The Ulaî, mentioned in the Hebrew texts (Ban. viii. 2,
+     16), the Euloos of classical writers, also called
+     Pasitigris. It is the Karun of the present day, until its
+     confluence with the Shaûr, and subsequently the Shaûr
+     itself, which waters the foot of the Susian hills.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      From earliest times this country was inhabited by three distinct peoples,
+      whose descendants may still be distinguished at the present day, and
+      although they have dwindled in numbers and become mixed with elements of
+      more recent origin, the resemblance to their forefathers is still very
+      remarkable. There were, in the first place, the short and robust people of
+      well-knit figure, with brown skins, black hair and eyes, who belonged to
+      that negritic race which inhabited a considerable part of Asia in
+      prehistoric times.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The connection of the negroid type of Susians with the
+     negritic races of India and Oceania, has been proved, in the
+     course of M. Dieulafoy&rsquo;s expedition to the Susian plains and
+     the ancient provinces of Elam.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0017" id="linkimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/045.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="045.jpg Map of ChaldÆa and Elam. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These prevailed in the lowlands and the valleys, where the warm, damp
+      climate favoured their development; but they also spread into the mountain
+      region, and had pushed their outposts as far as the first slopes of the
+      Iranian table-land. They there contact with white-skinned of medium
+      height, who were probably allied to the nations of Northern and Central
+      Asia&mdash;to the Scythians,* for instance, if it is permissible to use a
+      vague term employed by the Ancients.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This last-mentioned people is, by some authors, for
+     reasons which, so far, can hardly be considered conclusive,
+     connected with the so-called Sumerian race, which we find
+     settled in Chaldæa. They are said to have been the first to
+     employ horses and chariots in warfare.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0019" id="linkimage-0019">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/047.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="047.jpg Native of Mixed Negritic Race from Susiana " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph furnished by
+     Marcel Dieulafoy.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Semites of the same stock as those of Chaldæa pushed forward as far as the
+      east bank of the Tigris, and settling mainly among the marshes led a
+      precarious life by fishing and pillaging.* The country of the plain was
+      called Anzân, or Anshân,** and the mountain region Numma, or Ilamma, &ldquo;the
+      high lands:&rdquo; these two names were subsequently used to denote the whole
+      country, and Ilamma has survived in the Hebrew word Elam.*** Susa, the
+      most important and flourishing town in the kingdom, was situated between
+      the Ulaî and the Ididi, some twenty-five or thirty miles from the nearest
+      of the mountain ranges.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * From the earliest times we meet beyond the Tigris with
+     names like that of Durilu, a fact which proves the existence
+     of races speaking a Semitic dialect in the countries under
+     the suzerainty of the King of Elam: in the last days of the
+     Chaldæan empire they had assumed such importance that the
+     Hebrews made out Elam to be one of the sons of Shem (<i>Gen.</i>
+     x. 22).
+
+     ** Anzân, Anshân, and, by assimilation of the nasal with the
+     sibilant, Ashshân. This name has already been mentioned in
+     the inscriptions of the kings and vicegerents of Lagash and
+     in the <i>Book of Prophecies</i> of the ancient Chaldæan
+     astronomers; it also occurs in the royal preamble of Cyrus
+     and his ancestors, who like him were styled &ldquo;kings of
+     Anshân.&rdquo; It had been applied to the whole country of Elam,
+     and afterwards to Persia. Some are of opinion that it was
+     the name of a part of Elam, viz. that inhabited by the
+     Turanian Medes who spoke the second language of the
+     Achæmenian inscriptions, the eastern half, bounded by the
+     Tigris and the Persian Gulf, consisting of a flat and swampy
+     land. These differences of opinion gave rise to a heated
+     controversy; it is now, however, pretty generally admitted
+     that Anzân-Anshân was really the plain of Elam, from the
+     mountains to the sea, and one set of authorities affirms
+     that the word Anzân may have meant &ldquo;plain&rdquo; in the language
+     of the country, while others hesitate as yet to pronounce
+     definitely on this point.
+
+     *** The meaning of &ldquo;Nunima,&rdquo; &ldquo;Ilamma,&rdquo; &ldquo;Ilamtu,&rdquo; in the
+     group of words used to indicate Elam, had been recognised
+     even by the earliest Assyriologists; the name originally
+     referred to the hilly country on the north and east of Susa.
+     To the Hebrews, Elam was one of the sons of Shem (Gen. x.
+     22). The Greek form of the name is Elymais, and some of the
+     classical geographers were well enough acquainted with the
+     meaning of the word to be able to distinguish the region to
+     which it referred from Susiana proper.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0020" id="linkimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/048.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="048.jpg the Tumulus of Susa, As It Appeared Towards The Middle of the Xixth Century " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after a plate in Chesney.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Its fortress and palace were raised upon the slopes of a mound which
+      overlooked the surrounding country:* at its base, to the eastward,
+      stretched the town, with its houses of sun-dried bricks.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Susa, in the language of the country, was called Shushun;
+     this name was transliterated into Chaldæo-Assyrian, by
+     Shushan, Shushi.
+
+     ** Strabo tells us, on the authority of Polycletus, that the
+     town had no walls in the time of Alexander, and extended
+     over a space two hundred stadia in length; in the
+     VIII century B.C. it was enclosed by walls with bastions,
+     which are shown on a bas-relief of Assurbanipal, but it was
+     surrounded by unfortified suburbs.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Further up the course of the Uknu, lay the following cities: Madaktu, the
+      Badaca of classical authors,* rivalling Susa in strength and importance;
+      Naditu,** Til-Khumba,*** Dur-Undash,**** Khaidalu.^&mdash;all large walled
+      towns, most of which assumed the title of royal cities. Elam in reality
+      constituted a kind of feudal empire, composed of several tribes&mdash;the
+      Habardip, the Khushshi, the Umliyash, the people of Yamutbal and of
+      Yatbur^^&mdash;all independent of each other, but often united under the
+      authority of one sovereign, who as a rule chose Susa as the seat of
+      government.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Madaktu, Mataktu, the Badaka of Diodorus, situated on the
+     Eulaaos, between Susa and Ecbatana, has been placed by
+     Rawlinson near the bifurcation of the Kerkhah, either at
+     Paipul or near Aiwân-i-Kherkah, where there are some rather
+     important and ancient ruins; Billerbeck prefers to put it at
+     the mouth of the valley of Zal-fer, on the site at present
+     occupied by the citadel of Kala-i-Riza.
+
+     ** Naditu is identified by Finzi with the village of
+     Natanzah, near Ispahan; it ought rather to be looked for in
+     the neighbourhood of Sarna.
+
+     *** Til-Khumba, the Mound of Khumba, so named after one of
+     the principal Elamite gods, was, perhaps, situated among the
+     ruins of Budbar, towards the confluence of the Ab-i-Kirind
+     and Kerkhah, or possibly higher up in the mountain, in the
+     vicinity of Asmanabad.
+
+     **** Dur-Undash, Dur-Undasi, has been identified, without
+     absolutely conclusive reason, with the fortress of Kala-i-
+     Dis on the Disful-Rud.
+
+     ^ Khaidalu, Khidalu, is perhaps the present fortress of Dis-
+     Malkan.
+
+     ^^ The countries of Yatbur and Yamutbal extended into the
+     plain between the marshes of the Tigris and the mountain;
+     the town of Durilu was near the Yamutbal region, if not in
+     that country itself. Umliyash lay between the Uknu and the
+     Tigris.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0021" id="linkimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/050.jpg" width="100%" alt="050.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The language is not represented by any idioms now spoken, and its
+      affinities with the Sumerian which some writers have attempted to
+      establish, are too uncertain to make it safe to base any theory upon
+      them.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A great part of the Susian inscriptions have been
+     collected by Fr. Lenormant. An attempt has been made to
+     identify the language in which they are written with the
+     Sumero-accadian, and authorities now generally agree in
+     considering the Arcæmenian inscriptions of the second type
+     as representative of its modern form. Hommel connects it
+     with Georgian, and includes it in a great linguistic family,
+     which comprises, besides these two idioms, the Hittite, the
+     Cappadocian, the Armenian of the Van inscriptions, and the
+     Cosstean. Oppert claims to have discovered on a tablet in
+     the British Museum a list of words belonging to one of the
+     idioms (probably Semitic) of Susiana, which differs alike
+     from the Suso-Medic and the Assyrian.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The little that we know of Elamite religion reveals to us a mysterious
+      world, full of strange names and vague forms. Over their hierarchy there
+      presided a deity who was called Shushinak (the Susian), Dimesh or Samesh,
+      Dagbag, As-siga, Adaene, and possibly Khumba and Æmmân, whom the Chaldæns
+      identified with their god Ninip; his statue was concealed in a sanctuary
+      inaccessible to the profane, but it was dragged from thence by
+      Assurbanipal of Nineveh in the VIIth century B.C.* This deity was
+      associated with six others of the first rank, who were divided into two
+      triads&mdash;Shumudu, Lagamaru, Partikira; Ammankasibar, Uduran, and
+      Sapak: of these names, the least repellent, Ammankasibar, may possibly be
+      the Memnon of the Greeks. The dwelling of these divinities was near Susa,
+      in the depths of a sacred forest to which the priests and kings alone had
+      access: their images were brought out on certain days to receive solemn
+      homage, and were afterwards carried back to their shrine accompanied by a
+      devout and reverent multitude. These deities received a tenth of the spoil
+      after any successful campaign&mdash;the offerings comprising statues of
+      the enemies&rsquo; gods, valuable vases, ingots of gold and silver, furniture,
+      and stuffs. The Elamite armies were well organized, and under a skilful
+      general became irresistible. In other respects the Elamites closely
+      resembled the Chaldæans, pursuing the same industries and having the same
+      agricultural and commercial instincts. In the absence of any bas-reliefs
+      and inscriptions peculiar to this people, we may glean from the monuments
+      of Lagash and Babylon a fair idea of the extent of their civilization in
+      its earliest stages.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Shushinak</i> is an adjective derived from the name of the
+     town of Susa. The real name of the god was probably kept
+     secret and rarely uttered. The names which appear by the
+     side of Shushinak in the text published by H. Rawlinson, as
+     equivalents of the Babylonian Ninip, perhaps represent
+     different deities; we may well ask whether the deity may not
+     be the Khumba, Umma, Ummân, who recurs so frequently in the
+     names of men and places, and who has hitherto never been met
+     with alone in any formula or dedicatory tablet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The cities of the Euphrates, therefore, could have been sensible of but
+      little change, when the chances of war transferred them from the rule of
+      their native princes to that of an Elamite. The struggle once over, and
+      the resulting evils repaired as far as practicable, the people of these
+      towns resumed their usual ways, hardly conscious of the presence of their
+      foreign ruler. The victors, for their part, became assimilated so rapidly
+      with the vanquished, that at the close of a generation or so the
+      conquering dynasty was regarded legitimate and national one, loyally
+      attached to the traditions and religion of its adopted country. In the
+      year 2285 B.C., towards the close of the reign of Nurrammân, or in the
+      earlier part of that of Siniddinam, a King of Elam, by name
+      Kudur-nakhunta, triumphantly marched through Chaldæa from end to end,
+      devastating the country and sparing neither town nor temple: Uruk lost its
+      statue of Nana, which was carried off as a trophy and placed in the
+      sanctuary of Susa. The inhabitants long mourned the detention of their
+      goddess, and a hymn of lamentation, probably composed for the occasion by
+      one of their priests, kept the remembrance of the disaster fresh in their
+      memories. &ldquo;Until when, oh lady, shall the impious enemy ravage the
+      country!&mdash;In thy queen-city, Uruk, the destruction is accomplished,&mdash;in
+      Eulbar, the temple of thy oracle, blood has flowed like water,&mdash;upon
+      the whole of thy lands has he poured out flame, and it is spread abroad
+      like smoke.&mdash;Oh, lady, verily it is hard for me to bend under the
+      yoke of misfortune!&mdash;? Oh, lady, thou hast wrapped me about, thou
+      hast plunged me, in sorrow!&mdash;The impious mighty one has broken me in
+      pieces like a reèd,&mdash;and I know not what to resolve, I trust not in
+      myself,&mdash;like a bed of reeds I sigh day and night!&mdash;I, thy
+      servant, I bow myself before thee!&rdquo; It would appear that the whole of
+      Chaldæa, including Babylon itself, was forced to acknowledge the supremacy
+      of the invader;* a Susian empire thus absorbed Chaldæa, reducing its
+      states to feudal provinces, and its princes to humble vassals.
+      Kudur-nakhunta having departed, the people of Larsa exerted themselves to
+      the utmost to repair the harm that he had done, and they succeeded but too
+      well, since their very prosperity was the cause only a short time after of
+      the outburst of another storm. Siniddinam, perhaps, desired to shake off
+      the Elamite yoke. Simtishilkhak, one of the successors of Kudur-nakhunta,
+      had conceded the principality of Yamutbal as a fief to Kudur-mabug, one of
+      his sons. Kudur-mabug appears to have been a conqueror of no mean ability,
+      for he claims, in his inscriptions, the possession of the whole of
+      Syria.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The submission of Babylon is evident from the title Adda
+     Martu, &ldquo;sovereign of the West,&rdquo; assumed by several of the
+     Elamite princes (of. p. 65 of the present work): in order to
+     extend his authority beyond the Euphrates, it was necessary
+     for the King of Elam to be first of all master of Babylon.
+     In the early days of Assyriology it was supposed that this
+     period of Elamite supremacy coincided with the Median
+     dynasty of Berosus.
+
+     ** His preamble contains the titles <i>adda Martu,</i> &ldquo;prince of
+     Syria;&rdquo; <i>adda lamutbal</i>, &ldquo;prince of Yamutbal.&rdquo; The word
+     <i>adda</i> seems properly to mean &ldquo;lather,&rdquo; and the literal
+     translation of the full title would probably be &ldquo;father of
+     Syria,&rdquo; &ldquo;<i>father</i> of Yamutbal,&rdquo; whence the secondary
+     meanings &ldquo;master, lord, prince,&rdquo; which have been
+     provisionally accepted by most Assyriologists. Tiele, and
+     Winckler after him, have suggested that Martu is here
+     equivalent to Yamutbal, and that it was merely used to
+     indicate the western part of Elam; Winckler afterwards
+     rejected this hypothesis, and has come round to the general
+     opinion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He obtained a victory over Siniddinam, and having dethroned him, placed
+      the administration of the kingdom in the hands of his own son Eimsin. This
+      prince, who was at first a feudatory, afterwards associated in the
+      government with his father, and finally sole monarch after the latter&rsquo;s
+      death, married a princess of Chaldæan blood, and by this means
+      legitimatized his usurpation in the eyes of his subjects. His domain,
+      which lay on both sides of the Tigris and of the Euphrates, comprised,
+      besides the principality of Yamutbal, all the towns dependent on Sumer and
+      Accad&mdash;Uru, Larsa, Uruk, and Nippur, He acquitted himself as a good
+      sovereign in the sight of gods and men: he repaired the brickwork in the
+      temple of Nannar at Uru; he embellished the temple of Shamash at Larsa,
+      and caused two statues of copper to be cast in honour of the god; he also
+      rebuilt Lagash and Grirsu. The city of Uruk had been left a heap of ruins
+      after the withdrawal of Kudur-nakhunta: he set about the work of
+      restoration, constructed a sanctuary to Papsukal, raised the ziggurât of
+      Nana, and consecrated to the goddess an entire set of temple furniture to
+      replace that carried off by the Elamites. He won the adhesion of the
+      priests by piously augmenting their revenues, and throughout his reign
+      displayed remarkable energy. Documents exist which attribute to him the
+      reduction of Durilu, on the borders of Elam and the Chaldæan states;
+      others contain discreet allusions to a perverse enemy who disturbed his
+      peace in the north, and whom he successfully repulsed. He drove
+      Sinmuballit out of Ishin, and this victory so forcibly impressed his
+      contemporaries, that they made it the starting-point of a new
+      semi-official era; twenty-eight years after the event, private contracts
+      still continued to be dated by reference to the taking of Ishin.
+      Sinmuballit&rsquo;s son, Khammurabi, was more fortunate. Eimsin vainly appealed
+      for help against him to his relative and suzerain Kudur-lagamar, who had
+      succeeded Simtishilkhak at Susa. Eimsin was defeated, and disappeared from
+      the scene of action, leaving no trace behind him, though we may infer that
+      he took refuge in his fief of Yamutbal. The conquest by Khammurabi was by
+      no means achieved at one blow, the enemy offering an obstinate resistance.
+      He was forced to destroy several fortresses, the inhabitants of which had
+      either risen against him or had refused to do him homage, among them being
+      those of Meîr* and Malgu. When the last revolt had been put down, all the
+      countries speaking the language of Chaldæa and sharing its civilization
+      were finally united into a single kingdom, of which Khammurabi proclaimed
+      himself the head. Other princes who had preceded him had enjoyed the same
+      opportunities, but their efforts had never been successful in establishing
+      an empire of any duration; the various elements had been bound together
+      for a moment, merely to be dispersed again after a short interval. The
+      work of Khammurabi, on the contrary, was placed on a solid foundation, and
+      remained unimpaired under his successors. Not only did he hold sway
+      without a rival in the south as in the north, but the titles indicating
+      the rights he had acquired over Sumer and Accad were inserted in his
+      Protocol after those denoting his hereditary possessions,&mdash;the city
+      of Bel and the four houses of the world. Khammurabi&rsquo;s victory marks the
+      close of those long centuries of gradual evolution during which the
+      peoples of the Lower Euphrates passed from division to unity. Before his
+      reign there had been as many states as cities, and as many dynasties as
+      there were states; after him there was but one kingdom under one line of
+      kings.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Maîru, Meîr, has been identified with Shurippak; but it
+     is, rather, the town of Mar, now Tell-Id. A and Lagamal, the
+     Elamite Lagamar, were worshipped there. It was the seat of a
+     linen manufacture, and possessed large shipping.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Khammurabi&rsquo;s long reign of fifty-five years has hitherto yielded us but a
+      small number of monuments&mdash;seals, heads of sceptres, alabaster vases,
+      and pompous inscriptions, scarcely any of them being of historical
+      interest. He was famous for the number of his campaigns, no details of
+      which, however, have come to light, but the dedication of one of his
+      statues celebrates his good fortune on the battlefield. &ldquo;Bel has lent thee
+      sovereign majesty: thou, what awaitest thou?&mdash;Sin has lent thee
+      royalty: thou, what awaitest thou?&mdash;Ninip has lent thee his supreme
+      weapon: thou, what awaitest thou?&mdash;The goddess of light, Ishtar, has
+      lent thee the shock of arms and the fray: thou, what awaitest thou?&mdash;Shamash
+      and Bamman are thy varlets: thou, what awaitest thou?&mdash;It is
+      Khammurabi, the king, the powerful chieftain&mdash;who cuts the enemies in
+      pieces,&mdash;the whirlwind of battle&mdash;who overthrows the country of
+      the rebels&mdash;who stays combats, who crushes rebellions,&mdash;who
+      destroys the stubborn like images of clay,&mdash;who overcomes the
+      obstacles of inaccessible mountains.&rdquo; The majority of these expeditions
+      were, no doubt, consequent on the victory which destroyed the power of
+      Kimsin. It would not have sufficed merely to drive back the Elamites
+      beyond the Tigris; it was necessary to strike a blow within their own
+      territory to avoid a recurrence of hostilities, which might have
+      endangered the still recent work of conquest. Here, again, Khammurabi
+      seems to have met with his habitual success.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0022" id="linkimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/057.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="057.jpg Head of a Sceptre in Copper, Bearing the Name Of Kham-murabi " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a rapid sketch made at the
+     British Museum.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ashnunak was a border district, and shared the fate of all the provinces
+      on the eastern bank of the Tigris, being held sometimes by Elam and
+      sometimes by Chaldæa; properly speaking, it was a country of Semitic
+      speech, and was governed by viceroys owning allegiance, now to Babylon,
+      now to Susa.* Khammurabi seized this province, and permanently secured its
+      frontier by building along the river a line of fortresses surrounded by
+      earthworks. Following the example of his predecessors, he set himself to
+      restore and enrich the temples.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Pognon discovered inscriptions of four of the vicegerents
+     of Ashnunak, which he assigns, with some hesitation, to the
+     time of Khammurabi, rather than to that of the kings of
+     Telloh. Three of these names are Semitic, the fourth
+     Sumerian; the language of the inscriptions bears a
+     resemblance to the Semitic dialect of Chaldæa.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The house of Zamama and Ninni, at Kish, was out of repair, and the
+      ziggurât threatened to fall; he pulled it down and rebuilt it, carrying it
+      to such a height that its summit &ldquo;reached the heavens.&rdquo; Merodach had
+      delegated to him the government of the faithful, and had raised him to the
+      rank of supreme ruler over the whole of Chaldæa. At Babylon, close to the
+      great lake which served as a reservoir for the overflow of the Euphrates,
+      the king restored the sanctuary of Esagilla, the dimensions of which did
+      not appear to him to be proportionate to the growing importance of the
+      city. &ldquo;He completed this divine dwelling with great joy and delight, he
+      raised the summit to the firmament,&rdquo; and then enthroned Merodach and his
+      spouse, Zarpanit, within it, amid great festivities. He provided for the
+      ever-recurring requirements of the national religion by frequent gifts;
+      the tradition has come down to us of the granary for wheat which he built
+      at Babylon, the sight of which alone rejoiced the heart of the god. While
+      surrounding Sippar with a great wall and a fosse, to protect its earthly
+      inhabitants, he did not forget Shamash and Malkatu, the celestial patrons
+      of the town. He enlarged in their honour the mysterious Ebarra, the sacred
+      seat of their worship, and that which no king from the earliest times had
+      known how to build for his divine master, that did he generously for
+      Shamash his master. He restored Ezida, the eternal dwelling of Merodach,
+      at Borsippa; Eturka-lamma, the temple of Anu, Ninni, and Nana, the
+      suzerains of Kish; and also Ezikalamma, the house of the goddess Ninna, in
+      the village of Zarilab. In the southern provinces, but recently added to
+      the crown,&mdash;at Larsa, Uruk, and Uru,&mdash;he displayed similar
+      activity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0023" id="linkimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/059.jpg" width="100%" alt="059.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He had, doubtless, a political as well as a religious motive in all he
+      did; for if he succeeded in winning the allegiance of the priests by the
+      prodigality of his pious gifts, he could count on their gratitude in
+      securing for him the people&rsquo;s obedience, and thus prevent the outbreak of
+      a revolt. He had, indeed, before him a difficult task in attempting to
+      allay the ills which had been growing during centuries of civil discord
+      and foreign conquest. The irrigation of the country demanded constant
+      attention, and from earliest times its sovereigns had directed the work
+      with real solicitude; but owing to the breaking up of the country into
+      small states, their respective resources could not be combined in such
+      general operations as were needed for controlling the inundations and
+      effectually remedying the excess or the scarcity of water. Khammurabi
+      witnessed the damage done to the whole province of Umliyash by one of
+      those terrible floods which still sometimes ravage the regions of the
+      Lower Tigris,* and possibly it may have been to prevent the recurrence of
+      such a disaster that he undertook the work of canalization.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Contracts dated the year of an inundation which laid waste
+     Umliyash; cf. in our own time, the inundation of April 10,
+     1831, which in a single night destroyed half the city of
+     Bagdad, and in which fifteen thousand persons lost their
+     lives either by drowning or by the collapse of their houses.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was the first that we know of who attempted to organize and reduce to a
+      single system the complicated network of ditches and channels which
+      intersected the territory belonging to the great cities between Babylon
+      and the sea. Already, more than half a century previously, Siniddinam had
+      enlarged the canal on which Larsa was situated, while Bimsin had provided
+      an outlet for the &ldquo;River of the Gods&rdquo; into the Persian Gulf:* by the
+      junction of the two a navigable channel was formed between the Euphrates
+      and the marshes, and an outlet was thus made for the surplus waters of the
+      inundation. Khammurabi informs us how Anu and Bel, having confided to him
+      the government of Sumer and Accad, and having placed in his hands the
+      reins of power, he dug the Nâr-Khammurabi, the source of wealth to the
+      people, which brings abundance of water to the country of Sumir and Accad.
+      &ldquo;I turned both its banks into cultivated ground, I heaped up mounds of
+      grain and I furnished perpetual water for the people of Sumir and Accad.
+      The country of Sumer and Accad, I gathered together its nations who were
+      scattered, I gave them pasture and drink, I ruled over them in riches and
+      abundance, I caused them to inhabit a peaceful dwelling-place. Then it was
+      that Khammurabi, the powerful king, the favourite of the great gods, I
+      myself, according to the prodigious strength with which Merodach had
+      endued me, I constructed a high fortress, upon mounds of earth; its summit
+      rises to the height of the mountains, at the head of the Nâr-Khammurabi,
+      the source of wealth to the people. This fortress I called
+      Dur-Sinmuballit-abim-uâlidiya, the Fortress of Sinmuballit, the father who
+      begat me, so that the name of Sinmuballit, the father who begat me, may
+      endure in the habitations of the world.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Contract dated &ldquo;the year the Tigris, river of the gods,
+     was canalized down to the sea&rdquo;; i.e. as far as the point to
+     which the sea then penetrated in the environs of Kornah.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This canal of Khammurabi ran from a little south of Babylon, joining those
+      of Siniddinam and Rimsin, and probably cutting the alluvial plain in its
+      entire length.* It drained the stagnant marshes on either side along its
+      course, and by its fertilising effects, the dwellers on its banks were
+      enabled to reap full harvests from the lands which previously had been
+      useless for purposes of cultivation. A ditch of minor importance pierced
+      the isthmus which separates the Tigris and the Euphrates in the
+      neighbourhood of Sippar.** Khammurabi did not rest contented with these; a
+      system of secondary canals doubtless completed the whole scheme of
+      irrigation which he had planned after the achievement of his conquest, and
+      his successors had merely to keep up his work in order to ensure an
+      unrivalled prosperity to the empire.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Delattre is of opinion that the canal dug by Khammurabi is
+     the Arakhtu of later epochs which began at Babylon and
+     extended as far as the Larsa canal. It must therefore be
+     approximately identified with the Shatt-en-Nil of the
+     present day, which joins Shatt-el-Kaher, the canal of
+     Siniddinam.
+
+     ** The canal which Khammurabi caused to be dug or dredged
+     may be the Nâr-Malkâ, or &ldquo;royal canal,&rdquo; which ran from the
+     Tigris to the Euphrates, passing Sippar on the way. The
+     digging of this canal is mentioned in a contract.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their efforts in this direction were not unsuccessful. Samsuîluna, the son
+      of Khammurabi, added to the existing system two or three fresh canals, one
+      at least of which still bore his name nearly fifteen centuries later; it
+      is mentioned in the documents of the second Assyrian empire in the time of
+      Assurbanipal, and it is possible that traces of it may still be found at
+      the present day. Abiêshukh,* Ammisatana,** Ammizadugga,*** and
+      Samsusatana,**** all either continued to elaborate the network planned by
+      their ancestors, or applied themselves to the better distribution of the
+      overflow in those districts where cultivation was still open to
+      improvement.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Abîshukh (the Hebrew Abishua) is the form of the name
+     which we find in contemporary contracts. The official lists
+     contain the variant Ebishu, Ebîshum.
+
+     ** Ammiditana is only a possible reading: others prefer
+     Ammisatana. The Nâr-Ammisatana is mentioned in a Sippar
+     contract. Another contract is dated &ldquo;the year in which
+     Ammisatana, the king, repaired the canal of Samsuîluna.&rdquo;
+
+     *** This was, at first, read Ammididugga. Ammizadugga is
+     mentioned in the date of a contract as having executed
+     certain works&mdash;of what nature it is not easy to say&mdash;on the
+     banks of the Tigris; another contract is dated &ldquo;the year in
+     which Ammizadugga, the king, by supreme command of Sha-mash,
+     his master, [dug] the Ndr-Ammizadugga-nulchus-nishi (canal
+     of Ammizadugga), prosperity of men.&rdquo; In the Minæan
+     inscriptions of Southern Arabia the name is found under the
+     form of Ammi-Zaduq.
+
+     **** Sometimes erroneously read Samdiusatana; but, as a
+     matter of fact, we have contracts of that time, in which a
+     royal name is plainly written as Samsusatana.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We should know nothing of these kings had not the scribes of those times
+      been in the habit of dating the contracts of private individuals by
+      reference to important national events. They appear to have chosen by
+      preference incidents in the religious life of the country; as, for
+      instance, the restoration of a temple, the annual enthronisation of one of
+      the great divinities, such as Shamash, Merodach, Ishtar, or Nana, as the
+      eponymous god of the current year, the celebration of a solemn festival,
+      or the consecration of a statue; while a few scattered allusions to works
+      of fortification show that meanwhile the defence of the country was
+      jealously watched over.* These sovereigns appear to have enjoyed long
+      reigns, the shortest extending over a period of five and twenty years; and
+      when at length the death of any king occurred, he was immediately replaced
+      by his son, the notaries&rsquo; acts and the judicial documents which have come
+      down to us betraying no confusion or abnormal delay in the course of
+      affairs. We may, therefore, conclude that the last century and a half of
+      the dynasty was a period of peace and of material prosperity. Chaldæa was
+      thus enabled to fully reap the advantage of being united under the rule of
+      one individual. It is quite possible that those cities&mdash;Uru, Larsa,
+      Ishin, Uruk, and Nippur&mdash;which had played so important a part in the
+      preceding centuries, suffered from the loss of their prestige, and from
+      the blow dealt to their traditional pretensions.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Samsuîluna repaired the five fortresses which his ancestor
+     Sumulaîlu had built. Contract dated &ldquo;the year in which
+     Ammisatana, the king, built Dur-Ammisatana, near the Sin
+     river,&rdquo; and &ldquo;the year in which Ammisatana, the king, gave
+     its name to Dur-Iskunsin, near the canal of
+     Ammisatana.&rdquo; Contract dated &ldquo;the year in which the King
+     Ammisatana repaired Dur-Iskunsin.&rdquo; Contract dated &ldquo;the year in
+     which Samsuîluna caused &lsquo;the wall of Uru and Uruk&rsquo; to be
+     built.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      Up to this time they had claimed the privilege of controlling the history
+      of their country, and they had bravely striven among themselves for the
+      supremacy over the southern states; but the revolutions which had raised
+      each in turn to the zenith of power, had never exalted any one of them to
+      such an eminence as to deprive its rivals of all hope of supplanting it
+      and of enjoying the highest place. The rise of Babylon destroyed the last
+      chance which any of them had of ever becoming the capital; the new city
+      was so favourably situated, and possessed so much wealth and so many
+      soldiers, while its kings displayed such tenacious energy, that its
+      neighbours were forced to bow before it and resign themselves to the
+      subordinate position of leading provincial towns. They gave a loyal
+      obedience to the officers sent them from the north, and sank gradually
+      into obscurity, the loss of their political supremacy being somewhat
+      compensated for by the religious respect in which they were always held.
+      Their ancient divinities&mdash;Nana, Sin, Anu, and Ra&mdash;were adopted,
+      if we may use the term, by the Babylonians, who claimed the protection of
+      these gods as fully as they did that of Merodach or of Nebo, and prided
+      themselves on amply supplying all their needs. As the inhabitants of
+      Babylon had considerable resources at their disposal, their appeal to
+      these deities might be regarded as productive of more substantial results
+      than the appeal of a merely local kinglet. The increase of the national
+      wealth and the concentration, under one head, of armies hitherto owning
+      several chiefs, enabled the rulers, not of Babylon or Larsa alone, but of
+      the whole of Chaldæa, to offer an invincible resistance to foreign
+      enemies, and to establish their dominion in countries where their
+      ancestors had enjoyed merely a precarious sovereignty. Hostilities never
+      completely ceased between Elam and Babylon; if arrested for a time, they
+      broke out again in some frontier disturbance, at times speedily
+      suppressed, but at others entailing violent consequences and ending in a
+      regular war. No document furnishes us with any detailed account of these
+      outbreaks, but it would appear that the balance of power was maintained on
+      the whole with tolerable regularity, both kingdoms at the close of each
+      generation finding themselves in much the same position as they had
+      occupied at its commencement. The two empires were separated from south to
+      north by the sea and the Tigris, the frontier leaving the river near the
+      present village of Amara and running in the direction of the mountains.
+      Durîlu probably fell ordinarily under Chaldæan jurisdiction. Umliyash was
+      included in the original domain of Kham-murabi, and there is no reason to
+      believe that it was evacuated by his descendants. There is every
+      probability that they possessed the plain east of the Tigris, comprising
+      Nineveh and Arbela, and that the majority of the civilized peoples
+      scattered over the lower slopes of the Kurdish mountains rendered them
+      homage. They kept the Mesopotamian table-land under their suzerainty, and
+      we may affirm, without exaggeration, that their power extended northwards
+      as far as Mount Masios, and westwards to the middle course of the
+      Euphrates.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At what period the Chaldæans first crossed that river is as yet unknown.
+      Many of their rulers in their inscriptions claim the title of suzerains
+      over Syria, and we have no evidence for denying their pretensions.
+      Kudur-mabug proclaims himself &ldquo;adda&rdquo; of Martu, Lord of the countries of
+      the West, and we are in the possession of several facts which suggest the
+      idea of a great Blamite empire, with a dominion extending for some period
+      over Western Asia, the existence of which was vaguely hinted at by the
+      Greeks, who attributed its glory to the fabulous Memnon.* Contemporary
+      records are still wanting which might show whether Kudur-mabug inherited
+      these distant possessions from one of his predecessors&mdash;such as
+      Kudur-nakhunta, for instance&mdash;or whether he won them himself at the
+      point of the sword; but a fragment of an old chronicle, inserted in the
+      Hebrew Scriptures, speaks distinctly of another Elamite, who made war in
+      person almost up to the Egyptian frontier.** This is the Kudur-lagamar
+      (Chedorlaomer) who helped Eimsin against Hammurabi, but was unable to
+      prevent his overthrow.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We know that to Herodotus (v. 55) Susa was the city of
+     Memnon, and that Strabo attributes its foundation to
+     Tithonus, father of Memnon. According to Oppert, the word
+     Memnon is the equivalent of the Susian Umman-anîn, &ldquo;the
+     house of the king:&rdquo; Weissbach declares that &ldquo;anin&rdquo; does not
+     mean king, and contradicts Oppert&rsquo;s view, though he does not
+     venture to suggest a new explanation of the name.
+
+     ** <i>Gen.</i> xiv. Prom the outset Assyriologists have never
+     doubted the historical accuracy of this chapter, and they
+     have connected the facts which it contains with those which
+     seem to be revealed by the Assyrian monuments. The two
+     Rawlinsons intercalate Kudur-lagamar between Kudur-nakhunta
+     and Kudur-mabug, and Oppert places him about the same
+     period. Fr. Lenormant regards him as one of the successors
+     of Kudur-mabug, possibly his immediate successor. G. Smith
+     does not hesitate to declare positively that the Kudur-mabug
+     and Kudur-nakhunta of the inscriptions are one and the same
+     with the Kudur-lagamar (Chedor-laomer) of the Bible.
+     Finally, Schrader, while he repudiates Smith&rsquo;s view, agrees
+     in the main fact with the other Assyriologists. On the other
+     hand, the majority of modern Biblical critics have
+     absolutely refused to credit the story in Genesis. Sayce
+     thinks that the Bible story rests on an historic basis, and
+     his view is strongly confirmed by Pinches&rsquo;discovery of a
+     Chaldæan document which mentions Kudur-lagamar and two of
+     his allies. The Hebrew historiographer reproduced an
+     authentic fact from the chronicles of Babylon, and connected
+     it with one of the events in the life of Abraham. The very
+     late date generally assigned to Gen. xiv. in no way
+     diminishes the intrinsic probability of the facts narrated
+     by the Chaldæan document which is preserved to us in the
+     pages of the Hebrew book.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In the thirteenth year of his reign over the East, the cities of the Dead
+      Sea&mdash;Sodom, Gomorrah, Adamah, Zeboîm, and Belâ&mdash;revolted against
+      him: he immediately convoked his great vassals, Amraphel of Chaldæa,
+      Ariôch of Ellasar,* Tida&rsquo;lo the Guti, and marched with them to the
+      confines of his dominions. Tradition has invested many of the tribes then
+      inhabiting Southern Syria with semi-mythical names and attributes. They
+      are represented as being giants&mdash;Rephalm; men of prodigious strength&mdash;Zuzîm;
+      as having a buzzing and indistinct manner of speech&mdash;Zamzummîm; as
+      formidable monsters**&mdash;Emîm or Anakîm, before whom other nations
+      appeared as grasshoppers;*** as the Horîm who were encamped on the
+      confines of the Sinaitic desert, and as the Amalekites who ranged over the
+      mountains to the west of the Dead Sea. Kudur-lagamar defeated them one
+      after another&mdash;the Rephaîm near to Ashtaroth-Karnaîm, the Zuzîm near
+      Ham,**** the Amîm at Shaveh-Kiriathaim, and the Horîm on the spurs of
+      Mount Seir as far as El-Paran; then retracing his footsteps, he entered
+      the country of the Amalekites by way of En-mishpat, and pillaged the
+      Amorites of Hazazôn-Tamar.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ellasar has been identified with Larsa since the
+     researches of Rawlin-son and Norris; the Goîm, over whom
+     Tidal was king, with the Guti.
+
+     ** Sayce considers Zuzîm and Zamzummîm to be two readings of
+     the same word Zamzum, written in cuneiform characters on the
+     original document. The sounds represented, in the Hebrew
+     alphabet, by the letters m and w, are expressed in the
+     Chaldæan syllabary by the same character, and a Hebrew or
+     Babylonian scribe, who had no other means of telling the
+     true pronunciation of a race-name mentioned in the story of
+     this campaign, would have been quite as much at a loss as
+     any modern scholar to say whether he ought to transcribe the
+     word as Z-m-z-m or as Z-w-z-vo; some scribes read it
+     <i>Zuzîm,</i> others preferred <i>Zamzummîm.</i>
+
+     *** <i>Numb.</i> xiii. 33.
+
+     **** In Deut. ii. 20 it is stated that the Zamzummîm lived
+     in the country of Ammon. Sayce points out that we often find
+     the variant Am for the character usually read <i>Ham</i> or
+     <i>Kham</i>&mdash;the name Khammurabi, for instance, is often found
+     written Ammurabi; the Ham in the narrative of Genesis would,
+     therefore, be identical with the land of Ammon in
+     Deuteronomy, and the difference between the spelling of the
+     two would be due to the fact that the document reproduced in
+     the XIVIIth chapter of Genesis had been originally copied from
+     a cuneiform tablet in which the name of the place was
+     expressed by the sign <i>Ham-Am.</i>
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In the mean time, the kings of the five towns had concentrated their
+      troops in the vale of Siddîm, and were there resolutely awaiting
+      Kudur-lagamar. They were, however, completely routed, some of the
+      fugitives being swallowed up in the pits of bitumen with which the soil
+      abounded, while others with difficulty reached the mountains.
+      Kudur-lagamar sacked Sodom and Gomorrah, re-established his dominion on
+      all sides, and returned laden with booty, Hebrew tradition adding that he
+      was overtaken near the sources of the Jordan by the patriarch Abraham.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * An attempt has been made to identify the three vassals of
+     Kudur-lagamar with kings mentioned on the Chaldæan
+     monuments. Tidcal, or, if we adopt the Septuagint variant,
+     Thorgal, has been considered by some as the bearer of a
+     Sumorian name, Turgal= &ldquo;great chief,&rdquo; &ldquo;great son,&rdquo; while
+     others put him on one side as not having been a Babylonian;
+     Pinches, Sayce, and Hommel identify him with Tudkhula, an
+     ally of Kudur-lagamar against Khammurabi. Schrader was the
+     first to suggest that Amraphel was really Khammurabi, and
+     emended the Amraphel of the biblical text into Amraphi or
+     Amrabi, in order to support this identification. Halévy,
+     while on the whole accepting this theory, derives the name
+     from the pronunciation Kimtarapashtum or Kimtarapaltum,
+     which he attributes to the name generally read Khammurabi,
+     and in this he is partly supported by Hommel, who reads
+     &ldquo;Khammurapaltu.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      After his victory over Kudur-lagamar, Khammurabi assumed the title of King
+      of Martu,* which we find still borne by Ammisatana sixty years later.** We
+      see repeated here almost exactly what took place in Ethiopia at the time
+      of its conquest by Egypt: merchants had prepared the way for military
+      occupation, and the civilization of Babylon had taken hold on the people
+      long before its kings had become sufficiently powerful to claim them as
+      vassals. The empire may be said to have been virtually established from
+      the day when the states of the Middle and Lower Euphrates formed but one
+      kingdom in the hands of a single ruler. We must not, however, imagine it
+      to have been a compact territory, divided into provinces under military
+      occupation, ruled by a uniform code of laws and statutes, and administered
+      throughout by functionaries of various grades, who received their orders
+      from Babylon or Susa, according as the chances of war favoured the
+      ascendency of Chaldæa or Elam. It was in reality a motley assemblage of
+      tribes and principalities, whose sole bond of union was subjection to a
+      common yoke.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It is, indeed, the sole title which he attributes to
+     himself on a stone tablet now in the British Museum.
+
+     ** In an inscription by this prince, copied probably about
+     the time of Nabonidus by the scribe Belushallîm, he is
+     called &ldquo;king of the vast land of Martu.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      They were under obligation to pay tribute, and furnish military
+      contingents and show other external marks of obedience, but their
+      particular constitution, customs, and religion were alike respected: they
+      had to purchase, at the cost of a periodical ransom, the right to live in
+      their own country after their own fashion, and the head of the empire
+      forbore all interference in their affairs, except in cases where the
+      internecine quarrels and dissensions threatened the security of his
+      suzerainty. Their subordination lasted as best it could, sometimes for a
+      year or for ten years, at the end of which period they would neglect the
+      obligations of their vassalage, or openly refuse to fulfil them: a revolt
+      would then break out at one point or another, and it was necessary to
+      suppress it without delay to prevent the bad example from spreading far
+      and wide. The empire was maintained by perpetual re-conquests, and its
+      extent varied with the energy shown by its chiefs, or with the resources
+      which were for the moment available.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Separated from the confines of the empire by only a narrow isthmus, Egypt
+      loomed on the horizon, and appeared to beckon to her rival. Her natural
+      fertility, the industry of her inhabitants, the stores of gold and
+      perfumes which she received from the heart of Ethiopia, were well known by
+      the passage to and fro of her caravans, and the recollection of her
+      treasures must have frequently provoked the envy of Asiatic courts. Egypt
+      had, however, strangely declined from her former greatness, and the line
+      of princes who governed her had little in common with the Pharaohs who had
+      rendered her name so formidable under the XIIth dynasty. She was now under
+      the rule of the Xoites, whose influence was probably confined to the
+      Delta, and extended merely in name over the Said and Nubia. The feudal
+      lords, ever ready to reassert their independence as soon as the central
+      power waned, shared between them the possession of the Nile valley below
+      Memphis: the princes of Thebes, who were probably descendants of
+      Usirtasen, owned the largest fiefdom, and though some slight scruple may
+      have prevented them from donning the pschënt or placing their names within
+      a cartouche, they assumed notwithstanding the plenitude of royal power. A
+      favourable opportunity was therefore offered to an invader, and the
+      Chaldæans might have attacked with impunity a people thus divided among
+      themselves.* They stopped short, however, at the southern frontier of
+      Syria, or if they pushed further forward, it was without any important
+      result: distance from head-quarters, or possibly reiterated attacks of the
+      Elamites, prevented them from placing in the field an adequate force for
+      such a momentous undertaking. What they had not dared to venture, others
+      more audacious were to accomplish. At this juncture, so runs the Egyptian
+      record, &ldquo;there came to us a king named Timaios. Under this king, then, I
+      know not wherefore, the god caused to blow upon us a baleful wind, and in
+      the face of all probability bands from the East, people of ignoble race,
+      came upon us unawares, attacked the country, and subdued it easily and
+      without fighting.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The theory that the divisions of Egypt, under the XIVth
+     dynasty, and the discords between its feudatory princes,
+     were one of the main causes of the success of the Shepherds,
+     is now admitted to be correct.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is possible that they owed this rapid victory to the presence in their
+      armies of a factor hitherto unknown to the African&mdash;the war-chariot&mdash;and
+      before the horse and his driver the Egyptians gave way in a body.* The
+      invaders appeared as a cloud of locusts on the banks of the Nile. Towns
+      and temples were alike pillaged, burnt, and ruined; they massacred all
+      they could of the male population, reduced to slavery those of the women
+      and children whose lives they spared, and then proclaimed as king Salatis,
+      one of their chiefs.** He established a semblance of regular government,
+      chose Memphis as his capital, and imposed a tax upon the vanquished. Two
+      perils, however, immediately threatened the security of his triumph: in
+      the south the Theban lords, taking matters into their own hands after the
+      downfall of the Xoites, refused the oath of allegiance to Salatis, and
+      organized an obstinate resistance;*** in the north he had to take measures
+      to protect himself against an attack of the Chaldæans or of the Élamites
+      who were oppressing Chaldæa.****
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The horse was unknown, or at any rate had not been
+     employed in. Egypt prior to the invasion; we find it,
+     however, in general use immediately after the expulsion of
+     the Shepherds, see the tomb of Pihiri. Moreover, all
+     historians agree in admitting that it was introduced into
+     the country under the rule of the Shepherds. The use of the
+     war-chariot in Chaldæa at an epoch prior to the Hyksôs
+     invasion, is proved by a fragment of the Vulture Stele; it
+     is therefore, natural to suppose that the Hyksôs used the
+     chariot in war, and that the rapidity of their conquest was
+     due to it.
+
+     ** The name Salatis (var. Saitôs) seems to be derived from a
+     Semitic word, Siialît = &ldquo;the chief,&rdquo; &ldquo;the governor;&rdquo; this
+     was the title which Joseph received when Pharaoh gave him
+     authority over the whole of Egypt (Gen. xli. 43). Salatis
+     may not, therefore, have been the real name of the first
+     Hyksôs king, but his title, which the Egyptians
+     misunderstood, and from which they evolved a proper name:
+     Uhlemann has, indeed, deduced from this that Manetho, being
+     familiar with the passage referring to Joseph, had forged
+     the name of Salatis. Ebers imagined that he could decipher
+     the Egyptian form of this prince&rsquo;s name on the Colossus of
+     Tell-Mokdam, where Naville has since read with certainty the
+     name of a Pharaoh of the XIIIth and XIVth dynasties,
+     Nahsiri.
+
+     *** The text of Manetho speaks of taxes which he imposed on
+     the high and low lands, which would seem to include the
+     Thebaid in the kingdom; it is, however, stated in the next
+     few pages that the successors of Salatis waged an incessant
+     war against the Egyptians, which can only refer to
+     hostilities against the Thebans. We are forced, therefore,
+     to admit, either that Manetho took the title of lord of the
+     high and low lands which belonged to Salatis, literally, or
+     that the Thebans, after submitting at first, subsequently
+     refused to pay tribute, thus provoking a war.
+
+     **** Manetho here speaks of Assyrians; this is an error
+     which is to be explained by the imperfect state of
+     historical knowledge in Greece at the time of the Macedonian
+     supremacy. We need not for this reason be led to cast doubt
+     upon the historic value of the narrative: we must remember
+     the suzerainty which the kings of Babylon exercised over
+     Syria, and read <i>Chaldæans</i> where Manetho has written
+     <i>Assyrians</i>. In Herodotus &ldquo;Assyria&rdquo; is the regular term for
+     &ldquo;Babylonia,&rdquo; and Babylonia is called &ldquo;the land of the
+     Assyrians.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      From the natives of the Delta, who were temporarily paralysed by their
+      reverses, he had, for the moment, little to fear: restricting himself,
+      therefore, to establishing forts at the strategic points in the Nile
+      valley in order to keep the Thebans in check, he led the main body of his
+      troops to the frontier on the isthmus. Pacific immigrations had already
+      introduced Asiatic settlers into the Delta, and thus prepared the way for
+      securing the supremacy of the new rulers; in the midst of these strangers,
+      and on the ruins of the ancient town of Hâwârît-Avaris, in the Sethro&rsquo;ifce
+      nome&mdash;a place connected by tradition with the myth of Osiris and
+      Typhon&mdash;Salatis constructed an immense entrenched camp, capable of
+      sheltering two hundred and forty thousand men. He visited it yearly to
+      witness the military manoeuvres, to pay his soldiers, and to preside over
+      the distribution of rations. This permanent garrison protected him from a
+      Chaldæan invasion, a not unlikely event as long as Syria remained under
+      the supremacy of the Babylonian kings; it furnished his successors also
+      with an inexhaustible supply of trained soldiers, thus enabling them to
+      complete the conquest of Lower Egypt. Years elapsed before the princes of
+      the south would declare themselves vanquished, and five kings&mdash;Anôn,
+      Apachnas, Apôphis I., Iannas, and Asses&mdash;passed their lifetime &ldquo;in a
+      perpetual warfare, desirous of tearing up Egypt to the very root.&rdquo; These
+      Theban kings, who were continually under arms against the barbarians, were
+      subsequently classed in a dynasty by themselves, the XVth of Manetho, but
+      they at last succumbed to the invader, and Asses became master of the
+      entire country. His successors in their turn formed a dynasty, the XVIth,
+      the few remaining monuments of which are found scattered over the length
+      and breadth of the valley from the shores of the Mediterranean to the
+      rocks of the first cataract.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians who witnessed the advent of this Asiatic people called them
+      by the general term Amûû, Asiatics, or Monâtiû, the men of the desert.*
+      They had already given the Bedouin the opprobrious epithet of Shaûsû&mdash;pillagers
+      or robbers&mdash;which aptly described them;** and they subsequently
+      applied the same name to the intruders&mdash;Hiq Shaûsû&mdash;from which
+      the Greeks derived their word Hyksôs, or Hykoussôs, for this people.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The meaning of the term <i>Monîti</i> was discovered by E. de
+     Rougé, who translated it <i>Shepherd</i>, and applied it to the
+     Hyksôs; from thence it passed into the works of all the
+     Egyptologists who concerned themselves with this question,
+     but <i>Shepherd</i> has not been universally accepted as the
+     meaning of the word. It is generally agreed that it was a
+     generic term, indicating the races with which their
+     conquerors were supposed to be connected, and not the
+     particular term of which Manetho&rsquo;s word <i>Hoiveves</i> would be
+     the literal translation.
+
+     ** The name seems, in fact, to be derived from a word which
+     meant &ldquo;to rob,&rdquo; &ldquo;to pillage.&rdquo; The name Shausu, Shosu, was
+     not used by the Egyptians to indicate a particular race. It
+     was used of all Bedouins, and in general of all the
+     marauding tribes who infested the desert or the mountains.
+     The Shausu most frequently referred to on the monuments are
+     those from the desert between Egypt and Syria, but there is
+     a reference, in the time of Ramses II., to those from the
+     Lebanon and the valley of Orontes. Krall finds an allusion
+     to them in a word (<i>Shosim</i>) in <i>Judges</i> ii. 14, which is
+     generally translated by a generic expression, &ldquo;the
+     spoilers.&rdquo;
+
+     *** Manetho declares that the people were called Hyksôs,
+     from <i>Syk</i>, which means &ldquo;king&rdquo; in the sacred language, and
+     <i>sôs</i>, which means &ldquo;shepherd&rdquo; in the popular language. As a
+     matter of fact, the word <i>Hyku</i> means &ldquo;prince &ldquo;in the
+     classical language of Egypt, or, as Manetho styles it, the
+     <i>sacred language</i>, i.e. in the idiom of the old religious,
+     historical, and literary texts, which in later ages the
+     populace no longer understood. Shôs, on the contrary,
+     belongs to the spoken language of the later time, and does
+     not occur in the ancient inscriptions, so that Manetho&rsquo;s
+     explanation is valueless; there is but one material fact to
+     be retained from his evidence, and that is the name <i>Hyk-
+     Shôs</i> or <i>Hyku-Shôs</i> given by its inventors to the alien
+     kings. Cham-pollion and Rosellini were the first to identify
+     these Shôs with the Shaûsû whom they found represented on
+     the monuments, and their opinion, adopted by some, seems to
+     me an extremely plausible one: the Egyptians, at a given
+     moment, bestowed the generic name of Shaûsû on these
+     strangers, just as they had given those of Amûû and Manâtiû.
+     The texts or writers from whom Manetho drew his information
+     evidently mentioned certain kings <i>hyku</i>-Shaûsû; other
+     passages, or, the same passages wrongly interpreted, were
+     applied to the race, and were rendered <i>hyku</i>-Shaûsû = &ldquo;the
+     <i>prisoners</i> taken from the Shaûsû,&rdquo; a substantive derived
+     from the root <i>haka</i> = &ldquo;to take&rdquo; being substituted for the
+     noun <i>hyqu</i> = &ldquo;prince.&rdquo; Josephus declares, on the authority
+     of Manetho, that some manuscripts actually suggested this
+     derivation&mdash;a fact which is easily explained by the custom
+     of the Egyptian record offices. I may mention, in passing,
+     that Mariette recognised in the element &ldquo;<i>Sôs</i>&rdquo; an Egyptian
+     word <i>shôs</i> = &ldquo;soldiers,&rdquo; and in the name of King Mîrmâshâû,
+     which he read Mîrshôsû, an equivalent of the title Hyq-
+     Shôsû.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But we are without any clue as to their real name, language, or origin.
+      The writers of classical times were unable to come to an agreement on
+      these questions: some confounded the Hyksôs with the Phoenicians, others
+      regarded them as Arabs.* Modern scholars have put forward at least a dozen
+      contradictory hypotheses on the matter. The Hyksôs have been asserted to
+      have been Canaanites, Elamites, Hittites, Accadians, Scythians. The last
+      opinion found great favour with the learned, as long as they could believe
+      that the sphinxes discovered by Mariette represented Apôphis or one of his
+      predecessors. As a matter of fact, these monuments present all the
+      characteristics of the Mongoloid type of countenance&mdash;the small and
+      slightly oblique eyes, the arched but somewhat flattened nose, the
+      pronounced cheekbones and well-covered jaw, the salient chin and full lips
+      slightly depressed at the corners.** These peculiarities are also observed
+      in the three heads found at Damanhur, in the colossal torso dug up at
+      Mit-Farês in the Fayum, in the twin figures of the Nile removed to the
+      Bulaq Museum from Tanis, and upon the remains of a statue in the
+      collection at the Villa Ludovisi in Rome. The same foreign type of face is
+      also found to exist among the present inhabitants of the villages
+      scattered over the eastern part of the Delta, particularly on the shores
+      of Lake Menzaleh, and the conclusion was drawn that these people were the
+      direct descendants of the Hyksôs.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Manetho takes them to be Phoenicians, but he adds that
+     certain writers thought them to be Arabs: Brugsch favours
+     this latter view, but the Arab legend of a conquest of Egypt
+     by Sheddâd and the Adites is of recent origin, and was
+     inspired by traditions in regard to the Hyksôs current
+     during the Byzantine epoch; we cannot, therefore, allow it
+     to influence us. We must wait before expressing a definite
+     opinion in regard to the facts which Glaser believes he has
+     obtained from the Minoan inscriptions which date from the
+     time of the Hyksôs.
+
+     ** Mariette, who was the first to describe these curious
+     monuments, recognised in them all the incontestable
+     characteristics of a Semitic type, and the correctness of
+     his view was, at first, universally admitted. Later on Hamy
+     imagined that he could distinguish traces of Mongolian
+     influences, and Er. Lenormant, and then Mariette himself
+     came round to this view; it has recently been supported in
+     England by Flower, and in Germany by Virchow.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This theory was abandoned, however, when it was ascertained that the
+      sphinxes of San had been carved, many centuries before the invasion, for
+      Amenemhâît III., a king of the XIIth dynasty. In spite of the facts we
+      possess, the problem therefore still remains unsolved, and the origin of
+      the Hyksôs is as mysterious as ever. We gather, however, that the third
+      millennium before our era was repeatedly disturbed by considerable
+      migratory movements. The expeditions far afield of Elamite and Chaldæan
+      princes could not have taken place without seriously perturbing the
+      regions over which they passed. They must have encountered by the way many
+      nomadic or unsettled tribes whom a slight shock would easily displace. An
+      impulse once given, it needed but little to accelerate or increase the
+      movement: a collision with one horde reacted on its neighbours, who either
+      displaced or carried others with them, and the whole multitude, gathering
+      momentum as they went, were precipitated in the direction first given.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Hyksôs invasion has been regarded as a natural result
+     of the Elamite conquest.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A tradition, picked up by Herodotus on his travels, relates that the
+      Phoenicians had originally peopled the eastern and southern shores of the
+      Persian Gulf;* it was also said that Indathyrses, a Scythian king, had
+      victoriously scoured the whole of Asia, and had penetrated as far as
+      Egypt.** Either of these invasions may have been the cause of the Syrian
+      migration. In. comparison with the meagre information which has come down
+      to us under the form of legends, it is provoking to think how much actual
+      fact has been lost, a tithe of which would explain the cause of the
+      movement and the mode of its execution. The least improbable hypothesis is
+      that which attributes the appearance of the Shepherds about the XXIIIrd
+      century B.C., to the arrival in Naharaim of those Khati who subsequently
+      fought so obstinately against the armies both of the Pharaohs and the
+      Ninevite kings. They descended from the mountain region in which the Halys
+      and the Euphrates take their rise, and if the bulk of them proceeded no
+      further than the valleys of the Taurus and the Amanos, some at least must
+      have pushed forward as far as the provinces on the western shores of the
+      Dead Sea. The most adventurous among them, reinforced by the Canaanites
+      and other tribes who had joined them on their southward course, crossed
+      the isthmus of Suez, and finding a people weakened by discord, experienced
+      no difficulty in replacing the native dynasties by their own barbarian
+      chiefs.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It was to the exodus of this race, in the last analysis,
+     that the invasion of the shepherds may be attributed
+
+     ** A certain number of commentators are of opinion that the
+     wars attributed to Indathyrses have been confounded with
+     what Herodotus tells of the exploits of Madyes, and are
+     nothing more than a distorted remembrance of the great
+     Scythian invasion which took place in the latter half of the
+     VIIth century B.C.
+
+     *** At the present time, those scholars who admit the
+     Turanian origin of the Hyksôs are of opinion that only the
+     nucleus of the race, the royal tribe, was composed of
+     Mongols, while the main body consisted of elements of all
+     kinds&mdash;Canaanitish, or, more generally, Semitic.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0024" id="linkimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/079.jpg"
+       alt="079.jpg Pallate of HyksÔs Scribe " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by
+M. de Mertons.
+It is the palette of
+a scribe, now in the
+Berlin Museum, and
+given by King Apôpi II
+Âusirrî to a scribe
+named Atu.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Both their name and origin were doubtless well known to the Egyptians, but
+      the latter nevertheless disdained to apply to them any term but that of
+      &ldquo;she-maû,&rdquo; * strangers, and in referring to them used the same vague
+      appellations which they applied to the Bedouin of the Sinaitic peninsula,&mdash;Monâtiû,
+      the shepherds, or Sâtiû, the archers. They succeeded in hiding the
+      original name of their conquerors so thoroughly, that in the end they
+      themselves forgot it, and kept the secret of it from posterity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The remembrance of the cruelties with which the invaders sullied their
+      conquest lived long after them; it still stirred the anger of Manetho
+      after a lapse of twenty centuries.** The victors were known as the
+      &ldquo;Plagues&rdquo; or &ldquo;Pests,&rdquo; and every possible crime and impiety was attributed
+      to them.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The term <i>shamamil,</i> variant of <i>sliemaû,</i> is applied to
+     them by Queen Hâtshopsîtu: the same term is employed shortly
+     afterward by Thutmosis III., to indicate the enemies whom he
+     had defeated at Megiddo.
+
+     ** He speaks of them in contemptuous terms as <i>men of
+     ignoble race</i>. The epithet <i>Aîti, Iaîti, Iadîti</i>, was applied
+     to the Nubians by the writer of the inscription of Ahmosi-
+     si-Abîna, and to the Shepherds of the Delta by the author of
+     the <i>Sallier Papyrus</i>. Brugsch explained it as &ldquo;the rebels,&rdquo;
+      or &ldquo;disturbers,&rdquo; and Goodwin translated it &ldquo;invaders&rdquo;;
+     Chabas rendered it by &ldquo;plague-stricken,&rdquo; an interpretation
+     which was in closer conformity with its etymological
+     meaning, and Groff pointed out that the malady called Ait,
+     or Adit in Egyptian, is the malignant fever still frequently
+     to be met with at the present day in the marshy cantons of
+     the Delta, and furnished the proper rendering, which is &ldquo;The
+     Fever-stricken.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0025" id="linkimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/080.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="080.jpg a HyksÔs Prisoner Guiding the Plough, at El-kab " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But the brutalities attending the invasion once past, the invaders soon
+      lost their barbarity and became rapidly civilized. Those of them stationed
+      in the encampment at Avaris retained the military qualities and
+      characteristic energy of their race; the remainder became assimilated to
+      their new compatriots, and were soon recognisable merely by their long
+      hair, thick beard, and marked features. Their sovereigns seemed to have
+      realised from the first that it was more to their interest to exploit the
+      country than to pillage it; as, however, none of them was competent to
+      understand the intricacies of the treasury, they were forced to retain the
+      services of the majority of the scribes, who had managed the public
+      accounts under the native kings.* Once schooled to the new state of
+      affairs, they readily adopted the refinements of civilized life.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The same thing took place on every occasion when Egypt was
+     conquered by an alien race: the Persian Achæmenians and
+     Greeks made use of the native employés, as did the Romans
+     after them; and lastly, the Mussulmans, Arabs, and Turks.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The court of the Pharaohs, with its pomp and its usual assemblage of
+      officials, both great and small, was revived around the person of the new
+      sovereign;* the titles of the Amenemhâîts and the Usirtasens, adapted to
+      these &ldquo;princes of foreign lands,&rdquo; ** legitimatised them as descendants of
+      Horus and sons of the Sun.*** They respected the local religions, and went
+      so far as to favour those of the gods whose attributes appeared to connect
+      them with some of their own barbarous divinities. The chief deity of their
+      worship was Baal, the lord of all,**** a cruel and savage warrior; his
+      resemblance to Sit, the brother and enemy of Osiris, was so marked, that
+      he was identified with the Egyptian deity, with the emphatic additional
+      title of Sutkhû, the Great Sit.^
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The narrative of the <i>Sallier Papyrus,</i> No. 1, shows us
+     the civil and military chiefs collected round the Shepherd-
+     king Apôpi, and escorting him in the solemn processions in
+     honour of the gods. They are followed by the scribes and
+     magicians, who give him advice on important occasions.
+
+     ** Hiqu Situ: this is the title of Abîsha at Beni-Hassan,
+     which is also assumed by Khiani on several small monuments;
+     Steindorff has attempted to connect it with the name of the
+     Hyksôs.
+
+     *** The preamble of the two or three Shepherd-kings of whom
+     we know anything, contains the two cartouches, the special
+     titles, and the names of Horus, which formed part of the
+     title of the kings of pure Egyptian race; thus Apôphis IL is
+     proclaimed to be the living Horus, who joins the two earths
+     in peace, the good god, Aqnunrî, son of the Sun, Apôpi, who
+     lives for ever, on the statues of Mîrmâshâu, which he had
+     appropriated, and on the pink granite table of offerings in
+     the Gizeh Museum.
+
+     **** The name of Baal, transcribed Baâlu, is found on that
+     of a certain Petebaâlû, &ldquo;the Gift of Baal,&rdquo; who must have
+     flourished in the time of the last shepherd-kings, or rather
+     under the Theban kings of the XVIIth dynasty, who were their
+     contemporaries, whose conclusions have been adopted by
+     Brugsch.
+
+     ^ Sutikhû, Sutkhû, are lengthened forms of Sûtû, or Sîtû;
+     and Chabas, who had at first denied the existence of the
+     final <i>Jehû</i>, afterwards himself supplied the philological
+     arguments which proved the correctness of the reading: he
+     rightly refused, however, to recognise in Sutikhû or Sutkhû
+     &mdash;the name of the conquerors&rsquo; god&mdash;a transliteration of the
+     Phoenician Sydyk, and would only see in it that of the
+     nearest Egyptian deity. This view is now accepted as the
+     right one, and Sutkhû is regarded as the indigenous
+     equivalent of the great Asiatic god, elsewhere called Baal,
+     or supreme lord. [Professor Pétrie found a scarab bearing
+     the cartouche of &ldquo;Sutekh&rdquo; Apepi I. at Koptos.&mdash;Te.]
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was usually represented as a fully armed warrior, wearing a helmet of
+      circular form, ornamented with two plumes; but he also borrowed the
+      emblematic animal of Sît, the fennec, and the winged griffin which haunted
+      the deserts of the Thebaid. His temples were erected in the cities of the
+      Delta, side by side with the sanctuaries of the feudal gods, both at
+      Bubastis and at Tanis. Tanis, now made the capital, reopened its palaces,
+      and acquired a fresh impetus from the royal presence within its walls.
+      Apôphis Aq-nûnrî, one of its kings, dedicated several tables of offerings
+      in that city, and engraved his cartouches upon the sphinxes and standing
+      colossi of the Pharaohs of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0027" id="linkimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/083.jpg" width="100%" alt="083.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He was, however, honest enough to leave the inscriptions of his
+      predecessors intact, and not to appropriate to himself the credit of works
+      belonging to the Amenemhâîts or to Mirmâshâû. Khianî, who is possibly the
+      Iannas of Manetho, was not, however, so easily satisfied.* The statue
+      bearing his inscription, of which the lower part was discovered by Naville
+      at Bubastis, appears to have been really carved for himself or for one of
+      his contemporaries. It is a work possessing no originality, though of very
+      commendable execution, such as would render it acceptable to any museum;
+      the artist who conceived it took &lsquo;his inspiration with considerable
+      cleverness from the best examples turned out by the schools of the Delta
+      under the Sovkhotpfts and the Nofirhotpûs. But a small grey granite lion,
+      also of the reign of Khianî, which by a strange fate had found its way to
+      Bagdad, does not raise our estimation of the modelling of animals in the
+      Hyksôs period.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Naville, who reads the name Râyan or Yanrâ, thinks that
+     this prince must be the Annas or Iannas mentioned by Manetho
+     as being one of the six shepherd-kings of the XVth dynasty.
+     Mr. Pétrie proposed to read Khian, Khianî, and the fragment
+     discovered at Gebeleîn confirms this reading, as well as a
+     certain number of cylinders and scarabs. Mr. Pétrie prefers
+     to place this Pharaoh in the VIIIth dynasty, and makes him
+     one of the leaders in the foreign occupation to which he
+     supposes Egypt to have submitted at that time; but it is
+     almost certain that he ought to be placed among the Hyksôs
+     of the XVIth dynasty. The name Khianî, more correctly
+     Khiyanî or Kheyanî, is connected by Tomkins, and Hilprecht
+     with that of a certain Khayanû or Khayan, son of Gabbar, who
+     reigned in Amanos in the time of Salmanasar II., King of
+     Assyria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0028" id="linkimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/084.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="084.jpg Broken Statue of Khiani " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Naville.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0026" id="linkimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/082.jpg"
+       alt="082.jpg Table of Offerings Bearing the Name Of ApÔti ÂqnÛnrÎ " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by
+E. Brugsch.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is heavy in form, and the muzzle in no way recalls the fine profile of
+      the lions executed by the sculptors of earlier times. The pursuit of
+      science and the culture of learning appear to have been more successfully
+      perpetuated than the fine arts; a treatise on mathematics, of which a copy
+      has come down to us, would seem to have been recopied, if not remodelled,
+      in the twenty-second year of Apôphis IL Aûsirrî. If we only possessed more
+      monuments or documents treating of this period, we should doubtless
+      perceive that their sojourn on the banks of the Nile was instrumental in
+      causing a speedy change in the appearance and character of the Hyksôs. The
+      strangers retained to a certain extent their coarse countenances and rude
+      manners: they showed no aptitude for tilling the soil or sowing grain, but
+      delighted in the marshy expanses of the Delta, where they gave themselves
+      up to a semi-savage life of hunting and of tending cattle. The nobles
+      among them, clothed and schooled after the Egyptian fashion, and holding
+      fiefs, or positions at court, differed but little from the native feudal
+      chiefs. We see here a case of what generally happens when a horde of
+      barbarians settles down in a highly organised country which by a stroke of
+      fortune they may have conquered; as soon as the Hyksôs had taken complete
+      possession of Egypt, Egypt in her turn took possession of them, and those
+      who survived the enervating effect of her civilization were all but
+      transformed into Egyptians.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If, in the time of the native Pharaohs, Asiatic tribes had been drawn
+      towards Egypt, where they were treated as subjects or almost as slaves,
+      the attraction which she possessed for them must have increased in
+      intensity under the shepherds. They would now find the country in the
+      hands of men of the same races as themselves&mdash;Egyptianised, it is
+      true, but not to such an extent as to have completely lost their own
+      language and the knowledge of their own extraction. Such immigrants were
+      the more readily welcomed, since there lurked a feeling among the Hyksôs
+      that it was necessary to strengthen themselves against the slumbering
+      hostility of the indigenous population. The royal palace must have more
+      than once opened its gates to Asiatic counsellors and favourites.
+      Canaanites and Bedouin must often have been enlisted for the camp at
+      Avaris. Invasions, famines, civil wars, all seem to have conspired to
+      drive into Egypt not only isolated individuals, but whole families and
+      tribes. That of the Beni-Israel, or Israelites, who entered the country
+      about this time, has since acquired a unique position in the world&rsquo;s
+      history. They belonged to that family of Semitic extraction which we know
+      by the monuments and tradition to have been scattered in ancient times
+      along the western shores of the Persian Gulf and on the banks of the
+      Euphrates. Those situated nearest to Chaldæa and to the sea probably led a
+      settled existence; they cultivated the soil, they employed themselves in
+      commerce and industries, their vessels&mdash;from Dilmun, from Mâgan, and
+      from Milukhkha&mdash;coasted from one place to another, and made their way
+      to the cities of Sumer and Accad. They had been civilized from very early
+      times, and some of their towns were situated on islands, so as to be
+      protected from sudden incursions. Other tribes of the same family occupied
+      the interior of the continent; they lived in tents, and delighted in the
+      unsettled life of nomads. There appeared to be in this distant corner of
+      Arabia an inexhaustible reserve of population, which periodically
+      overflowed its borders and spread over the world. It was from this very
+      region that we see the Kashdim, the true Chaldæans, issuing ready armed
+      for combat,&mdash;a people whose name was subsequently used to denote
+      several tribes settled between the lower waters of the Tigris and the
+      Euphrates. It was there, among the marshes on either side of these rivers,
+      that the Aramoans established their first settlements after quitting the
+      desert. There also the oldest legends of the race placed the cradle of the
+      Phoenicians; it was even believed, about the time of Alexander, that the
+      earliest ruins attributable to this people had been discovered on the
+      Bahrein Islands, the largest of which, Tylos and Arados, bore names
+      resembling the two great ports of Tyre and Arvad. We are indebted to
+      tradition for the cause of their emigration and the route by which they
+      reached the Mediterranean. The occurrence of violent earthquakes forced
+      them to leave their home; they travelled as far as the Lake of Syria,
+      where they halted for some time; then resuming their march, did not rest
+      till they had reached the sea, where they founded Sidon. The question
+      arises as to the position of the Lake of Syria on whose shores they
+      rested, some believing it to be the Bahr-î-Nedjif and the environs of
+      Babylon; others, the Lake of Bambykês near the Euphrates, the emigrants
+      doubtless having followed up the course of that river, and having
+      approached the country of their destination on its north-eastern frontier.
+      Another theory would seek to identify the lake with the waters of Merom,
+      the Lake of Galilee, or the Dead Sea; in this case the horde must have
+      crossed the neck of the Arabian peninsula, from the Euphrates to the
+      Jordan, through one of those long valleys, sprinkled with oases, which
+      afforded an occasional route for caravans.* Several writers assure us that
+      the Phoenician tradition of this exodus was misunderstood by Herodotus,
+      and that the sea which they remembered on reaching Tyre was not the
+      Persian Gulf, but the Dead Sea. If this had been the case, they need not
+      have hesitated to assign their departure to causes mentioned in other
+      documents. The Bible tells us that, soon after the invasion of
+      Kudur-lagamar, the anger of God being kindled by the wickedness of Sodom
+      and Gomorrah, He resolved to destroy the five cities situated in the
+      valley of Siddim. A cloud of burning brimstone broke over them and
+      consumed them; when the fumes and smoke, as &ldquo;of a furnace,&rdquo; had passed
+      away, the very site of the towns had disappeared.** Previous to their
+      destruction, the lake into which the Jordan empties itself had had but a
+      restricted area: the subsidence of the southern plain, which had been
+      occupied by the impious cities, doubled the size of the lake, and enlarged
+      it to its present dimensions. The earthquake which caused the Phoenicians
+      to leave their ancestral home may have been the result of this cataclysm,
+      and the sea on whose shores they sojourned would thus be our Dead Sea.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * They would thus have arrived at the shores of Lake Merom,
+     or at the shores either of the Dead Sea or of the Lake of
+     Gennesareth; the Arab traditions speak of an itinerary which
+     would have led the emigrants across the desert, but they
+     possess no historic value is so far as these early epochs
+     are concerned.
+
+     ** <i>Gen.</i> xix. 24-29; the whole of this episode belongs to
+     the Jehovistic narrative.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One fact, however, appears to be certain in the midst of many hypotheses,
+      and that is that the Phoenicians had their origin in the regions bordering
+      on the Persian Gulf. It is useless to attempt, with the inadequate
+      materials as yet in our possession, to determine by what route they
+      reached the Syrian coast, though we may perhaps conjecture the period of
+      their arrival. Herodotus asserts that the Tyrians placed the date of the
+      foundation of their principal temple two thousand three hundred years
+      before the time of his visit, and the erection of a sanctuary for their
+      national deity would probably take place very soon after their settlement
+      at Tyre: this would bring their arrival there to about the XXVIIIth
+      century before our era. The Elamite and Babylonian conquests would
+      therefore have found the Phoenicians already established in the country,
+      and would have had appreciable effect upon them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The question now arises whether the Beni-Israel belonged to the group of
+      tribes which included the Phoenicians, or whether they were of Chaldæan
+      race. Their national traditions leave no doubt upon that point. They are
+      regarded as belonging to an important race, which we find dispersed over
+      the country of Padan-Aram, in Northern Mesopotamia, near the base of Mount
+      Masios, and extending on both sides of the Euphrates.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The country of Padan-Aram is situated between the
+     Euphrates and the upper reaches of the Khabur, on both sides
+     of the Balikh, and is usually explained as the &ldquo;plain&rdquo; or
+     &ldquo;table-land&rdquo; of Aram, though the etymology is not certain;
+     the word seems to be preserved in that of Tell-Faddân, near
+     Harrân.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their earliest chiefs bore the names of towns or of peoples,&mdash;N
+      akhor, Peleg, and Serug:* all were descendants of Arphaxad,** and it was
+      related that Terakh, the direct ancestor of the Israelites, had dwelt in
+      Ur-Kashdîm, the Ur or Uru of the Chaldæans.*** He is said to have had
+      three sons&mdash;Abraham, Nakhôr, and Harân. Harân begat Lot, but died
+      before his father in Ur-Kashdîm, his own country; Abraham and Nakhor both
+      took wives, but Abraham&rsquo;s wife remained a long time barren. Then Terakh,
+      with his son Abraham, his grandson Lot, the son of Harân, and his
+      daughter-in-law Sarah,**** went forth from Ur-Kashdîm (Ur of the Chaldees)
+      to go into the land of Canaan.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Nakhôr has been associated with the ancient village of
+     Khaura, or with the ancient village of Hâditha-en-Naura, to
+     the south of Anah; Peleg probably corresponds with Phalga or
+     Phaliga, which was situated at the mouth of the Khabur;
+     Serug with the present Sarudj in the neighbourhood of
+     Edessa, and the other names in the genealogy were probably
+     borrowed from as many different localities.
+
+     ** The site of Arphaxad is doubtful, as is also its meaning:
+     its second element is undoubtedly the name of the Chaldæans,
+     but the first is interpreted in several ways&mdash;&ldquo;frontier of
+     the Chaldæans,&rdquo; &ldquo;domain of the Chaldæans.&rdquo; The similarity of
+     sound was the cause of its being for a long time associated
+     with the Arrapakhitis of classical times; the tendency is
+     now to recognise in it the country nearest to the ancient
+     domain of the Chaldæans, i.e. Babylonia proper.
+
+     *** Ur-Kashdîm has long been sought for in the north, either
+     at Orfa, in accordance with the tradition of the Syrian
+     Churches still existing in the East, or in a certain Ur of
+     Mesopotamia, placed by Ammianus Marcellinus between Nisibis
+     and the Tigris; at the present day Halévy still looks for it
+     on the Syrian bank of the Euphrates, to the south-east of
+     Thapsacus. Rawlin-son&rsquo;s proposal to identify it with the
+     town of Uru has been successively accepted by nearly all
+     Assyriologists. Sayce remarks that the worship of Sin, which
+     was common to both towns, established a natural link between
+     them, and that an inhabitant of Uru would have felt more at
+     home in Harrân than in any other town.
+
+     **** The names of Sarah and Abraham, or rather the earlier
+     form, Abram, have been found, the latter under the form
+     Abirâmu, in the contracts of the first Chaldæan empire.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      And they came unto Kharân, and dwelt there, and Terakh died in Kharân.* It
+      is a question whether Kharân is to be identified with Harrân in
+      Mesopotamia, the city of the god Sin; or, which is more probable, with the
+      Syrian town of Haurân, in the neighbourhood of Damascus. The tribes who
+      crossed the Euphrates became subsequently a somewhat important people.
+      They called themselves, or were known by others, as the &lsquo;Ibrîm, or
+      Hebrews, the people from beyond the river;** and this appellation, which
+      we are accustomed to apply to the children of Israel only, embraced also,
+      at the time when the term was most extended, the Ammonites, Moabites,
+      Edomites, Ishmaelites, Midianites, and many other tribes settled on the
+      borders of the desert to the east and south of the Dead Sea.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Gen. xi. 27-32. In the opinion of most critics, verses 27,
+     31 32 form part of the document which was the basis of the
+     various narratives still traceable in the Bible; it is
+     thought that the remaining verses bear the marks of a later
+     redaction, or that they may be additions of a later date.
+     The most important part of the text, that relating the
+     migration from Ur-Kashdîm to Kharân, belongs, therefore, to
+     the very oldest part of the national tradition, and may be
+     regarded as expressing the knowledge which the Hebrews of
+     the times of the Kings possessed concerning the origin of
+     their race.
+
+     ** The most ancient interpretation identified this nameless
+     river with the Euphrates; an identification still admitted
+     by most critics; others prefer to recognise it as being the
+     Jordan. Halévy prefers to identify it with one of the rivers
+     of Damascus, probably the Abana.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These peoples all traced their descent from Abraham, the son of Terakh,
+      but the children of Israel claimed the privilege of being the only
+      legitimate issue of his marriage with Sarah, giving naïve or derogatory
+      accounts of the relations which connected the others with their common
+      ancestor; Ammon and Moab were, for instance, the issue of the incestuous
+      union of Lot and his daughters. Midian and his sons were descended from
+      Keturah, who was merely a concubine, Ishmael was the son of an Egyptian
+      slave, while the &ldquo;hairy&rdquo; Esau had sold his birthright and the primacy of
+      the Edomites to his brother Jacob, and consequently to the Israelites, for
+      a dish of lentils. Abraham left Kharân at the command of Jahveh, his God,
+      receiving from Him a promise that his posterity should be blessed above
+      all others. Abraham pursued his way into the heart of Canaan till he
+      reached Shechem, and there, under the oaks of Moreh, Jahveh, appearing to
+      him a second time, announced to him that He would give the whole land to
+      his posterity as an inheritance. Abraham virtually took possession of it,
+      and wandered over it with his flocks, building altars at Shechem, Bethel,
+      and Mamre, the places where God had revealed Himself to him, treating as
+      his equals the native chiefs, Abîmelech of Gerar and Melchizedek of
+      Jerusalem,* and granting the valley of the Jordan as a place of pasturage
+      to his nephew Lot, whose flocks had increased immensely.** His nomadic
+      instinct having led him into Egypt, he was here robbed of his wife by
+      Pharaoh.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Cf. the meeting with Melchizedek after the victory over
+     the Elamites (<i>Gen</i>. xiv. 18-20) and the agreement with
+     Abîmelech about the well (Gen. xxi. 22-34). The mention of
+     the covenant of Abraham with Abîmelech belongs to the oldest
+     part of the national tradition, and is given to us in the
+     Jehovistic narrative. Many critics have questioned the
+     historical existence of Melchizedek, and believed that the
+     passage in which he is mentioned is merely a kind of parable
+     intended to show the head of the race paying tithe of the
+     spoil to the priest of the supreme God residing at
+     Jerusalem; the information, however, furnished by the Tel-
+     el-Amarna tablets about the ancient city of Jerusalem and
+     the character of its early kings have determined Sayce to
+     pronounce Melchizedek to be an historical personage.
+
+     ** <i>Gen.</i> xiii. 1-13. Lot has been sometimes connected of
+     late with the people called on the Egyptian monuments
+     Rotanu, or Lotanu, whom we shall have occasion to mention
+     frequently further on: he is supposed to have been their
+     eponymous hero. Lôtan, which is the name of an Edomite clan,
+     (<i>Gen</i>. xxxvi. 20, 29), is a racial adjective, derived from
+     Lot.
+
+     *** <i>Gen.</i> xii. 9-20, xiii. 1. Abraham&rsquo;s visit to Egypt
+     reproduces the principal events of that of Jacob.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0029" id="linkimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/093.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="093.jpg the Traditional Oak of Abraham at Hebron " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph brought home by Lortet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      On his return he purchased the field of Ephron, near Kirjath-Arba, and the
+      cave of Machpelah, of which he made a burying-place for his family*
+      Kirjath-Arba, the Hebron of subsequent times, became from henceforward his
+      favourite dwelling-place, and he was residing there when the Elamites
+      invaded the valley of Siddîm, and carried off Lot among their prisoners.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Gen</i>. xiii. 18, xxiii. (Elohistic narrative). The tombs
+     of the patriarchs are believed by the Mohammedans to exist
+     to the present day in the cave which is situated within the
+     enclosure of the mosque at Hebron, and the tradition on
+     which this belief is based goes back to early Christian
+     times.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Abraham set out in pursuit of them, and succeeded in delivering his
+      nephew.* God (Jahveh) not only favoured him on every occasion, but
+      expressed His will to extend over Abraham&rsquo;s descendants His sheltering
+      protection. He made a covenant with him, enjoining the use on the occasion
+      of the mysterious rites employed among the nations when effecting a treaty
+      of peace. Abraham offered up as victims a heifer, a goat, and a
+      three-year-old ram, together with a turtle-dove and a young pigeon; he cut
+      the animals into pieces, and piling them in two heaps, waited till the
+      evening. &ldquo;And when the sun was going down, a deep sleep fell upon Abraham;
+      and lo, an horror of great darkness fell upon him,&rdquo; and a voice from on
+      high said to him: &ldquo;Know of a surety that thy seed shall be a stranger in a
+      land that is not theirs, and shall serve them; and they shall afflict them
+      four hundred years; and also that nation, whom they shall serve, will I
+      judge: and afterward shall they come out with great substance.... And it
+      came to pass, that when the sun went down, and it was dark, behold a
+      smoking furnace, and a burning lamp that passed between those pieces.&rdquo;
+       Jahveh sealed the covenant by consuming the offering.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Gen.</i> xiv. 12-24. 2 Gen. xv., Jehovistic narrative.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Two less important figures fill the interval between the Divine prediction
+      of servitude and its accomplishment. The birth of one of them, Isaac, was
+      ascribed to the Divine intervention at a period when Sarah had given up
+      all hope of becoming a mother. Abraham was sitting at his tent door in the
+      heat of the day, when three men presented themselves before him, whom he
+      invited to repose under the oak while he prepared to offer them
+      hospitality. After their meal, he who seemed to be the chief of the three
+      promised to return within a year, when Sarah should be blessed with the
+      possession of a son. The announcement came from Jahveh, but Sarah was
+      ignorant of the fact, and laughed to herself within the tent on hearing
+      this amazing prediction; for she said, &ldquo;After I am waxed old shall I have
+      pleasure, my lord being old also?&rdquo; The child was born, however, and was
+      called Isaac, &ldquo;the laugher,&rdquo; in remembrance of Sarah&rsquo;s mocking laugh.*
+      There is a remarkable resemblance between his life and that of his
+      father.** Like Abraham he dwelt near Hebron,*** and departing thence
+      wandered with his household round the wells of Beersheba. Like him he was
+      threatened with the loss of his wife.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Gen</i>. xviii. 1-16, according to the Jehovistic narrative.
+     <i>Gen</i>. xvii. 15-22 gives another account, in which the
+     Elohistic writer predicts the birth of Isaac in a différent
+     way. The name of Isaac, &ldquo;the laugher,&rdquo; possibly abridged
+     from Isaak-el, &ldquo;he on whom God smiles,&rdquo; is explained in
+     three different ways: first, by the laugh of Abraham (ch.
+     xvii. 17); secondly, by that of Sarah (xviii. 12) when her
+     son&rsquo;s birth was foretold to her; and lastly, by the laughter
+     of those who made sport of the delayed maternity of Sarah
+     (xxi. 6).
+
+     ** Many critics see in the life of Isaac a colourless copy
+     of that of Abraham, while others, on the contrary, consider
+     that the primitive episodes belonged to the former, and that
+     the parallel portions of the two lives were borrowed from
+     the biography of the son to augment that of his father.
+
+     *** <i>Gen</i>. xxxv. 27, Elohistic narrative.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Like him, also, he renewed relations with Abîmelech of Gerar.* He married
+      his relative Rebecca, the granddaughter of Nâkhor and the sister of
+      Laban.** After twenty years of barrenness, his wife gave birth to twins,
+      Esau and Jacob, who contended with each other from their mother&rsquo;s womb,
+      and whose descendants kept up a perpetual feud. We know how Esau, under
+      the influence of his appetite, deprived himself of the privileges of his
+      birthright, and subsequently went forth to become the founder of the
+      Edomites. Jacob spent a portion of his youth in Padan-Aram; here he served
+      Laban for the hands of his cousins Rachel and Leah; then, owing to the bad
+      faith of his uncle, he left him secretly, after twenty years&rsquo; service,
+      taking with him his wives and innumerable flocks. At first he wandered
+      aimlessly along the eastern bank of the Jordan, where Jahveh revealed
+      Himself to him in his troubles. Laban pursued and overtook him, and,
+      acknowledging his own injustice, pardoned him for having taken flight.
+      Jacob raised a heap of stones on the site of their encounter, known at
+      Mizpah to after-ages as the &ldquo;Stone of Witness &ldquo;&mdash;G-al-Ed (Galeed).***
+      This having been accomplished, his difficulties began with his brother
+      Esau, who bore him no good will.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Gen.</i> xxvi. 1&mdash;31, Jehovistic narrative. In <i>Gen.</i> xxv.
+     11 an Elohistic interpolation makes Isaac also dwell in the
+     south, near to the &ldquo;Well of the Living One Who seeth me.&rdquo;
+
+     ** <i>Gen.</i> xxiv., where two narratives appear to have been
+     amalgamated; in the second of these, Abraham seems to have
+     played no part, and Eliezer apparently conducted Rebecca
+     direct to her husband Isaac (vers. 61-67).
+
+     *** <i>Gen.</i> xxxi. 45-54, where the writer evidently traces
+     the origin of the word Gilead to Gal-Ed. We gather from the
+     context that the narrative was connected with the cairn at
+     Mizpah which separated the Hebrew from the Aramæan speaking
+     peoples.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One night, at the ford of the Jabbok, when he had fallen behind his
+      companions, &ldquo;there wrestled a man with him until the breaking of the day,&rdquo;
+       without prevailing against him. The stranger endeavoured to escape before
+      daybreak, but only succeeded in doing so at the cost of giving Jacob his
+      blessing. &ldquo;What is thy name? And he said, Jacob. And he said, Thy name
+      shall be called no more Jacob, but Israel: for thou hast striven with God
+      and with men, and hast prevailed.&rdquo; Jacob called the place Penîel, &ldquo;for,&rdquo;
+       said he, &ldquo;I have seen God face to face, and my life is preserved.&rdquo; The
+      hollow of his thigh was &ldquo;strained as he wrestled with him,&rdquo; and he became
+      permanently lame.* Immediately after the struggle he met Esau, and
+      endeavoured to appease him by his humility, building a house for him, and
+      providing booths for his cattle, so as to secure for his descendants the
+      possession of the land. From this circumstance the place received the name
+      of Succôth&mdash;the &ldquo;Booths &ldquo;&mdash;by which appellation it was
+      henceforth known. Another locality where Jahveh had met Jacob while he was
+      pitching his tents, derived from this fact the designation of the &ldquo;Two
+      Hosts&rdquo;&mdash;Mahanaîm.** On the other side of the river, at Shechem,*** at
+      Bethel,**** and at Hebron, near to the burial-place of his family, traces
+      of him are everywhere to be found blent with those of Abraham.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Gen.</i> xxxii. 22-32. This is the account of the Jehovistic
+     writer. The Elohist gives a different version of the
+     circumstances which led to the change of name from Jacob to
+     Israel; he places the scene at Bethel, and suggests no
+     precise etymology for the name Israel (<i>Gen.</i> xxxv. 9-15).
+
+     ** <i>Gen.</i> xxxii. 2, 3, where the theophany is indicated
+     rather than directly stated.
+
+     *** <i>Gen.</i> xxxiii. 18-20. Here should be placed the episode
+     of Dinah seduced by an Amorite prince, and the consequent
+     massacre of the inhabitants by Simeon and Levi (<i>Gen.</i>
+     xxxiv.). The almost complete dispersion of the two tribes of
+     Simeon and Levi is attributed to this massacre: cf. <i>Gen.</i>
+     xlix. 5-7.
+
+     **** <i>Gen.</i> xxxv. 1-15, where is found the Elohistic version
+     (9-15) of the circumstances which led to the change of name
+     from Jacob to Israel.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      By his two wives and their maids he had twelve sons. Leah was the mother
+      of Keuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, and Zabulon; Gad. and Asher were
+      the children of his slave Zilpah; while Joseph and Benjamin were the only
+      sons of Rachel&mdash;Dan and Naphtali being the offspring of her servant
+      Bilhah. The preference which his father showed to him caused Joseph to be
+      hated by his brothers; they sold him to a caravan of Midianites on their
+      way to Egypt, and persuaded Jacob that a wild beast had devoured him.
+      Jahveh was, however, with Joseph, and &ldquo;made all that he did to prosper in
+      his hand.&rdquo; He was bought by Potiphar, a great Egyptian lord and captain of
+      Pharaoh&rsquo;s guard, who made him his overseer; his master&rsquo;s wife, however,
+      &ldquo;cast her eyes upon Joseph,&rdquo; but finding that he rejected her shameless
+      advances, she accused him of having offered violence to her person. Being
+      cast into prison, he astonished his companions in misfortune by his skill
+      in reading dreams, and was summoned to Court to interpret to the king his
+      dream of the seven lean kine who had devoured the seven fat kine, which he
+      did by representing the latter as seven years of abundance, of which the
+      crops should be swallowed up by seven years of famine. Joseph was
+      thereupon raised by Pharaoh to the rank of prime minister. He stored up
+      the surplus of the abundant harvests, and as soon as the famine broke out,
+      distributed the corn to the hunger-stricken people in exchange for their
+      silver and gold, and for their flocks and fields. Hence it was,that the
+      whole of the Nile valley, with the exception of the lands belonging to the
+      priests, gradually passed into the possession of the royal treasury.
+      Meanwhile his brethren, who also suffered from the famine, came down into
+      Egypt to buy corn. Joseph revealed himself to them, pardoned the wrong
+      they had done him, and presented them to the Pharaoh. &ldquo;And Pharaoh said
+      unto Joseph, Say unto thy brethren, This do ye; lade your beasts, and go,
+      get you unto the land of Canaan: and take your father and your household,
+      and come unto me: and I will give you the good of the land of Egypt, and
+      ye shall eat the fat of the land.&rdquo; Jacob thereupon raised his camp and
+      came to Beersheba, where he offered sacrifices to the God of his father
+      Isaac; and Jahveh commanded him to go down into Egypt, saying, &ldquo;I will
+      there make of thee a great nation: I will go down with thee into Egypt:
+      and I will also surely bring thee up again: and Joseph shall put his hand
+      upon thine eyes.&rdquo; The whole family were installed by Pharaoh in the
+      province of Goshen, as far as possible from the centres of the native
+      population, &ldquo;for every shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyptians.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+    <p>
+      In the midst of these stern yet touching narratives in which the Hebrews
+      of the times of the Kings delighted to trace the history of their remote
+      ancestors, one important fact arrests our attention: the Beni-Israel
+      quitted Southern Syria and settled on the banks of the Nile. They had
+      remained for a considerable time in what was known later as the mountains
+      of Judah. Hebron had served as their rallying-point; the broad but
+      scantily watered wadys separating the cultivated lands from the desert,
+      were to them a patrimony, which they shared with the inhabitants of the
+      neighbouring towns. Every year, in the spring, they led their flocks to
+      browse on the thin herbage growing in the bottoms of the valleys, removing
+      them to another district only when the supply of fodder was exhausted. The
+      women span, wove, fashioned garments, baked bread, cooked the viands, and
+      devoted themselves to the care of the younger children, whom they suckled
+      beyond the usual period. The men lived like the Bedouin&mdash;periods of
+      activity alternating regularly with times of idleness, and the daily
+      routine, with its simple duties and casual work, often gave place to
+      quarrels for the possession of some rich pasturage or some never-failing
+      well.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A comparatively ancient tradition relates that the Hebrews arrived in
+      Egypt during the reign of Aphôbis, a Hyksôs king, doubtless one of the
+      Apôpi, and possibly the monarch who restored the monuments of the Theban
+      Pharaohs, and engraved his name on the sphinxes of Amenemhâît III. and on
+      the colossi of Mîrmâshâû.* The land which the Hebrews obtained is that
+      which, down to the present day, is most frequently visited by nomads, who
+      find there an uncertain hospitality.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The year XVII. of Apôphis has been pointed out as the date
+     of their arrival, and this combination, probably proposed by
+     some learned Jew of Alexandria, was adopted by Christian
+     chroniclers. It is unsupported by any fact of Egyptian
+     history, but it rests on a series of calculations founded on
+     the information contained in the Bible. Starting from the
+     assumption that the Exodus must have taken place under
+     Ahmosîs, and that the children of Israel had been four
+     hundred and thirty years on the banks of the Nile, it was
+     found that the beginning of their sojourn fell under the
+     reign of the Apôphis mentioned by Josephus, and, to be still
+     more correct, in the XVIIth year of that prince.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The tribes of the isthmus of Suez are now, in fact, constantly shifting
+      from one continent to another, and their encampments in any place are
+      merely temporary. The lord of the soil must, if he desire to keep them
+      within his borders, treat them with the greatest prudence and tact. Should
+      the government displease them in any way, or appear to curtail their
+      liberty, they pack up their tents and take flight into the desert. The
+      district occupied by them one day is on the next vacated and left to
+      desolation. Probably the same state of things existed in ancient times,
+      and the border nomes on the east of the Delta were in turn inhabited or
+      deserted by the Bedouin of the period. The towns were few in number, but a
+      series of forts protected the frontier. These were mere
+      village-strongholds perched on the summit of some eminence, and surrounded
+      by a strip of cornland. Beyond the frontier extended a region of bare
+      rock, or a wide plain saturated with the ill-regulated surplus water of
+      the inundation. The land of Goshen was bounded by the cities of Heliopolis
+      on the south, Bubastis on the west, and Tanis and Mendes on the north: the
+      garrison at Avaris could easily keep watch over it and maintain order
+      within it, while they could at the same time defend it from the incursions
+      of the Monatiû and the Hîrû-Shâîtû.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Goshen comprised the provinces situated on the borders of
+     the cultivable cornland, and watered by the infiltration of
+     the Nile, which caused the growth of a vegetation sufficient
+     to support the flocks during a few weeks; and it may also
+     have included the imperfectly irrigated provinces which were
+     covered with pools and reedy swamps after each inundation.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Beni-Israel throve in these surroundings so well adapted to their
+      traditional tastes. Even if their subsequent importance as a nation has
+      been over-estimated, they did not at least share the fate of many foreign
+      tribes, who, when transplanted into Egypt, waned and died out, or, at the
+      end of two or three generations, became merged in the native population.*
+      In pursuing their calling as shepherds, almost within sight of the rich
+      cities of the Nile valley, they never forsook the God of their fathers to
+      bow down before the Enneads or Triads of Egypt; whether He was already
+      known to them as Jahveh, or was worshipped under the collective name of
+      Elohîm, they served Him with almost unbroken fidelity even in the presence
+      of Râ and Osiris, of Phtah and Sûtkhû.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We are told that when the Hebrews left Ramses, they were
+     &ldquo;about six hundred thousand on foot that were men, beside
+     children. And a mixed multitude went up also with them; and
+     flocks and herds, even very much cattle&rdquo; (<i>Exod.</i> xii. 37,
+     38).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Hyksôs conquest had not in any way modified the feudal system of the
+      country. The Shepherd-kings must have inherited the royal domain just as
+      they found it at the close of the XIVth dynasty, but doubtless the whole
+      Delta, from Avaris to Sais, and from Memphis to Buto, was their personal
+      appanage. Their direct authority probably extended no further south than
+      the pyramids, and their supremacy over the fiefs of the Said was at best
+      precarious. The turbulent lords who shared among them the possession of
+      the valley had never lost their proud or rebellious spirit, and under the
+      foreign as under the native Pharaohs regulated their obedience to their
+      ruler by the energy he displayed, or by their regard for the resources at
+      his disposal. Thebes had never completely lost the ascendency which it
+      obtained over them at the fall of the Memphite dynasty. The accession of
+      the Xoite dynasty, and the arrival of the Shepherd-kings, in relegating
+      Thebes unceremoniously to a second rank, had not discouraged it, or
+      lowered its royal prestige in its own eyes or in those of others: the
+      lords of the south instinctively rallied around it, as around their
+      natural citadel, and their resources, combined with its own, rendered it
+      as formidable a power as that of the masters of the Delta. If we had
+      fuller information as to the history of this period, we should doubtless
+      see that the various Theban princes took occasion, as in the
+      Heracleopolitan epoch, to pick a quarrel with their sovereign lord, and
+      did not allow themselves to be discouraged by any check.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The length of time during which Egypt was subject to
+     Asiatic rule is not fully known. Historians are agreed in
+     recognizing the three epochs referred to in the narrative of
+     Manetho as corresponding with (1) the conquest and the six
+     first Hyksôs kings, including the XVth Theban dynasty; (2)
+     the complete submission of Egypt to the XVIth foreign
+     dynasty; (3) the war of independence during the XVIIth
+     dynasty, which consisted of two parallel series of kings,
+     the one Shepherds (Pharaohs), the other Thebans. There has
+     been considerable discussion as to the duration of the
+     oppression. The best solution is still that given by Erman,
+     according to whom the XVth dynasty lasted 284, the XVIth
+     234, and the XVIIth 143 years, or, in all, 661 years. The
+     invasion must, therefore, have taken place about 2346 B.C.,
+     or about the time when the Elamite power was at its highest.
+     The advent of the XVIth dynasty would fall about 2062 B.C.,
+     and the commencement of the war of independence between 1730
+     and 1720 B.C.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The period of hegemony attributed by the chronicles to the Hyksôs of the
+      XVIth dynasty was not probably, as far as they were concerned, years of
+      perfect tranquillity, or of undisputed authority. In inscribing their sole
+      names on the lists, the compilers denoted merely the shorter or longer
+      period during which their Theban vassals failed in their rebellious
+      efforts, and did not dare to assume openly the title or ensigns of
+      royalty. A certain Apôphis, probably the same who took the prsenomen of
+      Aqnûnrî, was reigning at Tanis when the decisive revolt broke out, and
+      Saqnûnrî Tiûâa I., who was the leader on the occasion, had no other title
+      of authority over the provinces of the south than that of <i>hiqu,</i> or
+      regent. We are unacquainted with the cause of the outbreak or with its
+      sequel, and the Egyptians themselves seem to have been not much better
+      informed on the subject than ourselves. They gave free flight to their
+      fancy, and accommodated the details to their taste, not shrinking from the
+      introduction of daring fictions into the account. A romance, which was
+      very popular with the literati four or five hundred years later, asserted
+      that the real cause of the war was a kind of religious quarrel. &ldquo;It
+      happened that the land of Egypt belonged to the Fever-stricken, and, as
+      there was no supreme king at that time, it happened then that King
+      Saqnûnrî was regent of the city of the south, and that the Fever-stricken
+      of the city of Râ were under the rule of Râ-Apôpi in Avaris. The Whole
+      Land tribute to the latter in manufactured products, and the north did the
+      same in all the good things of the Delta. Now, the King Râ-Apôpi took to
+      himself Sûtkhû for lord, and he did not serve any other god in the Whole
+      Land except Sûtkhû, and he built a temple of excellent and everlasting
+      work at the gate of the King Râ-Apôpi, and he arose every morning to
+      sacrifice the daily victims, and the chief vassals were there with
+      garlands of flowers, as it was accustomed to be done for the temple of
+      Phrâ-Harmâkhis.&rdquo; Having finished the temple, he thought of imposing upon
+      the Thebans the cult of his god, but as he shrank from employing force in
+      such a delicate matter, he had recourse to stratagem. He took counsel with
+      his princes and generals, but they were unable to propose any plan. The
+      college of diviners and scribes was more complaisant: &ldquo;Let a messenger go
+      to the regent of the city of the South to tell him: The King Râ-Apôpi
+      commands thee: &lsquo;That the hippopotami which are in the pool of the town are
+      to be exterminated in the pool, in order that slumber may come to me by
+      day and by night.&rsquo; He will not be able to reply good or bad, and thou
+      shalt send him another messenger: The King Râ-Apôpi commands thee: &lsquo;If the
+      chief of the South does not reply to my message, let him serve no longer
+      any god but Sûtkhû. But if he replies to it, and will do that which I tell
+      him to do, then I will impose nothing further upon him, and I will not in
+      future bow before any other god of the Whole Land than Amonrâ, king of the
+      gods!&rsquo;&rdquo; Another Pharaoh of popular romance, Nectanebo, possessed, at a
+      much later date, mares which conceived at the neighing of the stallions of
+      Babylon, and his friend Lycerus had a cat which went forth every night to
+      wring the necks of the cocks of Memphis:* the hippopotami of the Theban
+      lake, which troubled the rest of the King of Tanis, were evidently of
+      close kin to these extraordinary animals.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Found in a popular story, which came in later times to be
+     associated with the traditions connected with Æsop.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The sequel is unfortunately lost. We may assume, however, without much
+      risk of error, that Saqnûnrî came forth safe and sound from the ordeal;
+      that Apôpi was taken in his own trap, and saw himself driven to the dire
+      extremity of giving up Sûtkhû for Amonrâ or of declaring war. He was
+      likely to adopt the latter alternative, and the end of the manuscript
+      would probably have related his defeat.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0030" id="linkimage-0030">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:10%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/106.jpg" alt="106.jpg Pallate of Tiûa " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn from
+the original
+by Faucher-
+Gudin.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Hostilities continued for a century and a half from the time when Saqnûnrî
+      Tiûâa declared himself son of the Sun and king of the two Egypts. From the
+      moment in which he surrounded his name with a cartouche, the princes of
+      the Said threw in their lot with him, and the XVIIth dynasty had its
+      beginning on the day of his proclamation. The strife at first was
+      undecisive and without marked advantage to either side: at length the
+      Pharaoh whom the Greek copyists of Manetho call Alisphragmouthosis,
+      defeated the barbarians, drove them away from Memphis and from the western
+      plains of the Delta, and shut them up in their entrenched camp at Avaris,
+      between the Sebennytic branch of the Nile and the Wady Tumilât. The
+      monuments bearing on this period of strife and misery are few in number,
+      and it is a fortunate circumstance if some insignificant object tarns up
+      which would elsewhere be passed over as unworthy of notice. One of the
+      officials of Tiûâa I. has left us his writing palette, on which the
+      cartouches of his master are incised with a rudeness baffling description.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We have also information of a prince of the blood, a king&rsquo;s son, Tûaû, who
+      accompanied this same Pharaoh in his expeditions; and the Gîzeh Museum is
+      proud of having in its possession the i wooden sabre which this individual
+      placed on the mummy of a certain Aqhorû, to enable him to defend himself
+      against the monsters of the lower world. A second Saqnûnrî Tiûâa succeeded
+      the first, and like him was buried in a little brick pyramid on the border
+      of the Theban necropolis. At his death the series of rulers was broken,
+      and we meet with several names which are difficult to classify&mdash;Sakhontinibrî,
+      Sanakhtû-niri, Hotpûrî, Manhotpûrî, Eâhotpû.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Hotpûrî and Manhotpûrî are both mentioned in the fragments
+     of a fantastic story (copied during the XXth dynasty), bits
+     of which are found in most European museums. In one of these
+     fragments, preserved in the Louvre, mention is made of
+     Hotpûrî&rsquo;s tomb, certainly situated at Thebes; we possess
+     scarabs of this king, and Pétrie discovered at Coptos a
+     fragment of a stele bearing his name and titles, and
+     describing the works which he executed in the temples of the
+     town. The XIVth year of Manhotpûrî is mentioned in a passage
+     of the story as being the date of the death of a personage
+     born under Hotpûrî. These two kings belong, as far as we are
+     able to judge, to the middle of the XVIIth dynasty; I am
+     inclined to place beside them the Pharaoh Nûbhotpûrî, of
+     whom we possess a few rather coarse scarabs.
+</pre>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="107 (180K)" src="images/107.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0031" id="linkimage-0031">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:35%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/109.jpg"
+       alt="109.jpg NofrÎtari, from The Wooden Statuette in the Turin Museum " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph
+by Plinders Pétrie.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As we proceed, however, information becomes more plentiful, and the list
+      of reigns almost complete. The part which the princesses of older times
+      played in the transmission of power had, from the XIIth dynasty downward,
+      considerably increased in importance, and threatened to overshadow that of
+      the princes. The question presents itself whether, during these centuries
+      of perpetual warfare, there had not been a moment when, all the males of
+      the family having perished, the women alone were left to perpetuate the
+      solar race on the earth and to keep the succession unbroken. As soon as
+      the veil over this period of history begins to be lifted, we distinguish
+      among the personages emerging from the obscurity as many queens as kings
+      presiding over the destinies of Egypt. The sons took precedence of the
+      daughters when both were the offspring of a brother and sister born of the
+      same parents, and when, consequently, they were of equal rank; but, on the
+      other hand, the sons forfeited this equality when there was any
+      inferiority in origin on the maternal side, and their prospect of
+      succession to the throne diminished in proportion to their mother&rsquo;s
+      remoteness from the line of Râ. In the latter case all their sisters, born
+      of marriages which to us appear incestuous, took precedence of them, and
+      the eldest daughter became the legitimate Pharaoh, who sat in the seat of
+      Horus on the death of her father, or even occasionally during his
+      lifetime. The prince whom she married governed for her, and discharged
+      those royal duties which could be legally performed by a man only,&mdash;such
+      as offering worship to the supreme gods, commanding the army, and
+      administering justice; but his wife never ceased to be sovereign, and
+      however small the intelligence or firmness of which she might be
+      possessed, her husband was obliged to leave to her, at all events on
+      certain occasions, the direction of affairs.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At her death her children inherited the crown: their father had formally
+      to invest the eldest of them with royal, authority in the room of the
+      deceased, and with him he shared the externals, if not the reality, of
+      power.* It is doubtful whether the third Saq-nûnrî Tiûâa known to us&mdash;he
+      who added an epithet to his name, and was commonly known as Tiûâqni,
+      &ldquo;Tiûâa the brave&rdquo; ** &mdash;united in his person all the requisites of a
+      Pharaoh qualified to reign in his own right. However this may have been,
+      at all events his wife, Queen Ahhotpû, possessed them.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Thus we find Thûtmosis I. formally enthroning his daughter
+     Hât-shopsîtû, towards the close of his reign.
+
+     ** It would seem that the epithet Qeni ( = the brave, the
+     robust) did not form an indispensable part of his name, any
+     more than Ahmosi did of the names of members of the family
+     of Ahmosis, the conqueror of the Shepherds. It is to him
+     that the Tiûâa cartouche refers, which is to be found on the
+     statue mentioned by Daninos-Pasha, published by Bouriant,
+     and on which we find Ahmosis, a princess of the same name,
+     together with Queen Ahhotpû I.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His eldest son Ahmosû died prematurely; the two younger brothers, Kamosû
+      and a second Ahmosû, the Amosis of the Greeks, assumed the crown after
+      him. It is possible, as frequently happened, that their young sister
+      Ahmasi-Nofrîtari entered the harem of both brothers consecutively.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0032" id="linkimage-0032">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/110.jpg" alt="110.jpg the Head of Saqnuri " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Bouclier,
+from a photograph
+by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      We cannot be sure that she was united to Kamosû, but at all events she
+      became the wife of Ahmosis, and the rights which she possessed, together
+      with those which her husband had inherited from their mother Ahhotpû, gave
+      him a legal claim such as was seldom enjoyed by the Pharaohs of that
+      period, so many of them being sovereigns merely <i>de facto,</i> while he
+      was doubly king by right.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Tiûâqni, Kamosû,* and Ahmosis** quickly succeeded each other. Tiûâqni very
+      probably waged war against the Shepherds, and it is not known whether he
+      fell upon the field of battle or was the victim of some plot; the
+      appearance of his mummy proves that he died a violent death when about
+      forty years of age. Two or three men, whether assassins or soldiers, must
+      have surrounded and despatched him before help was available. A blow from
+      an axe must have severed part of his left cheek, exposed the teeth,
+      fractured the jaw, and sent him senseless to the ground; another blow must
+      have seriously injured the skull, and a dagger or javelin has cut open the
+      forehead on the right side, a little above the eye. His body must have
+      remained lying where it fell for some time: when found, decomposition had
+      set in, and the embalming had to be hastily performed as best it might.
+      The hair is thick, rough, and matted; the face had been shaved on the
+      morning of his death, but by touching the cheek we can ascertain how harsh
+      and abundant the hair must have been. The mummy is that of a fine,
+      vigorous man, who might have lived to a hundred years, and he must have
+      defended himself resolutely against his assailants; his features bear even
+      now an expression of fury. A flattened patch of exuded brain appears above
+      one eye, the forehead is wrinkled, and the lips, which are drawn back in a
+      circle about the gums, reveal the teeth still biting into the tongue.
+      Kamosû did not reign long;&rsquo;we know nothing of the events of his life, but
+      we owe to him one of the prettiest examples of the Egyptian goldsmith&rsquo;s
+      art&mdash;the gold boat mounted on a carriage of wood and bronze, which
+      was to convey his double on its journeys through Hades. This boat was
+      afterwards appropriated by his mother Ahhotpû.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * With regard to Kamosû, we possess, in addition to the
+     miniature bark which was discovered on the sarcophagus of
+     Queen Ahhotpû, and which is now in the museum at Gîzeh, a
+     few scattered references to his worship existing on the
+     monuments, on a stele at Gîzeh, on a table of offerings in
+     the Marseilles Museum, and in the list of princes worshipped
+     by the &ldquo;servants of the Necropolis.&rdquo; His pyramid was at Drah-
+     Abu&rsquo;l-Neggah, beside those of Ilûâa and Amenôthês I.
+
+     ** The name Amosû or Ahmosi is usually translated &ldquo;Child of
+     the Moon-god&rdquo; the real meaning is, &ldquo;the Moon-god has brought
+     forth,&rdquo; &ldquo;him&rdquo; or &ldquo;her&rdquo; (referring to the person who bears
+     the name) being understood.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ahmosisa must have been about twenty-five years of age when he ascended
+      the throne; he was of medium height, as his body when mummied measured
+      only 5 feet 6 inches in length, but the development of the neck and chest
+      indicates extraordinary strength. The head is small in proportion to the
+      bust, the forehead low and narrow, the cheek-bones project, and the hair
+      is thick and wavy. The face exactly resembles that of Tiûâcrai, and the
+      likeness alone would proclaim the affinity, even if we were ignorant of
+      the close relationship which united these two Pharaohs.* Ahmosis seems to
+      have been a strong, active, warlike man; he was successful in all the wars
+      in which we know him to have been engaged, and he ousted the Shepherds
+      from the last towns occupied by them. It is possible that modern writers
+      have exaggerated the credit due to Ahmosis for expelling the Hyksôs. He
+      found the task already half accomplished, and the warfare of his
+      forefathers for at least a century must have prepared the way for his
+      success; if he appears to have played the most important <i>rôle</i> in
+      the history of the deliverance, it is owing to our ignorance of the work
+      of others, and he thus benefits by the oblivion into which their deeds
+      have passed. Taking this into consideration, we must still admit that the
+      Shepherds, even when driven into Avaris, were not adversaries to be
+      despised. Forced by the continual pressure of the Egyptian armies into
+      this corner of the Delta, they were as a compact body the more able to
+      make a protracted resistance against very superior forces.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Here again my description is taken from the present
+     appearance of the mummy, which is now in the Gîzeh Museum.
+     It is evident, from the inspection which I have made, that
+     Ahmosis was about fifty years old at the time of his death,
+     and, allowing him to have reigned twenty-five years, he must
+     have been twenty-five or twenty-six when he came to the
+     throne.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0033" id="linkimage-0033">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/113.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="113.jpg the Small Gold Votive Barque of Pharaoh KamosÛ, In the GÎzeh Museum. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The impenetrable marshes of Menzaleh on the north, and the desert of the
+      Red Sea on the south, completely covered both their wings; the shifting
+      network of the branches of the Nile, together with the artificial canals,
+      protected them as by a series of moats in front, while Syria in their rear
+      offered them inexhaustible resources for revictualling their troops, or
+      levying recruits among tribes of kindred race. As long as they could hold
+      their ground there, a re-invasion was always possible; one victory would
+      bring them to Memphis, and the whole valley would again fall under
+      then-suzerainty. Ahmosis, by driving them from their last stronghold,
+      averted this danger. It is, therefore, not without reason that the
+      official chroniclers of later times separated him from his ancestors and
+      made him the head of a new dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0034" id="linkimage-0034">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/114.jpg" width="100%" alt="114.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      His predecessors had in reality been merely Pharaohs on sufferance, ruling
+      in the south within the confines of their Theban principality, gaining in
+      power, it is true, with every generation, but never able to attain to the
+      suzerainty of the whole country. They were reckoned in the XVIIth dynasty
+      together with the Hyksôs sovereigns of uncontested legitimacy, while their
+      successors were chosen to constitute the XVIIIth, comprising Pharaohs with
+      full powers, tolerating no competitors, and uniting under their firm rule
+      the two regions of which Egypt was composed&mdash;the possessions of Sit
+      and the possessions of Horus.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Manetho, or his abridgers, call the king who drove out the
+     Shepherds Amôsis or Tethmôsis. Lepsius thought he saw
+     grounds for preferring the second reading, and identified
+     this Tethmôsis with Thûtmosi Manakhpirri, the ïhûtmosis III.
+     of our lists; Ahmosis could only have driven out the greater
+     part of the nation. This theory, to which Naville still
+     adheres, as also does Stindorff, was disputed nearly fifty
+     years ago by E. de Rougé; nowadays we are obliged to admit
+     that, subsequent to the Vth year of Ahmosis, there were no
+     longer Shepherd-kings in Egypt, even though a part of the
+     conquering race may have remained in the country in a state
+     of slavery, as we shall soon have occasion to observe.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The war of deliverance broke out on the accession of Ahmosis, and
+      continued during the first five years of his reign.* One of his
+      lieutenants, the king&rsquo;s namesake&mdash;Âhmosi-si-Abîna&mdash;who belonged
+      to the family of the lords of Nekhabît, has left us an account, in one of
+      the inscriptions in his tomb, of the numerous exploits in which he took
+      part side by side with his royal master, and thus, thanks to this
+      fortunate record of his vanity, we are not left in complete ignorance of
+      the events which took place during this crucial struggle between the
+      Asiatic settlers and their former subjects. Nekhabît had enjoyed
+      considerable prosperity in the earlier ages of Egyptian history, marking
+      as it did the extreme southern limit of the kingdom, and forming an
+      outpost against the barbarous tribes of Nubia. As soon as the progress of
+      conquest had pushed the frontier as far south as the first cataract, it
+      declined in importance, and the remembrance of its former greatness found
+      an echo only in proverbial expressions or in titles used at the Pharaonic
+      court.* The nomes situated to the south of Thebes, unlike those of Middle
+      Egypt, did not comprise any extensive fertile or well-watered territory
+      calculated to enrich its possessors or to afford sufficient support for a
+      large population: they consisted of long strips of alluvial soil, shut in
+      between the river and the mountain range, but above the level of the
+      inundation, and consequently difficult to irrigate.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is evident from passage in the biography of Ahmosi-
+     si-Abîna, where it is stated that, after the taking of
+     Avaris, the king passed into Asia in the year VI. The first
+     few lines of the <i>Great Inscription of El-Kab</i> seem to refer
+     to four successive campaigns, i.e. four years of warfare up
+     to the taking of Avaris, and to a fifth year spent in
+     pursuing the Shepherds into Syria.
+
+     ** The vulture of Nekhabît is used to indicate the south,
+     while the urseus of Buto denotes the extreme north; the
+     title Râ-Nekhnît, &ldquo;Chief of Nekhnît,&rdquo; which is,
+     hypothetically, supposed to refer to a judicial function, is
+     none the less associated with the expression, &ldquo;Nekhabît-
+     Tekhnît,&rdquo; as an indication of the south, and, therefore,
+     can be traced to the prehistoric epoch when Nekhabît was the
+     primary designation of the south.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0035" id="linkimage-0035">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/116.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="116.jpg the Walls of El-kab Seen from The Tomb Of Pihiri " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0036" id="linkimage-0036">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/116a.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="116a.jpg Collection of Vases  Modelled and Painted in The Grand Temple. Philae Island. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These nomes were cultivated, moreover, by a poor and sparse population. It
+      needed a fortuitous combination of circumstances to relieve them from
+      their poverty-stricken condition&mdash;either a war, which would bring
+      into prominence their strategic positions; or the establishment of
+      markets, such as those of Syênê and Elephantine, where the commerce of
+      neighbouring regions would naturally centre; or the erection, as at Ombos
+      or Adfû, of a temple which would periodically attract a crowd of pilgrims.
+      The principality of the Two Feathers comprised, besides Nekhabît, ât least
+      two such towns&mdash;Anît, on its northern boundary, and Nekhnît almost
+      facing Nekhabît on the left bank of the river.* These three towns
+      sometimes formed separate estates for as many independent lords:** even
+      when united they constituted a fiefdom of but restricted area and of
+      slender revenues, its chiefs ranking below those of the great feudal
+      princes of Middle Egypt. The rulers of this fiefdom led an obscure
+      existence during the whole period of the Memphite empire, and when at
+      length Thebes gained the ascendency, they rallied to the latter and
+      acknowledged her suzerainty. One of them, Sovkûnakhîti, gained the favour
+      of Sovkhotpû III. Sakhemûaztaûirî, who granted him lands which made the
+      fortune of his house; another of them, Aï, married Khonsu, one of the
+      daughters of Sovkûmsaûf I. and his Queen Nûbkhâs, and it is possible that
+      the misshapen pyramid of Qûlah, the most southern in Egypt proper, was
+      built for one of these royally connected personages.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Nekhnît is the Hieracônpolis of Greek and Roman times,
+     Hâît-Baûkû, the modern name of which is Kom-el-Ahmar.
+
+     ** Pihiri was, therefore, prince of Nekhabît and of Anît at
+     one and the same time, whereas the town of Nekhnît had its
+     own special rulers, several of whom are known to us from the
+     tombs at Kom-el-Ahmar.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The descendants of Aï attached themselves faithfully to the Pharaohs of
+      the XVIIth dynasty, and helped them to the utmost in their struggle
+      against the invaders. Their capital, Nekhabît, was situated between the
+      Nile and the Arabian chain, at the entrance to a valley which penetrates
+      some distance into the desert, and leads to the gold-mines on the Red Sea.
+      The town profited considerably from the precious metals brought into it by
+      the caravans, and also from the extraction of natron, which from
+      prehistoric times was largely employed in embalming. It had been a
+      fortified place from the outset, and its walls, carefully repaired by
+      successive ages, were still intact at the beginning of this century. They
+      described at this time a rough quadrilateral, the two longer sides of
+      which measured some 1900 feet in length, the two shorter being about
+      one-fourth less. The southern face was constructed in a fashion common in
+      brick buildings in Egypt, being divided into alternate panels of
+      horizontally laid courses, and those in which the courses were concave; on
+      the north and west façades the bricks were so laid as to present an
+      undulating arrangement running uninterruptedly from one end to the other.
+      The walls are 33 feet thick, and their average height 27 feet; broad and
+      easy steps lead to the foot-walk on the top. The gates are unsymmetrically
+      placed, there being one on the north, east, and west sides respectively;
+      while the southern side is left without an opening. These walls afforded
+      protection to a dense but unequally distributed population, the bulk of
+      which was housed towards the north and west sides, where the remains of an
+      immense number of dwellings may still be seen. The temples were crowded
+      together in a small square enclosure, concentric with the walls of the
+      enceinte, and the principal sanctuary was dedicated to Nekhabît, the
+      vulture goddess, who gave her name to the city.* This enclosure formed a
+      kind of citadel, where the garrison could hold out when the outer part had
+      fallen into the enemy&rsquo;s hands. The times were troublous; the open country
+      was repeatedly wasted by war, and the peasantry had more than once to seek
+      shelter behind the protecting ramparts of the town, leaving their lands to
+      lie fallow.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A part of the latter temple, that which had been rebuilt
+     in the Saîte epoch, was still standing at the beginning of
+     the XIXth century, with columns bearing the cartouches of
+     Hakori; it was destroyed about the year 1825, and
+     Champollion found only the foundations of the walls.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0037" id="linkimage-0037">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/119.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="119.jpg the Ruins of The Pyramid Of QÛlah, Near Mohammerieh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Famine constantly resulted from these disturbances, and it taxed all the
+      powers of the ruling prince to provide at such times for his people. A
+      chief of the Commissariat, Bebî by name, who lived about this period,
+      gives us a lengthy account of the number of loaves, oxen, goats, and pigs,
+      which he allowed to all the inhabitants both great and little, down even
+      to the quantity of oil and incense, which he had taken care to store up
+      for them: his prudence was always justified by the issue, for &ldquo;during the
+      many years in which the famine recurred, he distributed grain in the city
+      to all those who hungered.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+    <p>
+      Babaî, the first of the lords of El-Kab whose name has come down to us,
+      was a captain in the service of Saqnûnrî Tiûâqni.* His son Ahmosi, having
+      approached the end of his career, cut a tomb for himself in the hill which
+      overlooks the northern side of the town. He relates on the walls of his
+      sepulchre, for the benefit of posterity, the most praiseworthy actions of
+      his long life. He had scarcely emerged from childhood when he was called
+      upon to act for his father, and before his marriage he was appointed to
+      the command of the barque <i>The Calf.</i> From thence he was promoted to
+      the ship <i>The North</i>, and on account of his activity he was chosen to
+      escort his namesake the king on foot, whenever he drove in his chariot. He
+      repaired to his post at the moment when the decisive war against the
+      Hyksôs broke out.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * There are still some doubts as to the descent of this
+     Ahmosi. Some authorities hold that Babai was the name of his
+     father and Abîna that of his grandfather; others think that
+     Babai was his father and Abîna his mother; others, again,
+     make out Babai and Abîna to be variants of the same name,
+     probably a Semitic one, borne by the father of Ahmosi; the
+     majority of modern Egyptologists (including myself) regard
+     this last hypothesis as being the most probable one.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The tradition current in the time of the Ptolemies reckoned the number of
+      men under the command of King Ahmosis when he encamped before Avaris at
+      480,000. This immense multitude failed to bring matters to a successful
+      issue, and the siege dragged on indefinitely. The king afc length
+      preferred to treat with the Shepherds, and gave them permission to retreat
+      into Syria safe and sound, together with their wives, their children, and
+      all their goods. This account, however, in no way agrees with the all too
+      brief narration of events furnished by the inscription in the tomb. The
+      army to which Egypt really owed its deliverance was not the undisciplined
+      rabble of later tradition, but, on the contrary, consisted of troops
+      similar to those which subsequently invaded Syria, some 15,000 to 20,000
+      in number, fully equipped and ably officered, supported, moreover, by a
+      fleet ready to transfer them across the canals and arms of the river in a
+      vigorous condition and ready for the battle.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It may be pointed out that Ahmosi, son of Abîna, was a
+     sailor and a leader of sailors; that he passed from one
+     vessel to another, until he was at length appointed to the
+     command of one of the most important ships in the royal
+     fleet. Transport by water always played considerable part in
+     the wars which were carried on in Egyptian territory; I have
+     elsewhere drawn attention to campaigns conducted in this
+     manner under the Horacleopolitan dynasties, and we shall see
+     that the Ethiopian conquerors adopted the same mode of
+     transit in the course of their invasion of Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As soon as this fleet arrived at the scene of hostilities, the engagement
+      began. Ahmosi-si-Abîna conducted the manouvres under the king&rsquo;s eye, and
+      soon gave such evidence of his capacity, that he was transferred by royal
+      favour to the <i>Rising in Memphis</i>&mdash;a vessel with a high
+      freeboard. He was shortly afterwards appointed to a post in a division
+      told off for duty on the river Zadiku, which ran under the walls of the
+      enemy&rsquo;s fortress.* Two successive and vigorous attacks made in this
+      quarter were barren of important results. Ahmosi-si-Abîna succeeded in
+      each of the attacks in killing an enemy, bringing back as trophies a hand
+      of each of his victims, and his prowess, made known to the king by one of
+      the heralds, twice procured for him, &ldquo;the gold of valour,&rdquo; probably in the
+      form of collars, chains, or bracelets.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of this canal was first recognised by Brugsch,
+     then misunderstood and translated &ldquo;the water bearing the
+     name of the water of Avaris.&rdquo; It is now road &ldquo;Zadikû,&rdquo; and,
+     with the Egyptian article, Pa-zadikû, or Pzadikû. The name
+     is of Semitic origin, and is derived from the root meaning
+     &ldquo;to be just;&rdquo; we do not know to which of the watercourses
+     traversing the east of the Delta it ought to be applied.
+
+     ** The fact that the attacks from this side were not
+     successful is proved by the sequel. If they had succeeded,
+     as is usually supposed, the Egyptians would not have fallen
+     back on another point further south in order to renew the
+     struggle.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0038" id="linkimage-0038">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/122.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="122.jpg the Tombs of The Princes Of NekhabÎt, in The Hillside Above El-kab " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The assault having been repulsed in this quarter, the Egyptians made their
+      way towards the south, and came into conflict with the enemy at the
+      village of Taqimît.* Here, again, the battle remained undecided, but
+      Ahmosi-si-Abîna had an adventure. He had taken a prisoner, and in bringing
+      him back lost himself, fell into a muddy ditch, and, when he had freed
+      himself from the dirt as well as he could, pursued his way by mistake for
+      some time in the direction of Avaris. He found out his error, however,
+      before it was too late, came back to the camp safe and sound, and received
+      once more some gold as a reward of his brave conduct. A second attack upon
+      the town was crowned with complete success; it was taken by storm, given
+      over to pillage, and Ahmosi-si-Abîna succeeded in capturing one man and
+      three women, who were afterwards, at the distribution of the spoil, given
+      to him as slaves.** The enemy evacuated in haste the last strongholds
+      which they held in the east of the Delta, and took refuge in the Syrian
+      provinces on the Egyptian frontier. Whether it was that they assumed here
+      a menacing attitude, or whether Ahmosis hoped to deal them a crushing blow
+      before they could find time to breathe, or to rally around them sufficient
+      forces to renew the offensive, he made up his mind to cross the frontier,
+      which he did in the 5th year of his reign.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The site of Taqimît is unknown.
+
+     ** The prisoner who was given to Ahmosis after the victory,
+     is probably Paâmû, the Asiatic, mentioned in the list of his
+     slaves which he had engraved on one of the walls of his
+     tomb.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was the first time for centuries that a Pharaoh had trusted himself in
+      Asia, and the same dread of the unknown which had restrained his ancestors
+      of the XIIth dynasty, doubtless arrested Ahmosis also on the threshold of
+      the continent. He did not penetrate further than the border provinces of
+      Zahi, situated on the edge of the desert, and contented himself with
+      pillaging the little town of Sharûhana.* Ahmosi-si-Abîna was again his
+      companion, together with his cousin, Ahmosi-Pannekhabit, then at the
+      beginning of his career, who brought away on this occasion two young girls
+      for his household.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Sharûhana, which is mentioned again under Thûtmosis III.
+     is not the plain of Sharon, as Birch imagined, but the
+     Sharuhen of the Biblical texts, in the tribe of Simeon
+     (<i>Josh.</i> xix. 6), as Brugsch recognised it to be. It is
+     probably identical with the modern Tell-esh-Sheriâh, which
+     lies north-west of Beersheba.
+
+     ** Ahmosi Pannekhabit lay in tomb No. 2, at El-Kab. His
+     history is briefly told on one of the walls, and on two
+     sides of the pedestal of his statues. We have one of these,
+     or rather two plates from the pedestal of one of them, in
+     the Louvre; the other is in a good state of preservation,
+     and belongs to Mr. Finlay. The inscription is found in a
+     mutilated condition on the wall of the tomb, but the three
+     monuments which have come down to us are sufficiently
+     complementary to one another to enable us to restore nearly
+     the whole of the original text.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The expedition having accomplished its purpose, the Egyptians returned
+      home with their spoil, and did not revisit Asia for a long period. If the
+      Hyksôs generals had fostered in their minds the idea that they could
+      recover their lost ground, and easily re-enter upon the possession of
+      their African domain, this reverse must have cruelly disillusioned them.
+      They must have been forced to acknowledge that their power was at an end,
+      and to renounce all hope of returning to the country which had so
+      summarily ejected them. The majority of their own people did not follow
+      them into exile, but remained attached to the soil on which they lived,
+      and the tribes which had successively settled down beside them&mdash;including
+      the Beni-Israel themselves&mdash;no longer dreamed of a return to their
+      fatherland. The condition of these people varied according to their
+      locality. Those who had taken up a position in the plain of the Delta were
+      subjected to actual slavery. Ahmosis destroyed the camp at Avails,
+      quartered his officers in the towns, and constructed forts at strategic
+      points, or rebuilt the ancient citadels to resist the incursions of the
+      Bedouin. The vanquished people in the Delta, hemmed in as they were by a
+      network of fortresses, were thus reduced to a rabble of serfs, to be taxed
+      and subjected to the <i>corvée</i> without mercy. But further north, the
+      fluctuating population which roamed between the Sebennytic and Pelusiac
+      branches of the Nile were not exposed to such rough treatment. The marshes
+      of the coast-line afforded them a safe retreat, in which they could take
+      refuge at the first threat of exactions on the part of the royal
+      emissaries. Secure within dense thickets, upon islands approached by
+      interminable causeways, often covered with water, or by long tortuous
+      canals concealed in the thick growth of reeds, they were able to defy with
+      impunity the efforts of the most disciplined troops, and treason alone
+      could put them at the mercy of their foes. Most of the Pharaohs felt that
+      the advantages to be gained by conquering them would be outweighed by the
+      difficulty of the enterprise; all that could result from a campaign would
+      be the destruction of one or two villages, the acquisition of a few
+      hundred refractory captives, of some ill-favoured cattle, and a trophy of
+      nets and worm-eaten boats. The kings, therefore, preferred to keep a close
+      watch over these undisciplined hordes, and as long as their depredations
+      were kept within reasonable limits, they were left unmolested to their
+      wild and precarious life.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Asiatic invasion had put a sudden stop to the advance of Egyptian rule
+      in the vast plains of the Upper Nile. The Theban princes, to whom Nubia
+      was directly subject, had been too completely engrossed in the wars
+      against their hereditary enemy, to devote much time to the continuation of
+      that work of colonization in the south which had been carried on so
+      vigorously by their forefathers of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties. The
+      inhabitants of the Nile valley, as far as the second cataract, rendered
+      them obedience, but without any change in the conditions and mode of their
+      daily life, which appear to have remained unaltered for centuries. The
+      temples of Usirtasen and Amenemhaît were allowed to fall into decay one
+      after another, the towns waned in prosperity, and were unable to keep
+      their buildings and monuments in repair; the inundation continued to bring
+      with it periodically its fleet of boats, which the sailors of Kûsh had
+      laden with timber, gum, elephants&rsquo; tusks, and gold dust: from time to time
+      a band of Bedouin from Uaûaît or Mazaiû would suddenly bear down upon some
+      village and carry off its spoils; the nearest garrison would be called to
+      its aid, or, on critical occasions, the king himself, at the head of his
+      guards, would fall on the marauders and drive them back into the
+      mountains. Ahrnosis, being greeted on his return from Syria by the news of
+      such an outbreak, thought it a favourable moment to impress upon the
+      nomadic tribes of Nubia the greatness of his conquest. On this occasion it
+      was the people of Khonthanûnofir, settled in the wadys east of the Nile,
+      above Semneh, which required a lesson. The army which had just expelled
+      the Hyksôs was rapidly conveyed to the opposite borders of the country by
+      the fleet, the two Ahmosi of Nekhabît occupying the highest posts. The
+      Egyptians, as was customary, landed at the nearest point to the enemy&rsquo;s
+      territory, and succeeded in killing a few of the rebels. Ahmosi-si-Abîna
+      brought back two prisoners and three hands, for which he was rewarded by a
+      gift of two female Bedouin slaves, besides the &ldquo;gold of valour.&rdquo; This
+      victory in the south following on such decisive success in the north,
+      filled the heart of the Pharaoh with pride, and the view taken of it by
+      those who surrounded him is evident even in the brief sentences of the
+      narrative. He is described as descending the river on the royal galley,
+      elated in spirit and flushed by his triumph in Nubia, which had followed
+      so closely on the deliverance of the Delta. But scarcely had he reached
+      Thebes, when an unforeseen catastrophe turned his confidence into alarm,
+      and compelled him to retrace his steps. It would appear that at the very
+      moment when he was priding himself on the successful issue of his
+      Ethiopian expedition, one of the sudden outbreaks, which frequently
+      occurred in those regions, had culminated in a Sudanese invasion of Egypt.
+      We are not told the name of the rebel leader, nor those of the tribes who
+      took part in it. The Egyptian people, threatened in a moment of such
+      apparent security by this inroad of barbarians, regarded them as a fresh
+      incursion of the Hyksôs, and applied to these southerners the opprobrious
+      term of &ldquo;Fever-stricken,&rdquo; already used to denote their Asiatic conquerors.
+      The enemy descended the Nile, committing terrible atrocities, and
+      polluting every sanctuary of the Theban gods which came within their
+      reach. They had reached a spot called Tentoâ,* before they fell in with
+      the Egyptian troops. Ahmosi-si-Abîna again distinguished himself in the
+      engagement. The vessel which he commanded, probably the <i>Rising in
+      Memphis</i>, ran alongside the chief galliot of the Sudanese fleet, and
+      took possession of it after a struggle, in which Ahmosi made two of the
+      enemy&rsquo;s sailors prisoners with his own hand. The king generously rewarded
+      those whose valour had thus turned the day in his favour, for the danger
+      had appeared to him critical; he allotted to every man on board the
+      victorious vessel five slaves, and five ancra of land situated in his
+      native province of each respectively. The invasion was not without its
+      natural consequences to Egypt itself.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of this locality does not occur elsewhere; it
+     would seem to refer, not to a village, but rather to a
+     canal, or the branch of a river, or a harbour somewhere
+     along the Nile. I am unable to locate it definitely, but am
+     inclined to think we ought to look for it, if not in Egypt
+     itself, at any rate in that part of Nubia which is nearest
+     to Egypt. M. Revillout, taking up a theory which had been
+     abandoned by Chabas, recognising in this expedition an
+     offensive incursion of the Shepherds, suggests that Tantoâ
+     may be the modern Tantah in the Delta.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A certain Titiânu, who appears to have been at the head of a powerful
+      faction, rose in rebellion at some place not named in the narrative, but
+      in the rear of the army. The rapidity with which Ahmosis repulsed the
+      Nubians, and turned upon his new enemy, completely baffled the latter&rsquo;s
+      plans, and he and his followers were cut to pieces, but the danger had for
+      the moment been serious.* It was, if not the last expedition undertaken in
+      this reign, at least the last commanded by the Pharaoh in person. By his
+      activity and courage Ahmosis had well earned the right to pass the
+      remainder of his days in peace.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The wording of the text is so much condensed that it is
+     difficult to be sure of its moaning. Modern scholars agree
+     with Brugsch that Titiânu is the name of a man, but several
+     Egyptologists believe its bearer to have been chief of the
+     Ethiopian tribes, while others think him to have been a
+     rebellious Egyptian prince, or a king of the Shepherds, or
+     give up the task of identification in despair. The tortuous
+     wording of the text, and the expressions which occur in it,
+     seem to indicate that the rebel was a prince of the royal
+     blood, and even that the name he bears was not his real one.
+     Later on we shall find that, on a similar occasion, the
+     official documents refer to a prince who took part in a plot
+     against Ramses III. by the fictitious name of Pentauîrît;
+     Titiânu was probably a nickname of the same kind inserted in
+     place of the real name. It seems that, in cases of high
+     treason, the criminal not only lost his life, but his name
+     was proscribed both in this world and in the next.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A revival of military greatness always entailed a renaissance in art,
+      followed by an age of building activity. The claims of the gods upon the
+      spoils of war must be satisfied before those of men, because the victory
+      and the booty obtained through it were alike owing to the divine help
+      given in battle. A tenth, therefore, of the slaves, cattle, and precious
+      metals was set apart for the service of the gods, and even fields, towns,
+      and provinces were allotted to them, the produce of which was applied to
+      enhance the importance of their cult or to repair and enlarge their
+      temples. The main body of the building was strengthened, halls and pylons
+      were added to the original plan, and the impulse once given to
+      architectural work, the co-operation of other artificers soon followed.
+      Sculptors and painters whose art had been at a standstill for generations
+      during the centuries of Egypt&rsquo;s humiliation, and whose hands had lost
+      their cunning for want of practice, were now once more in demand. They had
+      probably never completely lost the technical knowledge of their calling,
+      and the ancient buildings furnished them with various types of models,
+      which they had but to copy faithfully in order to revive their old
+      traditions. A few years after this revival a new school sprang up, whose
+      originality became daily more patent, and whose leaders soon showed
+      themselves to be in no way inferior to the masters of the older schools.
+      Ahmosis could not be accused of ingratitude to the gods; as soon as his
+      wars allowed him the necessary leisure, he began his work of
+      temple-building. The accession to power of the great Theban families had
+      been of little advantage to Thebes itself. Its Pharaohs, on assuming the
+      sovereignty of the whole valley, had not hesitated to abandon their native
+      city, and had made Heracleopolis, the Fayum or even Memphis, their seat of
+      government, only returning to Thebes in the time of the XIIIth dynasty,
+      when the decadence of their power had set in. The honour of furnishing
+      rulers for its country had often devolved on Thebes, but the city had
+      reaped but little benefit from the fact; this time, however, the tide of
+      fortune was to be turned. The other cities of Egypt had come to regard
+      Thebes as their metropolis from the time when they had temples. The main
+      body of the building was strengthened, halls and pylons were added to the
+      original plan, and the impulse once given to architectural work, the
+      co-operation of other artificers soon followed. Sculptors and painters
+      whose art had been at a standstill for generations during the centuries of
+      Egypt&rsquo;s humiliation, and whose hands had lost their cunning for want of
+      practice, were now once more in demand. They had probably never completely
+      lost the technical knowledge of their calling, and the ancient buildings
+      furnished them with various types of models, which they had but to copy
+      faithfully in order to revive their old traditions. A few years after this
+      revival a new school sprang up, whose originality became daily more
+      patent, and whose leaders soon showed themselves to be in no way inferior
+      to the masters of the older schools. Ahmosis could not be accused of
+      ingratitude to the gods; as soon as his wars allowed him the necessary
+      leisure, he began his work of temple-building. The accession to power of
+      the great Theban families had been of little advantage to Thebes itself.
+      Its Pharaohs, on assuming the sovereignty of the whole valley, had not
+      hesitated to abandon their native city, and had made Heracleopolis, the
+      Fayum or even Memphis, their seat of government, only returning to Thebes
+      in the time of the XIIIth dynasty, when the decadence of their power had
+      set in. The honour of furnishing rulers for its country had often devolved
+      on Thebes, but the city had reaped but little benefit from the fact; this
+      time, however, the tide of fortune was to be turned.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0039" id="linkimage-0039">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/130.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="130.jpg Painting in Tomb of the Kings Thebes " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The other cities of Egypt had come to regard Thebes as their metropolis
+      from the time when they had learned to rally round its princes to wage war
+      against the Hyksôs. It had been the last town to lay down arms at the time
+      of the invasion, and the first to take them up again in the struggle for
+      liberty. Thus the Egypt which vindicated her position among the nations of
+      the world was not the Egypt of the Memphite dynasties. It was the great
+      Egypt of the Amenemhâîts and the Usirtasens, still further aggrandised by
+      recent victories. Thebes was her natural capital, and its kings could not
+      have chosen a more suitable position from whence to command effectually
+      the whole empire. Situated at an equal distance from both frontiers, the
+      Pharaoh residing there, on the outbreak of a war either in the north or
+      south, had but half the length of the country to traverse in order to
+      reach the scene of action. Ahmosis spared no pains to improve the city,
+      but his resources did not allow of his embarking on any very extensive
+      schemes; he did not touch the temple of Amon, and if he undertook any
+      buildings in its neighbourhood, they must have been minor edifices. He
+      could, indeed, have had but little leisure to attempt much else, for it
+      was not till the XXIInd year of his reign that he was able to set
+      seriously to work.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In the inscription of the year XXII., Âhmosis expressly
+     states that he opened new chambers in the quarries of Tûrah
+     for the works in connection with the Theban Amon, as well as
+     for those of the temple of the Memphite Phtah.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      An opportunity then occurred to revive a practice long fallen into disuse
+      under the foreign kings, and to set once more in motion an essential part
+      of the machinery of Egyptian administration. The quarries of Turah, as is
+      well known, enjoyed the privilege of furnishing the finest materials to
+      the royal architects; nowhere else could be found limestone of such
+      whiteness, so easy to cut, or so calculated to lend itself to the carving
+      of delicate inscriptions and bas-reliefs. The commoner veins had never
+      ceased to be worked by private enterprise, gangs of quarrymen being always
+      employed, as at the present day, in cutting small stone for building
+      purposes, or in ruthlessly chipping it to pieces to burn for lime in the
+      kilns of the neighbouring villages; but the finest veins were always kept
+      for State purposes. Contemporary chroniclers might have formed a very just
+      estimate of national prosperity by the degree of activity shown in working
+      these royal preserves; when the amount of stone extracted was lessened,
+      prosperity was on the wane, and might be pronounced to be at its lowest
+      ebb when the noise of the quarryman&rsquo;s hammer finally ceased to be heard.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0040" id="linkimage-0040">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/132.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="132.jpg a Convoy of TÛrah Quarrymen Drawing Stone " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Vyse-Perring.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Every dynasty whose resources were such as to justify their resumption of
+      the work proudly recorded the fact on stelae which lined the approaches to
+      the masons&rsquo; yards. Ahmosis reopened the Tûrah quarry-chambers, and
+      procured for himself &ldquo;good stone and white&rdquo; for the temples of Anion at
+      Thebes and of Phtah at Memphis. No monument has as yet been discovered to
+      throw any light on the fate of Memphis subsequent to the time of the
+      Amenemhâîts. It must have suffered quite as much as any city of the Delta
+      from the Shepherd invasion, and from the wars which preceded their
+      expulsion, since it was situated on the highway of an invading army, and
+      would offer an attraction for pillagers. By a curious turn of fortune it
+      was the &ldquo;Fankhûi,&rdquo; or Asiatic prisoners, who were set to quarry the stone
+      for the restoration of the monuments which their own forefathers had
+      reduced to ruins.* The bas-reliefs sculptured on the stelæ of Ahmosis show
+      them in full activity under the <i>corvée;</i> we see here the stone block
+      detached from the quarry being squared by the chisel, or transported on a
+      sledge drawn by oxen.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The <i>Fankhûi</i> are, properly speaking, all white prisoners,
+     without distinction of race. Their name is derived from the
+     root <i>fôkhu, fankhu</i> = to bind, press, carry off, steal,
+     destroy; if it is sometimes used in the sense of
+     Phoenicians, it is only in the Ptolemaic epoch. Here the
+     term &ldquo;Fankhûi&rdquo; refers to the Shepherds and Asiatics made
+     prisoners in the campaign of the year V. against Sharuhana.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ahmosis had several children by his various wives; six at least owned
+      Nofrîtari for their mother and possessed near claims to the crown, but she
+      may have borne him others whose existence is unrecorded. The eldest
+      appears to have been a son, Sipiri; he received all the honours due to an
+      hereditary prince, but died without having reigned, and his second
+      brother, Amenhotpû&mdash;called by the Greeks Amenôthes*&mdash;took his
+      place.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The form Amenôphis, which is usually employed, is,
+     properly speaking, the equivalent of the name
+     <i>Amenemaupitu,</i> or Amenaupîti, which belongs to a king of
+     the XXIst Tanite dynasty; the true Greek transcription of
+     the Ptolemaic epoch, corresponding to the pronunciation
+     <i>Amehotpe,</i> or <i>Amenhopte,</i> is Amenôthes. Under the XVIIIth
+     dynasty the cuneiform transcription of the tablets of Tel-el
+     Amarna, Amankhatbi, seems to indicate the pronunciation
+     Amanhautpi, Amanhatpi, side by side with the pronunciation
+     Aman-hautpu, Amenhotpu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ahmosis was laid to rest in the chapel which he had prepared for himself
+      in the cemetery of Drah-abu&rsquo;l-Neggah, among the modest pyramids of the
+      XIth, XIIIth, and XVIIth dynasties.* He was venerated as a god, and his
+      cult was continued for six or eight centuries later, until the increasing
+      insecurity of the Theban necropolis at last necessitated the removal of
+      the kings from their funeral chambers.** The coffin of Ahmosis was found
+      to be still intact, though it was a poorly made one, shaped to the
+      contours of the body, and smeared over with yellow; it represents the king
+      with the false beard depending from his chin, and his breast covered with
+      a pectoral ornament, the features, hair, and accessories being picked out
+      in blue. His name has been hastily inscribed in ink on the front of the
+      winding-sheet, and when the lid was removed, garlands of faded pink
+      flowers were still found about the neck, laid there as a last offering by
+      the priests who placed the Pharaoh and his compeers in their secret
+      burying-place.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The precise site is at present unknown: we see, however,
+     that it was in this place, when wo observe that Ahmosis was
+     worshipped by the Servants of the Necropolis, amongst the
+     kings and princes of his family who were buried at Drah-
+     abu&rsquo;l-Neggah.
+
+     ** His priests and the minor <i>employés</i> of his cult are
+     mentioned on a stele in the museum at Turin, and on a brick
+     in the Berlin Museum. He is worshipped as a god, along with
+     Osiris, Horus, and Isis, on a stele in the Lyons Museum,
+     brought from Abydos: he had, probably, during one of his
+     journeys across Egypt, made a donation to the temple of that
+     city, on condition that he should be worshipped there for
+     ever; for a stele at Marseilles shows him offering homage to
+     Osiris in the bark of the god itself, and another stele in
+     the Louvre informs us that Pharaoh Thûtmosis IV. several
+     times sent one of his messengers to Abydos for the purpose
+     of presenting land to Osiris and to his own ancestor
+     Ahmosis.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0041" id="linkimage-0041">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/135.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="135.jpg Coffin of Ahmosis in the GÎzeh Museum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Amenôthes I. had not attained his majority when his father &ldquo;thus winged
+      his way to heaven,&rdquo; leaving him as heir to the throne.* Nofrîtari assumed
+      the authority; after having shared the royal honours for nearly
+      twenty-five years with her husband, she resolutely refused to resign
+      them.** She was thus the first of those queens by divine right who,
+      scorning the inaction of the harem, took on themselves the right to fulfil
+      the active duties of a sovereign, and claimed the recognition of the
+      equality or superiority of their titles to those of their husbands or
+      sons.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The last date known is that of the year XXII. at Tûrah;
+     Manetho&rsquo;s lists give, in one place, twenty-five years and
+     four months after the expulsion; in another, twenty-six
+     years in round numbers, as the total duration of his reign,
+     which has every appearance of probability.
+
+     ** There is no direct evidence to prove that Amenôthes I.
+     was a minor when he came to the throne; still the
+     presumptions in favour of this hypothesis, afforded by the
+     monuments, are so strong that many historians of ancient
+     Egypt have accepted it. Queen Nofrîtari is represented as
+     reigning, side by side with her reigning son, on some few
+     Theban tombs which can be attributed to their epoch.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0042" id="linkimage-0042">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/136.jpg"
+       alt="136.jpg Nofritari, Hie Black-skinned Goddess " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Bouclier, from the
+photograph by M. de Mertens
+taken in the Berlin Museum.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The aged Ahhotpu, who, like Nofrîtari, was of pure royal descent, and who
+      might well have urged her superior rank, had been content to retire in
+      favour of her children; she lived to the tenth year of her grandson&rsquo;s
+      reign, respected by all her family, but abstaining from all interference
+      in political affairs. When at length she passed away, full of days and
+      honour, she was embalmed with special care, and her body was placed in a
+      gilded mummy-case, the head of which presented a faithful copy of her
+      features. Beside her were piled the jewels she had received in her
+      lifetime from her husband and son. The majority of them a fan with a
+      handle plated with gold, a mirror of gilt bronze with ebony handle,
+      bracelets and ankle-rings, some of solid and some of hollow gold, edged
+      with fine chains of plaited gold wire, others formed of beads of gold,
+      lapis-lazuli, cornelian, and green felspar, many of them engraved with the
+      cartouche of Ahmosis. Belonging also to Ahmosis we have a beautiful
+      quiver, in which figures of the king and the gods stand out in high relief
+      on a gold plaque, delicately chased with a graving tool; the background is
+      formed of small pieces of lapis and blue glass, cunningly cut to fit each
+      other. One bracelet in particular, found on the queen&rsquo;s wrist, consisted
+      of three parallel bands of solid gold set with turquoises, and having, a
+      vulture with extended wings on the front. The queen&rsquo;s hair was held in
+      place by a gold circlet, scarcely as large as a bracelet; a cartouche was
+      affixed to the circlet, bearing the name of Ahmosis in blue paste, and
+      flanked by small sphinxes, one on each side, as supporters. A thick
+      flexible chain of gold was passed several times round her neck, and
+      attached to it as a pendant was a beautiful scarab, partly of gold and
+      partly of blue porcelain striped with gold. The breast ornament was
+      completed by a necklace of several rows of twisted cords, from which
+      depended antelopes pursued by tigers, sitting jackals, hawks, vultures,
+      and the winged urasus, all attached to the winding-sheet by means of a
+      small ring soldered on the back of each animal. The fastening of this
+      necklace was formed of the heads of two gold hawks, the details of the
+      heads being worked out in blue enamel. Both weapons and amulets were found
+      among the jewels, including three gold flies suspended by a thin chain,
+      nine gold and silver axes, a lion&rsquo;s head in gold of most minute
+      workmanship, a sceptre of black wood plated with gold, daggers to defend
+      the deceased from the dangers of the unseen world, boomerangs of hard
+      wood, and the battle-axe of Ahmosis. Besides these, there were two boats,
+      one of gold and one of silver, originally intended for the Pharaoh Kamosû&mdash;models
+      of the skiff in which his mummy crossed the Nile to reach its last
+      resting-place, and to sail in the wake of the gods on the western sea.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0043" id="linkimage-0043">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/137.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="137.jpg the Jewels and Weapons of Queen ÂhhhotpÛ I. In The GÎzeh Museum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Bechard.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nofrîtari thus reigned conjointly with Amenôthes, and even if we have no
+      record of any act in which she was specially concerned, we know at least
+      that her rule was a prosperous one, and that her memory was revered by her
+      subjects. While the majority of queens were relegated after death to the
+      crowd of shadowy ancestors to whom habitual sacrifice was offered, the
+      worshippers not knowing even to which sex these royal personages belonged,
+      the remembrance of Nofrîtari always remained distinct in their minds, and
+      her cult spread till it might be said to have become a kind of popular
+      religion. In this veneration Ahmosis was rarely associated with the queen,
+      but Amenôthes and several of her other children shared in it&mdash;her son
+      Sipiri, for instance, and her daughters Sîtamon,* Sîtkamosi, and
+      Marîtamon; Nofrîtari became, in fact, an actual goddess, taking her place
+      beside Amon, Khonsû, and Maut,** the members of the Theban Triad, or
+      standing alone as an object of worship for her devotees.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Sîtamon is mentioned, with her mother, on the Karnak stele
+     and on the coffin of Bûtehamon.
+
+     ** She is worshipped with the Theban Triad by Brihor, at
+     Karnak, in the temple of Khonsû.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0044" id="linkimage-0044">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/141.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="141.jpg the Two Coffins of Ahhotp Ii. And Nofritari Standing in Tub Vestibule of the Old BÛlak Museum. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      She was identified with Isis, Hathor, and the mistresses of Hades, and
+      adopted their attributes, even to the black or blue coloured skin of these
+      funerary divinities.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Her statue in the Turin Museum represents her as having
+     black skin. She is also painted black standing before
+     Amenôthes (who is white) in the Deir el-Medineh tomb, now
+     preserved in the Berlin Museum, in that of Nibnûtîrû, and hi
+     that of Unnofir, at Sheikh Abd el-Qûrnah. Her face is
+     painted blue in the tomb of Kasa. The representations of
+     this queen with a black skin have caused her to be taken for
+     a negress, the daughter of an Ethiopian Pharaoh, or at any
+     rate the daughter of a chief of some Nubian tribe; it was
+     thought that Ahmosis must have married her to secure the
+     help of the negro tribes in his wars, and that it was owing
+     to this alliance that he succeeded in expelling the Hyksôs.
+     Later discoveries have not confirmed these hypotheses.
+     Nofrîtari was most probably an Egyptian of unmixed race, as
+     we have seen, and daughter of Ahhotpû I., and the black or
+     blue colour of her skin is merely owing to her
+     identification with the goddesses of the dead.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Considerable endowments were given for maintaining worship at her tomb,
+      and were administered by a special class of priests. Her mummy reposed
+      among those of the princes of her family, in the hiding-place at
+      Deîr-el-Baharî: it was enclosed in an enormous wooden sarcophagus covered
+      with linen and stucco, the lower part being shaped to the body, while the
+      upper part representing the head and arms could be lifted off in one
+      piece. The shoulders are covered with a network in relief, the meshes of
+      which are painted blue on a yellow background. The Queen&rsquo;s hands are
+      crossed over her breast, and clasp the <i>crux ansata</i>, the symbol of
+      life. The whole mummy-case measures a little over nine feet from the sole
+      of the feet to the top of the head, which is furthermore surmounted by a
+      cap, and two long ostrich-feathers. The appearance is not so much that of
+      a coffin as of one of those enormous caryatides which we sometimes find
+      adorning the front of a temple.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We may perhaps attribute to the influence of Nofrîtari the lack of zest
+      evinced by Amenôthes for expeditions into Syria. Even the most energetic
+      kings had always shrunk from penetrating much beyond the isthmus. Those
+      who ventured so far as to work the mines of Sinai had nevertheless felt a
+      secret fear of invading Asia proper&mdash;a dread which they never
+      succeeded in overcoming. When the raids of the Bedouin obliged the
+      Egyptian sovereign to cross the frontier into their territory, he would
+      retire as soon as possible, without attempting any permanent conquest.
+      After the expulsion of the Hyksôs, Ahmosis seemed inclined to pursue a
+      less timorous course. He made an advance on Sharûhana and pillaged it, and
+      the booty he brought back ought to have encouraged him to attempt more
+      important expeditions; but he never returned to this region, and it would
+      seem that when his first enthusiasm had subsided, he was paralysed by the
+      same fear which had fallen on his ancestors. Nofrîtari may have counselled
+      her son not to break through the traditions which his father had so
+      strictly followed, for Amenôthes I. confined his campaigns to Africa, and
+      the traditional battle-fields there. He embarked for the land of Kûsh on
+      the vessel of Ahmosi-si-Abîna &ldquo;for the purpose of enlarging the frontiers
+      of Egypt.&rdquo; It was, we may believe, a thoroughly conventional campaign,
+      conducted according to the strictest precedents of the XIIth dynasty. The
+      Pharaoh, as might be expected, came into personal contact with the enemy,
+      and slew their chief with his own hand; the barbarian warriors sold their
+      lives dearly, but were unable to protect their country from pillage, the
+      victors carrying off whatever they could seize&mdash;men, women, and
+      cattle. The pursuit of the enemy had led the army some distance into the
+      desert, as far as a halting-place called the &ldquo;Upper cistern&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Khnûmît
+      hirît</i>; instead of retracing his steps to the Nile squadron, and
+      returning slowly by boat, Amenôthes resolved to take a short cut
+      homewards. Ahmosi conducted him back overland in two days, and was
+      rewarded for his speed by the gift of a quantity of gold, and two female
+      slaves. An incursion into Libya followed quickly on the Ethiopian
+      campaign.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0045" id="linkimage-0045">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/144.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="144.jpg Statue of AmenÔthes I. In the Turin Museum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph supplied by Flinders
+     Pétrie.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The tribe of the Kihaka, settled between Lake Mareotis and the Oasis of
+      Amon, had probably attacked in an audacious manner the western provinces
+      of the Delta; a raid was organized against them, and the issue was
+      commemorated by a small wooden stele, on which we see the victor
+      represented as brandishing his sword over a barbarian lying prostrate at
+      his feet. The exploits of Amenôthes appear to have ended with this raid,
+      for we possess no monument recording any further victory gained by him.
+      This, however, has not prevented his contemporaries from celebrating him
+      as a conquering and &lsquo;victorious king. He is portrayed standing erect in
+      his chariot ready to charge, or as carrying off two barbarians whom he
+      holds half suffocated in his sinewy arms, or as gleefully smiting the
+      princes of foreign lands. He acquitted himself of the duties of the chase
+      as became a true Pharaoh, for we find him depicted in the act of seizing a
+      lion by the tail and raising him suddenly in mid-air previous to
+      despatching him. These are, indeed, but conventional pictures of war, to
+      which we must not attach an undue importance. Egypt had need of repose in
+      order to recover from the losses it had sustained during the years of
+      struggle with the invaders. If Amenôthes courted peace from preference and
+      not from political motives, his own generation profited as much by his
+      indolence as the preceding one had gained by the energy of Ahrnosis. The
+      towns in his reign resumed their ordinary life, agriculture flourished,
+      and commerce again followed its accustomed routes. Egypt increased its
+      resources, and was thus able to prepare for future conquest. The taste for
+      building had not as yet sufficiently developed to become a drain upon the
+      public treasury. We have, however, records showing that Amenôthes
+      excavated a cavern in the mountain of Ibrîm in Nubia, dedicated to Satît,
+      one of the goddesses of the cataract.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0046" id="linkimage-0046">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/146.jpg" width="100%" alt="146.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is also stated that he worked regularly the quarries of Silsileh, but
+      we do not know for what buildings the sandstone thus extracted was
+      destined.* Karnak was also adorned with chapels, and with at least one
+      colossus,** while several chambers built of the white limestone of Tûrah
+      were added to Ombos. Thebes had thus every reason to cherish the memory of
+      this pacific king.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A bas-relief on the western bank of the river represents
+     him deified: Panaîti, the name of a superintendent of the
+     quarries who lived in his reign, has been preserved in
+     several graffiti, while another graffito gives us only the
+     protocol of the sovereign, and indicates that the quarries
+     were worked in his reign.
+
+     ** The chambers of white limestone are marked I, K, on
+     Mariette&rsquo;s plan; it is possible that they may have been
+     merely decorated under Thûtmosis III., whose cartouches
+     alternate with those of Amenôthes I. The colossus is now in
+     front of the third Pylon, and Wiedemann concluded from this
+     fact that Amenôthes had begun extensive works for enlarging
+     the temple of Amon; Mariette believed, with greater
+     probability, that the colossus formerly stood at the
+     entrance to the XIIth dynasty temple, but was removed to its
+     present position by Thûtmosis III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As Nofrîtari had been metamorphosed into a form of Isis, Amenôthes was
+      similarly represented as Osiris, the protector of the Necropolis, and he
+      was depicted as such with the sombre colour of the funerary divinities;
+      his image, moreover, together with those of the other gods, was used to
+      decorate the interiors of coffins, and to protect the mummies of his
+      devotees.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Wiedemann has collected several examples, to which it
+     would be easy to add others. The names of the king are in
+     this case constantly accompanied by unusual epithets, which
+     are enclosed in one or other of his cartouches: Mons.
+     Kevillout, deceived by these unfamiliar forms, has made out
+     of one of these variants, on a painted cloth in the Louvre,
+     a new Amenôthes, whom he styles Amenôthes V.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0047" id="linkimage-0047">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/147.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="147.jpg the Coffin and Mummy of Amenothes " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One of his statues, now in the Turin Museum, represents him sitting on his
+      throne in the posture of a king giving audience to his subjects, or in
+      that of a god receiving the homage of his worshippers. The modelling of
+      the bust betrays a flexibility of handling which is astonishing in a work
+      of art so little removed from barbaric times; the head is a marvel of
+      delicacy and natural grace. We feel that the sculptor has taken a delight
+      in chiselling the features of his sovereign, and in reproducing the
+      benevolent and almost dreamy expression which characterised them.* The
+      cult of Amenôthes lasted for seven or eight centuries, until the time when
+      his coffin was removed and placed with those of the other members of his
+      family in the place where it remained concealed until our own times.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Another statue of very fine workmanship, but mutilated, is
+     preserved in the Gizeh Museum; this statue is of the time of
+     Seti I., and, as is customary, represents Amenôthes in the
+     likeness of the king then reigning.
+
+     ** We know, from the Abbott Papyrus, that the pyramid of
+     Amenôthes I. was situated at Dr-ah Abou&rsquo;l-Neggah, among
+     those of the Pharaohs of the XIth, XIIth, and XVIIth
+     dynasties. The remains of it have not yet been discovered.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is shaped to correspond with the form of the human body and painted
+      white; the face resembles that of his statue, and the eyes of enamel,
+      touched with kohl, give it a wonderful appearance of animation. The body
+      is swathed in orange-coloured linen, kept in place by bands of brownish
+      linen, and is further covered by a mask of wood and cartonnage, painted to
+      match the exterior of the coffin. Long garlands of faded flowers deck the
+      mummy from head to foot. A wasp, attracted by their scent, must have
+      settled upon them at the moment of burial, and become imprisoned by the
+      lid; the insect has been completely preserved from corruption by the
+      balsams of the embalmer, and its gauzy wings have passed un-crumpled
+      through the long centuries.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Amenôthes had married Ahhotpû II, his sister by the same father and
+      mother;* Ahmasi, the daughter born of this union, was given in marriage to
+      Thûtmosis, one of her brothers, the son of a mere concubine, by name
+      Sonisonbû.** Ahmasi, like her ancestor Nofrîtari, had therefore the right
+      to exercise all the royal functions, and she might have claimed precedence
+      of her husband. Whether from conjugal affection or from weakness of
+      character, she yielded, however, the priority to Thûtmosis, and allowed
+      him to assume the sole government.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ahhotpû II. may be seen beside her husband on several
+     monuments. The proof that she was full sister of Amenôthes
+     I. is furnished by the title of &ldquo;hereditary princess&rdquo; which
+     is given to her daughter Àhmasi; this princess would not
+     have taken precedence of her brother and husband Thûtmosis,
+     who was the son of an inferior wife, had she not been the
+     daughter of the only legitimate spouse of Amenôthes I. The
+     marriage had already taken place before the accession of
+     Thûtmosis I., as Ahmasi figures in a document dated the
+     first year of his reign.
+
+     ** The absence of any cartouche shows that Sonisonbû did not
+     belong to the royal family, and the very form of the name
+     points her out to have been of the middle classes, and
+     merely a concubine. The accession of her son, however,
+     ennobled her, and he represents her as a queen on the walls
+     of the temple at Deîr el-Baharî; even then he merely styles
+     her &ldquo;Royal Mother,&rdquo; the only title she could really claim,
+     as her inferior position in the harem prevented her from
+     using that of &ldquo;Royal Spouse.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0048" id="linkimage-0048">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/150.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="150.jpg ThÛtmosis I., from a Statue in the GÎzeh Museum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the photograph taken by Émil
+     Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was crowned at Thebes on the 21st of the third month of Pirît; and a
+      circular, addressed to the representatives of the ancient seignorial
+      families and to the officers of the crown, announced the names assumed by
+      the new sovereign. &ldquo;This is the royal rescript to announce to you that my
+      Majesty has arisen king of the two Egypts, on the seat of the Horus of the
+      living, without equal, for ever, and that my titles are as follows: The
+      vigorous bull Horus, beloved of Mâît, the Lord of the Vulture and of the
+      Uraeus who raises itself as a flame, most valiant,&mdash;the golden Horns,
+      whose years are good and who puts life into all hearts, king of the two
+      Egypts, Akhopirkerî, son of the Sun, Thûtmosis, living for ever.* Cause,
+      therefore, sacrifices to be offered to the gods of the south and of
+      Elephantine,** and hymns to be chanted for the well-being of the King
+      Akhopirkerî, living for ever, and then cause the oath to be taken in the
+      name of my Majesty, born of the royal mother Sonisonbû, who is in good
+      health.&mdash;This is sent to thee that thou mayest know that the royal
+      house is prosperous, and in good health and condition, the 1st year, the
+      21st of the third month of Pirît, the day of coronation.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is really the protocol of the king, as we find it on
+     the monuments, with his two Horus names and his solar
+     titles.
+
+     ** The copy of the letter which has come down to us is
+     addressed to the commander of Elephantine: hence the mention
+     of the gods of that town. The names of the divinities must
+     have been altered to suit each district, to which the order
+     to offer sacrifices for the prosperity of the new sovereign
+     was sent.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The new king was tall in stature, broad-shouldered, well knit, and capable
+      of enduring the fatigues of war without flagging. His statues represent
+      him as having a full, round face, long nose, square chin, rather thick
+      lips, and a smiling but firm expression. Thûtmosis brought with him on
+      ascending the throne the spirit of the younger generation, who, born
+      shortly after the deliverance from the Hyksôs, had grown up in the
+      peaceful days of Amenôthes, and, elated by the easy victories obtained
+      over the nations of the south, were inspired by ambitions unknown to the
+      Egyptians of earlier times. To this younger race Africa no longer offered
+      a sufficiently wide or attractive field; the whole country was their own
+      as far as the confluence of the two Niles, and the Theban gods were
+      worshipped at Napata no less devoutly than at Thebes itself. What remained
+      to be conquered in that direction was scarcely worth the trouble of
+      reducing to a province or of annexing as a colony; it comprised a number
+      of tribes hopelessly divided among themselves, and consequently, in spite
+      of their renowned bravery, without power of resistance. Light columns of
+      troops, drafted at intervals on either side of the river, ensured order
+      among the submissive, or despoiled the refractory of their possessions in
+      cattle, slaves, and precious stones. Thûtmosis I. had to repress, however,
+      very shortly after his accession, a revolt of these borderers at the
+      second and third cataracts, but they were easily overcome in a campaign of
+      a few days&rsquo; duration, in which the two Âhmosis of Al-Kab took an
+      honourable part. There was, as usual, an encounter of the two fleets in
+      the middle of the river: the young king himself attacked the enemy&rsquo;s
+      chief, pierced him with his first arrow, and made a considerable number of
+      prisoners. Thûtmosis had the corpse of the chief suspended as a trophy in
+      front of the royal ship, and sailed northwards towards Thebes, where,
+      however, he was not destined to remain long.* An ample field of action
+      presented itself to him in the north-east, affording scope for great
+      exploits, as profitable as they were glorious.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * That this expedition must be placed at the beginning of
+     the king&rsquo;s reign, in his first year, is shown by two facts:
+     (1) It precedes the Syrian campaign in the biography of the
+     two Âhmosis of El-Kab; (2) the Syrian campaign must have
+     ended in the second year of the reign, since Thûtmosis I.,
+     on the stele of Tombos which bears that date, gives
+     particulars of the course of the Euphrates, and records the
+     submission of the countries watered by that river. The date
+     of the invasion may be placed between 2300 and 2250 B.C.; if
+     we count 661 years for the three dynasties together, as
+     Erman proposes, we find that the accession of Ahmosis would
+     fall between 1640 and 1590. I should place it provisionally
+     in the year 1600, in order not to leave the position of the
+     succeeding reigns uncertain; I estimate the possible error
+     at about half a century.
+
+     ** It is impossible at present to draw up a correct table of
+     the native or foreign sovereigns who reigned over Egypt
+     during the time of the Hyksôs. I have given the list of the
+     kings of the XIIIth and XIVth dynasties which are known to
+     us from the Turin Papyrus. I here append that of the
+     Pharaohs of the following dynasties, who are mentioned
+     either in the fragments of Manetho or on the monuments:
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0049" id="linkimage-0049">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/153.jpg" width="100%" alt="153.jpg Table " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Syria offered to Egyptian cupidity a virgin prey in its large commercial
+      towns inhabited by an industrious population, who by maritime trade and
+      caravan traffic had amassed enormous wealth. The country had been
+      previously subdued by the Chaldæans, who still exercised an undisputed
+      influence over it, and it was but natural that the conquerors of the
+      Hyksôs should act in their turn as invaders. The incursion of Asiatics
+      into Egypt thus provoked a reaction which issued in an Egyptian invasion
+      of Asiatic soil. Thûtmosis and his contemporaries had inherited none of
+      the instinctive fear of penetrating into Syria which influenced Ahmosis
+      and his successor: the Theban legions were, perhaps, slow to advance, but
+      once they had trodden the roads of Palestine, they were not likely to
+      forego the delights of conquest. From that time forward there was
+      perpetual warfare and pillaging expeditions from the plains of the Blue
+      Nile to those of the Euphrates, so that scarcely a year passed without
+      bringing to the city of Amon its tribute of victories and riches gained at
+      the point of the sword. One day the news would be brought that the
+      Amorites or the Khâti had taken the field, to be immediately followed by
+      the announcement that their forces had been shattered against the valour
+      of the Egyptian battalions. Another day, Pharaoh would re-enter the city
+      with the flower of his generals and veterans; the chiefs whom he had taken
+      prisoners, sometimes with his own hand, would be conducted through the
+      streets, and then led to die at the foot of the altars, while fantastic
+      processions of richly clothed captives, beasts led by halters, and slaves
+      bending under the weight of the spoil would stretch in an endless line
+      behind him.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0050" id="linkimage-0050">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/155.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="155.jpg Signs, Arms and Instruments " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile the Timihû, roused by some unknown cause, would attack the
+      outposts stationed on the frontier, or news would come that the Peoples of
+      the Sea had landed on the western side of the Delta; the Pharaoh had again
+      to take the field, invariably with the same speedy and successful issue.
+      The Libyans seemed to fare no better than the Syrians, and before long
+      those who had survived the defeat would be paraded before the Theban
+      citizens, previous to being sent to join the Asiatic prisoners in the
+      mines or quarries; their blue eyes and fair hair showing from beneath
+      strangely shaped helmets, while their white skins, tall stature, and
+      tattooed bodies excited for a few hours the interest and mirth of the idle
+      crowd. At another time, one of the customary raids into the land of Kûsh
+      would take place, consisting of a rapid march across the sands of the
+      Ethiopian desert and a cruise along the coasts of Pûanîfc. This would be
+      followed by another triumphal procession, in which fresh elements of
+      interest would appear, heralded by flourish of trumpets and roll of drums:
+      Pharaoh would re-enter the city borne on the shoulders of his officers,
+      followed by negroes heavily chained, or coupled in such a way that it was
+      impossible for them to move without grotesque contortions, while the
+      acclamations of the multitude and the chanting of the priests would
+      resound from all sides as the <i>cortege</i> passed through the city gates
+      on its way to the temple of Amon. Egypt, roused as it were to warlike
+      frenzy, hurled her armies across all her frontiers simultaneously, and her
+      sudden appearance in the heart of Syria gave a new turn to human history.
+      The isolation of the kingdoms of the ancient world was at an end; the
+      conflict of the nations was about to begin.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="156 (20K)" src="images/156.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <br /> <i>SYRIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EGYPTIAN CONQUEST</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>NINEVEH AND THE FIRST COSSÆAN KINGS-THE PEOPLES OF SYRIA, THEIR TOWNS,
+      THEIR CIVILIZATION, THEIR RELIGION-PHOENICIA.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The dynasty of Uruazagga-The Cossseans: their country, their gods,
+      their conquest of Chaldæa-The first sovereigns of Assyria, and the first
+      Cossæan Icings: Agumhakrimê.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The Egyptian names for Syria: Kharâ, Zahi, Lotanû, Kefâtiu-The military
+      highway from the Nile to the Euphrates: first section from Zalu to
+      Gaza-The Canaanites: their fortresses, their agricultural character: the
+      forest between Jaffa and Mount Carmel, Megiddo-The three routes beyond
+      Megiddo: Qodshu-Alasia, Naharaim, Garchemish; Mitanni and the countries
+      beyond the Euphrates.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Disintegration of the Syrian, Canaanite, Amorite, and Khdti
+      populations; obliteration of types-Influence of Babylon on costumes,
+      customs, and religion&mdash;Baalim and Astarte, plant-gods and
+      stone-gods-Religion, human sacrifices, festivals; sacred stones&mdash;Tombs
+      and the fate of man after death-Phoenician cosmogony.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Phoenicia&mdash;Arad, Marathus, Simyra, Botrys&mdash;Byblos, its
+      temple, its goddess, the myth of Adonis: Aphaka and the valley of the
+      Nahr-Ibrahim, the festivals of the death and resurrection of Adonis&mdash;Berytus
+      and its god El; Sidon and its suburbs&mdash;Tyre: its foundation, its
+      gods, its necropolis, its domain in the Lebanon.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Isolation of the Phoenicians with regard to the other nations of Syria;
+      their love of the sea and the causes which developed it&mdash;Legendary
+      accounts of the beginning of their colonization&mdash;Their commercial
+      proceedings, their banks and factories; their ships&mdash;Cyprus, its
+      wealth, its occupations&mdash;The Phoenician colonies in Asia Minor and
+      the Ægean Sea: purple dye&mdash;The nations of the Ægean.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="157 (134K)" src="images/157.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0005" id="linkBimage-0005">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/158.jpg" width="100%" alt="158.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkB2HCH0001" id="linkB2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="159 (211K)" src="images/159.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER II&mdash;SYRIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EGYPTIAN CONQUEST
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      Nineveh and the first Cossæan kings&mdash;The peoples of Syria, their
+      towns, their civilization, their religion&mdash;Phoenicia.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The world beyond the Arabian desert presented to the eyes of the
+      enterprising Pharaohs an active and bustling scene. Babylonian
+      civilization still maintained its hold there without a rival, but
+      Babylonian rule had ceased to exercise any longer a direct control, having
+      probably disappeared with the sovereigns who had introduced it. When
+      Ammisatana died, about the year 2099, the line of Khammurabi became
+      extinct, and a family from the Sea-lands came into power.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The origin of this second dynasty and the reading of its
+     name still afford matter for discussion. Amid the many
+     conflicting opinions, it behoves us to remember that
+     Gulkishar, the only prince of this dynasty whose title we
+     possess, calls himself <i>King of the Country of the Sea</i>,
+     that is to say, of the marshy country at the mouth of the
+     Euphrates: this simple fact directs us to seek the cradle of
+     the family in those districts of Southern Chaldæa. Sayce
+     rejects this identification on philological and
+     chronological grounds, and sees in Gulkishar, &ldquo;King of the
+     Sea-lands,&rdquo; a vassal Kaldâ prince.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This unexpected revolution of affairs did not by any means restore to the
+      cities of Lower Chaldæa the supreme authority which they once possessed.
+      Babylon had made such good use of its centuries of rule that it had gained
+      upon its rivals, and was not likely now to fall back into a secondary
+      place. Henceforward, no matter what dynasty came into power, as soon as
+      the fortune of war had placed it upon the throne, Babylon succeeded in
+      adopting it, and at once made it its own. The new lord of the country,
+      Ilumaîlu, having abandoned his patrimonial inheritance, came to reside
+      near to Merodach.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name has been read An-ma-an or Anman by Pinches,
+     subsequently Ilumaîlu, Mailu, finally Anumaîlu and perhaps
+     Humaîlu. The true reading of it is still unknown. Hommel
+     believed he had discovered in Hilprecht&rsquo;s book an
+     inscription belonging to the reign of this prince; but
+     Hilprecht has shown that it belonged to a king of Erech,
+     An-a-an, anterior to the time of An-ma-an.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was followed during the four next centuries by a dynasty of ten
+      princes, in uninterrupted succession. Their rule was introduced and
+      maintained without serious opposition. The small principalities of the
+      south were theirs by right, and the only town which might have caused them
+      any trouble&mdash;Assur&mdash;was dependent on them, being satisfied with
+      the title of vicegerents for its princes,&mdash;Khallu, Irishum, Ismidagan
+      and his son Sarnsiramman I., Igurkapkapu and his son Sarnsiramman II.* As
+      to the course of events beyond the Khabur, and any efforts Ilumaîlu&rsquo;s
+      descendants may have made to establish their authority in the direction of
+      the Mediterranean, we have no inscriptions to inform us, and must be
+      content to remain in ignorance. The last two of these princes,
+      Melamkurkurra and Eâgamîl, were not connected with each other, and had no
+      direct relationship with their predecessors.** The shortness of their
+      reigns presents a striking contrast with the length of those preceding
+      them, and probably indicates a period of war or revolution. When these
+      princes disappeared, we know not how or why, about the year 1714 B.C.,
+      they were succeeded by a king of foreign extraction; and one of the
+      semi-barbarous race of Kashshu ascended the throne which had been occupied
+      since the days of Khammurabi by Chaldæans of ancient stock.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Inscription of Irishum, son of Khallu, on a brick found at
+     Kalah-Shergat, and an inscription of Sarnsiramman II., son
+     of Igurkapkapu, on another brick from the same place.
+     Sarnsiramman I. and his father Ismidagan are mentioned in
+     the great inscription of Tiglath-pileser II., as having
+     lived 641 years before King Assurdân, who himself had
+     preceded Tiglath-pileser by sixty years: they thus reigned
+     between 1900 and 1800 years before our era, according to
+     tradition, whose authenticity we have no other means of
+     verifying.
+
+     ** The name of the last is read Eâgamîl, for want of
+     anything better: Oppert makes it Eâgâ, simply transcribing
+     the signs; and Hilprecht, who took up the question again
+     after him, has no reading to propose.
+
+     *** I give here the list of the kings of the second dynasty,
+     from the documents discovered by Pinches: No monument
+     remains of any of these princes, and even the reading of
+     their names is merely provisional: those placed between
+     brackets represent Delitzsch&rsquo;s readings. A Gulkishar is
+     mentioned in an inscription of Belnadiuabal; but Jensen is
+     doubtful if the Gulkishar mentioned in this place is
+     identical with the one in the lists.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0006" id="linkBimage-0006">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/162-table.jpg" width="100%" alt="Table " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These Kashshu, who spring up suddenly out of obscurity, had from the
+      earliest times inhabited the mountainous districts of Zagros, on the
+      confines of Elymai&rsquo;s and Media, where the Cossæans of the classical
+      historians flourished in the time of Alexander.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      * The Kashshu are identified with the Cossæans by Sayce, by Schrader, by
+      Fr. Delitzsch, by Halévy, by Tiele, by Hommel, and by Jensen. Oppert
+      maintains that they answer to the Kissians of Herodotus, that is to say,
+      to the inhabitants of the district of which Susa is the capital. Lehmann
+      supports this opinion. Winckler gives none, and several Assyriologists
+      incline to that of Kiepert, according to which the Kissians are identical
+      with the Cossæans.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was a rugged and unattractive country, protected by nature and easy to
+      defend, made up as it was of narrow tortuous valleys, of plains of
+      moderate extent but of rare fertility, of mountain chains whose grim sides
+      were covered with forests, and whose peaks were snow-crowned during half
+      the year, and of rivers, or, more correctly speaking, torrents, for the
+      rains and the melting of the snow rendered them impassable in spring and
+      autumn. The entrance to this region was by two or three well-fortified
+      passes: if an enemy were unwilling to incur the loss of time and men
+      needed to carry these by main force, he had to make a detour by narrow
+      goat-tracks, along which the assailants were obliged to advance in single
+      file, as best they could, exposed to the assaults of a foe concealed among
+      the rocks and trees. The tribes who were entrenched behind this natural
+      rampart made frequent and unexpected raids upon the marshy meadows and fat
+      pastures of Chaldæa: they dashed through the country, pillaging and
+      burning all that came in their way, and then, quickly regaining their
+      hiding-places, were able to place their booty in safety before the
+      frontier garrisons had recovered from the first alarm.* These tribes were
+      governed by numerous chiefs acknowledging a single king&mdash;<i>ianzi</i>&mdash;whose
+      will was supreme over nearly the whole country:** some of them had a
+      slight veneer of Chaldæan civilization, while among the rest almost every
+      stage of barbarism might be found. The remains of their language show that
+      it was remotely allied to the dialect of Susa, and contained many Semitic
+      words.*** What is recorded of their religion reaches us merely at second
+      hand, and the groundwork of it has doubtless been modified by the
+      Babylonian scribes who have transmitted it to us.****
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It was thus in the time of Alexander and his successors,
+     and the information given by the classical historians about
+     this period is equally applicable to earlier times, as we
+     may conclude from the numerous passages from Assyrian
+     inscriptions which have been collected by Fr. Delitzsch.
+
+     ** Delitzsch conjectures that <i>Ianzi</i>, or <i>Ianzu</i>, had
+     become a kind of proper name, analogous to the term
+     <i>Pharaoh</i> employed by the Egyptians.
+
+     *** A certain number of Cossæan words has been preserved and
+     translated, some in one of the royal Babylonian lists, and
+     some on a tablet in the British Museum, discovered and
+     interpreted by Fr. Delitzsch. Several Assyriologists think
+     that they showed a marked affinity with the idiom of the
+     Susa inscriptions, and with that of the Achæmenian
+     inscriptions of the second type; others deny the proposed
+     connection, or suggest that the Cossæan language was a
+     Semitic dialect, related to the Chaldæo-Assyrian. Oppert,
+     who was the first to point out the existence of this
+     dialect, thirty years ago, believed it to be the Elamite; he
+     still persists in his opinion, and has published several
+     notes in defence of it.
+
+     **** It has been studied by Pr. Delitzsch, who insists on
+     the influence which daily intercourse with the Chaldæans had
+     on it after the conquest; Halévy, in most of the names of
+     the gods given as Cossæan, sees merely the names of Chaldæan
+     divinities slightly disguised in the writing.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They worshipped twelve great gods, of whom the chief&mdash;Kashshu, the
+      lord of heaven-gave his name to the principal tribe, and possibly to the
+      whole race:* Shûmalia, queen of the snowy heights, was enthroned beside
+      him,** and the divinities next in order were, as in the cities of the
+      Euphrates, the Moon, the Sun (Sakh or Shuriash), the air or the tempest
+      (Ubriash), and Khudkha.*** Then followed the stellar deities or secondary
+      incarnations of the sun,&mdash;Mirizir, who represented both Istar and
+      Beltis; and Khala, answering to Gula.****
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The existence of Kashshu is proved by the name of
+     Kashshunadinakhé: Ashshur also bore a name identical with
+     that of his worshippers.
+
+     ** She is mentioned in a rescript of Nebuchadrezzar I., at
+     the head of the gods of Namar, that is to say, the Cossæan
+     deities, as &ldquo;the lady of the shining mountains, the
+     inhabitants of the summits, the frequenter of peaks.&rdquo; She is
+     called Shimalia in Rawlinson, but Delitzsch has restored her
+     name which was slightly mutilated; one of her statues was
+     taken by Samsirammân III., King of Assyria, in one of that
+     sovereign&rsquo;s campaigns against Chaldæa.
+
+     *** All these identifications are furnished by the glossary
+     of Delitzsch. Ubriash, under the form of Buriash, is met
+     with in a large number of proper names, Burnaburiash,
+     Shagashaltiburiash, Ulamburiash, Kadashmanburiash, where the
+     Assyrian scribe translates it <i>Bel-matâti</i>, lord of the
+     world: Buriash is, therefore, an epithet of the god who was
+     called Rammân in Chaldæa. The name of the moon-god is
+     mutilated, and only the initial syllable Shi... remains,
+     followed by an indistinct sign: it has not yet been
+     restored.
+
+     **** Halévy considers Khala, or Khali, as a harsh form of
+     Gula: if this is the case, the Cossæans must have borrowed
+     the name, and perhaps the goddess herself, from their
+     Chaldæan neighbours.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Chaldæan Ninip corresponded both to Gidar and Maruttash, Bel to Kharbe
+      and Turgu, Merodach to Shipak, Nergal to Shugab.* The Cossæan kings,
+      already enriched by the spoils of their neighbours, and supported by a
+      warlike youth, eager to enlist under their banner at the first call,**
+      must have been often tempted to quit their barren domains and to swoop
+      down on the rich country which lay at their feet. We are ignorant of the
+      course of events which, towards the close of the XVIIIth century B.C., led
+      to their gaining possession of it. The Cossæan king who seized on Babylon
+      was named Gandish, and the few inscriptions we possess of his reign are
+      cut with a clumsiness that betrays the barbarism of the conqueror. They
+      cover the pivot stones on which Sargon of Agadê or one of the Bursins had
+      hung the doors of the temple of Nippur, but which Gandish dedicated afresh
+      in order to win for himself, in the eyes of posterity, the credit of the
+      work of these sovereigns.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Hilprecht has established the identity of Turgu with Bel
+     of Nippur.
+
+     ** Strabo relates, from some forgotten historian of
+     Alexander, that the Cossæans &ldquo;had formerly been able to
+     place as many as thirteen thousand archers in line, in the
+     wars which they waged with the help of the Elymæans against
+     the inhabitants of Susa and Babylon.&rdquo;
+
+     *** The full name of this king, Gandish or Gandash, which is
+     furnished by the royal lists, is written Gaddash on a
+     monument in the British Museum discovered by Pinches, whose
+     conclusions have been erroneously denied by Winckler. A
+     process of abbreviation, of which there are examples in the
+     names of other kings of the same dynasty, reduced the name
+     to Gandê in the current language.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Bel found favour in the eyes of the Cossæans who saw in him Kharbê or
+      Turgu, the recognised patron of their royal family: for this reason
+      Gandish and his successors regarded Bel with peculiar devotion. These
+      kings did all they could for the decoration and endowment of the ancient
+      temple of Ekur, which had been somewhat neglected by the sovereigns of
+      purely Babylonian extraction, and this devotion to one of the most
+      venerated Chaldæan sanctuaries contributed largely towards their winning
+      the hearts of the conquered people.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Hilpreoht calls attention on this point to the fact that
+     no one has yet discovered at Nippur a single ex-voto
+     consecrated by any king of the two first Babylonian
+     dynasties.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Cossæan rule over the countries of the Euphrates was doubtless similar
+      in its beginnings to that which the Hyksôs exercised at first over the
+      nomes of Egypt. The Cossæan kings did not merely bring with them an army
+      to protect their persons, or to occupy a small number of important posts;
+      they were followed by the whole nation, and spread themselves over the
+      entire country. The bulk of the invaders instinctively betook themselves
+      to districts where, if they could not resume the kind of life to which
+      they were accustomed in their own land, they could, at least give full
+      rein to their love of a free and wild existence. As there were no
+      mountains in the country, they turned to the marshes, and, like the Hyksôs
+      in Egypt, made themselves at home about the mouths of the rivers, on the
+      half-submerged low lands, and on the sandy islets of the lagoons which
+      formed an undefined borderland between the alluvial region and the Persian
+      Gulf. The covert afforded, by the thickets furnished scope for the chase
+      which these hunters had been accustomed to pursue in the depths of their
+      native forests, while fishing, on the other hand, supplied them with an
+      additional element of food. When their depredations drew down upon them
+      reprisals from their neighbours, the mounds occupied, by their fortresses,
+      and surrounded by muddy swamps, offered them almost as secure retreats as
+      their former strongholds on the lofty sides of the Zagros. They made
+      alliances with the native Aramæans&mdash;with those Kashdi, properly
+      called Chaldæans, whose name we have imposed upon all the nations who,
+      from a very early date, bore rule on the banks of the Lower Euphrates.
+      Here they formed themselves into a State&mdash;Karduniash&mdash;whose
+      princes at times rebelled, against all external authority, and at other
+      times acknowledged the sovereignty of the Babylonian monarchs.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The state of Karduniash, whose name appears for the first
+     time on the monuments of the Cossæan period, has been
+     localised in a somewhat vague manner, in the south of
+     Babylonia, in the country of the Kashdi, and afterwards
+     formally identified with the <i>Countries of the Sea</i>, and
+     with the principality which was called Bît-Yâkin in the
+     Assyrian period. In the Tel-el-Amarna tablets the name is
+     already applied to the entire country occupied by the
+     Cossæan kings or their descendants, that is to say, to the
+     whole of Babylonia. Sargon II. at that time distinguishes
+     between an Upper and a Lower Karduniash; and in consequence
+     the earliest Assyriologists considered it as an Assyrian
+     designation of Babylon, or of the district surrounding it,
+     an opinion which was opposed by Delitzsch, as he believed it
+     to be an indigenous term which at first indicated the
+     district round Babylon, and afterwards the whole of
+     Babylonia. From one frequent spelling of the name, the
+     meaning appears to have been <i>Fortress of Duniash</i>; to this
+     Delitzsch preferred the translation <i>Garden of Duniash</i>,
+     from an erroneous different reading&mdash;Ganduniash: Duniash, at
+     first derived from a Chaldæan God <i>Dun</i>, whose name may
+     exist in <i>Dunghi</i>, is a Cossæan name, which the Assyrians
+     translated, as they did Buriash, <i>Belmatâti</i>, lord of the
+     country. Winckler rejects the ancient etymology, and
+     proposes to divide the word as Kardu-niash and to see in it
+     a Cossæan translation of the expression <i>mât-kaldi</i>, country
+     of the Caldæans: Hommel on his side, as well as Delitzsch,
+     had thought of seeking in the Chaldæans proper&mdash;<i>Kaldi</i> for
+     <i>Kashdi</i>, or <i>Kash-da</i>, &ldquo;domain of the Cossæans &ldquo;&mdash;the
+     descendants of the Cossæans of Karduniash, at least as far
+     as race is concerned. In the cuneiform texts the name is
+     written Kara&mdash;D. P. Duniyas, &ldquo;the Wall of the god
+     Duniyas&rdquo; (cf. the Median Wall or Wall of Semiramis which
+     defended Babylonia on the north).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The people of Sumir and Akkad, already a composite of many different
+      races, absorbed thus another foreign element, which, while modifying its
+      homogeneity, did not destroy its natural character. Those Cossæan tribes
+      who had not quitted their own country retained their original barbarism,
+      but the hope of plunder constantly drew them from their haunts, and they
+      attacked and devastated the cities of the plain unhindered by the thought
+      that they were now inhabited by their fellow-countrymen. The raid once
+      over, many of them did not return home, but took service under some
+      distant foreign ruler&mdash;the Syrian princes attracting many, who
+      subsequently became the backbone of their armies,* while others remained
+      at Babylon and enrolled themselves in the body-guard of the kings.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Halévy has at least proved that the Khabiri mentioned in.
+     the Tel el-Amarna tablets were Cossæans, contrary to the
+     opinion of Sayce, who makes them tribes grouped round
+     Hebron, which W. Max Müller seems to accept; Winckler,
+     returning to an old opinion, believes them to have been
+     Hebrews.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      To the last they were an undisciplined militia, dangerous, and difficult
+      to please: one day they would hail their chiefs with acclamations, to kill
+      them the next in one of those sudden outbreaks in which they were
+      accustomed to make and unmake their kings.* The first invaders were not
+      long in acquiring, by means of daily intercourse with the old inhabitants,
+      the new civilization: sooner or later they became blended with the
+      natives, losing all their own peculiarities, with the exception of their
+      outlandish names, a few heroic legends,** and the worship of two or three
+      gods&mdash;Shûmalia, Shugab, and Shukamuna.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is the opinion of Hommel, supported by the testimony
+     of the <i>Synchronous Hist.</i>: in this latter document the
+     Cossæans are found revolting against King Kadashmankharbé,
+     and replacing him on the throne by a certain Nazibugash, who
+     was of obscure origin.
+
+     ** Pr. Delitzsch and Schrader compare their name with that
+     of Kush, who appears in the Bible as the father of Nimrod
+     (<i>Gen.</i> x. 8-12); Hommel and Sayce think that the history of
+     Nimrod is a reminiscence of the Cossæan rule. Jensen is
+     alone in his attempt to attribute to the Cossæans the first
+     idea of the epic of Gilgames.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As in the case of the Hyksôs in Africa, the barbarian conquerors thus
+      became merged in the more civilized people which they had subdued. This
+      work of assimilation seems at first to have occupied the whole attention
+      of both races, for the immediate successors of Gandish were unable to
+      retain under their rule all the provinces of which the empire was formerly
+      composed. They continued to possess the territory situated on the middle
+      course of the Euphrates as far as the mouth of the Balikh, but they lost
+      the region extending to the east of the Khabur, at the foot of the Masios,
+      and in the upper basin of the Tigris: the vicegerents of Assur also
+      withdrew from them, and, declaring that they owed no obedience excepting
+      to the god of their city, assumed the royal dignity. The first four of
+      these kings whose names have come down to us, Sulili, Belkapkapu, Adasi,
+      and Belbâni,* appear to have been but indifferent rulers, but they knew
+      bow to hold their own against the attacks of their neighbours, and when,
+      after a century of weakness and inactivity, Babylon reasserted herself,
+      and endeavoured to recover her lost territory, they had so completely
+      established their independence that every attack on it was unsuccessful.
+      The Cossæan king at that time&mdash;an active and enterprising prince,
+      whose name was held in honour up to the days of the Ninevite supremacy&mdash;was
+      Agumkakrimê, the son of Tassigurumash.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These four names do not so much represent four consecutive
+     reigns as two separate traditions which were current
+     respecting the beginnings of Assyrian royalty. The most
+     ancient of them gives the chief place to two personages
+     named Belkapkapu and Sulili; this tradition has been
+     transmitted to us by Rammânnirâri III., because it connected
+     the origin of his race with these kings. The second
+     tradition placed a certain Belbâni, the son of Adasi, in the
+     room of Belkapkapu and Sulili: Esarhaddon made use of it in
+     order to ascribe to his own family an antiquity at least
+     equal to that of the family to which Rammânnirâri III.
+     belonged. Each king appropriated from the ancient popular
+     traditions those names which seemed to him best calculated
+     to enhance the prestige of his dynasty, but we cannot tell
+     how far the personages selected enjoyed an authentic
+     historical existence: it is best to admit them at least
+     provisionally into the royal series, without trusting too
+     much to what is related of them.
+
+     ** The tablet discovered by Pinches is broken after the
+     fifth king of the dynasty. The inscription of Agumkakrimê,
+     containing a genealogy of this prince which goes back as far
+     as the fifth generation, has led to the restoration of the
+     earlier part of the list as follows:
+
+     Gandish, Gaddash, Adumitasii .... 1655-? B.C.
+     Gandê ........................... 1714-1707 B.C.
+     Tassigurumash.................... ?
+     Agumrabi, his son................ 1707-1685
+     Agumkakrimê ..................... ?
+     [A]guyashi ...................... 1685-1663
+     Ushshi, his son.................. 1663-1655
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This &ldquo;brilliant scion of Shukamuna&rdquo; entitled himself lord of the Kashshu
+      and of Akkad, of Babylon the widespread, of Padan, of Alman, and of the
+      swarthy Guti.* Ashnunak had been devastated; he repeopled it, and the four
+      &ldquo;houses of the world&rdquo; rendered him obedience; on the other hand, Elam
+      revolted from its allegiance, Assur resisted him, and if he still
+      exercised some semblance of authority over Northern Syria, it was owing to
+      a traditional respect which the towns of that country voluntarily rendered
+      to him, but which did not involve either subjection or control. The people
+      of Khâni still retained possession of the statues of Merodach and of his
+      consort Zarpanit, which had been stolen, we know not how, some time
+      previously from Chaldæa.** Agumkakrimê recovered them and replaced them in
+      their proper temple. This was an important event, and earned him the good
+      will of the priests.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The translation <i>black-headed</i>, i.e. dark-haired and
+     complexioned, <i>Guti</i>, is uncertain; Jensen interprets the
+     epithet <i>nishi saldati</i> to mean &ldquo;the Guti, stupid (foolish?
+     culpable?) people.&rdquo; The Guti held both banks of the lower
+     Zab, in the mountains on the east of Assyria. Delitzsch has
+     placed Padan and Alman in the mountains to the east of the
+     Diyâleh; Jensen places them in the chain of the Khamrîn, and
+     Winckler compares Alman or Halman with the Holwân of the
+     present day.
+
+     ** The Khâni have been placed by Delitzsch in the
+     neighbourhood of Mount Khâna, mentioned in the accounts of
+     the Assyrian campaigns, that is to say, in the Amanos,
+     between the Euphrates and the bay of Alexandretta: he is
+     inclined to regard the name as a form of that of the Khâti.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The king reorganised public worship; he caused new fittings for the
+      temples to be made to take the place of those which had disappeared, and
+      the inscription which records this work enumerates with satisfaction the
+      large quantities of crystal, jasper, and lapis-lazuli which he lavished on
+      the sanctuary, the utensils of silver and gold which he dedicated,
+      together with the &ldquo;seas&rdquo; of wrought bronze decorated with monsters and
+      religious emblems.* This restoration of the statues, so flattering to the
+      national pride and piety, would have been exacted and insisted upon by a
+      Khammurabi at the point of the sword, but Agumkakrimê doubtless felt that
+      he was not strong enough to run the risk of war; he therefore sent an
+      embassy to the Khâni, and such was the prestige which the name of Babylon
+      still possessed, from the deserts of the Caspian to the shores of the
+      Mediterranean, that he was able to obtain a concession from that people
+      which he would probably have been powerless to extort by force of arms.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We do not possess the original of the inscription which
+     tells us of these facts, but merely an early copy.
+
+     ** Strictly speaking, one might suppose that a war took
+     place; but most Assyriologists declare unhesitatingly that
+     there was merely an embassy and a diplomatic negotiation.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians had, therefore, no need to anticipate Chaldæan interference
+      when, forsaking their ancient traditions, they penetrated for the first
+      time into the heart of Syria. Not only was Babylon no longer supreme
+      there, but the coalition of those cities on which she had depended for
+      help in subduing the West was partially dissolved, and the foreign princes
+      who had succeeded to her patrimony were so far conscious of their
+      weakness, that they voluntarily kept aloof from the countries in which,
+      previous to their advent, Babylon had held undivided sway. The Egyptian
+      conquest of Syria had already begun in the days of Agumkakrimê, and it is
+      possible that dread of the Pharaoh was one of the chief causes which
+      influenced the Cossæans to return a favourable answer to the Khâni.
+      Thûtmosis I., on entering Syria, encountered therefore only the native
+      levies, and it must be admitted that, in spite of their renowned courage,
+      they were not likely to prove formidable adversaries in Egyptian
+      estimation. Not one of the local Syrian dynasties was sufficiently
+      powerful to collect all the forces of the country around its chief, so as
+      to oppose a compact body of troops to the attack of the African armies.
+      The whole country consisted of a collection of petty states, a complex
+      group of peoples and territories which even the Egyptians themselves never
+      completely succeeded in disentangling. They classed the inhabitants,
+      however, under three or four very comprehensive names&mdash;Kharû, Zahi,
+      Lotanû, and Kefâtiû&mdash;all of which frequently recur in the
+      inscriptions, but without having always that exactness of meaning we look
+      for in geographical terms. As was often the case in similar circumstances,
+      these names were used at first to denote the districts close to the
+      Egyptian frontier with which the inhabitants of the Delta had constant
+      intercourse. The Kefâtiû seem to have been at the outset the people of the
+      sea-coast, more especially of the region occupied later by the
+      Phoenicians, but all the tribes with whom the Phoenicians came in contact
+      on the Asiatic and European border were before long included under the
+      same name.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Kefâtiû, whose name was first read Kefa, and later
+     Kefto, were originally identified with the inhabitants of
+     Cyprus or Crete, and subsequently with those of Cilicia,
+     although the decree of Canopus locates them in Phoenicia.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Zahi originally comprised that portion of the desert and of the maritime
+      plain on the north-east of Egypt which was coasted by the fleets, or
+      traversed by the armies of Egypt, as they passed to and fro between Syria
+      and the banks of the Nile. This region had been ravaged by Ahmosis during
+      his raid upon Sharuhana, the year after the fall of Avaris. To the
+      south-east of Zahi lay Kharû; it included the greater part of Mount Seir,
+      whose wadys, thinly dotted over with oases, were inhabited by tribes of
+      more or less stationary habits. The approaches to it were protected by a
+      few towns, or rather fortified villages, built in the neighbourhood of
+      springs, and surrounded by cultivated fields and poverty-stricken gardens;
+      but the bulk of the people lived in tents or in caves on the
+      mountain-sides. The Egyptians constantly confounded those Khauri, whom the
+      Hebrews in after-times found scattered among the children of Edom, with
+      the other tribes of Bedouin marauders, and designated them vaguely as
+      Shaûsû. Lotanû lay beyond, to the north of Kharû and to the north-east of
+      Zahi, among the hills which separate the &ldquo;Shephelah&rdquo; from the Jordan.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of Lotanû or Rotanû has been assigned by Brugsch
+     to the Assyrians, but subsequently, by connecting it, more
+     ingeniously than plausibly, with the Assyrian <i>iltânu</i>, he
+     extended it to all the peoples of the north; we now know
+     that in the texts it denotes the whole of Syria, and, more
+     generally, all the peoples dwelling in the basins of the
+     Orontes and the Euphrates. The attempt to connect the name
+     Rotanû or Lotanû with that of the Edomite tribe of Lotan
+     (Gen. xxxvi. 20, 22) was first made by P. de Saulcy; it was
+     afterwards taken up by Haigh and adopted by Renan.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0007" id="linkBimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/177.jpg"
+       alt="177.jpg the Fortress and Bridge of Zalu " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As it was more remote from the isthmus, and formed the Egyptian horizon in
+      that direction, all the new countries with which the Egyptians became
+      acquainted beyond its northern limits were by degrees included under the
+      one name of Lotanû, and this term was extended to comprise successively
+      the entire valley of the Jordan, then that of the Orontes, and finally
+      even that of the Euphrates. Lotanû became thenceforth a vague and
+      fluctuating term, which the Egyptians applied indiscriminately to widely
+      differing Asiatic nations, and to which they added another indefinite
+      epithet when they desired to use it in a more limited sense: that part of
+      Syria nearest to Egypt being in this case qualified as Upper Lotanû, while
+      the towns and kingdoms further north were described as being in Lower
+      Lotanû. In the same way the terms Zahi and Kharû were extended to cover
+      other and more northerly regions. Zahi was applied to the coast as far as
+      the mouth of the Nahr el-Kebir and to the country of the Lebanon which lay
+      between the Mediterranean and the middle course of the Orontes. Kharû ran
+      parallel to Zahi, but comprised the mountain district, and came to include
+      most of the countries which were at first ranged under Upper Lotanû; it
+      was never applied to the region beyond the neighbourhood of Mount Tabor,
+      nor to the trans-Jordanie provinces. The three names in their wider sense
+      preserved the same relation to each other as before, Zahi lying to the
+      west and north-west of Kharû, and Lower Lotanû to the north of Kharû and
+      north-east of Zahi, but the extension of meaning did not abolish the old
+      conception of their position, and hence arose confusion in the minds of
+      those who employed them; the scribes, for instance, who registered in some
+      far-off Theban temple the victories of the Pharaoh would sometimes write
+      Zahi where they should have inscribed Kharû, and it is a difficult matter
+      for us always to detect their mistakes. It would be unjust to blame them
+      too severely for their inaccuracies, for what means had they of
+      determining the relative positions of that confusing collection of states
+      with which the Egyptians came in contact as soon as they had set foot on
+      Syrian soil?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A choice of several routes into Asia, possessing unequal advantages, was
+      open to the traveller, but the most direct of them passed through the town
+      of Zalû. The old entrenchments running from the Ked Sea to the marshes of
+      the Pelusiac branch still protected the isthmus, and beyond these, forming
+      an additional defence, was a canal on the banks of which a fortress was
+      constructed. This was occupied by the troops who guarded the frontier, and
+      no traveller was allowed to pass without having declared his name and
+      rank, signified the business which took him into Syria or Egypt, and shown
+      the letters with which he was entrusted.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The notes of an official living at Zalu in the time of
+     Mîneptah are preserved on the back of pls. v., vi. of the
+     <i>Anastasi Papyrus III</i>,; his business was to keep a register
+     of the movements of the comers and goers between Egypt and
+     Syria during a few days of the month Pakhons, in the year
+     III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was from Zalû that the Pharaohs set out with their troops, when
+      summoned to Kharû by a hostile confederacy; it was to Zalû they returned
+      triumphant after the campaign, and there, at the gates of the town, they
+      were welcomed by the magnates of the kingdom. The road ran for some
+      distance over a region which was covered by the inundation of the Nile
+      during six months of the year; it then turned eastward, and for some
+      distance skirted the sea-shore, passing between the Mediterranean and the
+      swamp which writers of the Greek period called the Lake of Sirbonis.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Sirbonian Lake is sometimes half full of water,
+     sometimes almost entirely dry; at the present time it bears
+     the name of Sebkhat Berdawil, from King Baldwin I. of
+     Jerusalem, who on his return from his Egyptian campaign died
+     on its shores, in 1148, before he could reach El-Artsh.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This stage of the journey was beset with difficulties, for the Sirbonian
+      Lake did not always present the same aspect, and its margins were
+      constantly shifting. When the canals which connected it with the open sea
+      happened to become obstructed, the sheet of water subsided from
+      evaporation, leaving in many places merely an expanse of shifting mud,
+      often concealed under the sand which the wind brought up from the desert.
+      Travellers ran imminent risk of sinking in this quagmire, and the Greek
+      historians tell of large armies being almost entirely swallowed up in it.
+      About halfway along the length of the lake rose the solitary hill of Mount
+      Casios; beyond this the sea-coast widened till it became a vast slightly
+      undulating plain, covered with scanty herbage, and dotted over with wells
+      containing an abundant supply of water, which, however, was brackish and
+      disagreeable to drink.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0008" id="linkBimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/180-map.jpg" width="100%" alt="180.jpg Map " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Beyond these lay a grove of palms, a brick prison, and a cluster of
+      miserable houses, bounded by a broad wady, usually dry. The bed of the
+      torrent often served as the boundary between Africa and Asia, and the town
+      was for many years merely a convict prison, where ordinary criminals,
+      condemned to mutilation and exile, were confined; indeed, the Greeks
+      assure us that it owed its name of Rhinocolûra to the number of noseless
+      convicts who were to be seen there.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The ruins of the ancient town, which were of considerable
+     extent, are half buried under the sand, out of which an
+     Egyptian naos of the Ptolemaic period has been dug, and
+     placed near the well which supplies the fort, where it
+     serves as a drinking trough for the horses. Brugsch believed
+     he could identify its site with that of the Syrian town
+     Hurnikheri, which he erroneously reads Harinkola; the
+     ancient form of the name is unknown, the Greek form varies
+     between Rhinocorûra and Rhinocolûra. The story of the
+     mutilated convicts is to be found in Diodorus Siculus, as
+     well as in Strabo; it rests on a historical fact. Under the
+     XVIIIth dynasty Zalû was used as a place of confinement for
+     dishonest officials. For this purpose it was probably
+     replaced by Rhinocolûra, when the Egyptian frontier was
+     removed from the neighbourhood of Selle to that of El-Arîsh.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At this point the coast turns in a north-easterly direction, and is
+      flanked with high sand-hills, behind which the caravans pursue their way,
+      obtaining merely occasional glimpses of the sea. Here and there, under the
+      shelter of a tower or a half-ruined fortress, the traveller would have
+      found wells of indifferent water, till on reaching the confines of Syria
+      he arrived at the fortified village of Raphia, standing like a sentinel to
+      guard the approach to Egypt. Beyond Raphia vegetation becomes more
+      abundant, groups of sycamores and mimosas and clusters of date-palms
+      appear on the horizon, villages surrounded with fields and orchards are
+      seen on all sides, while the bed of a river, blocked with gravel and
+      fallen rocks, winds its way between the last fringes of the desert and the
+      fruitful Shephelah;* on the further bank of the river lay the suburbs of
+      Gaza, and, but a few hundred yards beyond, Gaza itself came into view
+      among the trees standing on its wall-crowned hill.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The term Shephelah signifies the plain; it is applied by
+     the Biblical writers to the plain bordering the coast, from
+     the heights of Gaza to those of Joppa, which were inhabited
+     at a later period by the Philistines (<i>Josh</i>. xi. 16; <i>Jer</i>.
+     xxxii. 44 and xxxiii. 13).
+
+     ** Guérin describes at length the road from Gaza to Raphia.
+     The only town of importance between them in the Greek period
+     was Iênysos, the ruins of which are to be found near Khan
+     Yunes, but the Egyptian name for this locality is unknown:
+     Aunaugasa, the name of which Brugsch thought he could
+     identify with it, should be placed much farther away, in
+     Northern or in Coele-Syria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians, on their march from the Nile valley, were wont to stop at
+      this spot to recover from their fatigues; it was their first halting-place
+      beyond the frontier, and the news which would reach them here prepared
+      them in some measure for what awaited them further on. The army itself,
+      the &ldquo;troop of Râ,&rdquo; was drawn from four great races, the most distinguished
+      of which came, of course, from the banks of the Nile: the Amû, born of
+      Sokhît, the lioness-headed goddess, were classed in the second rank; the
+      Nahsi, or negroes of Ethiopia, were placed in the third; while the Timihû,
+      or Libyans, with the white tribes of the north, brought up the rear. The
+      Syrians belonged to the second of these families, that next in order to
+      the Egyptians, and the name of Amu, which for centuries had been given
+      them, met so satisfactorily all political, literary, or commercial
+      requirements, that the administrators of the Pharaohs never troubled
+      themselves to discover the various elements concealed beneath the term. We
+      are, however, able at the present time to distinguish among them several
+      groups of peoples and languages, all belonging to the same family, but
+      possessing distinctive characteristics. The kinsfolk of the Hebrews, the
+      children of Ishmael and Edom, the Moabites and Ammonites, who were all
+      qualified as Shaûsû, had spread over the region to the south and east of
+      the Dead Sea, partly in the desert, and partly on the confines of the
+      cultivated land. The Canaanites were not only in possession of the coast
+      from Gaza to a point beyond the Nahr el-Kebir, but they also occupied
+      almost the whole valley of the Jordan, besides that of the Litâny, and
+      perhaps that of the Upper Orontes.* There were Aramaean settlements at
+      Damascus, in the plains of the Lower Orontes, and in Naharaim.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * I use the term Canaanite with the meaning most frequently
+     attached to it, according to the Hebrew use (<i>Gen</i>. x. 15-
+     19). This word is found several times in the Egyptian texts
+     under the forms Kinakhna, Kinakhkhi, and probably Kûnakhaîû,
+     in the cuneiform texts of Tel el-Amarna.
+
+     ** As far as I know, the term Aramæan is not to be found in
+     any Egyptian text of the time of the Pharaohs: the only
+     known example of it is a writer&rsquo;s error corrected by Chabas.
+     W. Max Müller very justly observes that the mistake is
+     itself a proof of the existence of the name and of the
+     acquaintance of the Egyptians with it.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The country beyond the Aramaean territory, including the slopes of the
+      Amanos and the deep valleys of the Taurus, was inhabited by peoples of
+      various origin; the most powerful of these, the Khâti, were at this time
+      slowly forsaking the mountain region, and spreading by degrees over the
+      country between the Afrîn and the Euphrates.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Canaanites were the most numerous of all these groups, and had they
+      been able to amalgamate under a single king, or even to organize a lasting
+      confederacy, it would have been impossible for the Egyptian armies to have
+      broken through the barrier thus raised between them and the rest of Asia;
+      but, unfortunately, so far from showing the slightest tendency towards
+      unity or concentration, the Canaanites were more hopelessly divided than
+      any of the surrounding nations. Their mountains contained nearly as many
+      states as there were valleys, while in the plains each town represented a
+      separate government, and was built on a spot carefully selected for
+      purposes of defence. The land, indeed, was chequered with these petty
+      states, and so closely were they crowded together, that a horseman,
+      travelling at leisure, could easily pass through two or three of them in a
+      day&rsquo;s journey.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Thûtmosis III. shows that, at any rate, they were
+     established in these regions about the XVIth century B.C.
+     The Egyptian pronunciation of their name is <i>Khîti</i>, with
+     the feminine <i>Khîtaît, Khîtit</i>; but the Tel el-Amarna texts
+     employ the vocalisation <i>Khâti, Khâte</i>, which must be more
+     correct than that of the Egyptians, The form <i>Khîti</i> seems
+     to me to be explicable by an error of popular etymology.
+     Egyptian ethnical appellations in <i>îti</i> formed their plural
+     by <i>-âtiû, -âteê, -âti, -âte</i>, so that if <i>Khâte, Khâti</i>,
+     were taken for a plural, it would naturally have suggested
+     to the scribes the form <i>Khîti</i> for the singular.
+
+     ** Thûtmosis III., speaking to his soldiers, tells them that
+     all the chiefs the projecting spur of some mountain, or on a
+     solitary and more or less irregularly shaped eminence in the
+     midst of a plain, and the means of defence in the country
+     are shut up in Megiddo, so that &ldquo;to take it is to take a
+     thousand cities:&rdquo; this is evidently a hyperbole in the mouth
+     of the conqueror, but the exaggeration itself shows how
+     numerous were the chiefs and consequently the small states
+     in Central and Southern Syria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Not only were the royal cities fenced with walls, but many of the
+      surrounding villages were fortified, while the watch-towers, or <i>migdols</i>*
+      built at the bends of the roads, at the fords over the rivers, and at the
+      openings of the ravines, all testified to the insecurity of the times and
+      the aptitude for self-defence shown by the inhabitants.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This Canaanite word was borrowed by the Egyptians from the
+     Syrians at the beginning of their Asiatic wars; they
+     employed it in forming the names of the military posts which
+     they established on the eastern frontier of the Delta: it
+     appears for the first time among Syrian places in the list
+     of cities conquered by Thûtmosis III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0009" id="linkBimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/184.jpg"
+       alt="184.jpg the Canaanite Fortresses " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The aspect of these migdols, or forts, must have appeared strange to the
+      first Egyptians who beheld them. These strongholds bore no resemblance to
+      the large square or oblong enclosures to which they were accustomed, and
+      which in their eyes represented the highest skill of the engineer. In
+      Syria, however, the positions suitable for the construction of fortresses
+      hardly ever lent themselves to a symmetrical plan. The usual sites had to
+      be adapted in each case to suit the particular configuration of the
+      ground.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0010" id="linkBimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/185.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="185.jpg the Walled City of DapÛr, in Galilee " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken at Karnak by
+     Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was usually a mere wall of stone or dried brick, with towers at
+      intervals; the wall measuring from nine to twelve feet thick at the base,
+      and from thirty to thirty-six feet high, thus rendering an assault by
+      means of portable ladders, nearly impracticable.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is, at least, the result of investigations made by
+     modern engineers who have studied these questions of
+     military archæology.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The gateway had the appearance of a fortress in itself. It was composed of
+      three large blocks of masonry, forming a re-entering face, considerably
+      higher than the adjacent curtains, and pierced near the top with square
+      openings furnished with mantlets, so as to give both a front and flank
+      view of the assailants. The wooden doors in the receded face were covered
+      with metal and raw hides, thus affording a protection against axe or
+      fire.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Most of the Canaanite towns, taken by Ramses II. in the
+     campaign of his VIIIth year were fortified in this manner.
+     It must have been the usual method of fortification, as it
+     seems to have served as a type for conventional
+     representation, and was sometimes used to denote cities
+     which had fortifications of another kind. For instance,
+     Dapûr-Tabor is represented in this way, while a picture on
+     another monument, which is reproduced in the illustration on
+     page 185, represents what seems to have been the particular
+     form of its encompassing walls.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The building was strong enough not only to defy the bands of adventurers
+      who roamed the country, but was able to resist for an indefinite time the
+      operations of a regular siege. Sometimes, however, the inhabitants when
+      constructing their defences did not confine themselves to this rudimentary
+      plan, but threw up earthworks round the selected site. On the most exposed
+      side they raised an advance wall, not exceeding twelve or fifteen feet in
+      height, at the left extremity of which the entrance was so placed that the
+      assailants, in endeavouring to force their way through, were obliged to
+      expose an unprotected flank to the defenders. By this arrangement it was
+      necessary to break through two lines of fortification before the place
+      could be entered. Supposing the enemy to have overcome these first
+      obstacles, they would find themselves at their next point of attack
+      confronted with a citadel which contained, in addition to the sanctuary of
+      the principal god, the palace of the sovereign himself. This also had a
+      double enclosing wall and massively built gates, which could be forced
+      only at the expense of fresh losses, unless the cowardice or treason of
+      the garrison made the assault an easy one.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The type of town described in the text is based on a
+     representation on the walls of Karnak, where the siege of
+     Dapûr-Tabor by Ramses II. is depicted. Another type is given
+     in the case of Ascalon.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0011" id="linkBimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/187.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="187.jpg the Migdol of Ramses Iii. At Thebes, in The Temple of Medinet-abul " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Dévéria
+     in 1865.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Of these bulwarks of Canaanite civilization, which had been thrown up by
+      hundreds on the route of the invading hosts, not a trace is to be seen
+      to-day. They may have been razed to the ground during one of those
+      destructive revolutions to which the country was often exposed, or their
+      remains may lie hidden underneath the heaps of ruins which thirty
+      centuries of change have raised over them.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The only remains of a Canaanite fortification which can be
+     assigned to the Egyptian period are those which Professor
+     F. I. Petrie brought to light in the ruins of Tell el-Hesy,
+     and in which he rightly recognised the remains of Lachish.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The records of victories graven on the walls of the Theban temples
+      furnish, it is true, a general conception of their appearance, but the
+      notions of them which we should obtain from this source would be of a very
+      confused character had not one of the last of the conquering Pharaohs,
+      Ramses III., taken it into his head to have one built at Thebes itself, to
+      contain within it, in addition to his funerary chapel, accommodation for
+      the attendants assigned to the conduct of his worship. In the Greek and
+      Roman period a portion of this fortress was demolished, but the external
+      wall of defence still exists on the eastern side, together with the gate,
+      which is commanded on the right by a projection of the enclosing-wall, and
+      flanked by two guard-houses, rectangular in shape, and having roofs which
+      jut out about a yard beyond the wall of support. Having passed through
+      these obstacles, we find ourselves face to face with a <i>migdol</i> of
+      cut stone, nearly square in form, with two projecting wings, the court
+      between their loop-holed walls being made to contract gradually from the
+      point of approach by a series of abutments. A careful examination of the
+      place, indeed, reveals more than one arrangement which the limited
+      knowledge of the Egyptians would hardly permit us to expect. We discover,
+      for instance, that the main body of the building is made to rest upon a
+      sloping sub-structure which rises to a height of some sixteen feet.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This served two purposes: it increased, in the first place, the strength
+      of the defence against sapping; and in the second, it caused the weapons
+      launched by the enemy to rebound with violence from its inclined surface,
+      thus serving to keep the assailants at a distance. The whole structure has
+      an imposing look, and it must be admitted that the royal architects
+      charged with carrying out their sovereign&rsquo;s idea brought to their task an
+      attention to detail for which the people from whom the plan was borrowed
+      had no capacity, and at the same time preserved the arrangements of their
+      model so faithfully that we can readily realise what it must have been.
+      Transport this migdol of Ramses III. into Asia, plant it upon one of those
+      hills which the Canaanites were accustomed to select as a site for their
+      fortifications, spread out at its base some score of low and miserable
+      hovels, and we have before us an improvised pattern of a village which
+      recalls in a striking manner Zerîn or Beîtîn, or any other small modern
+      town which gathers the dwellings of its fellahin round some central stone
+      building&mdash;whether it be a hostelry for benighted travellers, or an
+      ancient castle of the Crusading age.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0012" id="linkBimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/189.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="189.jpg the Modern Village of BeÎtÎn (ancient Bethel), Seen from the South-west. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There were on the littoral, to the north of Gaza, two large walled towns,
+      Ascalon and Joppa, in whose roadsteads merchant vessels were accustomed to
+      take hasty refuge in tempestuous weather.* There were to be found on the
+      plains also, and on the lower slopes of the mountains, a number of similar
+      fortresses and villages, such as Iurza, Migdol, Lachish, Ajalon, Shocho,
+      Adora, Aphukîn, Keilah, Gezer, and Ono; and, in the neighbourhood of the
+      roads which led to the fords of the Jordan, Gibeah, Beth-Anoth, and
+      finally Urusalim, our Jerusalem.** A tolerably dense population of active
+      and industrious husbandmen maintained themselves upon the soil.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ascalon was not actually on the sea. Its port, &ldquo;Maiumas
+     Ascalonis,&rdquo; was probably merely a narrow bay or creek, now,
+     for a long period, filled up by the sand. Neither the site
+     nor the remains of the port have been discovered. The name
+     of the town is always spelled in Egyptian with an &ldquo;s &ldquo;&mdash;
+     Askaluna, which gives us the pronunciation of the time. The
+     name of Joppa is written Yapu, Yaphu, and the gardens which
+     then surrounded the town are mentioned in the <i>Anastasi
+     Papyrus I</i>.
+
+     ** Urusalim is mentioned only in the Tel el-Amarna tablets,
+     alongside of Kilti or Keilah, Ajalon, and Lachish. The
+     remaining towns are noticed in the great lists of Thûtmosis
+     III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0013" id="linkBimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/191.jpg" width="100%" alt="191.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The plough which they employed was like that used by the Egyptians and
+      Babylonians, being nothing but a large hoe to which a couple of oxen were
+      harnessed.* The scarcity of rain, except in certain seasons, and the
+      tendency of the rivers to run low, contributed to make the cultivators of
+      the soil experts in irrigation and agriculture. Almost the only remains of
+      these people which have come down ti us consist of indestructible wells
+      and cisterns, or wine and oil presses hollowed out of the rock.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is the form of plough still employed by the Syrians
+     in some places.
+
+     ** Monuments of this kind are encountered at every step in
+     Judaea, but it is very difficult to date them. The aqueduct
+     of Siloam, which goes back perhaps to the time of Hezekiah.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Fields of wheat and barley extended along the flats of the valleys, broken
+      in upon here and there by orchards, in which the white and pink almond,
+      the apple, the fig, the pomegranate, and the olive flourished side by
+      side.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0014" id="linkBimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/192.jpg" width="100%" alt="192.jpg Amphitheatre of Hills " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a plate in Chesney.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Jerusalem, possibly in part to be attributed to the reign of Solomon, are
+      the only instances to which anything like a certain date may be assigned.
+      But these are long posterior to the XVIIIth dynasty. Good judges, however,
+      attribute some of these monuments to a very distant period: the masonry of
+      the wells of Beersheba is very ancient, if not as it is at present, at
+      least as it was when it was repaired in the time of the Cæsars; the olive
+      and wine presses hewn in the rock do not all date back to the Roman
+      empire, but many belong to a still earlier period, and modern descriptions
+      correspond with what we know of such presses from the Bible.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If the slopes of the valley rose too precipitously for cultivation, stone
+      dykes were employed to collect the falling earth, and thus to transform
+      the sides of the hills into a series of terraces rising one above the
+      other. Here the vines, planted in lines or in trellises, blended their
+      clusters with the fruits of the orchard-trees. It was, indeed, a land of
+      milk and honey, and its topographical nomenclature in the Egyptian
+      geographical lists reflects as in a mirror the agricultural pursuits of
+      its ancient inhabitants: one village, for instance, is called Aubila, &ldquo;the
+      meadow;&rdquo; while others bear such names as Ganutu, &ldquo;the gardens;&rdquo; Magraphut,
+      &ldquo;the mounds;&rdquo; and Karman, &ldquo;the vineyard.&rdquo; The further we proceed towards
+      the north, we find, with a diminishing aridity, the hillsides covered with
+      richer crops, and the valleys decked out with a more luxuriant and warmly
+      coloured vegetation. Shechem lies in an actual amphitheatre of verdure,
+      which is irrigated by countless unfailing streams; rushing brooks babble
+      on every side, and the vapour given off by them morning and evening covers
+      the entire landscape with a luminous haze, where the outline of each
+      object becomes blurred, and quivers in a manner to which we are accustomed
+      in our Western lands.* Towns grew and multiplied upon this rich and loamy
+      soil, but as these lay outside the usual track of the invading hosts&mdash;which
+      preferred to follow the more rugged but shorter route leading straight to
+      Carmel across the plain&mdash;the records of the conquerors only casually
+      mention a few of them, such as Bîtshaîlu, Birkana, and Dutîna.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Shechem is not mentioned in the Egyptian geographical
+     lists, but Max Müller thinks he has discovered it in the
+     name of the mountain of Sikima which figures in the
+     <i>Anastasi Papyrus</i>, No. 1.
+
+     ** Bîtshaîlu, identified by Chabas with Bethshan, and with
+     Shiloh by Mariette and Maspero, is more probably Bethel,
+     written Bît-sha-îlu, either with <i>sh</i>, the old relative
+     pronoun of the Phoenician, or with the Assyrian <i>sha</i>; on
+     the latter supposition one must suppose, as Sayce does, that
+     the compiler of the Egyptian lists had before him sources of
+     information in the cuneiform character. Birkana appears to
+     be the modern Brukin, and Dutîna is certainly Dothain, now
+     Tell-Dothân.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Beyond Ono reddish-coloured sandy clay took the place of the dark and
+      compact loam: oaks began to appear, sparsely at first, but afterwards
+      forming vast forests, which the peasants of our own days have thinned and
+      reduced to a considerable extent. The stunted trunks of these trees are
+      knotted and twisted, and the tallest of them do not exceed some thirty
+      feet in height, while many of them may be regarded as nothing more
+      imposing than large bushes.* Muddy rivers, infested with crocodiles,
+      flowed slowly through the shady woods, spreading out their waters here and
+      there in pestilential swamps. On reaching the seaboard, their exit was
+      impeded by the sands which they brought down with them, and the banks
+      which were thus formed caused the waters to accumulate in lagoons
+      extending behind the dunes. For miles the road led through thickets,
+      interrupted here and there by marshy places and clumps of thorny shrubs.
+      Bands of Shaûsû were accustomed to make this route dangerous, and even the
+      bravest heroes shrank from venturing alone along this route. Towards Aluna
+      the way began to ascend Mount Carmel by a narrow and giddy track cut in
+      the rocky side of the precipice.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The forest was well known to the geographers of the Græco-
+     Roman period, and was still in existence at the time of the
+     Crusades.
+
+     ** This defile is described at length in the <i>Anastasi
+     Papyrus</i>, No. 1, and the terms used by the writer are in
+     themselves sufficient evidence of the terror with which the
+     place inspired the Egyptians. The annals of Thûtmosis III.
+     are equally explicit as to the difficulties which an army
+     had to encounter here. I have placed this defile near the
+     point which is now called Umm-el-Fahm, and this site seems
+     to me to agree better with the account of the expedition of
+     Thûtmosis III. than that of Arraneh proposed by Conder.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Beyond the Mount, it led by a rapid descent into a plain covered with corn
+      and verdure, and extending in a width of some thirty miles, by a series of
+      undulations, to the foot of Tabor, where it came to an end. Two side
+      ranges running almost parallel&mdash;little Hermon and Glilboa&mdash;disposed
+      in a line from east to west, and united by an almost imperceptibly rising
+      ground, serve rather to connect the plain of Megiddo with the valley of
+      the Jordan than to separate them. A single river, the Kishon, cuts the
+      route diagonally&mdash;or, to speak more correctly, a single river-bed,
+      which is almost waterless for nine months of the year, and becomes swollen
+      only during the winter rains with the numerous torrents bursting from the
+      hillsides. As the flood approaches the sea it becomes of more manageable
+      proportions, and finally distributes its waters among the desolate lagoons
+      formed behind the sand-banks of the open and wind-swept bay, towered over
+      by the sacred summit of Carmel.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In the lists of Thûtmosis III. we find under No. 48 the
+     town of Rosh-Qodshu, the &ldquo;Sacred Cape,&rdquo; which was evidently
+     situated at the end of the mountain range, or probably on
+     the site of Haifah; the name itself suggests the veneration
+     with which Carmel was invested from the earliest times.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      No corner of the world has been the scene of more sanguinary engagements,
+      or has witnessed century after century so many armies crossing its borders
+      and coming into conflict with one another. Every military leader who,
+      after leaving Africa, was able to seize Gaza and Ascalon, became at once
+      master of Southern Syria. He might, it is true, experience some local
+      resistance, and come into conflict with bands or isolated outposts of the
+      enemy, but as a rule he had no need to anticipate a battle before he
+      reached the banks of the Kishon.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0015" id="linkBimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/196.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="196.jpg the Evergreen Oaks Between Joppa and Carmel " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a pencil sketch by Lortet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Here, behind a screen of woods and mountain, the enemy would concentrate
+      his forces and prepare resolutely to meet the attack. If the invader
+      succeeded in overcoming resistance at this point, the country lay open to
+      him as far as the Orontes; nay, often even to the Euphrates. The position
+      was too important for its defence to have been neglected. A range of
+      forts, Ibleâm, Taanach, and Megiddo,* drawn like a barrier across the line
+      of advance, protected its southern face, and beyond these a series of
+      strongholds and villages followed one another at intervals in the bends of
+      the valleys or on the heights, such as Shunem, Kasuna, Anaharath, the two
+      Aphuls, Cana, and other places which we find mentioned on the triumphal
+      lists, but of which, up to the present, the sites have not been fixed.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Megiddo, the &ldquo;Legio&rdquo; of the Roman period, has been
+     identified since Robinson&rsquo;s time with Khurbet-Lejûn, and
+     more especially with the little mound known by the name of
+     Tell-el-Mutesallim. Conder proposed to place its site more
+     to the east, in the valley of the Jordan, at Khurbet-el-
+     Mujeddah.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0016" id="linkBimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/197.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="197.jpg Acre and the Fringe of Reefs Sheltering The Ancient Port " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Lortet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      From this point the conqueror had a choice of three routes. One ran in an
+      oblique direction to the west, and struck the Mediterranean near Acre,
+      leaving on the left the promontory of Carmel, with the sacred town,
+      Rosh-Qodshu, planted on its slope.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0017" id="linkBimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/199-map.jpg" width="100%" alt="199.jpg Map " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0018" id="linkBimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/201.jpg" alt="201.jpg the Town of Qodshu " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Acre was the first port where a fleet could find safe anchorage after
+      leaving the mouths of the Nile, and whoever was able to make himself
+      master of it had in his hands the key of Syria, for it stood in the same
+      commanding position with regard to the coast as that held by Megiddo in
+      respect of the interior. Its houses were built closely together on a spit
+      of rock which projected boldly into the sea, while fringes of reefs formed
+      for it a kind of natural breakwater, behind which ships could find a safe
+      harbourage from the attacks of pirates or the perils of bad weather. From
+      this point the hills come so near the shore that one is sometimes obliged
+      to wade along the beach to avoid a projecting spur, and sometimes to climb
+      a zig-zag path in order to cross a headland. In more than one place the
+      rock has been hollowed into a series of rough steps, giving it the
+      appearance of a vast ladder.* Below this precipitous path the waves dash
+      with fury, and when the wind sets towards the land every thud causes the
+      rocky wall to tremble, and detaches fragments from its surface. The
+      majority of the towns, such as Aksapu (Ecdippa), Mashal, Lubina,
+      Ushu-Shakhan, lay back from the sea on the mountain ridges, out of the
+      reach of pirates; several, however, were built on the shore, under the
+      shelter of some promontory, and the inhabitants of these derived a
+      miserable subsistence from fishing and the chase. Beyond the Tyrian Ladder
+      Phoenician territory began. The country was served throughout its entire
+      length, from town to town, by the coast road, which turning at length to
+      the right, and passing through the defile formed by the Nahr-el-Kebîr,
+      entered the region of the middle Orontes.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Hence the name Tyrian Ladder, which is applied to one of
+     these passes, either Ras-en-Nakurah or Ras-el-Abiad.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The second of the roads leading from Megiddo described an almost
+      symmetrical curve eastwards, crossing the Jordan at Beth-shan, then the
+      Jab-bok, and finally reaching Damascus after having skirted at some
+      distance the last of the basaltic ramparts of the Haurân. Here extended a
+      vast but badly watered pasture-land, which attracted the Bedouin from
+      every side, and scattered over it were a number of walled towns, such as
+      Hamath, Magato, Ashtaroth, and Ono-Eepha.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Proof that the Egyptians knew this route, followed even to
+     this day in certain circumstances, is furnished by the lists
+     of Thûtmosis III., in which the principal stations which it
+     comprises are enumerated among the towns given up after the
+     victory of Megiddo. Dimasqu was identified with Damascus by
+     E. de Rougé, and Astarotu with Ashtarôth-Qarnaim. Hamatu is
+     probably Hamath of the Gadarenes; Magato, the Maged of the
+     Maccabees, is possibly the present Mukatta; and Ono-Repha,
+     Raphôn, Raphana, Arpha of Decapolis, is the modern Er-Rafeh.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Probably Damascus was already at this period the dominant authority over
+      the region watered by these two rivers, as well as over the villages
+      nestling in the gorges of Hermon,&mdash;Abila, Helbôn of the vineyards,
+      and Tabrûd,&mdash;but it had not yet acquired its renown for riches and
+      power. Protected by the Anti-Lebanon range from its turbulent neighbours,
+      it led a sort of vegetative existence apart from invading hosts, forgotten
+      and hushed to sleep, as it were, in the shade of its gardens.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The third road from Megiddo took the shortest way possible. After crossing
+      the Kishon almost at right angles to its course, it ascended by a series
+      of steep inclines to arid plains, fringed or intersected by green and
+      flourishing valleys, which afforded sites for numerous towns,&mdash;Pahira,
+      Merom near Lake Huleh, Qart-Nizanu, Beerotu, and Lauîsa, situated in the
+      marshy district at the head-waters of the Jordan.* From this point forward
+      the land begins to fall, and taking a hollow shape, is known as
+      Coele-Syria, with its luxuriant vegetation spread between the two ranges
+      of the Lebanon. It was inhabited then, as at the time of the Babylonian
+      conquest, by the Amorites, who probably included Damascus also in their
+      domain.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Pahira is probably Safed; Qart-Nizanu, the &ldquo;flowery city,&rdquo;
+      the Kartha of Zabulon; and Bcerôt, the Berotha of Josephus,
+     near Merom. Maroma and Lauîsa, Laisa, have been identified
+     with Merom and Laish.
+
+     ** The identification of the country of Amâuru with that of
+     the Amorites was admitted from the first. The only doubt was
+     as to the locality occupied by these Amorites: the mention
+     of Qodshu on the Orontes, in the country of the Amurru,
+     showed that Coele-Syria was the region in question. In the
+     Tel el-Amarna tablets the name Amurru is applied also to the
+     country east of the Phoenician coast, and we have seen that
+     there is reason to believe that it was used by the
+     Babylonians to denote all Syria. If the name given by the
+     cuneiform inscriptions to Damascus and its neighbourhood,
+     &ldquo;Gar-Imirîshu,&rdquo; &ldquo;Imirîshu,&rdquo; &ldquo;Imirîsh,&rdquo; really means &ldquo;the
+     Fortress of the Amorites,&rdquo; we should have in this fact a
+     proof that this people were in actual possession of the
+     Damascene Syria. This must have been taken from them by the
+     Hittites towards the XXth century before our era, according
+     to Hommel; about the end of the XVIIIth dynasty, according
+     to Lenormant. If, on the other hand, the Assyrians read the
+     name &ldquo;Sha-imiri-shu,&rdquo; with the signification, &ldquo;the town of
+     its asses,&rdquo; it is simply a play upon words, and has no
+     bearing upon the primitive meaning of the name.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0019" id="linkBimage-0019">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/202.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="202.jpg the Tyrian Ladder at Ras El-abiad " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their capital, the sacred Qodshu, was situated on the left bank of the
+      Orontes, about five miles from the lake which for a long time bore its
+      name, Bahr-el-Kades.* It crowned one of those barren oblong eminences
+      which are so frequently met with in Syria. A muddy stream, the Tannur,
+      flowed, at some distance away, around its base, and, emptying itself into
+      the Orontes at a point a little to the north, formed a natural defence for
+      the town on the west. Its encompassing walls, slightly elliptic in form,
+      were strengthened by towers, and surrounded by two concentric ditches
+      which kept the sapper at a distance.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name Qodshu-Kadesh was for a long time read Uatesh,
+     Badesh, Atesh, and, owing to a confusion with Qodi, Ati, or
+     Atet. The town was identified by Champollion with Bactria,
+     then transferred to Mesopotamia by Bosollini, in the land of
+     Omira, which, according to Pliny, was close to the Taurus,
+     not far from the Khabur or from the province of Aleppo:
+     Osburn tried to connect it with Hadashah (<i>Josh</i>. xv. 21),
+     an Amorite town in the southern part of the tribe of Judah;
+     while Hincks placed it in Edessa. The reading Kedesh,
+     Kadesh, Qodshu, the result of the observations of Lepsius,
+     has finally prevailed. Brugsch connected this name with that
+     of Bahr el-Kades, a designation attached in the Middle Ages
+     to the lake through which the Orontes flows, and placed the
+     town on its shores or on a small island on the lake. Thomson
+     pointed out Tell Neby-Mendeh, the ancient Laodicea of the
+     Lebanon, as satisfying the requirements of the site. Conder
+     developed this idea, and showed that all the conditions
+     prescribed by the Egyptian texts in regard to Qodshu find
+     here, and here alone, their application. The description
+     given in the text is based on Conder&rsquo;s observations.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0020" id="linkBimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/206.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="206.jpg the Dyke at Baiik El-kades in Its Present Condition " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A dyke running across the Orontes above the town caused the waters to rise
+      and to overflow in a northern direction, so as to form a shallow lake,
+      which acted as an additional protection from the enemy. Qodshu was thus a
+      kind of artificial island, connected with the surrounding country by two
+      flying bridges, which could be opened or shut at pleasure. Once the
+      bridges were raised and the gates closed, the boldest enemy had no
+      resource left but to arm himself with patience and settle down to a
+      lengthened siege. The invader, fresh from a victory at Megiddo, and
+      following up his good fortune in a forward movement, had to reckon upon
+      further and serious resistance at this point, and to prepare himself for a
+      second conflict. The Amorite chiefs and their allies had the advantage of
+      a level and firm ground for the evolutions of their chariots during the
+      attack, while, if they were beaten, the citadel afforded them a secure
+      rallying-place, whence, having gathered their shattered troops, they could
+      regain their respective countries, or enter, with the help of a few
+      devoted men, upon a species of guerilla warfare in which they excelled.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The road from Damascus led to a point south of Quodshu, while that from
+      Phonicia came right up to the town itself or to its immediate
+      neighbourhood. The dyke of Bahr el-Kades served to keep the plain in a dry
+      condition, and thus secured for numerous towns, among which Hamath stood
+      out pre-eminently, a prosperous existence. Beyond Hamath, and to the left,
+      between the Orontes and the sea, lay the commercial kingdom of Alasia,
+      protected from the invader by bleak mountains.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The site of Alasia, Alashia, was determined from the Tel
+     el-Amarna tablets by Maspero. Niebuhr had placed it to the
+     west of Cilicia, opposite the island of Eleousa mentioned by
+     Strabo. Conder connected it with the scriptural Elishah, and
+     W. Max Millier confounds it with Asi or Cyprus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      On the right, between the Orontes and the Balikh, extended the land of
+      rivers, Naharaim. Towns had grown up here thickly,&mdash;on the sides of
+      the torrents from the Amanos, along the banks of rivers, near springs or
+      wells&mdash;wherever, in fact, the presence of water made culture
+      possible. The fragments of the Egyptian chronicles which have come down to
+      us number these towns by the hundred,* and yet of how many more must the
+      records have perished with the crumbling Theban walls upon which the
+      Pharaohs had their names incised! Khalabu was the Aleppo of our own day,**
+      and grouped around it lay Turmanuna, Tunipa, Zarabu, Nîi, Durbaniti,
+      Nirabu, Sarmata,*** and a score of others which depended upon it, or upon
+      one of its rivals. The boundaries of this portion of the Lower Lotanû have
+      come down to us in a singularly indefinite form, and they must also,
+      moreover, have been subject to continual modifications from the results of
+      tribal conflicts.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Two hundred and thirty names belonging to Naharaim are
+     still legible on the lists of Thûtmosis III., and a hundred
+     others have been effaced from the monument.
+
+     ** Khalabu was identified by Chabas with Khalybôn, the
+     modern Aleppo, and his opinion has been adopted by most
+     Egyptologists.
+
+     *** Tunipa has been found in Tennib, Tinnab, by Noldoke;
+     Zarabu in Zarbi, and Sarmata in Sarmeda, by Tomkins;
+     Durbaniti in Deîr el-Banât, the Castrum Puellarum of the
+     chroniclers of the Crusades; Nirabu in Nirab, and Tirabu in
+     Tereb, now el-Athrib. Nirab is mentioned by Nicholas of
+     Damascus. Nîi, long confounded with Nineveh, was identified
+     by Lenormant with Ninus Vetus, Membidj, and by Max Millier
+     with Balis on the Euphrates: I am inclined to make it Kefer-
+     Naya, between Aleppo and Turmanin.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0021" id="linkBimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/208.jpg" width="100%" alt="208.jpg Map " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      We are at a loss to know whether the various principalities were
+      accustomed to submit to the leadership of a single individual, or whether
+      we are to relegate to the region of popular fancy that Lord of Naharaim of
+      whom the Egyptian scribes made such a hero in their fantastic narratives.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In the &ldquo;Story of the Predestined Prince&rdquo; the heroine is
+     daughter of the Prince of Naharaim, who seems to exercise
+     authority over all the chiefs of the country; as the
+     manuscript does not date back further than the XXth dynasty,
+     we are justified in supposing that the Egyptian writer had a
+     knowledge of the Hittite domination, during which the King
+     of the Khâti was actually the ruler of all Naharaim.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Carchemish represented in this region the position occupied by Megiddo in
+      relation to Kharû, and by Qodshu among the Amorites; that is to say, it
+      was the citadel and sanctuary of the surrounding country. Whoever could
+      make himself master of it would have the whole country at his feet.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0022" id="linkBimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/211.jpg" alt="211.jpg Site of Carchemish " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It lay upon the Euphrates, the winding of the river protecting it on its
+      southern and south-eastern sides, while around its northern front ran a
+      deep stream, its defence being further completed by a double ditch across
+      the intervening region. Like Qodshu, it was thus situated in the midst of
+      an artificial island beyond the reach of the battering-ram or the sapper.
+      The encompassing wall, which tended to describe an ellipse, hardly
+      measured two miles in circumference; but the suburbs extending, in the
+      midst of villas and gardens, along the river-banks furnished in time of
+      peace an abode for the surplus population. The wall still rises some five
+      and twenty to thirty feet above the plain. Two mounds divided by a ravine
+      command its north-western side, their summits being occupied by the ruins
+      of two fine buildings&mdash;a temple and a palace.* Carchemish was the
+      last stage in a conqueror&rsquo;s march coming from the south.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Karkamisha, Gargamish, was from the beginning associated
+     with the Carchemish of the Bible; but as the latter was
+     wrongly identified with Circesium, it was naturally located
+     at the confluence of the Khabur with the Euphrates. Hincks
+     fixed the site at Rum-Kaleh. G. Rawlinson referred it
+     cursorily to Hierapolis-Mabog, which position Maspero
+     endeavoured to confirm. Finzi, and after him G. Smith,
+     thought to find the site at Jerabis, the ancient Europos,
+     and excavations carried on there by the English have brought
+     to light in this place Hittite monuments which go back in
+     part to the Assyrian epoch. This identification is now
+     generally accepted, although there is still no direct proof
+     attainable, and competent judges continue to prefer the site
+     of Membij. I fall in with the current view, but with all
+     reserve.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0023" id="linkBimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/212.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="212.jpg the Tell of Jerabis in Its Present Condition " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Reproduced by Faucher-Gudin, from a cut in the <i>Graphic</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      For an invader approaching from the east or north it formed his first
+      station. He had before him, in fact, a choice of the three chief fords for
+      crossing the Euphrates. That of Thapsacus, at the bend of the river where
+      it turns eastward to the Arabian plain, lay too far to the south, and it
+      could be reached only after a march through a parched and desolate region
+      where the army would run the risk of perishing from thirst.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0024" id="linkBimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/213.jpg" alt="213.jpg a Northern Syrian " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      For an invader proceeding from Asia Minor, or intending to make his way
+      through the defiles of the Taurus, Samosata offered a convenient
+      fording-place; but this route would compel the general, who had Naharaim
+      or the kingdoms of Chaldæa in view, to make a long detour, and although
+      the Assyrians used it at a later period, at the time of their expeditions
+      to the valleys of the Halys, the Egyptians do not seem ever to have
+      travelled by this road. Carchemish, the place of the third ford, was about
+      equally distant from Thapsacus and Samosata, and lay in a rich and fertile
+      province, which was so well watered that a drought or a famine would not
+      be likely to enter into the expectations of its inhabitants. Hither
+      pilgrims, merchants, soldiers, and all the wandering denizens of the world
+      were accustomed to direct their steps, and the habit once established was
+      perpetuated for centuries. On the left bank of the river, and almost
+      opposite Carchemish, lay the region of Mitânni,* which was already
+      occupied by a people of a different race, who used a language cognate, it
+      would seem, with the imperfectly classified dialects spoken by the tribes
+      of the Upper Tigris and Upper Euphrates.** Harran bordered on Mitânni, and
+      beyond Harran one may recognise, in the vaguely defined Singar, Assur,
+      Arrapkha, and Babel, states that arose out of the dismemberment of the
+      ancient Chaldæan Empire.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Mitânni is mentioned on several Egyptian monuments; but
+     its importance was not recognised until after the discovery
+     of the Tel el-Amarna tablets and of its situation. The fact
+     that a letter from the Prince of Mitânni is stated in a
+     Hieratic docket to have come from Naharaim has been used as
+     a proof that the countries were identical; I have shown that
+     the docket proves only that Mitânni formed a part of
+     Naharaim. It extended over the province of Edessa and
+     Harran, stretching out towards the sources of the Tigris.
+     Niebuhr places it on the southern slope of the Masios, in
+     Mygdonia; Th. Reinach connects it with the Matiôni, and asks
+     whether this was not the region occupied by this people
+     before their emigration towards the Caspian.
+
+     ** Several of the Tel el-Amarna tablets are couched in this
+     language.
+
+     *** These names were recognised from the first in the
+     inscriptions of Thûtmosis III. and in those of other
+     Pharaohs of the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Carchemish route was, of course, well known to caravans, but armed
+      bodies had rarely occasion to make use of it. It was a far cry from
+      Memphis to Carchemish, and for the Egyptians this town continued to be a
+      limit which they never passed, except incidentally, when they had to
+      chastise some turbulent tribe, or to give some ill-guarded town to the
+      flames.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A certain number of towns mentioned in the lists of
+     Thûtmosis III. were situated beyond the Euphrates, and they
+     belonged some to Mitânni and some to the regions further
+     away.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0025" id="linkBimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/215.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="215.jpg the Heads of Three Amorite Captives " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It would be a difficult task to define with any approach to accuracy the
+      distribution of the Canaanites, Amorites, and Aramæans, and to indicate
+      the precise points where they came into contact with their rivals of
+      non-Semitic stock. Frontiers between races and languages can never be very
+      easily determined, and this is especially true of the peoples of Syria.
+      They are so broken up and mixed in this region, that even in
+      neighbourhoods where one predominant tribe is concentrated, it is easy to
+      find at every step representatives of all the others. Four or five
+      townships, singled out at random from the middle of a province, would
+      often be found to belong to as many different races, and their respective
+      inhabitants, while living within a distance of a mile or two, would be as
+      great strangers to each other as if they were separated by the breadth of
+      a continent.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0026" id="linkBimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:35%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/216.jpg"
+       alt="216.jpg Mixture of Syrian Races " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It would appear that the breaking up of these populations had not been
+      carried so far in ancient as in modern times, but the confusion must
+      already have been great if we are to judge from the number of different
+      sites where we encounter evidences of people of the same language and
+      blood. The bulk of the Khâti had not yet departed from the Taurus region,
+      but some stray bands of them, carried away by the movement which led to
+      the invasion of the Hyksôs, had settled around Hebron, where the rugged
+      nature of the country served to protect them from their neighbours.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In very early times they are described as dwelling near
+     Hebron or in the mountains of Judah. Since we have learned
+     from the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments that the Khâti
+     dwelt in Northern Syria, the majority of commentators have
+     been indisposed to admit the existence of southern Hittites;
+     this name, it is alleged, having been introduced into the
+     Biblical around text through a misconception of the original
+     documents, where the term Hittite was the equivalent of
+     Canaanite.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Amorites* had their head-quarters Qodshul in Coele-Syria, but one
+      section of them had taken up a position on the shores of the Lake of
+      Tiberias in Galilee, others had established themselves within a short
+      distance of Jaffa** on the Mediterranean, while others had settled in the
+      neighbourhood of the southern Hittites in such numbers that their name in
+      the Hebrew Scriptures was at times employed to designate the western
+      mountainous region about the Dead Sea and the valley of the Jordan. Their
+      presence was also indicated on the table-lands bordering the desert of
+      Damascus, in the districts frequented by Bedouin of the tribe of Terah,
+      Ammon and Moab, on the rivers Yarmuk and Jabbok, and at Edrei and
+      Heshbon.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ed. Meyer has established the fact that the term Amorite,
+     as well as the parallel word Canaanite, was the designation
+     of the inhabitants of Palestine before the arrival of the
+     Hebrews: the former belonged to the prevailing tradition in
+     the kingdom of Israel, the latter to that which was current
+     in Judah. This view confirms the conclusion which may be
+     drawn from the Egyptian monuments as to the power of
+     expansion and the diffusion of the people.
+
+     ** These were the Amorites which the tribe of Dan at a later
+     period could not dislodge from the lands which had been
+     allotted to them.
+
+     *** This was afterwards the domain of Sihon, King of the
+     Amorites, and that of Og.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The fuller, indeed, our knowledge is of the condition of Syria at the time
+      of the Egyptian conquest, the more we are forced to recognise the mixture
+      of races therein, and their almost infinite subdivisions. The mutual
+      jealousies, however, of these elements of various origin were not so
+      inveterate as to put an obstacle in the way, I will not say of political
+      alliances, but of daily intercourse and frequent contracts. Owing to
+      intermarriages between the tribes, and the continual crossing of the
+      results of such unions, peculiar characteristics were at length
+      eliminated, and a uniform type of face was the result. From north to south
+      one special form of countenance, that which we usually call Semitic,
+      prevailed among them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0027" id="linkBimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/218.jpg"
+       alt="218.jpg a Caricature of the Syrian Type " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Syrian and Egyptian monuments furnish us everywhere, under different
+      ethnical names, with representations of a broad-shouldered people of high
+      stature, slender-figured in youth, but with a fatal tendency to obesity in
+      old age. Their heads are large, somewhat narrow, and artificially
+      flattened or deformed, like those of several modern tribes in the Lebanon.
+      Their high cheek-bones stand out from their hollow cheeks, and their blue
+      or black eyes are buried under their enormous eyebrows. The lower part of
+      the face is square and somewhat heavy, but it is often concealed by a
+      thick and curly beard. The forehead is rather low and retreating, while
+      the nose has a distinctly aquiline curve. The type is not on the whole so
+      fine as the Egyptian, but it is not so heavy as that of the Chaldæans in
+      the time of Gudea. The Theban artists have represented it in their
+      battle-scenes, and while individualising every soldier or Asiatic prisoner
+      with a happy knack so as to avoid monotony, they have with much
+      intelligence impressed upon all of them the marks of a common parentage.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0028" id="linkBimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/219.jpg" alt="219.jpg " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the original
+wooden object.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      One feels that the artists must have recognised them as belonging to one
+      common family. They associated with their efforts after true and exact
+      representation a certain caustic humour, which impelled them often to
+      substitute for a portrait a more or less jocose caricature of their
+      adversaries. On the walls of the Pylons, and in places where the majesty
+      of a god restrained them from departing too openly from their official
+      gravity, they contented themselves with exaggerating from panel to panel
+      the contortions and pitiable expressions of the captive chiefs as they
+      followed behind the triumphal chariot of the Pharaoh on his return from
+      his Syrian campaigns.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * An illustration of this will be found in the line of
+     prisoners, brought by Seti I. from his great Asiatic
+     campaign, which is depicted on the outer face of the north
+     wall of the hypostyle at Karnak.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Where religious scruples offered no obstacle they abandoned themselves to
+      the inspiration of the moment, and gave themselves freely up to
+      caricature. It is an Amorite or Canaanite&mdash;that thick-lipped,
+      flat-nosed slave, with his brutal lower jaw and smooth conical skull&mdash;who
+      serves for the handle of a spoon in the museum of the Louvre. The
+      stupefied air with which he trudges under his burden is rendered in the
+      most natural manner, and the flattening to which his forehead had been
+      subjected in infancy is unfeelingly accentuated. The model which served
+      for this object must have been intentionally brutalised and disfigured in
+      order to excite the laughter of Pharaoh&rsquo;s subjects.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Dr. Regnault thinks that the head was artificially
+     deformed in infancy: the bandage necessary to effect it must
+     have been applied very low on the forehead in front, and to
+     the whole occiput behind. If this is the case, the instance
+     is not an isolated one, for a deformation of a similar
+     character is found in the case of the numerous Semites
+     represented on the tomb of Rakhmiri: a similar practice
+     still obtains in certain parts of modern Syria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0029" id="linkBimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/220.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="220.jpg Syrians Dressed in the Loin-cloth and Double Shawl " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The idea of uniformity with which we are impressed when examining the
+      faces of these people is confirmed and extended when we come to study
+      their costumes. Men and women&mdash;we may say all Syrians according to
+      their condition of life&mdash;had a choice between only two or three modes
+      of dress, which, whatever the locality, or whatever the period, seemed
+      never to change. On closer examination slight shades of difference in cut
+      and arrangement may, however, be detected, and it may be affirmed that
+      fashion ran even in ancient Syria through as many capricious evolutions as
+      with ourselves; but these variations, which were evident to the eyes of
+      the people of the time, are not sufficiently striking to enable us to
+      classify the people, or to fix their date. The peasants and the lower
+      class of citizens required no other clothing than a loin-cloth similar to
+      that of the Egyptians,* or a shirt of a yellow or white colour, extending
+      below the knees, and furnished with short sleeves. The opening for the
+      neck was cruciform, and the hem was usually ornamented with coloured
+      needlework or embroidery. The burghers and nobles wore over this a long
+      strip of cloth, which, after passing closely round the hips and chest, was
+      brought up and spread over the shoulders as a sort of cloak. This was not
+      made of the light material used in Egypt, which offered no protection from
+      cold or rain, but was composed of a thick, rough wool, like that employed
+      in Chaldæa, and was commonly adorned with stripes or bands of colour, in
+      addition to spots and other conspicuous designs.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Asiatic loin-cloth differs from the Egyptian in having
+     pendent cords; the Syrian fellahin still wear it when at
+     work.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Rich and fashionable folk substituted for this cloth two large shawls&mdash;one
+      red and the other blue&mdash;in which they dexterously arrayed themselves
+      so as to alternate the colours: a belt of soft leather gathered the folds
+      around the figure. Red morocco buskins, a soft cap, a handkerchief, a <i>kejfîyeh</i>
+      confined by a fillet, and sometimes a wig after the Egyptian fashion,
+      completed the dress.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0030" id="linkBimage-0030">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/222.jpg" width="100%" alt="222a.jpg " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a figure on the tomb of Ramses III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Beards were almost universal among the men, but the moustache was of rare
+      occurrence. In many of the figures represented on the monuments we find
+      that the head was carefully shaved, while in others the hair was allowed
+      to grow, arranged in curls, frizzed and shining with oil or sweet-smelling
+      pomade, sometimes thrown back behind the ears and falling on the neck in
+      bunches or curly masses, sometimes drawn out in stiff spikes so as to
+      serve as a projecting cover over the face.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The women usually tired their hair in three great masses, of which the
+      thickest was allowed to fall freely down the back; while the other two
+      formed a kind of framework for the face, the ends descending on each side
+      as far as the breast. Some of the women arranged their hair after the
+      Egyptian manner, in a series of numerous small tresses, brought together
+      at the ends so as to form a kind of plat, and terminating in a flower made
+      of metal or enamelled terracotta. A network of glass ornaments, arranged
+      on a semicircle of beads, or on a background of embroidered stuff, was
+      frequently used as a covering for the top of the head.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Examples of Syrian feminine costume are somewhat rare on
+     the Egyptian monuments. In the scenes of the capturing of
+     towns we see a few. Here the women are represented on the
+     walls imploring the mercy of the besieger. Other figures are
+     those of prisoners being led captive into Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0032" id="linkBimage-0032">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/223.jpg" width="100%" alt="223.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The shirt had no sleeves, and the fringed garment which covered it left
+      half of the arm exposed. Children of tender years had their heads shaved,
+      as a head-dress, and rejoiced in no more clothing than the little ones
+      among the Egyptians. With the exception of bracelets, anklets, rings on
+      the fingers, and occasionally necklaces and earrings, the Syrians, both
+      men and women, wore little jewellery. The Chaldæa women furnished them
+      with models of fashion to which they accommodated themselves in the choice
+      of stuffs, colours, cut of their mantles or petticoats, arrangement of the
+      hair, and the use of cosmetics for the eyes and cheeks. In spite of
+      distance, the modes of Babylon reigned supreme. The Syrians would have
+      continued to expose their right shoulder to the weather as long as it
+      pleased the people of the Lower Euphrates to do the same; but as soon as
+      the fashion changed in the latter region, and it became customary to cover
+      the shoulder, and to wrap the upper part of the person in two or three
+      thicknesses of heavy wool, they at once accommodated themselves to the new
+      mode, although it served to restrain the free motion of the body. Among
+      the upper classes, at least, domestic arrangements were modelled upon the
+      fashions observed in the palaces of the nobles of Car-chemish or Assur:
+      the same articles of toilet, the same ranks of servants and scribes, the
+      same luxurious habits, and the same use of perfumes were to be found among
+      both.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * An example of the fashion of leaving the shoulder bare is
+     found even in the XXth dynasty. The Tel el-Amarna tablets
+     prove that, as far as the scribes were concerned, the
+     customs and training of Syria and Chaldæa were identical.
+     The Syrian princes are there represented as employing the
+     cuneiform character in their correspondence, being
+     accompanied by scribes brought up after the Chaldæan manner.
+     We shall see later on that the king of the Khati, who
+     represented in the time of Ramses II. the type of an
+     accomplished Syrian, had attendants similar to those of the
+     Chaldæan kings.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      From all that we can gather, in short, from the silence as well as from
+      the misunderstandings of the Egyptian chroniclers, Syria stands before us
+      as a fruitful and civilized country, of which one might be thankful to be
+      a native, in spite of continual wars and frequent revolutions.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The religion of the Syrians was subject to the same influences as their
+      customs; we are, as yet, far from being able to draw a complete picture of
+      their theology, but such knowledge as we do possess recalls the same names
+      and the same elements as are found in the religious systems of Chaldæa.
+      The myths, it is true, are still vague and misty, at least to our modern
+      ideas: the general characteristics of the principal divinities alone stand
+      out, and seem fairly well defined. As with the other Semitic races, the
+      deity in a general sense, the primordial type of the godhead, was called
+      <i>El</i> or <i>Ilû</i>, and his feminine counterpart <i>Ilât</i>, but we
+      find comparatively few cities in which these nearly abstract beings
+      enjoyed the veneration of the faithful.* The gods of Syria, like those of
+      Egypt and of the countries watered by the Euphrates, were feudal princes
+      distributed over the surface of the earth, their number corresponding with
+      that of the independent states. Each nation, each tribe, each city,
+      worshipped its own lord&mdash;<i>Adoni</i>** &mdash;or its master&mdash;<i>Baal</i>***
+      &mdash;and each of these was designated by a special title to distinguish
+      him from neighbouring <i>Baalîm</i>, or masters.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The frequent occurrence of the term <i>Ilû</i> or <i>El</i> in names
+     of towns in Southern Syria seems to indicate pretty
+     conclusively that the inhabitants of these countries used
+     this term by preference to designate their supreme god.
+     Similarly we meet with it in Aramaic names, and later on
+     among the Nabathseans; it predominates at Byblos and Berytus
+     in Phoenicia and among the Aramaic peoples of North Syria;
+     in the Samalla country, for instance, during the VIIIth
+     century B.C.
+
+     ** The extension of this term to Syrian countries is proved
+     in the Israelitish epoch by Canaanitish names, such as
+     Adonizedek and Adonibezek, or Jewish names such as Adonijah,
+     Adonikam, Adoniram-Adoram.
+
+     *** Movers tried to prove that there was one particular god
+     named Baal, and his ideas, popularised in Prance by M. de
+     Vogiié, prevailed for some time: since then scholars have
+     gone back to the view of Münter and of the writers at the
+     beginning of this century, who regarded the term Baal as a
+     common epithet applicable to all gods.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Baal who ruled at Zebub was styled &ldquo;Master of Zebub,&rdquo; or Baal-Zebub;*
+      and the Baal of Hermon, who was an ally of Gad, goddess of fortune, was
+      sometimes called Baal-Hermon, or &ldquo;Master of Hermon,&rdquo; sometimes Baal-G-ad,
+      or &ldquo;Master of Gad;&rdquo; ** the Baal of Shechem, at the time of the Israelite
+      invasion, was &ldquo;Master of the Covenant&rdquo;&mdash;Baal-Berîth&mdash;doubtless
+      in memory of some agreement which he had concluded with his worshippers in
+      regard to the conditions of their allegiance.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Baal-Zebub was worshipped at Ekxon during the Philistine
+     supremacy.
+
+     ** The mountain of Baal-Hermon is the mountain of Baniâs,
+     where the Jordan has one of its sources, and the town of
+     Baal-Hermon is Baniâs itself. The variant Baal-Gad occurs
+     several times in the Biblical books.
+
+     *** Baal-Berith, like Baal-Zebub, only occurs, so far as we
+     know at present, in the Hebrew Scriptures, where, by the
+     way, the first element, Baal, is changed to El, El-Berith.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0033" id="linkBimage-0033">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/226.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="226.jpg LotanÛ Women and Children from the Tomb Of RakhmieÎ " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from coloured sketches by Prisse
+     d&rsquo;Avennes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The prevalent conception of the essence and attributes of these deities
+      was not the same in all their sanctuaries, but the more exalted among them
+      were regarded as personifying the sky in the daytime or at night, the
+      atmosphere, the light,* or the sun, Shamash, as creator and prime mover of
+      the universe; and each declared himself to be king&mdash;<i>melek</i>&mdash;over
+      the other gods.** Bashuf represented the lightning and the thunderbolt;***
+      Shalmân, Hadad, and his double Bimmôn held sway over the air like the
+      Babylonian.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This appears under the name <i>Or</i> or <i>Ur</i> in the Samalla
+     inscriptions of the VIIIth century B.C.; it is, so far, a
+     unique instance among the Semites.
+
+     ** We find the term applied in the Bible to the national god
+     of the Ammonites, under the forms <i>Moloch, Molech, Mikôm,
+     Milkâm</i>, and especially with the article, <i>Ham-molek</i>; the
+     real name hidden beneath this epithet was probably <i>Amnôn or
+     Ammân</i>, and, strictly speaking, the God Moloch only exists
+     in the imagination of scholars. The epithet was used among
+     the Oanaanites in the name Melchizedek, a similar form to
+     Adonizedek, Abimelech, Ahimelech; it was in current use
+     among the Phoenicians, in reference to the god of Tyre,
+     Melek-Karta or Melkarth, and in many proper names, such as
+     Melekiathon, Baalmelek, Bodmalek, etc., not to mention the
+     god Milichus worshipped in Spain, who was really none other
+     than Melkarth.
+
+     *** Resheph has been vocalised <i>Rashuf</i> in deference to the
+     Egyptian orthography Rashupu. It was a name common to a
+     whole family of lightning and storm-gods, and M. de Rougé
+     pointed out long ago the passage in the Great Inscription of
+     Ramses III. at Medinet-Habu, in which the soldiers who man
+     the chariots are compared to the Rashupu; the Rabbinic
+     Hebrew still employs this plural form in the sense of
+     &ldquo;demons.&rdquo; The Phoenician inscriptions contain references to
+     several local Rashufs; the way in which this god is coupled
+     with the goddess Qodshu on the Egyptian stelæ leads me to
+     think that, at the epoch now under consideration, he was
+     specially worshipped by the Amorites, just as his equivalent
+     Hadad was by the inhabitants of Damascus, neighbours of the
+     Amorites, and perhaps themselves Amorites.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Rammânu;* Dagon, patron god of fishermen and husbandmen, seems to have
+      watched over the fruitfulness of the sea and the land.** We are beginning
+      to learn the names of the races whom they specially protected: Rashuf the
+      Amorites, Hadad and Rimmon the Aramæans of Damascus, Dagon the peoples of
+      the coast between Ashkelon and the forest of Carmel. Rashûf is the only
+      one whose appearance is known to us. He possessed the restless temperament
+      usually attributed to the thunder-gods, and was, accordingly, pictured as
+      a soldier armed with javelin and mace, bow and buckler; a gazelle&rsquo;s head
+      with pointed horns surmounts his helmet, and sometimes, it may be, serves
+      him as a cap.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Hadad and Rimmon are represented in Assyrio-Chaldæan by
+     one and the same ideogram, which may be read either Dadda-
+     Hadad or Eammânu. The identity of the expressions employed
+     shows how close the connection between the two divinities
+     must have been, even if they were not similar in all
+     respects; from the Hebrew writings we know of the temple of
+     Rimmon at Damascus (<i>2 Kings</i> v. 18) and that one of the
+     kings of that city was called Tabrimmôn = &ldquo;llimmon is good&rdquo;
+      (<i>1 Kings</i> xv. 18), while Hadad gave his name to no less
+     than ten kings of the same city. Even as late as the Græco-
+     Roman epoch, kingship over the other gods was still
+     attributed both to Rimmon and to Hadad, but this latter was
+     identified with the sun.
+
+     ** The documents which we possess in regard to Dagon date
+     from the Hebrew epoch, and represent him as worshipped by
+     the Philistines. We know, however, from the Tel el-Amarna
+     tablets, of a Dagantakala, a name which proves the presence
+     of the god among the Canaanites long before the Philistine
+     invasion, and we find two Beth-Dagons&mdash;one in the plain of
+     Judah, the other in the tribe of Asher; Philo of Byblos
+     makes Dagon a Phoenician deity, and declares him to be the
+     genius of fecundity, master of grain and of labour. The
+     representation of his statue which appears on the Græco-
+     Roman coins of Abydos, reminds us of the fish-god of
+     Chaldæa.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Each god had for his complement a goddess, who was proclaimed &ldquo;mistress&rdquo;
+       of the city, <i>Baalat</i>, or &ldquo;queen,&rdquo; <i>Milkat</i>, of heaven, just as
+      the god himself was recognised as &ldquo;master&rdquo; or &ldquo;king.&rdquo; * As a rule, the
+      goddess was contented with the generic name of Astartê; but to this was
+      often added some epithet, which lent her a distinct personality, and
+      prevented her from being confounded with the Astartês of neighbouring
+      cities, her companions or rivals.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Among goddesses to whom the title &ldquo;Baalat &ldquo;was referred,
+     we have the goddess of Byblos, Baalat-Gebal, also the
+     goddess of Berytus, Baalat-Berîth, or Beyrut. The epithet
+     &ldquo;queen of heaven &ldquo;is applied to the Phoenician Astartê by
+     Hebrew (<i>Jer.</i> vii. 18, xliv. 18-29) and classic writers.
+     The Egyptians, when they adopted these Oanaanitish
+     goddesses, preserved the title, and called each of them
+     <i>nibît pit,</i> &ldquo;lady of heaven.&rdquo; In the Phoenician inscriptions
+     their names are frequently preceded by the word <i>Rabbat:
+     rabbat Baalat-Gebal</i>, &ldquo;(my) lady Baalat-Gebal.&rdquo;
+
+     ** The Hebrew writers frequently refer to the Canaanite
+     goddesses by the general title &ldquo;the Ashtarôth&rdquo; or &ldquo;Astartês,&rdquo;
+      and a town in Northern Syria bore the significant name of
+     Istarâti = &ldquo;the Ishtars, the Ashtarôth,&rdquo; a name which finds
+     a parallel in Anathôth = &ldquo;the Anats,&rdquo; a title assumed by a
+     town of the tribe of Benjamin; similarly, the Assyrio-
+     Chaldæans called their goddesses by the plural of Ishtar.
+     The inscription on an Egyptian amulet in the Louvre tells us
+     of a personage of the XXth dynasty, who, from his name,
+     Rabrabîna, must have been of Syrian origin, and who styled
+     himself &ldquo;Prophet of the Astartês,&rdquo; Honnutir Astiratu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0034" id="linkBimage-0034">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/229.jpg" width="100%" alt="229.jpg Astarte As a Sphinx " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a copy of an original in chased
+     gold.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Thus she would be styled the &ldquo;good&rdquo; Astartê, Ashtoreth Naamah, or the
+      &ldquo;horned&rdquo; Astartê, Ashtoreth Qarnaîm, because of the lunar crescent which
+      appears on her forehead, as a sort of head-dress.* She was the goddess of
+      good luck, and was called Gad;** she was Anat,*** or Asîti,**** the chaste
+      and the warlike.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The two-horned Astartê gave her name to a city beyond the
+     Jordan, of which she was, probably, the eponymous goddess:
+     (Gen xiv. 5) she would seem to be represented on the curious
+     monument called by the Arabs &ldquo;the stone of Job,&rdquo; which was
+     discovered by M. Schumacher in the centre of the Hauran. It
+     was an analogous goddess whom the Egyptians sometimes
+     identified with their Hâthor, and whom they represented as
+     crowned with a crescent.
+
+     ** Gad, the goddess of fortune, is mainly known to us in
+     connection with the Aramæans; we find mention made of her by
+     the Hebrew writers, and geographical names, such as Baal-Gad
+     and Migdol-Gad, prove that she must have been worshipped at
+     a very early date in the Canaanite countries.
+
+     *** Anat, or Anaîti, or Aniti, has been found in a
+     Phoenician inscription, which enables us to reconstruct the
+     history of the goddess. Her worship was largely practised
+     among the Canaanites, as is proved by the existence in the
+     Hebrew epoch of several towns, such as Beth-Anath, Beth-
+     Anoth, Anathôth; at least one of which, Bît-Anîti, is
+     mentioned in the Egyptian geographical lists. The appearance
+     of Anat-Anîti is known to us, as she is represented in
+     Egyptian dress on several stelæ of the XIXth and XXth
+     dynasties. Her name, like that of Astartê, had become a
+     generic term, in the plural form Anathôth, for a whole group
+     of goddesses.
+
+     **** Asîti is represented at Radesieh, on a stele of the
+     time of Seti I.; she enters into the composition of a
+     compound name, <i>Asîtiiàkhûrû</i> (perhaps &ldquo;the goddess of Asiti
+     is enflamed with anger &ldquo;), which we find on a monument in
+     the Vienna Museum. W. Max Müller makes her out to have been
+     a divinity of the desert, and the place in which the picture
+     representing her was found would seem to justify this
+     hypothesis; the Egyptians connected her, as well as the
+     other Astartês, with Sit-Typhon, owing to her cruel and
+     warlike character.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0035" id="linkBimage-0035">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/231.jpg" width="100%" alt="231.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The statues sometimes represent her as a sphinx with a woman&rsquo;s head, but
+      more often as a woman standing on a lion passant, either nude, or
+      encircled round the hips by merely a girdle, her hands filled with flowers
+      or with serpents, her features framed in a mass of heavy tresses&mdash;a
+      faithful type of the priestesses who devoted themselves to her service,
+      the <i>Qedeshôt</i>. She was the goddess of love in its animal, or rather
+      in its purely physical, aspect, and in this capacity was styled Qaddishat
+      the Holy, like the hetairæ of her family; Qodshu, the Amorite capital, was
+      consecrated to her service, and she was there associated with Rashuf, the
+      thunder-god.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Qaddishat is know to us from the Egyptian monuments
+     referred to above. The name was sometimes written Qodshû,
+     like that of the town: E. de Bougé argued from this that
+     Qaddishat must have been the eponymous divinity of Qodshû,
+     and that her real name was Kashit or Kesh; he recalls,
+     however, the <i>rôle</i> played by the Qedeshoth, and admits that
+     &ldquo;the Holy here means the prostitute.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      But she often comes before us as a warlike Amazon, brandishing a club,
+      lance, or shield, mounted on horseback like a soldier, and wandering
+      through the desert in quest of her prey.* This dual temperament rendered
+      her a goddess of uncertain attributes and of violent contrasts; at times
+      reserved and chaste, at other times shameless and dissolute, but always
+      cruel, always barren, for the countless multitude of her excesses for ever
+      shut her out from motherhood: she conceives without ceasing, but never
+      brings forth children.** The Baalim and Astartês frequented by choice the
+      tops of mountains, such as Lebanon, Carmel, Hermon, or Kasios:*** they
+      dwelt near springs, or hid themselves in the depths of forests.**** They
+      revealed themselves to mortals through the heavenly bodies, and in all the
+      phenomena of nature: the sun was a Baal, the moon was Astartê, and the
+      whole host of heaven was composed of more or less powerful genii, as we
+      find in Chaldæa.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A fragment of a popular tale preserved in the British
+     Museum, and mentioned by Birch, seems to show us Astartê in
+     her character of war-goddess, and the sword of Astartê is
+     mentioned by Chabas. A bas-relief at Edfû represents her
+     standing upright in her chariot, drawn by horses, and
+     trampling her enemies underfoot: she is there identified
+     with Sokhît the warlike, destroyer of men.
+
+     ** This conception of the Syrian goddesses had already
+     become firmly established at the period with which we are
+     dealing, for an Egyptian magical formula defines Anîti and
+     Astartê as &ldquo;the great goddesses who conceiving do not bring
+     forth young, for the Horuses have sealed them and Sit hath
+     established them.&rdquo;
+
+     *** The Baal of Lebanon is mentioned in an archaic
+     Phoenician inscription, and the name &ldquo;Holy Cape&rdquo; (<i>Rosh-
+     Qodshu</i>), borne in the time of Thûtmosis III. either by
+     Haifa or by a neighbouring town, proves that Carmel was held
+     sacred as far back as the Egyptian epoch. Baal-Hermon has
+     already been mentioned.
+
+     **** The source of the Jordan, near Baniâs, was the seat of
+     a Baal whom the Greeks identified with Pan. This was
+     probably the Baal-Gad who often lent his name to the
+     neighbouring town of Baal-Hermon: many of the rivers of
+     Phoenicia were called after the divinities worshipped in the
+     nearest city, e.g. the Adonis, the Bêlos, the Asclepios, the
+     Damûras.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They required that offerings and prayers should be brought to them at the
+      high places,* but they were also pleased&mdash;and especially the
+      goddesses&mdash;to lodge in trees; tree-trunks, sometimes leafy, sometimes
+      bare and branchless (<i>ashêrah</i>), long continued to be living emblems
+      of the local Astartês among the peoples of Southern Syria. Side by side
+      with these plant-gods we find everywhere, in the inmost recesses of the
+      temples, at cross-roads, and in the open fields, blocks of stone hewn into
+      pillars, isolated boulders, or natural rocks, sometimes of meteoric
+      origin, which were recognised by certain mysterious marks to be the house
+      of the god, the Betyli or Beth-els in which he enclosed a part of his
+      intelligence and vital force.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These are the &ldquo;high places&rdquo; (bamôth) so frequently
+     referred to by the Hebrew prophets, and which we find in the
+     country of Moab, according to the Mesha inscription, and in
+     the place-name Bamoth-Baal; many of them seem to have served
+     for Canaanitish places of worship before they were resorted
+     to by the children of Israel.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The worship of these gods involved the performance of ceremonies more
+      bloody and licentious even than those practised by other races. The Baalim
+      thirsted after blood, nor would they be satisfied with any common blood
+      such as generally contented their brethren in Chaldæa or Egypt: they
+      imperatively demanded human as well as animal sacrifices. Among several of
+      the Syrian nations they had a prescriptive right to the firstborn male of
+      each family;* this right was generally commuted, either by a money payment
+      or by subjecting the infant to circumcision.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This fact is proved, in so far as the Hebrew people is
+     concerned, by the texts of the Pentateuch and of the
+     prophets; amongst the Moabites also it was his eldest son
+     whom King Mosha took to offer to his god. We find the same
+     custom among other Syrian races: Philo of Byblos tells us,
+     in fact, that El-Kronos, god of Byblos, sacrificed his
+     firstborn son and set the example of this kind of offering.
+
+     ** Redemption by a payment in money was the case among the
+     Hebrews, as also the substitution of an animal in the place
+     of a child; as to redemption by circumcision, cf. the story
+     of Moses and Zipporah, where the mother saves her son from
+     Jahveh by circumcising him. Circumcision was practised among
+     the Syrians of Palestine in the time of Herodotus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At important junctures, however, this pretence of bloodshed would fail to
+      appease them, and the death of the child alone availed. Indeed, in times
+      of national danger, the king and nobles would furnish, not merely a single
+      victim, but as many as the priests chose to demand.* While they were being
+      burnt alive on the knees of the statue, or before the sacred emblem, their
+      cries of pain were drowned by the piping of flutes or the blare of
+      trumpets, the parents standing near the altar, without a sign of pity, and
+      dressed as for a festival: the ruler of the world could refuse nothing to
+      prayers backed by so precious an offering, and by a purpose so determined
+      to move him. Such sacrifices were, however, the exception, and the
+      shedding of their own blood by his priests sufficed, as a rule, for the
+      daily wants of the god. Seizing their knives, they would slash their arms
+      and breasts with the view of compelling, by this offering of their own
+      persons, the good will of the Baalim.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * If we may credit Tertullian, the custom of offering up
+     children as sacrifices lasted down to the proconsulate of
+     Tiberius.
+
+     ** Cf., for the Hebraic epoch, the scene where the priests
+     of Baal, in a trial of power with Elijah before Ahab,
+     offered up sacrifices on the highest point of Carmel, and
+     finding that their offerings did not meet with the usual
+     success, &ldquo;cut themselves... with knives and lancets till the
+     blood gushed out upon them.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      The Astartês of all degrees and kinds were hardly less cruel; they imposed
+      frequent flagellations, self-mutilation, and sometimes even emasculation,
+      on their devotees. Around the majority of these goddesses was gathered an
+      infamous troop of profligates (<i>kedeshîm</i>), &ldquo;dogs of love&rdquo; (<i>kelabîm</i>),
+      and courtesans (<i>kedeshôt</i>). The temples bore little resemblance to
+      those of the regions of the Lower Euphrates: nowhere do we find traces of
+      those <i>ziggurat</i> which serve to produce the peculiar jagged outline
+      characteristic of Chaldæan cities. The Syrian edifices were stone
+      buildings, which included, in addition to the halls and courts reserved
+      for religious rites, dwelling-rooms for the priesthood, and storehouses
+      for provisions: though not to be compared in size with the sanctuaries of
+      Thebes, they yet answered the purpose of strongholds in time of need, and
+      were capable of resisting the attacks of a victorious foe.* A numerous
+      staff, consisting of priests, male and female singers, porters, butchers,
+      slaves, and artisans, was assigned to each of these temples: here the god
+      was accustomed to give forth his oracles, either by the voice of his
+      prophets, or by the movement of his statues.** The greater number of the
+      festivals celebrated in them were closely connected with the pastoral and
+      agricultural life of the country; they inaugurated, or brought to a close,
+      the principal operations of the year&mdash;the sowing of seed, the
+      harvest, the vintage, the shearing of the sheep. At Shechem, when the
+      grapes were ripe, the people flocked out of the town into the vineyards,
+      returning to the temple for religious observances and sacred banquets when
+      the fruit had been trodden in the winepress.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The story of Abimelech gives us some idea of what the
+     Canaanite temple of Baal-Berîth at Shechem was like.
+
+     ** As to the regular organisation of Baal-worship, we
+     possess only documents of a comparatively late period.
+
+     *** It is probable that the vintage festival, celebrated at
+     Shiloh in the time of the Judges, dated back to a period of
+     Canaanite history prior to the Hebrew invasion, i.e. to the
+     time of the Egyptian supremacy.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In times of extraordinary distress, such as a prolonged drought or a
+      famine, the priests were wont to ascend in solemn procession to the high
+      places in order to implore the pity of their divine masters, from whom
+      they strove to extort help, or to obtain the wished-for rain, by their
+      dances, their lamentations, and the shedding of their blood.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *Cf., in the Hebraic period, the scene where the priests of
+     Baal go up to the top of Mount Carmel with the prophet
+     Elijah.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Almost everywhere, but especially in the regions east of the Jordan, were
+      monuments which popular piety surrounded with a superstitious reverence.
+      Such were the isolated boulders, or, as we should call them, &ldquo;menhirs,&rdquo;
+       reared on the summit of a knoll, or on the edge of a tableland; dolmens,
+      formed of a flat slab placed on the top of two roughly hewn supports,
+      cromlechs, or, that is to say, stone circles, in the centre of which might
+      be found a beth-el. We know not by whom were set up these monuments there,
+      nor at what time: the fact that they are in no way different from those
+      which are to be met with in Western Europe and the north of Africa has
+      given rise to the theory that they were the work of some one primeval race
+      which wandered ceaselessly over the ancient world. A few of them may have
+      marked the tombs of some forgotten personages, the discovery of human
+      bones beneath them confirming such a conjecture; while others seem to have
+      been holy places and altars from the beginning. The nations of Syria did
+      not in all cases recognise the original purpose of these monuments, but
+      regarded them as marking the seat of an ancient divinity, or the precise
+      spot on which he had at some time manifested himself. When the children of
+      Israel caught sight of them again on their return from Egypt, they at once
+      recognised in them the work of their patriarchs. The dolmen at Shechem was
+      the altar which Abraham had built to the Eternal after his arrival in the
+      country of Canaan. Isaac had raised that at Beersheba, on the very spot
+      where Jehovah had appeared in order to renew with him the covenant that He
+      had made with Abraham. One might almost reconstruct a map of the
+      wanderings of Jacob from the altars which he built at each of his
+      principal resting-places&mdash;at Gilead [Galeed], at Ephrata, at Bethel,
+      and at Shechem.* Each of such still existing objects probably had a
+      history of its own, connecting it inseparably with some far-off event in
+      the local annals.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The heap of stones at Galeed, in Aramaic <i>Jegar-
+     Sahadutha</i>, &ldquo;the heap of witness,&rdquo; marked the spot where
+     Laban and Jacob were reconciled; the stele on the way to
+     Ephrata was the tomb of Rachel; the altar and stele at
+     Bethel marked the spot where God appeared unto Jacob.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0036" id="linkBimage-0036">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/235.jpg" width="100%" alt="235.jpg Transjordanian Dolmen " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0037" id="linkBimage-0037">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/238.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="238.jpg a Cromlech in the Neighbourhood of Hesban, In The Country of Moab " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Most of them were objects of worship: they were anointed with oil, and
+      victims were slaughtered in their honour; the faithful even came at times
+      to spend the night and sleep near them, in order to obtain in their dreams
+      glimpses of the future.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The menhir of Bethel was the identical one whereon Jacob
+     rested his head on the night in which Jehovah appeared to
+     him in a dream. In Phoenicia there was a legend which told
+     how Usôos set up two stellæ to the elements of wind and fire,
+     and how he offered the blood of the animals he had killed in
+     the chase as a libation.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Men and beasts were supposed to be animated, during their lifetime, by a
+      breath or soul which ran in their veins along with their blood, and served
+      to move their limbs; the man, therefore, who drank blood or ate bleeding
+      flesh assimilated thereby the soul which inhered in it. After death the
+      fate of this soul was similar to that ascribed to the spirits of the
+      departed in Egypt and Chaldæa. The inhabitants of the ancient world were
+      always accustomed to regard the surviving element in man as something
+      restless and unhappy&mdash;a weak and pitiable double, doomed to hopeless
+      destruction if deprived of the succour of the living. They imagined it as
+      taking up its abode near the body wrapped in a half-conscious lethargy; or
+      else as dwelling with the other <i>rephaim</i> (departed spirits) in some
+      dismal and gloomy kingdom, hidden in the bowels of the earth, like the
+      region ruled by the Chaldæan Allât, its doors gaping wide to engulf new
+      arrivals, but allowing none to escape who had once passed the threshold.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The expression <i>rephaim</i> means &ldquo;the feeble&rdquo;; it was the
+     epithet applied by the Hebrews to a part of the primitive
+     races of Palestine.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There it wasted away, a prey to sullen melancholy, under the sway of
+      inexorable deities, chief amongst whom, according to the Phoenician idea,
+      was Mout (Death),* the grandson of El; there the slave became the equal of
+      his former master, the rich man no longer possessed anything which could
+      raise him above the poor, and dreaded monarchs were greeted on their
+      entrance by the jeers of kings who had gone down into the night before
+      them.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *Among the Hebrews his name was Maweth, who feeds the
+     departed like sheep, and himself feeds on them in hell. Some
+     writers have sought to identify this or some analogous god
+     with the lion represented on a stele of Piraeus which
+     threatens to devour the body of a dead man.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0038" id="linkBimage-0038">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/240.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="240.jpg a Corner of the Phoenician Neckropolis at Adlun " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph in Lortet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The corpse, after it had been anointed with perfumes and enveloped in
+      linen, and impregnated with substances which retarded its decomposition,
+      was placed in some natural grotto or in a cave hollowed out of the solid
+      rock: sometimes it was simply laid on the bare earth, sometimes in a
+      sarcophagus or coffin, and on it, or around it, were piled amulets,
+      jewels, objects of daily use, vessels filled with perfume, or household
+      utensils, together with meat and drink. The entrance was then closed, and
+      on the spot a cippus was erected&mdash;in popular estimation sometimes
+      held to represent the soul&mdash;or a monument was set up on a scale
+      proportionate to the importance of the family to which the dead man had
+      belonged.* On certain days beasts ceremonially pure were sacrificed at the
+      tomb, and libations poured out, which, carried into the next world by
+      virtue of the prayers of those who offered them, and by the aid of the
+      gods to whom the prayers were addressed, assuaged the hunger and thirst of
+      the dead man.** The chapels and stellæ which marked the exterior of these
+      &ldquo;eternal&rdquo; *** houses have disappeared in the course of the various wars by
+      which Syria suffered so heavily: in almost all cases, therefore, we are
+      ignorant as to the sites of the various cities of the dead in which the
+      nobles and common people of the Canaanite and Amorite towns were laid to
+      rest.****
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The pillar or stele was used among both Hebrews and
+     Phoenicians to mark the graves of distinguished persons.
+     Among the Semites speaking Aramaic it was called <i>nephesh</i>,
+     especially when it took the form of a pyramid; the word
+     means &ldquo;breath,&rdquo; &ldquo;soul,&rdquo; and clearly shows the ideas
+     associated with the object.
+
+     ** An altar was sometimes placed in front of the sarcophagus
+     to receive these offerings.
+
+     *** This expression, which is identical with that used by
+     the Egyptians of the same period, is found in one of the
+     Phoenician inscriptions at Malta.
+
+     **** The excavations carried out by M. Gautier in 1893-94,
+     on the little island of Bahr-el-Kadis, at one time believed
+     to have been the site of the town of Qodshu, have revealed
+     the existence of a number of tombs in the enclosure which
+     forms the central part of the tumulus: some of these may
+     possibly date from the Amorite epoch, but they are very poor
+     in remains, and contain no object which permits us to fix
+     the date with accuracy.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In Phoenicia alone do we meet with burial-places which, after the
+      vicissitudes and upheavals of thirty centuries, still retain something of
+      their original arrangement. Sometimes the site chosen was on level ground:
+      perpendicular shafts or stairways cut in the soil led down to low-roofed
+      chambers, the number of which varied according to circumstances: they were
+      often arranged in two stories, placed one above the other, fresh vaults
+      being probably added as the old ones were filled up. They were usually
+      rectangular in shape, with horizontal or slightly arched ceilings; niches
+      cut in the walls received the dead body and the objects intended for its
+      use in the next world, and were then closed with a slab of stone.
+      Elsewhere some isolated hill or narrow gorge, with sides of fine
+      homogeneous limestone, was selected.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Such was the necropolis at Adlûn, the last rearrangement
+     of which took place during the Græco-Roman period, but
+     which externally bears so strong a resemblance to an
+     Egyptian necropolis of the XVIIIth or XIXth dynasty, that we
+     may, without violating the probabilities, trace its origin
+     back to the time of the Pharaonic conquest.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In this case the doors were placed in rows on a sort of façade similar to
+      that of the Egyptian rock-tomb, generally without any attempt at external
+      ornament. The vaults were on the ground-level, but were not used as
+      chapels for the celebration of festivals in honour of the dead: they were
+      walled up after every funeral, and all access to them forbidden, until
+      such time as they were again required for the purposes of burial. Except
+      on these occasions of sad necessity, those whom &ldquo;the mouth of the pit had
+      devoured&rdquo; dreaded the visits of the living, and resorted to every means
+      afforded by their religion to protect themselves from them. Their
+      inscriptions declare repeatedly that neither gold nor silver, nor any
+      object which could excite the greed of robbers, was to be found within
+      their graves; they threaten any one who should dare to deprive them of
+      such articles of little value as belonged to them, or to turn them out of
+      their chambers in order to make room for others, with all sorts of
+      vengeance, divine and human. These imprecations have not, however, availed
+      to save them from the desecration the danger of which they foresaw, and
+      there are few of their tombs which were not occupied by a succession of
+      tenants between the date of their first making and the close of the Roman
+      supremacy. When the modern explorer chances to discover a vault which has
+      escaped the spade of the treasure-seeker, it is hardly ever the case that
+      the bodies whose remains are unearthed prove to be those of the original
+      proprietors.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0039" id="linkBimage-0039">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/241.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="241.jpg Valley of the Tomb Of The Kings " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0040" id="linkBimage-0040">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/241-text.jpg" width="100%" alt="241-text.jpg " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The gods and legends of Chaldæa had penetrated to the countries of Amauru
+      and Canaan, together with the language of the conquerors and their system
+      of writing: the stories of Adapa&rsquo;s struggles against the south-west wind,
+      or of the incidents which forced Irishkigal, queen of the dead, to wed
+      Nergal, were accustomed to be read at the courts of Syrian princes.
+      Chaldæan theology, therefore, must have exercised influence on individual
+      Syrians and on their belief; but although we are forced to allow the
+      existence of such influence, we cannot define precisely the effects
+      produced by it. Only on the coast and in the Phoenician cities do the
+      local religions seem to have become formulated at a fairly early date, and
+      crystallised under pressure of this influence into cosmogonie theories.
+      The Baalim and Astartês reigned there as on the banks of the Jordan or
+      Orontes, and in each town Baal was &ldquo;the most high,&rdquo; master of heaven and
+      eternity, creator of everything which exists, though the character of his
+      creating acts was variously defined according to time and place. Some
+      regarded him as the personification of Justice, Sydyk, who established the
+      universe with the help of eight indefatigable Cabiri. Others held the
+      whole world to be the work of a divine family, whose successive
+      generations gave birth to the various elements. The storm-wind, Colpias,
+      wedded to Chaos, had begotten two mortals, Ulom (Time) and Kadmôn (the
+      First-Born), and these in their turn engendered Qên and Qênath, who dwelt
+      in Phoenicia: then came a drought, and they lifted up their heads to the
+      Sun, imploring him, as Lord of the Heavens (<i>Baalsamîn</i>), to put an
+      end to their woes. At Tyre it was thought that Chaos existed at the
+      beginning, but chaos of a dark and troubled nature, over which a Breath (<i>rûakh</i>)
+      floated without affecting it; &ldquo;and this Chaos had no ending, and it was
+      thus for centuries and centuries.&mdash;Then the Breath became enamoured
+      of its own principles, and brought about a change in itself, and this
+      change was called Desire:&mdash;now Desire was the principle which created
+      all things, and the Breath knew not its own creation.&mdash;The Breath and
+      Chaos, therefore, became united, and Mot the Clay was born, and from this
+      clay sprang all the seed of creation, and Mot was the father of all
+      things; now Mot was like an egg in shape.&mdash;And the Sun, the Moon, the
+      stars, the great planets, shone forth.* There were living beings devoid of
+      intelligence, and from these living beings came intelligent beings, who
+      were called <i>Zophesamîn</i>, or &lsquo;watchers of the heavens.&lsquo;Now the
+      thunder-claps in the war of separating elements awoke these intelligent
+      beings as it were from a sleep, and then the males and the females began
+      to stir themselves and to seek one another on the land and in the sea.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Mot, the clay formed by the corruption of earth and water,
+     is probably a Phoenician form of a word which means <i>water</i>
+     in the Semitic languages. Cf. the Egyptian theory, according
+     to which the clay, heated by the sun, was supposed to have
+     given birth to animated beings; this same clay modelled by
+     Khnûmû into the form of an egg was supposed to have produced
+     the heavens and the earth.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A scholar of the Roman epoch, Philo of Byblos, using as a basis some old
+      documents hidden away in the sanctuaries, which had apparently been
+      classified by Sanchoniathon, a priest long before his time, has handed
+      these theories of the cosmogony down to us: after he has explained how the
+      world was brought out of Chaos, he gives a brief summary of the dawn of
+      civilization in Phoenicia and the legendary period in its history. No
+      doubt he interprets the writings from which he compiled his work in
+      accordance with the spirit of his time: he has none the less preserved
+      their substance more or less faithfully. Beneath the veneer of abstraction
+      with which the Greek tongue and mind have overlaid the fragment thus
+      quoted, we discern that groundwork of barbaric ideas which is to be met
+      with in most Oriental theologies, whether Egyptian or Babylonian. At first
+      we have a black mysterious Chaos, stagnating in eternal waters, the
+      primordial Nû or Apsû; then the slime which precipitates in this chaos and
+      clots into the form of an egg, like the mud of the Nile under the hand? of
+      Khnûmû; then the hatching forth of living organisms and indolent
+      generations of barely conscious creatures, such as the Lakhmû, the Anshar,
+      and the Illinu of Chaldæan speculation; finally the abrupt appearance of
+      intelligent beings.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0041" id="linkBimage-0041">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/246.jpg" alt="246.jpg " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the original in the
+<i>Cabinet des Médailles</i>.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Phoenicians, however, accustomed as they were to the Mediterranean,
+      with its blind outbursts of fury, had formed an idea of Chaos which
+      differed widely from that of most of the inland races, to whom it
+      presented itself as something silent and motionless: they imagined it as
+      swept by a mighty wind, which, gradually increasing to a roaring tempest,
+      at length succeeded in stirring the chaos to its very depths, and in
+      fertilizing its elements amidst the fury of the storm. No sooner had the
+      earth been thus brought roughly into shape, than the whole family of the
+      north winds swooped down upon it, and reduced it to civilized order. It
+      was but natural that the traditions of a seafaring race should trace its
+      descent from the winds.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0042" id="linkBimage-0042">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/248.jpg" alt="248.jpg " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In Phoenicia the sea is everything: of land there is but just enough to
+      furnish a site for a score of towns, with their surrounding belt of
+      gardens. Mount Lebanon, with its impenetrable forests, isolated it almost
+      entirely from Coele-Syria, and acted as the eastward boundary of the long
+      narrow quadrangle hemmed in between the mountains and the rocky shore of
+      the sea. At frequent intervals, spurs run out at right angles from the
+      principal chain, forming steep headlands on the sea-front: these cut up
+      the country, small to begin with, into five or six still smaller
+      provinces, each one of which possessed from time immemorial its own
+      independent cities, its own religion, and its own national history. To the
+      north were the Zahi, a race half sailors, half husbandmen, rich, brave,
+      and turbulent, ever ready to give battle to their neighbours, or rebel
+      against an alien master, be he who he might. Arvad,* which was used by
+      them as a sort of stronghold or sanctuary, was huddled together on an
+      island some two miles from the coast: it was only about a thousand yards
+      in circumference, and the houses, as though to make up for the limited
+      space available for their foundations, rose to a height of five stories.
+      An Astartê reigned there, as also a sea-Baal, half man, half fish, but not
+      a trace of a temple or royal palace is now to be found.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name Arvad was identified in the Egyptian inscriptions
+     by Birch, who, with Hincks, at first saw in the name a
+     reference to the peoples of Ararat; Birch&rsquo;s identification,
+     is now accepted by all Egyptologists. The name is written
+     Aruada or Arada in the Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+
+     ** The Arvad Astartê had been identified by the Egyptians
+     with their goddess Bastît. The sea-Baal, who has been
+     connected by some with Dagon of Askalon, is represented on
+     the earliest Arvadian coins. He has a fish-like tail, the
+     body and bearded head of a man, with an Assyrian headdress;
+     on his breast we sometimes find a circular opening which
+     seems to show the entrails.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The whole island was surrounded by a stone wall, built on the outermost
+      ledges of the rocks, which were levelled to form its foundation. The
+      courses of the masonry were irregular, laid without cement or mortar of
+      any kind. This bold piece of engineering served the double purpose of
+      sea-wall and rampart, and was thus fitted to withstand alike the onset of
+      hostile fleets and the surges of the Mediterranean.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The antiquity of the wall of Arvad, recognised by
+     travellers of the last century, is now universally admitted
+     by all archæologists.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There was no potable water on the island, and for drinking purposes the
+      inhabitants were obliged to rely on the fall of rain, which they stored in
+      cisterns&mdash;still in use among their descendants. In the event of
+      prolonged drought they were obliged to send to the mainland opposite; in
+      time of war they had recourse to a submarine spring, which bubbles up in
+      mid-channel. Their divers let down a leaden bell, to the top of which was
+      fitted a leathern pipe, and applied it to the orifice of the spring; the
+      fresh water coming up through the sand was collected in this bell, and
+      rising in the pipe, reached the surface uncontaminated by salt water.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Renan tells us that &ldquo;M. Gaillardot, when crossing from the
+     island to the mainland, noticed a spring of sweet water
+     bubbling up from the bottom of the sea.... Thomson and
+     Walpole noticed the same spring or similar springs a little
+     to the north of Tortosa.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0043" id="linkBimage-0043">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/249.jpg" width="100%" alt="249.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The harbour opened to the east, facing the mainland: it was divided into
+      two basins by a stone jetty, and was doubtless insufficient for the
+      sea-traffic, but this was the less felt inasmuch as there was a safe
+      anchorage outside it&mdash;the best, perhaps, to be found in these waters.
+      Opposite to Arvad, on an almost continuous line of coast some ten or
+      twelve miles in length, towns and villages occurred at short intervals,
+      such as Marath, Antarados, Enhydra, and Karnê, into which the surplus
+      population of the island overflowed. Karnê possessed a harbour, and would
+      have been a dangerous neighbour to the Arvadians had they themselves not
+      occupied and carefully fortified it.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Marath, now Amrît, possesses some ancient ruins which have
+     been described by Renan. Antarados, which prior to the
+     Græco-Roman era was a place of no importance, occupies the
+     site of Tortosa. Enhydra is not known, and Karnê has been
+     replaced by Karnûn to the north of Tortosa. None of the
+     &ldquo;neighbours of Arados&rdquo; are mentioned by name in the Assyrian
+     texts; but W. Max Müller has demonstrated that the Egyptian
+     form <i>Aratût</i> or <i>Aratiût</i> corresponds with a Semitic plural
+     <i>Arvadôt</i>, and consequently refers not only to Arad itself,
+     but also to the fortified cities and towns which formed its
+     continental suburbs.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The cities of the dead lay close together in the background, on the slope
+      of the nearest chain of hills; still further back lay a plain celebrated
+      for its fertility and the luxuriance of its verdure: Lebanon, with its
+      wooded peaks, was shut in on the north and south, but on the east the
+      mountain sloped downwards almost to the sea-level, furnishing a pass
+      through which ran the road which joined the great military highway not far
+      from Qodshu. The influence of Arvad penetrated by means of this pass into
+      the valley of the Orontes, and is believed to have gradually extended as
+      far as Hamath itself&mdash;in other words, over the whole of Zahi. For the
+      most part, however, its rule was confined to the coast between G-abala and
+      the Nahr el-Kebîr; Simyra at one time acknowledged its suzerainty, at
+      another became a self-supporting and independent state, strong enough to
+      compel the respect of its neighbours.* Beyond the Orontes, the coast
+      curves abruptly inward towards the west, and a group of wind-swept hills
+      ending in a promontory called Phaniel,** the reputed scene of a divine
+      manifestation, marked the extreme limit of Arabian influence to the north,
+      if, indeed, it ever reached so far.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Simyra is the modern Surnrah, near the Nahr el-Kebîr.
+
+     ** The name has only come down to us under its Greek form,
+     but its original form, Phaniel or Penûel, is easily arrived
+     at from the analogous name used in Canaan to indicate
+     localities where there had been a theophany. Renan questions
+     whether Phaniel ought not to be taken in the same sense as
+     the Pnê-Baal of the Carthaginian inscriptions, and applied
+     to a goddess to whom the promontory had been dedicated; he
+     also suggests that the modern name <i>Cap Madonne</i> may be a
+     kind of echo of the title <i>Rabbath</i> borne by this goddess
+     from the earliest times.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Half a dozen obscure cities flourished here, Arka,* Siani,** Mahallat,
+      Kaiz, Maîza, and Botrys,*** some of them on the seaboard, others inland on
+      the bend of some minor stream. Botrys,**** the last of the six, barred the
+      roads which cross the Phaniel headland, and commanded the entrance to the
+      holy ground where Byblos and Berytus celebrated each year the amorous
+      mysteries of Adonis.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Arka is perhaps referred to in the tablets of Tel el-
+     Amarna under the form Irkata or Irkat; it also appears in
+     the Bible (Gen. x. 17) and in the Assyrian texts. It is the
+     Cassarea of classical geographers, which has now resumed its
+     old Phoenician name of Tell-Arka.
+
+     ** Sianu or Siani is mentioned in the Assyrian texts and in
+     the Bible; Strabo knew it under the name of Sinna, and a
+     village near Arka was called Sin or Syn as late as the XVth
+     century.
+
+     *** According to the Assyrian inscriptions, these were the
+     names of the three towns which formed the Tripolis of
+     Græco-Roman times.
+
+     **** Botrys is the hellenized form of the name Bozruna or
+     Bozrun, which appears on the tablets of Tel el-Amarna; the
+     modern name, Butrun or Batrun, preserves the final letter
+     which the Greeks had dropped.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Gublu, or&mdash;as the Greeks named it&mdash;Byblos,* prided itself on
+      being the most ancient city in the world. The god El had founded it at the
+      dawning of time, on the flank of a hill which is visible from some
+      distance out at sea. A small bay, now filled up, made it an important
+      shipping centre. The temple stood on the top of the hill, a few fragments
+      of its walls still serving to mark the site; it was, perhaps, identical
+      with that of which we find the plan engraved on certain imperial coins.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Gublu</i> or <i>Gubli</i> is the pronunciation indicated for this
+     name in the Tel el-Amarna tablets; the Egyptians transcribed
+     it <i>Kupuna</i> or <i>Kupna</i> by substituting <i>n</i> for <i>l</i>. The
+     Greek name Byblos was obtained from Gublu by substituting a
+     <i>b</i> for the <i>g</i>.
+
+     ** Renan carried out excavations in the hill of Kassubah
+     which brought to light some remains of a Græco-Roman temple:
+     he puts forward, subject to correction, the hypothesis which
+     I have adopted above.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Two flights of steps led up to it from the lower quarters of the town, one
+      of which gave access to a chapel in the Greek style, surmounted by a
+      triangular pediment, and dating, at the earliest, from the time of the
+      Seleucides; the other terminated in a long colonnade, belonging to the
+      same period, added as a new façade to an earlier building, apparently in
+      order to bring it abreast of more modern requirements.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The sanctuary which stands hidden behind this incongruous veneer is, as
+      represented on the coins, in a very archaic style, and is by no means
+      wanting in originality or dignity. It consists of a vast rectangular court
+      surrounded by cloisters. At the point where lines drawn from the centres
+      of the two doors seem to cross one another stands a conical stone mounted
+      on a cube of masonry, which is the beth-el animated by the spirit of the
+      god: an open-work balustrade surrounds and protects it from the touch of
+      the profane. The building was perhaps not earlier than the Assyrian or
+      Persian era, but in its general plan it evidently reproduced the
+      arrangements of some former edifice.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The author of the <i>De Deâ Syrâ</i> classed the temple of
+     Byblos among the Phoenician temples of the old order, which
+     were almost as ancient as the temples of Egypt, and it is
+     probable that from the Egyptian epoch onwards the plan of
+     this temple must have been that shown on the coins; the
+     cloister arcades ought, however, to be represented by
+     pillars or by columns supporting architraves, and the fact
+     of their presence leads me to the conclusion that the temple
+     did not exist in the form known to us at a date earlier than
+     the last Assyrian period.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At an early time El was spoken of as the first king of G-ablu in the same
+      manner as each one of his Egyptian fellow-gods had been in their several
+      nomes, and the story of his exploits formed the inevitable prelude to the
+      beginning of human history. Grandson of Eliûn who had brought Chaos into
+      order, son of Heaven and Earth, he dispossessed, vanquished, and mutilated
+      his father, and conquered the most distant regions one after another&mdash;the
+      countries beyond the Euphrates, Libya, Asia Minor and Greece: one year,
+      when the plague was ravaging his empire, he burnt his own son on the altar
+      as an expiatory victim, and from that time forward the priests took
+      advantage of his example to demand the sacrifice of children in moments of
+      public danger or calamity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0044" id="linkBimage-0044">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/252.jpg" alt="252.jpg " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the original in the
+<i>Cabinet des Médailles</i>.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0045" id="linkBimage-0045">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:25%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/253.jpg" alt="253.jpg " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the original in the
+<i>Cabinet des Médailles</i>.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He was represented as a man with two faces, whose eyes opened and shut in
+      an eternal alternation of vigilance and repose: six wings grew from his
+      shoulders, and spread fan-like around him. He was the incarnation of time,
+      which destroys all things in its rapid flight; and of the summer sun,
+      cruel and fateful, which eats up the green grass and parches the fields.
+      An Astartê reigned with him over Byblos&mdash;Baalat-Gublu, his own
+      sister; like him, the child of Earth and Heaven. In one of her aspects she
+      was identified with the moon, the personification of coldness and
+      chastity, and in her statues or on her sacred pillars she was represented
+      with the crescent or cow-horns of the Egyptian Hâthor; but in her other
+      aspect she appeared as the amorous and wanton goddess in whom the Greeks
+      recognised the popular concept of Aphroditê. Tradition tells us how, one
+      spring morning, she caught sight of and desired the youthful god known by
+      the title of <i>Adoni</i>, or &ldquo;My Lord.&rdquo; We scarce know what to make of
+      the origin of Adonis, and of the legends which treat him as a hero&mdash;the
+      representation of him as the incestuous offspring of a certain King
+      Kinyras and his own daughter Myrrha is a comparatively recent element
+      grafted on the original myth; at any rate, the happiness of two lovers had
+      lasted but a few short weeks when a sudden end was put to it by the tusks
+      of a monstrous wild boar. Baalat-Gublu wept over her lover&rsquo;s body and
+      buried it; then her grief triumphed over death, and Adonis, ransomed by
+      her tears, rose from the tomb, his love no whit less passionate than it
+      had been before the catastrophe. This is nothing else than the Chaldæan
+      legend of Ishtar and Dûmûzi presented in a form more fully symbolical of
+      the yearly marriage of Earth and Heaven. Like the Lady of Byblos at her
+      master&rsquo;s approach, Earth is thrilled by the first breath of spring, and
+      abandons herself without shame to the caresses of Heaven: she welcomes him
+      to her arms, is fructified by him, and pours forth the abundance of her
+      flowers and fruits. Them comes summer and kills the spring: Earth is burnt
+      up and withers, she strips herself of her ornaments, and her fruitfulness
+      departs till the gloom and icy numbness of winter have passed away. Each
+      year the cycle of the seasons brings back with it the same joy, the same
+      despair, into the life of the world; each year Baalat falls in love with
+      her Adonis and loses him, only to bring him back to life and lose him
+      again in the coming year.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The whole neighbourhood of Byblos, and that part of Mount Lebanon in which
+      it lies, were steeped in memories of this legend from the very earliest
+      times. We know the precise spot where the goddess first caught sight of
+      her lover, where she unveiled herself before him, and where at the last
+      she buried his mutilated body, and chanted her lament for the dead. A
+      river which flows southward not far off was called the Adonis, and the
+      valley watered by it was supposed to have been the scene of this tragic
+      idyll. The Adonis rises near Aphaka,* at the base of a narrow
+      amphitheatre, issuing from the entrance of an irregular grotto, the
+      natural shape of which had, at some remote period, been altered by the
+      hand of man; in three cascades it bounds into a sort of circular basin,
+      where it gathers to itself the waters of the neighbouring springs, then it
+      dashes onwards under the single arch of a Roman bridge, and descends in a
+      series of waterfalls to the level of the valley below.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Aphaka means &ldquo;spring&rdquo; in Syriac. The site of the temple and
+     town of Aphaka, where a temple of Aphroditê and Adonis still
+     stood in the time of the Emperor Julian, had long been
+     identified either with Fakra, or with El-Yamuni. Seetzen was
+     the first to place it at El-Afka, and his proposed
+     identification has been amply confirmed by the researches of
+     Penan.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0046" id="linkBimage-0046">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/256.jpg" width="100%" alt="256.jpg Valley of the Adonis " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0047" id="linkBimage-0047">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/256b.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="256b.jpg the Amphitheatre of Aphaka and The Source Of The Nahh-ibrahim " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The temple rises opposite the source of the stream on an artificial mound,
+      a meteorite fallen from heaven having attracted the attention of the
+      faithful to the spot. The mountain falls abruptly away, its summit
+      presenting a red and bare appearance, owing to the alternate action of
+      summer sun and winter frost. As the slopes approach the valley they become
+      clothed with a garb of wild vegetation, which bursts forth from every
+      fissure, and finds a foothold on every projecting rock: the base of the
+      mountain is hidden in a tangled mass of glowing green, which the moist yet
+      sunny Spring calls forth in abundance whenever the slopes are not too
+      steep to retain a shallow layer of nourishing mould. It would be hard to
+      find, even among the most picturesque spots of Europe, a landscape in
+      which wildness and beauty are more happily combined, or where the mildness
+      of the air and sparkling coolness of the streams offer a more perfect
+      setting for the ceremonies attending the worship of Astartê.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The temple had been rebuilt during the Roman period, as
+     were nearly all the temples of this region, upon the site of
+     a more ancient structure; this was probably the edifice
+     which the author of <i>De Deâ Syrâ</i> considered to be the
+     temple of Venus, built by Kinyras within a day&rsquo;s journey of
+     Byblos in the Lebanon.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In the basin of the river and of the torrents by which it is fed, there
+      appears a succession of charming and romantic scenes&mdash;gaping chasms
+      with precipitous ochre-coloured walls; narrow fields laid out in terraces
+      on the slopes, or stretching in emerald strips along the ruddy
+      river-banks; orchards thick with almond and walnut trees; sacred grottoes,
+      into which the priestesses, seated at the corner of the roads, endeavour
+      to draw the pilgrims as they proceed on their way to make their prayers to
+      the goddess;* sanctuaries and mausolea of Adonis at Yanukh, on the
+      table-land of Mashnaka, and on the heights of Ghineh. According to the
+      common belief, the actual tomb of Adonis was to be found at Byblos
+      itself,** where the people were accustomed to assemble twice a year to
+      keep his festivals, which lasted for several days together.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Renan points out at Byblos the existence of one of these
+     caverns which gave shelter to the <i>kedeshoth</i>. Many of the
+     caves met with in the valley of the Nahr-Ibrahîm have
+     doubtless served for the same purpose, although their walls
+     contain no marks of the cult.
+
+     ** Melito placed it, however, near Aphaka, and, indeed,
+     there must have been as many different traditions on the
+     subject as there were celebrated sanctuaries.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At the summer solstice, the season when the wild boar had ripped open the
+      divine hunter, and the summer had already done damage to the spring, the
+      priests were accustomed to prepare a painted wooden image of a corpse made
+      ready for burial, which they hid in what were called the gardens of Adonis&mdash;terra-cotta
+      pots filled with earth in which wheat and barley, lettuce and fennel, were
+      sown. These were set out at the door of each house, or in the courts of
+      the temple, where the sprouting plants had to endure the scorching effect
+      of the sun, and soon withered away. For several days troops of women and
+      young girls, with their heads dishevelled or shorn, their garments in
+      rags, their faces torn with their nails, their breasts and arms scarified
+      with knives, went about over hill and dale in search of their idol, giving
+      utterance to cries of despair, and to endless appeals: &ldquo;Ah, Lord! Ah,
+      Lord! what is become of thy beauty.&rdquo; Once having found the image, they
+      brought it to the feet of the goddess, washed it while displaying its
+      wound, anointed it with sweet-smelling unguents, wrapped it in a linen and
+      woollen shroud, placed it on a catafalque, and, after expressing around
+      the bier their feelings of desolation, according to the rites observed at
+      fanerais, placed it solemnly in the tomb.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Theocritus has described in his fifth Idyll the laying out
+     and burial of Adonis as it was practised at Alexandria in
+     Egypt in the IIIrd century before our era.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The close and dreary summer passes away. With the first days of September
+      the autumnal rains begin to fall upon the hills, and washing away the
+      ochreous earth lying upon the slopes, descend in muddy torrents into the
+      hollows of the valleys. The Adonis river begins to swell with the ruddy
+      waters, which, on reaching the sea, do not readily blend with it. The wind
+      from the offing drives the river water back upon the coast, and forces it
+      to cling for a long time to the shore, where it forms a kind of crimson
+      fringe.* This was the blood of the hero, and the sight of this precious
+      stream stirred up anew the devotion of the people, who donned once more
+      their weeds of mourning until the priests were able to announce to them
+      that, by virtue of their supplications, Adonis was brought back from the
+      shades into new life. Shouts of joy immediately broke forth, and the
+      people who had lately sympathized with the mourning goddess in her tears
+      and cries of sorrow, now joined with her in expressions of mad and amorous
+      delight. Wives and virgins&mdash;all the women who had refused during the
+      week of mourning to make a sacrifice of their hair&mdash;were obliged to
+      atone for this fault by putting themselves at the disposal of the
+      strangers whom the festival had brought together, the reward of their
+      service becoming the property of the sacred treasury.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The same phenomenon occurs in spring. Maundrell saw it on
+     March 17, and Renan in the first days of February.
+
+     ** A similar usage was found in later times in the countries
+     colonised by or subjected to the influence of the
+     Phoenicians, especially in Cyprus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Berytus shared with Byblos the glory of having had El for its founder.*
+      The road which connects these two cities makes a lengthy detour in its
+      course along the coast, having to cross numberless ravines and rocky
+      summits: before reaching Palai-Byblos, it passes over a headland by a
+      series of steps cut into the rock, forming a kind of &ldquo;ladder&rdquo; similar to
+      that which is encountered lower down, between Acre and the plains of Tyre.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name Berytus was found by Hincks in the Egyptian texts
+     under the form. Bîrutu, Beîrutu; it occurs frequently in the
+     Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The river Lykos runs like a kind of natural fosse along the base of this
+      steep headland. It forms at the present time a torrent, fed by the melting
+      snows of Mount Sannin, and is entirely unnavigable. It was better
+      circumstanced formerly in this respect, and even in the early years of the
+      Boman conquest, sailors from Arvad (Arados) were accustomed to sail up it
+      as far as one of the passes of the lower Lebanon, leading into Cole-Syria.
+      Berytus was installed at the base of a great headland which stands out
+      boldly into the sea, and forms the most striking promontory to be met with
+      in these regions from Carmel to the vicinity of Arvad. The port is nothing
+      but an open creek with a petty roadstead, but it has the advantage of a
+      good supply of fresh water, which pours down from the numerous springs to
+      which it is indebted for its name.* According to ancient legends, it was
+      given by El to one of his offspring called Poseidon by the Greeks.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name Beyrut has been often derived from a Phconician
+     word signifying <i>cypress</i>, and which may have been applied
+     to the pine tree. The Phoenicians themselves derived it from
+     Bîr, &ldquo;wells.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      Adonis desired to take possession of it, but was frustrated in the
+      attempt, and the maritime Baal secured the permanence of his rule by
+      marrying one of his sisters&mdash;the Baalat-Beyrut who is represented as
+      a nymph on Græco-Roman coins.* The rule of the city extended as far as the
+      banks of the Tamur, and an old legend narrates that its patron fought in
+      ancient times with the deity of that river, hurling stones at him to
+      prevent his becoming master of the land to the north. The bar formed of
+      shingle and the dunes which contract the entrance were regarded as
+      evidences of this conflict.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The poet Nonnus has preserved a highly embellished account
+     of this rivalry, where Adonis is called Dionysos.
+
+     ** The original name appears to have been Tamur, Tamyr, from
+     a word signifying &ldquo;palm&rdquo; in the Phoenician language. The
+     myth of the conflict between Poseidon and the god of the
+     river, a Baal-Demarous, has been explained by Renan, who
+     accepts the identification of the river-deity with Baal-
+     Thamar, already mentioned by Movers.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Beyond the southern bank of the river, Sidon sits enthroned as &ldquo;the
+      firstborn of Canaan.&rdquo; In spite of this ambitious title it was at first
+      nothing but a poor fishing village founded by Bel, the Agenor of the
+      Greeks, on the southern slope of a spit of land which juts out obliquely
+      towards the south-west.* It grew from year to year, spreading out over the
+      plain, and became at length one of the most prosperous of the chief cities
+      of the country&mdash;a &ldquo;mother&rdquo; in Phoenicia.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Sidon is called &ldquo;the firstborn of Canaan&rdquo; in Genesis: the
+     name means a fishing-place, as the classical authors already
+     knew&mdash;&ldquo;nam piscem Phonices <i>sidôn</i> appellant.&rdquo;
+
+     ** In the coins of classic times it is called &ldquo;Sidon, the
+     mother&mdash;<i>Om</i>&mdash;of Kambe, Hippo, Citium, and Tyre.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      The port, once so celebrated, is shut in by three chains of half-sunken
+      reefs, which, running out from the northern end of the peninsula, continue
+      parallel to the coast for some hundreds of yards: narrow passages in these
+      reefs afford access to the harbour; one small island, which is always
+      above water, occupies the centre of this natural dyke of rocks, and
+      furnishes a site for a maritime quarter opposite to the continental city.*
+      The necropolis on the mainland extends to the east and north, and consists
+      of an irregular series of excavations made in a low line of limestone
+      cliffs which must have been lashed by the waves of the Mediterranean long
+      prior to the beginning of history. These tombs are crowded closely
+      together, ramifying into an inextricable maze, and are separated from each
+      other by such thin walls that one expects every moment to see them give
+      way, and bury the visitors in the ruin. Many date back to a very early
+      period, while all of them have been re-worked and re-appropriated over and
+      over again. The latest occupiers were contemporaries of the Macedonian
+      kings or the Roman Cæsars. Space was limited and costly in this region of
+      the dead: the Sidonians made the best use they could of the tombs, burying
+      in them again and again, as the Egyptians were accustomed to do in their
+      cemeteries at Thebes and Memphis. The surrounding plain is watered by the
+      &ldquo;pleasant Bostrênos,&rdquo; and is covered with gardens which are reckoned to be
+      the most beautiful in all Syria&mdash;at least after those of Damascus:
+      their praises were sung even in ancient days, and they had then earned for
+      the city the epithet of &ldquo;the flowery Sidon.&rdquo; **
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The only description of the port which we possess is that
+     in the romance of Olitophon and Leucippus by Achilles
+     Tatius.
+
+     ** The Bostrênos, which is perhaps to be recognised under
+     the form Borinos in the Periplus of Scylax, is the modern
+     Nahr el-Awaly.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Here, also, an Astartê ruled over the destinies of the people, but a
+      chaste and immaculate Astartê, a self-restrained and warlike virgin,
+      sometimes identified with the moon, sometimes with the pale and frigid
+      morning star.* In addition to this goddess, the inhabitants worshipped a
+      Baal-Sidon, and other divinities of milder character&mdash;an Astartê
+      Shem-Baal, wife of the supreme Baal, and Eshmun, a god of medicine&mdash;each
+      of whom had his own particular temple either in the town itself or in some
+      neighbouring village in the mountain. Baal delighted in travel, and was
+      accustomed to be drawn in a chariot through the valleys of Phoenicia in
+      order to receive the prayers and offerings of his devotees. The immodest
+      Astartê, excluded, it would seem, from the official religion, had her
+      claims acknowledged in the cult offered to her by the people, but she
+      became the subject of no poetic or dolorous legend like her namesake at
+      Byblos, and there was no attempt to disguise her innately coarse character
+      by throwing over it a garb of sentiment. She possessed in the suburbs her
+      chapels and grottoes, hollowed out in the hillsides, where she was served
+      by the usual crowd of <i>Ephébæ</i> and sacred courtesans. Some half-dozen
+      towns or fortified villages, such as Bitzîti,** the Lesser Sidon, and
+      Sarepta, were scattered along the shore, or on the lowest slopes of the
+      Lebanon.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Astartê is represented in the Bible as the goddess of the
+     Sidonians, and she is in fact the object of the invocations
+     addressed to the mistress Deity in the Sidonian
+     inscriptions, the patroness of the town. Kings and queens
+     were her priests and priestesses respectively.
+
+     ** Bitzîti is not mentioned except in the Assyrian texts,
+     and has been identified with the modern region Ait ez-Zeîtûn
+     to the south-east of Sidon. It is very probably the Elaia of
+     Philo of Byblos, the Biais of Dionysios Periegetes, which
+     Renan is inclined to identify with Heldua, Khan-Khaldi, by
+     substituting Eldis as a correction.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Sidonian territory reached its limit at the Cape of Sarepta, where the
+      high-lands again meet the sea at the boundary of one of those basins into
+      which Phoenicia is divided. Passing beyond this cape, we come first upon a
+      Tyrian outpost, the Town of Birds;* then upon the village of Nazana** with
+      its river of the same name; beyond this upon a plain hemmed in by low
+      hills, cultivated to their summits; then on tombs and gardens in the
+      suburbs of Autu;*** and, further still, to a fleet of boats moored at a
+      short distance from the shore, where a group of reefs and islands
+      furnishes at one and the same time a site for the houses and temples of
+      Tyre, and a protection from its foes.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Phoenician name of Ornithônpolis is unknown to us: the
+     town is often mentioned by the geographers of classic times,
+     but with certain differences, some placing it to the north
+     and others to the south of Sarepta. It was near to the site
+     of Adlun, the Adnonum of the Latin itineraries, if it was
+     not actually the same place.
+
+     ** Nazana was both the name of the place and the river, as
+     Kasimîyeh and Khan Kasimîyeh, near the same locality, are
+     to-day.
+
+     *** Autu was identified by Brugsch with Avatha, which is
+     probably El-Awwâtîn, on the hill facing Tyre. Max Müller,
+     who reads the word as Authu, Ozu, prefers the Uru or Ushu of
+     the Assyrian texts.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was already an ancient town at the beginning of the Egyptian conquest.
+      As in other places of ancient date, the inhabitants rejoiced in stories of
+      the origin of things in which the city figured as the most venerable in
+      the world. After the period of the creating gods, there followed
+      immediately, according to the current legends, two or three generations of
+      minor deities&mdash;heroes of light and flame&mdash;who had learned how to
+      subdue fire and turn it to their needs; then a race of giants, associated
+      with the giant peaks of Kasios, Lebanon, Hermon, and Brathy;* after which
+      were born two male children&mdash;twins: Samem-rum, the lord of the
+      supernal heaven, and Usôos, the hunter. Human beings at this time lived a
+      savage life, wandering through the woods, and given up to shameful vices.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The identification of the peak of Brathy is uncertain. The
+     name has been associated with Tabor: since it exactly
+     recalls the name of the cypress and of Berytus, it would be
+     more prudent, perhaps, to look for the name in that of one
+     of the peaks of the Lebanon near the latter town.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Samemrum took up his abode among them in that region which became in later
+      times the Tyrian coast, and showed them how to build huts, papyrus, or
+      other reeds: Usôos in the mean time pursued the avocation of a hunter of
+      wild beasts, living upon their flesh and clothing himself with their
+      skins. A conflict at length broke out between the two brothers, the
+      inevitable result of rivalry between the ever-wandering hunter and the
+      husbandman attached to the soil.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Usôos succeeded in holding his own till the day when fire and wind took
+      the part of his enemy against him.* The trees, shaken and made to rub
+      against each other by the tempest, broke into flame from the friction, and
+      the forest was set on fire. Usôos, seizing a leafy branch, despoiled it of
+      its foliage, and placing it in the water let it drift out to sea, bearing
+      him, the first of his race, with it.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The text simply states the material facts, the tempest and
+     the fire: the general movement of the narrative seems to
+     prove that the intervention of these elements is an episode
+     in the quarrel between the two brothers&mdash;that in which
+     Usôos is forced to fly from the region civilized by
+     Samemrum.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Landing on one of the islands, he set up two menhirs, dedicating them to
+      fire and wind that he might thenceforward gain their favour. He poured out
+      at their base the blood of animals he had slaughtered, and after his
+      death, his companions continued to perform the rites which he had
+      inaugurated.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0048" id="linkBimage-0048">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/267.jpg" alt="267.jpg the Ambrosian Rocks " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the original in the
+<i>Cabinet des Médailles</i>.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0049" id="linkBimage-0049">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/268.jpg" alt="268.jpg " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the original in the
+<i>Cabinet des Médailles</i>.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The town which he had begun to build on the sea-girt isle was called Tyre,
+      the &ldquo;Rock,&rdquo; and the two rough stones which he had set up remained for a
+      long time as a sort of talisman, bringing good luck to its inhabitants. It
+      was asserted of old that the island had not always been fixed, but that it
+      rose and fell, with the waves like a raft. Two peaks looked down upon it&mdash;the
+      &ldquo;Ambrosian Rocks&rdquo;&mdash;between which grew the olive tree of Astartê,
+      sheltered by a curtain of flame from external danger. An eagle perched
+      thereon watched over a viper coiled round the trunk: the whole island
+      would cease to float as soon as a mortal should succeed in sacrificing the
+      bird in honour of the gods. Usôos, the Herakles, destroyer of monsters,
+      taught the people of the coast how to build boats, and how to manage them;
+      he then made for the island and disembarked: the bird offered himself
+      spontaneously to his knife, and as soon as its blood had moistened the
+      earth, Tyre rooted itself fixedly opposite the mainland. Coins of the
+      Roman period represent the chief elements in this legend; sometimes the
+      eagle and olive tree, sometimes the olive tree and the stelo, and
+      sometimes the two stelæ only. From this time forward the gods never ceased
+      to reside on the holy island; Astartê herself was born there, and one of
+      the temples there showed to the admiration of the faithful a fallen star&mdash;an
+      aerolite which she had brought back from one of her journeys.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Baal was called the Melkarth. king of the city, and the Greeks after»
+      wards identified him with their Herakles. His worship was of a severe and
+      exacting character: a fire burned perpetually in his sanctuary; his
+      priests, like those of the Egyptians, had their heads shaved; they wore
+      garments of spotless white linen, held pork in abomination, and refused
+      permission to married women to approach the altars.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The worship of Melkarth at Gados (Cadiz) and the functions
+     of his priests are described by Silius Italicus: as Gades
+     was a Tyrian colony, it has been naturally assumed that the
+     main features of the religion of Tyre were reproduced there,
+     and Silius&rsquo;s account of the Melkarth of Gades thus applies
+     to his namesake of the mother city.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0050" id="linkBimage-0050">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/269.jpg"
+       alt="269.jpg Tyre and Its Suburbs on the Mainland " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Festivals, similar to those of Adonis at Byblos, were held in his honour
+      twice a year: in the summer, when the sun burnt up the earth with his
+      glowing heat, he offered himself as an expiatory victim to the solar orb,
+      giving himself to the flames in order to obtain some mitigation of the
+      severity of the sky;* once the winter had brought with it a refreshing
+      coolness, he came back to life again, and his return was celebrated with
+      great joy. His temple stood in a prominent place on the largest of the
+      islands furthest away from the mainland. It served to remind the people of
+      the remoteness of their origin, for the priests relegated its foundation
+      almost to the period of the arrival of the Phoenicians on the shores of
+      the Mediterranean. The town had no supply of fresh water, and there was no
+      submarine spring like that of Arvad to provide a resource in time of
+      necessity; the inhabitants had, therefore, to resort to springs which were
+      fortunately to be found everywhere on the hillsides of the mainland. The
+      waters of the well of Eas el-Aîn had been led down to the shore and dammed
+      up there, so that boats could procure a ready supply from this source in
+      time of peace: in time of war the inhabitants of Tyre had to trust to the
+      cisterns in which they had collected the rains that fell at certain
+      seasons.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The festival commemorating his death by fire was
+     celebrated at Tyre, where his tomb was shown, and in the
+     greater number of the Tyrian colonies.
+
+     ** Abisharri (Abimilki), King of Tyre, confesses to the
+     Pharaoh Amenôthes III. that in case of a siege his town
+     would neither have water nor wood. Aqueducts and conduits of
+     water are spoken of by Menander as existing in the time of
+     Shalmaneser; all modern historians agree in attributing
+     their construction to a very remote antiquity.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The strait separating the island from the mainland was some six or seven
+      hundred yards in breadth,* less than that of the Nile at several points of
+      its course through Middle Egypt, but it was as effective as a broader
+      channel to stop the movement of an army: a fleet alone would have a chance
+      of taking the city by surprise, or of capturing it after a lengthened
+      siege.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * According to the writers who were contemporary with
+     Alexander, the strait was 4 stadia wide (nearly 1/2 mile),
+     or 500 paces (about 3/8 mile), at the period when the
+     Macedonians undertook the siege of the town; the author
+     followed by Pliny says 700 paces, possibly over&mdash;mile wide.
+     From the observations of Poulain de Bossay, Renan thinks the
+     space between the island and the mainland might be nearly a
+     mile in width, but we should perhaps do well to reduce this
+     higher figure and adopt one agreeing better with the
+     statements of Diodorus and Quintus Curtius.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Like the coast region opposite Arvad, the shore which faced Tyre, lying
+      between the mouth of the Litany and ras el-Aîn, was an actual suburb of
+      the city itself&mdash;with its gardens, its cultivated fields, its
+      cemeteries, its villas, and its fortifications. Here the inhabitants of
+      the island were accustomed to bury their dead, and hither they repaired
+      for refreshment during the heat of the summer. To the north the little
+      town of Mahalliba, on the southern bank of the Litâny, and almost hidden
+      from view by a turn in the hills, commanded the approaches to the Bekaa,
+      and the high-road to Coele-Syria.* To the south, at Ras el-Aîn, Old Tyre
+      (Palastyrus) looked down upon the route leading into Galilee by way of the
+      mountains.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Mahalliba is the present Khurbet-Mahallib.
+
+     ** Palrotyrus has often been considered as a Tyre on the
+     mainland of greater antiquity than the town of the same name
+     on the island; it is now generally admitted that it was
+     merely an outpost, which is conjecturally placed by most
+     scholars in the neighbourhood of Ras el-Aîn.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Eastwards Autu commanded the landing-places on the shore, and served to
+      protect the reservoirs; it lay under the shadow of a rock, on which was
+      built, facing the insular temple of Melkarth, protector of mariners, a
+      sanctuary of almost equal antiquity dedicated to his namesake of the
+      mainland.* The latter divinity was probably the representative of the
+      legendary Samemrum, who had built his village on the coast, while Usôos
+      had founded his on the ocean. He was the Baalsamîm of starry tunic, lord
+      of heaven and king of the sun.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * If the name has been preserved, as I believe it to be, in
+     that of El-Awwâtîn, the town must be that whose ruins we
+     find at the foot of Tell-Mashûk, and which are often
+     mistaken for those of Palastyrus. The temple on the summit
+     of the Tell was probably that of Heracles Astrochitôn
+     mentioned by Nonnus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As was customary, a popular Astartê was associated with these deities of
+      high degree, and tradition asserted that Melkarth purchased her favour by
+      the gift of the first robe of Tyrian purple which was ever dyed.
+      Priestesses of the goddess had dwellings in all parts of the plain, and in
+      several places the caves are still pointed out where they entertained the
+      devotees of the goddess. Behind Autu the ground rises abruptly, and along
+      the face of the escarpment, half hidden by trees and brushwood, are the
+      remains of the most important of the Tyrian burying-places, consisting of
+      half-filled-up pits, isolated caves, and dark galleries, where whole
+      families lie together in their last sleep. In some spots the chalky mass
+      has been literally honeycombed by the quarrying gravedigger, and regular
+      lines of chambers follow one another in the direction of the strata, after
+      the fashion of the rock-cut tombs of Upper Egypt. They present a bare and
+      dismal appearance both within and without. The entrances are narrow and
+      arched, the ceilings low, the walls bare and colourless, unrelieved by
+      moulding, picture, or inscription. At one place only, near the modern
+      village of Hanaweh, a few groups of figures and coarsely cut stelae are to
+      be found, indicating, it would seem, the burying-place of some chief of
+      very early times.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0051" id="linkBimage-0051">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/273.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="273.jpg the Sculptured Rocks of Hanaweh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Lortet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These figures run in parallel lines along the rocky sides of a wild
+      ravine. They vary from 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet in height, the bodies
+      being represented by rectangular pilasters, sometimes merely rough-hewn,
+      at others grooved with curved lines to suggest the folds of the Asiatic
+      garments; the head is carved full face, though the eyes are given in
+      profile, and the summary treatment of the modelling gives evidence of a
+      certain skill. Whether they are to be regarded as the product of a
+      primitive Amorite art or of a school of Phoenician craftsmen, we are
+      unable to determine. In the time of their prosperity the Tyrians certainly
+      pushed their frontier as far as this region. The wind-swept but fertile
+      country lying among the ramifications of the lowest spurs of the Lebanon
+      bears to this day innumerable traces of their indefatigable industry&mdash;remains
+      of dwellings, conduits and watercourses, cisterns, pits, millstones and
+      vintage-troughs, are scattered over the fields, interspersed with oil and
+      wine presses. The Phoenicians took naturally to agriculture, and carried
+      it to such a high state of perfection as to make it an actual science, to
+      which the neighbouring peoples of the Mediterranean were glad to
+      accommodate their modes of culture in later times.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Their taste for agriculture, and the comparative
+     perfection of their modes of culture, are proved by the
+     greatness of the remains still to be observed: &ldquo;The
+     Phoenicians constructed a winepress, a trough, to last for
+     ever.&rdquo; Their colonists at Carthage carried with them the same
+     clever methods, and the Romans borrowed many excellent
+     things in the way of agriculture from Carthaginian books,
+     especially from those of Mago.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Among no other people was the art of irrigation so successfully practised,
+      and from such a narrow strip of territory as belonged to them no other
+      cultivators could have gathered such abundant harvests of wheat and
+      barley, and such supplies of grapes, olives, and other fruits. From Arvad
+      to Tyre, and even beyond it, the littoral region and the central parts of
+      the valleys presented a long ribbon of verdure of varying breadth, where
+      fields of corn were blended with gardens and orchards and shady woods. The
+      whole region was independent and self-supporting, the inhabitants having
+      no need to address themselves to their neighbours in the interior, or to
+      send their children to seek their fortune in distant lands. To insure
+      prosperity, nothing was needed but a slight exercise of labour and freedom
+      from the devastating influence of war.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The position of the country was such as to secure it from attack, and from
+      the conflicts which laid waste the rest of Syria. Along almost the entire
+      eastern border of the country the Lebanon was a great wall of defence
+      running parallel to the coast, strengthened at each extremity by the
+      additional protection of the rivers Nahr el-Kebîr and Litany. Its slopes
+      were further defended by the forest, which, with its lofty trees and
+      brushwood, added yet another barrier to that afforded by rocks and snow.
+      Hunters&rsquo; or shepherds&rsquo; paths led here and there in tortuous courses from
+      one side of the mountain to the other. Near the middle of the country two
+      roads, practicable in all seasons, secured communications between the
+      littoral and the plain of the interior. They branched off on either side
+      from the central road in the neighbourhood of Tabakhi, south of Qodshu,
+      and served the needs of the wooded province of Magara.* This region was
+      inhabited by pillaging tribes, which the Egyptians called at one time
+      Lamnana, the Libanites,** at others Shausu, using for them the same
+      appellation as that which they bestowed upon the Bedouin of the desert.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Magara is mentioned in the <i>Anastasi Papyrus</i>, No. 1, and
+     Chabas has identified it with the plain of Macra, which
+     Strabo places in Syria, in the neighbourhood of Eloutheros.
+
+     ** The name Lamnana is given in a picture of the campaigns
+     of Seti I.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The roads through this province ran under the dense shade afforded by
+      oaks, cedars, and cypresses, in an obscurity favourable to the habits of
+      the wolves and hyamas which infested it, and even of those thick-maned
+      lions known to Asia at the time; and then proceeding in its course,
+      crossed the ridge in the neighbourhood of the snow-peak called Shaua,
+      which is probably the Sannîn of our times. While one of these roads,
+      running north along the lake of Yamuneh and through the gorge of Akura,
+      then proceeded along the Adonis* to Byblos, the other took a southern
+      direction, and followed the Nahr el-Kelb to the sea.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is the road pointed out by Renan as the easiest but
+     least known of those which cross the Lebanon; the remains of
+     an Assyrian inscription graven on the rocks near Aîn el-
+     Asafîr show that it was employed from a very early date, and
+     Renan thought that it was used by the armies which came from
+     the upper valley of the Orontes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Towards the mouth of the latter a wall of rock opposes the progress of the
+      river, and leaves at length but a narrow and precipitous defile for the
+      passage of its waters: a pathway cut into the cliff at a very remote date
+      leads almost perpendicularly from the bottom of the precipice to the
+      summit of the promontory. Commerce followed these short and direct routes,
+      but invading hosts very rarely took advantage of them, although they
+      offered access into the very heart of Phoenicia. Invaders would encounter
+      here, in fact, a little known and broken country, lending itself readily
+      to surprises and ambuscades; and should they reach the foot of the Lebanon
+      range, they would find themselves entrapped in a region of slippery
+      defiles, with steep paths at intervals cut into the rock, and almost
+      inaccessible to chariots or horses, and so narrow in places that a handful
+      of resolute men could have held them for a long time against whole
+      battalions. The enemy preferred to make for the two natural breaches at
+      the respective extremities of the line of defence, and for the two insular
+      cities which flanked the approaches to them&mdash;Tyre in the case of
+      those coming from Egypt, Arvad and Simyra for assailants from the
+      Euphrates. The Arvadians, bellicose by nature, would offer strong
+      resistance to the invader, and not permit themselves to be conquered
+      without a brave struggle with the enemy, however powerful he might be.*
+      When the disproportion of the forces which they could muster against the
+      enemy convinced them of the folly of attempting an open conflict, their
+      island-home offered them a refuge where they would be safe from any
+      attacks.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Thûtmosis III. was obliged to enter on a campaign against
+     Arvad in the year XXIX., in the year XXX., and probably
+     twice in the following years. Under Amenôthes III. and IV.
+     we see that these people took part in all the intrigues
+     directed against Egypt; they were the allies of the Khati
+     against Ramses II. in the campaign of the year V. and later
+     on we find them involved in most of the wars against
+     Assyria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Sometimes the burning and pillaging of their property on the mainland
+      might reduce them to throw themselves on the mercy of their foes, but such
+      submission did not last long, and they welcomed the slightest occasion for
+      regaining their liberty. Conquered again and again on account of the
+      smallness of their numbers, they were never discouraged by their reverses,
+      and Phoenicia owed all its military history for a long period to their
+      prowess. The Tyrians were of a more accommodating nature, and there is no
+      evidence, at least during the early centuries of their existence, of the
+      display of those obstinate and blind transports of bravery by which the
+      Arvadians were carried away.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * No campaign against Tyre is mentioned in any of the
+     Egyptian annals: the expedition of Thûtmosis III. against
+     Senzauru was directed against a town of Coele-Syria
+     mentioned in the Tel el-Amarna tablets with the orthography
+     Zinzar, the Sizara-Larissa of Græco-Roman times, the Shaizar
+     of the Arab Chronicles. On the contrary, the Tel el-Amarna
+     tablets contain several passages which manifest the fidelity
+     of Tyre and its governors to the King of Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their foreign policy was reduced to a simple arithmetical question, which
+      they discussed in the light of their industrial or commercial interests.
+      As soon as they had learned from a short experience that a certain Pharaoh
+      had at his disposal armies against which they could offer no serious
+      opposition, they at once surrendered to him, and thought only of obtaining
+      the greatest profit from the vassalage to which they were condemned. The
+      obligation to pay tribute did not appear to them so much in the light of a
+      burthen or a sacrifice, as a means of purchasing the right to go to and
+      fro freely in Egypt, or in the countries subject to its influence. The
+      commerce acquired by these privileges recouped them more than a
+      hundredfold for all that their overlord demanded from them. The other
+      cities of the coast&mdash;Sidon, Berytus, Byblos&mdash;usually followed
+      the example of Tyre, whether from mercenary motives, or from their
+      naturally pacific disposition, or from a sense of their impotence; and the
+      same intelligent resignation with which, as we know, they accepted the
+      supremacy of the great Egyptian empire, was doubtless displayed in earlier
+      centuries in their submission to the Babylonians. Their records show that
+      they did not accept this state of things merely through cowardice or
+      indolence, for they are represented as ready to rebel and shake off the
+      yoke of their foreign master when they found it incompatible with their
+      practical interests. But their resort to war was exceptional; they
+      generally preferred to submit to the powers that be, and to accept from
+      them as if on lease the strip of coast-line at the base of the Lebanon,
+      which served as a site for their warehouses and dockyards. Thus they did
+      not find the yoke of the stranger irksome&mdash;the sea opening up to them
+      a realm of freedom and independence which compensated them for the
+      limitations of both territory and liberty imposed upon them at home.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The epoch which was marked by their first venture on the Mediterranean,
+      and the motives which led to it, were alike unknown to them. The gods had
+      taught them navigation, and from the beginning of things they had taken to
+      the sea as fishermen, or as explorers in search of new lands.* They were
+      not driven by poverty to leave their continental abode, or inspired
+      thereby with a zeal for distant cruises. They had at home sufficient corn
+      and wine, oil and fruits, to meet all their needs, and even to administer
+      to a life of luxury. And if they lacked cattle, the abundance of fish
+      within their reach compensated for the absence of flesh-meat.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * According to one of the cosmogonies of Sanchoniathon,
+     Khusôr, who has been identified with Hephsestos, was the
+     inventor of the fishing-boat, and was the first among men
+     and gods who taught navigation. According to another legend,
+     Melkarth showed the Tyrians how to make a raft from the
+     branches of a fig tree, while the construction of the first
+     ships is elsewhere ascribed to the <i>Cabiri</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nor was it the number of commodiously situated ports on their coast which
+      induced them to become a seafaring people, for their harbours were badly
+      protected for the most part, and offered no shelter when the wind set in
+      from the north, the rugged shore presenting little resource against the
+      wind and waves in its narrow and shallow havens. It was the nature of the
+      country itself which contributed more than anything else to make them
+      mariners. The precipitous mountain masses which separate one valley from
+      another rendered communication between them difficult, while they served
+      also as lurking-places for robbers. Commerce endeavoured to follow,
+      therefore, the sea-route in preference to the devious ways of this
+      highwayman&rsquo;s region, and it accomplished its purpose the more readily
+      because the common occupation of sea-fishing had familiarised the people
+      with every nook and corner on the coast. The continual wash of the surge
+      had worn away the bases of the limestone cliffs, and the superincumbent
+      masses tumbling down into the sea formed lines of rocks, hardly rising
+      above the water-level, which fringed the headlands with perilous reefs,
+      against which the waves broke continuously at the slightest wind. It
+      required some bravery to approach them, and no little skill to steer one
+      of the frail boats, which these people were accustomed to employ from the
+      earliest times, scatheless amid the breakers. The coasting trade was
+      attracted from Arvad successively to Berytus, Sidon, and Tyre, and finally
+      to the other towns of the coast. It was in full operation, doubtless, from
+      the VIth Egyptian dynasty onwards, when the Pharaohs no longer hesitated
+      to embark troops at the mouth of the Nile for speedy transmission to the
+      provinces of Southern Syria, and it was by this coasting route that the
+      tin and amber of the north succeeded in reaching the interior of Egypt.
+      The trade was originally, it would seem, in the hands of those mysterious
+      Kefâtiu of whom the name only was known in later times. When the
+      Phoenicians established themselves at the foot of the Lebanon, they had
+      probably only to take the place of their predecessors and to follow the
+      beaten tracks which they had already made. We have every reason to believe
+      that they took to a seafaring life soon after their arrival in the
+      country, and that they adapted themselves and their civilization readily
+      to the exigencies of a maritime career.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Connexion between Phoenicia and Greece was fully
+     established at the outbreak of the Egyptian wars, and we may
+     safely assume their existence in the centuries immediately
+     preceding the second millennium before our era.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In their towns, as in most sea-ports, there was a considerable foreign
+      element, both of slaves and freemen, but the Egyptians confounded them all
+      under one name, Kefâtiu, whether they were Cypriotes, Asiatics, or
+      Europeans, or belonged to the true Tyrian and Sidonian race. The costume
+      of the Kafîti was similar to that worn by the people of the interior&mdash;the
+      loin-cloth, with or without a long upper garment: while in tiring the hair
+      they adopted certain refinements, specially a series of curls which the
+      men arranged in the form of an aigrette above their foreheads. This motley
+      collection of races was ruled over by an oligarchy of merchants and
+      shipowners, whose functions were hereditary, and who usually paid homage
+      to a single king, the representative of the tutelary god, and absolute
+      master of the city.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Under the Egyptian supremacy, the local princes did not
+     assume the royal title in the despatches which they
+     addressed to the kings of Egypt, but styled themselves
+     governors of their cities.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The industries pursued in Phoenicia were somewhat similar to those of
+      other parts of Syria; the stuffs, vases, and ornaments made at Tyre and
+      Sidon could not be distinguished from those of Hamath or of Carchemish.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0052" id="linkBimage-0052">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/282.jpg"
+       alt="282.jpg One of the KafÎti from The Tomb Of RakhmirÎ " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the coloured sketches
+by Prisse d&rsquo;Avennes in
+the Natural Hist. Museum.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      All manufactures bore the impress of Babylonian influence, and their
+      implements, weights, measures, and system of exchange were the same as
+      those in use among the Chaldæans. The products of the country were,
+      however, not sufficient to freight the fleets which sailed from Phoenicia
+      every year bound for all parts of the known world, and additional supplies
+      had to be regularly obtained from neighbouring peoples, who thus became
+      used to pour into Tyre and Sidon the surplus of their manufactures, or of
+      the natural wealth of their country. The Phoenicians were also accustomed
+      to send caravans into regions which they could not reach in their caracks,
+      and to establish trading stations at the fords of rivers, or in the passes
+      over mountain ranges. We know of the existence of such emporia at Laish
+      near the sources of the Jordan, at Thapsacus, and at Nisibis, and they
+      must have served the purpose of a series of posts on the great highways of
+      the world. The settlements of the Phoenicians always assumed the character
+      of colonies, and however remote they might be from their fatherland, the
+      colonists never lost the manners and customs of their native country. They
+      collected together into their <i>okels</i> or storehouses such wares and
+      commodities as they could purchase in their new localities, and,
+      transmitting them periodically to the coast, shipped them thence to all
+      parts of the world.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Not only were they acquainted with every part of the Mediterranean, but
+      they had even made voyages beyond its limits. In the absence, however, of
+      any specific records of their naval enterprise, the routes they followed
+      must be a subject of conjecture. They were accustomed to relate that the
+      gods, after having instructed them in the art of navigation, had shown
+      them the way to the setting sun, and had led them by their example to make
+      voyages even beyond the mouths of the ocean. El of Byblos was the first to
+      leave Syria; he conquered Greece and Egypt, Sicily and Libya, civilizing
+      their inhabitants, and laying the foundation of cities everywhere. The
+      Sidonian Astartê, with her head surmounted by the horns of an ox, was the
+      next to begin her wanderings over the inhabited earth. Melkarth completed
+      the task of the gods by discovering and subjugating those countries which
+      had escaped the notice of his predecessors. Hundreds of local traditions,
+      to be found on all the shores of the Mediterranean down to Roman times,
+      bore witness to the pervasive influence of the old Canaanite colonisation.
+      At Cyprus, for instance, wo find traces of the cultus of Kinyras, King of
+      Byblos and father of Adonis; again, at Crete, it is the daughter of a
+      Prince of Sidon, Buropa, who is carried off by Zeus under the form of a
+      bull; it was Kadmos, sent forth to seek Buropa, who visited Cyprus,
+      Rhodes, and the Cyclades before building Thebes in Boeotia and dying in
+      the forests of Illyria. In short, wherever the Phoenicians had obtained a
+      footing, their audacious activity made such an indelible impression upon
+      the mind of the native inhabitants that they never forgot those vigorous
+      thick-set men with pale faces and dark beards, and soft and specious
+      speech, who appeared at intervals in their large and swift sailing
+      vessels. They made their way cautiously along the coast, usually keeping
+      in sight of land, making sail when the wind was favourable, or taking to
+      the oars for days together when occasion demanded it, anchoring at night
+      under the shelter of some headland, or in bad weather hauling their
+      vessels up the beach until the morrow. They did not shrink when it was
+      necessary from trusting themselves to the open sea, directing their course
+      by the Pole-star;* in this manner they often traversed long distances out
+      of sight of land, and they succeeded in making in a short time voyages
+      previously deemed long and costly.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Greeks for this reason called it Phonikê, the
+     Phoenician star; ancient writers refer to the use which the
+     Phoenicians made of the Pole-star to guide them in
+     navigation.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is hard to say whether they were as much merchants as pirates&mdash;indeed,
+      they hardly knew themselves&mdash;and their peaceful or warlike attitude
+      towards vessels which they encountered on the seas, or towards the people
+      whose countries they frequented, was probably determined by the
+      circumstances of the moment.* If on arrival at a port they felt themselves
+      no match for the natives, the instinct of the merchant prevailed, and that
+      of the pirate was kept in the background. They landed peaceably, gained
+      the good will of the native chief and his nobles by small presents, and
+      spreading out their wares, contented themselves, if they could do no
+      better, with the usual advantage obtained in an exchange of goods.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The manner in which the Phoenicians plied their trade is
+     strikingly described in the <i>Odyssey</i>, in the part where
+     Eumaios relates how he was carried off by a Sidonian vessel
+     and sold as a slave: cf. the passage which mentions the
+     ravages of the Greeks on the coast of the Delta. Herodotus
+     recalls the rape of Io, daughter of Inachos, by the
+     Phoenicians, who carried her and her companions into Egypt;
+     on the other hand, during one of their Egyptian expeditions
+     they had taken two priestesses from Thebes, and had
+     transported one of them to Dodona, the other into Libya.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They were never in a hurry, and would remain in one spot until they had
+      exhausted all the resources of the country, while they knew to a nicety
+      how to display their goods attractively before the expected customer.
+      Their wares comprised weapons and ornaments for men, axes, swords, incised
+      or damascened daggers with hilts of gold or ivory, bracelets, necklaces,
+      amulets of all kinds, enamelled vases, glass-work, stuffs dyed purple or
+      embroidered with gay colours. At times the natives, whose cupidity was
+      excited by the exhibition of such valuables, would attempt to gain
+      possession of them either by craft or by violence. They would kill the men
+      who had landed, or attempt to surprise the vessel during the night. But
+      more often it was the Phoenicians who took advantage of the friendliness
+      or the weakness of their hosts.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0053" id="linkBimage-0053">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/286.jpg" width="100%" alt="286.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      They would turn treacherously upon the unarmed crowd when absorbed in the
+      interest of buying and selling; robbing and killing the old men, they
+      would make prisoners of the young and strong, the women and children,
+      carrying them off to sell them in those markets where slaves were known to
+      fetch the highest price. This was a recognised trade, but it exposed the
+      Phoenicians to the danger of reprisals, and made them objects of an
+      undying hatred. When on these distant expeditions they were subject to
+      trivial disasters which might lead to serious consequences. A mast might
+      break, an oar might damage a portion of the bulwarks, a storm might force
+      them to throw overboard part of their cargo or their provisions; in such
+      predicaments they had no means of repairing the damage, and, unable to
+      obtain help in any of the places they might visit, their prospects were of
+      a desperate character. They soon, therefore, learned the necessity of
+      establishing cities of refuge at various points in the countries with
+      which they traded&mdash;stations where they could go to refit and
+      revictual their vessels, to fill up the complement of their crews, to take
+      in new freight, and, if necessary, pass the winter or wait for fair
+      weather before continuing their voyage. For this purpose they chose by
+      preference islands lying within easy distance of the mainland, like their
+      native cities of Tyre and Arvad, but possessing a good harbour or
+      roadstead. If an island were not available, they selected a peninsula with
+      a narrow isthmus, or a rock standing at the extremity of a promontory,
+      which a handful of men could defend against any attack, and which could be
+      seen from a considerable distance by their pilots. Most of their stations
+      thus happily situated became at length important towns. They were
+      frequented by the natives from the interior, who allied themselves with
+      the new-comers, and furnished them not only with objects of trade, but
+      with soldiers, sailors, and recruits for their army; and such was the
+      rapid spread of these colonies, that before long the Mediterranean was
+      surrounded by an almost unbroken chain of Phoenician strongholds and
+      trading stations.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0054" id="linkBimage-0054">
+      <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/288.jpg"></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="288th (80K)" src="images/288th.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      All the towns of the mother country&mdash;Arvad, Byblos, Berytus, Tyre,
+      and Sidon&mdash;possessed vessels engaged in cruising long before the
+      Egyptian conquest of Syria. We have no direct information from any
+      existing monument to show us what these vessels were like, but we are
+      familiar with the construction of the galleys which formed the fleets of
+      the Pharaohs of the XVIIIth dynasty. The art of shipbuilding had made
+      considerable progress since the times of the Memphite kings. Prom the
+      period when Egypt aspired to become one of the great powers of the world,
+      she doubtless endeavoured to bring her naval force to the same pitch of
+      perfection as her land forces could boast of, and her fleets probably
+      consisted of the best vessels which the dockyards of that day could turn
+      out. Phoenician vessels of this period may therefore be regarded with
+      reason as constructed on lines similar to those of the Egyptian ships,
+      differing from them merely in the minor details of the shape of the hull
+      and manner of rigging. The hull continued to be built long and narrow,
+      rising at the stem and stern. The bow was terminated by a sort of hook, to
+      which, in time of peace, a bronze ornament was attached, fashioned to
+      represent the head of a divinity, gazelle, or bull, while in time of war
+      this was superseded by a metal cut-water made fast to the hull by several
+      turns of stout rope, the blade rising some couple of yards above the level
+      of the deck.* The poop was ornamented with a projection firmly attached to
+      the body of the vessel, but curved inwards and terminated by an open
+      lotus-flower. An upper deck, surrounded by a wooden rail, was placed at
+      the bow and stern to serve as forecastle and quarterdecks respectively,
+      and in order to protect the vessel from the danger of heavy seas the ship
+      was strengthened by a structure to which we find nothing analogous in the
+      shipbuilding of classical times: an enormous cable attached to the
+      gammonings of the bow rose obliquely to a height of about a couple of
+      yards above the deck, and, passing over four small crutched masts, was
+      made fast again to the gammonings of the stern. The hull measured from the
+      blade of the cut-water to the stern-post some twenty to five and twenty
+      yards, but the lowest part of the hold did not exceed five feet in depth.
+      There was no cabin, and the ballast, arms, provisions, and spare-rigging
+      occupied the open hold.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * To get a clear idea of the details of this structure, we
+     have only to compare the appearance of ships with and
+     without a cut-water in the scenes at Thebes, representing
+     the celebration of a festival at the return of the fleet.
+
+     ** M. Glaser thinks that there were cabins for the crew
+     under the deck, and he recognises in the sixteen oblong
+     marks on the sides of the vessels at Deîr el-Bahari so many
+     dead-lights; as there could not have been space for so many
+     cabins, I had concluded that these were ports for oars to be
+     used in time of battle, but on further consideration I saw
+     that they represented the ends of the beams supporting the
+     deck.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The bulwarks were raised to a height of some two feet, and the thwarts of
+      the rowers ran up to them on both the port and starboard sides, leaving an
+      open space in the centre for the long-boat, bales of merchandise,
+      soldiers, slaves, and additional passengers.* A double set of
+      steering-oars and a single mast completed the equipment. The latter, which
+      rose to a height of some twenty-six feet, was placed amidships, and was
+      held in an upright position by stays. The masthead was surmounted by two
+      arrangements which answered respectively to the top [&ldquo;gabie&rdquo;] and <i>calcet</i>
+      of the masts of a galley.** There were no shrouds on each side from the
+      masthead to the rail, but, in place of them, two stays ran respectively to
+      the bow and stern. The single square-sail was extended between two yards
+      some sixty to seventy feet long, and each made of two pieces spliced
+      together at the centre. The upper yard was straight, while the lower
+      curved upward at the ends. The yard was hoisted and lowered by two
+      halyards, which were made fast aft at the feet of the steersmen. The yard
+      was kept in its place by two lifts which came down from the masthead, and
+      were attached respectively about eight feet from the end of each yard-arm.
+      When the yard was hauled up it was further supported by six auxiliary
+      lifts, three being attached to each yard-arm. The lower yard, made fast to
+      the mast by a figure-of-eight knot, was secured by sixteen lifts, which,
+      like those of the upper yard, worked through the &ldquo;calcet.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * One of the bas-reliefs exhibits a long-boat in the water
+     at the time the fleet was at anchor at Puanît. As we do not
+     find any vessel towing one after her, we naturally conclude
+     that the boat must have been stowed on board.
+
+     ** The &ldquo;gabie&rdquo; was a species of top where a sailor was placed
+     on the look-out. The &ldquo;calcet&rdquo; is, properly speaking, a
+     square block of wood containing the sheaves on which the
+     halyards travelled. The Egyptian apparatus had no sheaves,
+     and answers to the &ldquo;calcet&rdquo; on the masts of a galley only in
+     its serving the same purpose.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The crew comprised thirty rowers, fifteen on each side, four top-men, two
+      steersmen, a pilot at the bow, who signalled to the men at the helm the
+      course to steer, a captain and a governor of the slaves, who formed,
+      together with ten soldiers, a total of some fifty men.* In time of battle,
+      as the rowers would be exposed to the missiles of the enemy, the bulwarks
+      were further heightened by a mantlet, behind which the oars could be
+      freely moved, while the bodies of the men were fully protected, their
+      heads alone being visible above it. The soldiers were stationed as
+      follows: two of them took their places on the forecastle, a third was
+      perched on the masthead in a sort of cage improvised on the bars forming
+      the top, while the remainder were posted on the deck and poop, from which
+      positions and while waiting for the order to board they could pour a
+      continuous volley of arrows on the archers and sailors of the enemy.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * I have made this calculation from an examination of the
+     scenes in which ships are alternatively represented as at
+     anchor and under weigh. I know of vessels of smaller size,
+     and consequently with a smaller crew, but I know of none
+     larger or more fully manned.
+
+     ** The details are taken from the only representation of a
+     naval battle which we possess up to this moment, viz. that
+     of which I shall have occasion to speak further on in
+     connection with the reign of Ramses III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The first colony of which the Phoenicians made themselves masters was that
+      island of Cyprus whose low, lurid outline they could see on fine summer
+      evenings in the glow of the western sky. Some hundred and ten miles in
+      length and thirty-six in breadth, it is driven like a wedge into the angle
+      which Asia Minor makes with the Syrian coast: it throws out to the
+      north-east a narrow strip of land, somewhat like an extended finger
+      pointing to where the two coasts meet at the extremity of the gulf of
+      Issos. A limestone cliff, of almost uniform height throughout, bounds, for
+      half its length at least, the northern side of the island, broken
+      occasionally by short deep valleys, which open out into creeks deeply
+      embayed. A scattered population of fishermen exercised their calling in
+      this region, and small towns, of which we possess only the Greek or
+      Grecised names&mdash;Karpasia, Aphrodision, Kerynia, Lapethos&mdash;led
+      there a slumbering existence. Almost in the centre of the island two
+      volcanic peaks, Troodes and Olympos, face each other, and rise to a height
+      of nearly 7000 feet, the range of mountains to which they belong&mdash;that
+      of Aous&mdash;forming the framework of the island. The spurs of this range
+      fall by a gentle gradient towards the south, and spread out either into
+      stony slopes favourable to the culture of the vine, or into great maritime
+      flats fringed with brackish lagoons. The valley which lies on the northern
+      side of this chain runs from sea to sea in an almost unbroken level. A
+      scarcely perceptible watershed divides the valley into two basins similar
+      to those of Syria, the larger of the two lying opposite to the Phoenician
+      coast. The soil consists of black mould, as rich as that of Egypt, and
+      renewed yearly by the overflowing of the Pediæos and its affluents. Thick
+      forests occupied the interior, promising inexhaustible resources to any
+      naval power. Even under the Koman emperors the Cypriotes boasted that they
+      could build and fit out a ship from the keel to the masthead without
+      looking to resources beyond those of their own island. The ash, pine,
+      cypress, and oak flourished on the sides of the range of Aous, while
+      cedars grew there to a greater height and girth than even on the Lebanon.
+      Wheat, barley, olive trees, vines, sweet-smelling woods for burning on the
+      altar, medicinal plants such as the poppy and the <i>ladanum</i>, henna
+      for staining with a deep orange colour the lips, eyelids, palm, nails, and
+      fingertips of the women, all found here a congenial habitat; while a
+      profusion everywhere of sweet-smelling flowers, which saturated the air
+      with their penetrating odours&mdash;spring violets, many-coloured
+      anemones, the lily, hyacinth, crocus, narcissus, and wild rose&mdash;led
+      the Greeks to bestow upon the island the designation of &ldquo;the balmy
+      Cyprus.&rdquo; Mines also contributed their share to the riches of which the
+      island could boast. Iron in small quantities, alum, asbestos, agate and
+      other precious stones, are still to be found there, and in ancient times
+      the neighbourhood of Tamassos yielded copper in such quantities that the
+      Romans were accustomed to designate this metal by the name &ldquo;Cyprium,&rdquo; and
+      the word passed from them into all the languages of Europe. It is not easy
+      to determine the race to which the first inhabitants of the island
+      belonged, if we are not to see in them a branch of the Kefâtiu, who
+      frequented the Asiatic shores of the Mediterranean from a very remote
+      period. In the time of Egyptian supremacy they called their country Asi,
+      and this name inclines one to connect the people with the Ægeans.* An
+      examination of the objects found in the most ancient tombs of the island
+      seems to confirm this opinion. These consist, for the most part, of
+      weapons and implements of stone&mdash;knives, hatchets, hammers, and
+      arrow-heads; and mingled with these rude objects a score of different
+      kinds of pottery, chiefly hand-made and of coarse design&mdash;pitchers
+      with contorted bowls, shallow buckets, especially of the milk-pail
+      variety, provided with spouts and with pairs of rudimentary handles.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * &ldquo;Asi,&rdquo; &ldquo;Asîi,&rdquo; was at first sought for on the Asiatic
+     continent&mdash;at Is on the Euphrates, or in Palestine: the
+     discovery of the Canopic decree allows us to identify it
+     with Cyprus, and this has now been generally done. The
+     reading &ldquo;Asebi&rdquo; is still maintained by some.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0055" id="linkBimage-0055">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/294.jpg" width="100%" alt="294.jpg Map of Cyprus " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The pottery is red or black in colour, and the ornamentation of it
+      consists of incised geometrical designs. Copper and bronze, where we find
+      examples of these metals, do not appear to have been employed in the
+      manufacture of ornaments or arrow-heads, but usually in making daggers.
+      There is no indication anywhere of foreign influence, and yet Cyprus had
+      already at this time entered into relations with the civilized nations of
+      the continent.* According to Chaldæan tradition, it was conquered about
+      the year 3800 B.C. by Sargon of Agadê: without insisting upon the reality
+      of this conquest, which in any case must have been ephemeral in its
+      nature, there is reason to believe that the island was subjected from an
+      early period to the influence of the various peoples which lived one after
+      another on the slopes of the Lebanon. Popular legend attributes to King
+      Kinyras and to the Giblites [i.e. the people of Byblos] the establishment
+      of the first Phoenician colonies in the southern region of the island&mdash;one
+      of them being at Paphos, where the worship of Adonis and Astartê continued
+      to a very late date. The natives preserved their own language and customs,
+      had their own chiefs, and maintained their national independence, while
+      constrained to submit at the same time to the presence of Phoenician
+      colonists or merchants on the coast, and in the neighbourhood of the mines
+      in the mountains. The trading centres of these settlers&mdash;Kition,
+      Amathus, Solius, Golgos, and Tamassos&mdash;were soon, however, converted
+      into strongholds, which ensured to Phonicia the monopoly of the immense
+      wealth contained in the island.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * An examination into the origin of the Cypriotes formed
+     part of the original scheme of this work, together with that
+     of the monuments of the various races scattered along the
+     coast of Asia Minor and the islands of the Ægean; but I
+     have been obliged to curtail it, in order to keep within the
+     limits I had proscribed for myself, and I have merely
+     epitomised, as briefly as possible, the results of the
+     researches undertaken in those regions during the last few
+     years.
+
+     ** The Phoenician origin of these towns is proved by
+     passages from classical writers. The date of the
+     colonisation is uncertain, but with the knowledge we possess
+     of the efficient vessels belonging to the various Phoenician
+     towns, it would seem difficult not to allow that the coasts
+     at least of Cyprus must have been partially occupied at the
+     time of the Egyptian invasions.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Tyre and Sidon had no important centres of industry on that part of the
+      Canaanite coast which extended to the south of Carmel, and Egypt, even in
+      the time of the shepherd kings, would not have tolerated the existence on
+      her territory of any great emporium not subject to the immediate
+      supervision of her official agents. We know that the Libyan cliffs long
+      presented an obstacle to inroads into Egyptian territory, and baffled any
+      attempts to land to the westwards of the Delta: the Phoenicians
+      consequently turned with all the greater ardour to those northern regions
+      which for centuries had furnished them with most valuable products&mdash;bronze,
+      tin, amber, and iron, both native and wrought. A little to the north of
+      the Orontes, where the Syrian border is crossed and Asia Minor begins, the
+      coast turns due west and runs in that direction for a considerable
+      distance. The Phoenicians were accustomed to trade along this region, and
+      we may attribute, perhaps, to them the foundation of those obscure cities&mdash;Kibyra,
+      Masura, Euskopus, Sylion, Mygdalê, and Sidyma*&mdash;all of which
+      preserved their apparently Semitic names down to the time of the Roman
+      epoch. The whole of the important island of Rhodes fell into their power,
+      and its three ports, Ialysos, Lindos*, and Kamiros, afforded them a
+      well-situated base of operations for further colonisation. On leaving
+      Rhodes, the choice of two routes presented itself to them. To the
+      south-west they could see the distant outline of Karpathos, and on the far
+      horizon behind it the summits of the Cretan chain. Crete itself bars on
+      the south the entrance to the Ægean, and is almost a little continent,
+      self-contained and self-sufficing.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * No direct evidence exists to lead us to attribute the
+     foundation of these towns to the Phoenicians, but the
+     Semitic origin of nearly all the names is an uncontested
+     fact.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0056" id="linkBimage-0056">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/297.jpg" alt="297.jpg the Murex Trunculus " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is made up of fertile valleys and mountains clothed with forests, and
+      its inhabitants could employ themselves in mines and fisheries. The
+      Phoenicians effected a settlement on the coast at Itanos, at Kairatos, and
+      at Arados, and obtained possession of the peak of Cythera, where, it is
+      said, they raised a sanctuary to Astartê. If, on leaving Rhodes, they had
+      chosen to steer due north, they would soon have come into contact with
+      numerous rocky islets scattered in the sea between the continents of Asia
+      and Europe, which would have furnished them with as many stations, less
+      easy of attack, and more readily defended than posts on the mainland. Of
+      these the Giblites occupied Melos, while the Sidonians chose Oliaros and
+      Thera, and we find traces of them in every island where any natural
+      product, such as metals, sulphur, alum, fuller&rsquo;s earth, emery, medicinal
+      plants, and shells for producing dyes, offered an attraction. The purple
+      used by the Tyrians for dyeing is secreted by several varieties of
+      molluscs common in the Eastern Mediterranean; those most esteemed by the
+      dyers were the <i>Murex trunculus</i> and the <i>Murex Brandaris</i>, and
+      solid masses made up of the detritus of these shells are found in enormous
+      quantities in the neighbourhood of many Phoenician towns. The colouring
+      matter was secreted in the head of the shellfish. To obtain it the shell
+      was broken by a blow from a hammer, and the small quantity of slightly
+      yellowish liquid which issued from the fracture was carefully collected
+      and stirred about in salt water for three days.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was then boiled in leaden vessels and reduced by simmering over a slow
+      fire; the remainder was strained through a cloth to free it from the
+      particles of flesh still floating in it, and the material to be dyed was
+      then plunged into the liquid. The usual tint thus imparted was that of
+      fresh blood, in some lights almost approaching to black; but careful
+      manipulation could produce shades of red, dark violet, and amethyst.
+      Phoenician settlements can be traced, therefore, by the heaps of shells
+      upon the shore, the Cyclades and the coasts of Greece being strewn with
+      this refuse. The veins of gold in the Pangaion range in Macedonia
+      attracted them off the Thracian coast* received also frequent visits from
+      them, and they carried their explorations even through the tortuous
+      channel of the Hellespont into the Propontis, drawn thither, no doubt by
+      the silver mines in the Bithynian mountains** which were already being
+      worked by Asiatic miners.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The fact that they worked the mines of Thasos is attested
+     by Herodotus.
+
+     ** Pronektos, on the Gulf of Ascania, was supposed to be a
+     Phoenician colony.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Beyond the calm waters of the Propontis, they encountered an obstacle to
+      their progress in another narrow channel, having more the character of a
+      wide river than of a strait; it was with difficulty that they could make
+      their way against the violence of its current, which either tended to
+      drive their vessels on shore, or to dash them against the reefs which
+      hampered the navigation of the channel. When, however, they succeeded in
+      making the passage safely, they found themselves upon a vast and stormy
+      sea, whose wooded shores extended east and west as far as eye could reach.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0058" id="linkBimage-0058">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/299.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="299.jpg One of the Daggers Discovered at MycenÆ, Showing An Imitation of Egyptian Decoration " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the facsimile in Perrot-Chipiez.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      From the tribes who inhabited them, and who acted as intermediaries, the
+      Phoenician traders were able to procure tin, lead, amber, Caucasian gold,
+      bronze, and iron, all products of the extreme north&mdash;a region which
+      always seemed,to elude their persevering efforts to discover it. We cannot
+      determine the furthest limits reached by the Phoenician traders, since
+      they were wont to designate the distant countries and nations with which
+      they traded by the vague appellations of &ldquo;Isles of the Sea&rdquo; and &ldquo;Peoples
+      of the Sea,&rdquo; refusing to give more accurate information either from
+      jealousy or from a desire to hide from other nations the sources of their
+      wealth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0057" id="linkBimage-0057">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:10%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/298.jpg" alt="298.jpg Dagger of Âhmosis " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by
+Faucher-
+Gudin.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The peoples with whom they traded were not mere barbarians, contented with
+      worthless objects of barter; their clients included the inhabitants of the
+      iEgean, who, if inferior to the great nations of the East, possessed an
+      independent and growing civilization, traces of which are still coming to
+      light from many quarters in the shape of tombs, houses, palaces, utensils,
+      ornaments, representations of the gods, and household and funerary
+      furniture,&mdash;not only in the Cyclades, but on the mainland of Asia
+      Minor and of Greece. No inferior goods or tinsel wares would have
+      satisfied the luxurious princes who reigned in such ancient cities as Troy
+      and Mycenae, and who wanted the best industrial products of Egypt and
+      Syria&mdash;costly stuffs, rare furniture, ornate and well-wrought
+      weapons, articles of jewellery, vases of curious and delicate design&mdash;such
+      objects, in fact, as would have been found in use among the sovereigns and
+      nobles of Memphis or of Babylon. For articles to offer in exchange they
+      were not limited to the natural or roughly worked products of their own
+      country. Their craftsmen, though less successful in general technique than
+      their Oriental contemporaries, exhibited considerable artistic
+      intelligence and an extraordinary manual skill. Accustomed at first merely
+      to copy the objects sold to them by the Phoenicians, they soon developed a
+      style of their own; the Mycenaean dagger in the illustration on page 299,
+      though several centuries later in date than that of the Pharaoh Ahmosis,
+      appears to be traceable to this ancient source of inspiration, although it
+      gives evidence of new elements in its method of decoration and in its
+      greater freedom of treatment. The inhabitants of the valleys of the Nile
+      and of the Orontes, and probably also those of the Euphrates and Tigris,
+      agreed in the, high value they set upon these artistic objects in gold,
+      silver, and bronze, brought to them from the further shores of the
+      Mediterranean, which, while reproducing their own designs, modified them
+      to a certain extent; for just as we now imitate types of ornamental work
+      in vogue among nations less civilized than ourselves, so the iEgean people
+      set themselves the task through their potters and engravers of reproducing
+      exotic models. The Phoenician traders who exported to Greece large
+      consignments of objects made under various influences in their own
+      workshops, or purchased in the bazaars of the ancient world, brought back
+      as a return cargo an equivalent number of works of art, bought in the
+      towns of the West, which eventually found their way into the various
+      markets of Asia and Africa. These energetic merchants were not the first
+      to ply this profitable trade of maritime carriers, for from the time of
+      the Memphite empire the products of northern regions had found their way,
+      through the intermediation of the Haûinibû, as far south as the cities of
+      the Delta and the Thebaid. But this commerce could not be said to be
+      either regular or continuous; the transmission was carried on from one
+      neighbouring tribe to another, and the Syrian sailors were merely the last
+      in a long chain of intermediaries&mdash;a tribal war, a migration, the
+      caprice of some chief, being sufficient to break the communication, and
+      even cause the suspension of transit for a considerable period. The
+      Phoenicians desired to provide against such risks by undertaking
+      themselves to fetch the much-coveted objects from their respective
+      sources, or, where this was not possible, from the ports nearest the place
+      of their manufacture. Reappearing with each returning year in the
+      localities where they had established emporia, they accustomed the natives
+      to collect against their arrival such products as they could profitably
+      use in bartering with one or other of their many customers. They thus
+      established, on a fixed line of route, a kind of maritime trading service,
+      which placed all the shores of the Mediterranean in direct communication
+      with each other, and promoted the blending of the youthful West with the
+      ancient East.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0059" id="linkBimage-0059">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/302.jpg" width="100%" alt="302.jpg Tailpiece " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <br /> <a name="linkCimage-0005" id="linkCimage-0005">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/303.jpg" width="100%" alt="303.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY THÛTMOSIS I. AND HIS ARMY&mdash;HÂTSHOPSITÛ
+      AND THÛTMOSIS III.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Thutmosis I.&lsquo;s campaign in Syria&mdash;The organisation of the Egyptian
+      army: the infantry of the line, the archers, the horses, and the
+      charioteers&mdash;The classification of the troops according to their arms&mdash;Marching
+      and encampment in the enemy&rsquo;s country: battle array&mdash;Chariot-charges&mdash;The
+      enumeration and distribution of the spoil&mdash;The vice-royalty of Rush
+      and the adoption of Egyptian customs by the Ethiopian tribes.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The first successors of Thutmosis I.: Ahmasi and Hatshopsitit,
+      Thûtmosis II&mdash;The temple of Deîr el-Bahari and the buildings of
+      Karnah&mdash;The Ladders of Incense&mdash;The expedition to Pûanît:
+      bartering with the natives, the return of the fleet.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Thûtmosis III.: his departure for Asia, the battle of Megiddo and the
+      subjection of Southern Syria&mdash;The year 23 to the year 28 of his reign&mdash;Conquest
+      of Lotanû and of Mitânni&mdash;The campaign of the 33rd year of the king&rsquo;s
+      reign.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkC2HCH0001" id="linkC2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a> <a name="linkCimage-0006" id="linkCimage-0006">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/305.jpg" width="100%" alt="305.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER III&mdash;THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Thûtmosis I. and his army&mdash;Hâtshopsîtû and Thûtmosis III.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The account of the first expedition undertaken by Thûtmosis in Asia, a
+      region at that time new to the Egyptians, would be interesting if we could
+      lay our hands upon it. We should perhaps find in the midst of official
+      documents, or among the short phrases of funerary biographies, some
+      indication of the impression which the country produced upon its
+      conquerors.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      With the exception of a few merchants or adventurers, no one from Thebes
+      to Memphis had any other idea of Asia than that which could be gathered
+      from the scattered notices of it in the semi-historical romances of the
+      preceding age. The actual sight of the country must have been a
+      revelation; everything appearing new and paradoxical to men of whom the
+      majority had never left their fatherland, except on some warlike
+      expedition into Ethiopia or on some rapid raid along the coasts of the Red
+      Sea. Instead of their own narrow valley, extending between its two
+      mountain ranges, and fertilised by the periodical overflowing of the Nile
+      which recurred regularly almost to a day, they had before them wide
+      irregular plains, owing their fertility not to inundations, but to
+      occasional rains or the influence of insignificant streams; hills of
+      varying heights covered with vines and other products of cultivation;
+      mountains of different altitudes irregularly distributed, clothed with
+      forests, furrowed with torrents, their summits often crowned with snow
+      even in the hottest period of summer: and in this region of nature, where
+      everything was strange to them, they found nations differing widely from
+      each other in appearance and customs, towns with crenellated walls perched
+      upon heights difficult of access; and finally, a civilization far
+      excelling that which they encountered anywhere in Africa outside their own
+      boundaries. Thûtmosis succeeded in reaching on his first expedition a
+      limit which none of his successors was able to surpass, and the road taken
+      by him in this campaign&mdash;from Gaza to Megiddo, from Megiddo to
+      Qodshû, from Qodshû to Carchemish&mdash;was that which was followed
+      henceforward by the Egyptian troops in all their expeditions to the
+      Euphrates. Of the difficulties which he encountered on his way we have no
+      information. On arriving at Naharaim, however, we know that he came into
+      contact with the army of the enemy, which was under the command of a
+      single general&mdash;perhaps the King of Mitanni himself, or one of the
+      lieutenants of the &ldquo;Cossæan King of Babylon&rdquo;&mdash;who had collected
+      together most of the petty princes of the northern country to resist the
+      advance of the intruder. The contest was hotly fought out on both sides,
+      but victory at length remained with the invaders, and innumerable
+      prisoners fell into their hands. The veteran Âhmosi, son of Abîna, who was
+      serving in his last campaign, and his cousin, Âhmosi Pannekhabît,
+      distinguished themselves according to their wont. The former, having
+      seized upon a chariot, brought it, with the three soldiers who occupied
+      it, to the Pharaoh, and received once more &ldquo;the collar of gold;&rdquo; the
+      latter killed twenty-one of the enemy, carrying off their hands as
+      trophies, captured a chariot, took one prisoner, and obtained as reward a
+      valuable collection of jewellery, consisting of collars, bracelets,
+      sculptured lions, choice vases, and costly weapons. A stele, erected on
+      the banks of the Euphrates not far from the scene of the battle, marked
+      the spot which the conqueror wished to be recognised henceforth as the
+      frontier of his empire. He re-entered Thebes with immense booty, by which
+      gods as well as men profited, for he consecrated a part of it to the
+      embellishment of the temple of Amon, and the sight of the spoil
+      undoubtedly removed the lingering prejudices which the people had
+      cherished against expeditions beyond the isthmus. Thûtmosis was held up by
+      his subjects to the praise of posterity as having come into actual contact
+      with that country and its people, which had hitherto been known to the
+      Egyptians merely through the more or less veracious tales of exiles and
+      travellers. The aspect of the great river of the Naharaim, which could be
+      compared with the Nile for the volume of its waters, excited their
+      admiration. They were, however, puzzled by the fact that it flowed from
+      north to south, and even were accustomed to joke at the necessity of
+      reversing the terms employed in Egypt to express going up or down the
+      river. This first Syrian campaign became the model for most of those
+      subsequently undertaken by the Pharaohs. It took the form of a bold
+      advance of troops, directed from Zalû towards the north-east, in a
+      diagonal line through the country, who routed on the way any armies which
+      might be opposed to them, carrying by assault such towns as were easy of
+      capture, while passing by others which seemed strongly defended&mdash;pillaging,
+      burning, and slaying on every side. There was no suspension of
+      hostilities, no going into winter quarters, but a triumphant return of the
+      expedition at the end of four or five months, with the probability of
+      having to begin fresh operations in the following year should the
+      vanquished break out into revolt.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * From the account of the campaigns of Amenôthes II., I
+     thought we might conclude that this Pharaoh wintered in
+     Syria at least once; but the text does not admit of this
+     interpretation, and we must, therefore, for the present give
+     up the idea that the Pharaohs ever spent more than a few
+     months of the year on hostile territory.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The troops employed in these campaigns were superior to any others
+      hitherto put into the field. The Egyptian army, inured to war by its long
+      struggle with the Shepherd-kings, and kept in training since the reign of
+      Âhmosis by having to repulse the perpetual incursions of the Ethiopian or
+      Libyan barbarians, had no difficulty, in overcoming the Syrians; not that
+      the latter were wanting in courage or discipline, but owing to their
+      limited supply of recruits, and the political disintegration of the
+      country, they could not readily place under arms such enormous numbers as
+      those of the Egyptians. Egyptian military organisation had remained
+      practically unchanged since early times: the army had always consisted,
+      firstly, of the militia who held fiefs, and were under the obligation of
+      personal service either to the prince of the nome or to the sovereign;
+      secondly, of a permanent force, which was divided into two corps,
+      distributed respectively between the Sa&rsquo;id and the Delta. Those companies
+      which were quartered on the frontier, or about the king either at Thebes
+      or at one of the royal residences, were bound to hold themselves in
+      readiness to muster for a campaign at any given moment. The number of
+      natives liable to be levied when occasion required, by &ldquo;generations,&rdquo; or
+      as we should say by classes, may have amounted to over a hundred thousand
+      men,* but they were never all called out, and it does not appear that the
+      army on active service ever contained more than thirty thousand men at a
+      time, and probably on ordinary occasions not much more than ten or fifteen
+      thousand.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The only numbers which we know are those given by
+     Herodotus for the Saïte period, which are evidently
+     exaggerated. Coming down to modern times, we see that
+     Mehemet-Ali, from 1830 to 1840, had nearly 120,000 men in
+     Syria, Egypt, and the Sudan; and in 1841, at the time when
+     the treaties imposed upon him the ill-kept obligation of
+     reducing his army to 18,000 men, it still contained 81,000.
+     We shall probably not be far wrong in estimating the total
+     force which the Pharaohs of the XVIIIth dynasty, lords of
+     the whole valley of the Nile, and of part of Asia, had at
+     their disposal at 120,000 or 130,000 men; these, however,
+     were never all called out at once.
+
+     ** We have no direct information respecting the armies
+     acting in Syria; we only know that, at the battle of Qodshû,
+     Ramses II. had against him 2500 chariots containing three
+     men each, making 7500 charioteers, besides a troop estimated
+     at the Ramesseum at 8000 men, at Luxor at 9000, so that the
+     Syrian army probably contained about 20,000 men. It would
+     seem that the Egyptian army was less numerous, and I
+     estimate it with great hesitation at about 15,000 or 18,000
+     men: it was considered a powerful army, while that of the
+     Hittites was regarded as an innumerable host. A passage in
+     the Anastasi Papyrus, No. 1, tells us the composition of a
+     corps led by Ramses II. against the tribes in the vicinity
+     of Qocoîr and the Rahanû valley; it consisted of 5000 men,
+     of whom 620 were Shardana, 1600 Qahak, 70 Mashaûasha, and
+     880 Negroes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The infantry was, as we should expect, composed of troops of the line and
+      light troops. The former wore either short wigs arranged in rows of curls,
+      or a kind of padded cap by way of a helmet, thick enough to deaden blows;
+      the breast and shoulders were undefended, but a short loin-cloth was
+      wrapped round the hips, and the stomach and upper part of the thighs were
+      protected by a sort of triangular apron, sometimes scalloped at the sides,
+      and composed of leather thongs attached to a belt. A buckler of moderate
+      dimensions had been substituted for the gigantic shield of the earlier
+      Theban period; it was rounded at the top and often furnished with a solid
+      metal boss, which the experienced soldiers always endeavoured to present
+      to the enemy&rsquo;s lances and javelins. Their weapons consisted of pikes about
+      five feet long, with broad bronze or copper points, occasionally of
+      flails, axes, daggers, short curved swords, and spears; the trumpeters
+      were armed with daggers only, and the officers did not as a rule encumber
+      themselves with either buckler or pike, but bore and axe and dagger, an
+      occasionally a bow.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0007" id="linkCimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/311.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="311.jpg a Platoon (troop) of Egyptian Spearmen at DeÎr El-baharÎ " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Naville.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The light infantry was composed chiefly of bowmen&mdash;<i>pidâtû</i>&mdash;the
+      celebrated archers of Egypt, whose long bows and arrows, used with deadly
+      skill, speedily became renowned throughout the East; the quiver, of the
+      use of which their ancestors were ignorant, had been borrowed from the
+      Asiatics, probably from the Hyksôs, and was carried hanging at the side or
+      slung over the shoulder. Both spearmen and archers were for the most part
+      pure-bred Egyptians, and were divided into regiments of unequal strength,
+      each of which usually bore the name of some god&mdash;as, for example, the
+      regiment of Ra or of Phtah, of Arnon or of Sûtkhû*&mdash;in which the
+      feudal contingents, each commanded by its lord or his lieutenants, fought
+      side by side with the king&rsquo;s soldiers furnished from the royal domains.
+      The effective force of the army was made up by auxiliaries taken from the
+      tribes of the Sahara and from the negroes of the Upper Nile.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The army of Ramses II. at the battle of Qodshû comprised
+     four corps, which bore the names of Amon, Râ, Phtah, and
+     Sûtkhû. Other lesser corps were named the <i>Tribe of
+     Pharaoh,</i> the <i>Tribe of the Beauty of the Solar dish.</i>
+     These, as far as I can judge, must have been troops raised
+     on the royal domains by a system of local recruiting, who
+     were united by certain common privileges and duties which
+     constituted them an hereditary militia, whence they were
+     called <i>tribes</i>.
+
+     ** These Ethiopian recruits are occasionally represented in
+     the Theban tombs of the XVIIIth dynasty, among others in the
+     tomb of Pahsûkhîr.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These auxiliaries were but sparingly employed in early times, but their
+      numbers were increased as wars became more frequent and necessitated more
+      troops to carry them on. The tribes from which they were drawn supplied
+      the Pharaohs with an inexhaustible reserve; they were courageous, active,
+      indefatigable, and inured to hardships, and if it had not been for their
+      turbulent nature, which incited them to continual internal dissensions,
+      they might readily have shaken off the yoke of the Egyptians. Incorporated
+      into the Egyptian army, and placed under the instruction of picked
+      officers, who subjected them to rigorous discipline, and accustomed them
+      to the evolutions of regular troops, they were transformed from
+      disorganised hordes into tried and invincible battalions.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The armies of Hâtshopsîtû already included Libyan
+     auxiliaries, some of which are represented at Deîr el-
+     Baharî; others of Asiatic origin are found under Amenôthes
+     IV., but they are not represented on the monuments among the
+     regular troops until the reign of Ramses II., when the
+     Shardana appear for the first time among the king&rsquo;s body-
+     guard.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0008" id="linkCimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/313.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="313.jpg a Platoon of Egyptian Archers at DeÎr El-baharÎ " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The old army, which had conquered Nubia in the days of the Papis and
+      Usirtasens, had consisted of these three varieties of foot-soldiers only,
+      but since the invasion of the Shepherds, a new element had been
+      incorporated into the modern army in the-shape of the chariotry, which
+      answered to some extent to the cavalry of our day as regards their
+      tactical employment and efficacy. The horse, when once introduced into
+      Egypt, soon became fairly adapted to its environment. It retained both its
+      height and size, keeping the convex forehead&mdash;which gave the head a
+      slightly curved profile&mdash;the slender neck, the narrow hind-quarters,
+      the lean and sinewy legs, and the long flowing tail which had
+      characterised it in its native country. The climate, however, was
+      enervating, and constant care had to be taken, by the introduction of new
+      blood from Syria, to prevent the breed from deteriorating.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The numbers of horses brought from Syria either as spoils
+     of war or as tribute paid by the vanquished are frequently
+     recorded in the Annals of Thûtmosis III. Besides the usual
+     species, powerful stallions were imported from Northern
+     Syria, which were known by the Semitic name of Abîri, the
+     strong. In the tombs of the XVIIIth dynasty, the arrival of
+     Syrian horses in Egypt is sometimes represented.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0009" id="linkCimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/314.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="314.jpg the Egyptian Chariot Preserved in The Florence Museum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Petrie.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Pharaohs kept studs of horses in the principal cities of the Nile
+      valley, and the great feudal lords, following their example, vied with
+      each other in the possession of numerous breeding stables. The office of
+      superintendent to these establishments, which was at the disposal of the
+      Master of the Horse, became in later times one of the most important State
+      appointments.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In the story of the conquest of Egypt by the Ethiopian
+     Piônkhi, studs are indicated at Hermopolis, at Athribis, in
+     the towns to the east and in the centre of the Delta, and at
+     Sais. Diodorus Siculus relates that, in his time, the
+     foundations of 100 stables, each capable of containing 200
+     horses, were still to be seen on the western bank of the
+     river between Memphis and Thebes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0010" id="linkCimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/315.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="315.jpg the King Charging on his Chariot " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The first chariots introduced into Egypt were, like the horses, of foreign
+      origin, but when built by Egyptian workmen they soon became more elegant,
+      if not stronger than their models. Lightness was the quality chiefly aimed
+      at; and at length the weight was so reduced that it was possible for a man
+      to carry his chariot on his shoulders without fatigue. The materials for
+      them were on this account limited to oak or ash and leather; metal,
+      whether gold or silver, iron or bronze, being used but sparingly, and then
+      only for purposes of ornamentation. The wheels usually had six, but
+      sometimes eight spokes, or occasionally only four. The axle consisted of a
+      single stout pole of acacia. The framework of the chariot was composed of
+      two pieces of wood mortised together so as to form a semicircle or
+      half-ellipse, and closed by a straight bar; to this frame was fixed a
+      floor of sycomore wood or of plaited leather thongs. The sides of the
+      chariot were formed of upright panels, solid in front and open at the
+      sides, each provided with a handrail. The pole, which was of a single
+      piece of wood, was bent into an elbow at about one-fifth of its length
+      from the end, which was inserted into the centre of the axletree. On the
+      gigantic T thus formed was fixed the body of the chariot, the hinder part
+      resting on the axle, and the front attached to the bent part of the pole,
+      while the whole was firmly bound together with double leather thongs. A
+      yoke of hornbeam, shaped like a bow, to which the horses were harnessed,
+      was fastened to the other extremity of the pole. The Asiatics placed three
+      men in a chariot, but the Egyptians only two; the warrior&mdash;<i>sinni</i>&mdash;whose
+      business it was to fight, and the shield-bearer&mdash;<i>qazana</i>&mdash;who
+      protected his companion with a buckler during the engagement. A complete
+      set of weapons was carried in the chariot&mdash;lances, javelins, and
+      daggers, curved spear, club, and battle-axe&mdash;while two bow-cases as
+      well as two large quivers were hung at the sides. The chariot itself was
+      very liable to upset, the slightest cause being sufficient to overturn it.
+      Even when moving at a slow pace, the least inequality of the ground shook
+      it terribly, and when driven at full speed it was only by a miracle of
+      skill that the occupants could maintain their equilibrium. At such times
+      the charioteer would stand astride of the front panels, keeping his right
+      foot only inside the vehicle, and planting the other firmly on the pole,
+      so as to lessen the jolting, and to secure a wider base on which to
+      balance himself. To carry all this into practice long education was
+      necessary, for which there were special schools of instruction, and those
+      who were destined to enter the army were sent to these schools when little
+      more than children. To each man, as soon as he had thoroughly mastered all
+      the difficulties of the profession, a regulation chariot and pair of
+      horses were granted, for which he was responsible to the Pharaoh or to his
+      generals, and he might then return to his home until the next call to
+      arms. The warrior took precedence of the shield-bearer, and both were
+      considered superior to the foot-soldier; the chariotry, in fact, like the
+      cavalry of the present day, was the aristocratic branch of the army, in
+      which the royal princes, together with the nobles and their sons,
+      enlisted. No Egyptian ever willingly trusted himself to the back of a
+      horse, and it was only in the thick of a battle, when his chariot was
+      broken, and there seemed no other way of escaping from the mêlée, that a
+      warrior would venture to mount one of his steeds. There appear, however,
+      to have been here and there a few horsemen, who acted as couriers or
+      aides-de-camp; they used neither saddle-cloth nor stirrups, but were
+      provided with reins with which to guide their animals, and their seat on
+      horseback was even less secure than the footing of the driver in his
+      chariot.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0011" id="linkCimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/318.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="318.jpg an Egyptian Learning to Ride, from a Bas-relief In the Bologna Museum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Flinders Petrie.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The infantry was divided into platoons of six to ten men each, commanded
+      by an officer and marshalled round an ensign, which represented either a
+      sacred animal, an emblem of the king or of his double, or a divine figure
+      placed upon the top of a pike; this constituted an object of worship to
+      the group of soldiers to whom it belonged. We are unable to ascertain how
+      many of these platoons, either of infantry or of chariotry, went to form a
+      company or a battalion, or by what ensigns the different grades were
+      distinguished from each other, or what was their relative order of rank.
+      Bodies of men, to the number of forty or fifty, are sometimes represented
+      on the monuments, but this may be merely by chance, or because the
+      draughtsman did not take the trouble to give the proper number accurately.
+      The inferior officers were equipped very much like the soldiers, with the
+      exception of the buckler, which they do not appear to have carried, and
+      certainly did not when on the march: the superior officers might be known
+      by their umbrella or flabellum, a distinction which gave them the right of
+      approaching the king&rsquo;s person.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0012" id="linkCimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/319.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="319.jpg the War-dance of The Timihu at DeÎr El-baharÎ " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The military exercises to which all these troops were accustomed probably
+      differed but little from those which were in vogue with the armies of the
+      Ancient Empire; they consisted in wrestling, boxing, jumping, running
+      either singly or in line at regular distances from each other, manual
+      exercises, fencing, and shooting at a target; the war-dance had ceased to
+      be in use among the Egyptian regiments as a military exercise, but it was
+      practised by the Ethiopian and Libyan auxiliaries. At the beginning of
+      each campaign, the men destined to serve in it were called out by the
+      military scribes, who supplied them with arms from the royal arsenals.
+      Then followed the distribution of rations. The soldiers, each carrying a
+      small linen bag, came up in squads before the commissariat officers, and
+      each received his own allowance.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We see the distribution of arms made by the scribes and
+     other officials of the royal arsenals represented in the
+     pictures at Medinet-Abu. The calling out of the classes was
+     represented in the Egyptian tombs of the XVIIIth dynasty, as
+     well as the distribution of supplies.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Once in the enemy&rsquo;s country the army advanced in close order, the infantry
+      in columns of four, the officers in rear, and the chariots either on the
+      right or left flank, or in the intervals between divisions. Skirmishers
+      thrown out to the front cleared the line of march, while detached parties,
+      pushing right and left, collected supplies of cattle, grain, or
+      drinking-water from the fields and unprotected villages. The main body was
+      followed by the baggage train; it comprised not only supplies and stores,
+      but cooking-utensils, coverings, and the entire paraphernalia of the
+      carpenters&rsquo; and blacksmiths&rsquo; shops necessary for repairing bows, lances,
+      daggers, and chariot-poles, the whole being piled up in four-wheeled carts
+      drawn by asses or oxen. The army was accompanied by a swarm of
+      non-combatants, scribes, soothsayers, priests, heralds, musicians,
+      servants, and women of loose life, who were a serious cause of
+      embarrassment to the generals, and a source of perpetual danger to
+      military discipline. At nightfall they halted in a village, or more
+      frequently bivouacked in an entrenched camp, marked out to suit the
+      circumstances of the case. This entrenchment was always rectangular, its
+      length being twice as great as its width, and was surrounded by a ditch,
+      the earth from which, being banked up on the inside, formed a rampart from
+      five to six feet in height; the exterior of this was then entirely faced
+      with shields, square below, but circular in shape at the top. The entrance
+      to the camp was by a single gate in one of the longer sides, and a plank
+      served as a bridge across the trench, close to which two detachments
+      mounted guard, armed with clubs and naked swords.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0013" id="linkCimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/321.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="321.jpg a Column of Troops on the March, Chariots And Infantry " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The royal quarters were situated at one end of the camp. Here, within an
+      enclosure, rose an immense tent, where the Pharaoh found all the luxury to
+      which he was accustomed in his palaces, even to a portable chapel, in
+      which each morning he could pour out water and burn incense to his father,
+      Amon-Râ of Thebes. The princes of the blood who formed his escort, his
+      shield-bearers and his generals, were crowded together hard by, and
+      beyond, in closely packed lines, were the horses and chariots, the draught
+      bullocks, the workshops and the stores.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0014" id="linkCimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/322.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="322.jpg an Egyptian Fortified Camp, Forced by the Enemy " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato. It represents
+     the camp of Ramses II. before Qodshû: the upper angle of the
+     enclosure and part of the surrounding wall have been
+     destroyed by the Khâti, whose chariots are pouring in at the
+     breach. In the centre is the royal tent, surrounded by
+     scenes of military life. This picture has been sculptured
+     partly over an earlier one representing one of the episodes
+     of the battle; the latter had been covered with stucco, on
+     which the new subject was executed. Part of the stucco has
+     fallen away, and the king in his chariot, with a few other
+     figures, has reappeared, to the great detriment of the later
+     picture.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0015" id="linkCimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/322b.jpg" alt="322b.jpg Two Companies on the March"   width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The soldiers, accustomed from childhood to live in the open air, erected
+      no tents or huts of boughs for themselves in these temporary encampments,
+      but bivouacked in the open, and the sculptures on the façades of the
+      Theban pylons give us a minute picture of the way in which they employed
+      themselves when off duty. Here one man, while cleaning his armour,
+      superintends the cooking. Another, similarly engaged, drinks from a skin
+      of wine held up by a slave. A third has taken his chariot to pieces, and t
+      is replacing some portion the worse for wear. Some are sharpening their
+      daggers or lances; others mend their loin-cloths or sandals, or exchange
+      blows with fists and sticks. The baggage, linen, arms, and provisions are
+      piled in disorder on the ground; horses, oxen, and asses are eating or
+      chewing the cud at their ease; while here and there a donkey, relieved of
+      his burden, rolls himself on the ground and brays with delight.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We are speaking of the camp of Thûtmosis III. near Âlûna,
+     the day before the battle of Megiddo, and the words put into
+     the mouths of the soldiers to mark their vigilance are the
+     same as those which we find in the Ramesseum and at Luxor,
+     written above the guards of the camp where Ramses II. is
+     reposing.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0016" id="linkCimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/325.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="325.jpg Scenes from Military Life in an Egyptian Camp " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The success of the Egyptians in battle was due more to the courage and
+      hardihood of the men than to the strategical skill of their commanders. We
+      find no trace of manouvres, in the sense in which we understand the word,
+      either in their histories or on their bas-reliefs, but they joined battle
+      boldly with the enemy, and the result was decided by a more or less bloody
+      conflict. The heavy infantry was placed in the centre, the chariots were
+      massed on the flanks, while light troops thrown out to the front began the
+      action by letting fly volleys of arrows and stones, which through the
+      skill of the bowmen and slingers did deadly execution; then the pikemen
+      laid their spears in rest, and pressing straight forward, threw their
+      whole weight against the opposing troops. At the same moment the
+      charioteers set off at a gentle trot, and gradually quickened their pace
+      till they dashed at full speed upon the foe, amid the confused rumbling of
+      wheels and the sharp clash of metal.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0017" id="linkCimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/327.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="327.jpg Encounter Between Egyptian and Asiatic Chariots " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a drawing by Champolion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians, accustomed by long drilling to the performance of such
+      evolutions, executed these charges as methodically as though they were
+      still on their parade-ground at Thebes; if the disposition of the ground
+      were at all favourable, not a single chariot would break the line, and the
+      columns would sweep across the field without swerving or falling into
+      disorder. The charioteer had the reins tied round his body, and could, by
+      throwing his weight either to the right or the left, or by slackening or
+      increasing the pressure through a backward or forward motion, turn, pull
+      up, or start his horses by a simple movement of the loins: he went into
+      battle with bent bow, the string drawn back to his ear, the arrow levelled
+      ready to let fly, while the shield-bearer, clinging to the body of the
+      chariot with one hand, held out his buckler with the other to shelter his
+      comrade. It would seem that the Syrians were less skilful; their bows did
+      not carry so far as those of their adversaries, and consequently they came
+      within the enemy&rsquo;s range some moments before it was possible for them to
+      return the volley with effect. Their horses would be thrown down, their
+      drivers would fall wounded, and the disabled chariots would check the
+      approach of those following and overturn them, so that by the time the
+      main body came up with the enemy the slaughter would have been serious
+      enough to render victory hopeless. Nevertheless, more than one charge
+      would be necessary finally to overturn or scatter the Syrian chariots,
+      which, once accomplished, the Egyptian charioteer would turn against the
+      foot-soldiers, and, breaking up their ranks, would tread them down under
+      the feet of his horses.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The whole of the above description is based on incidents
+     from the various pictures of battles which appear on the
+     monuments of Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nor did the Pharaoh spare himself in the fight; his splendid dress, the
+      urasus on his forehead, and the nodding plumes of his horses made him a
+      mark for the blows of the enemy, and he would often find himself in
+      positions of serious danger. In a few hours, as a rule, the conflict would
+      come to an end.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0018" id="linkCimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/328b.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="328bth Ramses II." src="images/328bth.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Once the enemy showed signs of giving way, the Egyptian chariots dashed
+      upon them precipitously, and turned the retreat into a rout: the pursuit
+      was, however, never a long One; some fortress was always to be found close
+      at hand where the remnant of the defeated host could take refuge.* The
+      victors, moreover, would be too eager to secure the booty, and to strip
+      the bodies of the dead, to allow time for following up the foe.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * After the battle of Megiddo, the remnants of the Syrian
+     army took refuge in the city, where Thûtmosis III. besieged
+     them; similarly under Ramses II. the Hittite princes took
+     refuge in Qodshû after their defeat.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The prisoners were driven along in platoons, their arms bound in strange
+      and contorted attitudes, each under the charge of his captor; then came
+      the chariots, arms, slaves, and provisions collected on the battle-field
+      or in the camp, then other trophies of a kind unknown in modern warfare.
+      When an Egyptian killed or mortally wounded any one, he cut off, not the
+      head, but the right hand or the phallus, and brought it to the royal
+      scribes. These made an accurate inventory of everything, and even Pharaoh
+      did not disdain to be present at the registration. The booty did not
+      belong to the persons who obtained it, but was thrown into a common stock
+      which was placed at the disposal of the sovereign: one part he reserved
+      for the gods, especially for his father Amon of Thebes, who had given him
+      the victory; another part he kept for himself, and the remainder was
+      distributed among his army. Each man received a reward in proportion to
+      his rank and services, such as male or female slaves, bracelets,
+      necklaces, arms, vases, or a certain measured weight of gold, known as the
+      &ldquo;gold of bravery.&rdquo; A similar sharing of the spoil took place after every
+      successful engagement: from Pharaoh to the meanest camp-follower, every
+      man who had contributed to the success of a campaign returned home richer
+      than he had set out, and the profits which he derived from a war were a
+      liberal compensation for the expenses in which it had involved him.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0020" id="linkCimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/330.jpg" width="100%" alt="330.jpg Counting of the Hands " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The results of the first expedition of Thûtmosis I. were of a decisive
+      character; so much so, indeed, that he never again, it would seem, found
+      it necessary during the remainder of his life to pass the isthmus.
+      Northern Syria, it is true, did not remain long under tribute, if indeed
+      it paid any at all after the departure of the Egyptians, but the southern
+      part of the country, feeling itself in the grip of the new master,
+      accepted its defeat: Gaza became the head-quarters of a garrison which
+      secured the door of Asia for future invasion,* and Pharaoh, freed from
+      anxiety in this quarter, gave his whole time to the consolidation of his
+      power in Ethiopia.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This fact is nowhere explicitly stated on the monuments:
+     we may infer it, however, from the way in which Thûtmosis
+     III. tells how he reached Gaza without opposition at the
+     beginning of his first campaign, and celebrated the
+     anniversary of his coronation there. On the other hand, we
+     learn from details in the lists that the mountains and
+     plains beyond Gaza were in a state of open rebellion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The river and desert tribes of this region soon forgot the severe lesson
+      which he had given them: as soon as the last Egyptian soldier had left
+      their territory they rebelled once more, and began a fresh series of
+      inroads which had to be repressed anew year after year. Thûtmosis I. had
+      several times to drive them back in the years II. and III., but was able
+      to make short work of their rebellions. An inscription at Tombos on the
+      Nile, in the very midst of the disturbed districts, told them in brave
+      words what he was, and what he had done since he had come to the throne.
+      Wherever he had gone, weapon in hand, &ldquo;seeking a warrior, he had found
+      none to withstand him; he had penetrated to valleys which were unknown to
+      his ancestors, the inhabitants of which had never beheld the wearers of
+      the double diadem.&rdquo; All this would have produced but little effect had he
+      not backed up his words by deeds, and taken decisive measures to restrain
+      the insolence of the barbarians. Tombos lies opposite to Hannek, at the
+      entrance to that series of rapids known as the Third Cataract. The course
+      of the Nile is here barred by a formidable dyke of granite, through which
+      it has hollowed out six winding channels of varying widths, dotted here
+      and there with huge polished boulders and verdant islets. When the
+      inundation is at its height, the rocks are covered and the rapids
+      disappear, with the exception of the lowest, which is named Lokoli, where
+      faint eddies mark the place of the more dangerous reefs; and were it not
+      that the fall here is rather more pronounced and the current somewhat
+      stronger, few would suspect the existence of a cataract at the spot. As
+      the waters go down, however, the channels gradually reappear. When the
+      river is at its lowest, the three westernmost channels dry up almost
+      completely, leaving nothing but a series of shallow pools; those on the
+      east still maintain their flow, but only one of them, that between the
+      islands of Tombos and Abadîn, remains navigable. Here Thûtmosis built,
+      under invocation of the gods of Heliopolis, one of those brickwork
+      citadels, with its rectangular keep, which set at nought all the efforts
+      and all the military science of the Ethiopians: attached to it was a
+      harbour, where each vessel on its way downstream put in for the purpose of
+      hiring a pilot.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The monarchs of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties had raised fortifications
+      at the approaches to Wady Haifa, and their engineers skilfully chose the
+      sites so as completely to protect from the ravages of the Nubian pirates
+      that part of the Nile which lay between Wady Haifa and Philse.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The foundation of this fortress is indicated in an
+     emphatic manner in the Tombos inscription: &ldquo;The masters of
+     the Great Castle (the gods of Heliopolis) have made a
+     fortress for the soldiers of the king, which the nine
+     peoples of Nubia combined could not carry by storm, for,
+     like a young panther before a bull which lowers its head,
+     the souls of his Majesty have blinded them with
+     fear.&rdquo; Quarries of considerable size, where Cailliaud
+     imagined he could distinguish an overturned colossus, show
+     the importance which the establishment had attained in
+     ancient times; the ruins of the town cover a fairly large
+     area near the modern village of Kerman.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Henceforward the garrison at Tombos was able to defend the mighty curve
+      described by the river through the desert of Mahas, together with the
+      island of Argo, and the confines of Dongola. The distance between Thebes
+      and this southern frontier was a long one, and communication was slow
+      during the winter months, when the subsidence of the waters had rendered
+      the task of navigation difficult for the Egyptian ships. The king was
+      obliged, besides, to concentrate his attention mainly on Asiatic affairs,
+      and was no longer able to watch the movements of the African races with
+      the same vigilance as his predecessors had exercised before Egyptian
+      armies had made their way as far as the banks of the Euphrates. Thutmosis
+      placed the control of the countries south of Assuan in the hands of a
+      viceroy, who, invested with the august title of &ldquo;Royal Son of Kûsh,&rdquo; must
+      have been regarded as having the blood of Râ himself running in his
+      veins.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The meaning of this title was at first misunderstood.
+     Champollion and Rosellini took it literally, and thought it
+     referred to Ethiopian princes, who were vassals or enemies
+     of Egypt. Birch persists in regarding them as Ethiopians
+     driven out by their subjects, restored by the Pharaohs as
+     viceroys, while admitting that they may have belonged to the
+     solar family.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Sura, the first of these viceroys whose name has reached us, was in office
+      at the beginning of the campaign of the year III.* He belonged, it would
+      seem, to a Theban family, and for several centuries afterwards his
+      successors are mentioned among the nobles who were in the habit of
+      attending the court. Their powers were considerable: they commanded
+      armies, built or restored temples, administered justice, and received the
+      homage of loyal sheikhs or the submission of rebellious ones.** The period
+      for which they were appointed was not fixed by law, and they held office
+      simply at the king&rsquo;s pleasure. During the XIXth dynasty it was usual to
+      confer this office, the highest in the state, on a son of the sovereign,
+      preferably the heir-apparent. Occasionally his appointment was purely
+      formal, and he continued in attendance on his father, while a trusty
+      substitute ruled in his place: often, however, he took the government on
+      himself, and in the regions of the Upper Nile served an apprenticeship to
+      the art of ruling.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * He is mentioned in the Sehêl inscriptions as &ldquo;the royal
+     son Sura.&rdquo; Nahi, who had been regarded as the first holder of
+     the office, and who was still in office under Thutmosis
+     III., had been appointed by Thutmosis I., but after Sura.
+
+     ** Under Thutmosis III., the viceroy Nahi restored the
+     temple at Semneh; under Tutankhamon, the viceroy Hui
+     received tribute from the Ethiopian princes, and presented
+     them to the sovereign.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0021" id="linkCimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/336.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="336.jpg a City of Modern Nubia--the Ancient Dongola " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This district was in a perpetual state of war&mdash;a war without danger,
+      but full of trickery and surprises: here he prepared himself for the
+      larger arena of the Syrian campaigns, learning the arts of generalship
+      more perfectly than was possible in the manouvres of the parade-ground.
+      Moreover, the appointment was dictated by religious as well as by
+      political considerations. The presumptive heir to the throne was to his
+      father what Horus had been to Osiris&mdash;his lawful successor, or, if
+      need be, his avenger, should some act of treason impose on him the duty of
+      vengeance: and was it not in Ethiopia that Horus had gained his first
+      victories over Typhon? To begin like Horus, and flesh his maiden steel on
+      the descendants of the accomplices of Sit, was, in the case of the future
+      sovereign, equivalent to affirming from the outset the reality of his
+      divine extraction.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In the <i>Orbiney Papyrus</i> the title of &ldquo;Prince of Kûsh&rdquo; was
+     assigned to the heir-presumptive to the throne.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As at the commencement of the Theban dynasties, it was the river valley
+      only in these regions of the Upper Nile which belonged to the Pharaohs.
+      From this time onward it gave support to an Egyptian population as far as
+      the juncture of the two Niles: it was a second Egypt, but a poorer one,
+      whose cities presented the same impoverished appearance as that which we
+      find to-day in the towns of Nubia. The tribes scattered right and left in
+      the desert, or distributed beyond the confluence of the two Niles among
+      the plains of Sennar, were descended from the old indigenous races, and
+      paid valuable tribute every year in precious metals, ivory, timber, or the
+      natural products of their districts, under penalty of armed invasion.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The tribute of the Ganbâtiû, or people of the south, and
+          that of Kûsh and of the Ûaûaîû, is mentioned repeatedly
+          in the <i>Annales de Thûtmosis III.</i> for the year XXXI.,
+          for the year XXXIII., and for the year XXXIV. The
+          regularity with which this item recurs, unaccompanied by
+          any mention of war, following after each Syrian campaign,
+          shows that it was an habitual operation which was
+          registered as an understood thing. True, the inscription
+          does not give the item for every year, but then it only
+          dealt with Ethiopian affairs in so far as they were
+          subsidiary to events in Asia; the payment was none the
+          less an annual one, the amount varying in accordance with
+          local agreement.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Among these races were still to be found descendants of the Mazaiû and
+      Ûaûaîû, who in days gone by had opposed the advance of the victorious
+      Egyptians: the name of the Uaûaîû was, indeed, used as a generic term to
+      distinguish all those tribes which frequented the mountains between the
+      Nile and the Red Sea,* but the wave of conquest had passed far beyond the
+      boundaries reached in early campaigns, and had brought the Egyptians into
+      contact with nations with whom they had been in only indirect commercial
+      relations in former times.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Annals of Thûtmosis III. mention the tribute of Pûanît
+     for the peoples of the coast, the tribute of Uaûaît for the
+     peoples of the mountain between the Nile and the sea, the
+     tribute of Kûsh for the peoples of the south, or Ganbâtiû.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0022" id="linkCimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/338.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="338.jpg Arrival of an Ethiopian Queen Bringing Tribute To The Viceroy of KÛsii " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Some of these were light-coloured men of a type similar to that of the
+      modern Abyssinians or Gallas: they had the same haughty and imperious
+      carriage, the same well-developed and powerful frames, and the same love
+      of fighting. Most of the remaining tribes were of black blood, and such of
+      them as we see depicted on the monuments resemble closely the negroes
+      inhabiting Central Africa at the present day.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0023" id="linkCimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/339.jpg" width="100%" alt="339.jpg Typical Galla Woman " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      They have the same elongated skull, the low prominent forehead, hollow
+      temples, short flattened nose, thick lips, broad shoulders, and salient
+      breast, the latter contrasting sharply with the undeveloped appearance of
+      the lower part of the body, which terminates in thin legs almost devoid of
+      calves. Egyptian civilization had already penetrated among these tribes,
+      and, as far as dress and demeanour were concerned, their chiefs differed
+      in no way from the great lords who formed the escort of the Pharaoh. We
+      see these provincial dignitaries represented in the white robe and
+      petticoat of starched, pleated, and gauffered linen; an innate taste for
+      bright colours, even in those early times, being betrayed by the red or
+      yellow scarf in which they wrapped themselves, passing it over one
+      shoulder and round the waist, whence the ends depended and formed a kind
+      of apron. A panther&rsquo;s skin covered the back, and one or two
+      ostrich-feathers waved from the top of the head or were fastened on one
+      side to the fillet confining the hair, which was arranged in short curls
+      and locks, stiffened with gum and matted with grease, so as to form a sort
+      of cap or grotesque aureole round the skull. The men delighted to load
+      themselves with rings, bracelets, earrings, and necklaces, while from
+      their arms, necks, and belts hung long strings of glass beads, which
+      jingled with every movement of the wearer. They seem to have frequently
+      chosen a woman as their ruler, and her dress appears to have closely
+      resembled that of the Egyptian ladies. She appeared before her subjects in
+      a chariot drawn by oxen, and protected from the sun by an umbrella edged
+      with fringe. The common people went about nearly naked, having merely a
+      loin-cloth of some woven stuff or an animal&rsquo;s skin thrown round their
+      hips. Their heads were either shaven, or adorned with tufts of hair
+      stiffened with gum. The children of both sexes wore no clothes until the
+      age of puberty; the women wrapped themselves in a rude garment or in a
+      covering of linen, and carried their children on the hip or in a basket of
+      esparto grass on the back, supported by a leather band which passed across
+      the forehead. One characteristic of all these tribes was their love of
+      singing and dancing, and their use of the drum and cymbals; they were
+      active and industrious, and carefully cultivated the rich soil of the
+      plain, devoting themselves to the raising of cattle, particularly of oxen,
+      whose horns they were accustomed to train fantastically into the shapes of
+      lyres, bows, and spirals, with bifurcations at the ends, or with small
+      human figures as terminations. As in the case of other negro tribes, they
+      plied the blacksmith&rsquo;s and also the goldsmith&rsquo;s trade, working up both
+      gold and silver into rings, chains, and quaintly shaped vases, some
+      specimens of their art being little else than toys, similar in design to
+      those which delighted the Byzantine Caesars of later date.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0024" id="linkCimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/341.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="341.jpg Gold Epergne Representing Scenes from Ethiopian Life " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a painting on the tomb of Hûi.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0026" id="linkCimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/345.jpg"
+       alt="345.jpg Queen MÛtnofrÎt in the GÎzeh Museum " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by
+Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      A wall-painting remains of a gold epergne, which represents men and
+      monkeys engaged in gathering the fruit of a group of dôm-palms. Two
+      individuals lead each a tame giraffe by the halter, others kneeling on the
+      rim raise their hands to implore mercy from an unseen enemy, while negro
+      prisoners, grovelling on their stomachs, painfully attempt to raise their
+      head and shoulders from the ground. This, doubtless, represents a scene
+      from the everyday life of the people of the Upper Nile, and gives a
+      faithful picture of what took place among many of its tribes during a
+      rapid inroad of some viceroy of Kush or a raid by his lieutenants.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The resources which Thûtmosis I. was able to draw regularly from these
+      southern regions, in addition to the wealth collected during his Syrian
+      campaign, enabled him to give a great impulse to building work. The
+      tutelary deity of his capital&mdash;Amon-Râ&mdash;who had ensured him the
+      victory in all his battles, had a prior claim on the bulk of the spoil; he
+      received it as a matter of course, and his temple at Thebes was thereby
+      considerably enlarged; we are not, however, able to estimate exactly what
+      proportion fell to other cities, such as Kummeh, Elephantine,* Abydos,**
+      and Memphis, where a few scattered blocks of stone still bear the name of
+      the king. Troubles broke out in Lower Egypt, but they were speedily
+      subdued by Thûtmosis, and he was able to end his days in the enjoyment of
+      a profound peace, undisturbed by any care save that of ensuring a regular
+      succession to his throne, and of restraining the ambitions of those who
+      looked to become possessed of his heritage.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Wiedemann found his name there
+     cut in a block of brown
+     freestone.
+
+     ** A stele at Abydos speaks of the
+     building operations carried on by
+     Thûtmosis I. in that town.
+
+     *** The expressions from which we
+     gather that his reign was disturbed
+     by outbreaks of internal rebellion
+     seem to refer to a period subsequent
+     to the Syrian expedition, and prior
+     to his alliance  with the Princess
+     Hâtshopsîtû.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His position was, indeed, a curious one; although <i>de facto</i> absolute
+      in power, his children by Queen Ahmasi took precedence of him, for by her
+      mother&rsquo;s descent she had a better right to the crown than her husband, and
+      legally the king should have retired in favour of hie sons as soon as they
+      were old enough to reign. The eldest of them, Uazmosû, died early.* The
+      second, Amenmosu, lived at least to attain adolescence; he was allowed to
+      share the crown with his father from the fourth year of the latter&rsquo;s
+      reign, and he also held a military command in the Delta,** but before long
+      he also died, and Thûtmosis I. was left with only one son&mdash;a
+      Thûtmosis like himself&mdash;to succeed him. The mother of this prince was
+      a certain Mûtnofrit,*** half-sister to the king on his father&rsquo;s side, who
+      enjoyed such a high rank in the royal family that her husband allowed her
+      to be portrayed in royal dress; her pedigree on the mother&rsquo;s side,
+      however, was not so distinguished, and precluded her son from being
+      recognised as heir-apparent, hence the occupation of the &ldquo;seat of Horus&rdquo;
+       reverted once more to a woman, Hâtshopsîtû, the eldest daughter of Âhmasi.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Uazmosû is represented on the tomb of Pahiri at El-Kab,
+     where Mr. Griffith imagines he can trace two distinct
+     Uazmosû; for the present, I am of opinion that there was but
+     one, the son of Thûtmosis I. His funerary chapel was
+     discovered at Thebes; it is in a very bad state of
+     preservation.
+
+     ** Amenmosû is represented at El-Kab, by the side of his
+     brother Uazmosû. Also on a fragment where we find him, in
+     the fourth year of his father&rsquo;s reign, honoured with a
+     cartouche at Memphis, and consequently associated with his
+     father in the royal power.
+
+     *** Mûtnofrit was supposed by Mariette to have been a
+     daughter of Thûtmosis II; the statue reproduced on p. 345
+     has shown us that she was wife of Thûtmosis I. and mother of
+     Thûtmosis II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Hâtshopsîtû herself was not, however, of purely divine descent. Her
+      maternal ancestor, Sonisonbû, had not been a scion of the royal house, and
+      this flaw in her pedigree threatened to mar, in her case, the sanctity of
+      the solar blood. According to Egyptian belief, this defect of birth could
+      only be remedied by a miracle,* and the ancestral god, becoming incarnate
+      in the earthly father at the moment of conception, had to condescend to
+      infuse fresh virtue into his race in this manner.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      * A similar instance of divine substitution is known to us in the case of
+      two other sovereigns, viz. Amenôthes III., whose father, Titmosis IV., was
+      born under conditions analogous to those attending the birth of Thûtmosis
+      I.; and Ptolemy Caesarion, whose father, Julius Cæsar, was not of Egyptian
+      blood.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0025" id="linkCimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/344.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="344.jpg Portrait of the Queen Âhmasi " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Naville.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The inscriptions with which Hâtshopsîtû decorated her chapel relate how,
+      on that fateful night, Amon descended upon Ahmasi in a flood of perfume
+      and light. The queen received him favourably, and the divine spouse on
+      leaving her announced to her the approaching birth of a daughter, in whom
+      his valour and strength should be manifested once more here below. The
+      sequel of the story is displayed in a series of pictures before our eyes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The protecting divinities who preside over the birth of children conduct
+      the queen to her couch, and the sorrowful resignation depicted on her
+      face, together with the languid grace of her whole figure, display in this
+      portrait of her a finished work of art. The child enters the world amid
+      shouts of joy, and the propitious genii who nourish both her and her
+      double constitute themselves her nurses. At the appointed time, her
+      earthly father summons the great nobles to a solemn festival, and presents
+      to them his daughter, who is to reign with him over Egypt and the world.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The association of Hâtshopsîtû with her father on the
+     throne, has now been placed beyond doubt by the inscriptions
+     discovered and commented on by Naville in 1895.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0027" id="linkCimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/346.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="346.jpg Queen HÂtshopsÎtÛ in Male Costume " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Naville.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      From henceforth Hâtshopsîtû adopts every possible device to conceal her
+      real sex. She changes the termination of her name, and calls herself
+      Hâtshopsîû, the chief of the nobles, in lieu of Hâtshopsîtû, the chief of
+      the favourites. She becomes the King Mâkerî, and on the occasion of all
+      public ceremonies she appears in male costume. We see her represented on
+      the Theban monuments with uncovered shoulders, devoid of breasts, wearing
+      the short loin-cloth and the keffieh, while the diadem rests on her
+      closely cut hair, and the false beard depends from her chin.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0028" id="linkCimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/347.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="347.jpg Bust of Queen HÂtshopsÎtÛ " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Mertens.
+     This was the head of one of the sphinxes which formed an
+     avenue at Deîr el-Baharî; it was brought over by Lepsius and
+     is now in the Berlin Museum. The fragment has undergone
+     extensive restoration, but this has been done with the help
+     of fragments of other statues, in which the details here
+     lost were in a good state of preservation.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      She retained, however, the feminine pronoun in speaking of herself, and
+      also an epithet, inserted in her cartouche, which declared her to be the
+      betrothed of Amon&mdash;khnûmît Amaûnû.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We know how greatly puzzled the early Egyptologists were
+     by this manner of depicting the queen, and how Champollion,
+     in striving to explain the monuments of the period, was
+     driven to suggest the existence of a regent, Amenenthes, the
+     male counterpart and husband of Hâtshopsîtû, whose name he
+     read Amense. This hypothesis, adopted by Rosellini, with
+     some slight modifications, was rejected by Birch. This
+     latter writer pointed out the identity of the two personages
+     separated by Champollion, and proved them to be one and the
+     same queen, the Amenses of Manetho; he called her Amûn-nûm-
+     hc, but he made her out to be a sister of Amenôthes I.,
+     associated on the throne with her brothers Thûtmosis I. and
+     Thûtmosis IL, and regent at the beginning of the reign of
+     Thûtmosis III. Hineks tried to show that she was the
+     daughter of Thûtmosis I., the wife of Thûtmosis II. and the
+     sister of Thûtmosis III.; it is only quite recently that her
+     true descent and place in the family tree has been
+     recognised. She was, not the sister, but the aunt of
+     Thûtmosis III. The queen, called by Birch Amûn-nûm-het, the
+     latter part of her name being dropped and the royal prenomen
+     being joined to her own name, was subsequently styled Ha-asû
+     or Hatasû, and this form is still adopted by some writers;
+     the true reading is Hâtshopsîtû or Hâtshopsîtû, then
+     Hâtshopsîû, or Hâtshepsîû, as Naville has pointed out.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Her father united her while still young to her brother Thûtmosis, who
+      appears to have been her junior, and this fact doubtless explains the very
+      subordinate part which he plays beside the queen. When Thûtmosis I. died,
+      Egyptian etiquette demanded that a man should be at the head of affairs,
+      and this youth succeeded his father in office: but Hâtshopsîtû, while
+      relinquishing the semblance of power and the externals of pomp to her
+      husband,* kept the direction of the state entirely in her own hands. The
+      portraits of her which have been preserved represent her as having refined
+      features, with a proud and energetic expression. The oval of the face is
+      elongated, the cheeks a little hollow, and the eyes deep set under the
+      arch of the brow, while the lips are thin and tightly closed.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It is evident, from the expressions employed by Thûtmosis
+     I. in associating his daughter with himself on the throne,
+     that she was unmarried at the time, and Naville thinks that
+     she married her brother Thûtmosis II. after the death of her
+     father. It appears to me more probable that Thûtmosis I.
+     married her to her brother after she had been raised to the
+     throne, with a view to avoiding complications which might
+     have arisen in the royal family after his own death. The
+     inscription at Shutt-er-Ragel, which has furnished Mariette
+     with the hypothesis that Thûtmosis I. and Thûtmosis IL
+     reigned simultaneously, proves that the person mentioned in
+     it, a certain Penaîti, flourished under both these Pharaohs,
+     but by no means shows that these two reigned together; he
+     exercised the functions which he held by their authority
+     during their successive reigns.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0029" id="linkCimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/348b.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="348b.jpg Painting on the Tomb of The Kings " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      She governed with so firm a hand that neither Egypt nor its foreign
+      vassals dared to make any serious attempt to withdraw themselves from her
+      authority. One raid, in which several prisoners were taken, punished a
+      rising of the Shaûsû in Central Syria, while the usual expeditions
+      maintained order among the peoples of Ethiopia, and quenched any attempt
+      which they might make to revolt. When in the second year of his reign the
+      news was brought to Thutmosis II. that the inhabitants of the Upper Nile
+      had ceased to observe the conditions which his father had imposed upon
+      them, he &ldquo;became furious as a panther,&rdquo; and assembling his troops set out
+      for war without further delay. The presence of the king with the army
+      filled the rebels with dismay, and a campaign of a few weeks put an end to
+      their attempt at rebelling.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The earlier kings of the XVIIIth dynasty had chosen for their last
+      resting-place a spot on the left bank of the Nile at Thebes, where the
+      cultivated land joined the desert, close to the pyramids built by their
+      predecessors. Probably, after the burial of Amenôthes, the space was fully
+      occupied, for Thutmosis I. had to seek his burying-ground some way up the
+      ravine, the mouth of which was blocked by their monuments. The Libyan
+      chain here forms a kind of amphitheatre of vertical cliffs, which descend
+      to within some ninety feet of the valley, where a sloping mass of detritus
+      connects them by a gentle declivity with the plain.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0030" id="linkCimage-0030">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/350.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="350.jpg the Amphitheatre at DeÎr El-baharÎ, As It Appeared Bepoee Naville&rsquo;s Excavations " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The great lords and the queens in the times of the Antufs and the
+      Usirtasens had taken possession of this spot, but their chapels were by
+      this period in ruins, and their tombs almost all lay buried under the
+      waves of sand which the wind from the desert drives perpetually over the
+      summit of the cliffs. This site was seized on by the architects of
+      Thûtmosis, who laid there the foundations of a building which was destined
+      to be unique in the world. Its ground plan consisted of an avenue of
+      sphinxes, starting from the plain and running between the tombs till it
+      reached a large courtyard, terminated on the west by a colonnade, which
+      was supported by a double row of pillars.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0031" id="linkCimage-0031">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/351.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="351.jpg the Northern Collonade " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Bouclier, from a photograph supplied by Naville.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Above and beyond this was the vast middle platform,* connected with the
+      upper court by the central causeway which ran through it from end to end;
+      this middle platform, like that below it, was terminated on the west by a
+      double colonnade, through which access was gained to two chapels hollowed
+      out of the mountain-side, while on the north it was bordered with
+      excellent effect by a line of proto-Dorio columns ranged against the face
+      of the cliff.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The English nomenclature employed in describing this
+     temple is that used in the <i>Guide to Deir el-Bahari</i>,
+     published by the <i>Egypt Exploration Fund</i>.&mdash;Tr.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This northern colonnade was never completed, but the existing part is of
+      as exquisite proportions as anything that Greek art has ever produced. At
+      length we reach the upper platform, a nearly square courtyard, cutting on
+      one side into the mountain slope, the opposite side being enclosed by a
+      wall pierced by a single door, while to right and left ran two lines of
+      buildings destined for purposes connected with the daily worship of the
+      temple. The sanctuary was cut out of the solid rock, but the walls were
+      faced with white limestone; some of the chambers are vaulted, and all of
+      them decorated with bas-reliefs of exquisite workmanship, perhaps the
+      finest examples of this period. Thûtmosis I. scarcely did more than lay
+      the foundations of this magnificent building, but his mummy was buried in
+      it with great pomp, to remain there until a period of disturbance and
+      general insecurity obliged those in charge of the necropolis to remove the
+      body, together with those of his family, to some securer hiding-place.*
+      The king was already advanced in age at the time of his death, being over
+      fifty years old, to judge by the incisor teeth, which are worn and
+      corroded by the impurities of which the Egyptian bread was full.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Both E. de Rougé and Mariette were opposed to the view
+     that the temple was founded by Thûtmosis I., and Naville
+     agrees with them. Judging from the many new texts discovered
+     by Naville, I am inclined to think that Thûtmosis I. began
+     the structure, but from plans, it would appear, which had
+     not been so fully developed as they afterwards became. Prom
+     indications to be found here and there in the inscriptions
+     of the Ramesside period, I am not, moreover, inclined to
+     regard Deîr el-Bâhâri as the funerary chapel of tombs which
+     were situated in some unknown place elsewhere, but I believe
+     that it included the burial-places of Thûtmosis I.,
+     Thûtmosis II., Queen Hâtshopsîtû, and of numerous
+     representatives of their family; indeed, it is probable that
+     Thûtmosis III. and his children found here also their last
+     resting-place.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0032" id="linkCimage-0032">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/353.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="353.jpg Head of the Mummy Of ThÛtmosis I. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph taken by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The body, though small and emaciated, shows evidence of unusual muscular
+      strength; the head is bald, the features are refined, and the mouth still
+      bears an expression characteristic of shrewdness and cunning.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The coffin of Thûtmosis I. was usurped by the priest-king
+     Pinozmû I., son of Piônkhi, and the mummy was lost. I fancy
+     I have discovered it in mummy No. 5283, of which the head
+     presents a striking resemblance to those of Thûtmosis II.
+     and III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Thûtmosis II. carried on the works begun by his father, but did not long
+      survive him.* The mask on his coffin represents him with a smiling and
+      amiable countenance, and with the fine pathetic eyes which show his
+      descent from the Pharaohs of the XIIth dynasty.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The latest year up to the present known of this king is
+     the IInd, found upon the Aswan stele. Erman, followed by Ed.
+     Meyer, thinks that Hâtshop-sîtû could not have been free
+     from complicity in the premature death of Thûtmosis II.; but
+     I am inclined to believe, from the marks of disease found on
+     the skin of his mummy, that the queen was innocent of the
+     crime here ascribed to her.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0033" id="linkCimage-0033">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/354.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="354.jpg Head of the Mummy Of ThÛtmosis Ii. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph in the possession of
+     Emil Brugsch Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His statues bear the same expression, which indeed is that of the mummy
+      itself. He resembles Thûtmosis I., but his features are not so marked, and
+      are characterised by greater gentleness. He had scarcely reached the age
+      of thirty when he fell a victim to a disease of which the process of
+      embalming could not remove the traces. The skin is scabrous in patches,
+      and covered with scars, while the upper part of the skull is bald; the
+      body is thin and somewhat shrunken, and appears to have lacked vigour and
+      muscular power. By his marriage with his sister, Thûtmosis left daughters
+      only,* but he had one son, also a Thûtmosis, by a woman of low birth,
+      perhaps merely a slave, whose name was Isis.** Hâtshopsîtû proclaimed this
+      child her successor, for his youth and humble parentage could not excite
+      her jealousy. She betrothed him to her one surviving daughter, Hâtshopsîtû
+      II., and having thus settled the succession in the male line, she
+      continued to rule alone in the name of her nephew who was still a minor,
+      as she had done formerly in the case of her half-brother.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Two daughters of Queen Hâtshopsîtû I. are known, of whom
+     one, Nofîrûrî, died young, and Hâtshopsîtû II. Marîtrî, who
+     was married to her half-brother on her father&rsquo;s side,
+     Thûtmosis III., who was thus her cousin as well. Amenôthes
+     II. was offspring of this marriage.
+
+     ** The name of the mother of Thûtmosis III. was revealed to
+     us on the wrappings found with the mummy of this king in the
+     hiding-place of Deîr el-Baharî; the absence of princely
+     titles, while it shows the humble extraction of the lady
+     Isis, explains at the same time the somewhat obscure
+     relations between Hâtshopsîtû and her nephew.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0034" id="linkCimage-0034">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/356.jpg"
+       alt="356.jpg the Coffin of Thûtmosis I. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph in
+the possession of Emil
+Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Her reign was a prosperous one, but whether the flourishing condition of
+      things was owing to the ability of her political administration or to her
+      fortunate choice of ministers, we are unable to tell. She pressed forward
+      the work of building with great activity, under the direction of her
+      architect Sanmût, not only at Deîr el-Baharî, but at Karnak, and indeed
+      everywhere in Thebes. The plans of the building had been arranged under
+      Thûtmosis I., and their execution had been carried out so quickly, that in
+      many cases the queen had merely to see to the sculptural ornamentation on
+      the all but completed walls.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This work, however, afforded her sufficient excuse, according to Egyptian
+      custom, to attribute the whole structure to herself, and the opinion she
+      had of her own powers is exhibited with great naiveness in her
+      inscriptions. She loves to pose as premeditating her actions long
+      beforehand, and as never venturing on the smallest undertaking without
+      reference to her divine father.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This is what I teach to mortals who shall live in centuries to come, and
+      whose hearts shall inquire concerning the monument which I have raised to
+      my father, speaking and exclaiming as they contemplate it: as for me, when
+      I sat in the palace and thought upon him who created me, my heart prompted
+      me to raise to him two obelisks of electrum, whose apices should pierce
+      the firmaments, before the noble gateway which is between the two great
+      pylons of the King Thûtmosis I. And my heart led me to address these words
+      to those who shall see my monuments in after-years and who shall speak of
+      my great deeds: Beware of saying, &lsquo;I know not, I know not why it was
+      resolved to carve this mountain wholly of gold!&rsquo; These two obelisks, My
+      Majesty has made them of electrum for my father Anion, that my name may
+      remain and live on in this temple for ever and ever; for this single block
+      of granite has been cut, without let or obstacle, at the desire of My
+      Majesty, between the first of the second month of Pirîfc of the Vth year,
+      and the 30th of the fourth month of Shomû of the VIth year, which makes
+      seven months from the day when they began to, quarry it. One of these two
+      monoliths is still standing among the ruins of Karnak, and the grace of
+      its outline, the finish of its hieroglyphics, and the beauty of the
+      figures which cover it, amply justify the pride which the queen and her
+      brother felt in contemplating it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0035" id="linkCimage-0035">
+      <!-- IMG --></a> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="356b (132K)" src="images/356b.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0036" id="linkCimage-0036">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/356b-text.jpg" width="100%" alt="356b-text " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0037" id="linkCimage-0037">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/357.jpg" width="100%" alt="357.jpg the Statue of SanmÛt " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Mortens:
+     the original is in the Berlin Museum, whither Lepsius
+     brought it. Sanmût is squatting and holding between his
+     arras and knees the young king Thût-mosis III,, whose head
+     with the youthful side lock appears from under his chin.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The tops of the pyramids were gilt, so that &ldquo;they could be seen from both
+      banks of the river,&rdquo; and &ldquo;their brilliancy lit up the two lands of Egypt:&rdquo;
+       needless to say these metal apices have long disappeared.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0038" id="linkCimage-0038">
+      <!-- IMG --></a> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="358 (161K)" src="images/358.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Later on, in the the queen&rsquo;s reign, Amon enjoined a work which was more
+      difficult to carry out. On a day when Hâtshopsîtû had gone to the temple
+      to offer prayers, &ldquo;her supplications arose up before the throne of the
+      Lord of Karnak, and a command was heard in the sanctuary, a behest of the
+      god himself, that the ways which lead to Pûanît should be explored, and
+      that the roads to the &lsquo;Ladders of Incense&rsquo; should be trodden.&rdquo; *
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The word &ldquo;Ladders&rdquo; is the translation of the Egyptian word
+     &ldquo;Khâtiû,&rdquo; employed in the text to designate the country laid
+     out in terraces where the incense trees grew; cf. with a
+     different meaning, the &ldquo;ladders&rdquo; of the eastern
+     Mediterranean.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Gums required for the temple service had hitherto reached the Theban
+      priests solely by means of foreign intermediaries; so that in the slow
+      transport across Africa they lost much of their freshness, besides being
+      defiled by passing through impure hands. In addition to these drawbacks,
+      the merchants confounded under the one term &ldquo;Anîti&rdquo; substances which
+      differed considerably both in value and character, several of them,
+      indeed, scarcely coming under the category of perfumes, and hence being
+      unacceptable to the gods. One kind, however, found favour with them above
+      all others, being that which still abounds in Somali-land at the present
+      day&mdash;a gum secreted by the incense sycomore.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * From the form of the trees depicted on the monument, it is
+     certain that the Egyptians went to Pûanît in search of the
+     <i>Boswellia Thurifera</i> Cart.; but they brought back with them
+     other products also, which they confounded together under
+     the name &ldquo;incense.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0039" id="linkCimage-0039">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/361.jpg"
+       alt="361.jpg an Inhabitant of the Land Of PÛanÎt " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Fauchon-Gudin,
+from a photograph by Gayet.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It was accounted a pious work to send and obtain it direct from the
+      locality in which it grew, and if possible to procure the plants
+      themselves for acclimatisation in the Nile valley. But the relations
+      maintained in former times with the people of these aromatic regions had
+      been suspended for centuries. &ldquo;None now climbed the &lsquo;Ladders of Incense,&rsquo;
+      none of the Egyptians; they knew of them from hearsay, from the stories of
+      people of ancient times, for these products were brought to the kings of
+      the Delta, thy fathers, to one or other of them, from the times of thy
+      ancestors the kings of the Said who lived of yore.&rdquo; All that could be
+      recalled of this country was summed up in the facts, that it lay to the
+      south or to the extreme east, that from thence many of the gods had come
+      into Egypt, while from out of it the sun rose anew every morning. Amon, in
+      his omniscience, took upon himself to describe it and give an exact
+      account of its position. &ldquo;The &lsquo;Ladders of Incense&rsquo; is a secret province of
+      Tonûtir, it is in truth a place of delight. I created it, and I thereto
+      lead Thy Majesty, together with Mût, Hâthor, Uîrît, the Lady of Pûanît,
+      Uîrît-hikaû, the magician and regent of the gods, that the aromatic gum
+      may be gathered at will, that the vessels may be laden joyfully with
+      living incense trees and with all the products of this earth.&rdquo; Hâtshopsîtû
+      chose out five well-built galleys, and manned them with picked crews. She
+      caused them to be laden with such merchandise as would be most attractive
+      to the barbarians, and placing the vessels under the command of a royal
+      envoy, she sent them forth on the Bed Sea in quest of the incense.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We are not acquainted with the name of the port from which the fleet set
+      sail, nor do we know the number of weeks it took to reach the land of
+      Pûanît, neither is there any record of the incidents which befell it by
+      the way. It sailed past the places frequented by the mariners of the XIIth
+      dynasty&mdash;Suakîn, Massowah, and the islands of the Ked Sea; it touched
+      at the country of the Ilîm which lay to the west of the Bab el-Mandeb,
+      went safely through the Straits, and landed at last in the Land of
+      Perfumes on the Somali coast.* There, between the bay of Zeîlah and Bas
+      Hafun, stretched the Barbaric region, frequented in later times by the
+      merchants of Myos Hormos and of Berenice.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * That part of Pûanît where the Egyptians landed was at
+     first located in Arabia by Brugsch, then transferred to
+     Somali-land by Mariette, whose opinion was accepted by most
+     Egyptologists. Dumichen, basing his hypothesis on a passage
+     where Pûanît is mentioned as &ldquo;being on both sides of the
+     sea,&rdquo; desired to apply the name to the Arabian as well as to
+     the African coast, to Yemen and Hadhramaut as well as to
+     Somali-land; this suggestion was adopted by Lieblein, and
+     subsequently by Ed. Meyer, who believed that its inhabitants
+     were the ancestors of the Sabseans. Since then Krall has
+     endeavoured to shorten the distance between this country and
+     Egypt, and he places the Pûanît of Hâtshopsîtû between
+     Suakin and Massowah. This was, indeed, the part of the
+     country known under the XIIth dynasty at the time when it
+     was believed that the Nile emptied itself thereabouts into
+     the Red Sea, in the vicinity of the Island of the Serpent
+     King, but I hold, with Mariette, that the Pûanît where the
+     Egyptians of Hâtshopsîtû&rsquo;s time landed is the present
+     Somali-land&mdash;a view which is also shared by Navillo, but
+     which Brugsch, in the latter years of his life, abandoned.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The first stations which the latter encountered beyond Cape Direh&mdash;Avails,
+      Malao, Mundos, and Mosylon&mdash;were merely open roadsteads offering no
+      secure shelter; but beyond Mosylon, the classical navigators reported the
+      existence of several wadys, the last of which, the Elephant River, lying
+      between Bas el-Eîl and Cape Guardafui, appears to have been large enough
+      not only to afford anchorage to several vessels of light draught, but to
+      permit of their performing easily any evolutions required. During the
+      Roman period, it was there, and there only, that the best kind of incense
+      could be obtained, and it was probably at this point also that the
+      Egyptians of Hâtshopsîtû&rsquo;s time landed. The Egyptian vessels sailed up the
+      river till they reached a place beyond the influence of the tide, and then
+      dropped anchor in front of a village scattered along a bank fringed with
+      sycomores and palms.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * I have shown, from a careful examination of the bas-
+     reliefs, that the Egyptians must have landed, not on the
+     coast itself, as was at first believed, but in the estuary
+     of a river, and this observation has been accepted as
+     decisive by most Egyptologists; besides this, newly
+     discovered fragments show the presence of a hippopotamus.
+     Since then I have sought to identify the landing-place of
+     the Egyptians with the most important of the creeks
+     mentioned by the Græco-Roman merchants as accessible for
+     their vessels, viz. that which they called the Elephant
+     River, near to the present Ras el-Fîl.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The huts of the inhabitants were of circular shape, each being surmounted
+      with a conical roof; some of them were made of closely plaited osiers, and
+      there was no opening in any of them save the door. They were built upon
+      piles, as a protection from the rise of the river and from wild animals,
+      and access to them was gained by means of moveable ladders. Oxen chewing
+      the cud rested beneath them. The natives belonged to a light-coloured
+      race, and the portraits we possess of them resemble the Egyptian type in
+      every particular. They were tall and thin, and of a colour which varied
+      between brick-red and the darkest brown. Their beards were pointed, and
+      the hair was cut short in some instances, while in others it was arranged
+      in close rows of curls or in small plaits. The costume of the men
+      consisted of a loin-cloth only, while the dress of the women was a yellow
+      garment without sleeves, drawn in at the waist and falling halfway below
+      the knee.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The royal envoy landed under an escort of eight soldiers and an officer,
+      but, to prove his pacific intentions, he spread out upon a low table a
+      variety of presents, consisting of five bracelets two gold necklaces, a
+      dagger with strap and sheath complete, a battle-axe, and eleven strings of
+      glass beads.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0040" id="linkCimage-0040">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/363.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="363.jpg a Village on the Bank of The River, With Ladders Of Incense " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The inhabitants, dazzled by the display of so many valuable objects, ran
+      to meet the new-comers, headed by their sheikh, and expressed a natural
+      astonishment at the sight of the strangers. &ldquo;How is it,&rdquo; they exclaimed,
+      &ldquo;that you have reached this country hitherto unknown to men? Have you come
+      down by way of the sky, or have you sailed on the waters of the Tonûtir
+      Sea? You have followed the path of the sun, for as for the king of the
+      land of Egypt, it is not possible to elude him, and we live, yea, we
+      ourselves, by the breath which he gives us.&rdquo; The name of their chief was
+      Parihû, who was distinguished from his subjects by the boomerang which he
+      carried, and also by his dagger and necklace of beads: his right leg,
+      moreover, appears to have been covered with a kind of sheath composed of
+      rings of some yellow metal, probably gold.* He was accompanied by his wife
+      Ati, riding on an ass, from which she alighted in order to gain a closer
+      view of the strangers. She was endowed with a type of beauty much admired
+      by the people of Central Africa, being so inordinately fat that the shape
+      of her body was scarcely recognisable under the rolls of flesh which hung
+      down from it. Her daughter, who appeared to be still young, gave promise
+      of one day rivalling, if not exceeding, her mother in size.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Mariette compares this kind of armour to the &ldquo;dangabor&rdquo; of
+     the Congo tribes, but the &ldquo;dangabor &ldquo;is worn on the arm.
+     Livingstone saw a woman, the sister of Sebituaneh, the
+     highest lady of the Sesketeh, who wore on each leg eighteen
+     rings of solid brass as thick as the finger, and three rings
+     of copper above the knee. The weight of these shining rings
+     impeded her walking, and produced sores on her ankles; but
+     it was the fashion, and the inconvenience became nothing. As
+     to the pain, it was relieved by a bit of rag applied to the
+     lower rings.
+
+     ** These are two instances of abnormal fat production&mdash;the
+     earliest with which we are acquainted.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      After an exchange of compliments, the more serious business of the
+      expedition was introduced. The Egyptians pitched a tent, in which they
+      placed the objects of barter with which they were provided, and to prevent
+      these from being too great a temptation to the natives, they surrounded
+      the tent with a line of troops.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0041" id="linkCimage-0041">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/365.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="365.jpg Prince ParihÛ and the Princess of PuanÎt " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The main conditions of the exchange were arranged at a banquet, in which
+      they spread before the barbarians a sumptuous display of Egyptian
+      delicacies, consisting of bread, beer, wine, meat, and carefully prepared
+      and flavoured vegetables. Payment for every object was to be made at the
+      actual moment of purchase. For several days there was a constant stream of
+      people, and asses groaned beneath their burdens. The Egyptian purchases
+      comprised the most varied objects: ivory tusks, gold, ebony, cassia,
+      myrrh, cynocephali and green monkeys, greyhounds, leopard skins, large
+      oxen, slaves, and last, but not least, thirty-one incense trees, with
+      their roots surrounded by a ball of earth and placed in large baskets. The
+      lading of the ships was a long and tedious affair. All available space
+      being at length exhausted, and as much cargo placed on board as was
+      compatible with the navigation of the vessel, the squadron set sail and
+      with all speed took its way northwards.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0042" id="linkCimage-0042">
+      <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/366.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img
+      alt="366th Embarkation of The Incense Sycomores On Board the Egyptian Fleet"
+       src="images/366th.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Bouclier, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians touched at several places on the coast on their return
+      journey, making friendly alliances with the inhabitants; the Him added a
+      quota to their freight, for which room was with difficulty found on board,&mdash;it
+      consisted not only of the inevitable gold, ivory, and skins, but also of
+      live leopards and a giraffe, together with plants and fruits unknown on
+      the banks of the Nile.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Lieblein thought that their country was explored, not by
+     the sailors who voyaged to Pûanît, but by a different body
+     who proceeded by land, and this view was accepted by Ed.
+     Meyer. The completed text proves that there was but a single
+     expedition, and that the explorers of Pûanît visited the
+     Ilîm also. The giraffe which they gave does not appear in
+     the cargo of the vessels at Pûanît; the visit must,
+     therefore, have been paid on the return voyage, and the
+     giraffe was probably represented on the destroyed part of
+     the walls where Naville found the image of this animal
+     wandering at liberty among the woods.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The fleet at length made its reappearance in Egyptian ports, having on
+      board the chiefs of several tribes on whose coasts the sailors had landed,
+      and &ldquo;bringing back so much that the like had never been brought of the
+      products of Pûanît to other kings, by the supreme favour of the venerable
+      god, Amon Râ, lord of Karnak.&rdquo; The chiefs mentioned were probably young
+      men of superior family, who had been confided to the officer in command of
+      the squadron by local sheikhs, as pledges to the Pharaoh of good will or
+      as commercial hostages. National vanity, no doubt, prompted the Egyptians
+      to regard them as vassals coming to do homage, and their gifts as tributes
+      denoting subjection. The Queen inaugurated a solemn festival in honour of
+      the explorers. The Theban militia was ordered out to meet them, the royal
+      flotilla escorting them as far as the temple landing-place, where a
+      procession was formed to carry the spoil to the feet of the god. The good
+      Theban folk, assembled to witness their arrival, beheld the march past of
+      the native hostages, the incense sycomores, the precious gum itself, the
+      wild animals, the giraffe, and the oxen, whose numbers were doubtless
+      increased a hundredfold in the accounts given to posterity with the usual
+      official exaggeration. The trees were planted at Deîr el-Baharî, where a
+      sacred garden was prepared for them, square trenches being cut in the rock
+      and filled with earth, in which the sycomore, by frequent watering, came
+      to flourish well.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Naville found these trenches still filled with vegetable
+     mould, and in several of them roots, which gave every
+     indication of the purpose to which the trenches were
+     applied. A scene represents seven of the incense sycomores
+     still growing in their pots, and offered by the queen to the
+     Majesty &ldquo;of this god Amonrâ of Karnak.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      The great heaps of fresh resin were next the objects of special attention.
+      Hâtshopsîtû &ldquo;gave a bushel made of electrum to gauge the mass of gum, it
+      being the first time that they had the joy of measuring the perfumes for
+      Amon, lord of Karnak, master of heaven, and of presenting to him the
+      wonderful products of Pûanît. Thot, the lord of Hermo-polis, noted the
+      quantities in writing; Safkhîtâbûi verified the list. Her Majesty herself
+      prepared from it, with her own hands, a perfumed unguent for her limbs;
+      she gave forth the smell of the divine dew, her perfume reached even to
+      Pûanît, her skin became like wrought gold,* and her countenance shone like
+      the stars in the great festival hall, in the sight of the whole earth.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In order to understand the full force of the imagery here
+     employed, one must remember that the Egyptian artists
+     painted the flesh of women as light yellow.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Hâtshopsîtû commanded the history of the expedition to be carved on the
+      wall of the colonnades which lay on the west side of the middle platform
+      of her funerary chapel: we there see the little fleet with sails spread,
+      winging its way to the unknown country, its safe arrival at its
+      destination, the meeting with the natives, the animated palavering, the
+      consent to exchange freely accorded; and thanks to the minuteness with
+      which the smallest details have been portrayed, we can as it were witness,
+      as if on the spot, all the phases of life on board ship, not only on
+      Egyptian vessels, but, as we may infer, those of other Oriental nations
+      generally. For we may be tolerably sure that when the Phoenicians ventured
+      into the distant parts of the Mediterranean, it was after a similar
+      fashion that they managed and armed their vessels.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0043" id="linkCimage-0043">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/369.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="369.jpg Some of the Incense Trees Brought from PÛanÎt To DeÎr El-baiiakÎ " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Although the natural features of the Asiatic or Greek coast on which they
+      effected a landing differed widely from those of Pûanît, the Phoenician
+      navigators were themselves provided with similar objects of exchange, and
+      in their commercial dealings with the natives the methods of procedure of
+      the European traders were doubtless similar to those of the Egyptians with
+      the barbarians of the Red Sea.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Hâtshopsîtû reigned for at least eight years after this memorable
+      expedition, and traces of her further activity are to be observed in every
+      part of the Nile valley. She even turned her attention to the Delta, and
+      began the task of reorganising this part of her kingdom, which had been
+      much neglected by her predecessors. The wars between the Theban princes
+      and the lords of Avaris had lasted over a century, and during that time no
+      one had had either sufficient initiative or leisure to superintend the
+      public works, which were more needed here than in any other part of Egypt.
+      The canals were silted up with mud, the marshes and the desert had
+      encroached on the cultivated lands, the towns had become impoverished, and
+      there were some provinces whose population consisted solely of shepherds
+      and bandits. Hâtshopsîtû desired to remedy these evils, if only for the
+      purpose of providing a practicable road for her armies marching to Zalû <i>en
+      route</i> for Syria.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This follows from the great inscription at Stabl-Antar,
+     which is commonly interpreted as proving that the Shepherd-
+     kings still held sway in Egypt in the reign of Thûtmosis
+     III., and that they were driven out by him and his aunt. It
+     seems to me that the queen is simply boasting that she had
+     repaired the monuments which had been injured by the
+     Shepherds during the time they sojourned in Egypt, in the
+     land of Avaris. Up to the present time no trace of these
+     restorations has been found on the sites. The expedition to
+     Pûanît being mentioned in lines 13, 14, they must be of
+     later date than the year IX. of Hâtshopsîtû and Thûtmosis
+     III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      She also turned her attention to the mines of Sinai, which had not been
+      worked by the Egyptian kings since the end of the XIIth dynasty. In the
+      year XVI. an officer of the queen&rsquo;s household was despatched to the Wady
+      Magharah, the site of the ancient works, with orders to inspect the
+      valleys, examine the veins, and restore there the temple of the goddess
+      Hâthor; having accomplished his mission, he returned, bringing with him a
+      consignment of those blue and green stones which were so highly esteemed
+      by the Egyptians.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile, Thûtmosis III. was approaching manhood, and his aunt, the
+      queen, instead of abdicating in his favour, associated him with herself
+      more frequently in the external acts of government.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The account of the youth of Thûtmosis III., such as
+     Brugsch made it out to be from an inscription of this king,
+     the exile of the royal child at Bûto, his long sojourn in
+     the marshes, his triumphal return, must all be rejected.
+     Brugsch accepted as actual history a poetical passage where
+     the king identifies himself with Horus son of Isis, and
+     goes so far as to attribute to himself the adventures of the
+     god.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      She was forced to yield him precedence in those religious ceremonies which
+      could be performed by a man only, such as the dedication of one of the
+      city gates of Ombos, and the foundation and marking out of a temple at
+      Medinet-Habû; but for the most part she obliged him to remain in the
+      background and take a secondary place beside her. We are unable to
+      determine the precise moment when this dual sovereignty came to an end. It
+      was still existent in the XVIth year of the reign, but it had ceased
+      before the XXIInd year. Death alone could take the sceptre from the hands
+      that held it, and Thûtmosis had to curb his impatience for many a long day
+      before becoming the real master of Egypt. He was about twenty-five years
+      of age when this event took place, and he immediately revenged himself for
+      the long repression he had undergone, by endeavouring to destroy the very
+      remembrance of her whom he regarded as a usurper. Every portrait of her
+      that he could deface without exposing himself to being accused of
+      sacrilege was cut away, and he substituted for her name either that of
+      Thûtmosis I. or of Thûtmosis II.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0044" id="linkCimage-0044">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/372.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="372.jpg Thutmosis Iii., from his Statue in the Turin Museum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A complete political change was effected both at home and abroad from the
+      first day of his accession to power. Hâtshopsîtû had been averse to war.
+      During the whole of her reign there had not been a single campaign
+      undertaken beyond the isthmus of Suez, and by the end of her life she had
+      lost nearly all that her father had gained in Syria; the people of Kharu
+      had shaken off the yoke,* probably at the instigation of the king of the
+      Amorites,** and nothing remained to Egypt of the Asiatic province but
+      Gaza, Sharûhana,*** and the neighbouring villages. The young king set out
+      with his army in the latter days of the year XXII. He reached Gaza on the
+      3rd of the month of Pakhons, in time to keep the anniversary of his
+      coronation in that town, and to inaugurate the 24th year of his reign by
+      festivals in honour of his father Amon.**** They lasted the usual length
+      of time, and all the departments of State took part in them, but it was
+      not a propitious moment for lengthy ceremonies.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * E. de Rougé thought that he had discovered, in a slightly
+     damaged inscription bearing upon the Pûanît expedition, the
+     mention of a tribute paid by the Lotanû. There is nothing in
+     the passage cited but the mention of the usual annual dues
+     paid by the chiefs of Pûanît and of the Ilîm.
+
+     ** This is at least what may be inferred from the account of
+     the campaign, where the Prince of Qodshû, a town of the
+     Amaûru (Amorites), figures at the head of the coalition
+     formed against Thûtmosis III.
+
+     *** This is the conclusion to be adopted from the beginning
+     of the inscription of Thûtmosis III.: &ldquo;Now, during the
+     duration of these same years, the country of the Lotanû was
+     in discord until other times succeeded them, when the people
+     who were in the town of Sharûhana, from the town of Yûrza,
+     to the most distant regions of the earth, succeeded in
+     making a revolt against his Majesty.&rdquo;
+
+     **** The account of this campaign has been preserved to us
+     on a wall adjoining the granite sanctuary at Karnak.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The king left Gaza the following day, the 5th of Pakhons; he marched but
+      slowly at first, following the usual caravan route, and despatching troops
+      right and left to levy contributions on the cities of the Plain&mdash;Migdol,
+      Yapu (Jaffa), Lotanû, Ono&mdash;and those within reach on the mountain
+      spurs, or situated within the easily accessible wadys, such as Sauka
+      (Socho), Hadid, and Harîlu. On the 16th day he had not proceeded further
+      than Yahmu, where he received information which caused him to push quickly
+      forward. The lord of Qodshû had formed an alliance with the Syrian princes
+      on the borders of Naharaim, and had extorted from them promises of help;
+      he had already gone so far as to summon contingents from the Upper
+      Orontes, the Litany, and the Upper Jordan, and was concentrating them at
+      Megiddo, where he proposed to stop the way of the invading army. Thûtmosis
+      called together his principal officers, and having imparted the news to
+      them, took counsel with them as to a plan of attack. Three alternative
+      routes were open to him. The most direct approached the enemy&rsquo;s position
+      on the front, crossing Mount Carmel by the saddle now known as the Umm
+      el-Fahm; but the great drawback attached to this route was its being so
+      restricted that the troops would be forced to advance in too thin a file;
+      and the head of the column would reach the plain and come into actual
+      conflict with the enemy while the rear-guard would only be entering the
+      defiles in the neighbourhood of Aluna. The second route bore a little to
+      the east, crossing the mountains beyond Dutîna and reaching the plain near
+      Taânach; but it offered the same disadvantages as the other. The third
+      road ran north of <i>Zafîti</i>, to meet the great highway which cuts the
+      hill-district of Nablûs, skirting the foot of Tabor near Jenîn, a little
+      to the north of Megiddo. It was not so direct as the other two, but it was
+      easier for troops, and the king&rsquo;s generals advised that it should be
+      followed. The king was so incensed that he was tempted to attribute their
+      prudence to cowardice. &ldquo;By my life! by the love that Râ hath for me, by
+      the favour that I enjoy from my master Amon, by the perpetual youth of my
+      nostril in life and power, My Majesty will go by the way of Aluna, and let
+      him that will go by the roads of which ye have spoken, and let him that
+      will follow My Majesty. What will be said among the vile enemies detested
+      of Râ: &lsquo;Doth not His Majesty go by another way? For fear of us he gives us
+      a wide berth,&rsquo; they will cry.&rdquo; The king&rsquo;s counsellors did not insist
+      further. &ldquo;May thy father Amon of Thebes protect thee!&rdquo; they exclaimed; &ldquo;as
+      for us, we will follow Thy Majesty whithersoever thou goest, as it
+      befitteth a servant to follow his master.&rdquo; The word of command was given
+      to the men; Thûtmosis himself led the vanguard, and the whole army,
+      horsemen and foot-soldiers, followed in single file, wending their way
+      through the thickets which covered the southern slopes of Mount Carmel.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The position of the towns mentioned and of the three roads
+     has been discussed by E. de Rougé, also by P. de Saulcy, who
+     fixed the position of Yahmu at El-Kheimeh, and showed that
+     the Egyptian army must have passed through the defiles of
+     Umm el-Rahm. Conder disagreed with this opinion in certain
+     respects, and identified Aluna, Aruna, at first with
+     Arrabeh, and afterwards with Arraneh; he thought that
+     Thûtmosis came out upon Megiddo from the south-east, and he
+     placed Megiddo at Mejeddah, near Beisan, while Tomkins
+     placed Aruna in the Wady el-Arriân. W. Max Millier seems to
+     place Yahinu too much to the north, in the neighbourhood of
+     Jett.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They pitched their camp on the evening of the 19th near Aluna, and on the
+      morning of the 20th they entered the wild defiles through which it was
+      necessary to pass in order to reach the enemy. The king had taken
+      precautionary measures against any possible attempt of the natives to cut
+      the main column during this crossing of the mountains. His position might
+      at any moment have become a critical one, had the allies taken advantage
+      of it and attacked each battalion as it issued on to the plain before it
+      could re-form. But the Prince of Qodshû, either from ignorance of his
+      adversary&rsquo;s movements, or confident of victory in the open, declined to
+      take the initiative. Towards one o&rsquo;clock in the afternoon, the Egyptians
+      found themselves once more united on the further side of the range, close
+      to a torrent called the Qina, a little to the south of Megiddo. When the
+      camp was pitched, Thûtmosis announced his intention of engaging the enemy
+      on the morrow. A council of war was held to decide on the position that
+      each corps should occupy, after which the officers returned to their men
+      to see that a liberal supply of rations was served out, and to organise an
+      efficient system of patrols. They passed round the camp to the cry: &ldquo;Keep
+      a good heart: courage! Watch well, watch well! Keep alive in the camp!&rdquo;
+       The king refused to retire to rest until he had been assured that &ldquo;the
+      country was quiet, and also the host, both to south and north.&rdquo; By dawn
+      the next day the whole army was in motion. It was formed into a single
+      line, the right wing protected by the torrent, the left extended into the
+      plain, stretching beyond Megiddo towards the north-west. Thûtmosis and his
+      guards occupied the centre, standing &ldquo;armed in his chariot of electrum
+      like unto Horus brandishing his pike, and like Montû the Theban god.&rdquo; The
+      Syrians, who had not expected such an early attack, were seized with
+      panic, and fled in the direction of the town, leaving their horses and
+      chariots on the field; but the citizens, fearing lest in the confusion the
+      Egyptians should effect an entrance with the fugitives, had closed their
+      gates and refused to open them. Some of the townspeople, however, let down
+      ropes to the leaders of the allied party, and drew them up to the top of
+      the ramparts: &ldquo;and would to heaven that the soldiers of His Majesty had
+      not so far forgotten themselves as to gather up the spoil left by the vile
+      enemy! They would then have entered Megiddo forthwith; for while the men
+      of the garrison were drawing up the Lord of Qodshû and their own prince,
+      the fear of His Majesty was upon their limbs, and their hands failed them
+      by reason of the carnage which the royal urous carried into their ranks.&rdquo;
+       The victorious soldiery were dispersed over the fields, gathering together
+      the gilded and silvered chariots of the Syrian chiefs, collecting the
+      scattered weapons and the hands of the slain, and securing the prisoners;
+      then rallying about the king, they greeted him with acclamations and filed
+      past to deliver up the spoil. He reproached them for having allowed
+      themselves to be drawn away from the heat of pursuit. &ldquo;Had you carried
+      Megiddo, it would have been a favour granted to me by Râ my father this
+      day; for all the kings of the country being shut up within it, it would
+      have been as the taking of a thousand towns to have seized Megiddo.&rdquo; The
+      Egyptians had made little progress in the art of besieging a stronghold
+      since the times of the XIIth dynasty. When scaling failed, they had no
+      other resource than a blockade, and even the most stubborn of the Pharaohs
+      would naturally shrink from the tedium of such an undertaking. Thûtmosis,
+      however, was not inclined to lose the opportunity of closing the campaign
+      by a decisive blow, and began the investment of the town according to the
+      prescribed modes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0045" id="linkCimage-0045">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/378.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="378.jpg an Egyptian Encampment Before a Besieged Town " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His men were placed under canvas, and working under the protection of
+      immense shields, supported on posts, they made a ditch around the walls,
+      strengthening it with a palisade. The king constructed also on the east
+      side a fort which he called &ldquo;Manakhpirrî-holds-the-Asiatics.&rdquo; Famine soon
+      told on the demoralised citizens, and their surrender brought about the
+      submission of the entire country. Most of the countries situated between
+      the Jordan and the sea&mdash;Shunem, Cana, Kinnereth, Hazor, Bedippa,
+      Laish, Merom, and Acre&mdash;besides the cities of the Haurân&mdash;Hamath,
+      Magato, Ashtarôth, Ono-repha, and even Damascus itself&mdash;recognised
+      the suzerainty of Egypt, and their lords came in to the camp to do
+      homage.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The names of these towns are inscribed on the lists of
+     Karnak published by Mariette.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Syrian losses did not amount to more than 83 killed and 400 prisoners,
+      showing how easily they had been routed; but they had abandoned
+      considerable supplies, all of which had fallen into the hands of the
+      victors. Some 724 chariots, 2041 mares, 200 suits of armour, 602 bows, the
+      tent of the Prince of Qodshû with its poles of cypress inlaid with gold,
+      besides oxen, cows, goats, and more than 20,000 sheep, were among the
+      spoil. Before quitting the plain of Bsdraelon, the king caused an official
+      survey of it to be made, and had the harvest reaped. It yielded 208,000
+      bushels of wheat, not taking into account what had been looted or damaged
+      by the marauding soldiery. The return homewards of the Egyptians must have
+      resembled the exodus of some emigrating tribe rather than the progress of
+      a regular army
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thûtmosis caused a long list of the vanquished to be engraved on the walls
+      of the temple which he was building at Karnak, thus affording the good
+      people of Thebes an opportunity for the first time of reading on the
+      monuments the titles of the king&rsquo;s Syrian subjects written in
+      hieroglyphics. One hundred and nineteen names follow each other in
+      unbroken succession, some of them representing mere villages, while others
+      denoted powerful nations; the catalogue, however, was not to end even
+      here. Having once set out on a career of conquest, the Pharaoh had no
+      inclination to lay aside his arms. From the XXIIth year of his reign to
+      that of his death, we have a record of twelve military expeditions, all of
+      which he led in person. Southern Syria was conquered at the outset&mdash;the
+      whole of Kharû as far as the Lake of Grennesareth, and the Amorite power
+      was broken at one blow.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0046" id="linkCimage-0046">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/380.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="380.jpg Some of the Plants and Animals Brought Back From PuanÎt " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The three succeeding campaigns consolidated the rule of Egypt in the
+      country of the Negeb, which lay to the south-west of the Dead Sea, in
+      Phoenicia, which prudently resigned itself to its fate, and in that part
+      of Lotanii occupying the northern part of the basin of the Orontes.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We know of these three campaigns from the indirect
+     testimony of the Annals, which end in the year XXIX. with
+     the mention of the fifth campaign. The only dated one is
+     referred to the year XXV., and we know of that of the Negeb
+     only by the <i>Inscription of Amenemhabî</i>, 11. 3-5: the
+     campaign began in the Negeb of Judah, but the king carried
+     it to Naharaim the same year.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      None of these expeditions appear to have been marked by any successes
+      comparable to the victory at Megiddo, for the coalition of the Syrian
+      chiefs did not survive the blow which they then sustained; but Qodshû long
+      remained the centre of resistance, and the successive defeats which its
+      inhabitants suffered never disarmed for more than a short interval the
+      hatred which they felt for the Egyptian.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0047" id="linkCimage-0047">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/381.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="381.jpg Part of the Triumphal Lists Of Thutmosis Iii. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     On One Of The Pylons Of The Temple At Karnak. Drawn by
+     Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      During these years of glorious activity considerable tribute poured in to
+      both Memphis and Thebes; not only ingots of gold and silver, bars and
+      blocks of copper and lead, blocks of lapis-lazuli and valuable vases, but
+      horses, oxen, sheep, goats, and useful animals of every kind, in addition
+      to all of which we find, as in Hâtshopsîtû&rsquo;s reign, the mention of rare
+      plants and shrubs brought back from countries traversed by the armies in
+      their various expeditions. The Theban priests and <i>savants</i> exhibited
+      much interest in such curiosities, and their royal pupil gave orders to
+      his generals to collect for their benefit all that appeared either rare or
+      novel. They endeavoured to acclimatise the species or the varieties likely
+      to be useful, and in order to preserve a record of these experiments, they
+      caused a representation of the strange plants or animals to be drawn on
+      the walls of one of the chapels which they were then building to one of
+      their gods. These pictures may still be seen there in interminable lines,
+      portraying the specimens brought from the Upper Lotanû in the XXVth year
+      of Thûtmosis, and we are able to distinguish, side by side with many
+      plants peculiar to the regions of the Euphrates, others having their
+      habitat in the mountains and valleys of tropical Africa.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This return to an aggressive policy on the part of the Egyptians, after
+      the weakness they had exhibited during the later period of Hâtshopsîtû&rsquo;s
+      regency, seriously disconcerted the Asiatic sovereigns. They had vainly
+      flattered themselves that the invasion of Thûtmosis I. was merely the
+      caprice of an adventurous prince, and they hoped that when his love of
+      enterprise had expended itself, Egypt would permanently withdraw within
+      her traditional boundaries, and that the relations of Elam with Babylon,
+      Carchemish with Qodshû, and the barbarians of the Persian Gulf with the
+      inhabitants of the Iranian table-land would resume their former course.
+      This vain delusion was dispelled by the advent of a new Thûtmosis, who
+      showed clearly by his actions that he intended to establish and maintain
+      the sovereignty of Egypt over the western dependencies, at least, of the
+      ancient Chaldæan empire, that is to say, over the countries which bordered
+      the middle course of the Euphrates and the coasts of the Mediterranean.
+      The audacity of his marches, the valour of his men, the facility with
+      which in a few hours he had crushed the assembled forces of half Syria,
+      left no room to doubt that he was possessed of personal qualities and
+      material resources sufficient to carry out projects of the most ambitious
+      character. Babylon, enfeebled by the perpetual dissensions of its Cossæan
+      princes, was no longer in a position to contest with him the little
+      authority she still retained over the peoples of Naharaim or of
+      Coele-Syria; protected by the distance which separated her from the Nile
+      valley, she preserved a sullen neutrality, while Assyria hastened to form
+      a peaceful alliance with the invading power. Again and again its kings
+      sent to Thûtmosis presents in proportion to their resources, and the
+      Pharaoh naturally treated their advances as undeniable proofs of their
+      voluntary vassalage. Each time that he received from them a gift of metal
+      or lapis-lazuli, he proudly recorded their tribute in the annals of his
+      reign; and if, in exchange, he sent them some Egyptian product, it was in
+      smaller quantities, as might be expected from a lord to his vassal.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The &ldquo;tribute of Assûr&rdquo; is mentioned in this way under the
+     years XXIII. and XXIV. The presents sent by the Pharaoh in
+     return are not mentioned in any Egyptian text, but there is
+     frequent reference to them in the Tel el-Amarna tablets. It
+     may be mentioned here that the name of Nineveh does not
+     occur on the Egyptian monuments, but only that of the town
+     Nîi, in which Champollion wrongly recognised the later
+     capital of Assyria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Sometimes there would accompany the convoy, surrounded by an escort of
+      slaves and women, some princess, whom the king would place in his harem or
+      graciously pass on to one of his children; but when, on the other hand, an
+      even distant relative of the Pharaoh was asked in marriage for some king
+      on the banks of the Tigris or Euphrates, the request was met with a
+      disdainful negative: the daughters of the Sun were of too noble a race to
+      stoop to such alliances, and they would count it a humiliation to be sent
+      in marriage to a foreign court.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0048" id="linkCimage-0048">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/384.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="384.jpg Some of the Objects Carried in Tribute to The Syrians " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after Champollion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Free transit on the main road which ran diagonally through Kharû was
+      ensured by fortresses constructed at strategic points,* and from this time
+      forward Thûtmosis was able to bring the whole force of his army to bear
+      upon both Coele-Syria and Naharaim.** He encamped, in the year XXVII., on
+      the table-land separating the Afrîn and the Orontes from the Euphrates,
+      and from that centre devastated the district of Ûânît,*** which lay to the
+      west of Aleppo; then crossing &ldquo;the water of Naharaim&rdquo; in the neighbourhood
+      of Carchemish, he penetrated into the heart of Mitanni.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The castle, for instance, near Megiddo, previously
+     referred to, which, after having contributed to the siege of
+     the town, probably served to keep it in subjection.
+
+     ** The accounts of the campaigns of Thûtmosis III. have been
+     preserved in the Annals in a very mutilated condition, the
+     fragments of which were discovered at different times. They
+     are nothing but extracts from an official account, made for
+     Amon and his priests.
+
+     *** The province of the Tree Ûanû; cf. with this designation
+     the epithet &ldquo;Shad Erini,&rdquo; &ldquo;mountain of the cedar tree,&rdquo;
+      which the Assyrians bestowed on the Amanus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The following year he reappeared in the same region. Tunipa, which had
+      made an obstinate resistance, was taken, together with its king, and 329
+      of his nobles were forced to yield themselves prisoners. Thûtmosis &ldquo;with a
+      joyous heart&rdquo; was carrying them away captive, when it occurred to him that
+      the district of Zahi, which lay away for the most part from the great
+      military highroads, was a tempting prey teeming with spoil. The barns were
+      stored with wheat and barley, the cellars were filled with wine, the
+      harvest was not yet gathered in, and the trees bent under the weight of
+      their fruit. Having pillaged Senzaûrû on the Orontes,* he made his way to
+      the westwards through the ravine formed by the Ishahr el-Kebîr, and
+      descended suddenly on the territory of Arvad. The towns once more escaped
+      pillage, but Thutmosis destroyed the harvests, plundered the orchards,
+      carried off the cattle, and pitilessly wasted the whole of the maritime
+      plain.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Senzaûrû was thought by Ebers to be &ldquo;the double Tyre.&rdquo;
+      Brugsch considered it to be Tyre itself. It is, I believe,
+     the Sizara of classical writers, the Shaizar of the Arabs,
+     and is mentioned in one of the Tel el-Amarna tablets in
+     connection with Nîi.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There was such abundance within the camp that the men were continually
+      getting drunk, and spent their time in anointing themselves with oil,
+      which they could do only in Egypt at the most solemn festivals. They
+      returned to Syria in the year XXX., and their good fortune again favoured
+      them. The stubborn Qodshû was harshly dealt with; Simyra and Arvad, which
+      hitherto had held their own, now opened their gates to him; the lords of
+      Upper Lotanû poured in their contributions without delay, and gave up
+      their sons and brothers as hostages. In the year XXXI., the city of Anamut
+      in Tikhisa, on the shores of Lake Msrana, yielded in its turn;* on the 3rd
+      of Pakhons, the anniversary of his coronation, the Lotanû renewed their
+      homage to him in person.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The site of the Tikhisa country is imperfectly defined.
+     Nisrana was seemingly applied to the marshy lake into which
+     the Koweik flows, and it is perhaps to be found in the name
+     Kin-nesrîn. In this case Tikhisa would be the country near
+     the lake; the district of the Grseco-Roruan Chalkis is
+     situated on the right of the military road.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The return of the expedition was a sort of triumphal procession. At every
+      halting-place the troops found quarters and provisions prepared for them,
+      bread and cakes, perfumes, oil, wine, and honey being provided in such
+      quantities that they were obliged on their departure to leave the greater
+      part behind them. The scribes took advantage of this peaceful state of
+      affairs to draw up minute accounts of the products of Lotanû&mdash;corn,
+      barley, millet, fruits, and various kinds of oil&mdash;prompted doubtless
+      by the desire to arrive at a fairly just apportionment of the tribute.
+      Indeed, the results of the expedition were considered so satisfactory that
+      they were recorded on a special monument dedicated in the palace at
+      Thebes. The names of the towns and peoples might change with every war,
+      but the spoils suffered no diminution. In the year XXXIII., the kingdoms
+      situated to the west of the Euphrates were so far pacified that Thutmosis
+      was able without risk to carry his arms to Mesopotamia. He entered the
+      country by the fords of Carchemish, near to the spot where his
+      grandfather, Thutmosis I., had erected his stele half a century
+      previously. He placed another beside this, and a third to the eastward to
+      mark the point to which he had extended the frontier of his empire.. The
+      Mitanni, who exercised a sort of hegemony over the whole of Naharaim, were
+      this time the objects of his attack. Thirty-two of their towns fell one
+      after another, their kings were taken captive and the walls of their
+      cities were razed, without any serious resistance. The battalions of the
+      enemy were dispersed at the first shock, and Pharaoh &ldquo;pursued them for the
+      space of a mile, without one of them daring to look behind him, for they
+      thought only of escape, and fled before him like a flock of goats.&rdquo;
+       Thutmosis pushed forward as far certainly as the Balikh, and perhaps on to
+      the Khabur or even to the Hermus; and as he approached the frontier, the
+      king of Singar, a vassal of Assyria, sent him presents of lapis-lazuli.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When this prince had retired, another chief, the lord of the Great Kkati,
+      whose territory had not even been threatened by the invaders, deemed it
+      prudent to follow the example of the petty princes of the plain of the
+      Euphrates, and despatched envoys to the Pharaoh bearing presents of no
+      great value, but testifying to his desire to live on good terms with
+      Egypt. Still further on, the inhabitants of Nîi begged the king&rsquo;s
+      acceptance of a troop of slaves and two hundred and sixty mares; he
+      remained among them long enough to erect a stele commemorating his
+      triumph, and to indulge in one of those extensive hunts which were the
+      delight of Oriental monarchs. The country abounded in elephants. The
+      soldiers were employed as beaters, and the king and his court succeeded in
+      killing one hundred and twenty head of big game, whose tusks were added to
+      the spoils. These numbers indicate how the extinction of such animals in
+      these parts was brought about. Beyond these regions, again, the sheikhs of
+      the Lamnaniû came to meet the Pharaoh. They were a poor people, and had
+      but little to offer, but among their gifts were some birds of a species
+      unknown to the Egyptians, and two geese, with which, however, His Majesty
+      deigned to be satisfied.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The campaign of the year XXXI. It is mentioned in the
+     <i>Annals of Thulmosis III.</i>, 11. 17-27; the reference to the
+     elephant-hunt occurs only in the <i>Inscription of
+     Amenemhabi</i>, 11. 22, 23; an allusion to the defeat of the
+     kings of Mitanni is found in a mutilated inscription from
+     the tomb of Manakhpirrîsonbû. It was probably on his return
+     from this campaign that Thûtmosis caused the great list to
+     be engraved which, while it includes a certain number of
+     names assigned to places beyond the Euphrates, ought
+     necessarily to contain the cities of the Mitanni.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      END OF VOL. IV. <br />
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12), by G. Maspero
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+  </body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,10651 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldaea, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12), by G. Maspero
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History Of Egypt, Chaldaea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12)
+
+Author: G. Maspero
+
+Editor: A.H. Sayce
+
+Translator: M.L. McClure
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2005 [EBook #17324]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT, CHALDAEA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Spines]
+
+[Illustration: Cover]
+
+HISTORY OF EGYPT CHALDEA, SYRIA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA
+
+By G. MASPERO, Honorable Doctor of Civil Laws, and Fellow of Queen's
+College, Oxford; Member of the Institute and Professor at the College of
+France
+
+Edited by A. H. SAYCE, Professor of Assyriology, Oxford
+
+Translated by M. L. McCLURE, Member of the Committee of the Egypt
+Exploration Fund
+
+
+CONTAINING OVER TWELVE HUNDRED COLORED PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+Volume IV.
+
+
+LONDON
+
+THE GROLIER SOCIETY
+
+PUBLISHERS
+
+[Illustration: Frontispiece]
+
+[Illustration: Titlepage]
+
+
+_THE FIRST CHALDEAN EMPIRE AND THE HYKSOS IN EGYPT_
+
+_SYRIA: THE PART PLAYED BY IT IN THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD--
+BABYLON AND THE FIRST CHALDAEAN EMPIRE--THE DOMINION OF THE HYKSOS:
+AHMOSIS._
+
+_Syria, owing to its geographical position, condemned to be subject to
+neighbouring powers-Lebanon, Anti-Lebanon, the valley of the Orontes
+and of the Litany, and surrounding regions: the northern table-land, the
+country about Damascus, the Mediterranean coast, the Jordan and the Dead
+Sea-Civilization and primitive inhabitants, Semites and Asiatics: the
+almost entire absence of Egyptian influence, the predominance of that of
+Chaldaea._
+
+_Babylon, its ruins and its environs--It extends its rule over
+Mesopotamia; its earliest dynasty and its struggle with Central
+Chaldaea-Elam, its geographical position, its peoples; Kutur-Nakhunta
+conquers Larsam-Bimsin (Eri-Aku); Khammurabi founds the first Babylonian
+empire; Ids victories, his buildings, his canals--The Elamites in
+Syria: Kudurlagamar--Syria recognizes the authority of Hammurabi and his
+successors._
+
+_The Hyksos conquer Egypt at the end of the XIVth dynasty; the founding
+of Avaris--Uncertainty both of ancients and moderns with regard to the
+origin of the Hyksos: probability of their being the Khati--Their kings
+adopt the manners and civilization of the Egyptians: the monuments of
+Khiani and of Apophis I. and II--The XVth dynasty._
+
+_Semitic incursions following the Hyksos--The migration of the
+Phoenicians and the Israelites into Syria: Terah, Abraham and his
+sojourn in the land of Canaan--Isaac, Jacob, Joseph: the Israelites go
+down into Egypt and settle in the land of Goshen._
+
+_Thebes revolts against the Hyksos: popular traditions as to the origin
+of the war, the romance of Apophis and Saquinri--The Theban princesses
+and the last Icings of the XVIIth dynasty: Tiudqni Kamosis, Ahmosis
+I.--The lords of El-Kab, and the part they played during the war of
+independence--The taking of Avaris and the expulsion of the Ilylcsos._
+
+_The reorganization of Egypt--Ahmosis I. and his Nubian wars, the
+reopening of the quarries of Turah--Amenothes I. and his mother
+Nofritari: the jewellery of Queen Ahhotpu--The wars of Amenothes I.,
+the apotheosis of Nofritari--The accession of Thutmosis I. and the
+re-generation of Egypt._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I--THE FIRST CHALDAEAN EMPIRE AND THE HYKSOS IN EGYPT
+
+
+_Syria: the part played by it in the ancient world--Babylon and the
+first Chaldaean empire--The dominion of the Hyksos: Ahmosis._
+
+
+Some countries seem destined from their origin to become the
+battle-fields of the contending nations which environ them. Into such
+regions, and to their cost, neighbouring peoples come from century to
+century to settle their quarrels and bring to an issue the questions of
+supremacy which disturb their little corner of the world. The nations
+around are eager for the possession of a country thus situated; it
+is seized upon bit by bit, and in the strife dismembered and trodden
+underfoot: at best the only course open to its inhabitants is to join
+forces with one of its invaders, and while helping the intruder to
+overcome the rest, to secure for themselves a position of permanent
+servitude. Should some unlooked-for chance relieve them from the
+presence of their foreign lord, they will probably be quite incapable of
+profiting by the respite which fortune puts in their way, or of making
+any effectual attempt to organize themselves in view of future attacks.
+They tend to become split up into numerous rival communities, of which
+even the pettiest will aim at autonomy, keeping up a perpetual frontier
+war for the sake of becoming possessed of or of retaining a glorious
+sovereignty over a few acres of corn in the plains, or some wooded
+ravines in the mountains. Year after year there will be scenes of bloody
+conflict, in which petty armies will fight petty battles on behalf of
+petty interests, but so fiercely, and with such furious animosity, that
+the country will suffer from the strife as much as, or even more than,
+from an invasion. There will be no truce to their struggles until they
+all fall under the sway of a foreign master, and, except in the interval
+between two conquests, they will have no national existence, their
+history being almost entirely merged in that of other nations.
+
+From remote antiquity Syria was in the condition just described,
+and thus destined to become subject to foreign rule. Chaldaea, Egypt,
+Assyria, and Persia presided in turn over its destinies, while Macedonia
+and the empires of the West were only waiting their opportunity to lay
+hold of it. By its position it formed a kind of meeting-place where most
+of the military nations of the ancient world were bound sooner or later
+to come violently into collision. Confined between the sea and the
+desert, Syria offers the only route of easy access to an army marching
+northwards from Africa into Asia, and all conquerors, whether attracted
+to Mesopotamia or to Egypt by the accumulated riches on the banks of the
+Euphrates or the Nile, were obliged to pass through it in order to reach
+the object of their cupidity. It might, perhaps, have escaped this fatal
+consequence of its position, had the formation of the country permitted
+its tribes to mass themselves together, and oppose a compact body to
+the invading hosts; but the range of mountains which forms its backbone
+subdivides it into isolated districts, and by thus restricting each
+tribe to a narrow existence maintained among them a mutual antagonism.
+The twin chains, the Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon, which divide the
+country down the centre, are composed of the same kind of calcareous
+rocks and sandstone, while the same sort of reddish clay has been
+deposited on their slopes by the glaciers of the same geological
+period.*
+
+     * Drake remarked in the Lebanon several varieties of
+     limestone, which have been carefully catalogued by Blanche
+     and Lartet. Above these strata, which belong to the Jurassic
+     formation, come reddish sandstone, then beds of very hard
+     yellowish limestone, and finally marl. The name Lebanon, in
+     Assyrian Libnana, would appear to signify "the white
+     mountain;" the Amorites called the Anti-Lebanon Saniru,
+     Shenir, according to the Assyrian texts and the Hebrew
+     books.
+
+Arid and bare on the northern side, they sent out towards the south
+featureless monotonous ridges, furrowed here and there by short narrow
+valleys, hollowed out in places into basins or funnel-shaped ravines,
+which are widened year by year by the down-rush of torrents. These
+ridges, as they proceed southwards, become clothed with verdure and
+offer a more varied outline, the ravines being more thickly wooded, and
+the summits less uniform in contour and colouring. Lebanon becomes white
+and ice-crowned in winter, but none of its peaks rises to the altitude
+of perpetual snows: the highest of them, Mount Timarun, reaches 10,526
+feet, while only three others exceed 9000.* Anti-Lebanon is, speaking
+generally, 1000 or 1300 feet lower than its neighbour: it becomes
+higher, however, towards the south, where the triple peak of Mount
+Hermon rises to a height of 9184 feet. The Orontes and the Litany drain
+the intermediate space. The Orontes rising on the west side of the
+Anti-Lebanon, near the ruins of Baalbek, rushes northwards in such a
+violent manner, that the dwellers on its banks call it the rebel--Nahr
+el-Asi.** About a third of the way towards its mouth it enters a
+depression, which ancient dykes help to transform into a lake; it flows
+thence, almost parallel to the sea-coast, as far as the 36th degree of
+latitude. There it meets the last spurs of the Amanos, but, failing to
+cut its way through them, it turns abruptly to the west, and then to the
+south, falling into the Mediterranean after having received an increase
+to its volume from the waters of the Afrin.
+
+     * Bukton-Drake, Unexplored Syria, vol. i. p. 88, attributed
+     to it an altitude of 9175 English feet; others estimate it
+     at 10,539 feet. The mountains which exceed 3000 metres are
+     Dahr el-Kozib, 3046 metres; Jebel-Mislriyah, 3080 metres;
+     and Jebel-Makhmal or Makmal, 3040 metres. As a matter of
+     fact, these heights are not yet determined with the accuracy
+     desirable.
+
+     ** The Egyptians knew it in early times by the name of
+     Aunrati, or Araunti; it is mentioned in Assyrian
+     inscriptions under the name of Arantu. All are agreed in
+     acknowledging that this name is not Semitic, and an Aryan
+     origin is attributed to it, but without convincing proof;
+     according to Strabo (xvi. ii. Sec. 7, p. 750), it was
+     originally called Typhon, and was only styled Orontes after
+     a certain Orontes had built the first bridge across it. The
+     name of Axios which it sometimes bears appears to have been
+     given to it by Greek colonists, in memory of a river in
+     Macedonia. This is probably the origin of the modern name of
+     Asi, and the meaning, _rebellious river_, which Arab
+     tradition attaches to the latter term, probably comes from a
+     popular etymology which likened Axios to Asi, the
+     identification was all the easier since it justifies the
+     epithet by the violence of its current.
+
+The Litany rises a short distance from the Orontes; it flows at first
+through a wide and fertile plain, which soon contracts, however, and
+forces it into a channel between the spurs of the Lebanon and the
+Galilaean hills. The water thence makes its way between two cliffs of
+perpendicular rock, the ravine being in several places so narrow that
+the branches of the trees on the opposite sides interlace, and an active
+man could readily leap across it. Near Yakhmur some detached rocks
+appear to have been arrested in their fall, and, leaning like flying
+buttresses against the mountain face, constitute a natural bridge over
+the torrent. The basins of the two rivers lie in one valley, extending
+eighty leagues in length, divided by an almost imperceptible watershed
+into two beds of unequal slope. The central part of the valley is given
+up to marshes. It is only towards the south that we find cornfields,
+vineyards, plantations of mulberry and olive trees, spread out over the
+plain, or disposed in terraces on the hillsides. Towards the north,
+the alluvial deposits of, the Orontes have gradually formed a black
+and fertile soil, upon which grow luxuriant crops of cereals and other
+produce. Cole-Syria, after having generously nourished the Oriental
+empires which had preyed upon her, became one of the granaries of the
+Roman world, under the capable rule of the Caesars.
+
+Syria is surrounded on all sides by countries of varying aspect and
+soil. That to the north, flanked by the Amanos, is a gloomy mountainous
+region, with its greatest elevation on the seaboard: it slopes gradually
+towards the interior, spreading out into chalky table-lands, dotted over
+with bare and rounded hills, and seamed with tortuous valleys which
+open out to the Euphrates, the Orontes, or the desert. Vast, slightly
+undulating plains succeed the table-lands: the soil is dry and stony,
+the streams are few in number and contain but little water. The Sajur
+flows into the Euphrates, the Afrin and the Karasu when united yield
+their tribute to the Orontes, while the others for the most part pour
+their waters into enclosed basins. The Khalus of the Greeks sluggishly
+pursues its course southward, and after reluctantly leaving the gardens
+of Aleppo, finally loses itself on the borders of the desert in a small
+salt lake full of islets: about halfway between the Khalus and the
+Euphrates a second salt lake receives the Nahr ed-Dahab, the "golden
+river." The climate is mild, and the temperature tolerably uniform. The
+sea-breeze which rises every afternoon tempers the summer heat: the
+cold in winter is never piercing, except when the south wind blows which
+comes from the mountains, and the snow rarely lies on the ground for
+more than twenty-four hours. It seldom rains during the autumn and
+winter months, but frequent showers fall in the early days of spring.
+Vegetation then awakes again, and the soil lends itself to cultivation
+in the hollows of the valleys and on the table-lands wherever
+irrigation is possible. The ancients dotted these now all but desert
+spaces with wells and cisterns; they intersected them with canals,
+and covered them with farms and villages, with fortresses and populous
+cities. Primaeval forests clothed the slopes of the Amanos, and pinewood
+from this region was famous both at Babylon and in the towns of Lower
+Chaldaea. The plains produced barley and wheat in enormous quantities,
+the vine throve there, the gardens teemed with flowers and fruit, and
+pistachio and olive trees grew on every slope. The desert was always
+threatening to invade the plain, and gained rapidly upon it whenever
+a prolonged war disturbed cultivation, or when the negligence of the
+inhabitants slackened the work of defence: beyond the lakes and salt
+marshes it had obtained a secure hold. At the present time the greater
+part of the country between the Orontes and the Euphrates is nothing
+but a rocky table-land, ridged with low hills and dotted over with some
+impoverished oases, excepting at the foot of Anti-Lebanon, where two
+rivers, fed by innumerable streams, have served to create a garden of
+marvellous beauty. The Barada, dashing from cascade to cascade, flows
+for some distance through gorges before emerging on the plain: scarcely
+has it reached level ground than it widens out, divides, and forms
+around Damascus a miniature delta, into which a thousand interlacing
+channels carry refreshment and fertility. Below the town these streams
+rejoin the river, which, after having flowed merrily along for a day's
+journey, is swallowed up in a kind of elongated chasm from whence it
+never again emerges. At the melting of the snows a regular lake is
+formed here, whose blue waters are surrounded by wide grassy margins
+"like a sapphire set in emeralds." This lake dries up almost completely
+in summer, and is converted into swampy meadows, filled with gigantic
+rushes, among which the birds build their nests, and multiply as
+unmolested as in the marshes of Chaldaea. The Awaj, unfed by any
+tributary, fills a second deeper though smaller basin, while to
+the south two other lesser depressions receive the waters of the
+Anti-Lebanon and the Hauran. Syria is protected from the encroachments
+of the desert by a continuous barrier of pools and beds of reeds:
+towards the east the space reclaimed resembles a verdant promontory
+thrust boldly out into an ocean of sand. The extent of the cultivated
+area is limited on the west by the narrow strip of rock and clay which
+forms the littoral. From the mouth of the Litany to that of the Orontes,
+the coast presents a rugged, precipitous, and inhospitable appearance.
+There are no ports, and merely a few ill-protected harbours, or narrow
+beaches lying under formidable headlands. One river, the Nahr el-Kebir,
+which elsewhere would not attract the traveller's attention, is here
+noticeable as being the only stream whose waters flow constantly and
+with tolerable regularity; the others, the Leon, the Adonis,* and the
+Nahr el-Kelb,* can scarcely even be called torrents, being precipitated
+as it were in one leap from the Lebanon to the Mediterranean. Olives,
+vines, and corn cover the maritime plain, while in ancient times the
+heights were clothed with impenetrable forests of oak, pine, larch,
+cypress, spruce, and cedar. The mountain range drops in altitude towards
+the centre of the country and becomes merely a line of low hills,
+connecting Gebel Ansarieh with the Lebanon proper; beyond the latter
+it continues without interruption, till at length, above the narrow
+Phoenician coast road, it rises in the form of an almost insurmountable
+wall. Near to the termination of Coele-Syria, but separated from it
+by a range of hills, there opens out on the western slopes of Hermon a
+valley unlike any other in the world. At this point the surface of the
+earth has been rent in prehistoric times by volcanic action, leaving a
+chasm which has never since closed up. A river, unique in character--the
+Jordan--flows down this gigantic crevasse, fertilizing the valley formed
+by it from end to end.***
+
+     * The Adonis of classical authors is now Nahr-Ibrahim. We
+     have as yet no direct evidence as to the Phoenician name of
+     this river; it was probably identical with that of the
+     divinity worshipped on its banks. The fact of a river
+     bearing the name of a god is not surprising: the Belos, in
+     the neighbourhood of Acre, affords us a parallel case to the
+     Adonis.
+
+     ** The present Nahr el-Kelb is the Lykos of classical
+     authors. The Due de Luynes thought he recognized a
+     corruption of the Phoenician name in that of Alcobile, which
+     is mentioned hereabouts in the Itinerary of the pilgrim of
+     Bordeaux. The order of the Itinerary does not favour this
+     identification, and Alcobile is probably Jebail: it is none
+     the less probable that the original name of the Nahr el Kelb
+     contained from earliest times the Phoenician equivalent of
+     the Arab word _kelb_, "dog."
+
+     *** The Jordan is mentioned in the Egyptian texts under the
+     name of Yorduna: the name appears to mean _the descender,
+     the down-flowing._
+
+Its principal source is at Tell el-Qadi, where it rises out of a
+basaltic mound whose summit is crowned by the ruins of Laish.*
+
+     * This source is mentioned by Josephus as being that of the
+     Little Jordan.
+
+[Illustration: 014.jpg THE MOST NORTHERN SOURCE OF THE JORDAN, THE
+NAIIR-EL-HASBANY]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by the Duc de Luynes.
+
+The water collects in an oval rocky basin hidden by bushes, and flows
+down among the brushwood to join the Nahr el-Hasbany, which brings the
+waters of the upper torrents to swell its stream; a little lower down it
+mingles with the Banias branch, and winds for some time amidst desolate
+marshy meadows before disappearing in the thick beds of rushes bordering
+Lake Huleh.*
+
+     * Lake Huleh is called the Waters of Merom, Me-Merom, in the
+     Book of Joshua, xi. 5, 7; and Lake Sammochonitis in
+     Josephus. The name of Ulatha, which was given to the
+     surrounding country, shows that the modern word Huleh is
+     derived from an ancient form, of which unfortunately the
+     original has not come down to us.
+
+[Illustration 014b.jpg LAKE OF GENESARATH]
+
+At this point the Jordan reaches the level of the Mediterranean, but
+instead of maintaining it, the river makes a sudden drop on leaving the
+lake, cutting for itself a deeply grooved channel. It has a fall of
+some 300 feet before reaching the Lake of Grenesareth, where it is only
+momentarily arrested, as if to gather fresh strength for its headlong
+career southwards.
+
+[Illustration: 017.jpg ONE OF THE REACHES OF THE JORDAN]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from several photographs brought back by
+     Lortet.
+
+Here and there it makes furious assaults on its right and left banks,
+as if to escape from its bed, but the rocky escarpments which hem it in
+present an insurmountable barrier to it; from rapid to rapid it descends
+with such capricious windings that it covers a course of more than 62
+miles before reaching, the Dead Sea, nearly 1300 feet below the level of
+the Mediterranean.*
+
+     * The exact figures are: the Lake of Huleh 7 feet above the
+     Mediterranean; the Lake of Genesareth 68245 feet, and the
+     Dead Sea 1292 feet below the sea-level; to the south of
+     the Dead Sea, towards the water-parting of the Akabah, the
+     ground is over 720 feet higher than the level of the Red
+     Sea.
+
+[Illustration: 018.jpg THE DEAD SEA AND THE MOUNTAINS OF MOAB, SEEN FKOM
+THE HEIGHTS OF ENGEDI]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by the Duc de Luynes.
+
+Nothing could offer more striking contrasts than the country on either
+bank. On the east, the ground rises abruptly to a height of about 3000
+feet, resembling a natural rampart flanked with towers and bastions:
+behind this extends an immense table-land, slightly undulating and
+intersected in all directions by the affluents of the Jordan and the
+Dead Sea--the Yarmuk,* the Jabbok,** and the Arnon.***
+
+     * The Yarmuk does not occur in the Bible, but we meet with
+     its name in the Talmud, and the Greeks adopted it under the
+     form Hieromax.
+
+     ** _Gen._ xxxii. 22; Numb, xxi. 24. The name has been
+     Grecized under the forms lobacchos, labacchos, Iambykes. It
+     is the present Nahr Zerqa.
+
+     *** _Numb._ xxi. 13-26; Beut. ii. 24; the present Wady
+     Mojib. [Shephelah = "low country," plain (Josh. xi. 16).
+     With the article it means the plain along the Mediterranean
+     from Joppa to Gaza.--Te.]
+
+The whole of this district forms a little world in itself, whose
+inhabitants, half shepherds, half bandits, live a life of isolation,
+with no ambition to take part in general history. West of the Jordan, a
+confused mass of hills rises into sight, their sparsely covered slopes
+affording an impoverished soil for the cultivation of corn, vines, and
+olives. One ridge--Mount Carmel--detached from the principal chain
+near the southern end of the Lake of Genesareth, runs obliquely to
+the north-west, and finally projects into the sea. North of this range
+extends Galilee, abounding in refreshing streams and fertile fields;
+while to the south, the country falls naturally into three parallel
+zones--the littoral, composed alternately of dunes and marshes--an
+expanse of plain, a "Shephelah," dotted about with woods and watered by
+intermittent rivers,--and finally the mountains. The region of dunes
+is not necessarily barren, and the towns situated in it--Gaza, Jaffa,
+Ashdod, and Ascalon--are surrounded by flourishing orchards and gardens.
+The plain yields plentiful harvests every year, the ground needing no
+manure and very little labour. The higher ground and the hill-tops are
+sometimes covered with verdure, but as they advance southwards, they
+become denuded and burnt by the sun. The valleys, too, are watered only
+by springs, which are dried up for the most part during the summer, and
+the soil, parched by the continuous heat, can scarcely be distinguished
+from the desert. In fact, till the Sinaitic Peninsula and the frontiers
+of Egypt are reached, the eye merely encounters desolate and almost
+uninhabited solitudes, devastated by winter torrents, and overshadowed
+by the volcanic summits of Mount Seir. The spring rains, however,
+cause an early crop of vegetation to spring up, which for a few weeks
+furnishes the flocks of the nomad tribes with food.
+
+We may summarise the physical characteristics of Syria by saying that
+Nature has divided the country into five or six regions of unequal
+area, isolated by rivers and mountains, each one of which, however, is
+admirably suited to become the seat of a separate independent state.
+In the north, we have the country of the two rivers--the
+Naharaim--extending from the Orontes to the Euphrates and the Balikh, or
+even as far as the Khabur:* in the centre, between the two ranges of
+the Lebanon, lie Coele-Syria and its two unequal neighbours, Aram of
+Damascus and Phoenicia; while to the south is the varied collection of
+provinces bordering the valley of the Jordan.
+
+     * The Naharaim of the Egyptians was first identified with
+     Mesopotamia; it was located between the Orontes and the
+     Balikh or the Euphrates by Maspero. This opinion is now
+     adopted by the majority of Egyptologists, with slight
+     differences in detail. Ed. Meyer has accurately compared the
+     Egyptian Naharaim with the Parapotamia of the administration
+     of the Seleucidae.
+
+It is impossible at the present day to assert, with any approach to
+accuracy, what peoples inhabited these different regions towards the
+fourth millennium before our era. Wherever excavations are made, relics
+are brought to light of a very ancient semi-civilization, in which we
+find stone weapons and implements, besides pottery, often elegant in
+contour, but for the most part coarse in texture and execution. These
+remains, however, are not accompanied by any monument of definite
+characteristics, and they yield no information with regard to the
+origin or affinities of the tribes who fashioned them.* The study of the
+geographical nomenclature in use about the XVIth century B.C. reveals
+the existence, at all events at that period, of several peoples and
+several languages. The mountains, rivers, towns, and fortresses in
+Palestine and Coele-Syria are designated by words of Semitic origin: it
+is easy to detect, even in the hieroglyphic disguise which they bear
+on the Egyptian geographical lists, names familiar to us in Hebrew or
+Assyrian.
+
+     * Researches with regard to the primitive inhabitants of
+     Syria and their remains have not as yet been prosecuted to
+     any extent. The caves noticed by Hedenborg at Ant-Elias,
+     near Tripoli, and by Botta at Nahr el-Kelb, and at Adlun by
+     the Duc de Luynes, have been successively explored by
+     Lartet, Tristram, Lortet, and Dawson. The grottoes of
+     Palestine proper, at Bethzur, at Gilgal near Jericho, and at
+     Tibneh, have been the subject of keen controversy ever since
+     their discovery. The Abbe Richard desired to identify the
+     flints of Gilgal and Tibneh with the stone knives used by
+     Joshua for the circumcision of the Israelites after the
+     passage of the Jordan (_Josh._ v- 2-9), some of which might
+     have been buried in that hero's tomb.
+
+But once across the Orontes, other forms present themselves which reveal
+no affinities to these languages, but are apparently connected with one
+or other of the dialects of Asia Minor.* The tenacity with which the
+place-names, once given, cling to the soil, leads us to believe that a
+certain number at least of those we know in Syria were in use there long
+before they were noted down by the Egyptians, and that they must have
+been heirlooms from very early peoples. As they take a Semitic or
+non-Semitic form according to their geographical position, we may
+conclude that the centre and south were colonized by Semites, and the
+north by the immigrant tribes from beyond the Taurus. Facts are not
+wanting to support this conclusion, and they prove that it is not so
+entirely arbitrary as we might be inclined to believe. The Asiatic
+visitors who, under a king of the XIIth dynasty, came to offer gifts to
+Khnumhotpu, the Lord of Beni-Hasan, are completely Semitic in type,
+and closely resemble the Bedouins of the present day. Their
+chief--Abisha--bears a Semitic name,** as too does the Sheikh Ammianshi,
+with whom Sinuhit took refuge.***
+
+     * The non-Semitic origin of the names of a number of towns
+     in Northern Syria preserved in the Egyptian lists, is
+     admitted by the majority of scholars who have studied the
+     question.
+
+     ** His name has been shown to be cognate with the Hebrew
+     Abishai (1 Sam. xxvi. 6-9; 2 Sam. ii. 18, 24; xxi. 17) and
+     with the Chaldaeo-Assyrian Abeshukh.
+
+     *** The name Ammianshi at once recalls those of Ammisatana,
+     Ammiza-dugga, and perhaps Ammurabi, or Khammurabi, of one of
+     the Babylonian dynasties; it contains, with the element
+     Ammi, a final _anshi_. Chabas connects it with two Hebrew
+     words _Am-nesh_, which he does not translate.
+
+Ammianshi himself reigned over the province of Kadima, a word which in
+Semitic denotes the East. Finally, the only one of their gods known to
+us, Hadad, was a Semite deity, who presided over the atmosphere, and
+whom we find later on ruling over the destinies of Damascus. Peoples
+of Semitic speech and religion must, indeed, have already occupied the
+greater part of that region on the shores of the Mediterranean which we
+find still in their possession many centuries later, at the time of the
+Egyptian conquest.
+
+[Illustration: 028.jpg ASIATIC WOMEN FROM THE TOMB OF KHNUMHOTPU]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+
+For a time Egypt preferred not to meddle in their affairs. When,
+however, the "lords of the sands" grew too insolent, the Pharaoh sent a
+column of light troops against them, and inflicted on them such a severe
+punishment, that the remembrance of it kept them within bounds for
+years. Offenders banished from Egypt sought refuge with the turbulent
+kinglets, who were in a perpetual state of unrest between Sinai and
+the Dead Sea. Egyptian sailors used to set out to traffic along the
+seaboard, taking to piracy when hard pressed; Egyptian merchants were
+accustomed to penetrate by easy stages into the interior. The accounts
+they gave of their journeys were not reassuring. The traveller had first
+to face the solitudes which confronted him before reaching the Isthmus,
+and then to avoid as best he might the attacks of the pillaging tribes
+who inhabited it.
+
+[Illustration: 024.jpg TWO ASIATICS FKOM THE TOMB OF KHNUMHOPTU.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger
+
+Should he escape these initial perils, the Amu--an agricultural and
+settled people inhabiting the fertile region--would give the stranger
+but a sorry reception: he would have to submit to their demands, and
+the most exorbitant levies of toll did not always preserve caravans from
+their attacks.* The country seems to have been but thinly populated;
+tracts now denuded were then covered by large forests in which herds of
+elephants still roamed,** and wild beasts, including lions and leopards,
+rendered the route through them dangerous.
+
+     * The merchant who sets out for foreign lands "leaves his
+     possessions to his children--for fear of lions and
+     Asiatics."
+
+     ** Thutmosis III. went elephant-hunting near the Syrian town
+     of Nii.
+
+The notion that Syria was a sort of preserve for both big and small
+game was so strongly implanted in the minds of the Egyptians, that their
+popular literature was full of it: the hero of their romances betook
+himself there for the chase, as a prelude to meeting with the princess
+whom he was destined to marry,* or, as in the case of Kazarati, chief
+of Assur, that he might encounter there a monstrous hyena with which to
+engage in combat.
+
+     * As, for instance, the hero in the _Story of the
+     Predestined Prince_, exiled from Egypt with his dog, pursues
+     his way hunting till he reaches the confines of Naharaim,
+     where he is to marry the prince's daughter.
+
+These merchants' adventures and explorations, as they were not followed
+by any military expedition, left absolutely no mark on the industries or
+manners of the primitive natives: those of them only who were close to
+the frontiers of Egypt came under her subtle charm and felt the power
+of her attraction, but this slight influence never penetrated beyond
+the provinces lying nearest to the Dead Sea. The remaining populations
+looked rather to Chaldaea, and received, though at a distance, the
+continuous impress of the kingdoms of the Euphrates. The tradition which
+attributes to Sargon of Agade, and to his son Istaramsin, the subjection
+of the people of the Amanos and the Orontes, probably contains but a
+slight element of truth; but if, while awaiting further information, we
+hesitate to believe that the armies of these princes ever crossed the
+Lebanon or landed in Cyprus, we must yet admit the very early advent
+of their civilization in those western countries which are regarded as
+having been under their rule. More than three thousand years before
+our era, the Asiatics who figure on the tomb of Khnumhotpu clothed
+themselves according to the fashions of Uru and Lagash, and affected
+long robes of striped and spotted stuffs. We may well ask if they had
+also borrowed the cuneiform syllabary for the purposes of their official
+correspondence,* and if the professional scribe with his stylus and clay
+tablet was to be found in their cities. The Babylonian courtiers were,
+no doubt, more familiar visitors among them than the Memphite nobles,
+while the Babylonian kings sent regularly to Syria for statuary stone,
+precious metals, and the timber required in the building of
+their monuments: Urbau and Gudea, as well as their successors and
+contemporaries, received large convoys of materials from the Amanos, and
+if the forests of Lebanon were more rarely utilised, it was not because
+their existence was unknown, but because distance rendered their
+approach more difficult and transport more costly. The Mediterranean
+marches were, in their language, classed as a whole under one
+denomination--Martu, Amurru,** the West--but there were distinctive
+names for each of the provinces into which they were divided.
+
+     * The most ancient cuneiform tablets of Syrian origin are
+     not older than the XVIth century before our era; they
+     contain the official, correspondence of the native princes
+     with the Pharaohs Amenothes III. and IV. of the XVIIIth
+     dynasty, as will be seen later on in this volume; they were
+     discovered in the ruins of one of the palaces at Tel el-
+     Amarna in Egypt.
+
+     ** Formerly read Akharru. Martu would be the Sumerian and
+     Akharru the Semitic form, Akharru meaning _that which is
+     behind_. The discovery of the Tel el-Amarna tablets threw
+     doubt on the reading of the name Akharru: some thought that
+     it ought to be kept in any case; others, with more or less
+     certainty, think that it should be replaced by Amuru,
+     Amurru, the country of the Amorites. But the question has
+     now been settled by Babylonian contract and law tablets of
+     the period of Khaminurabi, in which the name is written _A-
+     mu-ur-ri (ki)_. Hommel originated the idea that Martu might
+     be an abbreviation of Amartu, that is, Amar with the
+     feminine termination of nouns in the Canaanitish dialect:
+     Martu would thus actually signify _the country of the
+     Amorites_.
+
+Probably even at that date they called the north Khati,* and Cole-Syria,
+Amurru, the land of the Amorites. The scattered references in their
+writings seem to indicate frequent intercourse with these countries, and
+that, too, as a matter of course which excited no surprise among their
+contemporaries: a journey from Lagash to the mountains of Tidanum and
+to Gubin, or to the Lebanon and beyond it to Byblos,** meant to them
+no voyage of discovery. Armies undoubtedly followed the routes already
+frequented by caravans and flotillas of trading boats, and the time came
+when kings desired to rule as sovereigns over nations with whom their
+subjects had peaceably traded.
+
+     * The name of the Khati, Khatti, is found in the _Book of
+     Omens_, which is supposed to contain an extract from the
+     annals of Sargon and Naramsin; as, however, the text which
+     we possess of it is merely a copy of the time of
+     Assurbanipal, it is possible that the word Khati is merely
+     the translation of a more ancient term, perhaps Martu.
+     Winckler thinks it to be included in Lesser Armenia and the
+     Melitone of classical authors.
+
+     ** Gubin is probably the Kupuna, Kupnu, of the Egyptians,
+     the Byblos of Phoenicia. Amiaud had proposed a most unlikely
+     identification with Koptos in Egypt. In the time of Ine-Sin,
+     King of Ur, mention is found of Simurru, Zimyra.
+
+It does not appear, however, that the ancient rulers of Lagash ever
+extended their dominion so far. The governors of the northern cities, on
+the other hand, showed themselves more energetic, and inaugurated
+that march westwards which sooner or later brought the peoples of the
+Euphrates into collision with the dwellers on the Nile: for the first
+Babylonian empire without doubt comprised part if not the whole of
+Syria.*
+
+     * It is only since the discovery of the Tel el-Amarna
+     tablets that the fact of the dominant influence of Chaldaea
+     over Syria and of its conquest has been definitely realized.
+     It is now clear that the state of things of which the
+     tablets discovered in Egypt give us a picture, could only be
+     explained by the hypothesis of a Babylonish supremacy of
+     long duration over the peoples situated between the
+     Euphrates and the Mediterranean.
+
+Among the most celebrated names in ancient history, that of Babylon is
+perhaps the only one which still suggests to our minds a sense of vague
+magnificence and undefined dominion. Cities in other parts of the world,
+it is true, have rivalled Babylon in magnificence and power: Egypt could
+boast of more than one such city, and their ruins to this day present to
+our gaze more monuments worthy of admiration than Babylon ever contained
+in the days of her greatest prosperity. The pyramids of Memphis and the
+colossal statues of Thebes still stand erect, while the ziggurats and
+the palaces of Chaldaea are but mounds of clay crumbling into the plain;
+but the Egyptian monuments are visible and tangible objects; we can
+calculate to within a few inches the area they cover and the elevation
+of their summits, and the very precision with which we can gauge their
+enormous size tends to limit and lessen their effect upon us. How is it
+possible to give free rein to the imagination when the subject of it is
+strictly limited by exact and determined measurements? At Babylon, on
+the contrary, there is nothing remaining to check the flight of fancy: a
+single hillock, scoured by the rains of centuries, marks the spot where
+the temple of Bel stood erect in its splendour; another represents the
+hanging gardens, while the ridges running to the right and left were
+once the ramparts.
+
+[Illustration: 029.jpg THE RUINS OF BABYLON]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a drawing reproduced in Hofer. It
+     shows the state of the ruins in the first half of our
+     century, before the excavations carried out at European
+     instigation.
+
+The vestiges of a few buildings remain above the mounds of rubble,
+and as soon as the pickaxe is applied to any spot, irregular layers of
+bricks, enamelled tiles, and inscribed tablets are brought to light--in
+fine, all those numberless objects which bear witness to the presence
+of man and to his long sojourn on the spot. But these vestiges are so
+mutilated and disfigured that the principal outlines of the buildings
+cannot be determined with any certainty, and afford us no data for
+guessing their dimensions. He who would attempt to restore the ancient
+appearance of the place would find at his disposal nothing but vague
+indications, from which he might draw almost any conclusion he pleased.
+
+[Illustration: 030.jpg PLAN OF THE RUINS OF BABYLON]
+
+     Prepared by Thuillier, from a plan reproduced in G.
+     Rawlinson, _Herodotus_
+
+Palaces and temples would take a shape in his imagination on a plan
+which never entered the architect's mind; the sacred towers as they rose
+would be disposed in more numerous stages than they actually possessed;
+the enclosing walls would reach such an elevation that they must have
+quickly fallen under their own weight if they had ever been carried
+so high: the whole restoration, accomplished without any certain data,
+embodies the concept of something vast and superhuman, well befitting
+the city of blood and tears, cursed by the Hebrew prophets. Babylon was,
+however, at the outset, but a poor town, situated on both banks of the
+Euphrates, in a low-lying, flat district, intersected by canals and
+liable at times to become marshy. The river at this point runs almost
+directly north and south, between two banks of black mud, the base of
+which it is perpetually undermining. As long as the city existed, the
+vertical thrust of the public buildings and houses kept the river within
+bounds, and even since it was finally abandoned, the masses of _debris_
+have almost everywhere had the effect of resisting its encroachment;
+towards the north, however, the line of its ancient quays has given
+way and sunk beneath the waters, while the stream, turning its course
+westwards, has transferred to the eastern bank the gardens and mounds
+originally on the opposite side. E-sagilla, the temple of the lofty
+summit, the sanctuary of Merodach, probably occupied the vacant space in
+the depression between the Babil and the hill of the Kasr.*
+
+     * The temple of Merodach, called by the Greeks the temple of
+     Belos, has been placed on the site called Babil by the two
+     Rawlinsons; and by Oppert; Hormuzd Rassam and Fr. Delitzsch
+     locate it between the hill of Junjuma and the Kasr, and
+     considers Babil to be a palace of Nebuchadrezzar.
+
+In early times it must have presented much the same appearance as
+the sanctuaries of Central Chaldaea: a mound of crude brick formed the
+substructure of the dwellings of the priests and the household of the
+god, of the shops for the offerings and for provisions, of the treasury,
+and of the apartments for purification or for sacrifice, while the whole
+was surmounted by a ziggurat. On other neighbouring platforms rose the
+royal palace and the temples of lesser divinities,* elevated above the
+crowd of private habitations.
+
+     * As, for instance, the temple E-temenanki on the actual
+     hill of Amran-ibn-Ali, the temple of Shamash, and others,
+     which there will be occasion to mention later on in dealing
+     with the second Chaldaean empire.
+
+[Illustration: 032.jpg THE KASK SEEN FROM THE SOUTH]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from the engraving by Thomas in Perrot-
+     Chipiez.
+
+The houses of the people were closely built around these stately piles,
+on either side of narrow lanes. A massive wall surrounded the whole,
+shutting out the view on all sides; it even ran along the bank of the
+Euphrates, for fear of a surprise from that quarter, and excluded the
+inhabitants from the sight of their own river. On the right bank rose
+a suburb, which was promptly fortified and enlarged, so as to become a
+second Babylon, almost equalling the first in extent and population.
+
+[Illustration: 033.jpg THE TELL OF BORSIPPA, THE PRESENT BIRS-NIMRUD]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after the plate published in
+     Ohesney.
+
+Beyond this, on the outskirts, extended gardens and fields, finding at
+length their limit at the territorial boundaries of two other towns,
+Kutha and Borsippa, whose black outlines are visible to the east and
+south-west respectively, standing isolated above the plain. Sippara on
+the north, Nippur on the south, and the mysterious Agade, completed the
+circle of sovereign states which so closely hemmed in the city of Bel.
+We may surmise with all probability that the history of Babylon in early
+times resembled in the main that of the Egyptian Thebes. It was a small
+seigneury in the hands of petty princes ceaselessly at war with petty
+neighbours: bloody struggles, with alternating successes and reverses,
+were carried on for centuries with no decisive results, until the day
+came when some more energetic or fortunate dynasty at length crushed its
+rivals, and united under one rule first all the kingdoms of Northern and
+finally those of Southern Chaldaea.
+
+The lords of Babylon had, ordinarily, a twofold function, religious
+and military, the priest at first taking precedence of the soldier, but
+gradually yielding to the latter as the town increased in power.
+They were merely the priestly representatives or administrators of
+Babel--_shakannaku Babili_--and their authority was not considered
+legitimate until officially confirmed by the god. Each ruler was obliged
+to go in state to the temple of Bel Merodach within a year of his
+accession: there he had to take the hands of the divine statue, just
+as a vassal would do homage to his liege, and those only of the native
+sovereigns or the foreign conquerors could legally call themselves Kings
+of Babylon--_sharru Babili_--who had not only performed this rite, but
+renewed it annually.*
+
+     * The meaning of the ceremony in which the kings of Babylon
+     "took the hands of Bel" has been given by Winckler; Tiele
+     compares it very aptly with the rite performed by the
+     Egyptian kings--at Heliopolis, for example, when they
+     entered alone the sanctuary of Ra, and there contemplated
+     the god face to face. The rite was probably repeated
+     annually, at the time of the Zakmuku, that is, the New Year
+     festival.
+
+Sargon the Elder had lived in Babylon, and had built himself a palace
+there: hence the tradition of later times attributed to this city the
+glory of having been the capital of the great empire founded by the
+Akkadian dynasties. The actual sway of Babylon, though arrested to the
+south by the petty states of Lower Chaldaea, had not encountered to the
+north or north-west any enemy to menace seriously its progress in that
+semi-fabulous period of its history. The vast plain extending between
+the Euphrates and the Tigris is as it were a continuation of the
+Arabian desert, and is composed of a grey, or in parts a whitish, soil
+impregnated with selenite and common salt, and irregularly superimposed
+upon a bed of gypsum, from which asphalt oozes up here and there,
+forming slimy pits. Frost is of rare occurrence in winter, and rain is
+infrequent at any season; the sun soon burns up the scanty herbage
+which the spring showers have encouraged, but fleshy plants successfully
+resist its heat, such as the common salsola, the salsola soda, the
+pallasia, a small mimosa, and a species of very fragrant wormwood,
+forming together a vari-coloured vegetation which gives shelter to
+the ostrich and the wild ass, and affords the flocks of the nomads a
+grateful pasturage when the autumn has set in. The Euphrates bounds
+these solitudes, but without watering them. The river flows, as far as
+the eye can see, between two ranges of rock or bare hills, at the foot
+of which a narrow strip of alluvial soil supports rows of date-palms
+intermingled here and there with poplars, sumachs, and willows. Wherever
+there is a break in the two cliffs, or where they recede from the river,
+a series of shadufs takes possession of the bank, and every inch of the
+soil is brought under cultivation. The aspect of the country remains
+unchanged as far as the embouchure of the Khabur; but there a black
+alluvial soil replaces the saliferous clay, and if only the water were
+to remain on the land in sufficient quantity, the country would be
+unrivalled in the world for the abundance and variety of its crops.
+
+[Illustration: 036.jpg THE BANKS OF THE EUPHRATES AT ZULEIBEH]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from the plate in Chesney.
+
+The fields, which are regularly sown in the neighbourhood of the small
+towns, yield magnificent harvests of wheat and barley: while in the
+prairie-land beyond the cultivated ground the grass grows so high that
+it comes up to the horses' girths. In some places the meadows are so
+covered with varieties of flowers, growing in dense masses, that the
+effect produced is that of a variegated carpet; dogs sent in among them
+in search of game, emerge covered with red, blue, and yellow pollen.
+This fragrant prairie-land is the delight of bees, which produce
+excellent and abundant honey, while the vine and olive find there a
+congenial soil. The population was unequally distributed in this region.
+Some half-savage tribes were accustomed to wander over the plain,
+dwelling in tents, and supporting life by the chase and by the rearing
+of cattle; but the bulk of the inhabitants were concentrated around the
+affluents of the Euphrates and Tigris, or at the foot of the northern
+mountains wherever springs could be found, as in Assur, Singar, Nisibis,
+Tilli,* Kharranu, and in all the small fortified towns and nameless
+townlets whose ruins are scattered over the tract of country between the
+Khabur and the Balikh. Kharranu, or Harran, stood, like an advance guard
+of Chaldaean civilization, near the frontiers of Syria and Asia Minor.**
+To the north it commanded the passes which opened on to the basins of
+the Upper Euphrates and Tigris; it protected the roads leading to the
+east and south-east in the direction of the table-land of Iran and the
+Persian Gulf, and it was the key to the route by which the commerce of
+Babylon reached the countries lying around the Mediterranean. We have no
+means of knowing what affinities as regards origin or race connected
+it with Uru, but the same moon-god presided over the destinies of both
+towns, and the Sin of Harran enjoyed in very early times a renown nearly
+equal to that of his namesake.
+
+     * Tilli, the only one of these towns mentioned with any
+     certainty in the inscriptions of the first Chaldaean empire,
+     is the Tela of classical authors, and probably the present
+     Weranshaher, near the sources of the Balikh.
+
+     ** Kharranu was identified by the earlier Assyriologists
+     with the Harran of the Hebrews (_Gen._ v. 12), the Carrhse
+     of classical authors, and this identification is still
+     generally accepted.
+
+He was worshipped under the symbol of a conical stone, probably an
+aerolite, surmounted by a gilded crescent, and the ground-plan of the
+town roughly described a crescent-shaped curve in honour of its patron.
+His cult, even down to late times, was connected with cruel practices;
+generations after the advent to power of the Abbasside caliphs, his
+faithful worshippers continued to sacrifice to him human victims, whose
+heads, prepared according to the ancient rite, were accustomed to give
+oracular responses.* The government of the surrounding country was
+in the hands of princes who were merely vicegerents:** Chaldaean
+civilization before the beginnings of history had more or less laid hold
+of them, and made them willing subjects to the kings of Babylon.***
+
+     * Without seeking to specify exactly which were the
+     doctrines introduced into Harranian religion subsequently to
+     the Christian era, we may yet affirm that the base of this
+     system of faith was merely a very distorted form of the
+     ancient Chaldaean worship practised in the town.
+
+     ** Only one vicegerent of Mesopotamia is known at present,
+     and he belongs to the Assyrian epoch. His seal is preserved
+     in the British Museum.
+
+     *** The importance of Harran in the development of the
+     history of the first Chaldaean empire was pointed out by
+     Winckler; but the theory according to which this town was
+     the capital of the kingdom, called by the Chaldaean and
+     Assyrian scribes "the kingdom of the world," is justly
+     combated by Tiele.
+
+These sovereigns were probably at the outset somewhat obscure
+personages, without much prestige, being sometimes independent and
+sometimes subject to the rulers of neighbouring states, among others to
+those of Agade. In later times, when Babylon had attained to universal
+power, and it was desired to furnish her kings with a continuous
+history, the names of these earlier rulers were sought out, and added
+to those of such foreign princes as had from time to time enjoyed the
+sovereignty over them--thus forming an interminable list which for
+materials and authenticity would well compare with that of the Thinite
+Pharaohs. This list has come down to us incomplete, and its remains do
+not permit of our determining the exact order of reigns, or the status
+of the individuals who composed it. We find in it, in the period
+immediately subsequent to the Deluge, mention of mythical heroes,
+followed by names which are still semi-legendary, such as Sargon the
+Elder; the princes of the series were, however, for the most part
+real beings, whose memories had been preserved by tradition, or whose
+monuments were still existing in certain localities. Towards the end of
+the XXVth century before our era, however, a dynasty rose into power of
+which all the members come within the range of history.*
+
+     * This dynasty, which is known to us in its entirety by the
+     two lists of G. Smith and by Pinches, was legitimately
+     composed of only eleven kings, and was known as the
+     Babylonian dynasty, although Sayce suspects it to be of
+     Arabian origin. It is composed as follows:--
+
+[Illustration: 039.jpg TABLE]
+
+The dates of this dynasty are not fixed with entire certainty. The first
+of them, Sumuabim, has left us some contracts bearing the dates of one
+or other of the fifteen years of his reign, and documents of public or
+private interest abound in proportion as we follow down the line of his
+successors. Sumulailu, who reigned after him, was only distantly related
+to his predecessor; but from Sumulailu to Sam-shusatana the kingly power
+was transmitted from father to son without a break for nine generations,
+if we may credit the testimony of the official lists.*
+
+     * Simulailu, also written Samu-la-ilu, whom Mr. Pinches has
+     found in a contract tablet associated with Pungunila as
+     king, was not the son of Sumuabim, since the lists do not
+     mention him as such; he must, however, have been connected
+     with some sort of relationship, or by marriage, with his
+     predecessor, since both are placed in the same dynasty. A
+     few contracts of Sumulailu are given by Meissner. Samsuiluna
+     calls him "my forefather (d-gula-mu), the fifth king before
+     me."
+
+     Hommel believes that the order of the dynasties has been
+     reversed, and that the first upon the lists we possess was
+     historically the second; he thus places the Babylonian
+     dynasty between 2035 and 1731 B.C. His opinion has not been
+     generally adopted, but every Assyriologist dealing with this
+     period proposes a different date for the reigns in this
+     dynasty; to take only one characteristic example, Khammurabi
+     is placed by Oppert in the year 2394-2339, by Delitzsch-
+     Murdter in 2287-2232, by Winckler in 2264-2210, and by
+     Peiser in 2139-2084, and by Carl Niebuhr in 2081-2026.
+
+
+Contemporary records, however, prove that the course of affairs did
+not always run so smoothly. They betray the existence of at least
+one usurper--Immeru--who, even if he did not assume the royal titles,
+enjoyed the supreme power for several years between the reigns of Zabu
+and Abilsin. The lives of these rulers closely resembled those of their
+contemporaries of Southern Chaldaea. They dredged the ancient canals, or
+constructed new ones; they restored the walls of their fortresses, or
+built fresh strongholds on the frontier;* they religiously kept the
+festivals of the divinities belonging to their terrestrial domain, to
+whom they annually rendered solemn homage.
+
+     * Sumulailu had built six such large strongholds of brick,
+     which were repaired by Samsuiluna five generations later. A
+     contract of Sinmuballit is dated the year in which he built
+     the great wall of a strong place, the name of which is
+     unfortunately illegible on the fragment which we possess.
+
+They repaired the temples as a matter of course, and enriched them
+according to their means; we even know that Zabu, the third in order
+of the line of sovereigns, occupied himself in building the sanctuary
+Eulbar of Anunit, in Sippara. There is evidence that they possessed the
+small neighbouring kingdoms of Kishu, Sippara, and Kuta, and that they
+had consolidated them into a single state, of which Babylon was the
+capital. To the south their possessions touched upon those of the kings
+of Uru, but the frontier was constantly shifting, so that at one time an
+important city such as Nippur belonged to them, while at another it fell
+under the dominion of the southern provinces. Perpetual war was waged
+in the narrow borderland which separated the two rival states, resulting
+apparently in the balance of power being kept tolerably equal between
+them under the immediate successors of Sumuabim* --the obscure Sumulailu,
+Zabum, the usurper Immeru, Abilsin and Sinmuballit--until the reign of
+Khammurabi (the son of Sinmuballit), who finally made it incline to
+his side.** The struggle in which he was engaged, and which, after many
+vicissitudes, he brought to a successful issue, was the more decisive,
+since he had to contend against a skilful and energetic adversary who
+had considerable forces at his disposal. Birnsin*** was, in reality, of
+Elamite race, and as he held the province of Yamutbal in appanage, he
+was enabled to muster, in addition to his Chaldaean battalions, the army
+of foreigners who had conquered the maritime regions at the mouth of the
+Tigris and the Euphrates.
+
+     * None of these facts are as yet historically proved: we
+     may, however, conjecture with some probability what was the
+     general state of things, when we remember that the first
+     kings of Babylon were contemporaries of the last independent
+     sovereigns of Southern Chaldaea.
+
+     ** The name of this prince has been read in several ways--
+     Hammurabi, Khammurabi, by the earlier Assyriologists,
+     subsequently Hammuragash, Khammuragash, as being of Elamite
+     or Cossoan extraction: the reading Khammurabi is at present
+     the prevailing one. The bilingual list published by Pinches
+     makes Khammurabi an equivalent of the Semitic names Kimta-
+     rapashtum. Hence Halevy concluded that Khammurabi was a
+     series of ideograms, and that Kimtarapashtum was the true
+     reading of the name; his proposal, partially admitted by
+     Hommel, furnishes us with a mixed reading of Khammurapaltu,
+     Amraphel. [Hommel is now convinced of the identity of the
+     Amraphel of _Gen._ xiv. I with Khammurabi.--Te.] Sayce,
+     moreover, adopts the reading Khammurabi, and assigns to him
+     an Arabian origin. The part played by this prince was
+     pointed out at an early date by Menant. Recent discoveries
+     have shown the important share which he had in developing
+     the Chaldaean empire, and have, increased his reputation with
+     Assyriologists.
+
+     *** The name of this king has been the theme of heated
+     discussions: it was at first pronounced Aradsin, Ardusin, or
+     Zikarsin; it is now read in several different ways--Rimsin,
+     or Eriaku, Riaku, Rimagu. Others have made a distinction
+     between the two forms, and have made out of them the names
+     of two different kings. They are all variants of the same
+     name. I have adopted the form Rimsin, which is preferred by
+     a few Assyriologists. [The tablets recently discovered by
+     Mr. Pinches, referring to Kudur-lagamar and Tudkhula, which
+     he has published in a Paper road before the Victoria
+     Institute, Jan. 20, 1896, have shown that the true reading
+     is Eri-Aku. The Elamite name Eri-Aku, "servant of the moon-
+     god," was changed by some of his subjects into the
+     Babylonian Rim-Sin, "Have mercy, O Moon-god!" just as
+     Abesukh, the Hebrew Absihu'a ("the father of welfare") was
+     transformed into the Babylonian Ebisum ("the actor").--Ed.]
+
+
+It was not the first time that Elam had audaciously interfered in
+the affairs of her neighbours. In fabulous times, one of her mythical
+kings--Khumbaba the Ferocious--had oppressed. Uruk, and Gilgames with
+all his valour was barely able to deliver the town. Sargon the Elder is
+credited with having subdued Elam; the kings and vicegerents of Lagash,
+as well as those of Uru and. Larsam, had measured forces with Anshan,
+but with no decisive issue. From time to time they obtained an
+advantage, and we find recorded in the annals victories gained by Gudea,
+Ine-sin, or Bursin, but to be followed only by fresh reverses; at the
+close of such campaigns, and in order to seal the ensuing peace, a
+princess of Susa would be sent as a bride to one of the Chaldaean cities,
+or a Chaldaean lady of royal birth would enter the harem of a king of
+Anshan. Elam was protected along the course of the Tigris and on the
+shores of the Nar-Marratum by a wide marshy region, impassable except
+at a few fixed and easily defended places. The alluvial plain extending
+behind the marshes was as rich and fertile as that of Chaldaea. Wheat and
+barley ordinarily yielded an hundred and at times two hundredfold; the
+towns were surrounded by a shadeless belt of palms; the almond, fig,
+acacia, poplar, and willow extended in narrow belts along the rivers'
+edge. The climate closely resembles that of Chaldaja: if the midday heat
+in summer is more pitiless, it is at least tempered by more frequent
+east winds. The ground, however, soon begins to rise, ascending
+gradually towards the north-east. The distant and uniform line of
+mountain-peaks grows loftier on the approach of the traveller, and the
+hills begin to appear one behind another, clothed halfway up with thick
+forests, but bare on their summits, or scantily covered with meagre
+vegetation. They comprise, in fact, six or seven parallel ranges,
+resembling natural ramparts piled up between the country of the Tigris
+and the table-land of Iran. The intervening valleys were formerly lakes,
+having had for the most part no communication with each other and no
+outlet into the sea. In the course of centuries they had dried up,
+leaving a thick deposit of mud in the hollows of their ancient beds,
+from which sprang luxurious and abundant harvests. The rivers--the
+Uknu,* the Ididi,** and the Ulai***--which water this region are, on
+reaching more level ground, connected by canals, and are constantly
+shifting their beds in the light soil of the Susian plain: they soon
+attain a width equal to that of the Euphrates, but after a short time
+lose half their volume in swamps, and empty themselves at the present
+day into the Shatt-el-Arab. They flowed formerly into that part of the
+Persian Gulf which extended as far as Kornah, and the sea thus formed
+the southern frontier of the kingdom.
+
+     * The Uknu is the Kerkhah of the present day, the Choaspes
+     of the Greeks.
+
+     ** The Ididi was at first identified with the ancient
+     Pasitigris, which scholars then desired to distinguish from
+     the Eulseos: it is now known to be the arm of the Karun
+     which runs to Dizful, the Koprates of classical times, which
+     has sometimes been confounded with the Eulaws.
+
+     *** The Ulai, mentioned in the Hebrew texts (Ban. viii. 2,
+     16), the Euloos of classical writers, also called
+     Pasitigris. It is the Karun of the present day, until its
+     confluence with the Shaur, and subsequently the Shaur
+     itself, which waters the foot of the Susian hills.
+
+From earliest times this country was inhabited by three distinct
+peoples, whose descendants may still be distinguished at the present
+day, and although they have dwindled in numbers and become mixed with
+elements of more recent origin, the resemblance to their forefathers
+is still very remarkable. There were, in the first place, the short
+and robust people of well-knit figure, with brown skins, black hair and
+eyes, who belonged to that negritic race which inhabited a considerable
+part of Asia in prehistoric times.*
+
+     * The connection of the negroid type of Susians with the
+     negritic races of India and Oceania, has been proved, in the
+     course of M. Dieulafoy's expedition to the Susian plains and
+     the ancient provinces of Elam.
+
+[Illustration: 045.jpg MAP OF CHALDAEA AND ELAM.]
+
+[Illustration: 046.jpg AN ANCIENT SUSIAN OF NEGRETIC RACE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bas-relief of Sargon II. in
+     the Louvre.
+
+These prevailed in the lowlands and the valleys, where the warm, damp
+climate favoured their development; but they also spread into the
+mountain region, and had pushed their outposts as far as the first
+slopes of the Iranian table-land. They there contact with white-skinned
+of medium height, who were probably allied to the nations of Northern
+and Central Asia--to the Scythians,* for instance, if it is permissible
+to use a vague term employed by the Ancients.
+
+     * This last-mentioned people is, by some authors, for
+     reasons which, so far, can hardly be considered conclusive,
+     connected with the so-called Sumerian race, which we find
+     settled in Chaldaea. They are said to have been the first to
+     employ horses and chariots in warfare.
+
+[Illustration: 047.jpg NATIVE OF MIXED NEGRITIC RACE FROM SUSIANA]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph furnished by
+     Marcel Dieulafoy.
+
+
+Semites of the same stock as those of Chaldaea pushed forward as far as
+the east bank of the Tigris, and settling mainly among the marshes led a
+precarious life by fishing and pillaging.* The country of the plain
+was called Anzan, or Anshan,** and the mountain region Numma, or Ilamma,
+"the high lands:" these two names were subsequently used to denote the
+whole country, and Ilamma has survived in the Hebrew word Elam.*** Susa,
+the most important and flourishing town in the kingdom, was situated
+between the Ulai and the Ididi, some twenty-five or thirty miles from
+the nearest of the mountain ranges.
+
+     * From the earliest times we meet beyond the Tigris with
+     names like that of Durilu, a fact which proves the existence
+     of races speaking a Semitic dialect in the countries under
+     the suzerainty of the King of Elam: in the last days of the
+     Chaldaean empire they had assumed such importance that the
+     Hebrews made out Elam to be one of the sons of Shem (_Gen._
+     x. 22).
+
+     ** Anzan, Anshan, and, by assimilation of the nasal with the
+     sibilant, Ashshan. This name has already been mentioned in
+     the inscriptions of the kings and vicegerents of Lagash and
+     in the _Book of Prophecies_ of the ancient Chaldaean
+     astronomers; it also occurs in the royal preamble of Cyrus
+     and his ancestors, who like him were styled "kings of
+     Anshan." It had been applied to the whole country of Elam,
+     and afterwards to Persia. Some are of opinion that it was
+     the name of a part of Elam, viz. that inhabited by the
+     Turanian Medes who spoke the second language of the
+     Achaemenian inscriptions, the eastern half, bounded by the
+     Tigris and the Persian Gulf, consisting of a flat and swampy
+     land. These differences of opinion gave rise to a heated
+     controversy; it is now, however, pretty generally admitted
+     that Anzan-Anshan was really the plain of Elam, from the
+     mountains to the sea, and one set of authorities affirms
+     that the word Anzan may have meant "plain" in the language
+     of the country, while others hesitate as yet to pronounce
+     definitely on this point.
+
+     *** The meaning of "Nunima," "Ilamma," "Ilamtu," in the
+     group of words used to indicate Elam, had been recognised
+     even by the earliest Assyriologists; the name originally
+     referred to the hilly country on the north and east of Susa.
+     To the Hebrews, Elam was one of the sons of Shem (Gen. x.
+     22). The Greek form of the name is Elymais, and some of the
+     classical geographers were well enough acquainted with the
+     meaning of the word to be able to distinguish the region to
+     which it referred from Susiana proper.
+
+[Illustration: 048.jpg THE TUMULUS OF SUSA, AS IT APPEARED TOWARDS THE
+MIDDLE OF THE XIXth CENTURY]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after a plate in Chesney.
+
+Its fortress and palace were raised upon the slopes of a mound which
+overlooked the surrounding country:* at its base, to the eastward,
+stretched the town, with its houses of sun-dried bricks.**
+
+     * Susa, in the language of the country, was called Shushun;
+     this name was transliterated into Chaldaeo-Assyrian, by
+     Shushan, Shushi.
+
+     ** Strabo tells us, on the authority of Polycletus, that the
+     town had no walls in the time of Alexander, and extended
+     over a space two hundred stadia in length; in the
+     VIII century B.C. it was enclosed by walls with bastions,
+     which are shown on a bas-relief of Assurbanipal, but it was
+     surrounded by unfortified suburbs.
+
+Further up the course of the Uknu, lay the following cities: Madaktu,
+the Badaca of classical authors,* rivalling Susa in strength and
+importance; Naditu,** Til-Khumba,*** Dur-Undash,**** Khaidalu.^--all
+large walled towns, most of which assumed the title of royal cities.
+Elam in reality constituted a kind of feudal empire, composed of several
+tribes--the Habardip, the Khushshi, the Umliyash, the people of Yamutbal
+and of Yatbur^^--all independent of each other, but often united under
+the authority of one sovereign, who as a rule chose Susa as the seat of
+government.
+
+     * Madaktu, Mataktu, the Badaka of Diodorus, situated on the
+     Eulaaos, between Susa and Ecbatana, has been placed by
+     Rawlinson near the bifurcation of the Kerkhah, either at
+     Paipul or near Aiwan-i-Kherkah, where there are some rather
+     important and ancient ruins; Billerbeck prefers to put it at
+     the mouth of the valley of Zal-fer, on the site at present
+     occupied by the citadel of Kala-i-Riza.
+
+     ** Naditu is identified by Finzi with the village of
+     Natanzah, near Ispahan; it ought rather to be looked for in
+     the neighbourhood of Sarna.
+
+     *** Til-Khumba, the Mound of Khumba, so named after one of
+     the principal Elamite gods, was, perhaps, situated among the
+     ruins of Budbar, towards the confluence of the Ab-i-Kirind
+     and Kerkhah, or possibly higher up in the mountain, in the
+     vicinity of Asmanabad.
+
+     **** Dur-Undash, Dur-Undasi, has been identified, without
+     absolutely conclusive reason, with the fortress of Kala-i-
+     Dis on the Disful-Rud.
+
+     ^ Khaidalu, Khidalu, is perhaps the present fortress of Dis-
+     Malkan.
+
+     ^^ The countries of Yatbur and Yamutbal extended into the
+     plain between the marshes of the Tigris and the mountain;
+     the town of Durilu was near the Yamutbal region, if not in
+     that country itself. Umliyash lay between the Uknu and the
+     Tigris.
+
+[Illustration: 050.jpg Page Image]
+
+The language is not represented by any idioms now spoken, and its
+affinities with the Sumerian which some writers have attempted to
+establish, are too uncertain to make it safe to base any theory upon
+them.*
+
+     * A great part of the Susian inscriptions have been
+     collected by Fr. Lenormant. An attempt has been made to
+     identify the language in which they are written with the
+     Sumero-accadian, and authorities now generally agree in
+     considering the Arcaemenian inscriptions of the second type
+     as representative of its modern form. Hommel connects it
+     with Georgian, and includes it in a great linguistic family,
+     which comprises, besides these two idioms, the Hittite, the
+     Cappadocian, the Armenian of the Van inscriptions, and the
+     Cosstean. Oppert claims to have discovered on a tablet in
+     the British Museum a list of words belonging to one of the
+     idioms (probably Semitic) of Susiana, which differs alike
+     from the Suso-Medic and the Assyrian.
+
+The little that we know of Elamite religion reveals to us a mysterious
+world, full of strange names and vague forms. Over their hierarchy
+there presided a deity who was called Shushinak (the Susian), Dimesh or
+Samesh, Dagbag, As-siga, Adaene, and possibly Khumba and AEmman, whom
+the Chaldaens identified with their god Ninip; his statue was concealed
+in a sanctuary inaccessible to the profane, but it was dragged from
+thence by Assurbanipal of Nineveh in the VIIth century B.C.* This deity
+was associated with six others of the first rank, who were divided into
+two triads--Shumudu, Lagamaru, Partikira; Ammankasibar, Uduran, and
+Sapak: of these names, the least repellent, Ammankasibar, may possibly
+be the Memnon of the Greeks. The dwelling of these divinities was near
+Susa, in the depths of a sacred forest to which the priests and kings
+alone had access: their images were brought out on certain days to
+receive solemn homage, and were afterwards carried back to their shrine
+accompanied by a devout and reverent multitude. These deities received
+a tenth of the spoil after any successful campaign--the offerings
+comprising statues of the enemies' gods, valuable vases, ingots of
+gold and silver, furniture, and stuffs. The Elamite armies were well
+organized, and under a skilful general became irresistible. In other
+respects the Elamites closely resembled the Chaldaeans, pursuing the same
+industries and having the same agricultural and commercial instincts. In
+the absence of any bas-reliefs and inscriptions peculiar to this people,
+we may glean from the monuments of Lagash and Babylon a fair idea of the
+extent of their civilization in its earliest stages.
+
+     * _Shushinak_ is an adjective derived from the name of the
+     town of Susa. The real name of the god was probably kept
+     secret and rarely uttered. The names which appear by the
+     side of Shushinak in the text published by H. Rawlinson, as
+     equivalents of the Babylonian Ninip, perhaps represent
+     different deities; we may well ask whether the deity may not
+     be the Khumba, Umma, Umman, who recurs so frequently in the
+     names of men and places, and who has hitherto never been met
+     with alone in any formula or dedicatory tablet.
+
+The cities of the Euphrates, therefore, could have been sensible of but
+little change, when the chances of war transferred them from the rule of
+their native princes to that of an Elamite. The struggle once over, and
+the resulting evils repaired as far as practicable, the people of these
+towns resumed their usual ways, hardly conscious of the presence of
+their foreign ruler. The victors, for their part, became assimilated so
+rapidly with the vanquished, that at the close of a generation or so
+the conquering dynasty was regarded legitimate and national one, loyally
+attached to the traditions and religion of its adopted country. In the
+year 2285 B.C., towards the close of the reign of Nurramman, or in
+the earlier part of that of Siniddinam, a King of Elam, by name
+Kudur-nakhunta, triumphantly marched through Chaldaea from end to end,
+devastating the country and sparing neither town nor temple: Uruk lost
+its statue of Nana, which was carried off as a trophy and placed in the
+sanctuary of Susa. The inhabitants long mourned the detention of their
+goddess, and a hymn of lamentation, probably composed for the occasion
+by one of their priests, kept the remembrance of the disaster fresh in
+their memories. "Until when, oh lady, shall the impious enemy ravage the
+country!--In thy queen-city, Uruk, the destruction is accomplished,--in
+Eulbar, the temple of thy oracle, blood has flowed like water,--upon the
+whole of thy lands has he poured out flame, and it is spread abroad like
+smoke.--Oh, lady, verily it is hard for me to bend under the yoke of
+misfortune!--? Oh, lady, thou hast wrapped me about, thou hast plunged
+me, in sorrow!--The impious mighty one has broken me in pieces like a
+reed,--and I know not what to resolve, I trust not in myself,--like a
+bed of reeds I sigh day and night!--I, thy servant, I bow myself before
+thee!" It would appear that the whole of Chaldaea, including Babylon
+itself, was forced to acknowledge the supremacy of the invader;* a
+Susian empire thus absorbed Chaldaea, reducing its states to feudal
+provinces, and its princes to humble vassals. Kudur-nakhunta having
+departed, the people of Larsa exerted themselves to the utmost to repair
+the harm that he had done, and they succeeded but too well, since their
+very prosperity was the cause only a short time after of the outburst
+of another storm. Siniddinam, perhaps, desired to shake off the Elamite
+yoke. Simtishilkhak, one of the successors of Kudur-nakhunta, had
+conceded the principality of Yamutbal as a fief to Kudur-mabug, one
+of his sons. Kudur-mabug appears to have been a conqueror of no mean
+ability, for he claims, in his inscriptions, the possession of the whole
+of Syria.**
+
+     * The submission of Babylon is evident from the title Adda
+     Martu, "sovereign of the West," assumed by several of the
+     Elamite princes (of. p. 65 of the present work): in order to
+     extend his authority beyond the Euphrates, it was necessary
+     for the King of Elam to be first of all master of Babylon.
+     In the early days of Assyriology it was supposed that this
+     period of Elamite supremacy coincided with the Median
+     dynasty of Berosus.
+
+     ** His preamble contains the titles _adda Martu,_ "prince of
+     Syria;" _adda lamutbal_, "prince of Yamutbal." The word
+     _adda_ seems properly to mean "lather," and the literal
+     translation of the full title would probably be "father of
+     Syria," "_father_ of Yamutbal," whence the secondary
+     meanings "master, lord, prince," which have been
+     provisionally accepted by most Assyriologists. Tiele, and
+     Winckler after him, have suggested that Martu is here
+     equivalent to Yamutbal, and that it was merely used to
+     indicate the western part of Elam; Winckler afterwards
+     rejected this hypothesis, and has come round to the general
+     opinion.
+
+He obtained a victory over Siniddinam, and having dethroned him, placed
+the administration of the kingdom in the hands of his own son Eimsin.
+This prince, who was at first a feudatory, afterwards associated in the
+government with his father, and finally sole monarch after the
+latter's death, married a princess of Chaldaean blood, and by this means
+legitimatized his usurpation in the eyes of his subjects. His domain,
+which lay on both sides of the Tigris and of the Euphrates, comprised,
+besides the principality of Yamutbal, all the towns dependent on Sumer
+and Accad--Uru, Larsa, Uruk, and Nippur, He acquitted himself as a good
+sovereign in the sight of gods and men: he repaired the brickwork in the
+temple of Nannar at Uru; he embellished the temple of Shamash at Larsa,
+and caused two statues of copper to be cast in honour of the god; he
+also rebuilt Lagash and Grirsu. The city of Uruk had been left a heap of
+ruins after the withdrawal of Kudur-nakhunta: he set about the work of
+restoration, constructed a sanctuary to Papsukal, raised the ziggurat of
+Nana, and consecrated to the goddess an entire set of temple furniture
+to replace that carried off by the Elamites. He won the adhesion of the
+priests by piously augmenting their revenues, and throughout his reign
+displayed remarkable energy. Documents exist which attribute to him the
+reduction of Durilu, on the borders of Elam and the Chaldaean states;
+others contain discreet allusions to a perverse enemy who disturbed
+his peace in the north, and whom he successfully repulsed. He drove
+Sinmuballit out of Ishin, and this victory so forcibly impressed
+his contemporaries, that they made it the starting-point of a new
+semi-official era; twenty-eight years after the event, private contracts
+still continued to be dated by reference to the taking of Ishin.
+Sinmuballit's son, Khammurabi, was more fortunate. Eimsin vainly
+appealed for help against him to his relative and suzerain
+Kudur-lagamar, who had succeeded Simtishilkhak at Susa. Eimsin was
+defeated, and disappeared from the scene of action, leaving no trace
+behind him, though we may infer that he took refuge in his fief of
+Yamutbal. The conquest by Khammurabi was by no means achieved at one
+blow, the enemy offering an obstinate resistance. He was forced to
+destroy several fortresses, the inhabitants of which had either risen
+against him or had refused to do him homage, among them being those
+of Meir* and Malgu. When the last revolt had been put down, all the
+countries speaking the language of Chaldaea and sharing its civilization
+were finally united into a single kingdom, of which Khammurabi
+proclaimed himself the head. Other princes who had preceded him had
+enjoyed the same opportunities, but their efforts had never been
+successful in establishing an empire of any duration; the various
+elements had been bound together for a moment, merely to be dispersed
+again after a short interval. The work of Khammurabi, on the contrary,
+was placed on a solid foundation, and remained unimpaired under his
+successors. Not only did he hold sway without a rival in the south as
+in the north, but the titles indicating the rights he had acquired over
+Sumer and Accad were inserted in his Protocol after those denoting his
+hereditary possessions,--the city of Bel and the four houses of the
+world. Khammurabi's victory marks the close of those long centuries of
+gradual evolution during which the peoples of the Lower Euphrates passed
+from division to unity. Before his reign there had been as many states
+as cities, and as many dynasties as there were states; after him there
+was but one kingdom under one line of kings.
+
+     * Mairu, Meir, has been identified with Shurippak; but it
+     is, rather, the town of Mar, now Tell-Id. A and Lagamal, the
+     Elamite Lagamar, were worshipped there. It was the seat of a
+     linen manufacture, and possessed large shipping.
+
+Khammurabi's long reign of fifty-five years has hitherto yielded us but
+a small number of monuments--seals, heads of sceptres, alabaster vases,
+and pompous inscriptions, scarcely any of them being of historical
+interest. He was famous for the number of his campaigns, no details of
+which, however, have come to light, but the dedication of one of his
+statues celebrates his good fortune on the battlefield. "Bel has lent
+thee sovereign majesty: thou, what awaitest thou?--Sin has lent thee
+royalty: thou, what awaitest thou?--Ninip has lent thee his supreme
+weapon: thou, what awaitest thou?--The goddess of light, Ishtar,
+has lent thee the shock of arms and the fray: thou, what awaitest
+thou?--Shamash and Bamman are thy varlets: thou, what awaitest thou?--It
+is Khammurabi, the king, the powerful chieftain--who cuts the enemies
+in pieces,--the whirlwind of battle--who overthrows the country of the
+rebels--who stays combats, who crushes rebellions,--who destroys
+the stubborn like images of clay,--who overcomes the obstacles of
+inaccessible mountains." The majority of these expeditions were, no
+doubt, consequent on the victory which destroyed the power of Kimsin.
+It would not have sufficed merely to drive back the Elamites beyond the
+Tigris; it was necessary to strike a blow within their own territory to
+avoid a recurrence of hostilities, which might have endangered the still
+recent work of conquest. Here, again, Khammurabi seems to have met with
+his habitual success.
+
+[Illustration: 057.jpg HEAD OF A SCEPTRE IN COPPER, BEARING THE NAME OF
+KHAM-MURABI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a rapid sketch made at the
+     British Museum.
+
+Ashnunak was a border district, and shared the fate of all the provinces
+on the eastern bank of the Tigris, being held sometimes by Elam and
+sometimes by Chaldaea; properly speaking, it was a country of Semitic
+speech, and was governed by viceroys owning allegiance, now to Babylon,
+now to Susa.* Khammurabi seized this province, and permanently secured
+its frontier by building along the river a line of fortresses surrounded
+by earthworks. Following the example of his predecessors, he set himself
+to restore and enrich the temples.
+
+     * Pognon discovered inscriptions of four of the vicegerents
+     of Ashnunak, which he assigns, with some hesitation, to the
+     time of Khammurabi, rather than to that of the kings of
+     Telloh. Three of these names are Semitic, the fourth
+     Sumerian; the language of the inscriptions bears a
+     resemblance to the Semitic dialect of Chaldaea.
+
+The house of Zamama and Ninni, at Kish, was out of repair, and the
+ziggurat threatened to fall; he pulled it down and rebuilt it, carrying
+it to such a height that its summit "reached the heavens." Merodach had
+delegated to him the government of the faithful, and had raised him to
+the rank of supreme ruler over the whole of Chaldaea. At Babylon, close
+to the great lake which served as a reservoir for the overflow of the
+Euphrates, the king restored the sanctuary of Esagilla, the dimensions
+of which did not appear to him to be proportionate to the growing
+importance of the city. "He completed this divine dwelling with great
+joy and delight, he raised the summit to the firmament," and then
+enthroned Merodach and his spouse, Zarpanit, within it, amid great
+festivities. He provided for the ever-recurring requirements of the
+national religion by frequent gifts; the tradition has come down to us
+of the granary for wheat which he built at Babylon, the sight of which
+alone rejoiced the heart of the god. While surrounding Sippar with a
+great wall and a fosse, to protect its earthly inhabitants, he did
+not forget Shamash and Malkatu, the celestial patrons of the town. He
+enlarged in their honour the mysterious Ebarra, the sacred seat of their
+worship, and that which no king from the earliest times had known how
+to build for his divine master, that did he generously for Shamash
+his master. He restored Ezida, the eternal dwelling of Merodach,
+at Borsippa; Eturka-lamma, the temple of Anu, Ninni, and Nana, the
+suzerains of Kish; and also Ezikalamma, the house of the goddess Ninna,
+in the village of Zarilab. In the southern provinces, but recently added
+to the crown,--at Larsa, Uruk, and Uru,--he displayed similar activity.
+
+[Illustration: 059.jpg Page Image]
+
+He had, doubtless, a political as well as a religious motive in all he
+did; for if he succeeded in winning the allegiance of the priests by
+the prodigality of his pious gifts, he could count on their gratitude in
+securing for him the people's obedience, and thus prevent the outbreak
+of a revolt. He had, indeed, before him a difficult task in attempting
+to allay the ills which had been growing during centuries of civil
+discord and foreign conquest. The irrigation of the country demanded
+constant attention, and from earliest times its sovereigns had directed
+the work with real solicitude; but owing to the breaking up of the
+country into small states, their respective resources could not be
+combined in such general operations as were needed for controlling the
+inundations and effectually remedying the excess or the scarcity of
+water. Khammurabi witnessed the damage done to the whole province of
+Umliyash by one of those terrible floods which still sometimes ravage
+the regions of the Lower Tigris,* and possibly it may have been to
+prevent the recurrence of such a disaster that he undertook the work of
+canalization.
+
+     * Contracts dated the year of an inundation which laid waste
+     Umliyash; cf. in our own time, the inundation of April 10,
+     1831, which in a single night destroyed half the city of
+     Bagdad, and in which fifteen thousand persons lost their
+     lives either by drowning or by the collapse of their houses.
+
+He was the first that we know of who attempted to organize and reduce
+to a single system the complicated network of ditches and channels which
+intersected the territory belonging to the great cities between Babylon
+and the sea. Already, more than half a century previously, Siniddinam
+had enlarged the canal on which Larsa was situated, while Bimsin had
+provided an outlet for the "River of the Gods" into the Persian Gulf:*
+by the junction of the two a navigable channel was formed between the
+Euphrates and the marshes, and an outlet was thus made for the surplus
+waters of the inundation. Khammurabi informs us how Anu and Bel, having
+confided to him the government of Sumer and Accad, and having placed in
+his hands the reins of power, he dug the Nar-Khammurabi, the source of
+wealth to the people, which brings abundance of water to the country
+of Sumir and Accad. "I turned both its banks into cultivated ground, I
+heaped up mounds of grain and I furnished perpetual water for the people
+of Sumir and Accad. The country of Sumer and Accad, I gathered together
+its nations who were scattered, I gave them pasture and drink, I ruled
+over them in riches and abundance, I caused them to inhabit a peaceful
+dwelling-place. Then it was that Khammurabi, the powerful king, the
+favourite of the great gods, I myself, according to the prodigious
+strength with which Merodach had endued me, I constructed a high
+fortress, upon mounds of earth; its summit rises to the height of the
+mountains, at the head of the Nar-Khammurabi, the source of wealth to
+the people. This fortress I called Dur-Sinmuballit-abim-ualidiya, the
+Fortress of Sinmuballit, the father who begat me, so that the name of
+Sinmuballit, the father who begat me, may endure in the habitations of
+the world."
+
+     * Contract dated "the year the Tigris, river of the gods,
+     was canalized down to the sea"; i.e. as far as the point to
+     which the sea then penetrated in the environs of Kornah.
+
+This canal of Khammurabi ran from a little south of Babylon, joining
+those of Siniddinam and Rimsin, and probably cutting the alluvial plain
+in its entire length.* It drained the stagnant marshes on either side
+along its course, and by its fertilising effects, the dwellers on its
+banks were enabled to reap full harvests from the lands which previously
+had been useless for purposes of cultivation. A ditch of minor
+importance pierced the isthmus which separates the Tigris and the
+Euphrates in the neighbourhood of Sippar.** Khammurabi did not rest
+contented with these; a system of secondary canals doubtless completed
+the whole scheme of irrigation which he had planned after the
+achievement of his conquest, and his successors had merely to keep up
+his work in order to ensure an unrivalled prosperity to the empire.
+
+     * Delattre is of opinion that the canal dug by Khammurabi is
+     the Arakhtu of later epochs which began at Babylon and
+     extended as far as the Larsa canal. It must therefore be
+     approximately identified with the Shatt-en-Nil of the
+     present day, which joins Shatt-el-Kaher, the canal of
+     Siniddinam.
+
+     ** The canal which Khammurabi caused to be dug or dredged
+     may be the Nar-Malka, or "royal canal," which ran from the
+     Tigris to the Euphrates, passing Sippar on the way. The
+     digging of this canal is mentioned in a contract.
+
+Their efforts in this direction were not unsuccessful. Samsuiluna,
+the son of Khammurabi, added to the existing system two or three
+fresh canals, one at least of which still bore his name nearly fifteen
+centuries later; it is mentioned in the documents of the second Assyrian
+empire in the time of Assurbanipal, and it is possible that traces of
+it may still be found at the present day. Abieshukh,* Ammisatana,**
+Ammizadugga,*** and Samsusatana,**** all either continued to elaborate
+the network planned by their ancestors, or applied themselves to the
+better distribution of the overflow in those districts where cultivation
+was still open to improvement.
+
+     * Abishukh (the Hebrew Abishua) is the form of the name
+     which we find in contemporary contracts. The official lists
+     contain the variant Ebishu, Ebishum.
+
+     ** Ammiditana is only a possible reading: others prefer
+     Ammisatana. The Nar-Ammisatana is mentioned in a Sippar
+     contract. Another contract is dated "the year in which
+     Ammisatana, the king, repaired the canal of Samsuiluna."
+
+     *** This was, at first, read Ammididugga. Ammizadugga is
+     mentioned in the date of a contract as having executed
+     certain works--of what nature it is not easy to say--on the
+     banks of the Tigris; another contract is dated "the year in
+     which Ammizadugga, the king, by supreme command of Sha-mash,
+     his master, [dug] the Ndr-Ammizadugga-nulchus-nishi (canal
+     of Ammizadugga), prosperity of men." In the Minaean
+     inscriptions of Southern Arabia the name is found under the
+     form of Ammi-Zaduq.
+
+     **** Sometimes erroneously read Samdiusatana; but, as a
+     matter of fact, we have contracts of that time, in which a
+     royal name is plainly written as Samsusatana.
+
+We should know nothing of these kings had not the scribes of those times
+been in the habit of dating the contracts of private individuals by
+reference to important national events. They appear to have chosen
+by preference incidents in the religious life of the country; as, for
+instance, the restoration of a temple, the annual enthronisation of one
+of the great divinities, such as Shamash, Merodach, Ishtar, or Nana,
+as the eponymous god of the current year, the celebration of a solemn
+festival, or the consecration of a statue; while a few scattered
+allusions to works of fortification show that meanwhile the defence of
+the country was jealously watched over.* These sovereigns appear to have
+enjoyed long reigns, the shortest extending over a period of five and
+twenty years; and when at length the death of any king occurred, he was
+immediately replaced by his son, the notaries' acts and the judicial
+documents which have come down to us betraying no confusion or abnormal
+delay in the course of affairs. We may, therefore, conclude that the
+last century and a half of the dynasty was a period of peace and
+of material prosperity. Chaldaea was thus enabled to fully reap the
+advantage of being united under the rule of one individual. It is quite
+possible that those cities--Uru, Larsa, Ishin, Uruk, and Nippur--which
+had played so important a part in the preceding centuries, suffered from
+the loss of their prestige, and from the blow dealt to their traditional
+pretensions.
+
+     * Samsuiluna repaired the five fortresses which his ancestor
+     Sumulailu had built. Contract dated "the year in which
+     Ammisatana, the king, built Dur-Ammisatana, near the Sin
+     river," and "the year in which Ammisatana, the king, gave
+     its name to Dur-Iskunsin, near the canal of
+     Ammisatana." Contract dated "the year in which the King
+     Ammisatana repaired Dur-Iskunsin." Contract dated "the year in
+     which Samsuiluna caused 'the wall of Uru and Uruk' to be
+     built."
+
+Up to this time they had claimed the privilege of controlling the
+history of their country, and they had bravely striven among themselves
+for the supremacy over the southern states; but the revolutions which
+had raised each in turn to the zenith of power, had never exalted any
+one of them to such an eminence as to deprive its rivals of all hope of
+supplanting it and of enjoying the highest place. The rise of Babylon
+destroyed the last chance which any of them had of ever becoming the
+capital; the new city was so favourably situated, and possessed so much
+wealth and so many soldiers, while its kings displayed such tenacious
+energy, that its neighbours were forced to bow before it and resign
+themselves to the subordinate position of leading provincial towns. They
+gave a loyal obedience to the officers sent them from the north, and
+sank gradually into obscurity, the loss of their political supremacy
+being somewhat compensated for by the religious respect in which they
+were always held. Their ancient divinities--Nana, Sin, Anu, and Ra--were
+adopted, if we may use the term, by the Babylonians, who claimed the
+protection of these gods as fully as they did that of Merodach or of
+Nebo, and prided themselves on amply supplying all their needs. As the
+inhabitants of Babylon had considerable resources at their disposal,
+their appeal to these deities might be regarded as productive of more
+substantial results than the appeal of a merely local kinglet. The
+increase of the national wealth and the concentration, under one head,
+of armies hitherto owning several chiefs, enabled the rulers, not
+of Babylon or Larsa alone, but of the whole of Chaldaea, to offer
+an invincible resistance to foreign enemies, and to establish their
+dominion in countries where their ancestors had enjoyed merely a
+precarious sovereignty. Hostilities never completely ceased between
+Elam and Babylon; if arrested for a time, they broke out again in
+some frontier disturbance, at times speedily suppressed, but at others
+entailing violent consequences and ending in a regular war. No document
+furnishes us with any detailed account of these outbreaks, but it
+would appear that the balance of power was maintained on the whole with
+tolerable regularity, both kingdoms at the close of each generation
+finding themselves in much the same position as they had occupied at its
+commencement. The two empires were separated from south to north by
+the sea and the Tigris, the frontier leaving the river near the present
+village of Amara and running in the direction of the mountains. Durilu
+probably fell ordinarily under Chaldaean jurisdiction. Umliyash was
+included in the original domain of Kham-murabi, and there is no reason
+to believe that it was evacuated by his descendants. There is every
+probability that they possessed the plain east of the Tigris, comprising
+Nineveh and Arbela, and that the majority of the civilized peoples
+scattered over the lower slopes of the Kurdish mountains rendered them
+homage. They kept the Mesopotamian table-land under their suzerainty,
+and we may affirm, without exaggeration, that their power extended
+northwards as far as Mount Masios, and westwards to the middle course of
+the Euphrates.
+
+At what period the Chaldaeans first crossed that river is as yet unknown.
+Many of their rulers in their inscriptions claim the title of suzerains
+over Syria, and we have no evidence for denying their pretensions.
+Kudur-mabug proclaims himself "adda" of Martu, Lord of the countries of
+the West, and we are in the possession of several facts which suggest
+the idea of a great Blamite empire, with a dominion extending for some
+period over Western Asia, the existence of which was vaguely hinted
+at by the Greeks, who attributed its glory to the fabulous Memnon.*
+Contemporary records are still wanting which might show whether
+Kudur-mabug inherited these distant possessions from one of his
+predecessors--such as Kudur-nakhunta, for instance--or whether he
+won them himself at the point of the sword; but a fragment of an old
+chronicle, inserted in the Hebrew Scriptures, speaks distinctly of
+another Elamite, who made war in person almost up to the Egyptian
+frontier.** This is the Kudur-lagamar (Chedorlaomer) who helped Eimsin
+against Hammurabi, but was unable to prevent his overthrow.
+
+     * We know that to Herodotus (v. 55) Susa was the city of
+     Memnon, and that Strabo attributes its foundation to
+     Tithonus, father of Memnon. According to Oppert, the word
+     Memnon is the equivalent of the Susian Umman-anin, "the
+     house of the king:" Weissbach declares that "anin" does not
+     mean king, and contradicts Oppert's view, though he does not
+     venture to suggest a new explanation of the name.
+
+     ** _Gen._ xiv. Prom the outset Assyriologists have never
+     doubted the historical accuracy of this chapter, and they
+     have connected the facts which it contains with those which
+     seem to be revealed by the Assyrian monuments. The two
+     Rawlinsons intercalate Kudur-lagamar between Kudur-nakhunta
+     and Kudur-mabug, and Oppert places him about the same
+     period. Fr. Lenormant regards him as one of the successors
+     of Kudur-mabug, possibly his immediate successor. G. Smith
+     does not hesitate to declare positively that the Kudur-mabug
+     and Kudur-nakhunta of the inscriptions are one and the same
+     with the Kudur-lagamar (Chedor-laomer) of the Bible.
+     Finally, Schrader, while he repudiates Smith's view, agrees
+     in the main fact with the other Assyriologists. On the other
+     hand, the majority of modern Biblical critics have
+     absolutely refused to credit the story in Genesis. Sayce
+     thinks that the Bible story rests on an historic basis, and
+     his view is strongly confirmed by Pinches'discovery of a
+     Chaldaean document which mentions Kudur-lagamar and two of
+     his allies. The Hebrew historiographer reproduced an
+     authentic fact from the chronicles of Babylon, and connected
+     it with one of the events in the life of Abraham. The very
+     late date generally assigned to Gen. xiv. in no way
+     diminishes the intrinsic probability of the facts narrated
+     by the Chaldaean document which is preserved to us in the
+     pages of the Hebrew book.
+
+In the thirteenth year of his reign over the East, the cities of the
+Dead Sea--Sodom, Gomorrah, Adamah, Zeboim, and Bela--revolted against
+him: he immediately convoked his great vassals, Amraphel of Chaldaea,
+Arioch of Ellasar,* Tida'lo the Guti, and marched with them to the
+confines of his dominions. Tradition has invested many of the tribes
+then inhabiting Southern Syria with semi-mythical names and attributes.
+They are represented as being giants--Rephalm; men of prodigious
+strength--Zuzim; as having a buzzing and indistinct manner of
+speech--Zamzummim; as formidable monsters**--Emim or Anakim, before
+whom other nations appeared as grasshoppers;*** as the Horim who were
+encamped on the confines of the Sinaitic desert, and as the Amalekites
+who ranged over the mountains to the west of the Dead Sea. Kudur-lagamar
+defeated them one after another--the Rephaim near to Ashtaroth-Karnaim,
+the Zuzim near Ham,**** the Amim at Shaveh-Kiriathaim, and the Horim
+on the spurs of Mount Seir as far as El-Paran; then retracing
+his footsteps, he entered the country of the Amalekites by way of
+En-mishpat, and pillaged the Amorites of Hazazon-Tamar.
+
+     * Ellasar has been identified with Larsa since the
+     researches of Rawlin-son and Norris; the Goim, over whom
+     Tidal was king, with the Guti.
+
+     ** Sayce considers Zuzim and Zamzummim to be two readings of
+     the same word Zamzum, written in cuneiform characters on the
+     original document. The sounds represented, in the Hebrew
+     alphabet, by the letters m and w, are expressed in the
+     Chaldaean syllabary by the same character, and a Hebrew or
+     Babylonian scribe, who had no other means of telling the
+     true pronunciation of a race-name mentioned in the story of
+     this campaign, would have been quite as much at a loss as
+     any modern scholar to say whether he ought to transcribe the
+     word as Z-m-z-m or as Z-w-z-vo; some scribes read it
+     _Zuzim,_ others preferred _Zamzummim._
+
+     *** _Numb._ xiii. 33.
+
+     **** In Deut. ii. 20 it is stated that the Zamzummim lived
+     in the country of Ammon. Sayce points out that we often find
+     the variant Am for the character usually read _Ham_ or
+     _Kham_--the name Khammurabi, for instance, is often found
+     written Ammurabi; the Ham in the narrative of Genesis would,
+     therefore, be identical with the land of Ammon in
+     Deuteronomy, and the difference between the spelling of the
+     two would be due to the fact that the document reproduced in
+     the XIVIIth chapter of Genesis had been originally copied from
+     a cuneiform tablet in which the name of the place was
+     expressed by the sign _Ham-Am._
+
+In the mean time, the kings of the five towns had concentrated their
+troops in the vale of Siddim, and were there resolutely awaiting
+Kudur-lagamar. They were, however, completely routed, some of the
+fugitives being swallowed up in the pits of bitumen with which the
+soil abounded, while others with difficulty reached the mountains.
+Kudur-lagamar sacked Sodom and Gomorrah, re-established his dominion on
+all sides, and returned laden with booty, Hebrew tradition adding
+that he was overtaken near the sources of the Jordan by the patriarch
+Abraham.*
+
+     * An attempt has been made to identify the three vassals of
+     Kudur-lagamar with kings mentioned on the Chaldaean
+     monuments. Tidcal, or, if we adopt the Septuagint variant,
+     Thorgal, has been considered by some as the bearer of a
+     Sumorian name, Turgal= "great chief," "great son," while
+     others put him on one side as not having been a Babylonian;
+     Pinches, Sayce, and Hommel identify him with Tudkhula, an
+     ally of Kudur-lagamar against Khammurabi. Schrader was the
+     first to suggest that Amraphel was really Khammurabi, and
+     emended the Amraphel of the biblical text into Amraphi or
+     Amrabi, in order to support this identification. Halevy,
+     while on the whole accepting this theory, derives the name
+     from the pronunciation Kimtarapashtum or Kimtarapaltum,
+     which he attributes to the name generally read Khammurabi,
+     and in this he is partly supported by Hommel, who reads
+     "Khammurapaltu."
+
+After his victory over Kudur-lagamar, Khammurabi assumed the title of
+King of Martu,* which we find still borne by Ammisatana sixty years
+later.** We see repeated here almost exactly what took place in Ethiopia
+at the time of its conquest by Egypt: merchants had prepared the way for
+military occupation, and the civilization of Babylon had taken hold
+on the people long before its kings had become sufficiently powerful
+to claim them as vassals. The empire may be said to have been virtually
+established from the day when the states of the Middle and Lower
+Euphrates formed but one kingdom in the hands of a single ruler. We must
+not, however, imagine it to have been a compact territory, divided into
+provinces under military occupation, ruled by a uniform code of laws
+and statutes, and administered throughout by functionaries of various
+grades, who received their orders from Babylon or Susa, according as
+the chances of war favoured the ascendency of Chaldaea or Elam. It was
+in reality a motley assemblage of tribes and principalities, whose sole
+bond of union was subjection to a common yoke.
+
+     * It is, indeed, the sole title which he attributes to
+     himself on a stone tablet now in the British Museum.
+
+     ** In an inscription by this prince, copied probably about
+     the time of Nabonidus by the scribe Belushallim, he is
+     called "king of the vast land of Martu."
+
+They were under obligation to pay tribute, and furnish military
+contingents and show other external marks of obedience, but their
+particular constitution, customs, and religion were alike respected:
+they had to purchase, at the cost of a periodical ransom, the right to
+live in their own country after their own fashion, and the head of the
+empire forbore all interference in their affairs, except in cases where
+the internecine quarrels and dissensions threatened the security of his
+suzerainty. Their subordination lasted as best it could, sometimes for a
+year or for ten years, at the end of which period they would neglect
+the obligations of their vassalage, or openly refuse to fulfil them:
+a revolt would then break out at one point or another, and it was
+necessary to suppress it without delay to prevent the bad example
+from spreading far and wide. The empire was maintained by perpetual
+re-conquests, and its extent varied with the energy shown by its chiefs,
+or with the resources which were for the moment available.
+
+Separated from the confines of the empire by only a narrow isthmus,
+Egypt loomed on the horizon, and appeared to beckon to her rival. Her
+natural fertility, the industry of her inhabitants, the stores of gold
+and perfumes which she received from the heart of Ethiopia, were well
+known by the passage to and fro of her caravans, and the recollection of
+her treasures must have frequently provoked the envy of Asiatic courts.
+Egypt had, however, strangely declined from her former greatness, and
+the line of princes who governed her had little in common with the
+Pharaohs who had rendered her name so formidable under the XIIth
+dynasty. She was now under the rule of the Xoites, whose influence was
+probably confined to the Delta, and extended merely in name over
+the Said and Nubia. The feudal lords, ever ready to reassert their
+independence as soon as the central power waned, shared between them the
+possession of the Nile valley below Memphis: the princes of Thebes, who
+were probably descendants of Usirtasen, owned the largest fiefdom, and
+though some slight scruple may have prevented them from donning
+the pschent or placing their names within a cartouche, they assumed
+notwithstanding the plenitude of royal power. A favourable opportunity
+was therefore offered to an invader, and the Chaldaeans might have
+attacked with impunity a people thus divided among themselves.* They
+stopped short, however, at the southern frontier of Syria, or if they
+pushed further forward, it was without any important result: distance
+from head-quarters, or possibly reiterated attacks of the Elamites,
+prevented them from placing in the field an adequate force for such a
+momentous undertaking. What they had not dared to venture, others more
+audacious were to accomplish. At this juncture, so runs the Egyptian
+record, "there came to us a king named Timaios. Under this king, then,
+I know not wherefore, the god caused to blow upon us a baleful wind, and
+in the face of all probability bands from the East, people of ignoble
+race, came upon us unawares, attacked the country, and subdued it easily
+and without fighting."
+
+     * The theory that the divisions of Egypt, under the XIVth
+     dynasty, and the discords between its feudatory princes,
+     were one of the main causes of the success of the Shepherds,
+     is now admitted to be correct.
+
+It is possible that they owed this rapid victory to the presence
+in their armies of a factor hitherto unknown to the African--the
+war-chariot--and before the horse and his driver the Egyptians gave way
+in a body.* The invaders appeared as a cloud of locusts on the banks of
+the Nile. Towns and temples were alike pillaged, burnt, and ruined;
+they massacred all they could of the male population, reduced to slavery
+those of the women and children whose lives they spared, and then
+proclaimed as king Salatis, one of their chiefs.** He established a
+semblance of regular government, chose Memphis as his capital, and
+imposed a tax upon the vanquished. Two perils, however, immediately
+threatened the security of his triumph: in the south the Theban lords,
+taking matters into their own hands after the downfall of the Xoites,
+refused the oath of allegiance to Salatis, and organized an obstinate
+resistance;*** in the north he had to take measures to protect
+himself against an attack of the Chaldaeans or of the Elamites who were
+oppressing Chaldaea.****
+
+     * The horse was unknown, or at any rate had not been
+     employed in. Egypt prior to the invasion; we find it,
+     however, in general use immediately after the expulsion of
+     the Shepherds, see the tomb of Pihiri. Moreover, all
+     historians agree in admitting that it was introduced into
+     the country under the rule of the Shepherds. The use of the
+     war-chariot in Chaldaea at an epoch prior to the Hyksos
+     invasion, is proved by a fragment of the Vulture Stele; it
+     is therefore, natural to suppose that the Hyksos used the
+     chariot in war, and that the rapidity of their conquest was
+     due to it.
+
+     ** The name Salatis (var. Saitos) seems to be derived from a
+     Semitic word, Siialit = "the chief," "the governor;" this
+     was the title which Joseph received when Pharaoh gave him
+     authority over the whole of Egypt (Gen. xli. 43). Salatis
+     may not, therefore, have been the real name of the first
+     Hyksos king, but his title, which the Egyptians
+     misunderstood, and from which they evolved a proper name:
+     Uhlemann has, indeed, deduced from this that Manetho, being
+     familiar with the passage referring to Joseph, had forged
+     the name of Salatis. Ebers imagined that he could decipher
+     the Egyptian form of this prince's name on the Colossus of
+     Tell-Mokdam, where Naville has since read with certainty the
+     name of a Pharaoh of the XIIIth and XIVth dynasties,
+     Nahsiri.
+
+     *** The text of Manetho speaks of taxes which he imposed on
+     the high and low lands, which would seem to include the
+     Thebaid in the kingdom; it is, however, stated in the next
+     few pages that the successors of Salatis waged an incessant
+     war against the Egyptians, which can only refer to
+     hostilities against the Thebans. We are forced, therefore,
+     to admit, either that Manetho took the title of lord of the
+     high and low lands which belonged to Salatis, literally, or
+     that the Thebans, after submitting at first, subsequently
+     refused to pay tribute, thus provoking a war.
+
+     **** Manetho here speaks of Assyrians; this is an error
+     which is to be explained by the imperfect state of
+     historical knowledge in Greece at the time of the Macedonian
+     supremacy. We need not for this reason be led to cast doubt
+     upon the historic value of the narrative: we must remember
+     the suzerainty which the kings of Babylon exercised over
+     Syria, and read _Chaldaeans_ where Manetho has written
+     _Assyrians_. In Herodotus "Assyria" is the regular term for
+     "Babylonia," and Babylonia is called "the land of the
+     Assyrians."
+
+From the natives of the Delta, who were temporarily paralysed by their
+reverses, he had, for the moment, little to fear: restricting himself,
+therefore, to establishing forts at the strategic points in the Nile
+valley in order to keep the Thebans in check, he led the main body of
+his troops to the frontier on the isthmus. Pacific immigrations had
+already introduced Asiatic settlers into the Delta, and thus prepared
+the way for securing the supremacy of the new rulers; in the midst of
+these strangers, and on the ruins of the ancient town of Hawarit-Avaris,
+in the Sethro'ifce nome--a place connected by tradition with the myth
+of Osiris and Typhon--Salatis constructed an immense entrenched camp,
+capable of sheltering two hundred and forty thousand men. He visited it
+yearly to witness the military manoeuvres, to pay his soldiers, and
+to preside over the distribution of rations. This permanent garrison
+protected him from a Chaldaean invasion, a not unlikely event as long as
+Syria remained under the supremacy of the Babylonian kings; it furnished
+his successors also with an inexhaustible supply of trained soldiers,
+thus enabling them to complete the conquest of Lower Egypt. Years
+elapsed before the princes of the south would declare themselves
+vanquished, and five kings--Anon, Apachnas, Apophis I., Iannas, and
+Asses--passed their lifetime "in a perpetual warfare, desirous of
+tearing up Egypt to the very root." These Theban kings, who were
+continually under arms against the barbarians, were subsequently classed
+in a dynasty by themselves, the XVth of Manetho, but they at last
+succumbed to the invader, and Asses became master of the entire country.
+His successors in their turn formed a dynasty, the XVIth, the few
+remaining monuments of which are found scattered over the length and
+breadth of the valley from the shores of the Mediterranean to the rocks
+of the first cataract.
+
+The Egyptians who witnessed the advent of this Asiatic people called
+them by the general term Amuu, Asiatics, or Monatiu, the men of the
+desert.* They had already given the Bedouin the opprobrious epithet of
+Shausu--pillagers or robbers--which aptly described them;** and they
+subsequently applied the same name to the intruders--Hiq Shausu--from
+which the Greeks derived their word Hyksos, or Hykoussos, for this
+people.***
+
+     * The meaning of the term _Moniti_ was discovered by E. de
+     Rouge, who translated it _Shepherd_, and applied it to the
+     Hyksos; from thence it passed into the works of all the
+     Egyptologists who concerned themselves with this question,
+     but _Shepherd_ has not been universally accepted as the
+     meaning of the word. It is generally agreed that it was a
+     generic term, indicating the races with which their
+     conquerors were supposed to be connected, and not the
+     particular term of which Manetho's word _Hoiveves_ would be
+     the literal translation.
+
+     ** The name seems, in fact, to be derived from a word which
+     meant "to rob," "to pillage." The name Shausu, Shosu, was
+     not used by the Egyptians to indicate a particular race. It
+     was used of all Bedouins, and in general of all the
+     marauding tribes who infested the desert or the mountains.
+     The Shausu most frequently referred to on the monuments are
+     those from the desert between Egypt and Syria, but there is
+     a reference, in the time of Ramses II., to those from the
+     Lebanon and the valley of Orontes. Krall finds an allusion
+     to them in a word (_Shosim_) in _Judges_ ii. 14, which is
+     generally translated by a generic expression, "the
+     spoilers."
+
+     *** Manetho declares that the people were called Hyksos,
+     from _Syk_, which means "king" in the sacred language, and
+     _sos_, which means "shepherd" in the popular language. As a
+     matter of fact, the word _Hyku_ means "prince "in the
+     classical language of Egypt, or, as Manetho styles it, the
+     _sacred language_, i.e. in the idiom of the old religious,
+     historical, and literary texts, which in later ages the
+     populace no longer understood. Shos, on the contrary,
+     belongs to the spoken language of the later time, and does
+     not occur in the ancient inscriptions, so that Manetho's
+     explanation is valueless; there is but one material fact to
+     be retained from his evidence, and that is the name _Hyk-
+     Shos_ or _Hyku-Shos_ given by its inventors to the alien
+     kings. Cham-pollion and Rosellini were the first to identify
+     these Shos with the Shausu whom they found represented on
+     the monuments, and their opinion, adopted by some, seems to
+     me an extremely plausible one: the Egyptians, at a given
+     moment, bestowed the generic name of Shausu on these
+     strangers, just as they had given those of Amuu and Manatiu.
+     The texts or writers from whom Manetho drew his information
+     evidently mentioned certain kings _hyku_-Shausu; other
+     passages, or, the same passages wrongly interpreted, were
+     applied to the race, and were rendered _hyku_-Shausu = "the
+     _prisoners_ taken from the Shausu," a substantive derived
+     from the root _haka_ = "to take" being substituted for the
+     noun _hyqu_ = "prince." Josephus declares, on the authority
+     of Manetho, that some manuscripts actually suggested this
+     derivation--a fact which is easily explained by the custom
+     of the Egyptian record offices. I may mention, in passing,
+     that Mariette recognised in the element "_Sos_" an Egyptian
+     word _shos_ = "soldiers," and in the name of King Mirmashau,
+     which he read Mirshosu, an equivalent of the title Hyq-
+     Shosu.
+
+But we are without any clue as to their real name, language, or origin.
+The writers of classical times were unable to come to an agreement on
+these questions: some confounded the Hyksos with the Phoenicians, others
+regarded them as Arabs.* Modern scholars have put forward at least
+a dozen contradictory hypotheses on the matter. The Hyksos have been
+asserted to have been Canaanites, Elamites, Hittites, Accadians,
+Scythians. The last opinion found great favour with the learned, as
+long as they could believe that the sphinxes discovered by Mariette
+represented Apophis or one of his predecessors. As a matter of fact,
+these monuments present all the characteristics of the Mongoloid type
+of countenance--the small and slightly oblique eyes, the arched but
+somewhat flattened nose, the pronounced cheekbones and well-covered
+jaw, the salient chin and full lips slightly depressed at the corners.**
+These peculiarities are also observed in the three heads found at
+Damanhur, in the colossal torso dug up at Mit-Fares in the Fayum, in
+the twin figures of the Nile removed to the Bulaq Museum from Tanis, and
+upon the remains of a statue in the collection at the Villa Ludovisi in
+Rome. The same foreign type of face is also found to exist among the
+present inhabitants of the villages scattered over the eastern part
+of the Delta, particularly on the shores of Lake Menzaleh, and the
+conclusion was drawn that these people were the direct descendants of
+the Hyksos.
+
+     * Manetho takes them to be Phoenicians, but he adds that
+     certain writers thought them to be Arabs: Brugsch favours
+     this latter view, but the Arab legend of a conquest of Egypt
+     by Sheddad and the Adites is of recent origin, and was
+     inspired by traditions in regard to the Hyksos current
+     during the Byzantine epoch; we cannot, therefore, allow it
+     to influence us. We must wait before expressing a definite
+     opinion in regard to the facts which Glaser believes he has
+     obtained from the Minoan inscriptions which date from the
+     time of the Hyksos.
+
+     ** Mariette, who was the first to describe these curious
+     monuments, recognised in them all the incontestable
+     characteristics of a Semitic type, and the correctness of
+     his view was, at first, universally admitted. Later on Hamy
+     imagined that he could distinguish traces of Mongolian
+     influences, and Er. Lenormant, and then Mariette himself
+     came round to this view; it has recently been supported in
+     England by Flower, and in Germany by Virchow.
+
+This theory was abandoned, however, when it was ascertained that the
+sphinxes of San had been carved, many centuries before the invasion, for
+Amenemhait III., a king of the XIIth dynasty. In spite of the facts we
+possess, the problem therefore still remains unsolved, and the origin of
+the Hyksos is as mysterious as ever. We gather, however, that the third
+millennium before our era was repeatedly disturbed by considerable
+migratory movements. The expeditions far afield of Elamite and Chaldaean
+princes could not have taken place without seriously perturbing the
+regions over which they passed. They must have encountered by the
+way many nomadic or unsettled tribes whom a slight shock would easily
+displace. An impulse once given, it needed but little to accelerate
+or increase the movement: a collision with one horde reacted on its
+neighbours, who either displaced or carried others with them, and the
+whole multitude, gathering momentum as they went, were precipitated in
+the direction first given.*
+
+     * The Hyksos invasion has been regarded as a natural result
+     of the Elamite conquest.
+
+A tradition, picked up by Herodotus on his travels, relates that the
+Phoenicians had originally peopled the eastern and southern shores of
+the Persian Gulf;* it was also said that Indathyrses, a Scythian king,
+had victoriously scoured the whole of Asia, and had penetrated as far as
+Egypt.** Either of these invasions may have been the cause of the Syrian
+migration. In. comparison with the meagre information which has come
+down to us under the form of legends, it is provoking to think how much
+actual fact has been lost, a tithe of which would explain the cause
+of the movement and the mode of its execution. The least improbable
+hypothesis is that which attributes the appearance of the Shepherds
+about the XXIIIrd century B.C., to the arrival in Naharaim of those
+Khati who subsequently fought so obstinately against the armies both of
+the Pharaohs and the Ninevite kings. They descended from the mountain
+region in which the Halys and the Euphrates take their rise, and if the
+bulk of them proceeded no further than the valleys of the Taurus and the
+Amanos, some at least must have pushed forward as far as the provinces
+on the western shores of the Dead Sea. The most adventurous among them,
+reinforced by the Canaanites and other tribes who had joined them on
+their southward course, crossed the isthmus of Suez, and finding a
+people weakened by discord, experienced no difficulty in replacing the
+native dynasties by their own barbarian chiefs.***
+
+     * It was to the exodus of this race, in the last analysis,
+     that the invasion of the shepherds may be attributed
+
+     ** A certain number of commentators are of opinion that the
+     wars attributed to Indathyrses have been confounded with
+     what Herodotus tells of the exploits of Madyes, and are
+     nothing more than a distorted remembrance of the great
+     Scythian invasion which took place in the latter half of the
+     VIIth century B.C.
+
+     *** At the present time, those scholars who admit the
+     Turanian origin of the Hyksos are of opinion that only the
+     nucleus of the race, the royal tribe, was composed of
+     Mongols, while the main body consisted of elements of all
+     kinds--Canaanitish, or, more generally, Semitic.
+
+[Illustration: 079.jpg PALLATE OF HYKSOS SCRIBE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Mertons.
+     It is the palette of a scribe, now in the Berlin Museum, and
+     given by King Apopi II Ausirri to a scribe named Atu.
+
+Both their name and origin were doubtless well known to the Egyptians,
+but the latter nevertheless disdained to apply to them any term but that
+of "she-mau,"* strangers, and in referring to them used the same
+vague appellations which they applied to the Bedouin of the Sinaitic
+peninsula,--Monatiu, the shepherds, or Satiu, the archers. They
+succeeded in hiding the original name of their conquerors so thoroughly,
+that in the end they themselves forgot it, and kept the secret of it
+from posterity.
+
+The remembrance of the cruelties with which the invaders sullied their
+conquest lived long after them; it still stirred the anger of Manetho
+after a lapse of twenty centuries.** The victors were known as the
+"Plagues" or "Pests," and every possible crime and impiety was attributed
+to them.
+
+     * The term _shamamil,_ variant of _sliemau,_ is applied to
+     them by Queen Hatshopsitu: the same term is employed shortly
+     afterward by Thutmosis III., to indicate the enemies whom he
+     had defeated at Megiddo.
+
+     ** He speaks of them in contemptuous terms as _men of
+     ignoble race_. The epithet _Aiti, Iaiti, Iaditi_, was applied
+     to the Nubians by the writer of the inscription of Ahmosi-
+     si-Abina, and to the Shepherds of the Delta by the author of
+     the _Sallier Papyrus_. Brugsch explained it as "the rebels,"
+     or "disturbers," and Goodwin translated it "invaders";
+     Chabas rendered it by "plague-stricken," an interpretation
+     which was in closer conformity with its etymological
+     meaning, and Groff pointed out that the malady called Ait,
+     or Adit in Egyptian, is the malignant fever still frequently
+     to be met with at the present day in the marshy cantons of
+     the Delta, and furnished the proper rendering, which is "The
+     Fever-stricken."
+
+[Illustration: 080.jpg A HYKSOS PRISONER GUIDING THE PLOUGH, AT EL-KAB]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+But the brutalities attending the invasion once past, the invaders
+soon lost their barbarity and became rapidly civilized. Those of them
+stationed in the encampment at Avaris retained the military qualities
+and characteristic energy of their race; the remainder became
+assimilated to their new compatriots, and were soon recognisable merely
+by their long hair, thick beard, and marked features. Their sovereigns
+seemed to have realised from the first that it was more to their
+interest to exploit the country than to pillage it; as, however, none of
+them was competent to understand the intricacies of the treasury, they
+were forced to retain the services of the majority of the scribes, who
+had managed the public accounts under the native kings.* Once schooled
+to the new state of affairs, they readily adopted the refinements of
+civilized life.
+
+     * The same thing took place on every occasion when Egypt was
+     conquered by an alien race: the Persian Achaemenians and
+     Greeks made use of the native employes, as did the Romans
+     after them; and lastly, the Mussulmans, Arabs, and Turks.
+
+The court of the Pharaohs, with its pomp and its usual assemblage of
+officials, both great and small, was revived around the person of
+the new sovereign;* the titles of the Amenemhaits and the Usirtasens,
+adapted to these "princes of foreign lands,"** legitimatised them as
+descendants of Horus and sons of the Sun.*** They respected the
+local religions, and went so far as to favour those of the gods whose
+attributes appeared to connect them with some of their own barbarous
+divinities. The chief deity of their worship was Baal, the lord of
+all,**** a cruel and savage warrior; his resemblance to Sit, the brother
+and enemy of Osiris, was so marked, that he was identified with the
+Egyptian deity, with the emphatic additional title of Sutkhu, the Great
+Sit.^
+
+     * The narrative of the _Sallier Papyrus,_ No. 1, shows us
+     the civil and military chiefs collected round the Shepherd-
+     king Apopi, and escorting him in the solemn processions in
+     honour of the gods. They are followed by the scribes and
+     magicians, who give him advice on important occasions.
+
+     ** Hiqu Situ: this is the title of Abisha at Beni-Hassan,
+     which is also assumed by Khiani on several small monuments;
+     Steindorff has attempted to connect it with the name of the
+     Hyksos.
+
+     *** The preamble of the two or three Shepherd-kings of whom
+     we know anything, contains the two cartouches, the special
+     titles, and the names of Horus, which formed part of the
+     title of the kings of pure Egyptian race; thus Apophis IL is
+     proclaimed to be the living Horus, who joins the two earths
+     in peace, the good god, Aqnunri, son of the Sun, Apopi, who
+     lives for ever, on the statues of Mirmashau, which he had
+     appropriated, and on the pink granite table of offerings in
+     the Gizeh Museum.
+
+     **** The name of Baal, transcribed Baalu, is found on that
+     of a certain Petebaalu, "the Gift of Baal," who must have
+     flourished in the time of the last shepherd-kings, or rather
+     under the Theban kings of the XVIIth dynasty, who were their
+     contemporaries, whose conclusions have been adopted by
+     Brugsch.
+
+     ^ Sutikhu, Sutkhu, are lengthened forms of Sutu, or Situ;
+     and Chabas, who had at first denied the existence of the
+     final _Jehu_, afterwards himself supplied the philological
+     arguments which proved the correctness of the reading: he
+     rightly refused, however, to recognise in Sutikhu or Sutkhu
+     --the name of the conquerors' god--a transliteration of the
+     Phoenician Sydyk, and would only see in it that of the
+     nearest Egyptian deity. This view is now accepted as the
+     right one, and Sutkhu is regarded as the indigenous
+     equivalent of the great Asiatic god, elsewhere called Baal,
+     or supreme lord. [Professor Petrie found a scarab bearing
+     the cartouche of "Sutekh" Apepi I. at Koptos.--Te.]
+
+He was usually represented as a fully armed warrior, wearing a helmet
+of circular form, ornamented with two plumes; but he also borrowed
+the emblematic animal of Sit, the fennec, and the winged griffin which
+haunted the deserts of the Thebaid. His temples were erected in the
+cities of the Delta, side by side with the sanctuaries of the feudal
+gods, both at Bubastis and at Tanis. Tanis, now made the capital,
+reopened its palaces, and acquired a fresh impetus from the royal
+presence within its walls. Apophis Aq-nunri, one of its kings, dedicated
+several tables of offerings in that city, and engraved his cartouches
+upon the sphinxes and standing colossi of the Pharaohs of the XIIth and
+XIIIth dynasties.
+
+[Illustration: 082.jpg TABLE OF OFFERINGS BEARING THE NAME OF APOTI
+AQNUNRI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by E. Brugsch.
+
+[Illustration: 083.jpg Page Image]
+
+He was, however, honest enough to leave the inscriptions of his
+predecessors intact, and not to appropriate to himself the credit of
+works belonging to the Amenemhaits or to Mirmashau. Khiani, who is
+possibly the Iannas of Manetho, was not, however, so easily satisfied.*
+The statue bearing his inscription, of which the lower part was
+discovered by Naville at Bubastis, appears to have been really carved
+for himself or for one of his contemporaries. It is a work possessing no
+originality, though of very commendable execution, such as would render
+it acceptable to any museum; the artist who conceived it took 'his
+inspiration with considerable cleverness from the best examples
+turned out by the schools of the Delta under the Sovkhotpfts and the
+Nofirhotpus. But a small grey granite lion, also of the reign of Khiani,
+which by a strange fate had found its way to Bagdad, does not raise our
+estimation of the modelling of animals in the Hyksos period.
+
+     * Naville, who reads the name Rayan or Yanra, thinks that
+     this prince must be the Annas or Iannas mentioned by Manetho
+     as being one of the six shepherd-kings of the XVth dynasty.
+     Mr. Petrie proposed to read Khian, Khiani, and the fragment
+     discovered at Gebelein confirms this reading, as well as a
+     certain number of cylinders and scarabs. Mr. Petrie prefers
+     to place this Pharaoh in the VIIIth dynasty, and makes him
+     one of the leaders in the foreign occupation to which he
+     supposes Egypt to have submitted at that time; but it is
+     almost certain that he ought to be placed among the Hyksos
+     of the XVIth dynasty. The name Khiani, more correctly
+     Khiyani or Kheyani, is connected by Tomkins, and Hilprecht
+     with that of a certain Khayanu or Khayan, son of Gabbar, who
+     reigned in Amanos in the time of Salmanasar II., King of
+     Assyria.
+
+[Illustration: 084.jpg BROKEN STATUE OF KHIANI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Naville.
+
+It is heavy in form, and the muzzle in no way recalls the fine profile
+of the lions executed by the sculptors of earlier times. The pursuit
+of science and the culture of learning appear to have been more
+successfully perpetuated than the fine arts; a treatise on mathematics,
+of which a copy has come down to us, would seem to have been recopied,
+if not remodelled, in the twenty-second year of Apophis IL Ausirri. If
+we only possessed more monuments or documents treating of this period,
+we should doubtless perceive that their sojourn on the banks of the
+Nile was instrumental in causing a speedy change in the appearance and
+character of the Hyksos. The strangers retained to a certain extent
+their coarse countenances and rude manners: they showed no aptitude for
+tilling the soil or sowing grain, but delighted in the marshy expanses
+of the Delta, where they gave themselves up to a semi-savage life
+of hunting and of tending cattle. The nobles among them, clothed and
+schooled after the Egyptian fashion, and holding fiefs, or positions at
+court, differed but little from the native feudal chiefs. We see here a
+case of what generally happens when a horde of barbarians settles down
+in a highly organised country which by a stroke of fortune they may have
+conquered; as soon as the Hyksos had taken complete possession of Egypt,
+Egypt in her turn took possession of them, and those who survived the
+enervating effect of her civilization were all but transformed into
+Egyptians.
+
+If, in the time of the native Pharaohs, Asiatic tribes had been drawn
+towards Egypt, where they were treated as subjects or almost as slaves,
+the attraction which she possessed for them must have increased in
+intensity under the shepherds. They would now find the country in the
+hands of men of the same races as themselves--Egyptianised, it is true,
+but not to such an extent as to have completely lost their own language
+and the knowledge of their own extraction. Such immigrants were the more
+readily welcomed, since there lurked a feeling among the Hyksos that it
+was necessary to strengthen themselves against the slumbering hostility
+of the indigenous population. The royal palace must have more than once
+opened its gates to Asiatic counsellors and favourites. Canaanites and
+Bedouin must often have been enlisted for the camp at Avaris. Invasions,
+famines, civil wars, all seem to have conspired to drive into Egypt not
+only isolated individuals, but whole families and tribes. That of the
+Beni-Israel, or Israelites, who entered the country about this time, has
+since acquired a unique position in the world's history. They belonged
+to that family of Semitic extraction which we know by the monuments
+and tradition to have been scattered in ancient times along the western
+shores of the Persian Gulf and on the banks of the Euphrates. Those
+situated nearest to Chaldaea and to the sea probably led a settled
+existence; they cultivated the soil, they employed themselves in
+commerce and industries, their vessels--from Dilmun, from Magan, and
+from Milukhkha--coasted from one place to another, and made their way to
+the cities of Sumer and Accad. They had been civilized from very early
+times, and some of their towns were situated on islands, so as to
+be protected from sudden incursions. Other tribes of the same family
+occupied the interior of the continent; they lived in tents, and
+delighted in the unsettled life of nomads. There appeared to be in this
+distant corner of Arabia an inexhaustible reserve of population, which
+periodically overflowed its borders and spread over the world. It was
+from this very region that we see the Kashdim, the true Chaldaeans,
+issuing ready armed for combat,--a people whose name was subsequently
+used to denote several tribes settled between the lower waters of the
+Tigris and the Euphrates. It was there, among the marshes on either side
+of these rivers, that the Aramoans established their first settlements
+after quitting the desert. There also the oldest legends of the race
+placed the cradle of the Phoenicians; it was even believed, about the
+time of Alexander, that the earliest ruins attributable to this people
+had been discovered on the Bahrein Islands, the largest of which, Tylos
+and Arados, bore names resembling the two great ports of Tyre and Arvad.
+We are indebted to tradition for the cause of their emigration and the
+route by which they reached the Mediterranean. The occurrence of violent
+earthquakes forced them to leave their home; they travelled as far as
+the Lake of Syria, where they halted for some time; then resuming their
+march, did not rest till they had reached the sea, where they founded
+Sidon. The question arises as to the position of the Lake of Syria on
+whose shores they rested, some believing it to be the Bahr-i-Nedjif
+and the environs of Babylon; others, the Lake of Bambykes near the
+Euphrates, the emigrants doubtless having followed up the course of that
+river, and having approached the country of their destination on its
+north-eastern frontier. Another theory would seek to identify the lake
+with the waters of Merom, the Lake of Galilee, or the Dead Sea; in this
+case the horde must have crossed the neck of the Arabian peninsula,
+from the Euphrates to the Jordan, through one of those long valleys,
+sprinkled with oases, which afforded an occasional route for caravans.*
+Several writers assure us that the Phoenician tradition of this exodus
+was misunderstood by Herodotus, and that the sea which they remembered
+on reaching Tyre was not the Persian Gulf, but the Dead Sea. If this had
+been the case, they need not have hesitated to assign their departure to
+causes mentioned in other documents. The Bible tells us that, soon after
+the invasion of Kudur-lagamar, the anger of God being kindled by the
+wickedness of Sodom and Gomorrah, He resolved to destroy the five cities
+situated in the valley of Siddim. A cloud of burning brimstone broke
+over them and consumed them; when the fumes and smoke, as "of a
+furnace," had passed away, the very site of the towns had disappeared.**
+Previous to their destruction, the lake into which the Jordan empties
+itself had had but a restricted area: the subsidence of the southern
+plain, which had been occupied by the impious cities, doubled the size
+of the lake, and enlarged it to its present dimensions. The earthquake
+which caused the Phoenicians to leave their ancestral home may have been
+the result of this cataclysm, and the sea on whose shores they sojourned
+would thus be our Dead Sea.
+
+     * They would thus have arrived at the shores of Lake Merom,
+     or at the shores either of the Dead Sea or of the Lake of
+     Gennesareth; the Arab traditions speak of an itinerary which
+     would have led the emigrants across the desert, but they
+     possess no historic value is so far as these early epochs
+     are concerned.
+
+     ** _Gen._ xix. 24-29; the whole of this episode belongs to
+     the Jehovistic narrative.
+
+One fact, however, appears to be certain in the midst of many
+hypotheses, and that is that the Phoenicians had their origin in the
+regions bordering on the Persian Gulf. It is useless to attempt, with
+the inadequate materials as yet in our possession, to determine by what
+route they reached the Syrian coast, though we may perhaps conjecture
+the period of their arrival. Herodotus asserts that the Tyrians placed
+the date of the foundation of their principal temple two thousand
+three hundred years before the time of his visit, and the erection of a
+sanctuary for their national deity would probably take place very soon
+after their settlement at Tyre: this would bring their arrival there to
+about the XXVIIIth century before our era. The Elamite and Babylonian
+conquests would therefore have found the Phoenicians already established
+in the country, and would have had appreciable effect upon them.
+
+The question now arises whether the Beni-Israel belonged to the group of
+tribes which included the Phoenicians, or whether they were of Chaldaean
+race. Their national traditions leave no doubt upon that point. They are
+regarded as belonging to an important race, which we find dispersed over
+the country of Padan-Aram, in Northern Mesopotamia, near the base of
+Mount Masios, and extending on both sides of the Euphrates.*
+
+     * The country of Padan-Aram is situated between the
+     Euphrates and the upper reaches of the Khabur, on both sides
+     of the Balikh, and is usually explained as the "plain" or
+     "table-land" of Aram, though the etymology is not certain;
+     the word seems to be preserved in that of Tell-Faddan, near
+     Harran.
+
+Their earliest chiefs bore the names of towns or of peoples,--N
+akhor, Peleg, and Serug:* all were descendants of Arphaxad,** and it
+was related that Terakh, the direct ancestor of the Israelites, had
+dwelt in Ur-Kashdim, the Ur or Uru of the Chaldaeans.*** He is said to
+have had three sons--Abraham, Nakhor, and Haran. Haran begat Lot, but
+died before his father in Ur-Kashdim, his own country; Abraham and
+Nakhor both took wives, but Abraham's wife remained a long time barren.
+Then Terakh, with his son Abraham, his grandson Lot, the son of Haran,
+and his daughter-in-law Sarah,**** went forth from Ur-Kashdim (Ur of the
+Chaldees) to go into the land of Canaan.
+
+     * Nakhor has been associated with the ancient village of
+     Khaura, or with the ancient village of Haditha-en-Naura, to
+     the south of Anah; Peleg probably corresponds with Phalga or
+     Phaliga, which was situated at the mouth of the Khabur;
+     Serug with the present Sarudj in the neighbourhood of
+     Edessa, and the other names in the genealogy were probably
+     borrowed from as many different localities.
+
+     ** The site of Arphaxad is doubtful, as is also its meaning:
+     its second element is undoubtedly the name of the Chaldaeans,
+     but the first is interpreted in several ways--"frontier of
+     the Chaldaeans," "domain of the Chaldaeans." The similarity of
+     sound was the cause of its being for a long time associated
+     with the Arrapakhitis of classical times; the tendency is
+     now to recognise in it the country nearest to the ancient
+     domain of the Chaldaeans, i.e. Babylonia proper.
+
+     *** Ur-Kashdim has long been sought for in the north, either
+     at Orfa, in accordance with the tradition of the Syrian
+     Churches still existing in the East, or in a certain Ur of
+     Mesopotamia, placed by Ammianus Marcellinus between Nisibis
+     and the Tigris; at the present day Halevy still looks for it
+     on the Syrian bank of the Euphrates, to the south-east of
+     Thapsacus. Rawlin-son's proposal to identify it with the
+     town of Uru has been successively accepted by nearly all
+     Assyriologists. Sayce remarks that the worship of Sin, which
+     was common to both towns, established a natural link between
+     them, and that an inhabitant of Uru would have felt more at
+     home in Harran than in any other town.
+
+     **** The names of Sarah and Abraham, or rather the earlier
+     form, Abram, have been found, the latter under the form
+     Abiramu, in the contracts of the first Chaldaean empire.
+
+And they came unto Kharan, and dwelt there, and Terakh died in Kharan.*
+It is a question whether Kharan is to be identified with Harran in
+Mesopotamia, the city of the god Sin; or, which is more probable, with
+the Syrian town of Hauran, in the neighbourhood of Damascus. The tribes
+who crossed the Euphrates became subsequently a somewhat important
+people. They called themselves, or were known by others, as the 'Ibrim,
+or Hebrews, the people from beyond the river;** and this appellation,
+which we are accustomed to apply to the children of Israel only,
+embraced also, at the time when the term was most extended, the
+Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, Ishmaelites, Midianites, and many other
+tribes settled on the borders of the desert to the east and south of the
+Dead Sea.
+
+     * Gen. xi. 27-32. In the opinion of most critics, verses 27,
+     31 32 form part of the document which was the basis of the
+     various narratives still traceable in the Bible; it is
+     thought that the remaining verses bear the marks of a later
+     redaction, or that they may be additions of a later date.
+     The most important part of the text, that relating the
+     migration from Ur-Kashdim to Kharan, belongs, therefore, to
+     the very oldest part of the national tradition, and may be
+     regarded as expressing the knowledge which the Hebrews of
+     the times of the Kings possessed concerning the origin of
+     their race.
+
+     ** The most ancient interpretation identified this nameless
+     river with the Euphrates; an identification still admitted
+     by most critics; others prefer to recognise it as being the
+     Jordan. Halevy prefers to identify it with one of the rivers
+     of Damascus, probably the Abana.
+
+These peoples all traced their descent from Abraham, the son of Terakh,
+but the children of Israel claimed the privilege of being the only
+legitimate issue of his marriage with Sarah, giving naive or derogatory
+accounts of the relations which connected the others with their common
+ancestor; Ammon and Moab were, for instance, the issue of the incestuous
+union of Lot and his daughters. Midian and his sons were descended from
+Keturah, who was merely a concubine, Ishmael was the son of an Egyptian
+slave, while the "hairy" Esau had sold his birthright and the primacy of
+the Edomites to his brother Jacob, and consequently to the Israelites,
+for a dish of lentils. Abraham left Kharan at the command of Jahveh, his
+God, receiving from Him a promise that his posterity should be blessed
+above all others. Abraham pursued his way into the heart of Canaan
+till he reached Shechem, and there, under the oaks of Moreh, Jahveh,
+appearing to him a second time, announced to him that He would give the
+whole land to his posterity as an inheritance. Abraham virtually took
+possession of it, and wandered over it with his flocks, building altars
+at Shechem, Bethel, and Mamre, the places where God had revealed Himself
+to him, treating as his equals the native chiefs, Abimelech of Gerar and
+Melchizedek of Jerusalem,* and granting the valley of the Jordan as
+a place of pasturage to his nephew Lot, whose flocks had increased
+immensely.** His nomadic instinct having led him into Egypt, he was here
+robbed of his wife by Pharaoh.***
+
+     * Cf. the meeting with Melchizedek after the victory over
+     the Elamites (_Gen_. xiv. 18-20) and the agreement with
+     Abimelech about the well (Gen. xxi. 22-34). The mention of
+     the covenant of Abraham with Abimelech belongs to the oldest
+     part of the national tradition, and is given to us in the
+     Jehovistic narrative. Many critics have questioned the
+     historical existence of Melchizedek, and believed that the
+     passage in which he is mentioned is merely a kind of parable
+     intended to show the head of the race paying tithe of the
+     spoil to the priest of the supreme God residing at
+     Jerusalem; the information, however, furnished by the Tel-
+     el-Amarna tablets about the ancient city of Jerusalem and
+     the character of its early kings have determined Sayce to
+     pronounce Melchizedek to be an historical personage.
+
+     ** _Gen._ xiii. 1-13. Lot has been sometimes connected of
+     late with the people called on the Egyptian monuments
+     Rotanu, or Lotanu, whom we shall have occasion to mention
+     frequently further on: he is supposed to have been their
+     eponymous hero. Lotan, which is the name of an Edomite clan,
+     (_Gen_. xxxvi. 20, 29), is a racial adjective, derived from
+     Lot.
+
+     *** _Gen._ xii. 9-20, xiii. 1. Abraham's visit to Egypt
+     reproduces the principal events of that of Jacob.
+
+[Illustration: 093.jpg THE TRADITIONAL OAK OF ABRAHAM AT HEBRON]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph brought home by Lortet.
+
+
+On his return he purchased the field of Ephron, near Kirjath-Arba, and
+the cave of Machpelah, of which he made a burying-place for his family*
+Kirjath-Arba, the Hebron of subsequent times, became from henceforward
+his favourite dwelling-place, and he was residing there when the
+Elamites invaded the valley of Siddim, and carried off Lot among their
+prisoners.
+
+     * _Gen_. xiii. 18, xxiii. (Elohistic narrative). The tombs
+     of the patriarchs are believed by the Mohammedans to exist
+     to the present day in the cave which is situated within the
+     enclosure of the mosque at Hebron, and the tradition on
+     which this belief is based goes back to early Christian
+     times.
+
+Abraham set out in pursuit of them, and succeeded in delivering his
+nephew.* God (Jahveh) not only favoured him on every occasion, but
+expressed His will to extend over Abraham's descendants His sheltering
+protection. He made a covenant with him, enjoining the use on the
+occasion of the mysterious rites employed among the nations when
+effecting a treaty of peace. Abraham offered up as victims a heifer, a
+goat, and a three-year-old ram, together with a turtle-dove and a young
+pigeon; he cut the animals into pieces, and piling them in two heaps,
+waited till the evening. "And when the sun was going down, a deep sleep
+fell upon Abraham; and lo, an horror of great darkness fell upon him,"
+and a voice from on high said to him: "Know of a surety that thy seed
+shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall serve them;
+and they shall afflict them four hundred years; and also that nation,
+whom they shall serve, will I judge: and afterward shall they come out
+with great substance.... And it came to pass, that when the sun went
+down, and it was dark, behold a smoking furnace, and a burning lamp that
+passed between those pieces." Jahveh sealed the covenant by consuming the
+offering.
+
+     * _Gen._ xiv. 12-24. 2 Gen. xv., Jehovistic narrative.
+
+Two less important figures fill the interval between the Divine
+prediction of servitude and its accomplishment. The birth of one of
+them, Isaac, was ascribed to the Divine intervention at a period when
+Sarah had given up all hope of becoming a mother. Abraham was sitting
+at his tent door in the heat of the day, when three men presented
+themselves before him, whom he invited to repose under the oak while he
+prepared to offer them hospitality. After their meal, he who seemed to
+be the chief of the three promised to return within a year, when Sarah
+should be blessed with the possession of a son. The announcement came
+from Jahveh, but Sarah was ignorant of the fact, and laughed to herself
+within the tent on hearing this amazing prediction; for she said, "After
+I am waxed old shall I have pleasure, my lord being old also?" The child
+was born, however, and was called Isaac, "the laugher," in remembrance
+of Sarah's mocking laugh.* There is a remarkable resemblance between his
+life and that of his father.** Like Abraham he dwelt near Hebron,***
+and departing thence wandered with his household round the wells of
+Beersheba. Like him he was threatened with the loss of his wife.
+
+     * _Gen_. xviii. 1-16, according to the Jehovistic narrative.
+     _Gen_. xvii. 15-22 gives another account, in which the
+     Elohistic writer predicts the birth of Isaac in a different
+     way. The name of Isaac, "the laugher," possibly abridged
+     from Isaak-el, "he on whom God smiles," is explained in
+     three different ways: first, by the laugh of Abraham (ch.
+     xvii. 17); secondly, by that of Sarah (xviii. 12) when her
+     son's birth was foretold to her; and lastly, by the laughter
+     of those who made sport of the delayed maternity of Sarah
+     (xxi. 6).
+
+     ** Many critics see in the life of Isaac a colourless copy
+     of that of Abraham, while others, on the contrary, consider
+     that the primitive episodes belonged to the former, and that
+     the parallel portions of the two lives were borrowed from
+     the biography of the son to augment that of his father.
+
+     *** _Gen_. xxxv. 27, Elohistic narrative.
+
+Like him, also, he renewed relations with Abimelech of Gerar.* He married
+his relative Rebecca, the granddaughter of Nakhor and the sister of
+Laban.** After twenty years of barrenness, his wife gave birth to twins,
+Esau and Jacob, who contended with each other from their mother's womb,
+and whose descendants kept up a perpetual feud. We know how Esau, under
+the influence of his appetite, deprived himself of the privileges of
+his birthright, and subsequently went forth to become the founder of
+the Edomites. Jacob spent a portion of his youth in Padan-Aram; here he
+served Laban for the hands of his cousins Rachel and Leah; then, owing
+to the bad faith of his uncle, he left him secretly, after twenty
+years' service, taking with him his wives and innumerable flocks. At
+first he wandered aimlessly along the eastern bank of the Jordan,
+where Jahveh revealed Himself to him in his troubles. Laban pursued and
+overtook him, and, acknowledging his own injustice, pardoned him for
+having taken flight. Jacob raised a heap of stones on the site of
+their encounter, known at Mizpah to after-ages as the "Stone of Witness
+"--G-al-Ed (Galeed).*** This having been accomplished, his difficulties
+began with his brother Esau, who bore him no good will.
+
+     * _Gen._ xxvi. 1--31, Jehovistic narrative. In _Gen._ xxv.
+     11 an Elohistic interpolation makes Isaac also dwell in the
+     south, near to the "Well of the Living One Who seeth me."
+
+     ** _Gen._ xxiv., where two narratives appear to have been
+     amalgamated; in the second of these, Abraham seems to have
+     played no part, and Eliezer apparently conducted Rebecca
+     direct to her husband Isaac (vers. 61-67).
+
+     *** _Gen._ xxxi. 45-54, where the writer evidently traces
+     the origin of the word Gilead to Gal-Ed. We gather from the
+     context that the narrative was connected with the cairn at
+     Mizpah which separated the Hebrew from the Aramaean speaking
+     peoples.
+
+One night, at the ford of the Jabbok, when he had fallen behind his
+companions, "there wrestled a man with him until the breaking of the
+day," without prevailing against him. The stranger endeavoured to escape
+before daybreak, but only succeeded in doing so at the cost of giving
+Jacob his blessing. "What is thy name? And he said, Jacob. And he
+said, Thy name shall be called no more Jacob, but Israel: for thou hast
+striven with God and with men, and hast prevailed." Jacob called the
+place Peniel, "for," said he, "I have seen God face to face, and my life
+is preserved." The hollow of his thigh was "strained as he wrestled with
+him," and he became permanently lame.* Immediately after the struggle
+he met Esau, and endeavoured to appease him by his humility, building a
+house for him, and providing booths for his cattle, so as to secure for
+his descendants the possession of the land. From this circumstance the
+place received the name of Succoth--the "Booths "--by which appellation
+it was henceforth known. Another locality where Jahveh had met Jacob
+while he was pitching his tents, derived from this fact the designation
+of the "Two Hosts"--Mahanaim.** On the other side of the river, at
+Shechem,*** at Bethel,**** and at Hebron, near to the burial-place of
+his family, traces of him are everywhere to be found blent with those of
+Abraham.
+
+     * _Gen._ xxxii. 22-32. This is the account of the Jehovistic
+     writer. The Elohist gives a different version of the
+     circumstances which led to the change of name from Jacob to
+     Israel; he places the scene at Bethel, and suggests no
+     precise etymology for the name Israel (_Gen._ xxxv. 9-15).
+
+     ** _Gen._ xxxii. 2, 3, where the theophany is indicated
+     rather than directly stated.
+
+     *** _Gen._ xxxiii. 18-20. Here should be placed the episode
+     of Dinah seduced by an Amorite prince, and the consequent
+     massacre of the inhabitants by Simeon and Levi (_Gen._
+     xxxiv.). The almost complete dispersion of the two tribes of
+     Simeon and Levi is attributed to this massacre: cf. _Gen._
+     xlix. 5-7.
+
+     **** _Gen._ xxxv. 1-15, where is found the Elohistic version
+     (9-15) of the circumstances which led to the change of name
+     from Jacob to Israel.
+
+By his two wives and their maids he had twelve sons. Leah was the mother
+of Keuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, and Zabulon; Gad. and Asher
+were the children of his slave Zilpah; while Joseph and Benjamin were
+the only sons of Rachel--Dan and Naphtali being the offspring of her
+servant Bilhah. The preference which his father showed to him caused
+Joseph to be hated by his brothers; they sold him to a caravan of
+Midianites on their way to Egypt, and persuaded Jacob that a wild beast
+had devoured him. Jahveh was, however, with Joseph, and "made all that
+he did to prosper in his hand." He was bought by Potiphar, a great
+Egyptian lord and captain of Pharaoh's guard, who made him his overseer;
+his master's wife, however, "cast her eyes upon Joseph," but finding
+that he rejected her shameless advances, she accused him of having
+offered violence to her person. Being cast into prison, he astonished
+his companions in misfortune by his skill in reading dreams, and was
+summoned to Court to interpret to the king his dream of the seven lean
+kine who had devoured the seven fat kine, which he did by representing
+the latter as seven years of abundance, of which the crops should be
+swallowed up by seven years of famine. Joseph was thereupon raised by
+Pharaoh to the rank of prime minister. He stored up the surplus of the
+abundant harvests, and as soon as the famine broke out, distributed
+the corn to the hunger-stricken people in exchange for their silver and
+gold, and for their flocks and fields. Hence it was,that the whole
+of the Nile valley, with the exception of the lands belonging to the
+priests, gradually passed into the possession of the royal treasury.
+Meanwhile his brethren, who also suffered from the famine, came down
+into Egypt to buy corn. Joseph revealed himself to them, pardoned the
+wrong they had done him, and presented them to the Pharaoh. "And Pharaoh
+said unto Joseph, Say unto thy brethren, This do ye; lade your beasts,
+and go, get you unto the land of Canaan: and take your father and your
+household, and come unto me: and I will give you the good of the land of
+Egypt, and ye shall eat the fat of the land." Jacob thereupon raised his
+camp and came to Beersheba, where he offered sacrifices to the God
+of his father Isaac; and Jahveh commanded him to go down into Egypt,
+saying, "I will there make of thee a great nation: I will go down with
+thee into Egypt: and I will also surely bring thee up again: and Joseph
+shall put his hand upon thine eyes." The whole family were installed by
+Pharaoh in the province of Goshen, as far as possible from the centres
+of the native population, "for every shepherd is an abomination unto the
+Egyptians."
+
+In the midst of these stern yet touching narratives in which the Hebrews
+of the times of the Kings delighted to trace the history of their remote
+ancestors, one important fact arrests our attention: the Beni-Israel
+quitted Southern Syria and settled on the banks of the Nile. They
+had remained for a considerable time in what was known later as the
+mountains of Judah. Hebron had served as their rallying-point; the broad
+but scantily watered wadys separating the cultivated lands from the
+desert, were to them a patrimony, which they shared with the inhabitants
+of the neighbouring towns. Every year, in the spring, they led their
+flocks to browse on the thin herbage growing in the bottoms of the
+valleys, removing them to another district only when the supply of
+fodder was exhausted. The women span, wove, fashioned garments, baked
+bread, cooked the viands, and devoted themselves to the care of the
+younger children, whom they suckled beyond the usual period. The men
+lived like the Bedouin--periods of activity alternating regularly with
+times of idleness, and the daily routine, with its simple duties and
+casual work, often gave place to quarrels for the possession of some
+rich pasturage or some never-failing well.
+
+A comparatively ancient tradition relates that the Hebrews arrived in
+Egypt during the reign of Aphobis, a Hyksos king, doubtless one of the
+Apopi, and possibly the monarch who restored the monuments of the Theban
+Pharaohs, and engraved his name on the sphinxes of Amenemhait III. and
+on the colossi of Mirmashau.* The land which the Hebrews obtained is
+that which, down to the present day, is most frequently visited by
+nomads, who find there an uncertain hospitality.
+
+     * The year XVII. of Apophis has been pointed out as the date
+     of their arrival, and this combination, probably proposed by
+     some learned Jew of Alexandria, was adopted by Christian
+     chroniclers. It is unsupported by any fact of Egyptian
+     history, but it rests on a series of calculations founded on
+     the information contained in the Bible. Starting from the
+     assumption that the Exodus must have taken place under
+     Ahmosis, and that the children of Israel had been four
+     hundred and thirty years on the banks of the Nile, it was
+     found that the beginning of their sojourn fell under the
+     reign of the Apophis mentioned by Josephus, and, to be still
+     more correct, in the XVIIth year of that prince.
+
+The tribes of the isthmus of Suez are now, in fact, constantly shifting
+from one continent to another, and their encampments in any place are
+merely temporary. The lord of the soil must, if he desire to keep them
+within his borders, treat them with the greatest prudence and tact.
+Should the government displease them in any way, or appear to curtail
+their liberty, they pack up their tents and take flight into the desert.
+The district occupied by them one day is on the next vacated and left to
+desolation. Probably the same state of things existed in ancient times,
+and the border nomes on the east of the Delta were in turn inhabited or
+deserted by the Bedouin of the period. The towns were few in number,
+but a series of forts protected the frontier. These were mere
+village-strongholds perched on the summit of some eminence, and
+surrounded by a strip of cornland. Beyond the frontier extended a region
+of bare rock, or a wide plain saturated with the ill-regulated surplus
+water of the inundation. The land of Goshen was bounded by the cities of
+Heliopolis on the south, Bubastis on the west, and Tanis and Mendes on
+the north: the garrison at Avaris could easily keep watch over it and
+maintain order within it, while they could at the same time defend it
+from the incursions of the Monatiu and the Hiru-Shaitu.*
+
+     * Goshen comprised the provinces situated on the borders of
+     the cultivable cornland, and watered by the infiltration of
+     the Nile, which caused the growth of a vegetation sufficient
+     to support the flocks during a few weeks; and it may also
+     have included the imperfectly irrigated provinces which were
+     covered with pools and reedy swamps after each inundation.
+
+The Beni-Israel throve in these surroundings so well adapted to their
+traditional tastes. Even if their subsequent importance as a nation
+has been over-estimated, they did not at least share the fate of many
+foreign tribes, who, when transplanted into Egypt, waned and died out,
+or, at the end of two or three generations, became merged in the native
+population.* In pursuing their calling as shepherds, almost within sight
+of the rich cities of the Nile valley, they never forsook the God of
+their fathers to bow down before the Enneads or Triads of Egypt; whether
+He was already known to them as Jahveh, or was worshipped under the
+collective name of Elohim, they served Him with almost unbroken fidelity
+even in the presence of Ra and Osiris, of Phtah and Sutkhu.
+
+     * We are told that when the Hebrews left Ramses, they were
+     "about six hundred thousand on foot that were men, beside
+     children. And a mixed multitude went up also with them; and
+     flocks and herds, even very much cattle" (_Exod._ xii. 37,
+     38).
+
+The Hyksos conquest had not in any way modified the feudal system of the
+country. The Shepherd-kings must have inherited the royal domain just as
+they found it at the close of the XIVth dynasty, but doubtless the whole
+Delta, from Avaris to Sais, and from Memphis to Buto, was their personal
+appanage. Their direct authority probably extended no further south than
+the pyramids, and their supremacy over the fiefs of the Said was at best
+precarious. The turbulent lords who shared among them the possession of
+the valley had never lost their proud or rebellious spirit, and under
+the foreign as under the native Pharaohs regulated their obedience
+to their ruler by the energy he displayed, or by their regard for
+the resources at his disposal. Thebes had never completely lost the
+ascendency which it obtained over them at the fall of the Memphite
+dynasty. The accession of the Xoite dynasty, and the arrival of the
+Shepherd-kings, in relegating Thebes unceremoniously to a second rank,
+had not discouraged it, or lowered its royal prestige in its own eyes or
+in those of others: the lords of the south instinctively rallied around
+it, as around their natural citadel, and their resources, combined with
+its own, rendered it as formidable a power as that of the masters of the
+Delta. If we had fuller information as to the history of this period, we
+should doubtless see that the various Theban princes took occasion, as
+in the Heracleopolitan epoch, to pick a quarrel with their sovereign
+lord, and did not allow themselves to be discouraged by any check.*
+
+     * The length of time during which Egypt was subject to
+     Asiatic rule is not fully known. Historians are agreed in
+     recognizing the three epochs referred to in the narrative of
+     Manetho as corresponding with (1) the conquest and the six
+     first Hyksos kings, including the XVth Theban dynasty; (2)
+     the complete submission of Egypt to the XVIth foreign
+     dynasty; (3) the war of independence during the XVIIth
+     dynasty, which consisted of two parallel series of kings,
+     the one Shepherds (Pharaohs), the other Thebans. There has
+     been considerable discussion as to the duration of the
+     oppression. The best solution is still that given by Erman,
+     according to whom the XVth dynasty lasted 284, the XVIth
+     234, and the XVIIth 143 years, or, in all, 661 years. The
+     invasion must, therefore, have taken place about 2346 B.C.,
+     or about the time when the Elamite power was at its highest.
+     The advent of the XVIth dynasty would fall about 2062 B.C.,
+     and the commencement of the war of independence between 1730
+     and 1720 B.C.
+
+The period of hegemony attributed by the chronicles to the Hyksos of the
+XVIth dynasty was not probably, as far as they were concerned, years of
+perfect tranquillity, or of undisputed authority. In inscribing their
+sole names on the lists, the compilers denoted merely the shorter
+or longer period during which their Theban vassals failed in their
+rebellious efforts, and did not dare to assume openly the title or
+ensigns of royalty. A certain Apophis, probably the same who took the
+prsenomen of Aqnunri, was reigning at Tanis when the decisive revolt
+broke out, and Saqnunri Tiuaa I., who was the leader on the occasion,
+had no other title of authority over the provinces of the south than
+that of _hiqu,_ or regent. We are unacquainted with the cause of the
+outbreak or with its sequel, and the Egyptians themselves seem to have
+been not much better informed on the subject than ourselves. They gave
+free flight to their fancy, and accommodated the details to their taste,
+not shrinking from the introduction of daring fictions into the account.
+A romance, which was very popular with the literati four or five hundred
+years later, asserted that the real cause of the war was a kind of
+religious quarrel. "It happened that the land of Egypt belonged to
+the Fever-stricken, and, as there was no supreme king at that time, it
+happened then that King Saqnunri was regent of the city of the south,
+and that the Fever-stricken of the city of Ra were under the rule of
+Ra-Apopi in Avaris. The Whole Land tribute to the latter in manufactured
+products, and the north did the same in all the good things of the
+Delta. Now, the King Ra-Apopi took to himself Sutkhu for lord, and he
+did not serve any other god in the Whole Land except Sutkhu, and he
+built a temple of excellent and everlasting work at the gate of the King
+Ra-Apopi, and he arose every morning to sacrifice the daily victims,
+and the chief vassals were there with garlands of flowers, as it was
+accustomed to be done for the temple of Phra-Harmakhis." Having finished
+the temple, he thought of imposing upon the Thebans the cult of his god,
+but as he shrank from employing force in such a delicate matter, he had
+recourse to stratagem. He took counsel with his princes and generals,
+but they were unable to propose any plan. The college of diviners and
+scribes was more complaisant: "Let a messenger go to the regent of the
+city of the South to tell him: The King Ra-Apopi commands thee: 'That
+the hippopotami which are in the pool of the town are to be exterminated
+in the pool, in order that slumber may come to me by day and by night.'
+He will not be able to reply good or bad, and thou shalt send him
+another messenger: The King Ra-Apopi commands thee: 'If the chief of the
+South does not reply to my message, let him serve no longer any god but
+Sutkhu. But if he replies to it, and will do that which I tell him
+to do, then I will impose nothing further upon him, and I will not in
+future bow before any other god of the Whole Land than Amonra, king of
+the gods!'" Another Pharaoh of popular romance, Nectanebo, possessed,
+at a much later date, mares which conceived at the neighing of the
+stallions of Babylon, and his friend Lycerus had a cat which went forth
+every night to wring the necks of the cocks of Memphis:* the hippopotami
+of the Theban lake, which troubled the rest of the King of Tanis, were
+evidently of close kin to these extraordinary animals.
+
+     * Found in a popular story, which came in later times to be
+     associated with the traditions connected with AEsop.
+
+The sequel is unfortunately lost. We may assume, however, without much
+risk of error, that Saqnunri came forth safe and sound from the ordeal;
+that Apopi was taken in his own trap, and saw himself driven to the dire
+extremity of giving up Sutkhu for Amonra or of declaring war. He was
+likely to adopt the latter alternative, and the end of the manuscript
+would probably have related his defeat.
+
+[Illustration: 106.jpg PALLATE OF Tiuaa]
+
+     Drawn from the original by Faucher-Gudin.
+
+Hostilities continued for a century and a half from the time when
+Saqnunri Tiuaa declared himself son of the Sun and king of the
+two Egypts. From the moment in which he surrounded his name with a
+cartouche, the princes of the Said threw in their lot with him, and the
+XVIIth dynasty had its beginning on the day of his proclamation. The
+strife at first was undecisive and without marked advantage to either
+side: at length the Pharaoh whom the Greek copyists of Manetho call
+Alisphragmouthosis, defeated the barbarians, drove them away from
+Memphis and from the western plains of the Delta, and shut them up in
+their entrenched camp at Avaris, between the Sebennytic branch of the
+Nile and the Wady Tumilat. The monuments bearing on this period of
+strife and misery are few in number, and it is a fortunate circumstance
+if some insignificant object tarns up which would elsewhere be passed
+over as unworthy of notice. One of the officials of Tiuaa I. has left us
+his writing palette, on which the cartouches of his master are incised
+with a rudeness baffling description.
+
+We have also information of a prince of the blood, a king's son, Tuau,
+who accompanied this same Pharaoh in his expeditions; and the Gizeh
+Museum is proud of having in its possession the i wooden sabre which
+this individual placed on the mummy of a certain Aqhoru, to enable him
+to defend himself against the monsters of the lower world. A second
+Saqnunri Tiuaa succeeded the first, and like him was buried in a little
+brick pyramid on the border of the Theban necropolis. At his death the
+series of rulers was broken, and we meet with several names which
+are difficult to classify--Sakhontinibri, Sanakhtu-niri, Hotpuri,
+Manhotpuri, Eahotpu.*
+
+     * Hotpuri and Manhotpuri are both mentioned in the fragments
+     of a fantastic story (copied during the XXth dynasty), bits
+     of which are found in most European museums. In one of these
+     fragments, preserved in the Louvre, mention is made of
+     Hotpuri's tomb, certainly situated at Thebes; we possess
+     scarabs of this king, and Petrie discovered at Coptos a
+     fragment of a stele bearing his name and titles, and
+     describing the works which he executed in the temples of the
+     town. The XIVth year of Manhotpuri is mentioned in a passage
+     of the story as being the date of the death of a personage
+     born under Hotpuri. These two kings belong, as far as we are
+     able to judge, to the middle of the XVIIth dynasty; I am
+     inclined to place beside them the Pharaoh Nubhotpuri, of
+     whom we possess a few rather coarse scarabs.
+
+As we proceed, however, information becomes more plentiful, and the list
+of reigns almost complete. The part which the princesses of older
+times played in the transmission of power had, from the XIIth dynasty
+downward, considerably increased in importance, and threatened to
+overshadow that of the princes. The question presents itself whether,
+during these centuries of perpetual warfare, there had not been a moment
+when, all the males of the family having perished, the women alone
+were left to perpetuate the solar race on the earth and to keep the
+succession unbroken. As soon as the veil over this period of history
+begins to be lifted, we distinguish among the personages emerging from
+the obscurity as many queens as kings presiding over the destinies of
+Egypt. The sons took precedence of the daughters when both were the
+offspring of a brother and sister born of the same parents, and when,
+consequently, they were of equal rank; but, on the other hand, the sons
+forfeited this equality when there was any inferiority in origin on the
+maternal side, and their prospect of succession to the throne diminished
+in proportion to their mother's remoteness from the line of Ra. In the
+latter case all their sisters, born of marriages which to us appear
+incestuous, took precedence of them, and the eldest daughter became the
+legitimate Pharaoh, who sat in the seat of Horus on the death of her
+father, or even occasionally during his lifetime. The prince whom she
+married governed for her, and discharged those royal duties which could
+be legally performed by a man only,--such as offering worship to the
+supreme gods, commanding the army, and administering justice; but his
+wife never ceased to be sovereign, and however small the intelligence
+or firmness of which she might be possessed, her husband was obliged
+to leave to her, at all events on certain occasions, the direction of
+affairs.
+
+[Illustration: 109.jpg NOFRITARI, FROM TUE WOODEN STATUETTE IN THE TURIN
+MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Plinders
+     Petrie.
+
+At her death her children inherited the crown: their father had formally
+to invest the eldest of them with royal, authority in the room of the
+deceased, and with him he shared the externals, if not the reality, of
+power.* It is doubtful whether the third Saq-nunri Tiuaa known to us--he
+who added an epithet to his name, and was commonly known as Tiuaqni,
+"Tiuaa the brave"** --united in his person all the requisites of a
+Pharaoh qualified to reign in his own right. However this may have been,
+at all events his wife, Queen Ahhotpu, possessed them.
+
+     * Thus we find Thutmosis I. formally enthroning his daughter
+     Hat-shopsitu, towards the close of his reign.
+
+     ** It would seem that the epithet Qeni ( = the brave, the
+     robust) did not form an indispensable part of his name, any
+     more than Ahmosi did of the names of members of the family
+     of Ahmosis, the conqueror of the Shepherds. It is to him
+     that the Tiuaa cartouche refers, which is to be found on the
+     statue mentioned by Daninos-Pasha, published by Bouriant,
+     and on which we find Ahmosis, a princess of the same name,
+     together with Queen Ahhotpu I.
+
+His eldest son Ahmosu died prematurely; the two younger brothers, Kamosu
+and a second Ahmosu, the Amosis of the Greeks, assumed the crown after
+him. It is possible, as frequently happened, that their young sister
+Ahmasi-Nofritari entered the harem of both brothers consecutively.
+
+[Illustration: 110.jpg THE HEAD OF SAQNURI]
+
+     Drawn by Bouclier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+We cannot be sure that she was united to Kamosu, but at all events she
+became the wife of Ahmosis, and the rights which she possessed, together
+with those which her husband had inherited from their mother Ahhotpu,
+gave him a legal claim such as was seldom enjoyed by the Pharaohs of
+that period, so many of them being sovereigns merely _de facto,_ while
+he was doubly king by right.
+
+Tiuaqni, Kamosu,* and Ahmosis** quickly succeeded each other. Tiuaqni
+very probably waged war against the Shepherds, and it is not known
+whether he fell upon the field of battle or was the victim of some plot;
+the appearance of his mummy proves that he died a violent death when
+about forty years of age. Two or three men, whether assassins or
+soldiers, must have surrounded and despatched him before help was
+available. A blow from an axe must have severed part of his left cheek,
+exposed the teeth, fractured the jaw, and sent him senseless to the
+ground; another blow must have seriously injured the skull, and a dagger
+or javelin has cut open the forehead on the right side, a little above
+the eye. His body must have remained lying where it fell for some
+time: when found, decomposition had set in, and the embalming had to
+be hastily performed as best it might. The hair is thick, rough, and
+matted; the face had been shaved on the morning of his death, but by
+touching the cheek we can ascertain how harsh and abundant the hair must
+have been. The mummy is that of a fine, vigorous man, who might have
+lived to a hundred years, and he must have defended himself resolutely
+against his assailants; his features bear even now an expression of
+fury. A flattened patch of exuded brain appears above one eye, the
+forehead is wrinkled, and the lips, which are drawn back in a circle
+about the gums, reveal the teeth still biting into the tongue. Kamosu
+did not reign long;'we know nothing of the events of his life, but we
+owe to him one of the prettiest examples of the Egyptian goldsmith's
+art--the gold boat mounted on a carriage of wood and bronze, which
+was to convey his double on its journeys through Hades. This boat was
+afterwards appropriated by his mother Ahhotpu.
+
+     * With regard to Kamosu, we possess, in addition to the
+     miniature bark which was discovered on the sarcophagus of
+     Queen Ahhotpu, and which is now in the museum at Gizeh, a
+     few scattered references to his worship existing on the
+     monuments, on a stele at Gizeh, on a table of offerings in
+     the Marseilles Museum, and in the list of princes worshipped
+     by the "servants of the Necropolis." His pyramid was at Drah-
+     Abu'l-Neggah, beside those of Iluaa and Amenothes I.
+
+     ** The name Amosu or Ahmosi is usually translated "Child of
+     the Moon-god" the real meaning is, "the Moon-god has brought
+     forth," "him" or "her" (referring to the person who bears
+     the name) being understood.
+
+Ahmosisa must have been about twenty-five years of age when he ascended
+the throne; he was of medium height, as his body when mummied measured
+only 5 feet 6 inches in length, but the development of the neck and
+chest indicates extraordinary strength. The head is small in proportion
+to the bust, the forehead low and narrow, the cheek-bones project, and
+the hair is thick and wavy. The face exactly resembles that of Tiuacrai,
+and the likeness alone would proclaim the affinity, even if we were
+ignorant of the close relationship which united these two Pharaohs.*
+Ahmosis seems to have been a strong, active, warlike man; he was
+successful in all the wars in which we know him to have been engaged,
+and he ousted the Shepherds from the last towns occupied by them. It is
+possible that modern writers have exaggerated the credit due to Ahmosis
+for expelling the Hyksos. He found the task already half accomplished,
+and the warfare of his forefathers for at least a century must have
+prepared the way for his success; if he appears to have played the most
+important _role_ in the history of the deliverance, it is owing to our
+ignorance of the work of others, and he thus benefits by the oblivion
+into which their deeds have passed. Taking this into consideration, we
+must still admit that the Shepherds, even when driven into Avaris, were
+not adversaries to be despised. Forced by the continual pressure of the
+Egyptian armies into this corner of the Delta, they were as a compact
+body the more able to make a protracted resistance against very superior
+forces.
+
+     * Here again my description is taken from the present
+     appearance of the mummy, which is now in the Gizeh Museum.
+     It is evident, from the inspection which I have made, that
+     Ahmosis was about fifty years old at the time of his death,
+     and, allowing him to have reigned twenty-five years, he must
+     have been twenty-five or twenty-six when he came to the
+     throne.
+
+[Illustration: 113.jpg THE SMALL GOLD VOTIVE BARQUE OF PHARAOH KAMOSU,
+IN THE GIZEH MUSEUM.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The impenetrable marshes of Menzaleh on the north, and the desert of the
+Red Sea on the south, completely covered both their wings; the shifting
+network of the branches of the Nile, together with the artificial
+canals, protected them as by a series of moats in front, while Syria in
+their rear offered them inexhaustible resources for revictualling their
+troops, or levying recruits among tribes of kindred race. As long as
+they could hold their ground there, a re-invasion was always possible;
+one victory would bring them to Memphis, and the whole valley would
+again fall under then-suzerainty. Ahmosis, by driving them from their
+last stronghold, averted this danger. It is, therefore, not without
+reason that the official chroniclers of later times separated him from
+his ancestors and made him the head of a new dynasty.
+
+[Illustration: 114.jpg Page Image]
+
+His predecessors had in reality been merely Pharaohs on sufferance,
+ruling in the south within the confines of their Theban principality,
+gaining in power, it is true, with every generation, but never able to
+attain to the suzerainty of the whole country. They were reckoned in
+the XVIIth dynasty together with the Hyksos sovereigns of uncontested
+legitimacy, while their successors were chosen to constitute
+the XVIIIth, comprising Pharaohs with full powers, tolerating no
+competitors, and uniting under their firm rule the two regions of
+which Egypt was composed--the possessions of Sit and the possessions of
+Horus.*
+
+     * Manetho, or his abridgers, call the king who drove out the
+     Shepherds Amosis or Tethmosis. Lepsius thought he saw
+     grounds for preferring the second reading, and identified
+     this Tethmosis with Thutmosi Manakhpirri, the ihutmosis III.
+     of our lists; Ahmosis could only have driven out the greater
+     part of the nation. This theory, to which Naville still
+     adheres, as also does Stindorff, was disputed nearly fifty
+     years ago by E. de Rouge; nowadays we are obliged to admit
+     that, subsequent to the Vth year of Ahmosis, there were no
+     longer Shepherd-kings in Egypt, even though a part of the
+     conquering race may have remained in the country in a state
+     of slavery, as we shall soon have occasion to observe.
+
+The war of deliverance broke out on the accession of Ahmosis, and
+continued during the first five years of his reign.* One of his
+lieutenants, the king's namesake--Ahmosi-si-Abina--who belonged to the
+family of the lords of Nekhabit, has left us an account, in one of the
+inscriptions in his tomb, of the numerous exploits in which he took part
+side by side with his royal master, and thus, thanks to this fortunate
+record of his vanity, we are not left in complete ignorance of the
+events which took place during this crucial struggle between the Asiatic
+settlers and their former subjects. Nekhabit had enjoyed considerable
+prosperity in the earlier ages of Egyptian history, marking as it
+did the extreme southern limit of the kingdom, and forming an outpost
+against the barbarous tribes of Nubia. As soon as the progress of
+conquest had pushed the frontier as far south as the first cataract,
+it declined in importance, and the remembrance of its former greatness
+found an echo only in proverbial expressions or in titles used at the
+Pharaonic court.* The nomes situated to the south of Thebes, unlike
+those of Middle Egypt, did not comprise any extensive fertile or
+well-watered territory calculated to enrich its possessors or to afford
+sufficient support for a large population: they consisted of long strips
+of alluvial soil, shut in between the river and the mountain range,
+but above the level of the inundation, and consequently difficult to
+irrigate.
+
+     * This is evident from passage in the biography of Ahmosi-
+     si-Abina, where it is stated that, after the taking of
+     Avaris, the king passed into Asia in the year VI. The first
+     few lines of the _Great Inscription of El-Kab_ seem to refer
+     to four successive campaigns, i.e. four years of warfare up
+     to the taking of Avaris, and to a fifth year spent in
+     pursuing the Shepherds into Syria.
+
+     ** The vulture of Nekhabit is used to indicate the south,
+     while the urseus of Buto denotes the extreme north; the
+     title Ra-Nekhnit, "Chief of Nekhnit," which is,
+     hypothetically, supposed to refer to a judicial function, is
+     none the less associated with the expression, "Nekhabit-
+     Tekhnit," as an indication of the south, and, therefore,
+     can be traced to the prehistoric epoch when Nekhabit was the
+     primary designation of the south.
+
+[Illustration: 116.jpg THE WALLS OF EL-KAB SEEN FROM THE TOMB OF PIHIRI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+
+[Illustration: 116a.jpg COLLECTION OF VASES] MODELLED AND PAINTED IN THE
+GRAND TEMPLE. PHILAE ISLAND.
+
+These nomes were cultivated, moreover, by a poor and sparse population.
+It needed a fortuitous combination of circumstances to relieve them from
+their poverty-stricken condition--either a war, which would bring into
+prominence their strategic positions; or the establishment of
+markets, such as those of Syene and Elephantine, where the commerce
+of neighbouring regions would naturally centre; or the erection, as at
+Ombos or Adfu, of a temple which would periodically attract a crowd
+of pilgrims. The principality of the Two Feathers comprised, besides
+Nekhabit, at least two such towns--Anit, on its northern boundary, and
+Nekhnit almost facing Nekhabit on the left bank of the river.* These
+three towns sometimes formed separate estates for as many independent
+lords:** even when united they constituted a fiefdom of but restricted
+area and of slender revenues, its chiefs ranking below those of the
+great feudal princes of Middle Egypt. The rulers of this fiefdom led an
+obscure existence during the whole period of the Memphite empire, and
+when at length Thebes gained the ascendency, they rallied to the latter
+and acknowledged her suzerainty. One of them, Sovkunakhiti, gained the
+favour of Sovkhotpu III. Sakhemuaztauiri, who granted him lands which
+made the fortune of his house; another of them, Ai, married Khonsu,
+one of the daughters of Sovkumsauf I. and his Queen Nubkhas, and it is
+possible that the misshapen pyramid of Qulah, the most southern in Egypt
+proper, was built for one of these royally connected personages.
+
+     * Nekhnit is the Hieraconpolis of Greek and Roman times,
+     Hait-Bauku, the modern name of which is Kom-el-Ahmar.
+
+     ** Pihiri was, therefore, prince of Nekhabit and of Anit at
+     one and the same time, whereas the town of Nekhnit had its
+     own special rulers, several of whom are known to us from the
+     tombs at Kom-el-Ahmar.
+
+The descendants of Ai attached themselves faithfully to the Pharaohs
+of the XVIIth dynasty, and helped them to the utmost in their struggle
+against the invaders. Their capital, Nekhabit, was situated between the
+Nile and the Arabian chain, at the entrance to a valley which penetrates
+some distance into the desert, and leads to the gold-mines on the Red
+Sea. The town profited considerably from the precious metals brought
+into it by the caravans, and also from the extraction of natron, which
+from prehistoric times was largely employed in embalming. It had been
+a fortified place from the outset, and its walls, carefully repaired
+by successive ages, were still intact at the beginning of this century.
+They described at this time a rough quadrilateral, the two longer sides
+of which measured some 1900 feet in length, the two shorter being about
+one-fourth less. The southern face was constructed in a fashion common
+in brick buildings in Egypt, being divided into alternate panels of
+horizontally laid courses, and those in which the courses were concave;
+on the north and west facades the bricks were so laid as to present
+an undulating arrangement running uninterruptedly from one end to the
+other. The walls are 33 feet thick, and their average height 27 feet;
+broad and easy steps lead to the foot-walk on the top. The gates are
+unsymmetrically placed, there being one on the north, east, and west
+sides respectively; while the southern side is left without an opening.
+These walls afforded protection to a dense but unequally distributed
+population, the bulk of which was housed towards the north and west
+sides, where the remains of an immense number of dwellings may still
+be seen. The temples were crowded together in a small square enclosure,
+concentric with the walls of the enceinte, and the principal sanctuary
+was dedicated to Nekhabit, the vulture goddess, who gave her name to the
+city.* This enclosure formed a kind of citadel, where the garrison could
+hold out when the outer part had fallen into the enemy's hands. The
+times were troublous; the open country was repeatedly wasted by war, and
+the peasantry had more than once to seek shelter behind the protecting
+ramparts of the town, leaving their lands to lie fallow.
+
+     * A part of the latter temple, that which had been rebuilt
+     in the Saite epoch, was still standing at the beginning of
+     the XIXth century, with columns bearing the cartouches of
+     Hakori; it was destroyed about the year 1825, and
+     Champollion found only the foundations of the walls.
+
+[Illustration: 119.jpg THE RUINS OF THE PYRAMID OF QULAH, NEAR
+MOHAMMERIEH]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+
+Famine constantly resulted from these disturbances, and it taxed all the
+powers of the ruling prince to provide at such times for his people. A
+chief of the Commissariat, Bebi by name, who lived about this period,
+gives us a lengthy account of the number of loaves, oxen, goats, and
+pigs, which he allowed to all the inhabitants both great and little,
+down even to the quantity of oil and incense, which he had taken care to
+store up for them: his prudence was always justified by the issue, for
+"during the many years in which the famine recurred, he distributed
+grain in the city to all those who hungered."
+
+Babai, the first of the lords of El-Kab whose name has come down to
+us, was a captain in the service of Saqnunri Tiuaqni.* His son Ahmosi,
+having approached the end of his career, cut a tomb for himself in the
+hill which overlooks the northern side of the town. He relates on
+the walls of his sepulchre, for the benefit of posterity, the most
+praiseworthy actions of his long life. He had scarcely emerged from
+childhood when he was called upon to act for his father, and before his
+marriage he was appointed to the command of the barque _The Calf._ From
+thence he was promoted to the ship _The North_, and on account of his
+activity he was chosen to escort his namesake the king on foot, whenever
+he drove in his chariot. He repaired to his post at the moment when the
+decisive war against the Hyksos broke out.
+
+     * There are still some doubts as to the descent of this
+     Ahmosi. Some authorities hold that Babai was the name of his
+     father and Abina that of his grandfather; others think that
+     Babai was his father and Abina his mother; others, again,
+     make out Babai and Abina to be variants of the same name,
+     probably a Semitic one, borne by the father of Ahmosi; the
+     majority of modern Egyptologists (including myself) regard
+     this last hypothesis as being the most probable one.
+
+The tradition current in the time of the Ptolemies reckoned the number
+of men under the command of King Ahmosis when he encamped before
+Avaris at 480,000. This immense multitude failed to bring matters to a
+successful issue, and the siege dragged on indefinitely. The king afc
+length preferred to treat with the Shepherds, and gave them permission
+to retreat into Syria safe and sound, together with their wives, their
+children, and all their goods. This account, however, in no way agrees
+with the all too brief narration of events furnished by the inscription
+in the tomb. The army to which Egypt really owed its deliverance was
+not the undisciplined rabble of later tradition, but, on the contrary,
+consisted of troops similar to those which subsequently invaded Syria,
+some 15,000 to 20,000 in number, fully equipped and ably officered,
+supported, moreover, by a fleet ready to transfer them across the canals
+and arms of the river in a vigorous condition and ready for the battle.*
+
+     * It may be pointed out that Ahmosi, son of Abina, was a
+     sailor and a leader of sailors; that he passed from one
+     vessel to another, until he was at length appointed to the
+     command of one of the most important ships in the royal
+     fleet. Transport by water always played considerable part in
+     the wars which were carried on in Egyptian territory; I have
+     elsewhere drawn attention to campaigns conducted in this
+     manner under the Horacleopolitan dynasties, and we shall see
+     that the Ethiopian conquerors adopted the same mode of
+     transit in the course of their invasion of Egypt.
+
+As soon as this fleet arrived at the scene of hostilities, the
+engagement began. Ahmosi-si-Abina conducted the manouvres under the
+king's eye, and soon gave such evidence of his capacity, that he was
+transferred by royal favour to the _Rising in Memphis_--a vessel with
+a high freeboard. He was shortly afterwards appointed to a post in a
+division told off for duty on the river Zadiku, which ran under the
+walls of the enemy's fortress.* Two successive and vigorous attacks
+made in this quarter were barren of important results. Ahmosi-si-Abina
+succeeded in each of the attacks in killing an enemy, bringing back as
+trophies a hand of each of his victims, and his prowess, made known to
+the king by one of the heralds, twice procured for him, "the gold of
+valour," probably in the form of collars, chains, or bracelets.**
+
+     * The name of this canal was first recognised by Brugsch,
+     then misunderstood and translated "the water bearing the
+     name of the water of Avaris." It is now road "Zadiku," and,
+     with the Egyptian article, Pa-zadiku, or Pzadiku. The name
+     is of Semitic origin, and is derived from the root meaning
+     "to be just;" we do not know to which of the watercourses
+     traversing the east of the Delta it ought to be applied.
+
+     ** The fact that the attacks from this side were not
+     successful is proved by the sequel. If they had succeeded,
+     as is usually supposed, the Egyptians would not have fallen
+     back on another point further south in order to renew the
+     struggle.
+
+[Illustration: 122.jpg THE TOMBS OF THE PRINCES OF NEKHABIT, IN THE
+HILLSIDE ABOVE EL-KAB]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The assault having been repulsed in this quarter, the Egyptians made
+their way towards the south, and came into conflict with the enemy at
+the village of Taqimit.* Here, again, the battle remained undecided,
+but Ahmosi-si-Abina had an adventure. He had taken a prisoner, and in
+bringing him back lost himself, fell into a muddy ditch, and, when he
+had freed himself from the dirt as well as he could, pursued his way
+by mistake for some time in the direction of Avaris. He found out his
+error, however, before it was too late, came back to the camp safe
+and sound, and received once more some gold as a reward of his brave
+conduct. A second attack upon the town was crowned with complete
+success; it was taken by storm, given over to pillage, and
+Ahmosi-si-Abina succeeded in capturing one man and three women, who were
+afterwards, at the distribution of the spoil, given to him as slaves.**
+The enemy evacuated in haste the last strongholds which they held in
+the east of the Delta, and took refuge in the Syrian provinces on the
+Egyptian frontier. Whether it was that they assumed here a menacing
+attitude, or whether Ahmosis hoped to deal them a crushing blow before
+they could find time to breathe, or to rally around them sufficient
+forces to renew the offensive, he made up his mind to cross the
+frontier, which he did in the 5th year of his reign.
+
+     * The site of Taqimit is unknown.
+
+     ** The prisoner who was given to Ahmosis after the victory,
+     is probably Paamu, the Asiatic, mentioned in the list of his
+     slaves which he had engraved on one of the walls of his
+     tomb.
+
+It was the first time for centuries that a Pharaoh had trusted himself
+in Asia, and the same dread of the unknown which had restrained his
+ancestors of the XIIth dynasty, doubtless arrested Ahmosis also on the
+threshold of the continent. He did not penetrate further than the border
+provinces of Zahi, situated on the edge of the desert, and contented
+himself with pillaging the little town of Sharuhana.* Ahmosi-si-Abina
+was again his companion, together with his cousin, Ahmosi-Pannekhabit,
+then at the beginning of his career, who brought away on this occasion
+two young girls for his household.**
+
+     * Sharuhana, which is mentioned again under Thutmosis III.
+     is not the plain of Sharon, as Birch imagined, but the
+     Sharuhen of the Biblical texts, in the tribe of Simeon
+     (_Josh._ xix. 6), as Brugsch recognised it to be. It is
+     probably identical with the modern Tell-esh-Sheriah, which
+     lies north-west of Beersheba.
+
+     ** Ahmosi Pannekhabit lay in tomb No. 2, at El-Kab. His
+     history is briefly told on one of the walls, and on two
+     sides of the pedestal of his statues. We have one of these,
+     or rather two plates from the pedestal of one of them, in
+     the Louvre; the other is in a good state of preservation,
+     and belongs to Mr. Finlay. The inscription is found in a
+     mutilated condition on the wall of the tomb, but the three
+     monuments which have come down to us are sufficiently
+     complementary to one another to enable us to restore nearly
+     the whole of the original text.
+
+The expedition having accomplished its purpose, the Egyptians returned
+home with their spoil, and did not revisit Asia for a long period. If
+the Hyksos generals had fostered in their minds the idea that they could
+recover their lost ground, and easily re-enter upon the possession of
+their African domain, this reverse must have cruelly disillusioned them.
+They must have been forced to acknowledge that their power was at an
+end, and to renounce all hope of returning to the country which had so
+summarily ejected them. The majority of their own people did not follow
+them into exile, but remained attached to the soil on which they
+lived, and the tribes which had successively settled down beside
+them--including the Beni-Israel themselves--no longer dreamed of
+a return to their fatherland. The condition of these people varied
+according to their locality. Those who had taken up a position in the
+plain of the Delta were subjected to actual slavery. Ahmosis destroyed
+the camp at Avails, quartered his officers in the towns, and constructed
+forts at strategic points, or rebuilt the ancient citadels to resist the
+incursions of the Bedouin. The vanquished people in the Delta, hemmed in
+as they were by a network of fortresses, were thus reduced to a rabble
+of serfs, to be taxed and subjected to the _corvee_ without mercy.
+But further north, the fluctuating population which roamed between the
+Sebennytic and Pelusiac branches of the Nile were not exposed to such
+rough treatment. The marshes of the coast-line afforded them a safe
+retreat, in which they could take refuge at the first threat of
+exactions on the part of the royal emissaries. Secure within dense
+thickets, upon islands approached by interminable causeways, often
+covered with water, or by long tortuous canals concealed in the thick
+growth of reeds, they were able to defy with impunity the efforts of the
+most disciplined troops, and treason alone could put them at the mercy
+of their foes. Most of the Pharaohs felt that the advantages to be
+gained by conquering them would be outweighed by the difficulty of
+the enterprise; all that could result from a campaign would be the
+destruction of one or two villages, the acquisition of a few hundred
+refractory captives, of some ill-favoured cattle, and a trophy of nets
+and worm-eaten boats. The kings, therefore, preferred to keep a close
+watch over these undisciplined hordes, and as long as their depredations
+were kept within reasonable limits, they were left unmolested to their
+wild and precarious life.
+
+The Asiatic invasion had put a sudden stop to the advance of Egyptian
+rule in the vast plains of the Upper Nile. The Theban princes, to whom
+Nubia was directly subject, had been too completely engrossed in
+the wars against their hereditary enemy, to devote much time to the
+continuation of that work of colonization in the south which had been
+carried on so vigorously by their forefathers of the XIIth and XIIIth
+dynasties. The inhabitants of the Nile valley, as far as the second
+cataract, rendered them obedience, but without any change in the
+conditions and mode of their daily life, which appear to have remained
+unaltered for centuries. The temples of Usirtasen and Amenemhait
+were allowed to fall into decay one after another, the towns waned in
+prosperity, and were unable to keep their buildings and monuments in
+repair; the inundation continued to bring with it periodically its
+fleet of boats, which the sailors of Kush had laden with timber, gum,
+elephants' tusks, and gold dust: from time to time a band of Bedouin from
+Uauait or Mazaiu would suddenly bear down upon some village and carry
+off its spoils; the nearest garrison would be called to its aid, or, on
+critical occasions, the king himself, at the head of his guards, would
+fall on the marauders and drive them back into the mountains. Ahrnosis,
+being greeted on his return from Syria by the news of such an outbreak,
+thought it a favourable moment to impress upon the nomadic tribes of
+Nubia the greatness of his conquest. On this occasion it was the people
+of Khonthanunofir, settled in the wadys east of the Nile, above Semneh,
+which required a lesson. The army which had just expelled the Hyksos was
+rapidly conveyed to the opposite borders of the country by the fleet,
+the two Ahmosi of Nekhabit occupying the highest posts. The Egyptians,
+as was customary, landed at the nearest point to the enemy's territory,
+and succeeded in killing a few of the rebels. Ahmosi-si-Abina brought
+back two prisoners and three hands, for which he was rewarded by a gift
+of two female Bedouin slaves, besides the "gold of valour." This victory
+in the south following on such decisive success in the north, filled the
+heart of the Pharaoh with pride, and the view taken of it by those who
+surrounded him is evident even in the brief sentences of the narrative.
+He is described as descending the river on the royal galley, elated
+in spirit and flushed by his triumph in Nubia, which had followed so
+closely on the deliverance of the Delta. But scarcely had he reached
+Thebes, when an unforeseen catastrophe turned his confidence into alarm,
+and compelled him to retrace his steps. It would appear that at the
+very moment when he was priding himself on the successful issue of his
+Ethiopian expedition, one of the sudden outbreaks, which frequently
+occurred in those regions, had culminated in a Sudanese invasion of
+Egypt. We are not told the name of the rebel leader, nor those of the
+tribes who took part in it. The Egyptian people, threatened in a moment
+of such apparent security by this inroad of barbarians, regarded them
+as a fresh incursion of the Hyksos, and applied to these southerners
+the opprobrious term of "Fever-stricken," already used to denote their
+Asiatic conquerors. The enemy descended the Nile, committing terrible
+atrocities, and polluting every sanctuary of the Theban gods which came
+within their reach. They had reached a spot called Tentoa,* before they
+fell in with the Egyptian troops. Ahmosi-si-Abina again distinguished
+himself in the engagement. The vessel which he commanded, probably the
+_Rising in Memphis_, ran alongside the chief galliot of the Sudanese
+fleet, and took possession of it after a struggle, in which Ahmosi
+made two of the enemy's sailors prisoners with his own hand. The king
+generously rewarded those whose valour had thus turned the day in his
+favour, for the danger had appeared to him critical; he allotted to
+every man on board the victorious vessel five slaves, and five ancra of
+land situated in his native province of each respectively. The invasion
+was not without its natural consequences to Egypt itself.
+
+     * The name of this locality does not occur elsewhere; it
+     would seem to refer, not to a village, but rather to a
+     canal, or the branch of a river, or a harbour somewhere
+     along the Nile. I am unable to locate it definitely, but am
+     inclined to think we ought to look for it, if not in Egypt
+     itself, at any rate in that part of Nubia which is nearest
+     to Egypt. M. Revillout, taking up a theory which had been
+     abandoned by Chabas, recognising in this expedition an
+     offensive incursion of the Shepherds, suggests that Tantoa
+     may be the modern Tantah in the Delta.
+
+A certain Titianu, who appears to have been at the head of a powerful
+faction, rose in rebellion at some place not named in the narrative, but
+in the rear of the army. The rapidity with which Ahmosis repulsed the
+Nubians, and turned upon his new enemy, completely baffled the latter's
+plans, and he and his followers were cut to pieces, but the danger
+had for the moment been serious.* It was, if not the last expedition
+undertaken in this reign, at least the last commanded by the Pharaoh in
+person. By his activity and courage Ahmosis had well earned the right to
+pass the remainder of his days in peace.
+
+     * The wording of the text is so much condensed that it is
+     difficult to be sure of its moaning. Modern scholars agree
+     with Brugsch that Titianu is the name of a man, but several
+     Egyptologists believe its bearer to have been chief of the
+     Ethiopian tribes, while others think him to have been a
+     rebellious Egyptian prince, or a king of the Shepherds, or
+     give up the task of identification in despair. The tortuous
+     wording of the text, and the expressions which occur in it,
+     seem to indicate that the rebel was a prince of the royal
+     blood, and even that the name he bears was not his real one.
+     Later on we shall find that, on a similar occasion, the
+     official documents refer to a prince who took part in a plot
+     against Ramses III. by the fictitious name of Pentauirit;
+     Titianu was probably a nickname of the same kind inserted in
+     place of the real name. It seems that, in cases of high
+     treason, the criminal not only lost his life, but his name
+     was proscribed both in this world and in the next.
+
+A revival of military greatness always entailed a renaissance in art,
+followed by an age of building activity. The claims of the gods upon the
+spoils of war must be satisfied before those of men, because the victory
+and the booty obtained through it were alike owing to the divine help
+given in battle. A tenth, therefore, of the slaves, cattle, and precious
+metals was set apart for the service of the gods, and even fields,
+towns, and provinces were allotted to them, the produce of which was
+applied to enhance the importance of their cult or to repair and enlarge
+their temples. The main body of the building was strengthened, halls and
+pylons were added to the original plan, and the impulse once given to
+architectural work, the co-operation of other artificers soon
+followed. Sculptors and painters whose art had been at a standstill for
+generations during the centuries of Egypt's humiliation, and whose
+hands had lost their cunning for want of practice, were now once more in
+demand. They had probably never completely lost the technical knowledge
+of their calling, and the ancient buildings furnished them with various
+types of models, which they had but to copy faithfully in order to
+revive their old traditions. A few years after this revival a new school
+sprang up, whose originality became daily more patent, and whose leaders
+soon showed themselves to be in no way inferior to the masters of the
+older schools. Ahmosis could not be accused of ingratitude to the gods;
+as soon as his wars allowed him the necessary leisure, he began his work
+of temple-building. The accession to power of the great Theban families
+had been of little advantage to Thebes itself. Its Pharaohs, on assuming
+the sovereignty of the whole valley, had not hesitated to abandon their
+native city, and had made Heracleopolis, the Fayum or even Memphis,
+their seat of government, only returning to Thebes in the time of the
+XIIIth dynasty, when the decadence of their power had set in. The honour
+of furnishing rulers for its country had often devolved on Thebes,
+but the city had reaped but little benefit from the fact; this time,
+however, the tide of fortune was to be turned. The other cities of Egypt
+had come to regard Thebes as their metropolis from the time when they
+had temples. The main body of the building was strengthened, halls and
+pylons were added to the original plan, and the impulse once given to
+architectural work, the co-operation of other artificers soon
+followed. Sculptors and painters whose art had been at a standstill for
+generations during the centuries of Egypt's humiliation, and whose
+hands had lost their cunning for want of practice, were now once more in
+demand. They had probably never completely lost the technical knowledge
+of their calling, and the ancient buildings furnished them with various
+types of models, which they had but to copy faithfully in order to
+revive their old traditions. A few years after this revival a new school
+sprang up, whose originality became daily more patent, and whose leaders
+soon showed themselves to be in no way inferior to the masters of the
+older schools. Ahmosis could not be accused of ingratitude to the gods;
+as soon as his wars allowed him the necessary leisure, he began his work
+of temple-building. The accession to power of the great Theban families
+had been of little advantage to Thebes itself. Its Pharaohs, on assuming
+the sovereignty of the whole valley, had not hesitated to abandon their
+native city, and had made Heracleopolis, the Fayum or even Memphis,
+their seat of government, only returning to Thebes in the time of the
+XIIIth dynasty, when the decadence of their power had set in. The honour
+of furnishing rulers for its country had often devolved on Thebes,
+but the city had reaped but little benefit from the fact; this time,
+however, the tide of fortune was to be turned.
+
+[Illustration: 130.jpg PAINTING IN TOMB OF THE KINGS THEBES]
+
+The other cities of Egypt had come to regard Thebes as their metropolis
+from the time when they had learned to rally round its princes to wage
+war against the Hyksos. It had been the last town to lay down arms at
+the time of the invasion, and the first to take them up again in the
+struggle for liberty. Thus the Egypt which vindicated her position among
+the nations of the world was not the Egypt of the Memphite dynasties. It
+was the great Egypt of the Amenemhaits and the Usirtasens, still further
+aggrandised by recent victories. Thebes was her natural capital, and
+its kings could not have chosen a more suitable position from whence to
+command effectually the whole empire. Situated at an equal distance from
+both frontiers, the Pharaoh residing there, on the outbreak of a war
+either in the north or south, had but half the length of the country to
+traverse in order to reach the scene of action. Ahmosis spared no pains
+to improve the city, but his resources did not allow of his embarking on
+any very extensive schemes; he did not touch the temple of Amon, and
+if he undertook any buildings in its neighbourhood, they must have been
+minor edifices. He could, indeed, have had but little leisure to attempt
+much else, for it was not till the XXIInd year of his reign that he was
+able to set seriously to work.*
+
+     * In the inscription of the year XXII., Ahmosis expressly
+     states that he opened new chambers in the quarries of Turah
+     for the works in connection with the Theban Amon, as well as
+     for those of the temple of the Memphite Phtah.
+
+An opportunity then occurred to revive a practice long fallen into
+disuse under the foreign kings, and to set once more in motion an
+essential part of the machinery of Egyptian administration. The quarries
+of Turah, as is well known, enjoyed the privilege of furnishing the
+finest materials to the royal architects; nowhere else could be found
+limestone of such whiteness, so easy to cut, or so calculated to lend
+itself to the carving of delicate inscriptions and bas-reliefs. The
+commoner veins had never ceased to be worked by private enterprise,
+gangs of quarrymen being always employed, as at the present day, in
+cutting small stone for building purposes, or in ruthlessly chipping it
+to pieces to burn for lime in the kilns of the neighbouring villages;
+but the finest veins were always kept for State purposes. Contemporary
+chroniclers might have formed a very just estimate of national
+prosperity by the degree of activity shown in working these royal
+preserves; when the amount of stone extracted was lessened, prosperity
+was on the wane, and might be pronounced to be at its lowest ebb when
+the noise of the quarryman's hammer finally ceased to be heard.
+
+[Illustration: 132.jpg A CONVOY OF TURAH QUARRYMEN DRAWING STONE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Vyse-Perring.
+
+Every dynasty whose resources were such as to justify their resumption
+of the work proudly recorded the fact on stelae which lined
+the approaches to the masons' yards. Ahmosis reopened the Turah
+quarry-chambers, and procured for himself "good stone and white" for the
+temples of Anion at Thebes and of Phtah at Memphis. No monument has as
+yet been discovered to throw any light on the fate of Memphis subsequent
+to the time of the Amenemhaits. It must have suffered quite as much
+as any city of the Delta from the Shepherd invasion, and from the wars
+which preceded their expulsion, since it was situated on the highway
+of an invading army, and would offer an attraction for pillagers. By a
+curious turn of fortune it was the "Fankhui," or Asiatic prisoners, who
+were set to quarry the stone for the restoration of the monuments which
+their own forefathers had reduced to ruins.* The bas-reliefs sculptured
+on the stelae of Ahmosis show them in full activity under the _corvee;_
+we see here the stone block detached from the quarry being squared by
+the chisel, or transported on a sledge drawn by oxen.
+
+     * The _Fankhui_ are, properly speaking, all white prisoners,
+     without distinction of race. Their name is derived from the
+     root _fokhu, fankhu_ = to bind, press, carry off, steal,
+     destroy; if it is sometimes used in the sense of
+     Phoenicians, it is only in the Ptolemaic epoch. Here the
+     term "Fankhui" refers to the Shepherds and Asiatics made
+     prisoners in the campaign of the year V. against Sharuhana.
+
+Ahmosis had several children by his various wives; six at least owned
+Nofritari for their mother and possessed near claims to the crown, but
+she may have borne him others whose existence is unrecorded. The eldest
+appears to have been a son, Sipiri; he received all the honours due to
+an hereditary prince, but died without having reigned, and his second
+brother, Amenhotpu--called by the Greeks Amenothes*--took his place.
+
+     * The form Amenophis, which is usually employed, is,
+     properly speaking, the equivalent of the name
+     _Amenemaupitu,_ or Amenaupiti, which belongs to a king of
+     the XXIst Tanite dynasty; the true Greek transcription of
+     the Ptolemaic epoch, corresponding to the pronunciation
+     _Amehotpe,_ or _Amenhopte,_ is Amenothes. Under the XVIIIth
+     dynasty the cuneiform transcription of the tablets of Tel-el
+     Amarna, Amankhatbi, seems to indicate the pronunciation
+     Amanhautpi, Amanhatpi, side by side with the pronunciation
+     Aman-hautpu, Amenhotpu.
+
+Ahmosis was laid to rest in the chapel which he had prepared for himself
+in the cemetery of Drah-abu'l-Neggah, among the modest pyramids of the
+XIth, XIIIth, and XVIIth dynasties.* He was venerated as a god, and
+his cult was continued for six or eight centuries later, until the
+increasing insecurity of the Theban necropolis at last necessitated
+the removal of the kings from their funeral chambers.** The coffin of
+Ahmosis was found to be still intact, though it was a poorly made one,
+shaped to the contours of the body, and smeared over with yellow; it
+represents the king with the false beard depending from his chin, and
+his breast covered with a pectoral ornament, the features, hair,
+and accessories being picked out in blue. His name has been hastily
+inscribed in ink on the front of the winding-sheet, and when the lid was
+removed, garlands of faded pink flowers were still found about the neck,
+laid there as a last offering by the priests who placed the Pharaoh and
+his compeers in their secret burying-place.
+
+     * The precise site is at present unknown: we see, however,
+     that it was in this place, when wo observe that Ahmosis was
+     worshipped by the Servants of the Necropolis, amongst the
+     kings and princes of his family who were buried at Drah-
+     abu'l-Neggah.
+
+     ** His priests and the minor _employes_ of his cult are
+     mentioned on a stele in the museum at Turin, and on a brick
+     in the Berlin Museum. He is worshipped as a god, along with
+     Osiris, Horus, and Isis, on a stele in the Lyons Museum,
+     brought from Abydos: he had, probably, during one of his
+     journeys across Egypt, made a donation to the temple of that
+     city, on condition that he should be worshipped there for
+     ever; for a stele at Marseilles shows him offering homage to
+     Osiris in the bark of the god itself, and another stele in
+     the Louvre informs us that Pharaoh Thutmosis IV. several
+     times sent one of his messengers to Abydos for the purpose
+     of presenting land to Osiris and to his own ancestor
+     Ahmosis.
+
+[Illustration: 135.jpg COFFIN OF AHMOSIS IN THE GIZEH MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+Amenothes I. had not attained his majority when his father "thus winged
+his way to heaven," leaving him as heir to the throne.* Nofritari
+assumed the authority; after having shared the royal honours for nearly
+twenty-five years with her husband, she resolutely refused to resign
+them.** She was thus the first of those queens by divine right who,
+scorning the inaction of the harem, took on themselves the right to
+fulfil the active duties of a sovereign, and claimed the recognition of
+the equality or superiority of their titles to those of their husbands
+or sons.
+
+     * The last date known is that of the year XXII. at Turah;
+     Manetho's lists give, in one place, twenty-five years and
+     four months after the expulsion; in another, twenty-six
+     years in round numbers, as the total duration of his reign,
+     which has every appearance of probability.
+
+     ** There is no direct evidence to prove that Amenothes I.
+     was a minor when he came to the throne; still the
+     presumptions in favour of this hypothesis, afforded by the
+     monuments, are so strong that many historians of ancient
+     Egypt have accepted it. Queen Nofritari is represented as
+     reigning, side by side with her reigning son, on some few
+     Theban tombs which can be attributed to their epoch.
+
+[Illustration: 136.jpg NOFRITARI, HIE BLACK-SKINNED GODDESS]
+
+     Drawn by Bouclier, from the photograph by M. de Mertens
+     taken in the Berlin Museum.
+
+The aged Ahhotpu, who, like Nofritari, was of pure royal descent, and
+who might well have urged her superior rank, had been content to retire
+in favour of her children; she lived to the tenth year of her grandson's
+reign, respected by all her family, but abstaining from all interference
+in political affairs. When at length she passed away, full of days and
+honour, she was embalmed with special care, and her body was placed in
+a gilded mummy-case, the head of which presented a faithful copy of
+her features. Beside her were piled the jewels she had received in her
+lifetime from her husband and son. The majority of them a fan with a
+handle plated with gold, a mirror of gilt bronze with ebony handle,
+bracelets and ankle-rings, some of solid and some of hollow gold, edged
+with fine chains of plaited gold wire, others formed of beads of gold,
+lapis-lazuli, cornelian, and green felspar, many of them engraved with
+the cartouche of Ahmosis. Belonging also to Ahmosis we have a beautiful
+quiver, in which figures of the king and the gods stand out in high
+relief on a gold plaque, delicately chased with a graving tool; the
+background is formed of small pieces of lapis and blue glass, cunningly
+cut to fit each other. One bracelet in particular, found on the
+queen's wrist, consisted of three parallel bands of solid gold set with
+turquoises, and having, a vulture with extended wings on the front. The
+queen's hair was held in place by a gold circlet, scarcely as large as
+a bracelet; a cartouche was affixed to the circlet, bearing the name of
+Ahmosis in blue paste, and flanked by small sphinxes, one on each side,
+as supporters. A thick flexible chain of gold was passed several times
+round her neck, and attached to it as a pendant was a beautiful scarab,
+partly of gold and partly of blue porcelain striped with gold. The
+breast ornament was completed by a necklace of several rows of twisted
+cords, from which depended antelopes pursued by tigers, sitting
+jackals, hawks, vultures, and the winged urasus, all attached to the
+winding-sheet by means of a small ring soldered on the back of each
+animal. The fastening of this necklace was formed of the heads of two
+gold hawks, the details of the heads being worked out in blue enamel.
+Both weapons and amulets were found among the jewels, including three
+gold flies suspended by a thin chain, nine gold and silver axes, a
+lion's head in gold of most minute workmanship, a sceptre of black wood
+plated with gold, daggers to defend the deceased from the dangers of the
+unseen world, boomerangs of hard wood, and the battle-axe of Ahmosis.
+Besides these, there were two boats, one of gold and one of silver,
+originally intended for the Pharaoh Kamosu--models of the skiff in which
+his mummy crossed the Nile to reach its last resting-place, and to sail
+in the wake of the gods on the western sea.
+
+[Illustration: 136b.jpg THE JEWELS AND WEAPONS OF QUEEN AHHHOTPU I. IN
+THE GIZEH MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Bechard.
+
+Nofritari thus reigned conjointly with Amenothes, and even if we have no
+record of any act in which she was specially concerned, we know at least
+that her rule was a prosperous one, and that her memory was revered by
+her subjects. While the majority of queens were relegated after death to
+the crowd of shadowy ancestors to whom habitual sacrifice was offered,
+the worshippers not knowing even to which sex these royal personages
+belonged, the remembrance of Nofritari always remained distinct in their
+minds, and her cult spread till it might be said to have become a kind
+of popular religion. In this veneration Ahmosis was rarely associated
+with the queen, but Amenothes and several of her other children shared
+in it--her son Sipiri, for instance, and her daughters Sitamon,*
+Sitkamosi, and Maritamon; Nofritari became, in fact, an actual goddess,
+taking her place beside Amon, Khonsu, and Maut,** the members of
+the Theban Triad, or standing alone as an object of worship for her
+devotees.
+
+     * Sitamon is mentioned, with her mother, on the Karnak stele
+     and on the coffin of Butehamon.
+
+     ** She is worshipped with the Theban Triad by Brihor, at
+     Karnak, in the temple of Khonsu.
+
+[Illustration: 141.jpg THE TWO COFFINS OF AHHOTP II. AND NOFRITARI
+STANDING IN TUB VESTIBULE OF THE OLD BULAK MUSEUM.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+
+She was identified with Isis, Hathor, and the mistresses of Hades, and
+adopted their attributes, even to the black or blue coloured skin of
+these funerary divinities.*
+
+     * Her statue in the Turin Museum represents her as having
+     black skin. She is also painted black standing before
+     Amenothes (who is white) in the Deir el-Medineh tomb, now
+     preserved in the Berlin Museum, in that of Nibnutiru, and hi
+     that of Unnofir, at Sheikh Abd el-Qurnah. Her face is
+     painted blue in the tomb of Kasa. The representations of
+     this queen with a black skin have caused her to be taken for
+     a negress, the daughter of an Ethiopian Pharaoh, or at any
+     rate the daughter of a chief of some Nubian tribe; it was
+     thought that Ahmosis must have married her to secure the
+     help of the negro tribes in his wars, and that it was owing
+     to this alliance that he succeeded in expelling the Hyksos.
+     Later discoveries have not confirmed these hypotheses.
+     Nofritari was most probably an Egyptian of unmixed race, as
+     we have seen, and daughter of Ahhotpu I., and the black or
+     blue colour of her skin is merely owing to her
+     identification with the goddesses of the dead.
+
+Considerable endowments were given for maintaining worship at her tomb,
+and were administered by a special class of priests. Her mummy reposed
+among those of the princes of her family, in the hiding-place at
+Deir-el-Bahari: it was enclosed in an enormous wooden sarcophagus
+covered with linen and stucco, the lower part being shaped to the body,
+while the upper part representing the head and arms could be lifted off
+in one piece. The shoulders are covered with a network in relief, the
+meshes of which are painted blue on a yellow background. The Queen's
+hands are crossed over her breast, and clasp the _crux ansata_, the
+symbol of life. The whole mummy-case measures a little over nine feet
+from the sole of the feet to the top of the head, which is furthermore
+surmounted by a cap, and two long ostrich-feathers. The appearance is
+not so much that of a coffin as of one of those enormous caryatides
+which we sometimes find adorning the front of a temple.
+
+We may perhaps attribute to the influence of Nofritari the lack of zest
+evinced by Amenothes for expeditions into Syria. Even the most energetic
+kings had always shrunk from penetrating much beyond the isthmus. Those
+who ventured so far as to work the mines of Sinai had nevertheless
+felt a secret fear of invading Asia proper--a dread which they never
+succeeded in overcoming. When the raids of the Bedouin obliged the
+Egyptian sovereign to cross the frontier into their territory, he would
+retire as soon as possible, without attempting any permanent conquest.
+After the expulsion of the Hyksos, Ahmosis seemed inclined to pursue a
+less timorous course. He made an advance on Sharuhana and pillaged it,
+and the booty he brought back ought to have encouraged him to attempt
+more important expeditions; but he never returned to this region, and it
+would seem that when his first enthusiasm had subsided, he was paralysed
+by the same fear which had fallen on his ancestors. Nofritari may have
+counselled her son not to break through the traditions which his father
+had so strictly followed, for Amenothes I. confined his campaigns to
+Africa, and the traditional battle-fields there. He embarked for the
+land of Kush on the vessel of Ahmosi-si-Abina "for the purpose of
+enlarging the frontiers of Egypt." It was, we may believe, a thoroughly
+conventional campaign, conducted according to the strictest precedents
+of the XIIth dynasty. The Pharaoh, as might be expected, came into
+personal contact with the enemy, and slew their chief with his own
+hand; the barbarian warriors sold their lives dearly, but were unable
+to protect their country from pillage, the victors carrying off whatever
+they could seize--men, women, and cattle. The pursuit of the enemy had
+led the army some distance into the desert, as far as a halting-place
+called the "Upper cistern"--_Khnumit hirit_; instead of retracing his
+steps to the Nile squadron, and returning slowly by boat, Amenothes
+resolved to take a short cut homewards. Ahmosi conducted him back
+overland in two days, and was rewarded for his speed by the gift of
+a quantity of gold, and two female slaves. An incursion into Libya
+followed quickly on the Ethiopian campaign.
+
+[Illustration: 144.jpg STATUE OF AMENOTHES I. IN THE TURIN MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph supplied by Flinders
+     Petrie.
+
+The tribe of the Kihaka, settled between Lake Mareotis and the Oasis of
+Amon, had probably attacked in an audacious manner the western provinces
+of the Delta; a raid was organized against them, and the issue was
+commemorated by a small wooden stele, on which we see the victor
+represented as brandishing his sword over a barbarian lying prostrate at
+his feet. The exploits of Amenothes appear to have ended with this raid,
+for we possess no monument recording any further victory gained by him.
+This, however, has not prevented his contemporaries from celebrating him
+as a conquering and 'victorious king. He is portrayed standing erect in
+his chariot ready to charge, or as carrying off two barbarians whom he
+holds half suffocated in his sinewy arms, or as gleefully smiting the
+princes of foreign lands. He acquitted himself of the duties of the
+chase as became a true Pharaoh, for we find him depicted in the act of
+seizing a lion by the tail and raising him suddenly in mid-air previous
+to despatching him. These are, indeed, but conventional pictures of
+war, to which we must not attach an undue importance. Egypt had need of
+repose in order to recover from the losses it had sustained during the
+years of struggle with the invaders. If Amenothes courted peace from
+preference and not from political motives, his own generation profited
+as much by his indolence as the preceding one had gained by the energy
+of Ahrnosis. The towns in his reign resumed their ordinary life,
+agriculture flourished, and commerce again followed its accustomed
+routes. Egypt increased its resources, and was thus able to prepare
+for future conquest. The taste for building had not as yet sufficiently
+developed to become a drain upon the public treasury. We have, however,
+records showing that Amenothes excavated a cavern in the mountain
+of Ibrim in Nubia, dedicated to Satit, one of the goddesses of the
+cataract.
+
+[Illustration: 146.jpg Page Image]
+
+It is also stated that he worked regularly the quarries of Silsileh,
+but we do not know for what buildings the sandstone thus extracted was
+destined.* Karnak was also adorned with chapels, and with at least one
+colossus,** while several chambers built of the white limestone of Turah
+were added to Ombos. Thebes had thus every reason to cherish the memory
+of this pacific king.
+
+     * A bas-relief on the western bank of the river represents
+     him deified: Panaiti, the name of a superintendent of the
+     quarries who lived in his reign, has been preserved in
+     several graffiti, while another graffito gives us only the
+     protocol of the sovereign, and indicates that the quarries
+     were worked in his reign.
+
+     ** The chambers of white limestone are marked I, K, on
+     Mariette's plan; it is possible that they may have been
+     merely decorated under Thutmosis III., whose cartouches
+     alternate with those of Amenothes I. The colossus is now in
+     front of the third Pylon, and Wiedemann concluded from this
+     fact that Amenothes had begun extensive works for enlarging
+     the temple of Amon; Mariette believed, with greater
+     probability, that the colossus formerly stood at the
+     entrance to the XIIth dynasty temple, but was removed to its
+     present position by Thutmosis III.
+
+As Nofritari had been metamorphosed into a form of Isis, Amenothes was
+similarly represented as Osiris, the protector of the Necropolis, and he
+was depicted as such with the sombre colour of the funerary divinities;
+his image, moreover, together with those of the other gods, was used
+to decorate the interiors of coffins, and to protect the mummies of his
+devotees.*
+
+     * Wiedemann has collected several examples, to which it
+     would be easy to add others. The names of the king are in
+     this case constantly accompanied by unusual epithets, which
+     are enclosed in one or other of his cartouches: Mons.
+     Kevillout, deceived by these unfamiliar forms, has made out
+     of one of these variants, on a painted cloth in the Louvre,
+     a new Amenothes, whom he styles Amenothes V.
+
+[Illustration: 147.jpg THE COFFIN AND MUMMY OF AMENOTHES]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+
+One of his statues, now in the Turin Museum, represents him sitting on
+his throne in the posture of a king giving audience to his subjects, or
+in that of a god receiving the homage of his worshippers. The modelling
+of the bust betrays a flexibility of handling which is astonishing in a
+work of art so little removed from barbaric times; the head is a marvel
+of delicacy and natural grace. We feel that the sculptor has taken a
+delight in chiselling the features of his sovereign, and in reproducing
+the benevolent and almost dreamy expression which characterised them.*
+The cult of Amenothes lasted for seven or eight centuries, until the
+time when his coffin was removed and placed with those of the other
+members of his family in the place where it remained concealed until our
+own times.**
+
+     * Another statue of very fine workmanship, but mutilated, is
+     preserved in the Gizeh Museum; this statue is of the time of
+     Seti I., and, as is customary, represents Amenothes in the
+     likeness of the king then reigning.
+
+     ** We know, from the Abbott Papyrus, that the pyramid of
+     Amenothes I. was situated at Dr-ah Abou'l-Neggah, among
+     those of the Pharaohs of the XIth, XIIth, and XVIIth
+     dynasties. The remains of it have not yet been discovered.
+
+It is shaped to correspond with the form of the human body and painted
+white; the face resembles that of his statue, and the eyes of enamel,
+touched with kohl, give it a wonderful appearance of animation. The body
+is swathed in orange-coloured linen, kept in place by bands of brownish
+linen, and is further covered by a mask of wood and cartonnage, painted
+to match the exterior of the coffin. Long garlands of faded flowers deck
+the mummy from head to foot. A wasp, attracted by their scent, must have
+settled upon them at the moment of burial, and become imprisoned by the
+lid; the insect has been completely preserved from corruption by the
+balsams of the embalmer, and its gauzy wings have passed un-crumpled
+through the long centuries.
+
+Amenothes had married Ahhotpu II, his sister by the same father and
+mother;* Ahmasi, the daughter born of this union, was given in marriage
+to Thutmosis, one of her brothers, the son of a mere concubine, by name
+Sonisonbu.** Ahmasi, like her ancestor Nofritari, had therefore the
+right to exercise all the royal functions, and she might have claimed
+precedence of her husband. Whether from conjugal affection or from
+weakness of character, she yielded, however, the priority to Thutmosis,
+and allowed him to assume the sole government.
+
+     * Ahhotpu II. may be seen beside her husband on several
+     monuments. The proof that she was full sister of Amenothes
+     I. is furnished by the title of "hereditary princess" which
+     is given to her daughter Ahmasi; this princess would not
+     have taken precedence of her brother and husband Thutmosis,
+     who was the son of an inferior wife, had she not been the
+     daughter of the only legitimate spouse of Amenothes I. The
+     marriage had already taken place before the accession of
+     Thutmosis I., as Ahmasi figures in a document dated the
+     first year of his reign.
+
+     ** The absence of any cartouche shows that Sonisonbu did not
+     belong to the royal family, and the very form of the name
+     points her out to have been of the middle classes, and
+     merely a concubine. The accession of her son, however,
+     ennobled her, and he represents her as a queen on the walls
+     of the temple at Deir el-Bahari; even then he merely styles
+     her "Royal Mother," the only title she could really claim,
+     as her inferior position in the harem prevented her from
+     using that of "Royal Spouse."
+
+[Illustration: 150.jpg THUTMOSIS I., FROM A STATUE IN THE GIZEH MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the photograph taken by Emil
+     Brugsch-Bey.
+
+He was crowned at Thebes on the 21st of the third month of Pirit; and
+a circular, addressed to the representatives of the ancient seignorial
+families and to the officers of the crown, announced the names assumed
+by the new sovereign. "This is the royal rescript to announce to you
+that my Majesty has arisen king of the two Egypts, on the seat of the
+Horus of the living, without equal, for ever, and that my titles are
+as follows: The vigorous bull Horus, beloved of Mait, the Lord of
+the Vulture and of the Uraeus who raises itself as a flame, most
+valiant,--the golden Horns, whose years are good and who puts life
+into all hearts, king of the two Egypts, Akhopirkeri, son of the Sun,
+Thutmosis, living for ever.* Cause, therefore, sacrifices to be offered
+to the gods of the south and of Elephantine,** and hymns to be chanted
+for the well-being of the King Akhopirkeri, living for ever, and then
+cause the oath to be taken in the name of my Majesty, born of the royal
+mother Sonisonbu, who is in good health.--This is sent to thee that thou
+mayest know that the royal house is prosperous, and in good health and
+condition, the 1st year, the 21st of the third month of Pirit, the day
+of coronation."
+
+
+     * This is really the protocol of the king, as we find it on
+     the monuments, with his two Horus names and his solar
+     titles.
+
+     ** The copy of the letter which has come down to us is
+     addressed to the commander of Elephantine: hence the mention
+     of the gods of that town. The names of the divinities must
+     have been altered to suit each district, to which the order
+     to offer sacrifices for the prosperity of the new sovereign
+     was sent.
+
+The new king was tall in stature, broad-shouldered, well knit, and
+capable of enduring the fatigues of war without flagging. His statues
+represent him as having a full, round face, long nose, square chin,
+rather thick lips, and a smiling but firm expression. Thutmosis brought
+with him on ascending the throne the spirit of the younger generation,
+who, born shortly after the deliverance from the Hyksos, had grown up
+in the peaceful days of Amenothes, and, elated by the easy victories
+obtained over the nations of the south, were inspired by ambitions
+unknown to the Egyptians of earlier times. To this younger race Africa
+no longer offered a sufficiently wide or attractive field; the whole
+country was their own as far as the confluence of the two Niles, and the
+Theban gods were worshipped at Napata no less devoutly than at Thebes
+itself. What remained to be conquered in that direction was scarcely
+worth the trouble of reducing to a province or of annexing as a colony;
+it comprised a number of tribes hopelessly divided among themselves,
+and consequently, in spite of their renowned bravery, without power of
+resistance. Light columns of troops, drafted at intervals on either
+side of the river, ensured order among the submissive, or despoiled the
+refractory of their possessions in cattle, slaves, and precious stones.
+Thutmosis I. had to repress, however, very shortly after his accession,
+a revolt of these borderers at the second and third cataracts, but they
+were easily overcome in a campaign of a few days' duration, in which the
+two Ahmosis of Al-Kab took an honourable part. There was, as usual, an
+encounter of the two fleets in the middle of the river: the young king
+himself attacked the enemy's chief, pierced him with his first arrow,
+and made a considerable number of prisoners. Thutmosis had the corpse of
+the chief suspended as a trophy in front of the royal ship, and sailed
+northwards towards Thebes, where, however, he was not destined to
+remain long.* An ample field of action presented itself to him in the
+north-east, affording scope for great exploits, as profitable as they
+were glorious.**
+
+     * That this expedition must be placed at the beginning of
+     the king's reign, in his first year, is shown by two facts:
+     (1) It precedes the Syrian campaign in the biography of the
+     two Ahmosis of El-Kab; (2) the Syrian campaign must have
+     ended in the second year of the reign, since Thutmosis I.,
+     on the stele of Tombos which bears that date, gives
+     particulars of the course of the Euphrates, and records the
+     submission of the countries watered by that river. The date
+     of the invasion may be placed between 2300 and 2250 B.C.; if
+     we count 661 years for the three dynasties together, as
+     Erman proposes, we find that the accession of Ahmosis would
+     fall between 1640 and 1590. I should place it provisionally
+     in the year 1600, in order not to leave the position of the
+     succeeding reigns uncertain; I estimate the possible error
+     at about half a century.
+
+     ** It is impossible at present to draw up a correct table of
+     the native or foreign sovereigns who reigned over Egypt
+     during the time of the Hyksos. I have given the list of the
+     kings of the XIIIth and XIVth dynasties which are known to
+     us from the Turin Papyrus. I here append that of the
+     Pharaohs of the following dynasties, who are mentioned
+     either in the fragments of Manetho or on the monuments:
+
+[Illustration: 153.jpg Table]
+
+Syria offered to Egyptian cupidity a virgin prey in its large commercial
+towns inhabited by an industrious population, who by maritime trade
+and caravan traffic had amassed enormous wealth. The country had been
+previously subdued by the Chaldaeans, who still exercised an undisputed
+influence over it, and it was but natural that the conquerors of the
+Hyksos should act in their turn as invaders. The incursion of Asiatics
+into Egypt thus provoked a reaction which issued in an Egyptian invasion
+of Asiatic soil. Thutmosis and his contemporaries had inherited none of
+the instinctive fear of penetrating into Syria which influenced Ahmosis
+and his successor: the Theban legions were, perhaps, slow to advance,
+but once they had trodden the roads of Palestine, they were not likely
+to forego the delights of conquest. From that time forward there was
+perpetual warfare and pillaging expeditions from the plains of the Blue
+Nile to those of the Euphrates, so that scarcely a year passed without
+bringing to the city of Amon its tribute of victories and riches gained
+at the point of the sword. One day the news would be brought that the
+Amorites or the Khati had taken the field, to be immediately followed by
+the announcement that their forces had been shattered against the valour
+of the Egyptian battalions. Another day, Pharaoh would re-enter the city
+with the flower of his generals and veterans; the chiefs whom he had
+taken prisoners, sometimes with his own hand, would be conducted through
+the streets, and then led to die at the foot of the altars, while
+fantastic processions of richly clothed captives, beasts led by halters,
+and slaves bending under the weight of the spoil would stretch in an
+endless line behind him.
+
+[Illustration: 154.jpg SIGNS, ARMS AND INSTRUMENTS]
+
+Meanwhile the Timihu, roused by some unknown cause, would attack the
+outposts stationed on the frontier, or news would come that the Peoples
+of the Sea had landed on the western side of the Delta; the Pharaoh had
+again to take the field, invariably with the same speedy and successful
+issue. The Libyans seemed to fare no better than the Syrians, and before
+long those who had survived the defeat would be paraded before the
+Theban citizens, previous to being sent to join the Asiatic prisoners
+in the mines or quarries; their blue eyes and fair hair showing from
+beneath strangely shaped helmets, while their white skins, tall stature,
+and tattooed bodies excited for a few hours the interest and mirth of
+the idle crowd. At another time, one of the customary raids into the
+land of Kush would take place, consisting of a rapid march across the
+sands of the Ethiopian desert and a cruise along the coasts of Puanifc.
+This would be followed by another triumphal procession, in which fresh
+elements of interest would appear, heralded by flourish of trumpets and
+roll of drums: Pharaoh would re-enter the city borne on the shoulders of
+his officers, followed by negroes heavily chained, or coupled in such
+a way that it was impossible for them to move without grotesque
+contortions, while the acclamations of the multitude and the chanting of
+the priests would resound from all sides as the _cortege_ passed through
+the city gates on its way to the temple of Amon. Egypt, roused as it
+were to warlike frenzy, hurled her armies across all her frontiers
+simultaneously, and her sudden appearance in the heart of Syria gave a
+new turn to human history. The isolation of the kingdoms of the ancient
+world was at an end; the conflict of the nations was about to begin.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II--SYRIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EGYPTIAN CONQUEST
+
+
+_SYRIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EGYPTIAN CONQUEST_
+
+_NINEVEH AND THE FIRST COSSAEAN KINGS-THE PEOPLES OF SYRIA, THEIR TOWNS,
+THEIR CIVILIZATION, THEIR RELIGION-PHOENICIA._
+
+_The dynasty of Uruazagga-The Cossseans: their country, their gods,
+their conquest of Chaldaea-The first sovereigns of Assyria, and the first
+Cossaean Icings: Agumhakrime._
+
+_The Egyptian names for Syria: Khara, Zahi, Lotanu, Kefatiu-The military
+highway from the Nile to the Euphrates: first section from Zalu to
+Gaza-The Canaanites: their fortresses, their agricultural character: the
+forest between Jaffa and Mount Carmel, Megiddo-The three routes beyond
+Megiddo: Qodshu-Alasia, Naharaim, Garchemish; Mitanni and the countries
+beyond the Euphrates._
+
+_Disintegration of the Syrian, Canaanite, Amorite, and Khdti
+populations; obliteration of types-Influence of Babylon on
+costumes, customs, and religion--Baalim and Astarte, plant-gods and
+stone-gods-Religion, human sacrifices, festivals; sacred stones--Tombs
+and the fate of man after death-Phoenician cosmogony._
+
+_Phoenicia--Arad, Marathus, Simyra, Botrys--Byblos, its temple, its
+goddess, the myth of Adonis: Aphaka and the valley of the Nahr-Ibrahim,
+the festivals of the death and resurrection of Adonis--Berytus and
+its god El; Sidon and its suburbs--Tyre: its foundation, its gods, its
+necropolis, its domain in the Lebanon._
+
+_Isolation of the Phoenicians with regard to the other nations of Syria;
+their love of the sea and the causes which developed it--Legendary
+accounts of the beginning of their colonization--Their commercial
+proceedings, their banks and factories; their ships--Cyprus, its wealth,
+its occupations--The Phoenician colonies in Asia Minor and the AEgean
+Sea: purple dye--The nations of the AEgean._
+
+
+[Illustration: 158.jpg Page Image]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II--SYRIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EGYPTIAN CONQUEST
+
+Nineveh and the first Cossaean kings--The peoples of Syria, their towns,
+their civilization, their religion--Phoenicia.
+
+The world beyond the Arabian desert presented to the eyes of the
+enterprising Pharaohs an active and bustling scene. Babylonian
+civilization still maintained its hold there without a rival, but
+Babylonian rule had ceased to exercise any longer a direct control,
+having probably disappeared with the sovereigns who had introduced it.
+When Ammisatana died, about the year 2099, the line of Khammurabi became
+extinct, and a family from the Sea-lands came into power.*
+
+     * The origin of this second dynasty and the reading of its
+     name still afford matter for discussion. Amid the many
+     conflicting opinions, it behoves us to remember that
+     Gulkishar, the only prince of this dynasty whose title we
+     possess, calls himself _King of the Country of the Sea_,
+     that is to say, of the marshy country at the mouth of the
+     Euphrates: this simple fact directs us to seek the cradle of
+     the family in those districts of Southern Chaldaea. Sayce
+     rejects this identification on philological and
+     chronological grounds, and sees in Gulkishar, "King of the
+     Sea-lands," a vassal Kalda prince.
+
+This unexpected revolution of affairs did not by any means restore
+to the cities of Lower Chaldaea the supreme authority which they once
+possessed. Babylon had made such good use of its centuries of rule that
+it had gained upon its rivals, and was not likely now to fall back into
+a secondary place. Henceforward, no matter what dynasty came into power,
+as soon as the fortune of war had placed it upon the throne, Babylon
+succeeded in adopting it, and at once made it its own. The new lord of
+the country, Ilumailu, having abandoned his patrimonial inheritance,
+came to reside near to Merodach.*
+
+     * The name has been read An-ma-an or Anman by Pinches,
+     subsequently Ilumailu, Mailu, finally Anumailu and perhaps
+     Humailu. The true reading of it is still unknown. Hommel
+     believed he had discovered in Hilprecht's book an
+     inscription belonging to the reign of this prince; but
+     Hilprecht has shown that it belonged to a king of Erech,
+     An-a-an, anterior to the time of An-ma-an.
+
+He was followed during the four next centuries by a dynasty of ten
+princes, in uninterrupted succession. Their rule was introduced and
+maintained without serious opposition. The small principalities of the
+south were theirs by right, and the only town which might have caused
+them any trouble--Assur--was dependent on them, being satisfied with the
+title of vicegerents for its princes,--Khallu, Irishum, Ismidagan and
+his son Sarnsiramman I., Igurkapkapu and his son Sarnsiramman II.* As
+to the course of events beyond the Khabur, and any efforts Ilumailu's
+descendants may have made to establish their authority in the direction
+of the Mediterranean, we have no inscriptions to inform us, and must
+be content to remain in ignorance. The last two of these princes,
+Melamkurkurra and Eagamil, were not connected with each other, and had
+no direct relationship with their predecessors.** The shortness of their
+reigns presents a striking contrast with the length of those preceding
+them, and probably indicates a period of war or revolution. When these
+princes disappeared, we know not how or why, about the year 1714 B.C.,
+they were succeeded by a king of foreign extraction; and one of the
+semi-barbarous race of Kashshu ascended the throne which had been
+occupied since the days of Khammurabi by Chaldaeans of ancient stock.***
+
+     * Inscription of Irishum, son of Khallu, on a brick found at
+     Kalah-Shergat, and an inscription of Sarnsiramman II., son
+     of Igurkapkapu, on another brick from the same place.
+     Sarnsiramman I. and his father Ismidagan are mentioned in
+     the great inscription of Tiglath-pileser II., as having
+     lived 641 years before King Assurdan, who himself had
+     preceded Tiglath-pileser by sixty years: they thus reigned
+     between 1900 and 1800 years before our era, according to
+     tradition, whose authenticity we have no other means of
+     verifying.
+
+     ** The name of the last is read Eagamil, for want of
+     anything better: Oppert makes it Eaga, simply transcribing
+     the signs; and Hilprecht, who took up the question again
+     after him, has no reading to propose.
+
+     *** I give here the list of the kings of the second dynasty,
+     from the documents discovered by Pinches: No monument
+     remains of any of these princes, and even the reading of
+     their names is merely provisional: those placed between
+     brackets represent Delitzsch's readings. A Gulkishar is
+     mentioned in an inscription of Belnadiuabal; but Jensen is
+     doubtful if the Gulkishar mentioned in this place is
+     identical with the one in the lists.
+
+[Illustration: Table]
+
+These Kashshu, who spring up suddenly out of obscurity, had from the
+earliest times inhabited the mountainous districts of Zagros, on the
+confines of Elymai's and Media, where the Cossaeans of the classical
+historians flourished in the time of Alexander.*
+
+* The Kashshu are identified with the Cossaeans by Sayce, by Schrader,
+by Fr. Delitzsch, by Halevy, by Tiele, by Hommel, and by Jensen. Oppert
+maintains that they answer to the Kissians of Herodotus, that is to say,
+to the inhabitants of the district of which Susa is the capital. Lehmann
+supports this opinion. Winckler gives none, and several Assyriologists
+incline to that of Kiepert, according to which the Kissians are
+identical with the Cossaeans.
+
+It was a rugged and unattractive country, protected by nature and easy
+to defend, made up as it was of narrow tortuous valleys, of plains of
+moderate extent but of rare fertility, of mountain chains whose grim
+sides were covered with forests, and whose peaks were snow-crowned
+during half the year, and of rivers, or, more correctly speaking,
+torrents, for the rains and the melting of the snow rendered them
+impassable in spring and autumn. The entrance to this region was by two
+or three well-fortified passes: if an enemy were unwilling to incur the
+loss of time and men needed to carry these by main force, he had to make
+a detour by narrow goat-tracks, along which the assailants were obliged
+to advance in single file, as best they could, exposed to the assaults
+of a foe concealed among the rocks and trees. The tribes who were
+entrenched behind this natural rampart made frequent and unexpected
+raids upon the marshy meadows and fat pastures of Chaldaea: they dashed
+through the country, pillaging and burning all that came in their way,
+and then, quickly regaining their hiding-places, were able to place
+their booty in safety before the frontier garrisons had recovered
+from the first alarm.* These tribes were governed by numerous chiefs
+acknowledging a single king--_ianzi_--whose will was supreme over
+nearly the whole country:** some of them had a slight veneer of Chaldaean
+civilization, while among the rest almost every stage of barbarism might
+be found. The remains of their language show that it was remotely allied
+to the dialect of Susa, and contained many Semitic words.*** What is
+recorded of their religion reaches us merely at second hand, and the
+groundwork of it has doubtless been modified by the Babylonian scribes
+who have transmitted it to us.****
+
+     * It was thus in the time of Alexander and his successors,
+     and the information given by the classical historians about
+     this period is equally applicable to earlier times, as we
+     may conclude from the numerous passages from Assyrian
+     inscriptions which have been collected by Fr. Delitzsch.
+
+     ** Delitzsch conjectures that _Ianzi_, or _Ianzu_, had
+     become a kind of proper name, analogous to the term
+     _Pharaoh_ employed by the Egyptians.
+
+     *** A certain number of Cossaean words has been preserved and
+     translated, some in one of the royal Babylonian lists, and
+     some on a tablet in the British Museum, discovered and
+     interpreted by Fr. Delitzsch. Several Assyriologists think
+     that they showed a marked affinity with the idiom of the
+     Susa inscriptions, and with that of the Achaemenian
+     inscriptions of the second type; others deny the proposed
+     connection, or suggest that the Cossaean language was a
+     Semitic dialect, related to the Chaldaeo-Assyrian. Oppert,
+     who was the first to point out the existence of this
+     dialect, thirty years ago, believed it to be the Elamite; he
+     still persists in his opinion, and has published several
+     notes in defence of it.
+
+     **** It has been studied by Pr. Delitzsch, who insists on
+     the influence which daily intercourse with the Chaldaeans had
+     on it after the conquest; Halevy, in most of the names of
+     the gods given as Cossaean, sees merely the names of Chaldaean
+     divinities slightly disguised in the writing.
+
+They worshipped twelve great gods, of whom the chief--Kashshu, the lord
+of heaven-gave his name to the principal tribe, and possibly to the
+whole race:* Shumalia, queen of the snowy heights, was enthroned beside
+him,** and the divinities next in order were, as in the cities of the
+Euphrates, the Moon, the Sun (Sakh or Shuriash), the air or the
+tempest (Ubriash), and Khudkha.*** Then followed the stellar deities or
+secondary incarnations of the sun,--Mirizir, who represented both Istar
+and Beltis; and Khala, answering to Gula.****
+
+     * The existence of Kashshu is proved by the name of
+     Kashshunadinakhe: Ashshur also bore a name identical with
+     that of his worshippers.
+
+     ** She is mentioned in a rescript of Nebuchadrezzar I., at
+     the head of the gods of Namar, that is to say, the Cossaean
+     deities, as "the lady of the shining mountains, the
+     inhabitants of the summits, the frequenter of peaks." She is
+     called Shimalia in Rawlinson, but Delitzsch has restored her
+     name which was slightly mutilated; one of her statues was
+     taken by Samsiramman III., King of Assyria, in one of that
+     sovereign's campaigns against Chaldaea.
+
+     *** All these identifications are furnished by the glossary
+     of Delitzsch. Ubriash, under the form of Buriash, is met
+     with in a large number of proper names, Burnaburiash,
+     Shagashaltiburiash, Ulamburiash, Kadashmanburiash, where the
+     Assyrian scribe translates it _Bel-matati_, lord of the
+     world: Buriash is, therefore, an epithet of the god who was
+     called Ramman in Chaldaea. The name of the moon-god is
+     mutilated, and only the initial syllable Shi... remains,
+     followed by an indistinct sign: it has not yet been
+     restored.
+
+     **** Halevy considers Khala, or Khali, as a harsh form of
+     Gula: if this is the case, the Cossaeans must have borrowed
+     the name, and perhaps the goddess herself, from their
+     Chaldaean neighbours.
+
+The Chaldaean Ninip corresponded both to Gidar and Maruttash, Bel to
+Kharbe and Turgu, Merodach to Shipak, Nergal to Shugab.* The Cossaean
+kings, already enriched by the spoils of their neighbours, and supported
+by a warlike youth, eager to enlist under their banner at the first
+call,** must have been often tempted to quit their barren domains and to
+swoop down on the rich country which lay at their feet. We are ignorant
+of the course of events which, towards the close of the XVIIIth century
+B.C., led to their gaining possession of it. The Cossaean king who seized
+on Babylon was named Gandish, and the few inscriptions we possess of
+his reign are cut with a clumsiness that betrays the barbarism of the
+conqueror. They cover the pivot stones on which Sargon of Agade or one
+of the Bursins had hung the doors of the temple of Nippur, but which
+Gandish dedicated afresh in order to win for himself, in the eyes of
+posterity, the credit of the work of these sovereigns.***
+
+     * Hilprecht has established the identity of Turgu with Bel
+     of Nippur.
+
+     ** Strabo relates, from some forgotten historian of
+     Alexander, that the Cossaeans "had formerly been able to
+     place as many as thirteen thousand archers in line, in the
+     wars which they waged with the help of the Elymaeans against
+     the inhabitants of Susa and Babylon."
+
+     *** The full name of this king, Gandish or Gandash, which is
+     furnished by the royal lists, is written Gaddash on a
+     monument in the British Museum discovered by Pinches, whose
+     conclusions have been erroneously denied by Winckler. A
+     process of abbreviation, of which there are examples in the
+     names of other kings of the same dynasty, reduced the name
+     to Gande in the current language.
+
+Bel found favour in the eyes of the Cossaeans who saw in him Kharbe or
+Turgu, the recognised patron of their royal family: for this reason
+Gandish and his successors regarded Bel with peculiar devotion. These
+kings did all they could for the decoration and endowment of the ancient
+temple of Ekur, which had been somewhat neglected by the sovereigns
+of purely Babylonian extraction, and this devotion to one of the most
+venerated Chaldaean sanctuaries contributed largely towards their winning
+the hearts of the conquered people.*
+
+     * Hilpreoht calls attention on this point to the fact that
+     no one has yet discovered at Nippur a single ex-voto
+     consecrated by any king of the two first Babylonian
+     dynasties.
+
+The Cossaean rule over the countries of the Euphrates was doubtless
+similar in its beginnings to that which the Hyksos exercised at first
+over the nomes of Egypt. The Cossaean kings did not merely bring with
+them an army to protect their persons, or to occupy a small number of
+important posts; they were followed by the whole nation, and
+spread themselves over the entire country. The bulk of the invaders
+instinctively betook themselves to districts where, if they could not
+resume the kind of life to which they were accustomed in their own land,
+they could, at least give full rein to their love of a free and wild
+existence. As there were no mountains in the country, they turned to the
+marshes, and, like the Hyksos in Egypt, made themselves at home about
+the mouths of the rivers, on the half-submerged low lands, and on the
+sandy islets of the lagoons which formed an undefined borderland between
+the alluvial region and the Persian Gulf. The covert afforded, by the
+thickets furnished scope for the chase which these hunters had been
+accustomed to pursue in the depths of their native forests, while
+fishing, on the other hand, supplied them with an additional element of
+food. When their depredations drew down upon them reprisals from their
+neighbours, the mounds occupied, by their fortresses, and surrounded
+by muddy swamps, offered them almost as secure retreats as their former
+strongholds on the lofty sides of the Zagros. They made alliances with
+the native Aramaeans--with those Kashdi, properly called Chaldaeans, whose
+name we have imposed upon all the nations who, from a very early
+date, bore rule on the banks of the Lower Euphrates. Here they formed
+themselves into a State--Karduniash--whose princes at times rebelled,
+against all external authority, and at other times acknowledged the
+sovereignty of the Babylonian monarchs.*
+
+     * The state of Karduniash, whose name appears for the first
+     time on the monuments of the Cossaean period, has been
+     localised in a somewhat vague manner, in the south of
+     Babylonia, in the country of the Kashdi, and afterwards
+     formally identified with the _Countries of the Sea_, and
+     with the principality which was called Bit-Yakin in the
+     Assyrian period. In the Tel-el-Amarna tablets the name is
+     already applied to the entire country occupied by the
+     Cossaean kings or their descendants, that is to say, to the
+     whole of Babylonia. Sargon II. at that time distinguishes
+     between an Upper and a Lower Karduniash; and in consequence
+     the earliest Assyriologists considered it as an Assyrian
+     designation of Babylon, or of the district surrounding it,
+     an opinion which was opposed by Delitzsch, as he believed it
+     to be an indigenous term which at first indicated the
+     district round Babylon, and afterwards the whole of
+     Babylonia. From one frequent spelling of the name, the
+     meaning appears to have been _Fortress of Duniash_; to this
+     Delitzsch preferred the translation _Garden of Duniash_,
+     from an erroneous different reading--Ganduniash: Duniash, at
+     first derived from a Chaldaean God _Dun_, whose name may
+     exist in _Dunghi_, is a Cossaean name, which the Assyrians
+     translated, as they did Buriash, _Belmatati_, lord of the
+     country. Winckler rejects the ancient etymology, and
+     proposes to divide the word as Kardu-niash and to see in it
+     a Cossaean translation of the expression _mat-kaldi_, country
+     of the Caldaeans: Hommel on his side, as well as Delitzsch,
+     had thought of seeking in the Chaldaeans proper--_Kaldi_ for
+     _Kashdi_, or _Kash-da_, "domain of the Cossaeans "--the
+     descendants of the Cossaeans of Karduniash, at least as far
+     as race is concerned. In the cuneiform texts the name is
+     written Kara--D. P. Duniyas, "the Wall of the god
+     Duniyas" (cf. the Median Wall or Wall of Semiramis which
+     defended Babylonia on the north).
+
+The people of Sumir and Akkad, already a composite of many different
+races, absorbed thus another foreign element, which, while modifying
+its homogeneity, did not destroy its natural character. Those Cossaean
+tribes who had not quitted their own country retained their original
+barbarism, but the hope of plunder constantly drew them from their
+haunts, and they attacked and devastated the cities of the plain
+unhindered by the thought that they were now inhabited by their
+fellow-countrymen. The raid once over, many of them did not return home,
+but took service under some distant foreign ruler--the Syrian princes
+attracting many, who subsequently became the backbone of their armies,*
+while others remained at Babylon and enrolled themselves in the
+body-guard of the kings.
+
+     * Halevy has at least proved that the Khabiri mentioned in.
+     the Tel el-Amarna tablets were Cossaeans, contrary to the
+     opinion of Sayce, who makes them tribes grouped round
+     Hebron, which W. Max Mueller seems to accept; Winckler,
+     returning to an old opinion, believes them to have been
+     Hebrews.
+
+To the last they were an undisciplined militia, dangerous, and difficult
+to please: one day they would hail their chiefs with acclamations, to
+kill them the next in one of those sudden outbreaks in which they were
+accustomed to make and unmake their kings.* The first invaders were
+not long in acquiring, by means of daily intercourse with the old
+inhabitants, the new civilization: sooner or later they became blended
+with the natives, losing all their own peculiarities, with the exception
+of their outlandish names, a few heroic legends,** and the worship of
+two or three gods--Shumalia, Shugab, and Shukamuna.
+
+     * This is the opinion of Hommel, supported by the testimony
+     of the _Synchronous Hist._: in this latter document the
+     Cossaeans are found revolting against King Kadashmankharbe,
+     and replacing him on the throne by a certain Nazibugash, who
+     was of obscure origin.
+
+     ** Pr. Delitzsch and Schrader compare their name with that
+     of Kush, who appears in the Bible as the father of Nimrod
+     (_Gen._ x. 8-12); Hommel and Sayce think that the history of
+     Nimrod is a reminiscence of the Cossaean rule. Jensen is
+     alone in his attempt to attribute to the Cossaeans the first
+     idea of the epic of Gilgames.
+
+As in the case of the Hyksos in Africa, the barbarian conquerors thus
+became merged in the more civilized people which they had subdued. This
+work of assimilation seems at first to have occupied the whole attention
+of both races, for the immediate successors of Gandish were unable
+to retain under their rule all the provinces of which the empire was
+formerly composed. They continued to possess the territory situated on
+the middle course of the Euphrates as far as the mouth of the Balikh,
+but they lost the region extending to the east of the Khabur, at
+the foot of the Masios, and in the upper basin of the Tigris: the
+vicegerents of Assur also withdrew from them, and, declaring that they
+owed no obedience excepting to the god of their city, assumed the royal
+dignity. The first four of these kings whose names have come down to
+us, Sulili, Belkapkapu, Adasi, and Belbani,* appear to have been but
+indifferent rulers, but they knew bow to hold their own against the
+attacks of their neighbours, and when, after a century of weakness and
+inactivity, Babylon reasserted herself, and endeavoured to recover her
+lost territory, they had so completely established their independence
+that every attack on it was unsuccessful. The Cossaean king at that
+time--an active and enterprising prince, whose name was held in honour
+up to the days of the Ninevite supremacy--was Agumkakrime, the son of
+Tassigurumash.**
+
+     * These four names do not so much represent four consecutive
+     reigns as two separate traditions which were current
+     respecting the beginnings of Assyrian royalty. The most
+     ancient of them gives the chief place to two personages
+     named Belkapkapu and Sulili; this tradition has been
+     transmitted to us by Rammannirari III., because it connected
+     the origin of his race with these kings. The second
+     tradition placed a certain Belbani, the son of Adasi, in the
+     room of Belkapkapu and Sulili: Esarhaddon made use of it in
+     order to ascribe to his own family an antiquity at least
+     equal to that of the family to which Rammannirari III.
+     belonged. Each king appropriated from the ancient popular
+     traditions those names which seemed to him best calculated
+     to enhance the prestige of his dynasty, but we cannot tell
+     how far the personages selected enjoyed an authentic
+     historical existence: it is best to admit them at least
+     provisionally into the royal series, without trusting too
+     much to what is related of them.
+
+     ** The tablet discovered by Pinches is broken after the
+     fifth king of the dynasty. The inscription of Agumkakrime,
+     containing a genealogy of this prince which goes back as far
+     as the fifth generation, has led to the restoration of the
+     earlier part of the list as follows:
+
+     Gandish, Gaddash, Adumitasii .... 1655-? B.C.
+     Gande ........................... 1714-1707 B.C.
+     Tassigurumash.................... ?
+     Agumrabi, his son................ 1707-1685
+     Agumkakrime ..................... ?
+     [A]guyashi ...................... 1685-1663
+     Ushshi, his son.................. 1663-1655
+
+This "brilliant scion of Shukamuna" entitled himself lord of the Kashshu
+and of Akkad, of Babylon the widespread, of Padan, of Alman, and of the
+swarthy Guti.* Ashnunak had been devastated; he repeopled it, and the
+four "houses of the world" rendered him obedience; on the other hand,
+Elam revolted from its allegiance, Assur resisted him, and if he still
+exercised some semblance of authority over Northern Syria, it was owing
+to a traditional respect which the towns of that country voluntarily
+rendered to him, but which did not involve either subjection or control.
+The people of Khani still retained possession of the statues of Merodach
+and of his consort Zarpanit, which had been stolen, we know not how,
+some time previously from Chaldaea.** Agumkakrime recovered them and
+replaced them in their proper temple. This was an important event, and
+earned him the good will of the priests.
+
+     * The translation _black-headed_, i.e. dark-haired and
+     complexioned, _Guti_, is uncertain; Jensen interprets the
+     epithet _nishi saldati_ to mean "the Guti, stupid (foolish?
+     culpable?) people." The Guti held both banks of the lower
+     Zab, in the mountains on the east of Assyria. Delitzsch has
+     placed Padan and Alman in the mountains to the east of the
+     Diyaleh; Jensen places them in the chain of the Khamrin, and
+     Winckler compares Alman or Halman with the Holwan of the
+     present day.
+
+     ** The Khani have been placed by Delitzsch in the
+     neighbourhood of Mount Khana, mentioned in the accounts of
+     the Assyrian campaigns, that is to say, in the Amanos,
+     between the Euphrates and the bay of Alexandretta: he is
+     inclined to regard the name as a form of that of the Khati.
+
+The king reorganised public worship; he caused new fittings for the
+temples to be made to take the place of those which had disappeared, and
+the inscription which records this work enumerates with satisfaction the
+large quantities of crystal, jasper, and lapis-lazuli which he lavished
+on the sanctuary, the utensils of silver and gold which he dedicated,
+together with the "seas" of wrought bronze decorated with monsters and
+religious emblems.* This restoration of the statues, so flattering to
+the national pride and piety, would have been exacted and insisted upon
+by a Khammurabi at the point of the sword, but Agumkakrime doubtless
+felt that he was not strong enough to run the risk of war; he therefore
+sent an embassy to the Khani, and such was the prestige which the name
+of Babylon still possessed, from the deserts of the Caspian to the
+shores of the Mediterranean, that he was able to obtain a concession
+from that people which he would probably have been powerless to extort
+by force of arms.**
+
+     * We do not possess the original of the inscription which
+     tells us of these facts, but merely an early copy.
+
+     ** Strictly speaking, one might suppose that a war took
+     place; but most Assyriologists declare unhesitatingly that
+     there was merely an embassy and a diplomatic negotiation.
+
+The Egyptians had, therefore, no need to anticipate Chaldaean
+interference when, forsaking their ancient traditions, they penetrated
+for the first time into the heart of Syria. Not only was Babylon no
+longer supreme there, but the coalition of those cities on which she had
+depended for help in subduing the West was partially dissolved, and the
+foreign princes who had succeeded to her patrimony were so far conscious
+of their weakness, that they voluntarily kept aloof from the countries
+in which, previous to their advent, Babylon had held undivided sway. The
+Egyptian conquest of Syria had already begun in the days of Agumkakrime,
+and it is possible that dread of the Pharaoh was one of the chief causes
+which influenced the Cossaeans to return a favourable answer to the
+Khani. Thutmosis I., on entering Syria, encountered therefore only the
+native levies, and it must be admitted that, in spite of their renowned
+courage, they were not likely to prove formidable adversaries in
+Egyptian estimation. Not one of the local Syrian dynasties was
+sufficiently powerful to collect all the forces of the country around
+its chief, so as to oppose a compact body of troops to the attack of
+the African armies. The whole country consisted of a collection of
+petty states, a complex group of peoples and territories which even the
+Egyptians themselves never completely succeeded in disentangling. They
+classed the inhabitants, however, under three or four very comprehensive
+names--Kharu, Zahi, Lotanu, and Kefatiu--all of which frequently recur
+in the inscriptions, but without having always that exactness of meaning
+we look for in geographical terms. As was often the case in similar
+circumstances, these names were used at first to denote the districts
+close to the Egyptian frontier with which the inhabitants of the Delta
+had constant intercourse. The Kefatiu seem to have been at the outset
+the people of the sea-coast, more especially of the region occupied
+later by the Phoenicians, but all the tribes with whom the Phoenicians
+came in contact on the Asiatic and European border were before long
+included under the same name.*
+
+     * The Kefatiu, whose name was first read Kefa, and later
+     Kefto, were originally identified with the inhabitants of
+     Cyprus or Crete, and subsequently with those of Cilicia,
+     although the decree of Canopus locates them in Phoenicia.
+
+Zahi originally comprised that portion of the desert and of the maritime
+plain on the north-east of Egypt which was coasted by the fleets, or
+traversed by the armies of Egypt, as they passed to and fro between
+Syria and the banks of the Nile. This region had been ravaged by Ahmosis
+during his raid upon Sharuhana, the year after the fall of Avaris. To
+the south-east of Zahi lay Kharu; it included the greater part of Mount
+Seir, whose wadys, thinly dotted over with oases, were inhabited by
+tribes of more or less stationary habits. The approaches to it were
+protected by a few towns, or rather fortified villages, built in the
+neighbourhood of springs, and surrounded by cultivated fields and
+poverty-stricken gardens; but the bulk of the people lived in tents
+or in caves on the mountain-sides. The Egyptians constantly confounded
+those Khauri, whom the Hebrews in after-times found scattered among
+the children of Edom, with the other tribes of Bedouin marauders, and
+designated them vaguely as Shausu. Lotanu lay beyond, to the north of
+Kharu and to the north-east of Zahi, among the hills which separate the
+"Shephelah" from the Jordan.*
+
+     * The name of Lotanu or Rotanu has been assigned by Brugsch
+     to the Assyrians, but subsequently, by connecting it, more
+     ingeniously than plausibly, with the Assyrian _iltanu_, he
+     extended it to all the peoples of the north; we now know
+     that in the texts it denotes the whole of Syria, and, more
+     generally, all the peoples dwelling in the basins of the
+     Orontes and the Euphrates. The attempt to connect the name
+     Rotanu or Lotanu with that of the Edomite tribe of Lotan
+     (Gen. xxxvi. 20, 22) was first made by P. de Saulcy; it was
+     afterwards taken up by Haigh and adopted by Renan.
+
+As it was more remote from the isthmus, and formed the Egyptian horizon
+in that direction, all the new countries with which the Egyptians became
+acquainted beyond its northern limits were by degrees included under the
+one name of Lotanu, and this term was extended to comprise successively
+the entire valley of the Jordan, then that of the Orontes, and finally
+even that of the Euphrates. Lotanu became thenceforth a vague and
+fluctuating term, which the Egyptians applied indiscriminately to widely
+differing Asiatic nations, and to which they added another indefinite
+epithet when they desired to use it in a more limited sense: that part
+of Syria nearest to Egypt being in this case qualified as Upper Lotanu,
+while the towns and kingdoms further north were described as being in
+Lower Lotanu. In the same way the terms Zahi and Kharu were extended to
+cover other and more northerly regions. Zahi was applied to the coast as
+far as the mouth of the Nahr el-Kebir and to the country of the Lebanon
+which lay between the Mediterranean and the middle course of the
+Orontes. Kharu ran parallel to Zahi, but comprised the mountain
+district, and came to include most of the countries which were at first
+ranged under Upper Lotanu; it was never applied to the region beyond the
+neighbourhood of Mount Tabor, nor to the trans-Jordanie provinces. The
+three names in their wider sense preserved the same relation to each
+other as before, Zahi lying to the west and north-west of Kharu, and
+Lower Lotanu to the north of Kharu and north-east of Zahi, but the
+extension of meaning did not abolish the old conception of their
+position, and hence arose confusion in the minds of those who employed
+them; the scribes, for instance, who registered in some far-off Theban
+temple the victories of the Pharaoh would sometimes write Zahi where
+they should have inscribed Kharu, and it is a difficult matter for us
+always to detect their mistakes. It would be unjust to blame them too
+severely for their inaccuracies, for what means had they of determining
+the relative positions of that confusing collection of states with which
+the Egyptians came in contact as soon as they had set foot on Syrian
+soil?
+
+A choice of several routes into Asia, possessing unequal advantages, was
+open to the traveller, but the most direct of them passed through the
+town of Zalu. The old entrenchments running from the Ked Sea to the
+marshes of the Pelusiac branch still protected the isthmus, and beyond
+these, forming an additional defence, was a canal on the banks of which
+a fortress was constructed. This was occupied by the troops who guarded
+the frontier, and no traveller was allowed to pass without having
+declared his name and rank, signified the business which took him into
+Syria or Egypt, and shown the letters with which he was entrusted.*
+
+     * The notes of an official living at Zalu in the time of
+     Mineptah are preserved on the back of pls. v., vi. of the
+     _Anastasi Papyrus III_,; his business was to keep a register
+     of the movements of the comers and goers between Egypt and
+     Syria during a few days of the month Pakhons, in the year
+     III.
+
+It was from Zalu that the Pharaohs set out with their troops, when
+summoned to Kharu by a hostile confederacy; it was to Zalu they returned
+triumphant after the campaign, and there, at the gates of the town,
+they were welcomed by the magnates of the kingdom. The road ran for some
+distance over a region which was covered by the inundation of the Nile
+during six months of the year; it then turned eastward, and for some
+distance skirted the sea-shore, passing between the Mediterranean
+and the swamp which writers of the Greek period called the Lake of
+Sirbonis.*
+
+     * The Sirbonian Lake is sometimes half full of water,
+     sometimes almost entirely dry; at the present time it bears
+     the name of Sebkhat Berdawil, from King Baldwin I. of
+     Jerusalem, who on his return from his Egyptian campaign died
+     on its shores, in 1148, before he could reach El-Artsh.
+
+[Illustration: 177.jpg THE FORTRESS AND BRIDGE OF ZALU]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+This stage of the journey was beset with difficulties, for the Sirbonian
+Lake did not always present the same aspect, and its margins were
+constantly shifting. When the canals which connected it with the open
+sea happened to become obstructed, the sheet of water subsided from
+evaporation, leaving in many places merely an expanse of shifting
+mud, often concealed under the sand which the wind brought up from the
+desert. Travellers ran imminent risk of sinking in this quagmire,
+and the Greek historians tell of large armies being almost entirely
+swallowed up in it. About halfway along the length of the lake rose the
+solitary hill of Mount Casios; beyond this the sea-coast widened till
+it became a vast slightly undulating plain, covered with scanty herbage,
+and dotted over with wells containing an abundant supply of water,
+which, however, was brackish and disagreeable to drink.
+
+[Illustration: 178.jpg Map]
+
+Beyond these lay a grove of palms, a brick prison, and a cluster of
+miserable houses, bounded by a broad wady, usually dry. The bed of the
+torrent often served as the boundary between Africa and Asia, and
+the town was for many years merely a convict prison, where ordinary
+criminals, condemned to mutilation and exile, were confined; indeed, the
+Greeks assure us that it owed its name of Rhinocolura to the number of
+noseless convicts who were to be seen there.*
+
+     * The ruins of the ancient town, which were of considerable
+     extent, are half buried under the sand, out of which an
+     Egyptian naos of the Ptolemaic period has been dug, and
+     placed near the well which supplies the fort, where it
+     serves as a drinking trough for the horses. Brugsch believed
+     he could identify its site with that of the Syrian town
+     Hurnikheri, which he erroneously reads Harinkola; the
+     ancient form of the name is unknown, the Greek form varies
+     between Rhinocorura and Rhinocolura. The story of the
+     mutilated convicts is to be found in Diodorus Siculus, as
+     well as in Strabo; it rests on a historical fact. Under the
+     XVIIIth dynasty Zalu was used as a place of confinement for
+     dishonest officials. For this purpose it was probably
+     replaced by Rhinocolura, when the Egyptian frontier was
+     removed from the neighbourhood of Selle to that of El-Arish.
+
+At this point the coast turns in a north-easterly direction, and is
+flanked with high sand-hills, behind which the caravans pursue their
+way, obtaining merely occasional glimpses of the sea. Here and there,
+under the shelter of a tower or a half-ruined fortress, the traveller
+would have found wells of indifferent water, till on reaching the
+confines of Syria he arrived at the fortified village of Raphia,
+standing like a sentinel to guard the approach to Egypt. Beyond Raphia
+vegetation becomes more abundant, groups of sycamores and mimosas and
+clusters of date-palms appear on the horizon, villages surrounded with
+fields and orchards are seen on all sides, while the bed of a river,
+blocked with gravel and fallen rocks, winds its way between the last
+fringes of the desert and the fruitful Shephelah;* on the further bank
+of the river lay the suburbs of Gaza, and, but a few hundred yards
+beyond, Gaza itself came into view among the trees standing on its
+wall-crowned hill.**
+
+     * The term Shephelah signifies the plain; it is applied by
+     the Biblical writers to the plain bordering the coast, from
+     the heights of Gaza to those of Joppa, which were inhabited
+     at a later period by the Philistines (_Josh_. xi. 16; _Jer_.
+     xxxii. 44 and xxxiii. 13).
+
+     ** Guerin describes at length the road from Gaza to Raphia.
+     The only town of importance between them in the Greek period
+     was Ienysos, the ruins of which are to be found near Khan
+     Yunes, but the Egyptian name for this locality is unknown:
+     Aunaugasa, the name of which Brugsch thought he could
+     identify with it, should be placed much farther away, in
+     Northern or in Coele-Syria.
+
+The Egyptians, on their march from the Nile valley, were wont to stop
+at this spot to recover from their fatigues; it was their first
+halting-place beyond the frontier, and the news which would reach them
+here prepared them in some measure for what awaited them further on.
+The army itself, the "troop of Ra," was drawn from four great races, the
+most distinguished of which came, of course, from the banks of the Nile:
+the Amu, born of Sokhit, the lioness-headed goddess, were classed in
+the second rank; the Nahsi, or negroes of Ethiopia, were placed in the
+third; while the Timihu, or Libyans, with the white tribes of the
+north, brought up the rear. The Syrians belonged to the second of these
+families, that next in order to the Egyptians, and the name of Amu,
+which for centuries had been given them, met so satisfactorily all
+political, literary, or commercial requirements, that the administrators
+of the Pharaohs never troubled themselves to discover the various
+elements concealed beneath the term. We are, however, able at the
+present time to distinguish among them several groups of peoples and
+languages, all belonging to the same family, but possessing distinctive
+characteristics. The kinsfolk of the Hebrews, the children of Ishmael
+and Edom, the Moabites and Ammonites, who were all qualified as Shausu,
+had spread over the region to the south and east of the Dead Sea, partly
+in the desert, and partly on the confines of the cultivated land. The
+Canaanites were not only in possession of the coast from Gaza to a point
+beyond the Nahr el-Kebir, but they also occupied almost the whole valley
+of the Jordan, besides that of the Litany, and perhaps that of the Upper
+Orontes.* There were Aramaean settlements at Damascus, in the plains of
+the Lower Orontes, and in Naharaim.**
+
+     * I use the term Canaanite with the meaning most frequently
+     attached to it, according to the Hebrew use (_Gen_. x. 15-
+     19). This word is found several times in the Egyptian texts
+     under the forms Kinakhna, Kinakhkhi, and probably Kunakhaiu,
+     in the cuneiform texts of Tel el-Amarna.
+
+     ** As far as I know, the term Aramaean is not to be found in
+     any Egyptian text of the time of the Pharaohs: the only
+     known example of it is a writer's error corrected by Chabas.
+     W. Max Mueller very justly observes that the mistake is
+     itself a proof of the existence of the name and of the
+     acquaintance of the Egyptians with it.
+
+The country beyond the Aramaean territory, including the slopes of the
+Amanos and the deep valleys of the Taurus, was inhabited by peoples of
+various origin; the most powerful of these, the Khati, were at this time
+slowly forsaking the mountain region, and spreading by degrees over the
+country between the Afrin and the Euphrates.*
+
+The Canaanites were the most numerous of all these groups, and had
+they been able to amalgamate under a single king, or even to organize
+a lasting confederacy, it would have been impossible for the Egyptian
+armies to have broken through the barrier thus raised between them and
+the rest of Asia; but, unfortunately, so far from showing the slightest
+tendency towards unity or concentration, the Canaanites were more
+hopelessly divided than any of the surrounding nations. Their mountains
+contained nearly as many states as there were valleys, while in the
+plains each town represented a separate government, and was built on a
+spot carefully selected for purposes of defence. The land, indeed, was
+chequered with these petty states, and so closely were they crowded
+together, that a horseman, travelling at leisure, could easily pass
+through two or three of them in a day's journey.**
+
+     * Thutmosis III. shows that, at any rate, they were
+     established in these regions about the XVIth century B.C.
+     The Egyptian pronunciation of their name is _Khiti_, with
+     the feminine _Khitait, Khitit_; but the Tel el-Amarna texts
+     employ the vocalisation _Khati, Khate_, which must be more
+     correct than that of the Egyptians, The form _Khiti_ seems
+     to me to be explicable by an error of popular etymology.
+     Egyptian ethnical appellations in _iti_ formed their plural
+     by _-atiu, -atee, -ati, -ate_, so that if _Khate, Khati_,
+     were taken for a plural, it would naturally have suggested
+     to the scribes the form _Khiti_ for the singular.
+
+     ** Thutmosis III., speaking to his soldiers, tells them that
+     all the chiefs the projecting spur of some mountain, or on a
+     solitary and more or less irregularly shaped eminence in the
+     midst of a plain, and the means of defence in the country
+     are shut up in Megiddo, so that "to take it is to take a
+     thousand cities:" this is evidently a hyperbole in the mouth
+     of the conqueror, but the exaggeration itself shows how
+     numerous were the chiefs and consequently the small states
+     in Central and Southern Syria.
+
+Not only were the royal cities fenced with walls, but many of the
+surrounding villages were fortified, while the watch-towers, or
+_migdols_* built at the bends of the roads, at the fords over the
+rivers, and at the openings of the ravines, all testified to the
+insecurity of the times and the aptitude for self-defence shown by the
+inhabitants.
+
+     * This Canaanite word was borrowed by the Egyptians from the
+     Syrians at the beginning of their Asiatic wars; they
+     employed it in forming the names of the military posts which
+     they established on the eastern frontier of the Delta: it
+     appears for the first time among Syrian places in the list
+     of cities conquered by Thutmosis III.
+
+[Illustration: 184.jpg THE CANAANITE FORTRESSES]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+The aspect of these migdols, or forts, must have appeared strange to the
+first Egyptians who beheld them. These strongholds bore no resemblance
+to the large square or oblong enclosures to which they were accustomed,
+and which in their eyes represented the highest skill of the engineer.
+In Syria, however, the positions suitable for the construction of
+fortresses hardly ever lent themselves to a symmetrical plan. The
+usual sites had to be adapted in each case to suit the particular
+configuration of the ground.
+
+[Illustration: 185.jpg THE WALLED CITY OF DAPUR, IN GALILEE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken at Karnak by
+     Beato.
+
+It was usually a mere wall of stone or dried brick, with towers at
+intervals; the wall measuring from nine to twelve feet thick at the
+base, and from thirty to thirty-six feet high, thus rendering an assault
+by means of portable ladders, nearly impracticable.*
+
+     * This is, at least, the result of investigations made by
+     modern engineers who have studied these questions of
+     military archaeology.
+
+The gateway had the appearance of a fortress in itself. It was
+composed of three large blocks of masonry, forming a re-entering face,
+considerably higher than the adjacent curtains, and pierced near the top
+with square openings furnished with mantlets, so as to give both a front
+and flank view of the assailants. The wooden doors in the receded face
+were covered with metal and raw hides, thus affording a protection
+against axe or fire.*
+
+     * Most of the Canaanite towns, taken by Ramses II. in the
+     campaign of his VIIIth year were fortified in this manner.
+     It must have been the usual method of fortification, as it
+     seems to have served as a type for conventional
+     representation, and was sometimes used to denote cities
+     which had fortifications of another kind. For instance,
+     Dapur-Tabor is represented in this way, while a picture on
+     another monument, which is reproduced in the illustration on
+     page 185, represents what seems to have been the particular
+     form of its encompassing walls.
+
+The building was strong enough not only to defy the bands of adventurers
+who roamed the country, but was able to resist for an indefinite time
+the operations of a regular siege. Sometimes, however, the inhabitants
+when constructing their defences did not confine themselves to this
+rudimentary plan, but threw up earthworks round the selected site. On
+the most exposed side they raised an advance wall, not exceeding twelve
+or fifteen feet in height, at the left extremity of which the entrance
+was so placed that the assailants, in endeavouring to force their way
+through, were obliged to expose an unprotected flank to the defenders.
+By this arrangement it was necessary to break through two lines of
+fortification before the place could be entered. Supposing the enemy to
+have overcome these first obstacles, they would find themselves at
+their next point of attack confronted with a citadel which contained,
+in addition to the sanctuary of the principal god, the palace of the
+sovereign himself. This also had a double enclosing wall and massively
+built gates, which could be forced only at the expense of fresh losses,
+unless the cowardice or treason of the garrison made the assault an easy
+one.*
+
+     * The type of town described in the text is based on a
+     representation on the walls of Karnak, where the siege of
+     Dapur-Tabor by Ramses II. is depicted. Another type is given
+     in the case of Ascalon.
+
+[Illustration: 187.jpg THE MIGDOL OF RAMSES III. AT THEBES, IN THE
+TEMPLE OF MEDINET-ABUL]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Deveria
+     in 1865.
+
+Of these bulwarks of Canaanite civilization, which had been thrown up by
+hundreds on the route of the invading hosts, not a trace is to be seen
+to-day. They may have been razed to the ground during one of those
+destructive revolutions to which the country was often exposed, or
+their remains may lie hidden underneath the heaps of ruins which thirty
+centuries of change have raised over them.*
+
+     * The only remains of a Canaanite fortification which can be
+     assigned to the Egyptian period are those which Professor
+     F. I. Petrie brought to light in the ruins of Tell el-Hesy,
+     and in which he rightly recognised the remains of Lachish.
+
+The records of victories graven on the walls of the Theban temples
+furnish, it is true, a general conception of their appearance, but the
+notions of them which we should obtain from this source would be of
+a very confused character had not one of the last of the conquering
+Pharaohs, Ramses III., taken it into his head to have one built at
+Thebes itself, to contain within it, in addition to his funerary chapel,
+accommodation for the attendants assigned to the conduct of his worship.
+In the Greek and Roman period a portion of this fortress was demolished,
+but the external wall of defence still exists on the eastern side,
+together with the gate, which is commanded on the right by a projection
+of the enclosing-wall, and flanked by two guard-houses, rectangular in
+shape, and having roofs which jut out about a yard beyond the wall of
+support. Having passed through these obstacles, we find ourselves face
+to face with a _migdol_ of cut stone, nearly square in form, with two
+projecting wings, the court between their loop-holed walls being made to
+contract gradually from the point of approach by a series of abutments.
+A careful examination of the place, indeed, reveals more than one
+arrangement which the limited knowledge of the Egyptians would hardly
+permit us to expect. We discover, for instance, that the main body of
+the building is made to rest upon a sloping sub-structure which rises to
+a height of some sixteen feet.
+
+This served two purposes: it increased, in the first place, the strength
+of the defence against sapping; and in the second, it caused the
+weapons launched by the enemy to rebound with violence from its inclined
+surface, thus serving to keep the assailants at a distance. The whole
+structure has an imposing look, and it must be admitted that the royal
+architects charged with carrying out their sovereign's idea brought to
+their task an attention to detail for which the people from whom the
+plan was borrowed had no capacity, and at the same time preserved the
+arrangements of their model so faithfully that we can readily realise
+what it must have been. Transport this migdol of Ramses III. into Asia,
+plant it upon one of those hills which the Canaanites were accustomed to
+select as a site for their fortifications, spread out at its base some
+score of low and miserable hovels, and we have before us an improvised
+pattern of a village which recalls in a striking manner Zerin or Beitin,
+or any other small modern town which gathers the dwellings of its
+fellahin round some central stone building--whether it be a hostelry for
+benighted travellers, or an ancient castle of the Crusading age.
+
+[Illustration: 189.jpg THE MODERN VILLAGE OF BEITIN (ANCIENT BETHEL),
+SEEN FROM THE SOUTH-WEST.]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+
+There were on the littoral, to the north of Gaza, two large walled
+towns, Ascalon and Joppa, in whose roadsteads merchant vessels were
+accustomed to take hasty refuge in tempestuous weather.* There were to
+be found on the plains also, and on the lower slopes of the mountains,
+a number of similar fortresses and villages, such as Iurza, Migdol,
+Lachish, Ajalon, Shocho, Adora, Aphukin, Keilah, Gezer, and Ono; and,
+in the neighbourhood of the roads which led to the fords of the Jordan,
+Gibeah, Beth-Anoth, and finally Urusalim, our Jerusalem.** A tolerably
+dense population of active and industrious husbandmen maintained
+themselves upon the soil.
+
+     * Ascalon was not actually on the sea. Its port, "Maiumas
+     Ascalonis," was probably merely a narrow bay or creek, now,
+     for a long period, filled up by the sand. Neither the site
+     nor the remains of the port have been discovered. The name
+     of the town is always spelled in Egyptian with an "s "--
+     Askaluna, which gives us the pronunciation of the time. The
+     name of Joppa is written Yapu, Yaphu, and the gardens which
+     then surrounded the town are mentioned in the _Anastasi
+     Papyrus I_.
+
+     ** Urusalim is mentioned only in the Tel el-Amarna tablets,
+     alongside of Kilti or Keilah, Ajalon, and Lachish. The
+     remaining towns are noticed in the great lists of Thutmosis
+     III.
+
+[Illustration: 191.jpg Page image]
+
+The plough which they employed was like that used by the Egyptians and
+Babylonians, being nothing but a large hoe to which a couple of oxen
+were harnessed.* The scarcity of rain, except in certain seasons,
+and the tendency of the rivers to run low, contributed to make the
+cultivators of the soil experts in irrigation and agriculture. Almost
+the only remains of these people which have come down ti us consist of
+indestructible wells and cisterns, or wine and oil presses hollowed out
+of the rock.**
+
+     * This is the form of plough still employed by the Syrians
+     in some places.
+
+     ** Monuments of this kind are encountered at every step in
+     Judaea, but it is very difficult to date them. The aqueduct
+     of Siloam, which goes back perhaps to the time of Hezekiah.
+
+Fields of wheat and barley extended along the flats of the valleys,
+broken in upon here and there by orchards, in which the white and pink
+almond, the apple, the fig, the pomegranate, and the olive flourished
+side by side.
+
+[Illustration: 192.jpg AMPHITHEATRE OF HILLS]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a plate in Chesney.
+
+Jerusalem, possibly in part to be attributed to the reign of Solomon,
+are the only instances to which anything like a certain date may be
+assigned. But these are long posterior to the XVIIIth dynasty. Good
+judges, however, attribute some of these monuments to a very distant
+period: the masonry of the wells of Beersheba is very ancient, if not as
+it is at present, at least as it was when it was repaired in the time of
+the Caesars; the olive and wine presses hewn in the rock do not all date
+back to the Roman empire, but many belong to a still earlier period, and
+modern descriptions correspond with what we know of such presses from
+the Bible.
+
+If the slopes of the valley rose too precipitously for cultivation,
+stone dykes were employed to collect the falling earth, and thus to
+transform the sides of the hills into a series of terraces rising one
+above the other. Here the vines, planted in lines or in trellises,
+blended their clusters with the fruits of the orchard-trees. It was,
+indeed, a land of milk and honey, and its topographical nomenclature in
+the Egyptian geographical lists reflects as in a mirror the agricultural
+pursuits of its ancient inhabitants: one village, for instance, is
+called Aubila, "the meadow;" while others bear such names as Ganutu,
+"the gardens;" Magraphut, "the mounds;" and Karman, "the vineyard." The
+further we proceed towards the north, we find, with a diminishing
+aridity, the hillsides covered with richer crops, and the valleys decked
+out with a more luxuriant and warmly coloured vegetation. Shechem lies
+in an actual amphitheatre of verdure, which is irrigated by countless
+unfailing streams; rushing brooks babble on every side, and the vapour
+given off by them morning and evening covers the entire landscape with
+a luminous haze, where the outline of each object becomes blurred, and
+quivers in a manner to which we are accustomed in our Western lands.*
+Towns grew and multiplied upon this rich and loamy soil, but as these
+lay outside the usual track of the invading hosts--which preferred to
+follow the more rugged but shorter route leading straight to Carmel
+across the plain--the records of the conquerors only casually mention a
+few of them, such as Bitshailu, Birkana, and Dutina.**
+
+     * Shechem is not mentioned in the Egyptian geographical
+     lists, but Max Mueller thinks he has discovered it in the
+     name of the mountain of Sikima which figures in the
+     _Anastasi Papyrus_, No. 1.
+
+     ** Bitshailu, identified by Chabas with Bethshan, and with
+     Shiloh by Mariette and Maspero, is more probably Bethel,
+     written Bit-sha-ilu, either with _sh_, the old relative
+     pronoun of the Phoenician, or with the Assyrian _sha_; on
+     the latter supposition one must suppose, as Sayce does, that
+     the compiler of the Egyptian lists had before him sources of
+     information in the cuneiform character. Birkana appears to
+     be the modern Brukin, and Dutina is certainly Dothain, now
+     Tell-Dothan.
+
+Beyond Ono reddish-coloured sandy clay took the place of the dark and
+compact loam: oaks began to appear, sparsely at first, but afterwards
+forming vast forests, which the peasants of our own days have thinned
+and reduced to a considerable extent. The stunted trunks of these trees
+are knotted and twisted, and the tallest of them do not exceed some
+thirty feet in height, while many of them may be regarded as nothing
+more imposing than large bushes.* Muddy rivers, infested with
+crocodiles, flowed slowly through the shady woods, spreading out their
+waters here and there in pestilential swamps. On reaching the seaboard,
+their exit was impeded by the sands which they brought down with them,
+and the banks which were thus formed caused the waters to accumulate
+in lagoons extending behind the dunes. For miles the road led through
+thickets, interrupted here and there by marshy places and clumps of
+thorny shrubs. Bands of Shausu were accustomed to make this route
+dangerous, and even the bravest heroes shrank from venturing alone along
+this route. Towards Aluna the way began to ascend Mount Carmel by a
+narrow and giddy track cut in the rocky side of the precipice.**
+
+     * The forest was well known to the geographers of the Graeco-
+     Roman period, and was still in existence at the time of the
+     Crusades.
+
+     ** This defile is described at length in the _Anastasi
+     Papyrus_, No. 1, and the terms used by the writer are in
+     themselves sufficient evidence of the terror with which the
+     place inspired the Egyptians. The annals of Thutmosis III.
+     are equally explicit as to the difficulties which an army
+     had to encounter here. I have placed this defile near the
+     point which is now called Umm-el-Fahm, and this site seems
+     to me to agree better with the account of the expedition of
+     Thutmosis III. than that of Arraneh proposed by Conder.
+
+Beyond the Mount, it led by a rapid descent into a plain covered with
+corn and verdure, and extending in a width of some thirty miles, by a
+series of undulations, to the foot of Tabor, where it came to an
+end. Two side ranges running almost parallel--little Hermon and
+Glilboa--disposed in a line from east to west, and united by an almost
+imperceptibly rising ground, serve rather to connect the plain of
+Megiddo with the valley of the Jordan than to separate them. A single
+river, the Kishon, cuts the route diagonally--or, to speak more
+correctly, a single river-bed, which is almost waterless for nine months
+of the year, and becomes swollen only during the winter rains with the
+numerous torrents bursting from the hillsides. As the flood approaches
+the sea it becomes of more manageable proportions, and finally
+distributes its waters among the desolate lagoons formed behind the
+sand-banks of the open and wind-swept bay, towered over by the sacred
+summit of Carmel.*
+
+     * In the lists of Thutmosis III. we find under No. 48 the
+     town of Rosh-Qodshu, the "Sacred Cape," which was evidently
+     situated at the end of the mountain range, or probably on
+     the site of Haifah; the name itself suggests the veneration
+     with which Carmel was invested from the earliest times.
+
+No corner of the world has been the scene of more sanguinary
+engagements, or has witnessed century after century so many armies
+crossing its borders and coming into conflict with one another. Every
+military leader who, after leaving Africa, was able to seize Gaza and
+Ascalon, became at once master of Southern Syria. He might, it is true,
+experience some local resistance, and come into conflict with bands
+or isolated outposts of the enemy, but as a rule he had no need to
+anticipate a battle before he reached the banks of the Kishon.
+
+[Illustration: 196.jpg THE EVERGREEN OAKS BETWEEN JOPPA AND CARMEL]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a pencil sketch by Lortet.
+
+Here, behind a screen of woods and mountain, the enemy would concentrate
+his forces and prepare resolutely to meet the attack. If the invader
+succeeded in overcoming resistance at this point, the country lay open
+to him as far as the Orontes; nay, often even to the Euphrates. The
+position was too important for its defence to have been neglected. A
+range of forts, Ibleam, Taanach, and Megiddo,* drawn like a barrier
+across the line of advance, protected its southern face, and beyond
+these a series of strongholds and villages followed one another at
+intervals in the bends of the valleys or on the heights, such as Shunem,
+Kasuna, Anaharath, the two Aphuls, Cana, and other places which we find
+mentioned on the triumphal lists, but of which, up to the present, the
+sites have not been fixed.
+
+     * Megiddo, the "Legio" of the Roman period, has been
+     identified since Robinson's time with Khurbet-Lejun, and
+     more especially with the little mound known by the name of
+     Tell-el-Mutesallim. Conder proposed to place its site more
+     to the east, in the valley of the Jordan, at Khurbet-el-
+     Mujeddah.
+
+[Illustration: 197.jpg ACRE AND THE FRINGE OF REEFS SHELTERING THE
+ANCIENT PORT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Lortet.
+
+From this point the conqueror had a choice of three routes. One ran
+in an oblique direction to the west, and struck the Mediterranean near
+Acre, leaving on the left the promontory of Carmel, with the sacred
+town, Rosh-Qodshu, planted on its slope.
+
+[Illustration: 198.jpg Map]
+
+Acre was the first port where a fleet could find safe anchorage after
+leaving the mouths of the Nile, and whoever was able to make himself
+master of it had in his hands the key of Syria, for it stood in the same
+commanding position with regard to the coast as that held by Megiddo
+in respect of the interior. Its houses were built closely together on a
+spit of rock which projected boldly into the sea, while fringes of reefs
+formed for it a kind of natural breakwater, behind which ships could
+find a safe harbourage from the attacks of pirates or the perils of bad
+weather. From this point the hills come so near the shore that one is
+sometimes obliged to wade along the beach to avoid a projecting spur,
+and sometimes to climb a zig-zag path in order to cross a headland. In
+more than one place the rock has been hollowed into a series of
+rough steps, giving it the appearance of a vast ladder.* Below this
+precipitous path the waves dash with fury, and when the wind sets
+towards the land every thud causes the rocky wall to tremble, and
+detaches fragments from its surface. The majority of the towns, such as
+Aksapu (Ecdippa), Mashal, Lubina, Ushu-Shakhan, lay back from the sea on
+the mountain ridges, out of the reach of pirates; several, however,
+were built on the shore, under the shelter of some promontory, and the
+inhabitants of these derived a miserable subsistence from fishing and
+the chase. Beyond the Tyrian Ladder Phoenician territory began. The
+country was served throughout its entire length, from town to town,
+by the coast road, which turning at length to the right, and passing
+through the defile formed by the Nahr-el-Kebir, entered the region of
+the middle Orontes.
+
+     * Hence the name Tyrian Ladder, which is applied to one of
+     these passes, either Ras-en-Nakurah or Ras-el-Abiad.
+
+[Illustration: 201.jpg THE TOWN OF QODSHU]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+The second of the roads leading from Megiddo described an almost
+symmetrical curve eastwards, crossing the Jordan at Beth-shan, then
+the Jab-bok, and finally reaching Damascus after having skirted at some
+distance the last of the basaltic ramparts of the Hauran. Here extended
+a vast but badly watered pasture-land, which attracted the Bedouin from
+every side, and scattered over it were a number of walled towns, such as
+Hamath, Magato, Ashtaroth, and Ono-Eepha.*
+
+     * Proof that the Egyptians knew this route, followed even to
+     this day in certain circumstances, is furnished by the lists
+     of Thutmosis III., in which the principal stations which it
+     comprises are enumerated among the towns given up after the
+     victory of Megiddo. Dimasqu was identified with Damascus by
+     E. de Rouge, and Astarotu with Ashtaroth-Qarnaim. Hamatu is
+     probably Hamath of the Gadarenes; Magato, the Maged of the
+     Maccabees, is possibly the present Mukatta; and Ono-Repha,
+     Raphon, Raphana, Arpha of Decapolis, is the modern Er-Rafeh.
+
+Probably Damascus was already at this period the dominant authority over
+the region watered by these two rivers, as well as over the villages
+nestling in the gorges of Hermon,--Abila, Helbon of the vineyards, and
+Tabrud,--but it had not yet acquired its renown for riches and power.
+Protected by the Anti-Lebanon range from its turbulent neighbours, it
+led a sort of vegetative existence apart from invading hosts, forgotten
+and hushed to sleep, as it were, in the shade of its gardens.
+
+The third road from Megiddo took the shortest way possible. After
+crossing the Kishon almost at right angles to its course, it ascended
+by a series of steep inclines to arid plains, fringed or intersected
+by green and flourishing valleys, which afforded sites for numerous
+towns,--Pahira, Merom near Lake Huleh, Qart-Nizanu, Beerotu, and Lauisa,
+situated in the marshy district at the head-waters of the Jordan.* From
+this point forward the land begins to fall, and taking a hollow shape,
+is known as Coele-Syria, with its luxuriant vegetation spread between
+the two ranges of the Lebanon. It was inhabited then, as at the time of
+the Babylonian conquest, by the Amorites, who probably included Damascus
+also in their domain.**
+
+     * Pahira is probably Safed; Qart-Nizanu, the "flowery city,"
+     the Kartha of Zabulon; and Bcerot, the Berotha of Josephus,
+     near Merom. Maroma and Lauisa, Laisa, have been identified
+     with Merom and Laish.
+
+     ** The identification of the country of Amauru with that of
+     the Amorites was admitted from the first. The only doubt was
+     as to the locality occupied by these Amorites: the mention
+     of Qodshu on the Orontes, in the country of the Amurru,
+     showed that Coele-Syria was the region in question. In the
+     Tel el-Amarna tablets the name Amurru is applied also to the
+     country east of the Phoenician coast, and we have seen that
+     there is reason to believe that it was used by the
+     Babylonians to denote all Syria. If the name given by the
+     cuneiform inscriptions to Damascus and its neighbourhood,
+     "Gar-Imirishu," "Imirishu," "Imirish," really means "the
+     Fortress of the Amorites," we should have in this fact a
+     proof that this people were in actual possession of the
+     Damascene Syria. This must have been taken from them by the
+     Hittites towards the XXth century before our era, according
+     to Hommel; about the end of the XVIIIth dynasty, according
+     to Lenormant. If, on the other hand, the Assyrians read the
+     name "Sha-imiri-shu," with the signification, "the town of
+     its asses," it is simply a play upon words, and has no
+     bearing upon the primitive meaning of the name.
+
+[Illustration: 202.jpg THE TYRIAN LADDER AT RAS EL-ABIAD]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+
+Their capital, the sacred Qodshu, was situated on the left bank of the
+Orontes, about five miles from the lake which for a long time bore its
+name, Bahr-el-Kades.* It crowned one of those barren oblong eminences
+which are so frequently met with in Syria. A muddy stream, the Tannur,
+flowed, at some distance away, around its base, and, emptying itself
+into the Orontes at a point a little to the north, formed a natural
+defence for the town on the west. Its encompassing walls, slightly
+elliptic in form, were strengthened by towers, and surrounded by two
+concentric ditches which kept the sapper at a distance.
+
+     * The name Qodshu-Kadesh was for a long time read Uatesh,
+     Badesh, Atesh, and, owing to a confusion with Qodi, Ati, or
+     Atet. The town was identified by Champollion with Bactria,
+     then transferred to Mesopotamia by Bosollini, in the land of
+     Omira, which, according to Pliny, was close to the Taurus,
+     not far from the Khabur or from the province of Aleppo:
+     Osburn tried to connect it with Hadashah (_Josh_. xv. 21),
+     an Amorite town in the southern part of the tribe of Judah;
+     while Hincks placed it in Edessa. The reading Kedesh,
+     Kadesh, Qodshu, the result of the observations of Lepsius,
+     has finally prevailed. Brugsch connected this name with that
+     of Bahr el-Kades, a designation attached in the Middle Ages
+     to the lake through which the Orontes flows, and placed the
+     town on its shores or on a small island on the lake. Thomson
+     pointed out Tell Neby-Mendeh, the ancient Laodicea of the
+     Lebanon, as satisfying the requirements of the site. Conder
+     developed this idea, and showed that all the conditions
+     prescribed by the Egyptian texts in regard to Qodshu find
+     here, and here alone, their application. The description
+     given in the text is based on Conder's observations.
+
+[Illustration: 206.jpt THE DYKE AT BAIIK EL-KADES IN ITS PRESENT
+CONDITION]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+
+A dyke running across the Orontes above the town caused the waters to
+rise and to overflow in a northern direction, so as to form a shallow
+lake, which acted as an additional protection from the enemy. Qodshu was
+thus a kind of artificial island, connected with the surrounding country
+by two flying bridges, which could be opened or shut at pleasure. Once
+the bridges were raised and the gates closed, the boldest enemy had
+no resource left but to arm himself with patience and settle down to
+a lengthened siege. The invader, fresh from a victory at Megiddo, and
+following up his good fortune in a forward movement, had to reckon upon
+further and serious resistance at this point, and to prepare himself for
+a second conflict. The Amorite chiefs and their allies had the advantage
+of a level and firm ground for the evolutions of their chariots during
+the attack, while, if they were beaten, the citadel afforded them a
+secure rallying-place, whence, having gathered their shattered troops,
+they could regain their respective countries, or enter, with the help
+of a few devoted men, upon a species of guerilla warfare in which they
+excelled.
+
+The road from Damascus led to a point south of Quodshu, while that
+from Phonicia came right up to the town itself or to its immediate
+neighbourhood. The dyke of Bahr el-Kades served to keep the plain in a
+dry condition, and thus secured for numerous towns, among which Hamath
+stood out pre-eminently, a prosperous existence. Beyond Hamath, and to
+the left, between the Orontes and the sea, lay the commercial kingdom of
+Alasia, protected from the invader by bleak mountains.*
+
+     * The site of Alasia, Alashia, was determined from the Tel
+     el-Amarna tablets by Maspero. Niebuhr had placed it to the
+     west of Cilicia, opposite the island of Eleousa mentioned by
+     Strabo. Conder connected it with the scriptural Elishah, and
+     W. Max Millier confounds it with Asi or Cyprus.
+
+On the right, between the Orontes and the Balikh, extended the land of
+rivers, Naharaim. Towns had grown up here thickly,--on the sides of the
+torrents from the Amanos, along the banks of rivers, near springs or
+wells--wherever, in fact, the presence of water made culture possible.
+The fragments of the Egyptian chronicles which have come down to us
+number these towns by the hundred,* and yet of how many more must the
+records have perished with the crumbling Theban walls upon which the
+Pharaohs had their names incised! Khalabu was the Aleppo of our own
+day,** and grouped around it lay Turmanuna, Tunipa, Zarabu, Nii,
+Durbaniti, Nirabu, Sarmata,*** and a score of others which depended upon
+it, or upon one of its rivals. The boundaries of this portion of the
+Lower Lotanu have come down to us in a singularly indefinite form, and
+they must also, moreover, have been subject to continual modifications
+from the results of tribal conflicts.
+
+     * Two hundred and thirty names belonging to Naharaim are
+     still legible on the lists of Thutmosis III., and a hundred
+     others have been effaced from the monument.
+
+     ** Khalabu was identified by Chabas with Khalybon, the
+     modern Aleppo, and his opinion has been adopted by most
+     Egyptologists.
+
+     *** Tunipa has been found in Tennib, Tinnab, by Noldoke;
+     Zarabu in Zarbi, and Sarmata in Sarmeda, by Tomkins;
+     Durbaniti in Deir el-Banat, the Castrum Puellarum of the
+     chroniclers of the Crusades; Nirabu in Nirab, and Tirabu in
+     Tereb, now el-Athrib. Nirab is mentioned by Nicholas of
+     Damascus. Nii, long confounded with Nineveh, was identified
+     by Lenormant with Ninus Vetus, Membidj, and by Max Millier
+     with Balis on the Euphrates: I am inclined to make it Kefer-
+     Naya, between Aleppo and Turmanin.
+
+[Illustration: 208.jpg Map]
+
+We are at a loss to know whether the various principalities were
+accustomed to submit to the leadership of a single individual, or
+whether we are to relegate to the region of popular fancy that Lord
+of Naharaim of whom the Egyptian scribes made such a hero in their
+fantastic narratives.*
+
+     * In the "Story of the Predestined Prince" the heroine is
+     daughter of the Prince of Naharaim, who seems to exercise
+     authority over all the chiefs of the country; as the
+     manuscript does not date back further than the XXth dynasty,
+     we are justified in supposing that the Egyptian writer had a
+     knowledge of the Hittite domination, during which the King
+     of the Khati was actually the ruler of all Naharaim.
+
+Carchemish represented in this region the position occupied by Megiddo
+in relation to Kharu, and by Qodshu among the Amorites; that is to say,
+it was the citadel and sanctuary of the surrounding country. Whoever
+could make himself master of it would have the whole country at his
+feet.
+
+[Illustration: 211.jpg Site of Carchemish]
+
+It lay upon the Euphrates, the winding of the river protecting it on its
+southern and south-eastern sides, while around its northern front ran
+a deep stream, its defence being further completed by a double ditch
+across the intervening region. Like Qodshu, it was thus situated in the
+midst of an artificial island beyond the reach of the battering-ram or
+the sapper. The encompassing wall, which tended to describe an ellipse,
+hardly measured two miles in circumference; but the suburbs extending,
+in the midst of villas and gardens, along the river-banks furnished in
+time of peace an abode for the surplus population. The wall still rises
+some five and twenty to thirty feet above the plain. Two mounds divided
+by a ravine command its north-western side, their summits being occupied
+by the ruins of two fine buildings--a temple and a palace.* Carchemish
+was the last stage in a conqueror's march coming from the south.
+
+     * Karkamisha, Gargamish, was from the beginning associated
+     with the Carchemish of the Bible; but as the latter was
+     wrongly identified with Circesium, it was naturally located
+     at the confluence of the Khabur with the Euphrates. Hincks
+     fixed the site at Rum-Kaleh. G. Rawlinson referred it
+     cursorily to Hierapolis-Mabog, which position Maspero
+     endeavoured to confirm. Finzi, and after him G. Smith,
+     thought to find the site at Jerabis, the ancient Europos,
+     and excavations carried on there by the English have brought
+     to light in this place Hittite monuments which go back in
+     part to the Assyrian epoch. This identification is now
+     generally accepted, although there is still no direct proof
+     attainable, and competent judges continue to prefer the site
+     of Membij. I fall in with the current view, but with all
+     reserve.
+
+[Illustration: 212.jpg THE TELL OF JERABIS IN ITS PRESENT CONDITION]
+
+     Reproduced by Faucher-Gudin, from a cut in the _Graphic_.
+
+For an invader approaching from the east or north it formed his first
+station. He had before him, in fact, a choice of the three chief fords
+for crossing the Euphrates. That of Thapsacus, at the bend of the river
+where it turns eastward to the Arabian plain, lay too far to the
+south, and it could be reached only after a march through a parched
+and desolate region where the army would run the risk of perishing from
+thirst.
+
+[Illustration: 213.jpg A NORTHERN SYRIAN]
+
+     Drawn by faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+For an invader proceeding from Asia Minor, or intending to make his
+way through the defiles of the Taurus, Samosata offered a convenient
+fording-place; but this route would compel the general, who had Naharaim
+or the kingdoms of Chaldaea in view, to make a long detour, and
+although the Assyrians used it at a later period, at the time of their
+expeditions to the valleys of the Halys, the Egyptians do not seem ever
+to have travelled by this road. Carchemish, the place of the third ford,
+was about equally distant from Thapsacus and Samosata, and lay in a
+rich and fertile province, which was so well watered that a drought or
+a famine would not be likely to enter into the expectations of its
+inhabitants. Hither pilgrims, merchants, soldiers, and all the wandering
+denizens of the world were accustomed to direct their steps, and the
+habit once established was perpetuated for centuries. On the left
+bank of the river, and almost opposite Carchemish, lay the region of
+Mitanni,* which was already occupied by a people of a different race,
+who used a language cognate, it would seem, with the imperfectly
+classified dialects spoken by the tribes of the Upper Tigris and Upper
+Euphrates.** Harran bordered on Mitanni, and beyond Harran one may
+recognise, in the vaguely defined Singar, Assur, Arrapkha, and Babel,
+states that arose out of the dismemberment of the ancient Chaldaean
+Empire.***
+
+     * Mitanni is mentioned on several Egyptian monuments; but
+     its importance was not recognised until after the discovery
+     of the Tel el-Amarna tablets and of its situation. The fact
+     that a letter from the Prince of Mitanni is stated in a
+     Hieratic docket to have come from Naharaim has been used as
+     a proof that the countries were identical; I have shown that
+     the docket proves only that Mitanni formed a part of
+     Naharaim. It extended over the province of Edessa and
+     Harran, stretching out towards the sources of the Tigris.
+     Niebuhr places it on the southern slope of the Masios, in
+     Mygdonia; Th. Reinach connects it with the Mationi, and asks
+     whether this was not the region occupied by this people
+     before their emigration towards the Caspian.
+
+     ** Several of the Tel el-Amarna tablets are couched in this
+     language.
+
+     *** These names were recognised from the first in the
+     inscriptions of Thutmosis III. and in those of other
+     Pharaohs of the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties.
+
+The Carchemish route was, of course, well known to caravans, but armed
+bodies had rarely occasion to make use of it. It was a far cry from
+Memphis to Carchemish, and for the Egyptians this town continued to be
+a limit which they never passed, except incidentally, when they had to
+chastise some turbulent tribe, or to give some ill-guarded town to the
+flames.*
+
+     * A certain number of towns mentioned in the lists of
+     Thutmosis III. were situated beyond the Euphrates, and they
+     belonged some to Mitanni and some to the regions further
+     away.
+
+[Illustration: 215.jpg THE HEADS OF THREE AMORITE CAPTIVES]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+It would be a difficult task to define with any approach to accuracy the
+distribution of the Canaanites, Amorites, and Aramaeans, and to indicate
+the precise points where they came into contact with their rivals of
+non-Semitic stock. Frontiers between races and languages can never be
+very easily determined, and this is especially true of the peoples of
+Syria. They are so broken up and mixed in this region, that even in
+neighbourhoods where one predominant tribe is concentrated, it is easy
+to find at every step representatives of all the others. Four or five
+townships, singled out at random from the middle of a province,
+would often be found to belong to as many different races, and their
+respective inhabitants, while living within a distance of a mile or two,
+would be as great strangers to each other as if they were separated by
+the breadth of a continent.
+
+[Illustration: 216.jpg MIXTURE OF SYRIAN RACES]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+It would appear that the breaking up of these populations had not been
+carried so far in ancient as in modern times, but the confusion must
+already have been great if we are to judge from the number of different
+sites where we encounter evidences of people of the same language
+and blood. The bulk of the Khati had not yet departed from the Taurus
+region, but some stray bands of them, carried away by the movement which
+led to the invasion of the Hyksos, had settled around Hebron, where
+the rugged nature of the country served to protect them from their
+neighbours.*
+
+     * In very early times they are described as dwelling near
+     Hebron or in the mountains of Judah. Since we have learned
+     from the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments that the Khati
+     dwelt in Northern Syria, the majority of commentators have
+     been indisposed to admit the existence of southern Hittites;
+     this name, it is alleged, having been introduced into the
+     Biblical around text through a misconception of the original
+     documents, where the term Hittite was the equivalent of
+     Canaanite.
+
+The Amorites* had their head-quarters Qodshul in Coele-Syria, but one
+section of them had taken up a position on the shores of the Lake of
+Tiberias in Galilee, others had established themselves within a short
+distance of Jaffa** on the Mediterranean, while others had settled in
+the neighbourhood of the southern Hittites in such numbers that their
+name in the Hebrew Scriptures was at times employed to designate the
+western mountainous region about the Dead Sea and the valley of the
+Jordan. Their presence was also indicated on the table-lands bordering
+the desert of Damascus, in the districts frequented by Bedouin of the
+tribe of Terah, Ammon and Moab, on the rivers Yarmuk and Jabbok, and at
+Edrei and Heshbon.***
+
+     * Ed. Meyer has established the fact that the term Amorite,
+     as well as the parallel word Canaanite, was the designation
+     of the inhabitants of Palestine before the arrival of the
+     Hebrews: the former belonged to the prevailing tradition in
+     the kingdom of Israel, the latter to that which was current
+     in Judah. This view confirms the conclusion which may be
+     drawn from the Egyptian monuments as to the power of
+     expansion and the diffusion of the people.
+
+     ** These were the Amorites which the tribe of Dan at a later
+     period could not dislodge from the lands which had been
+     allotted to them.
+
+     *** This was afterwards the domain of Sihon, King of the
+     Amorites, and that of Og.
+
+The fuller, indeed, our knowledge is of the condition of Syria at the
+time of the Egyptian conquest, the more we are forced to recognise the
+mixture of races therein, and their almost infinite subdivisions. The
+mutual jealousies, however, of these elements of various origin were
+not so inveterate as to put an obstacle in the way, I will not say of
+political alliances, but of daily intercourse and frequent contracts.
+Owing to intermarriages between the tribes, and the continual crossing
+of the results of such unions, peculiar characteristics were at length
+eliminated, and a uniform type of face was the result. From north
+to south one special form of countenance, that which we usually call
+Semitic, prevailed among them.
+
+[Illustration: 218.jpg A CARICATURE OF THE SYRIAN TYPE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+The Syrian and Egyptian monuments furnish us everywhere, under different
+ethnical names, with representations of a broad-shouldered people of
+high stature, slender-figured in youth, but with a fatal tendency
+to obesity in old age. Their heads are large, somewhat narrow, and
+artificially flattened or deformed, like those of several modern tribes
+in the Lebanon. Their high cheek-bones stand out from their hollow
+cheeks, and their blue or black eyes are buried under their enormous
+eyebrows. The lower part of the face is square and somewhat heavy, but
+it is often concealed by a thick and curly beard. The forehead is rather
+low and retreating, while the nose has a distinctly aquiline curve. The
+type is not on the whole so fine as the Egyptian, but it is not so heavy
+as that of the Chaldaeans in the time of Gudea. The Theban artists have
+represented it in their battle-scenes, and while individualising every
+soldier or Asiatic prisoner with a happy knack so as to avoid monotony,
+they have with much intelligence impressed upon all of them the marks of
+a common parentage.
+
+[Illustration: 219.jpg]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the original wooden object.
+
+One feels that the artists must have recognised them as belonging to one
+common family. They associated with their efforts after true and exact
+representation a certain caustic humour, which impelled them often to
+substitute for a portrait a more or less jocose caricature of their
+adversaries. On the walls of the Pylons, and in places where the majesty
+of a god restrained them from departing too openly from their official
+gravity, they contented themselves with exaggerating from panel to panel
+the contortions and pitiable expressions of the captive chiefs as they
+followed behind the triumphal chariot of the Pharaoh on his return from
+his Syrian campaigns.*
+
+     * An illustration of this will be found in the line of
+     prisoners, brought by Seti I. from his great Asiatic
+     campaign, which is depicted on the outer face of the north
+     wall of the hypostyle at Karnak.
+
+Where religious scruples offered no obstacle they abandoned themselves
+to the inspiration of the moment, and gave themselves freely up to
+caricature. It is an Amorite or Canaanite--that thick-lipped, flat-nosed
+slave, with his brutal lower jaw and smooth conical skull--who serves
+for the handle of a spoon in the museum of the Louvre. The stupefied air
+with which he trudges under his burden is rendered in the most natural
+manner, and the flattening to which his forehead had been subjected
+in infancy is unfeelingly accentuated. The model which served for this
+object must have been intentionally brutalised and disfigured in order
+to excite the laughter of Pharaoh's subjects.*
+
+     * Dr. Regnault thinks that the head was artificially
+     deformed in infancy: the bandage necessary to effect it must
+     have been applied very low on the forehead in front, and to
+     the whole occiput behind. If this is the case, the instance
+     is not an isolated one, for a deformation of a similar
+     character is found in the case of the numerous Semites
+     represented on the tomb of Rakhmiri: a similar practice
+     still obtains in certain parts of modern Syria.
+
+[Illustration: 220.jpg SYRIANS DRESSED IN THE LOIN-CLOTH AND DOUBLE
+SHAWL]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+The idea of uniformity with which we are impressed when examining the
+faces of these people is confirmed and extended when we come to study
+their costumes. Men and women--we may say all Syrians according to
+their condition of life--had a choice between only two or three modes
+of dress, which, whatever the locality, or whatever the period, seemed
+never to change. On closer examination slight shades of difference in
+cut and arrangement may, however, be detected, and it may be affirmed
+that fashion ran even in ancient Syria through as many capricious
+evolutions as with ourselves; but these variations, which were evident
+to the eyes of the people of the time, are not sufficiently striking to
+enable us to classify the people, or to fix their date. The peasants and
+the lower class of citizens required no other clothing than a loin-cloth
+similar to that of the Egyptians,* or a shirt of a yellow or white
+colour, extending below the knees, and furnished with short sleeves. The
+opening for the neck was cruciform, and the hem was usually ornamented
+with coloured needlework or embroidery. The burghers and nobles wore
+over this a long strip of cloth, which, after passing closely round the
+hips and chest, was brought up and spread over the shoulders as a sort
+of cloak. This was not made of the light material used in Egypt, which
+offered no protection from cold or rain, but was composed of a thick,
+rough wool, like that employed in Chaldaea, and was commonly adorned with
+stripes or bands of colour, in addition to spots and other conspicuous
+designs.
+
+     * The Asiatic loin-cloth differs from the Egyptian in having
+     pendent cords; the Syrian fellahin still wear it when at
+     work.
+
+Rich and fashionable folk substituted for this cloth two large
+shawls--one red and the other blue--in which they dexterously arrayed
+themselves so as to alternate the colours: a belt of soft leather
+gathered the folds around the figure. Red morocco buskins, a soft cap,
+a handkerchief, a _kejfiyeh_ confined by a fillet, and sometimes a wig
+after the Egyptian fashion, completed the dress.
+
+[Illustration: 222a.jpg]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a figure on the tomb of Ramses III.
+
+Beards were almost universal among the men, but the moustache was of
+rare occurrence. In many of the figures represented on the monuments
+we find that the head was carefully shaved, while in others the hair
+was allowed to grow, arranged in curls, frizzed and shining with oil or
+sweet-smelling pomade, sometimes thrown back behind the ears and falling
+on the neck in bunches or curly masses, sometimes drawn out in stiff
+spikes so as to serve as a projecting cover over the face.
+
+[Illustration: 222b.jpg A SYRIAN WITH HAIR TIRED PENT-HOUSE FASHION]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Champollion.
+
+The women usually tired their hair in three great masses, of which the
+thickest was allowed to fall freely down the back; while the other two
+formed a kind of framework for the face, the ends descending on each
+side as far as the breast. Some of the women arranged their hair after
+the Egyptian manner, in a series of numerous small tresses, brought
+together at the ends so as to form a kind of plat, and terminating in
+a flower made of metal or enamelled terracotta. A network of glass
+ornaments, arranged on a semicircle of beads, or on a background of
+embroidered stuff, was frequently used as a covering for the top of the
+head.*
+
+     * Examples of Syrian feminine costume are somewhat rare on
+     the Egyptian monuments. In the scenes of the capturing of
+     towns we see a few. Here the women are represented on the
+     walls imploring the mercy of the besieger. Other figures are
+     those of prisoners being led captive into Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: 223.jpg Page Image]
+
+The shirt had no sleeves, and the fringed garment which covered it
+left half of the arm exposed. Children of tender years had their heads
+shaved, as a head-dress, and rejoiced in no more clothing than the
+little ones among the Egyptians. With the exception of bracelets,
+anklets, rings on the fingers, and occasionally necklaces and earrings,
+the Syrians, both men and women, wore little jewellery. The Chaldaea
+women furnished them with models of fashion to which they accommodated
+themselves in the choice of stuffs, colours, cut of their mantles or
+petticoats, arrangement of the hair, and the use of cosmetics for the
+eyes and cheeks. In spite of distance, the modes of Babylon reigned
+supreme. The Syrians would have continued to expose their right shoulder
+to the weather as long as it pleased the people of the Lower Euphrates
+to do the same; but as soon as the fashion changed in the latter region,
+and it became customary to cover the shoulder, and to wrap the upper
+part of the person in two or three thicknesses of heavy wool, they at
+once accommodated themselves to the new mode, although it served to
+restrain the free motion of the body. Among the upper classes, at least,
+domestic arrangements were modelled upon the fashions observed in the
+palaces of the nobles of Car-chemish or Assur: the same articles of
+toilet, the same ranks of servants and scribes, the same luxurious
+habits, and the same use of perfumes were to be found among both.*
+
+     * An example of the fashion of leaving the shoulder bare is
+     found even in the XXth dynasty. The Tel el-Amarna tablets
+     prove that, as far as the scribes were concerned, the
+     customs and training of Syria and Chaldaea were identical.
+     The Syrian princes are there represented as employing the
+     cuneiform character in their correspondence, being
+     accompanied by scribes brought up after the Chaldaean manner.
+     We shall see later on that the king of the Khati, who
+     represented in the time of Ramses II. the type of an
+     accomplished Syrian, had attendants similar to those of the
+     Chaldaean kings.
+
+From all that we can gather, in short, from the silence as well as from
+the misunderstandings of the Egyptian chroniclers, Syria stands before
+us as a fruitful and civilized country, of which one might be thankful
+to be a native, in spite of continual wars and frequent revolutions.
+
+The religion of the Syrians was subject to the same influences as their
+customs; we are, as yet, far from being able to draw a complete picture
+of their theology, but such knowledge as we do possess recalls the same
+names and the same elements as are found in the religious systems of
+Chaldaea. The myths, it is true, are still vague and misty, at least
+to our modern ideas: the general characteristics of the principal
+divinities alone stand out, and seem fairly well defined. As with the
+other Semitic races, the deity in a general sense, the primordial type
+of the godhead, was called _El_ or _Ilu_, and his feminine counterpart
+_Ilat_, but we find comparatively few cities in which these nearly
+abstract beings enjoyed the veneration of the faithful.* The gods
+of Syria, like those of Egypt and of the countries watered by the
+Euphrates, were feudal princes distributed over the surface of the
+earth, their number corresponding with that of the independent states.
+Each nation, each tribe, each city, worshipped its own lord--_Adoni_**
+--or its master--_Baal_*** --and each of these was designated by a
+special title to distinguish him from neighbouring _Baalim_, or masters.
+
+     * The frequent occurrence of the term _Ilu_ or _El_ in names
+     of towns in Southern Syria seems to indicate pretty
+     conclusively that the inhabitants of these countries used
+     this term by preference to designate their supreme god.
+     Similarly we meet with it in Aramaic names, and later on
+     among the Nabathseans; it predominates at Byblos and Berytus
+     in Phoenicia and among the Aramaic peoples of North Syria;
+     in the Samalla country, for instance, during the VIIIth
+     century B.C.
+
+     ** The extension of this term to Syrian countries is proved
+     in the Israelitish epoch by Canaanitish names, such as
+     Adonizedek and Adonibezek, or Jewish names such as Adonijah,
+     Adonikam, Adoniram-Adoram.
+
+     *** Movers tried to prove that there was one particular god
+     named Baal, and his ideas, popularised in Prance by M. de
+     Vogiie, prevailed for some time: since then scholars have
+     gone back to the view of Muenter and of the writers at the
+     beginning of this century, who regarded the term Baal as a
+     common epithet applicable to all gods.
+
+The Baal who ruled at Zebub was styled "Master of Zebub," or
+Baal-Zebub;* and the Baal of Hermon, who was an ally of Gad, goddess
+of fortune, was sometimes called Baal-Hermon, or "Master of Hermon,"
+sometimes Baal-G-ad, or "Master of Gad;"** the Baal of Shechem,
+at the time of the Israelite invasion, was "Master of the
+Covenant"--Baal-Berith--doubtless in memory of some agreement which he
+had concluded with his worshippers in regard to the conditions of their
+allegiance.***
+
+     * Baal-Zebub was worshipped at Ekxon during the Philistine
+     supremacy.
+
+     ** The mountain of Baal-Hermon is the mountain of Banias,
+     where the Jordan has one of its sources, and the town of
+     Baal-Hermon is Banias itself. The variant Baal-Gad occurs
+     several times in the Biblical books.
+
+     *** Baal-Berith, like Baal-Zebub, only occurs, so far as we
+     know at present, in the Hebrew Scriptures, where, by the
+     way, the first element, Baal, is changed to El, El-Berith.
+
+[Illustration: 226.jpg LOTANU WOMEN AND CHILDREN FROM THE TOMB OF
+RAKHMIEI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from coloured sketches by Prisse
+     d'Avennes.
+
+The prevalent conception of the essence and attributes of these deities
+was not the same in all their sanctuaries, but the more exalted among
+them were regarded as personifying the sky in the daytime or at night,
+the atmosphere, the light,* or the sun, Shamash, as creator and
+prime mover of the universe; and each declared himself to be
+king--_melek_--over the other gods.** Bashuf represented the lightning
+and the thunderbolt;*** Shalman, Hadad, and his double Bimmon held sway
+over the air like the Babylonian.
+
+     * This appears under the name _Or_ or _Ur_ in the Samalla
+     inscriptions of the VIIIth century B.C.; it is, so far, a
+     unique instance among the Semites.
+
+     ** We find the term applied in the Bible to the national god
+     of the Ammonites, under the forms _Moloch, Molech, Mikom,
+     Milkam_, and especially with the article, _Ham-molek_; the
+     real name hidden beneath this epithet was probably _Amnon or
+     Amman_, and, strictly speaking, the God Moloch only exists
+     in the imagination of scholars. The epithet was used among
+     the Oanaanites in the name Melchizedek, a similar form to
+     Adonizedek, Abimelech, Ahimelech; it was in current use
+     among the Phoenicians, in reference to the god of Tyre,
+     Melek-Karta or Melkarth, and in many proper names, such as
+     Melekiathon, Baalmelek, Bodmalek, etc., not to mention the
+     god Milichus worshipped in Spain, who was really none other
+     than Melkarth.
+
+     *** Resheph has been vocalised _Rashuf_ in deference to the
+     Egyptian orthography Rashupu. It was a name common to a
+     whole family of lightning and storm-gods, and M. de Rouge
+     pointed out long ago the passage in the Great Inscription of
+     Ramses III. at Medinet-Habu, in which the soldiers who man
+     the chariots are compared to the Rashupu; the Rabbinic
+     Hebrew still employs this plural form in the sense of
+     "demons." The Phoenician inscriptions contain references to
+     several local Rashufs; the way in which this god is coupled
+     with the goddess Qodshu on the Egyptian stelae leads me to
+     think that, at the epoch now under consideration, he was
+     specially worshipped by the Amorites, just as his equivalent
+     Hadad was by the inhabitants of Damascus, neighbours of the
+     Amorites, and perhaps themselves Amorites.
+
+Rammanu;* Dagon, patron god of fishermen and husbandmen, seems to
+have watched over the fruitfulness of the sea and the land.** We are
+beginning to learn the names of the races whom they specially protected:
+Rashuf the Amorites, Hadad and Rimmon the Aramaeans of Damascus, Dagon
+the peoples of the coast between Ashkelon and the forest of Carmel.
+Rashuf is the only one whose appearance is known to us. He possessed the
+restless temperament usually attributed to the thunder-gods, and was,
+accordingly, pictured as a soldier armed with javelin and mace, bow and
+buckler; a gazelle's head with pointed horns surmounts his helmet, and
+sometimes, it may be, serves him as a cap.
+
+     * Hadad and Rimmon are represented in Assyrio-Chaldaean by
+     one and the same ideogram, which may be read either Dadda-
+     Hadad or Eammanu. The identity of the expressions employed
+     shows how close the connection between the two divinities
+     must have been, even if they were not similar in all
+     respects; from the Hebrew writings we know of the temple of
+     Rimmon at Damascus (_2 Kings_ v. 18) and that one of the
+     kings of that city was called Tabrimmon = "llimmon is good"
+     (_1 Kings_ xv. 18), while Hadad gave his name to no less
+     than ten kings of the same city. Even as late as the Graeco-
+     Roman epoch, kingship over the other gods was still
+     attributed both to Rimmon and to Hadad, but this latter was
+     identified with the sun.
+
+     ** The documents which we possess in regard to Dagon date
+     from the Hebrew epoch, and represent him as worshipped by
+     the Philistines. We know, however, from the Tel el-Amarna
+     tablets, of a Dagantakala, a name which proves the presence
+     of the god among the Canaanites long before the Philistine
+     invasion, and we find two Beth-Dagons--one in the plain of
+     Judah, the other in the tribe of Asher; Philo of Byblos
+     makes Dagon a Phoenician deity, and declares him to be the
+     genius of fecundity, master of grain and of labour. The
+     representation of his statue which appears on the Graeco-
+     Roman coins of Abydos, reminds us of the fish-god of
+     Chaldaea.
+
+Each god had for his complement a goddess, who was proclaimed
+"mistress" of the city, _Baalat_, or "queen," _Milkat_, of heaven, just
+as the god himself was recognised as "master" or "king."* As a rule, the
+goddess was contented with the generic name of Astarte; but to this was
+often added some epithet, which lent her a distinct personality, and
+prevented her from being confounded with the Astartes of neighbouring
+cities, her companions or rivals.**
+
+     * Among goddesses to whom the title "Baalat "was referred,
+     we have the goddess of Byblos, Baalat-Gebal, also the
+     goddess of Berytus, Baalat-Berith, or Beyrut. The epithet
+     "queen of heaven "is applied to the Phoenician Astarte by
+     Hebrew (_Jer._ vii. 18, xliv. 18-29) and classic writers.
+     The Egyptians, when they adopted these Oanaanitish
+     goddesses, preserved the title, and called each of them
+     _nibit pit,_ "lady of heaven." In the Phoenician inscriptions
+     their names are frequently preceded by the word _Rabbat:
+     rabbat Baalat-Gebal_, "(my) lady Baalat-Gebal."
+
+     ** The Hebrew writers frequently refer to the Canaanite
+     goddesses by the general title "the Ashtaroth" or "Astartes,"
+     and a town in Northern Syria bore the significant name of
+     Istarati = "the Ishtars, the Ashtaroth," a name which finds
+     a parallel in Anathoth = "the Anats," a title assumed by a
+     town of the tribe of Benjamin; similarly, the Assyrio-
+     Chaldaeans called their goddesses by the plural of Ishtar.
+     The inscription on an Egyptian amulet in the Louvre tells us
+     of a personage of the XXth dynasty, who, from his name,
+     Rabrabina, must have been of Syrian origin, and who styled
+     himself "Prophet of the Astartes," Honnutir Astiratu.
+
+[Illustration: 229.jpg ASTARTE AS A SPHINX]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a copy of an original in chased
+     gold.
+
+Thus she would be styled the "good" Astarte, Ashtoreth Naamah, or the
+"horned" Astarte, Ashtoreth Qarnaim, because of the lunar crescent which
+appears on her forehead, as a sort of head-dress.* She was the goddess
+of good luck, and was called Gad;** she was Anat,*** or Asiti,**** the
+chaste and the warlike.
+
+     * The two-horned Astarte gave her name to a city beyond the
+     Jordan, of which she was, probably, the eponymous goddess:
+     (Gen xiv. 5) she would seem to be represented on the curious
+     monument called by the Arabs "the stone of Job," which was
+     discovered by M. Schumacher in the centre of the Hauran. It
+     was an analogous goddess whom the Egyptians sometimes
+     identified with their Hathor, and whom they represented as
+     crowned with a crescent.
+
+     ** Gad, the goddess of fortune, is mainly known to us in
+     connection with the Aramaeans; we find mention made of her by
+     the Hebrew writers, and geographical names, such as Baal-Gad
+     and Migdol-Gad, prove that she must have been worshipped at
+     a very early date in the Canaanite countries.
+
+     *** Anat, or Anaiti, or Aniti, has been found in a
+     Phoenician inscription, which enables us to reconstruct the
+     history of the goddess. Her worship was largely practised
+     among the Canaanites, as is proved by the existence in the
+     Hebrew epoch of several towns, such as Beth-Anath, Beth-
+     Anoth, Anathoth; at least one of which, Bit-Aniti, is
+     mentioned in the Egyptian geographical lists. The appearance
+     of Anat-Aniti is known to us, as she is represented in
+     Egyptian dress on several stelae of the XIXth and XXth
+     dynasties. Her name, like that of Astarte, had become a
+     generic term, in the plural form Anathoth, for a whole group
+     of goddesses.
+
+     **** Asiti is represented at Radesieh, on a stele of the
+     time of Seti I.; she enters into the composition of a
+     compound name, _Asitiiakhuru_ (perhaps "the goddess of Asiti
+     is enflamed with anger "), which we find on a monument in
+     the Vienna Museum. W. Max Mueller makes her out to have been
+     a divinity of the desert, and the place in which the picture
+     representing her was found would seem to justify this
+     hypothesis; the Egyptians connected her, as well as the
+     other Astartes, with Sit-Typhon, owing to her cruel and
+     warlike character.
+
+[Illustration: 231.jpg Page Image]
+
+The statues sometimes represent her as a sphinx with a woman's head,
+but more often as a woman standing on a lion passant, either nude,
+or encircled round the hips by merely a girdle, her hands filled
+with flowers or with serpents, her features framed in a mass of heavy
+tresses--a faithful type of the priestesses who devoted themselves to
+her service, the _Qedeshot_. She was the goddess of love in its animal,
+or rather in its purely physical, aspect, and in this capacity was
+styled Qaddishat the Holy, like the hetairae of her family; Qodshu,
+the Amorite capital, was consecrated to her service, and she was there
+associated with Rashuf, the thunder-god.*
+
+     * Qaddishat is know to us from the Egyptian monuments
+     referred to above. The name was sometimes written Qodshu,
+     like that of the town: E. de Bouge argued from this that
+     Qaddishat must have been the eponymous divinity of Qodshu,
+     and that her real name was Kashit or Kesh; he recalls,
+     however, the _role_ played by the Qedeshoth, and admits that
+     "the Holy here means the prostitute."
+
+But she often comes before us as a warlike Amazon, brandishing a club,
+lance, or shield, mounted on horseback like a soldier, and wandering
+through the desert in quest of her prey.* This dual temperament rendered
+her a goddess of uncertain attributes and of violent contrasts; at times
+reserved and chaste, at other times shameless and dissolute, but always
+cruel, always barren, for the countless multitude of her excesses for
+ever shut her out from motherhood: she conceives without ceasing, but
+never brings forth children.** The Baalim and Astartes frequented
+by choice the tops of mountains, such as Lebanon, Carmel, Hermon, or
+Kasios:*** they dwelt near springs, or hid themselves in the depths of
+forests.**** They revealed themselves to mortals through the heavenly
+bodies, and in all the phenomena of nature: the sun was a Baal, the moon
+was Astarte, and the whole host of heaven was composed of more or less
+powerful genii, as we find in Chaldaea.
+
+     * A fragment of a popular tale preserved in the British
+     Museum, and mentioned by Birch, seems to show us Astarte in
+     her character of war-goddess, and the sword of Astarte is
+     mentioned by Chabas. A bas-relief at Edfu represents her
+     standing upright in her chariot, drawn by horses, and
+     trampling her enemies underfoot: she is there identified
+     with Sokhit the warlike, destroyer of men.
+
+     ** This conception of the Syrian goddesses had already
+     become firmly established at the period with which we are
+     dealing, for an Egyptian magical formula defines Aniti and
+     Astarte as "the great goddesses who conceiving do not bring
+     forth young, for the Horuses have sealed them and Sit hath
+     established them."
+
+     *** The Baal of Lebanon is mentioned in an archaic
+     Phoenician inscription, and the name "Holy Cape" (_Rosh-
+     Qodshu_), borne in the time of Thutmosis III. either by
+     Haifa or by a neighbouring town, proves that Carmel was held
+     sacred as far back as the Egyptian epoch. Baal-Hermon has
+     already been mentioned.
+
+     **** The source of the Jordan, near Banias, was the seat of
+     a Baal whom the Greeks identified with Pan. This was
+     probably the Baal-Gad who often lent his name to the
+     neighbouring town of Baal-Hermon: many of the rivers of
+     Phoenicia were called after the divinities worshipped in the
+     nearest city, e.g. the Adonis, the Belos, the Asclepios, the
+     Damuras.
+
+They required that offerings and prayers should be brought to them
+at the high places,* but they were also pleased--and especially the
+goddesses--to lodge in trees; tree-trunks, sometimes leafy, sometimes
+bare and branchless (_asherah_), long continued to be living emblems
+of the local Astartes among the peoples of Southern Syria. Side by side
+with these plant-gods we find everywhere, in the inmost recesses of the
+temples, at cross-roads, and in the open fields, blocks of stone hewn
+into pillars, isolated boulders, or natural rocks, sometimes of meteoric
+origin, which were recognised by certain mysterious marks to be the
+house of the god, the Betyli or Beth-els in which he enclosed a part of
+his intelligence and vital force.
+
+     * These are the "high places" (bamoth) so frequently
+     referred to by the Hebrew prophets, and which we find in the
+     country of Moab, according to the Mesha inscription, and in
+     the place-name Bamoth-Baal; many of them seem to have served
+     for Canaanitish places of worship before they were resorted
+     to by the children of Israel.
+
+The worship of these gods involved the performance of ceremonies more
+bloody and licentious even than those practised by other races. The
+Baalim thirsted after blood, nor would they be satisfied with any common
+blood such as generally contented their brethren in Chaldaea or Egypt:
+they imperatively demanded human as well as animal sacrifices. Among
+several of the Syrian nations they had a prescriptive right to the
+firstborn male of each family;* this right was generally commuted,
+either by a money payment or by subjecting the infant to circumcision.**
+
+     * This fact is proved, in so far as the Hebrew people is
+     concerned, by the texts of the Pentateuch and of the
+     prophets; amongst the Moabites also it was his eldest son
+     whom King Mosha took to offer to his god. We find the same
+     custom among other Syrian races: Philo of Byblos tells us,
+     in fact, that El-Kronos, god of Byblos, sacrificed his
+     firstborn son and set the example of this kind of offering.
+
+     ** Redemption by a payment in money was the case among the
+     Hebrews, as also the substitution of an animal in the place
+     of a child; as to redemption by circumcision, cf. the story
+     of Moses and Zipporah, where the mother saves her son from
+     Jahveh by circumcising him. Circumcision was practised among
+     the Syrians of Palestine in the time of Herodotus.
+
+At important junctures, however, this pretence of bloodshed would fail
+to appease them, and the death of the child alone availed. Indeed, in
+times of national danger, the king and nobles would furnish, not merely
+a single victim, but as many as the priests chose to demand.* While they
+were being burnt alive on the knees of the statue, or before the sacred
+emblem, their cries of pain were drowned by the piping of flutes or the
+blare of trumpets, the parents standing near the altar, without a sign
+of pity, and dressed as for a festival: the ruler of the world could
+refuse nothing to prayers backed by so precious an offering, and by a
+purpose so determined to move him. Such sacrifices were, however, the
+exception, and the shedding of their own blood by his priests sufficed,
+as a rule, for the daily wants of the god. Seizing their knives, they
+would slash their arms and breasts with the view of compelling, by this
+offering of their own persons, the good will of the Baalim.**
+
+     * If we may credit Tertullian, the custom of offering up
+     children as sacrifices lasted down to the proconsulate of
+     Tiberius.
+
+     ** Cf., for the Hebraic epoch, the scene where the priests
+     of Baal, in a trial of power with Elijah before Ahab,
+     offered up sacrifices on the highest point of Carmel, and
+     finding that their offerings did not meet with the usual
+     success, "cut themselves... with knives and lancets till the
+     blood gushed out upon them."
+
+The Astartes of all degrees and kinds were hardly less cruel; they
+imposed frequent flagellations, self-mutilation, and sometimes even
+emasculation, on their devotees. Around the majority of these goddesses
+was gathered an infamous troop of profligates (_kedeshim_), "dogs of
+love" (_kelabim_), and courtesans (_kedeshot_). The temples bore little
+resemblance to those of the regions of the Lower Euphrates: nowhere do
+we find traces of those _ziggurat_ which serve to produce the peculiar
+jagged outline characteristic of Chaldaean cities. The Syrian edifices
+were stone buildings, which included, in addition to the halls and
+courts reserved for religious rites, dwelling-rooms for the priesthood,
+and storehouses for provisions: though not to be compared in size with
+the sanctuaries of Thebes, they yet answered the purpose of strongholds
+in time of need, and were capable of resisting the attacks of a
+victorious foe.* A numerous staff, consisting of priests, male and
+female singers, porters, butchers, slaves, and artisans, was assigned
+to each of these temples: here the god was accustomed to give forth his
+oracles, either by the voice of his prophets, or by the movement of his
+statues.** The greater number of the festivals celebrated in them
+were closely connected with the pastoral and agricultural life of
+the country; they inaugurated, or brought to a close, the principal
+operations of the year--the sowing of seed, the harvest, the vintage,
+the shearing of the sheep. At Shechem, when the grapes were ripe, the
+people flocked out of the town into the vineyards, returning to the
+temple for religious observances and sacred banquets when the fruit had
+been trodden in the winepress.***
+
+     * The story of Abimelech gives us some idea of what the
+     Canaanite temple of Baal-Berith at Shechem was like.
+
+     ** As to the regular organisation of Baal-worship, we
+     possess only documents of a comparatively late period.
+
+     *** It is probable that the vintage festival, celebrated at
+     Shiloh in the time of the Judges, dated back to a period of
+     Canaanite history prior to the Hebrew invasion, i.e. to the
+     time of the Egyptian supremacy.
+
+In times of extraordinary distress, such as a prolonged drought or a
+famine, the priests were wont to ascend in solemn procession to the high
+places in order to implore the pity of their divine masters, from whom
+they strove to extort help, or to obtain the wished-for rain, by their
+dances, their lamentations, and the shedding of their blood.*
+
+     *Cf., in the Hebraic period, the scene where the priests of
+     Baal go up to the top of Mount Carmel with the prophet
+     Elijah.
+
+Almost everywhere, but especially in the regions east of the Jordan,
+were monuments which popular piety surrounded with a superstitious
+reverence. Such were the isolated boulders, or, as we should call
+them, "menhirs," reared on the summit of a knoll, or on the edge of
+a tableland; dolmens, formed of a flat slab placed on the top of two
+roughly hewn supports, cromlechs, or, that is to say, stone circles, in
+the centre of which might be found a beth-el. We know not by whom were
+set up these monuments there, nor at what time: the fact that they
+are in no way different from those which are to be met with in Western
+Europe and the north of Africa has given rise to the theory that they
+were the work of some one primeval race which wandered ceaselessly
+over the ancient world. A few of them may have marked the tombs of
+some forgotten personages, the discovery of human bones beneath them
+confirming such a conjecture; while others seem to have been holy places
+and altars from the beginning. The nations of Syria did not in all cases
+recognise the original purpose of these monuments, but regarded them as
+marking the seat of an ancient divinity, or the precise spot on which he
+had at some time manifested himself. When the children of Israel caught
+sight of them again on their return from Egypt, they at once recognised
+in them the work of their patriarchs. The dolmen at Shechem was the
+altar which Abraham had built to the Eternal after his arrival in the
+country of Canaan. Isaac had raised that at Beersheba, on the very spot
+where Jehovah had appeared in order to renew with him the covenant that
+He had made with Abraham. One might almost reconstruct a map of the
+wanderings of Jacob from the altars which he built at each of his
+principal resting-places--at Gilead [Galeed], at Ephrata, at Bethel, and
+at Shechem.* Each of such still existing objects probably had a history
+of its own, connecting it inseparably with some far-off event in the
+local annals.
+
+     * The heap of stones at Galeed, in Aramaic _Jegar-
+     Sahadutha_, "the heap of witness," marked the spot where
+     Laban and Jacob were reconciled; the stele on the way to
+     Ephrata was the tomb of Rachel; the altar and stele at
+     Bethel marked the spot where God appeared unto Jacob.
+
+[Illustration: 235.jpg TRANSJORDANIAN DOLMEN]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+
+[Illustration: 238.jpg A CROMLECH IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF HESBAN, IN THE
+COUNTRY OF MOAB]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+
+Most of them were objects of worship: they were anointed with oil, and
+victims were slaughtered in their honour; the faithful even came at
+times to spend the night and sleep near them, in order to obtain in
+their dreams glimpses of the future.*
+
+     * The menhir of Bethel was the identical one whereon Jacob
+     rested his head on the night in which Jehovah appeared to
+     him in a dream. In Phoenicia there was a legend which told
+     how Usoos set up two stellae to the elements of wind and fire,
+     and how he offered the blood of the animals he had killed in
+     the chase as a libation.
+
+Men and beasts were supposed to be animated, during their lifetime, by
+a breath or soul which ran in their veins along with their blood, and
+served to move their limbs; the man, therefore, who drank blood or ate
+bleeding flesh assimilated thereby the soul which inhered in it. After
+death the fate of this soul was similar to that ascribed to the spirits
+of the departed in Egypt and Chaldaea. The inhabitants of the ancient
+world were always accustomed to regard the surviving element in man as
+something restless and unhappy--a weak and pitiable double, doomed to
+hopeless destruction if deprived of the succour of the living.
+They imagined it as taking up its abode near the body wrapped in a
+half-conscious lethargy; or else as dwelling with the other _rephaim_
+(departed spirits) in some dismal and gloomy kingdom, hidden in the
+bowels of the earth, like the region ruled by the Chaldaean Allat, its
+doors gaping wide to engulf new arrivals, but allowing none to escape
+who had once passed the threshold.*
+
+     * The expression _rephaim_ means "the feeble"; it was the
+     epithet applied by the Hebrews to a part of the primitive
+     races of Palestine.
+
+There it wasted away, a prey to sullen melancholy, under the sway of
+inexorable deities, chief amongst whom, according to the Phoenician
+idea, was Mout (Death),* the grandson of El; there the slave became the
+equal of his former master, the rich man no longer possessed anything
+which could raise him above the poor, and dreaded monarchs were greeted
+on their entrance by the jeers of kings who had gone down into the night
+before them.
+
+     *Among the Hebrews his name was Maweth, who feeds the
+     departed like sheep, and himself feeds on them in hell. Some
+     writers have sought to identify this or some analogous god
+     with the lion represented on a stele of Piraeus which
+     threatens to devour the body of a dead man.
+
+[Illustration: 240.jpg A CORNER OF THE PHOENICIAN NECKROPOLIS AT ADLUN]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph in Lortet.
+
+The corpse, after it had been anointed with perfumes and enveloped in
+linen, and impregnated with substances which retarded its decomposition,
+was placed in some natural grotto or in a cave hollowed out of the solid
+rock: sometimes it was simply laid on the bare earth, sometimes in a
+sarcophagus or coffin, and on it, or around it, were piled amulets,
+jewels, objects of daily use, vessels filled with perfume, or household
+utensils, together with meat and drink. The entrance was then closed,
+and on the spot a cippus was erected--in popular estimation sometimes
+held to represent the soul--or a monument was set up on a scale
+proportionate to the importance of the family to which the dead man had
+belonged.* On certain days beasts ceremonially pure were sacrificed at
+the tomb, and libations poured out, which, carried into the next world
+by virtue of the prayers of those who offered them, and by the aid of
+the gods to whom the prayers were addressed, assuaged the hunger
+and thirst of the dead man.** The chapels and stellae which marked the
+exterior of these "eternal"*** houses have disappeared in the course
+of the various wars by which Syria suffered so heavily: in almost all
+cases, therefore, we are ignorant as to the sites of the various cities
+of the dead in which the nobles and common people of the Canaanite and
+Amorite towns were laid to rest.****
+
+     * The pillar or stele was used among both Hebrews and
+     Phoenicians to mark the graves of distinguished persons.
+     Among the Semites speaking Aramaic it was called _nephesh_,
+     especially when it took the form of a pyramid; the word
+     means "breath," "soul," and clearly shows the ideas
+     associated with the object.
+
+     ** An altar was sometimes placed in front of the sarcophagus
+     to receive these offerings.
+
+     *** This expression, which is identical with that used by
+     the Egyptians of the same period, is found in one of the
+     Phoenician inscriptions at Malta.
+
+     **** The excavations carried out by M. Gautier in 1893-94,
+     on the little island of Bahr-el-Kadis, at one time believed
+     to have been the site of the town of Qodshu, have revealed
+     the existence of a number of tombs in the enclosure which
+     forms the central part of the tumulus: some of these may
+     possibly date from the Amorite epoch, but they are very poor
+     in remains, and contain no object which permits us to fix
+     the date with accuracy.
+
+In Phoenicia alone do we meet with burial-places which, after the
+vicissitudes and upheavals of thirty centuries, still retain something
+of their original arrangement. Sometimes the site chosen was on level
+ground: perpendicular shafts or stairways cut in the soil led down
+to low-roofed chambers, the number of which varied according to
+circumstances: they were often arranged in two stories, placed one above
+the other, fresh vaults being probably added as the old ones were filled
+up. They were usually rectangular in shape, with horizontal or slightly
+arched ceilings; niches cut in the walls received the dead body and the
+objects intended for its use in the next world, and were then closed
+with a slab of stone. Elsewhere some isolated hill or narrow gorge, with
+sides of fine homogeneous limestone, was selected.*
+
+     * Such was the necropolis at Adlun, the last rearrangement
+     of which took place during the Graeco-Roman period, but
+     which externally bears so strong a resemblance to an
+     Egyptian necropolis of the XVIIIth or XIXth dynasty, that we
+     may, without violating the probabilities, trace its origin
+     back to the time of the Pharaonic conquest.
+
+In this case the doors were placed in rows on a sort of facade similar
+to that of the Egyptian rock-tomb, generally without any attempt at
+external ornament. The vaults were on the ground-level, but were not
+used as chapels for the celebration of festivals in honour of the
+dead: they were walled up after every funeral, and all access to them
+forbidden, until such time as they were again required for the purposes
+of burial. Except on these occasions of sad necessity, those whom "the
+mouth of the pit had devoured" dreaded the visits of the living, and
+resorted to every means afforded by their religion to protect themselves
+from them. Their inscriptions declare repeatedly that neither gold nor
+silver, nor any object which could excite the greed of robbers, was to
+be found within their graves; they threaten any one who should dare to
+deprive them of such articles of little value as belonged to them, or to
+turn them out of their chambers in order to make room for others, with
+all sorts of vengeance, divine and human. These imprecations have not,
+however, availed to save them from the desecration the danger of which
+they foresaw, and there are few of their tombs which were not occupied
+by a succession of tenants between the date of their first making and
+the close of the Roman supremacy. When the modern explorer chances to
+discover a vault which has escaped the spade of the treasure-seeker,
+it is hardly ever the case that the bodies whose remains are unearthed
+prove to be those of the original proprietors.
+
+[Illustration: 242.jpg VALLEY OF THE TOMB OF THE KINGS]
+
+[Illustration: 242-text.jpg]
+
+The gods and legends of Chaldaea had penetrated to the countries of
+Amauru and Canaan, together with the language of the conquerors and
+their system of writing: the stories of Adapa's struggles against the
+south-west wind, or of the incidents which forced Irishkigal, queen of
+the dead, to wed Nergal, were accustomed to be read at the courts
+of Syrian princes. Chaldaean theology, therefore, must have exercised
+influence on individual Syrians and on their belief; but although we
+are forced to allow the existence of such influence, we cannot define
+precisely the effects produced by it. Only on the coast and in the
+Phoenician cities do the local religions seem to have become formulated
+at a fairly early date, and crystallised under pressure of this
+influence into cosmogonie theories. The Baalim and Astartes reigned
+there as on the banks of the Jordan or Orontes, and in each town
+Baal was "the most high," master of heaven and eternity, creator of
+everything which exists, though the character of his creating acts was
+variously defined according to time and place. Some regarded him as the
+personification of Justice, Sydyk, who established the universe with the
+help of eight indefatigable Cabiri. Others held the whole world to be
+the work of a divine family, whose successive generations gave birth
+to the various elements. The storm-wind, Colpias, wedded to Chaos, had
+begotten two mortals, Ulom (Time) and Kadmon (the First-Born), and these
+in their turn engendered Qen and Qenath, who dwelt in Phoenicia: then
+came a drought, and they lifted up their heads to the Sun, imploring
+him, as Lord of the Heavens (_Baalsamin_), to put an end to their woes.
+At Tyre it was thought that Chaos existed at the beginning, but chaos
+of a dark and troubled nature, over which a Breath (_ruakh_) floated
+without affecting it; "and this Chaos had no ending, and it was thus for
+centuries and centuries.--Then the Breath became enamoured of its own
+principles, and brought about a change in itself, and this change was
+called Desire:--now Desire was the principle which created all things,
+and the Breath knew not its own creation.--The Breath and Chaos,
+therefore, became united, and Mot the Clay was born, and from this clay
+sprang all the seed of creation, and Mot was the father of all things;
+now Mot was like an egg in shape.--And the Sun, the Moon, the stars,
+the great planets, shone forth.* There were living beings devoid of
+intelligence, and from these living beings came intelligent beings,
+who were called _Zophesamin_, or 'watchers of the heavens.'Now the
+thunder-claps in the war of separating elements awoke these intelligent
+beings as it were from a sleep, and then the males and the females began
+to stir themselves and to seek one another on the land and in the sea."
+
+     * Mot, the clay formed by the corruption of earth and water,
+     is probably a Phoenician form of a word which means _water_
+     in the Semitic languages. Cf. the Egyptian theory, according
+     to which the clay, heated by the sun, was supposed to have
+     given birth to animated beings; this same clay modelled by
+     Khnumu into the form of an egg was supposed to have produced
+     the heavens and the earth.
+
+A scholar of the Roman epoch, Philo of Byblos, using as a basis some
+old documents hidden away in the sanctuaries, which had apparently been
+classified by Sanchoniathon, a priest long before his time, has handed
+these theories of the cosmogony down to us: after he has explained how
+the world was brought out of Chaos, he gives a brief summary of the dawn
+of civilization in Phoenicia and the legendary period in its history.
+No doubt he interprets the writings from which he compiled his work in
+accordance with the spirit of his time: he has none the less preserved
+their substance more or less faithfully. Beneath the veneer of
+abstraction with which the Greek tongue and mind have overlaid the
+fragment thus quoted, we discern that groundwork of barbaric ideas
+which is to be met with in most Oriental theologies, whether Egyptian
+or Babylonian. At first we have a black mysterious Chaos, stagnating
+in eternal waters, the primordial Nu or Apsu; then the slime which
+precipitates in this chaos and clots into the form of an egg, like the
+mud of the Nile under the hand? of Khnumu; then the hatching forth of
+living organisms and indolent generations of barely conscious creatures,
+such as the Lakhmu, the Anshar, and the Illinu of Chaldaean speculation;
+finally the abrupt appearance of intelligent beings.
+
+[Illustration: 246.jpg]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the original in the _Cabinet
+     des Medailles_.
+
+The Phoenicians, however, accustomed as they were to the Mediterranean,
+with its blind outbursts of fury, had formed an idea of Chaos which
+differed widely from that of most of the inland races, to whom it
+presented itself as something silent and motionless: they imagined it
+as swept by a mighty wind, which, gradually increasing to a roaring
+tempest, at length succeeded in stirring the chaos to its very depths,
+and in fertilizing its elements amidst the fury of the storm. No sooner
+had the earth been thus brought roughly into shape, than the whole
+family of the north winds swooped down upon it, and reduced it to
+civilized order. It was but natural that the traditions of a seafaring
+race should trace its descent from the winds.
+
+In Phoenicia the sea is everything: of land there is but just enough
+to furnish a site for a score of towns, with their surrounding belt
+of gardens. Mount Lebanon, with its impenetrable forests, isolated it
+almost entirely from Coele-Syria, and acted as the eastward boundary of
+the long narrow quadrangle hemmed in between the mountains and the rocky
+shore of the sea. At frequent intervals, spurs run out at right angles
+from the principal chain, forming steep headlands on the sea-front:
+these cut up the country, small to begin with, into five or six still
+smaller provinces, each one of which possessed from time immemorial its
+own independent cities, its own religion, and its own national history.
+To the north were the Zahi, a race half sailors, half husbandmen, rich,
+brave, and turbulent, ever ready to give battle to their neighbours,
+or rebel against an alien master, be he who he might. Arvad,* which was
+used by them as a sort of stronghold or sanctuary, was huddled together
+on an island some two miles from the coast: it was only about a thousand
+yards in circumference, and the houses, as though to make up for the
+limited space available for their foundations, rose to a height of five
+stories. An Astarte reigned there, as also a sea-Baal, half man, half
+fish, but not a trace of a temple or royal palace is now to be found.**
+
+     * The name Arvad was identified in the Egyptian inscriptions
+     by Birch, who, with Hincks, at first saw in the name a
+     reference to the peoples of Ararat; Birch's identification,
+     is now accepted by all Egyptologists. The name is written
+     Aruada or Arada in the Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+
+     ** The Arvad Astarte had been identified by the Egyptians
+     with their goddess Bastit. The sea-Baal, who has been
+     connected by some with Dagon of Askalon, is represented on
+     the earliest Arvadian coins. He has a fish-like tail, the
+     body and bearded head of a man, with an Assyrian headdress;
+     on his breast we sometimes find a circular opening which
+     seems to show the entrails.
+
+The whole island was surrounded by a stone wall, built on the outermost
+ledges of the rocks, which were levelled to form its foundation. The
+courses of the masonry were irregular, laid without cement or mortar of
+any kind. This bold piece of engineering served the double purpose of
+sea-wall and rampart, and was thus fitted to withstand alike the onset
+of hostile fleets and the surges of the Mediterranean.*
+
+     * The antiquity of the wall of Arvad, recognised by
+     travellers of the last century, is now universally admitted
+     by all archaeologists.
+
+[Illustration: 248.jpg]
+
+There was no potable water on the island, and for drinking purposes the
+inhabitants were obliged to rely on the fall of rain, which they stored
+in cisterns--still in use among their descendants. In the event of
+prolonged drought they were obliged to send to the mainland opposite; in
+time of war they had recourse to a submarine spring, which bubbles up
+in mid-channel. Their divers let down a leaden bell, to the top of which
+was fitted a leathern pipe, and applied it to the orifice of the spring;
+the fresh water coming up through the sand was collected in this bell,
+and rising in the pipe, reached the surface uncontaminated by salt
+water.*
+
+     * Renan tells us that "M. Gaillardot, when crossing from the
+     island to the mainland, noticed a spring of sweet water
+     bubbling up from the bottom of the sea.... Thomson and
+     Walpole noticed the same spring or similar springs a little
+     to the north of Tortosa."
+
+[Illustration: 249.jpg Page Image]
+
+The harbour opened to the east, facing the mainland: it was divided
+into two basins by a stone jetty, and was doubtless insufficient for
+the sea-traffic, but this was the less felt inasmuch as there was a safe
+anchorage outside it--the best, perhaps, to be found in these waters.
+Opposite to Arvad, on an almost continuous line of coast some ten or
+twelve miles in length, towns and villages occurred at short intervals,
+such as Marath, Antarados, Enhydra, and Karne, into which the surplus
+population of the island overflowed. Karne possessed a harbour,
+and would have been a dangerous neighbour to the Arvadians had they
+themselves not occupied and carefully fortified it.*
+
+     * Marath, now Amrit, possesses some ancient ruins which have
+     been described by Renan. Antarados, which prior to the
+     Graeco-Roman era was a place of no importance, occupies the
+     site of Tortosa. Enhydra is not known, and Karne has been
+     replaced by Karnun to the north of Tortosa. None of the
+     "neighbours of Arados" are mentioned by name in the Assyrian
+     texts; but W. Max Mueller has demonstrated that the Egyptian
+     form _Aratut_ or _Aratiut_ corresponds with a Semitic plural
+     _Arvadot_, and consequently refers not only to Arad itself,
+     but also to the fortified cities and towns which formed its
+     continental suburbs.
+
+The cities of the dead lay close together in the background, on the
+slope of the nearest chain of hills; still further back lay a plain
+celebrated for its fertility and the luxuriance of its verdure: Lebanon,
+with its wooded peaks, was shut in on the north and south, but on the
+east the mountain sloped downwards almost to the sea-level, furnishing a
+pass through which ran the road which joined the great military highway
+not far from Qodshu. The influence of Arvad penetrated by means of this
+pass into the valley of the Orontes, and is believed to have gradually
+extended as far as Hamath itself--in other words, over the whole of
+Zahi. For the most part, however, its rule was confined to the coast
+between G-abala and the Nahr el-Kebir; Simyra at one time acknowledged
+its suzerainty, at another became a self-supporting and independent
+state, strong enough to compel the respect of its neighbours.* Beyond
+the Orontes, the coast curves abruptly inward towards the west, and a
+group of wind-swept hills ending in a promontory called Phaniel,** the
+reputed scene of a divine manifestation, marked the extreme limit of
+Arabian influence to the north, if, indeed, it ever reached so far.
+
+     * Simyra is the modern Surnrah, near the Nahr el-Kebir.
+
+     ** The name has only come down to us under its Greek form,
+     but its original form, Phaniel or Penuel, is easily arrived
+     at from the analogous name used in Canaan to indicate
+     localities where there had been a theophany. Renan questions
+     whether Phaniel ought not to be taken in the same sense as
+     the Pne-Baal of the Carthaginian inscriptions, and applied
+     to a goddess to whom the promontory had been dedicated; he
+     also suggests that the modern name _Cap Madonne_ may be a
+     kind of echo of the title _Rabbath_ borne by this goddess
+     from the earliest times.
+
+Half a dozen obscure cities flourished here, Arka,* Siani,** Mahallat,
+Kaiz, Maiza, and Botrys,*** some of them on the seaboard, others inland
+on the bend of some minor stream. Botrys,**** the last of the six,
+barred the roads which cross the Phaniel headland, and commanded the
+entrance to the holy ground where Byblos and Berytus celebrated each
+year the amorous mysteries of Adonis.
+
+     * Arka is perhaps referred to in the tablets of Tel el-
+     Amarna under the form Irkata or Irkat; it also appears in
+     the Bible (Gen. x. 17) and in the Assyrian texts. It is the
+     Cassarea of classical geographers, which has now resumed its
+     old Phoenician name of Tell-Arka.
+
+     ** Sianu or Siani is mentioned in the Assyrian texts and in
+     the Bible; Strabo knew it under the name of Sinna, and a
+     village near Arka was called Sin or Syn as late as the XVth
+     century.
+
+     *** According to the Assyrian inscriptions, these were the
+     names of the three towns which formed the Tripolis of
+     Graeco-Roman times.
+
+     **** Botrys is the hellenized form of the name Bozruna or
+     Bozrun, which appears on the tablets of Tel el-Amarna; the
+     modern name, Butrun or Batrun, preserves the final letter
+     which the Greeks had dropped.
+
+Gublu, or--as the Greeks named it--Byblos,* prided itself on being the
+most ancient city in the world. The god El had founded it at the dawning
+of time, on the flank of a hill which is visible from some distance
+out at sea. A small bay, now filled up, made it an important shipping
+centre. The temple stood on the top of the hill, a few fragments of its
+walls still serving to mark the site; it was, perhaps, identical with
+that of which we find the plan engraved on certain imperial coins.**
+
+     * _Gublu_ or _Gubli_ is the pronunciation indicated for this
+     name in the Tel el-Amarna tablets; the Egyptians transcribed
+     it _Kupuna_ or _Kupna_ by substituting _n_ for _l_. The
+     Greek name Byblos was obtained from Gublu by substituting a
+     _b_ for the _g_.
+
+     ** Renan carried out excavations in the hill of Kassubah
+     which brought to light some remains of a Graeco-Roman temple:
+     he puts forward, subject to correction, the hypothesis which
+     I have adopted above.
+
+Two flights of steps led up to it from the lower quarters of the town,
+one of which gave access to a chapel in the Greek style, surmounted by
+a triangular pediment, and dating, at the earliest, from the time of the
+Seleucides; the other terminated in a long colonnade, belonging to the
+same period, added as a new facade to an earlier building, apparently in
+order to bring it abreast of more modern requirements.
+
+[Illustration: 252.jpg]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the original in the _Cabinet
+     des Medailles_.
+
+The sanctuary which stands hidden behind this incongruous veneer is, as
+represented on the coins, in a very archaic style, and is by no means
+wanting in originality or dignity. It consists of a vast rectangular
+court surrounded by cloisters. At the point where lines drawn from the
+centres of the two doors seem to cross one another stands a conical
+stone mounted on a cube of masonry, which is the beth-el animated by
+the spirit of the god: an open-work balustrade surrounds and protects it
+from the touch of the profane. The building was perhaps not earlier
+than the Assyrian or Persian era, but in its general plan it evidently
+reproduced the arrangements of some former edifice.*
+
+     * The author of the _De Dea Syra_ classed the temple of
+     Byblos among the Phoenician temples of the old order, which
+     were almost as ancient as the temples of Egypt, and it is
+     probable that from the Egyptian epoch onwards the plan of
+     this temple must have been that shown on the coins; the
+     cloister arcades ought, however, to be represented by
+     pillars or by columns supporting architraves, and the fact
+     of their presence leads me to the conclusion that the temple
+     did not exist in the form known to us at a date earlier than
+     the last Assyrian period.
+
+At an early time El was spoken of as the first king of G-ablu in the
+same manner as each one of his Egyptian fellow-gods had been in their
+several nomes, and the story of his exploits formed the inevitable
+prelude to the beginning of human history. Grandson of Eliun who had
+brought Chaos into order, son of Heaven and Earth, he dispossessed,
+vanquished, and mutilated his father, and conquered the most distant
+regions one after another--the countries beyond the Euphrates, Libya,
+Asia Minor and Greece: one year, when the plague was ravaging his
+empire, he burnt his own son on the altar as an expiatory victim, and
+from that time forward the priests took advantage of his example
+to demand the sacrifice of children in moments of public danger or
+calamity.
+
+[Illustration: 253.jpg]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the original in the _Cabinet
+     des Medailles_.
+
+He was represented as a man with two faces, whose eyes opened and shut
+in an eternal alternation of vigilance and repose: six wings grew from
+his shoulders, and spread fan-like around him. He was the incarnation of
+time, which destroys all things in its rapid flight; and of the summer
+sun, cruel and fateful, which eats up the green grass and parches the
+fields. An Astarte reigned with him over Byblos--Baalat-Gublu, his own
+sister; like him, the child of Earth and Heaven. In one of her aspects
+she was identified with the moon, the personification of coldness
+and chastity, and in her statues or on her sacred pillars she was
+represented with the crescent or cow-horns of the Egyptian Hathor; but
+in her other aspect she appeared as the amorous and wanton goddess in
+whom the Greeks recognised the popular concept of Aphrodite. Tradition
+tells us how, one spring morning, she caught sight of and desired the
+youthful god known by the title of _Adoni_, or "My Lord." We scarce know
+what to make of the origin of Adonis, and of the legends which treat him
+as a hero--the representation of him as the incestuous offspring of
+a certain King Kinyras and his own daughter Myrrha is a comparatively
+recent element grafted on the original myth; at any rate, the happiness
+of two lovers had lasted but a few short weeks when a sudden end was put
+to it by the tusks of a monstrous wild boar. Baalat-Gublu wept over her
+lover's body and buried it; then her grief triumphed over death, and
+Adonis, ransomed by her tears, rose from the tomb, his love no whit less
+passionate than it had been before the catastrophe. This is nothing else
+than the Chaldaean legend of Ishtar and Dumuzi presented in a form more
+fully symbolical of the yearly marriage of Earth and Heaven. Like the
+Lady of Byblos at her master's approach, Earth is thrilled by the first
+breath of spring, and abandons herself without shame to the caresses of
+Heaven: she welcomes him to her arms, is fructified by him, and pours
+forth the abundance of her flowers and fruits. Them comes summer and
+kills the spring: Earth is burnt up and withers, she strips herself
+of her ornaments, and her fruitfulness departs till the gloom and icy
+numbness of winter have passed away. Each year the cycle of the seasons
+brings back with it the same joy, the same despair, into the life of
+the world; each year Baalat falls in love with her Adonis and loses him,
+only to bring him back to life and lose him again in the coming year.
+
+The whole neighbourhood of Byblos, and that part of Mount Lebanon in
+which it lies, were steeped in memories of this legend from the very
+earliest times. We know the precise spot where the goddess first caught
+sight of her lover, where she unveiled herself before him, and where at
+the last she buried his mutilated body, and chanted her lament for the
+dead. A river which flows southward not far off was called the Adonis,
+and the valley watered by it was supposed to have been the scene of this
+tragic idyll. The Adonis rises near Aphaka,* at the base of a narrow
+amphitheatre, issuing from the entrance of an irregular grotto, the
+natural shape of which had, at some remote period, been altered by the
+hand of man; in three cascades it bounds into a sort of circular basin,
+where it gathers to itself the waters of the neighbouring springs, then
+it dashes onwards under the single arch of a Roman bridge, and descends
+in a series of waterfalls to the level of the valley below.
+
+     * Aphaka means "spring" in Syriac. The site of the temple and
+     town of Aphaka, where a temple of Aphrodite and Adonis still
+     stood in the time of the Emperor Julian, had long been
+     identified either with Fakra, or with El-Yamuni. Seetzen was
+     the first to place it at El-Afka, and his proposed
+     identification has been amply confirmed by the researches of
+     Penan.
+
+[Illustration: 256.jpg VALLEY OF THE ADONIS]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+
+[Illustration: 256a.jpg THE AMPHITHEATRE OF APHAKA AND THE SOURCE OF THE
+NAHH-IBRAHIM]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph.
+
+The temple rises opposite the source of the stream on an artificial
+mound, a meteorite fallen from heaven having attracted the attention of
+the faithful to the spot. The mountain falls abruptly away, its summit
+presenting a red and bare appearance, owing to the alternate action
+of summer sun and winter frost. As the slopes approach the valley they
+become clothed with a garb of wild vegetation, which bursts forth from
+every fissure, and finds a foothold on every projecting rock: the base
+of the mountain is hidden in a tangled mass of glowing green, which the
+moist yet sunny Spring calls forth in abundance whenever the slopes are
+not too steep to retain a shallow layer of nourishing mould. It would
+be hard to find, even among the most picturesque spots of Europe, a
+landscape in which wildness and beauty are more happily combined, or
+where the mildness of the air and sparkling coolness of the streams
+offer a more perfect setting for the ceremonies attending the worship of
+Astarte.*
+
+     * The temple had been rebuilt during the Roman period, as
+     were nearly all the temples of this region, upon the site of
+     a more ancient structure; this was probably the edifice
+     which the author of _De Dea Syra_ considered to be the
+     temple of Venus, built by Kinyras within a day's journey of
+     Byblos in the Lebanon.
+
+In the basin of the river and of the torrents by which it is fed, there
+appears a succession of charming and romantic scenes--gaping chasms
+with precipitous ochre-coloured walls; narrow fields laid out in
+terraces on the slopes, or stretching in emerald strips along the
+ruddy river-banks; orchards thick with almond and walnut trees; sacred
+grottoes, into which the priestesses, seated at the corner of the roads,
+endeavour to draw the pilgrims as they proceed on their way to make
+their prayers to the goddess;* sanctuaries and mausolea of Adonis at
+Yanukh, on the table-land of Mashnaka, and on the heights of Ghineh.
+According to the common belief, the actual tomb of Adonis was to be
+found at Byblos itself,** where the people were accustomed to assemble
+twice a year to keep his festivals, which lasted for several days
+together.
+
+     * Renan points out at Byblos the existence of one of these
+     caverns which gave shelter to the _kedeshoth_. Many of the
+     caves met with in the valley of the Nahr-Ibrahim have
+     doubtless served for the same purpose, although their walls
+     contain no marks of the cult.
+
+     ** Melito placed it, however, near Aphaka, and, indeed,
+     there must have been as many different traditions on the
+     subject as there were celebrated sanctuaries.
+
+At the summer solstice, the season when the wild boar had ripped open
+the divine hunter, and the summer had already done damage to the spring,
+the priests were accustomed to prepare a painted wooden image of a
+corpse made ready for burial, which they hid in what were called the
+gardens of Adonis--terra-cotta pots filled with earth in which wheat and
+barley, lettuce and fennel, were sown. These were set out at the door of
+each house, or in the courts of the temple, where the sprouting plants
+had to endure the scorching effect of the sun, and soon withered away.
+For several days troops of women and young girls, with their heads
+dishevelled or shorn, their garments in rags, their faces torn with
+their nails, their breasts and arms scarified with knives, went about
+over hill and dale in search of their idol, giving utterance to cries of
+despair, and to endless appeals: "Ah, Lord! Ah, Lord! what is become of
+thy beauty." Once having found the image, they brought it to the feet
+of the goddess, washed it while displaying its wound, anointed it with
+sweet-smelling unguents, wrapped it in a linen and woollen shroud,
+placed it on a catafalque, and, after expressing around the bier their
+feelings of desolation, according to the rites observed at fanerais,
+placed it solemnly in the tomb.*
+
+     * Theocritus has described in his fifth Idyll the laying out
+     and burial of Adonis as it was practised at Alexandria in
+     Egypt in the IIIrd century before our era.
+
+The close and dreary summer passes away. With the first days of
+September the autumnal rains begin to fall upon the hills, and washing
+away the ochreous earth lying upon the slopes, descend in muddy torrents
+into the hollows of the valleys. The Adonis river begins to swell with
+the ruddy waters, which, on reaching the sea, do not readily blend with
+it. The wind from the offing drives the river water back upon the coast,
+and forces it to cling for a long time to the shore, where it forms a
+kind of crimson fringe.* This was the blood of the hero, and the sight
+of this precious stream stirred up anew the devotion of the people, who
+donned once more their weeds of mourning until the priests were able
+to announce to them that, by virtue of their supplications, Adonis was
+brought back from the shades into new life. Shouts of joy immediately
+broke forth, and the people who had lately sympathized with the mourning
+goddess in her tears and cries of sorrow, now joined with her in
+expressions of mad and amorous delight. Wives and virgins--all the
+women who had refused during the week of mourning to make a sacrifice of
+their hair--were obliged to atone for this fault by putting themselves
+at the disposal of the strangers whom the festival had brought together,
+the reward of their service becoming the property of the sacred
+treasury.**
+
+     * The same phenomenon occurs in spring. Maundrell saw it on
+     March 17, and Renan in the first days of February.
+
+     ** A similar usage was found in later times in the countries
+     colonised by or subjected to the influence of the
+     Phoenicians, especially in Cyprus.
+
+Berytus shared with Byblos the glory of having had El for its founder.*
+The road which connects these two cities makes a lengthy detour in its
+course along the coast, having to cross numberless ravines and rocky
+summits: before reaching Palai-Byblos, it passes over a headland by a
+series of steps cut into the rock, forming a kind of "ladder" similar
+to that which is encountered lower down, between Acre and the plains of
+Tyre.
+
+     * The name Berytus was found by Hincks in the Egyptian texts
+     under the form. Birutu, Beirutu; it occurs frequently in the
+     Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+
+The river Lykos runs like a kind of natural fosse along the base of
+this steep headland. It forms at the present time a torrent, fed by
+the melting snows of Mount Sannin, and is entirely unnavigable. It was
+better circumstanced formerly in this respect, and even in the early
+years of the Boman conquest, sailors from Arvad (Arados) were accustomed
+to sail up it as far as one of the passes of the lower Lebanon, leading
+into Cole-Syria. Berytus was installed at the base of a great headland
+which stands out boldly into the sea, and forms the most striking
+promontory to be met with in these regions from Carmel to the vicinity
+of Arvad. The port is nothing but an open creek with a petty roadstead,
+but it has the advantage of a good supply of fresh water, which pours
+down from the numerous springs to which it is indebted for its name.*
+According to ancient legends, it was given by El to one of his offspring
+called Poseidon by the Greeks.
+
+     * The name Beyrut has been often derived from a Phconician
+     word signifying _cypress_, and which may have been applied
+     to the pine tree. The Phoenicians themselves derived it from
+     Bir, "wells."
+
+Adonis desired to take possession of it, but was frustrated in the
+attempt, and the maritime Baal secured the permanence of his rule by
+marrying one of his sisters--the Baalat-Beyrut who is represented as a
+nymph on Graeco-Roman coins.* The rule of the city extended as far
+as the banks of the Tamur, and an old legend narrates that its patron
+fought in ancient times with the deity of that river, hurling stones at
+him to prevent his becoming master of the land to the north. The
+bar formed of shingle and the dunes which contract the entrance were
+regarded as evidences of this conflict.**
+
+     * The poet Nonnus has preserved a highly embellished account
+     of this rivalry, where Adonis is called Dionysos.
+
+     ** The original name appears to have been Tamur, Tamyr, from
+     a word signifying "palm" in the Phoenician language. The
+     myth of the conflict between Poseidon and the god of the
+     river, a Baal-Demarous, has been explained by Renan, who
+     accepts the identification of the river-deity with Baal-
+     Thamar, already mentioned by Movers.
+
+Beyond the southern bank of the river, Sidon sits enthroned as "the
+firstborn of Canaan." In spite of this ambitious title it was at first
+nothing but a poor fishing village founded by Bel, the Agenor of the
+Greeks, on the southern slope of a spit of land which juts out obliquely
+towards the south-west.* It grew from year to year, spreading out over
+the plain, and became at length one of the most prosperous of the chief
+cities of the country--a "mother" in Phoenicia.**
+
+     * Sidon is called "the firstborn of Canaan" in Genesis: the
+     name means a fishing-place, as the classical authors already
+     knew--"nam piscem Phonices _sidon_ appellant."
+
+     ** In the coins of classic times it is called "Sidon, the
+     mother--_Om_--of Kambe, Hippo, Citium, and Tyre."
+
+The port, once so celebrated, is shut in by three chains of half-sunken
+reefs, which, running out from the northern end of the peninsula,
+continue parallel to the coast for some hundreds of yards: narrow
+passages in these reefs afford access to the harbour; one small island,
+which is always above water, occupies the centre of this natural dyke
+of rocks, and furnishes a site for a maritime quarter opposite to the
+continental city.* The necropolis on the mainland extends to the east
+and north, and consists of an irregular series of excavations made in a
+low line of limestone cliffs which must have been lashed by the waves
+of the Mediterranean long prior to the beginning of history. These tombs
+are crowded closely together, ramifying into an inextricable maze, and
+are separated from each other by such thin walls that one expects every
+moment to see them give way, and bury the visitors in the ruin. Many
+date back to a very early period, while all of them have been re-worked
+and re-appropriated over and over again. The latest occupiers were
+contemporaries of the Macedonian kings or the Roman Caesars. Space was
+limited and costly in this region of the dead: the Sidonians made the
+best use they could of the tombs, burying in them again and again, as
+the Egyptians were accustomed to do in their cemeteries at Thebes and
+Memphis. The surrounding plain is watered by the "pleasant Bostrenos,"
+and is covered with gardens which are reckoned to be the most beautiful
+in all Syria--at least after those of Damascus: their praises were sung
+even in ancient days, and they had then earned for the city the epithet
+of "the flowery Sidon."**
+
+     * The only description of the port which we possess is that
+     in the romance of Olitophon and Leucippus by Achilles
+     Tatius.
+
+     ** The Bostrenos, which is perhaps to be recognised under
+     the form Borinos in the Periplus of Scylax, is the modern
+     Nahr el-Awaly.
+
+Here, also, an Astarte ruled over the destinies of the people, but a
+chaste and immaculate Astarte, a self-restrained and warlike virgin,
+sometimes identified with the moon, sometimes with the pale and frigid
+morning star.* In addition to this goddess, the inhabitants worshipped
+a Baal-Sidon, and other divinities of milder character--an Astarte
+Shem-Baal, wife of the supreme Baal, and Eshmun, a god of medicine--each
+of whom had his own particular temple either in the town itself or in
+some neighbouring village in the mountain. Baal delighted in travel, and
+was accustomed to be drawn in a chariot through the valleys of Phoenicia
+in order to receive the prayers and offerings of his devotees. The
+immodest Astarte, excluded, it would seem, from the official religion,
+had her claims acknowledged in the cult offered to her by the people,
+but she became the subject of no poetic or dolorous legend like her
+namesake at Byblos, and there was no attempt to disguise her innately
+coarse character by throwing over it a garb of sentiment. She possessed
+in the suburbs her chapels and grottoes, hollowed out in the hillsides,
+where she was served by the usual crowd of _Ephebae_ and sacred
+courtesans. Some half-dozen towns or fortified villages, such as
+Bitziti,** the Lesser Sidon, and Sarepta, were scattered along the
+shore, or on the lowest slopes of the Lebanon.
+
+     * Astarte is represented in the Bible as the goddess of the
+     Sidonians, and she is in fact the object of the invocations
+     addressed to the mistress Deity in the Sidonian
+     inscriptions, the patroness of the town. Kings and queens
+     were her priests and priestesses respectively.
+
+     ** Bitziti is not mentioned except in the Assyrian texts,
+     and has been identified with the modern region Ait ez-Zeitun
+     to the south-east of Sidon. It is very probably the Elaia of
+     Philo of Byblos, the Biais of Dionysios Periegetes, which
+     Renan is inclined to identify with Heldua, Khan-Khaldi, by
+     substituting Eldis as a correction.
+
+Sidonian territory reached its limit at the Cape of Sarepta, where the
+high-lands again meet the sea at the boundary of one of those basins
+into which Phoenicia is divided. Passing beyond this cape, we come first
+upon a Tyrian outpost, the Town of Birds;* then upon the village of
+Nazana** with its river of the same name; beyond this upon a plain
+hemmed in by low hills, cultivated to their summits; then on tombs and
+gardens in the suburbs of Autu;*** and, further still, to a fleet of
+boats moored at a short distance from the shore, where a group of reefs
+and islands furnishes at one and the same time a site for the houses and
+temples of Tyre, and a protection from its foes.
+
+     * The Phoenician name of Ornithonpolis is unknown to us: the
+     town is often mentioned by the geographers of classic times,
+     but with certain differences, some placing it to the north
+     and others to the south of Sarepta. It was near to the site
+     of Adlun, the Adnonum of the Latin itineraries, if it was
+     not actually the same place.
+
+     ** Nazana was both the name of the place and the river, as
+     Kasimiyeh and Khan Kasimiyeh, near the same locality, are
+     to-day.
+
+     *** Autu was identified by Brugsch with Avatha, which is
+     probably El-Awwatin, on the hill facing Tyre. Max Mueller,
+     who reads the word as Authu, Ozu, prefers the Uru or Ushu of
+     the Assyrian texts.
+
+It was already an ancient town at the beginning of the Egyptian
+conquest. As in other places of ancient date, the inhabitants rejoiced
+in stories of the origin of things in which the city figured as the most
+venerable in the world. After the period of the creating gods, there
+followed immediately, according to the current legends, two or three
+generations of minor deities--heroes of light and flame--who had learned
+how to subdue fire and turn it to their needs; then a race of giants,
+associated with the giant peaks of Kasios, Lebanon, Hermon, and Brathy;*
+after which were born two male children--twins: Samem-rum, the lord of
+the supernal heaven, and Usoos, the hunter. Human beings at this time
+lived a savage life, wandering through the woods, and given up to
+shameful vices.
+
+     * The identification of the peak of Brathy is uncertain. The
+     name has been associated with Tabor: since it exactly
+     recalls the name of the cypress and of Berytus, it would be
+     more prudent, perhaps, to look for the name in that of one
+     of the peaks of the Lebanon near the latter town.
+
+[Illustration: 267.jpg THE AMBROSIAN ROCKS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the original in the _Cabinet
+     des Medailles_.
+
+Samemrum took up his abode among them in that region which became
+in later times the Tyrian coast, and showed them how to build huts,
+papyrus, or other reeds: Usoos in the mean time pursued the avocation
+of a hunter of wild beasts, living upon their flesh and clothing
+himself with their skins. A conflict at length broke out between the two
+brothers, the inevitable result of rivalry between the ever-wandering
+hunter and the husbandman attached to the soil.
+
+Usoos succeeded in holding his own till the day when fire and wind took
+the part of his enemy against him.* The trees, shaken and made to rub
+against each other by the tempest, broke into flame from the friction,
+and the forest was set on fire. Usoos, seizing a leafy branch, despoiled
+it of its foliage, and placing it in the water let it drift out to sea,
+bearing him, the first of his race, with it.
+
+     * The text simply states the material facts, the tempest and
+     the fire: the general movement of the narrative seems to
+     prove that the intervention of these elements is an episode
+     in the quarrel between the two brothers--that in which
+     Usoos is forced to fly from the region civilized by
+     Samemrum.
+
+Landing on one of the islands, he set up two menhirs, dedicating them to
+fire and wind that he might thenceforward gain their favour. He poured
+out at their base the blood of animals he had slaughtered, and after
+his death, his companions continued to perform the rites which he had
+inaugurated.
+
+[Illustration: 268.jpg]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the original in the _Cabinet
+     des Medailles_.
+
+The town which he had begun to build on the sea-girt isle was called
+Tyre, the "Rock," and the two rough stones which he had set up remained
+for a long time as a sort of talisman, bringing good luck to its
+inhabitants. It was asserted of old that the island had not always been
+fixed, but that it rose and fell, with the waves like a raft. Two peaks
+looked down upon it--the "Ambrosian Rocks"--between which grew the olive
+tree of Astarte, sheltered by a curtain of flame from external danger.
+An eagle perched thereon watched over a viper coiled round the trunk:
+the whole island would cease to float as soon as a mortal should succeed
+in sacrificing the bird in honour of the gods. Usoos, the Herakles,
+destroyer of monsters, taught the people of the coast how to build
+boats, and how to manage them; he then made for the island and
+disembarked: the bird offered himself spontaneously to his knife, and
+as soon as its blood had moistened the earth, Tyre rooted itself fixedly
+opposite the mainland. Coins of the Roman period represent the chief
+elements in this legend; sometimes the eagle and olive tree, sometimes
+the olive tree and the stelo, and sometimes the two stelae only. From
+this time forward the gods never ceased to reside on the holy island;
+Astarte herself was born there, and one of the temples there showed to
+the admiration of the faithful a fallen star--an aerolite which she had
+brought back from one of her journeys.
+
+[Illustration: 269.jpg TYRE AND ITS SUBURBS ON THE MAINLAND]
+
+Baal was called the Melkarth. king of the city, and the Greeks after"
+wards identified him with their Herakles. His worship was of a severe
+and exacting character: a fire burned perpetually in his sanctuary; his
+priests, like those of the Egyptians, had their heads shaved; they wore
+garments of spotless white linen, held pork in abomination, and refused
+permission to married women to approach the altars.*
+
+     * The worship of Melkarth at Gados (Cadiz) and the functions
+     of his priests are described by Silius Italicus: as Gades
+     was a Tyrian colony, it has been naturally assumed that the
+     main features of the religion of Tyre were reproduced there,
+     and Silius's account of the Melkarth of Gades thus applies
+     to his namesake of the mother city.
+
+Festivals, similar to those of Adonis at Byblos, were held in his honour
+twice a year: in the summer, when the sun burnt up the earth with his
+glowing heat, he offered himself as an expiatory victim to the solar
+orb, giving himself to the flames in order to obtain some mitigation
+of the severity of the sky;* once the winter had brought with it a
+refreshing coolness, he came back to life again, and his return was
+celebrated with great joy. His temple stood in a prominent place on the
+largest of the islands furthest away from the mainland. It served to
+remind the people of the remoteness of their origin, for the priests
+relegated its foundation almost to the period of the arrival of the
+Phoenicians on the shores of the Mediterranean. The town had no supply
+of fresh water, and there was no submarine spring like that of Arvad to
+provide a resource in time of necessity; the inhabitants had, therefore,
+to resort to springs which were fortunately to be found everywhere on
+the hillsides of the mainland. The waters of the well of Eas el-Ain
+had been led down to the shore and dammed up there, so that boats could
+procure a ready supply from this source in time of peace: in time of war
+the inhabitants of Tyre had to trust to the cisterns in which they had
+collected the rains that fell at certain seasons.**
+
+     * The festival commemorating his death by fire was
+     celebrated at Tyre, where his tomb was shown, and in the
+     greater number of the Tyrian colonies.
+
+     ** Abisharri (Abimilki), King of Tyre, confesses to the
+     Pharaoh Amenothes III. that in case of a siege his town
+     would neither have water nor wood. Aqueducts and conduits of
+     water are spoken of by Menander as existing in the time of
+     Shalmaneser; all modern historians agree in attributing
+     their construction to a very remote antiquity.
+
+The strait separating the island from the mainland was some six or seven
+hundred yards in breadth,* less than that of the Nile at several points
+of its course through Middle Egypt, but it was as effective as a broader
+channel to stop the movement of an army: a fleet alone would have
+a chance of taking the city by surprise, or of capturing it after a
+lengthened siege.
+
+     * According to the writers who were contemporary with
+     Alexander, the strait was 4 stadia wide (nearly 1/2 mile),
+     or 500 paces (about 3/8 mile), at the period when the
+     Macedonians undertook the siege of the town; the author
+     followed by Pliny says 700 paces, possibly over--mile wide.
+     From the observations of Poulain de Bossay, Renan thinks the
+     space between the island and the mainland might be nearly a
+     mile in width, but we should perhaps do well to reduce this
+     higher figure and adopt one agreeing better with the
+     statements of Diodorus and Quintus Curtius.
+
+Like the coast region opposite Arvad, the shore which faced Tyre, lying
+between the mouth of the Litany and ras el-Ain, was an actual suburb
+of the city itself--with its gardens, its cultivated fields, its
+cemeteries, its villas, and its fortifications. Here the inhabitants of
+the island were accustomed to bury their dead, and hither they repaired
+for refreshment during the heat of the summer. To the north the little
+town of Mahalliba, on the southern bank of the Litany, and almost hidden
+from view by a turn in the hills, commanded the approaches to the Bekaa,
+and the high-road to Coele-Syria.* To the south, at Ras el-Ain, Old Tyre
+(Palastyrus) looked down upon the route leading into Galilee by way of
+the mountains.**
+
+     * Mahalliba is the present Khurbet-Mahallib.
+
+     ** Palrotyrus has often been considered as a Tyre on the
+     mainland of greater antiquity than the town of the same name
+     on the island; it is now generally admitted that it was
+     merely an outpost, which is conjecturally placed by most
+     scholars in the neighbourhood of Ras el-Ain.
+
+Eastwards Autu commanded the landing-places on the shore, and served to
+protect the reservoirs; it lay under the shadow of a rock, on which was
+built, facing the insular temple of Melkarth, protector of mariners,
+a sanctuary of almost equal antiquity dedicated to his namesake of the
+mainland.* The latter divinity was probably the representative of the
+legendary Samemrum, who had built his village on the coast, while Usoos
+had founded his on the ocean. He was the Baalsamim of starry tunic, lord
+of heaven and king of the sun.
+
+     * If the name has been preserved, as I believe it to be, in
+     that of El-Awwatin, the town must be that whose ruins we
+     find at the foot of Tell-Mashuk, and which are often
+     mistaken for those of Palastyrus. The temple on the summit
+     of the Tell was probably that of Heracles Astrochiton
+     mentioned by Nonnus.
+
+As was customary, a popular Astarte was associated with these deities of
+high degree, and tradition asserted that Melkarth purchased her favour
+by the gift of the first robe of Tyrian purple which was ever dyed.
+Priestesses of the goddess had dwellings in all parts of the plain, and
+in several places the caves are still pointed out where they entertained
+the devotees of the goddess. Behind Autu the ground rises abruptly, and
+along the face of the escarpment, half hidden by trees and brushwood,
+are the remains of the most important of the Tyrian burying-places,
+consisting of half-filled-up pits, isolated caves, and dark galleries,
+where whole families lie together in their last sleep. In some spots the
+chalky mass has been literally honeycombed by the quarrying gravedigger,
+and regular lines of chambers follow one another in the direction of
+the strata, after the fashion of the rock-cut tombs of Upper Egypt.
+They present a bare and dismal appearance both within and without. The
+entrances are narrow and arched, the ceilings low, the walls bare and
+colourless, unrelieved by moulding, picture, or inscription. At one
+place only, near the modern village of Hanaweh, a few groups of figures
+and coarsely cut stelae are to be found, indicating, it would seem, the
+burying-place of some chief of very early times.
+
+[Illustration: 273.jpg THE SCULPTURED ROCKS OF HANAWEH]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Lortet.
+
+These figures run in parallel lines along the rocky sides of a wild
+ravine. They vary from 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet in height, the bodies
+being represented by rectangular pilasters, sometimes merely rough-hewn,
+at others grooved with curved lines to suggest the folds of the Asiatic
+garments; the head is carved full face, though the eyes are given in
+profile, and the summary treatment of the modelling gives evidence of
+a certain skill. Whether they are to be regarded as the product of a
+primitive Amorite art or of a school of Phoenician craftsmen, we are
+unable to determine. In the time of their prosperity the Tyrians
+certainly pushed their frontier as far as this region. The wind-swept
+but fertile country lying among the ramifications of the lowest spurs of
+the Lebanon bears to this day innumerable traces of their indefatigable
+industry--remains of dwellings, conduits and watercourses, cisterns,
+pits, millstones and vintage-troughs, are scattered over the fields,
+interspersed with oil and wine presses. The Phoenicians took naturally
+to agriculture, and carried it to such a high state of perfection as
+to make it an actual science, to which the neighbouring peoples of the
+Mediterranean were glad to accommodate their modes of culture in later
+times.*
+
+     * Their taste for agriculture, and the comparative
+     perfection of their modes of culture, are proved by the
+     greatness of the remains still to be observed: "The
+     Phoenicians constructed a winepress, a trough, to last for
+     ever." Their colonists at Carthage carried with them the same
+     clever methods, and the Romans borrowed many excellent
+     things in the way of agriculture from Carthaginian books,
+     especially from those of Mago.
+
+Among no other people was the art of irrigation so successfully
+practised, and from such a narrow strip of territory as belonged to them
+no other cultivators could have gathered such abundant harvests of wheat
+and barley, and such supplies of grapes, olives, and other fruits. From
+Arvad to Tyre, and even beyond it, the littoral region and the central
+parts of the valleys presented a long ribbon of verdure of varying
+breadth, where fields of corn were blended with gardens and orchards and
+shady woods. The whole region was independent and self-supporting, the
+inhabitants having no need to address themselves to their neighbours in
+the interior, or to send their children to seek their fortune in distant
+lands. To insure prosperity, nothing was needed but a slight exercise of
+labour and freedom from the devastating influence of war.
+
+The position of the country was such as to secure it from attack, and
+from the conflicts which laid waste the rest of Syria. Along almost the
+entire eastern border of the country the Lebanon was a great wall of
+defence running parallel to the coast, strengthened at each extremity
+by the additional protection of the rivers Nahr el-Kebir and Litany. Its
+slopes were further defended by the forest, which, with its lofty trees
+and brushwood, added yet another barrier to that afforded by rocks and
+snow. Hunters' or shepherds' paths led here and there in tortuous courses
+from one side of the mountain to the other. Near the middle of the
+country two roads, practicable in all seasons, secured communications
+between the littoral and the plain of the interior. They branched off on
+either side from the central road in the neighbourhood of Tabakhi, south
+of Qodshu, and served the needs of the wooded province of Magara.* This
+region was inhabited by pillaging tribes, which the Egyptians called at
+one time Lamnana, the Libanites,** at others Shausu, using for them the
+same appellation as that which they bestowed upon the Bedouin of the
+desert.
+
+     * Magara is mentioned in the _Anastasi Papyrus_, No. 1, and
+     Chabas has identified it with the plain of Macra, which
+     Strabo places in Syria, in the neighbourhood of Eloutheros.
+
+     ** The name Lamnana is given in a picture of the campaigns
+     of Seti I.
+
+The roads through this province ran under the dense shade afforded by
+oaks, cedars, and cypresses, in an obscurity favourable to the habits of
+the wolves and hyamas which infested it, and even of those thick-maned
+lions known to Asia at the time; and then proceeding in its course,
+crossed the ridge in the neighbourhood of the snow-peak called Shaua,
+which is probably the Sannin of our times. While one of these roads,
+running north along the lake of Yamuneh and through the gorge of Akura,
+then proceeded along the Adonis* to Byblos, the other took a southern
+direction, and followed the Nahr el-Kelb to the sea.
+
+     * This is the road pointed out by Renan as the easiest but
+     least known of those which cross the Lebanon; the remains of
+     an Assyrian inscription graven on the rocks near Ain el-
+     Asafir show that it was employed from a very early date, and
+     Renan thought that it was used by the armies which came from
+     the upper valley of the Orontes.
+
+Towards the mouth of the latter a wall of rock opposes the progress of
+the river, and leaves at length but a narrow and precipitous defile for
+the passage of its waters: a pathway cut into the cliff at a very remote
+date leads almost perpendicularly from the bottom of the precipice to
+the summit of the promontory. Commerce followed these short and direct
+routes, but invading hosts very rarely took advantage of them, although
+they offered access into the very heart of Phoenicia. Invaders would
+encounter here, in fact, a little known and broken country, lending
+itself readily to surprises and ambuscades; and should they reach the
+foot of the Lebanon range, they would find themselves entrapped in a
+region of slippery defiles, with steep paths at intervals cut into the
+rock, and almost inaccessible to chariots or horses, and so narrow in
+places that a handful of resolute men could have held them for a long
+time against whole battalions. The enemy preferred to make for the two
+natural breaches at the respective extremities of the line of defence,
+and for the two insular cities which flanked the approaches to
+them--Tyre in the case of those coming from Egypt, Arvad and Simyra
+for assailants from the Euphrates. The Arvadians, bellicose by nature,
+would offer strong resistance to the invader, and not permit themselves
+to be conquered without a brave struggle with the enemy, however
+powerful he might be.* When the disproportion of the forces which they
+could muster against the enemy convinced them of the folly of attempting
+an open conflict, their island-home offered them a refuge where they
+would be safe from any attacks.
+
+     * Thutmosis III. was obliged to enter on a campaign against
+     Arvad in the year XXIX., in the year XXX., and probably
+     twice in the following years. Under Amenothes III. and IV.
+     we see that these people took part in all the intrigues
+     directed against Egypt; they were the allies of the Khati
+     against Ramses II. in the campaign of the year V. and later
+     on we find them involved in most of the wars against
+     Assyria.
+
+Sometimes the burning and pillaging of their property on the mainland
+might reduce them to throw themselves on the mercy of their foes, but
+such submission did not last long, and they welcomed the slightest
+occasion for regaining their liberty. Conquered again and again on
+account of the smallness of their numbers, they were never discouraged
+by their reverses, and Phoenicia owed all its military history for a
+long period to their prowess. The Tyrians were of a more accommodating
+nature, and there is no evidence, at least during the early centuries of
+their existence, of the display of those obstinate and blind transports
+of bravery by which the Arvadians were carried away.*
+
+     * No campaign against Tyre is mentioned in any of the
+     Egyptian annals: the expedition of Thutmosis III. against
+     Senzauru was directed against a town of Coele-Syria
+     mentioned in the Tel el-Amarna tablets with the orthography
+     Zinzar, the Sizara-Larissa of Graeco-Roman times, the Shaizar
+     of the Arab Chronicles. On the contrary, the Tel el-Amarna
+     tablets contain several passages which manifest the fidelity
+     of Tyre and its governors to the King of Egypt.
+
+Their foreign policy was reduced to a simple arithmetical question,
+which they discussed in the light of their industrial or commercial
+interests. As soon as they had learned from a short experience that
+a certain Pharaoh had at his disposal armies against which they could
+offer no serious opposition, they at once surrendered to him, and
+thought only of obtaining the greatest profit from the vassalage to
+which they were condemned. The obligation to pay tribute did not appear
+to them so much in the light of a burthen or a sacrifice, as a means
+of purchasing the right to go to and fro freely in Egypt, or in the
+countries subject to its influence. The commerce acquired by these
+privileges recouped them more than a hundredfold for all that their
+overlord demanded from them. The other cities of the coast--Sidon,
+Berytus, Byblos--usually followed the example of Tyre, whether from
+mercenary motives, or from their naturally pacific disposition, or from
+a sense of their impotence; and the same intelligent resignation with
+which, as we know, they accepted the supremacy of the great Egyptian
+empire, was doubtless displayed in earlier centuries in their submission
+to the Babylonians. Their records show that they did not accept this
+state of things merely through cowardice or indolence, for they are
+represented as ready to rebel and shake off the yoke of their foreign
+master when they found it incompatible with their practical interests.
+But their resort to war was exceptional; they generally preferred to
+submit to the powers that be, and to accept from them as if on lease the
+strip of coast-line at the base of the Lebanon, which served as a site
+for their warehouses and dockyards. Thus they did not find the yoke of
+the stranger irksome--the sea opening up to them a realm of freedom
+and independence which compensated them for the limitations of both
+territory and liberty imposed upon them at home.
+
+The epoch which was marked by their first venture on the Mediterranean,
+and the motives which led to it, were alike unknown to them. The gods
+had taught them navigation, and from the beginning of things they had
+taken to the sea as fishermen, or as explorers in search of new lands.*
+They were not driven by poverty to leave their continental abode, or
+inspired thereby with a zeal for distant cruises. They had at home
+sufficient corn and wine, oil and fruits, to meet all their needs, and
+even to administer to a life of luxury. And if they lacked cattle, the
+abundance of fish within their reach compensated for the absence of
+flesh-meat.
+
+     * According to one of the cosmogonies of Sanchoniathon,
+     Khusor, who has been identified with Hephsestos, was the
+     inventor of the fishing-boat, and was the first among men
+     and gods who taught navigation. According to another legend,
+     Melkarth showed the Tyrians how to make a raft from the
+     branches of a fig tree, while the construction of the first
+     ships is elsewhere ascribed to the _Cabiri_.
+
+Nor was it the number of commodiously situated ports on their coast
+which induced them to become a seafaring people, for their harbours were
+badly protected for the most part, and offered no shelter when the
+wind set in from the north, the rugged shore presenting little resource
+against the wind and waves in its narrow and shallow havens. It was the
+nature of the country itself which contributed more than anything else
+to make them mariners. The precipitous mountain masses which separate
+one valley from another rendered communication between them difficult,
+while they served also as lurking-places for robbers. Commerce
+endeavoured to follow, therefore, the sea-route in preference to the
+devious ways of this highwayman's region, and it accomplished its
+purpose the more readily because the common occupation of sea-fishing
+had familiarised the people with every nook and corner on the coast.
+The continual wash of the surge had worn away the bases of the limestone
+cliffs, and the superincumbent masses tumbling down into the sea formed
+lines of rocks, hardly rising above the water-level, which fringed
+the headlands with perilous reefs, against which the waves broke
+continuously at the slightest wind. It required some bravery to approach
+them, and no little skill to steer one of the frail boats, which these
+people were accustomed to employ from the earliest times, scatheless
+amid the breakers. The coasting trade was attracted from Arvad
+successively to Berytus, Sidon, and Tyre, and finally to the other
+towns of the coast. It was in full operation, doubtless, from the VIth
+Egyptian dynasty onwards, when the Pharaohs no longer hesitated to
+embark troops at the mouth of the Nile for speedy transmission to the
+provinces of Southern Syria, and it was by this coasting route that the
+tin and amber of the north succeeded in reaching the interior of
+Egypt. The trade was originally, it would seem, in the hands of those
+mysterious Kefatiu of whom the name only was known in later times. When
+the Phoenicians established themselves at the foot of the Lebanon, they
+had probably only to take the place of their predecessors and to follow
+the beaten tracks which they had already made. We have every reason to
+believe that they took to a seafaring life soon after their arrival in
+the country, and that they adapted themselves and their civilization
+readily to the exigencies of a maritime career.*
+
+     * Connexion between Phoenicia and Greece was fully
+     established at the outbreak of the Egyptian wars, and we may
+     safely assume their existence in the centuries immediately
+     preceding the second millennium before our era.
+
+In their towns, as in most sea-ports, there was a considerable foreign
+element, both of slaves and freemen, but the Egyptians confounded them
+all under one name, Kefatiu, whether they were Cypriotes, Asiatics, or
+Europeans, or belonged to the true Tyrian and Sidonian race. The
+costume of the Kafiti was similar to that worn by the people of the
+interior--the loin-cloth, with or without a long upper garment: while in
+tiring the hair they adopted certain refinements, specially a series
+of curls which the men arranged in the form of an aigrette above
+their foreheads. This motley collection of races was ruled over by an
+oligarchy of merchants and shipowners, whose functions were hereditary,
+and who usually paid homage to a single king, the representative of the
+tutelary god, and absolute master of the city.*
+
+     * Under the Egyptian supremacy, the local princes did not
+     assume the royal title in the despatches which they
+     addressed to the kings of Egypt, but styled themselves
+     governors of their cities.
+
+The industries pursued in Phoenicia were somewhat similar to those of
+other parts of Syria; the stuffs, vases, and ornaments made at Tyre and
+Sidon could not be distinguished from those of Hamath or of Carchemish.
+
+[Illustration 282.jpg ONE OF THE KAFITI FROM THE TOMB OF RAKHMIRI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the coloured sketches by Prisse
+     d'Avennes in the Natural Hist. Museum.
+
+All manufactures bore the impress of Babylonian influence, and their
+implements, weights, measures, and system of exchange were the same
+as those in use among the Chaldaeans. The products of the country
+were, however, not sufficient to freight the fleets which sailed
+from Phoenicia every year bound for all parts of the known world, and
+additional supplies had to be regularly obtained from neighbouring
+peoples, who thus became used to pour into Tyre and Sidon the surplus
+of their manufactures, or of the natural wealth of their country. The
+Phoenicians were also accustomed to send caravans into regions which
+they could not reach in their caracks, and to establish trading stations
+at the fords of rivers, or in the passes over mountain ranges. We
+know of the existence of such emporia at Laish near the sources of the
+Jordan, at Thapsacus, and at Nisibis, and they must have served the
+purpose of a series of posts on the great highways of the world. The
+settlements of the Phoenicians always assumed the character of colonies,
+and however remote they might be from their fatherland, the colonists
+never lost the manners and customs of their native country. They
+collected together into their _okels_ or storehouses such wares and
+commodities as they could purchase in their new localities, and,
+transmitting them periodically to the coast, shipped them thence to all
+parts of the world.
+
+Not only were they acquainted with every part of the Mediterranean, but
+they had even made voyages beyond its limits. In the absence, however,
+of any specific records of their naval enterprise, the routes they
+followed must be a subject of conjecture. They were accustomed to relate
+that the gods, after having instructed them in the art of navigation,
+had shown them the way to the setting sun, and had led them by their
+example to make voyages even beyond the mouths of the ocean. El of
+Byblos was the first to leave Syria; he conquered Greece and Egypt,
+Sicily and Libya, civilizing their inhabitants, and laying the
+foundation of cities everywhere. The Sidonian Astarte, with her head
+surmounted by the horns of an ox, was the next to begin her wanderings
+over the inhabited earth. Melkarth completed the task of the gods by
+discovering and subjugating those countries which had escaped the notice
+of his predecessors. Hundreds of local traditions, to be found on all
+the shores of the Mediterranean down to Roman times, bore witness to the
+pervasive influence of the old Canaanite colonisation. At Cyprus, for
+instance, wo find traces of the cultus of Kinyras, King of Byblos and
+father of Adonis; again, at Crete, it is the daughter of a Prince of
+Sidon, Buropa, who is carried off by Zeus under the form of a bull; it
+was Kadmos, sent forth to seek Buropa, who visited Cyprus, Rhodes, and
+the Cyclades before building Thebes in Boeotia and dying in the forests
+of Illyria. In short, wherever the Phoenicians had obtained a footing,
+their audacious activity made such an indelible impression upon the
+mind of the native inhabitants that they never forgot those vigorous
+thick-set men with pale faces and dark beards, and soft and specious
+speech, who appeared at intervals in their large and swift sailing
+vessels. They made their way cautiously along the coast, usually keeping
+in sight of land, making sail when the wind was favourable, or taking to
+the oars for days together when occasion demanded it, anchoring at night
+under the shelter of some headland, or in bad weather hauling their
+vessels up the beach until the morrow. They did not shrink when it was
+necessary from trusting themselves to the open sea, directing their
+course by the Pole-star;* in this manner they often traversed long
+distances out of sight of land, and they succeeded in making in a short
+time voyages previously deemed long and costly.
+
+     * The Greeks for this reason called it Phonike, the
+     Phoenician star; ancient writers refer to the use which the
+     Phoenicians made of the Pole-star to guide them in
+     navigation.
+
+It is hard to say whether they were as much merchants as
+pirates--indeed, they hardly knew themselves--and their peaceful or
+warlike attitude towards vessels which they encountered on the seas,
+or towards the people whose countries they frequented, was probably
+determined by the circumstances of the moment.* If on arrival at a
+port they felt themselves no match for the natives, the instinct of the
+merchant prevailed, and that of the pirate was kept in the background.
+They landed peaceably, gained the good will of the native chief and
+his nobles by small presents, and spreading out their wares, contented
+themselves, if they could do no better, with the usual advantage
+obtained in an exchange of goods.
+
+     * The manner in which the Phoenicians plied their trade is
+     strikingly described in the _Odyssey_, in the part where
+     Eumaios relates how he was carried off by a Sidonian vessel
+     and sold as a slave: cf. the passage which mentions the
+     ravages of the Greeks on the coast of the Delta. Herodotus
+     recalls the rape of Io, daughter of Inachos, by the
+     Phoenicians, who carried her and her companions into Egypt;
+     on the other hand, during one of their Egyptian expeditions
+     they had taken two priestesses from Thebes, and had
+     transported one of them to Dodona, the other into Libya.
+
+They were never in a hurry, and would remain in one spot until they had
+exhausted all the resources of the country, while they knew to a nicety
+how to display their goods attractively before the expected customer.
+Their wares comprised weapons and ornaments for men, axes, swords,
+incised or damascened daggers with hilts of gold or ivory, bracelets,
+necklaces, amulets of all kinds, enamelled vases, glass-work, stuffs
+dyed purple or embroidered with gay colours. At times the natives, whose
+cupidity was excited by the exhibition of such valuables, would attempt
+to gain possession of them either by craft or by violence. They would
+kill the men who had landed, or attempt to surprise the vessel during
+the night. But more often it was the Phoenicians who took advantage of
+the friendliness or the weakness of their hosts.
+
+[Illustration: 286.jpg Page Image]
+
+They would turn treacherously upon the unarmed crowd when absorbed in
+the interest of buying and selling; robbing and killing the old men,
+they would make prisoners of the young and strong, the women and
+children, carrying them off to sell them in those markets where slaves
+were known to fetch the highest price. This was a recognised trade, but
+it exposed the Phoenicians to the danger of reprisals, and made them
+objects of an undying hatred. When on these distant expeditions
+they were subject to trivial disasters which might lead to serious
+consequences. A mast might break, an oar might damage a portion of the
+bulwarks, a storm might force them to throw overboard part of their
+cargo or their provisions; in such predicaments they had no means of
+repairing the damage, and, unable to obtain help in any of the places
+they might visit, their prospects were of a desperate character. They
+soon, therefore, learned the necessity of establishing cities of refuge
+at various points in the countries with which they traded--stations
+where they could go to refit and revictual their vessels, to fill up the
+complement of their crews, to take in new freight, and, if necessary,
+pass the winter or wait for fair weather before continuing their voyage.
+For this purpose they chose by preference islands lying within easy
+distance of the mainland, like their native cities of Tyre and Arvad,
+but possessing a good harbour or roadstead. If an island were not
+available, they selected a peninsula with a narrow isthmus, or a rock
+standing at the extremity of a promontory, which a handful of men could
+defend against any attack, and which could be seen from a considerable
+distance by their pilots. Most of their stations thus happily situated
+became at length important towns. They were frequented by the natives
+from the interior, who allied themselves with the new-comers, and
+furnished them not only with objects of trade, but with soldiers,
+sailors, and recruits for their army; and such was the rapid spread of
+these colonies, that before long the Mediterranean was surrounded by an
+almost unbroken chain of Phoenician strongholds and trading stations.
+
+[Illustration: 288.jpg AN EGYPTIAN TRADING VESSEL OF THE FIRST HALF OF
+THE XVIIIth DYNASTY]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+All the towns of the mother country--Arvad, Byblos, Berytus, Tyre, and
+Sidon--possessed vessels engaged in cruising long before the Egyptian
+conquest of Syria. We have no direct information from any existing
+monument to show us what these vessels were like, but we are familiar
+with the construction of the galleys which formed the fleets of the
+Pharaohs of the XVIIIth dynasty. The art of shipbuilding had made
+considerable progress since the times of the Memphite kings. Prom the
+period when Egypt aspired to become one of the great powers of the
+world, she doubtless endeavoured to bring her naval force to the same
+pitch of perfection as her land forces could boast of, and her fleets
+probably consisted of the best vessels which the dockyards of that
+day could turn out. Phoenician vessels of this period may therefore be
+regarded with reason as constructed on lines similar to those of the
+Egyptian ships, differing from them merely in the minor details of the
+shape of the hull and manner of rigging. The hull continued to be built
+long and narrow, rising at the stem and stern. The bow was terminated
+by a sort of hook, to which, in time of peace, a bronze ornament was
+attached, fashioned to represent the head of a divinity, gazelle, or
+bull, while in time of war this was superseded by a metal cut-water made
+fast to the hull by several turns of stout rope, the blade rising some
+couple of yards above the level of the deck.* The poop was ornamented
+with a projection firmly attached to the body of the vessel, but
+curved inwards and terminated by an open lotus-flower. An upper deck,
+surrounded by a wooden rail, was placed at the bow and stern to serve
+as forecastle and quarterdecks respectively, and in order to protect
+the vessel from the danger of heavy seas the ship was strengthened by
+a structure to which we find nothing analogous in the shipbuilding of
+classical times: an enormous cable attached to the gammonings of the
+bow rose obliquely to a height of about a couple of yards above the
+deck, and, passing over four small crutched masts, was made fast again
+to the gammonings of the stern. The hull measured from the blade of the
+cut-water to the stern-post some twenty to five and twenty yards, but
+the lowest part of the hold did not exceed five feet in depth. There was
+no cabin, and the ballast, arms, provisions, and spare-rigging occupied
+the open hold.**
+
+     * To get a clear idea of the details of this structure, we
+     have only to compare the appearance of ships with and
+     without a cut-water in the scenes at Thebes, representing
+     the celebration of a festival at the return of the fleet.
+
+     ** M. Glaser thinks that there were cabins for the crew
+     under the deck, and he recognises in the sixteen oblong
+     marks on the sides of the vessels at Deir el-Bahari so many
+     dead-lights; as there could not have been space for so many
+     cabins, I had concluded that these were ports for oars to be
+     used in time of battle, but on further consideration I saw
+     that they represented the ends of the beams supporting the
+     deck.
+
+The bulwarks were raised to a height of some two feet, and the thwarts
+of the rowers ran up to them on both the port and starboard sides,
+leaving an open space in the centre for the long-boat, bales of
+merchandise, soldiers, slaves, and additional passengers.* A double set
+of steering-oars and a single mast completed the equipment. The latter,
+which rose to a height of some twenty-six feet, was placed amidships,
+and was held in an upright position by stays. The masthead was
+surmounted by two arrangements which answered respectively to the top
+["gabie"] and _calcet_ of the masts of a galley.** There were no shrouds
+on each side from the masthead to the rail, but, in place of them, two
+stays ran respectively to the bow and stern. The single square-sail was
+extended between two yards some sixty to seventy feet long, and each
+made of two pieces spliced together at the centre. The upper yard
+was straight, while the lower curved upward at the ends. The yard was
+hoisted and lowered by two halyards, which were made fast aft at the
+feet of the steersmen. The yard was kept in its place by two lifts which
+came down from the masthead, and were attached respectively about eight
+feet from the end of each yard-arm. When the yard was hauled up it was
+further supported by six auxiliary lifts, three being attached to each
+yard-arm. The lower yard, made fast to the mast by a figure-of-eight
+knot, was secured by sixteen lifts, which, like those of the upper yard,
+worked through the "calcet."
+
+     * One of the bas-reliefs exhibits a long-boat in the water
+     at the time the fleet was at anchor at Puanit. As we do not
+     find any vessel towing one after her, we naturally conclude
+     that the boat must have been stowed on board.
+
+     ** The "gabie" was a species of top where a sailor was placed
+     on the look-out. The "calcet" is, properly speaking, a
+     square block of wood containing the sheaves on which the
+     halyards travelled. The Egyptian apparatus had no sheaves,
+     and answers to the "calcet" on the masts of a galley only in
+     its serving the same purpose.
+
+The crew comprised thirty rowers, fifteen on each side, four top-men,
+two steersmen, a pilot at the bow, who signalled to the men at the helm
+the course to steer, a captain and a governor of the slaves, who formed,
+together with ten soldiers, a total of some fifty men.* In time of
+battle, as the rowers would be exposed to the missiles of the enemy,
+the bulwarks were further heightened by a mantlet, behind which the oars
+could be freely moved, while the bodies of the men were fully protected,
+their heads alone being visible above it. The soldiers were stationed
+as follows: two of them took their places on the forecastle, a third was
+perched on the masthead in a sort of cage improvised on the bars forming
+the top, while the remainder were posted on the deck and poop, from
+which positions and while waiting for the order to board they could pour
+a continuous volley of arrows on the archers and sailors of the enemy.**
+
+     * I have made this calculation from an examination of the
+     scenes in which ships are alternatively represented as at
+     anchor and under weigh. I know of vessels of smaller size,
+     and consequently with a smaller crew, but I know of none
+     larger or more fully manned.
+
+     ** The details are taken from the only representation of a
+     naval battle which we possess up to this moment, viz. that
+     of which I shall have occasion to speak further on in
+     connection with the reign of Ramses III.
+
+The first colony of which the Phoenicians made themselves masters was
+that island of Cyprus whose low, lurid outline they could see on fine
+summer evenings in the glow of the western sky. Some hundred and ten
+miles in length and thirty-six in breadth, it is driven like a wedge
+into the angle which Asia Minor makes with the Syrian coast: it throws
+out to the north-east a narrow strip of land, somewhat like an extended
+finger pointing to where the two coasts meet at the extremity of the
+gulf of Issos. A limestone cliff, of almost uniform height throughout,
+bounds, for half its length at least, the northern side of the island,
+broken occasionally by short deep valleys, which open out into creeks
+deeply embayed. A scattered population of fishermen exercised their
+calling in this region, and small towns, of which we possess only the
+Greek or Grecised names--Karpasia, Aphrodision, Kerynia, Lapethos--led
+there a slumbering existence. Almost in the centre of the island two
+volcanic peaks, Troodes and Olympos, face each other, and rise to
+a height of nearly 7000 feet, the range of mountains to which they
+belong--that of Aous--forming the framework of the island. The spurs of
+this range fall by a gentle gradient towards the south, and spread out
+either into stony slopes favourable to the culture of the vine, or into
+great maritime flats fringed with brackish lagoons. The valley which
+lies on the northern side of this chain runs from sea to sea in an
+almost unbroken level. A scarcely perceptible watershed divides the
+valley into two basins similar to those of Syria, the larger of the
+two lying opposite to the Phoenician coast. The soil consists of black
+mould, as rich as that of Egypt, and renewed yearly by the overflowing
+of the Pediaeos and its affluents. Thick forests occupied the interior,
+promising inexhaustible resources to any naval power. Even under the
+Koman emperors the Cypriotes boasted that they could build and fit out
+a ship from the keel to the masthead without looking to resources beyond
+those of their own island. The ash, pine, cypress, and oak flourished
+on the sides of the range of Aous, while cedars grew there to a greater
+height and girth than even on the Lebanon. Wheat, barley, olive trees,
+vines, sweet-smelling woods for burning on the altar, medicinal plants
+such as the poppy and the _ladanum_, henna for staining with a deep
+orange colour the lips, eyelids, palm, nails, and fingertips of the
+women, all found here a congenial habitat; while a profusion everywhere
+of sweet-smelling flowers, which saturated the air with their
+penetrating odours--spring violets, many-coloured anemones, the lily,
+hyacinth, crocus, narcissus, and wild rose--led the Greeks to bestow
+upon the island the designation of "the balmy Cyprus." Mines also
+contributed their share to the riches of which the island could boast.
+Iron in small quantities, alum, asbestos, agate and other precious
+stones, are still to be found there, and in ancient times the
+neighbourhood of Tamassos yielded copper in such quantities that the
+Romans were accustomed to designate this metal by the name "Cyprium,"
+and the word passed from them into all the languages of Europe. It is
+not easy to determine the race to which the first inhabitants of the
+island belonged, if we are not to see in them a branch of the Kefatiu,
+who frequented the Asiatic shores of the Mediterranean from a very
+remote period. In the time of Egyptian supremacy they called their
+country Asi, and this name inclines one to connect the people with the
+AEgeans.* An examination of the objects found in the most ancient tombs
+of the island seems to confirm this opinion. These consist, for the most
+part, of weapons and implements of stone--knives, hatchets, hammers, and
+arrow-heads; and mingled with these rude objects a score of different
+kinds of pottery, chiefly hand-made and of coarse design--pitchers with
+contorted bowls, shallow buckets, especially of the milk-pail variety,
+provided with spouts and with pairs of rudimentary handles.
+
+     * "Asi," "Asii," was at first sought for on the Asiatic
+     continent--at Is on the Euphrates, or in Palestine: the
+     discovery of the Canopic decree allows us to identify it
+     with Cyprus, and this has now been generally done. The
+     reading "Asebi" is still maintained by some.
+
+[Illustration: 294.jpg Map of Cyprus]
+
+The pottery is red or black in colour, and the ornamentation of it
+consists of incised geometrical designs. Copper and bronze, where we
+find examples of these metals, do not appear to have been employed
+in the manufacture of ornaments or arrow-heads, but usually in making
+daggers. There is no indication anywhere of foreign influence, and
+yet Cyprus had already at this time entered into relations with the
+civilized nations of the continent.* According to Chaldaean tradition,
+it was conquered about the year 3800 B.C. by Sargon of Agade: without
+insisting upon the reality of this conquest, which in any case must have
+been ephemeral in its nature, there is reason to believe that the island
+was subjected from an early period to the influence of the various
+peoples which lived one after another on the slopes of the Lebanon.
+Popular legend attributes to King Kinyras and to the Giblites [i.e. the
+people of Byblos] the establishment of the first Phoenician colonies in
+the southern region of the island--one of them being at Paphos, where
+the worship of Adonis and Astarte continued to a very late date. The
+natives preserved their own language and customs, had their own chiefs,
+and maintained their national independence, while constrained to submit
+at the same time to the presence of Phoenician colonists or merchants on
+the coast, and in the neighbourhood of the mines in the mountains. The
+trading centres of these settlers--Kition, Amathus, Solius, Golgos, and
+Tamassos--were soon, however, converted into strongholds, which
+ensured to Phonicia the monopoly of the immense wealth contained in the
+island.**
+
+     * An examination into the origin of the Cypriotes formed
+     part of the original scheme of this work, together with that
+     of the monuments of the various races scattered along the
+     coast of Asia Minor and the islands of the AEgean; but I
+     have been obliged to curtail it, in order to keep within the
+     limits I had proscribed for myself, and I have merely
+     epitomised, as briefly as possible, the results of the
+     researches undertaken in those regions during the last few
+     years.
+
+     ** The Phoenician origin of these towns is proved by
+     passages from classical writers. The date of the
+     colonisation is uncertain, but with the knowledge we possess
+     of the efficient vessels belonging to the various Phoenician
+     towns, it would seem difficult not to allow that the coasts
+     at least of Cyprus must have been partially occupied at the
+     time of the Egyptian invasions.
+
+Tyre and Sidon had no important centres of industry on that part of the
+Canaanite coast which extended to the south of Carmel, and Egypt,
+even in the time of the shepherd kings, would not have tolerated the
+existence on her territory of any great emporium not subject to the
+immediate supervision of her official agents. We know that the Libyan
+cliffs long presented an obstacle to inroads into Egyptian territory,
+and baffled any attempts to land to the westwards of the Delta: the
+Phoenicians consequently turned with all the greater ardour to those
+northern regions which for centuries had furnished them with most
+valuable products--bronze, tin, amber, and iron, both native and
+wrought. A little to the north of the Orontes, where the Syrian border
+is crossed and Asia Minor begins, the coast turns due west and runs
+in that direction for a considerable distance. The Phoenicians were
+accustomed to trade along this region, and we may attribute, perhaps, to
+them the foundation of those obscure cities--Kibyra, Masura, Euskopus,
+Sylion, Mygdale, and Sidyma*--all of which preserved their apparently
+Semitic names down to the time of the Roman epoch. The whole of the
+important island of Rhodes fell into their power, and its three ports,
+Ialysos, Lindos*, and Kamiros, afforded them a well-situated base of
+operations for further colonisation. On leaving Rhodes, the choice of
+two routes presented itself to them. To the south-west they could see
+the distant outline of Karpathos, and on the far horizon behind it the
+summits of the Cretan chain. Crete itself bars on the south the entrance
+to the AEgean, and is almost a little continent, self-contained and
+self-sufficing.
+
+     * No direct evidence exists to lead us to attribute the
+     foundation of these towns to the Phoenicians, but the
+     Semitic origin of nearly all the names is an uncontested
+     fact.
+
+[Illustration: 297.jpg THE MUREX TRUNCULUS]
+
+It is made up of fertile valleys and mountains clothed with forests,
+and its inhabitants could employ themselves in mines and fisheries. The
+Phoenicians effected a settlement on the coast at Itanos, at Kairatos,
+and at Arados, and obtained possession of the peak of Cythera, where, it
+is said, they raised a sanctuary to Astarte. If, on leaving Rhodes, they
+had chosen to steer due north, they would soon have come into contact
+with numerous rocky islets scattered in the sea between the continents
+of Asia and Europe, which would have furnished them with as many
+stations, less easy of attack, and more readily defended than posts on
+the mainland. Of these the Giblites occupied Melos, while the Sidonians
+chose Oliaros and Thera, and we find traces of them in every island
+where any natural product, such as metals, sulphur, alum, fuller's
+earth, emery, medicinal plants, and shells for producing dyes, offered
+an attraction. The purple used by the Tyrians for dyeing is secreted by
+several varieties of molluscs common in the Eastern Mediterranean; those
+most esteemed by the dyers were the _Murex trunculus_ and the _Murex
+Brandaris_, and solid masses made up of the detritus of these shells
+are found in enormous quantities in the neighbourhood of many Phoenician
+towns. The colouring matter was secreted in the head of the shellfish.
+To obtain it the shell was broken by a blow from a hammer, and the small
+quantity of slightly yellowish liquid which issued from the fracture was
+carefully collected and stirred about in salt water for three days.
+
+[Illustration: 298.jpg DAGGER OF AHMOSIS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin.
+
+It was then boiled in leaden vessels and reduced by simmering over a
+slow fire; the remainder was strained through a cloth to free it from
+the particles of flesh still floating in it, and the material to be dyed
+was then plunged into the liquid. The usual tint thus imparted was that
+of fresh blood, in some lights almost approaching to black; but careful
+manipulation could produce shades of red, dark violet, and amethyst.
+Phoenician settlements can be traced, therefore, by the heaps of shells
+upon the shore, the Cyclades and the coasts of Greece being strewn
+with this refuse. The veins of gold in the Pangaion range in Macedonia
+attracted them off the Thracian coast* received also frequent visits
+from them, and they carried their explorations even through the tortuous
+channel of the Hellespont into the Propontis, drawn thither, no doubt by
+the silver mines in the Bithynian mountains** which were already being
+worked by Asiatic miners.
+
+     * The fact that they worked the mines of Thasos is attested
+     by Herodotus.
+
+     ** Pronektos, on the Gulf of Ascania, was supposed to be a
+     Phoenician colony.
+
+Beyond the calm waters of the Propontis, they encountered an obstacle to
+their progress in another narrow channel, having more the character of a
+wide river than of a strait; it was with difficulty that they could make
+their way against the violence of its current, which either tended to
+drive their vessels on shore, or to dash them against the reefs which
+hampered the navigation of the channel. When, however, they succeeded in
+making the passage safely, they found themselves upon a vast and stormy
+sea, whose wooded shores extended east and west as far as eye could
+reach.
+
+[Illustration: 299.jpg ONE OF THE DAGGERS DISCOVERED AT MYCENAE, SHOWING
+AN IMITATION OF EGYPTIAN DECORATION]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the facsimile in Perrot-Chipiez.
+
+From the tribes who inhabited them, and who acted as intermediaries,
+the Phoenician traders were able to procure tin, lead, amber, Caucasian
+gold, bronze, and iron, all products of the extreme north--a region
+which always seemed,to elude their persevering efforts to discover
+it. We cannot determine the furthest limits reached by the Phoenician
+traders, since they were wont to designate the distant countries and
+nations with which they traded by the vague appellations of "Isles
+of the Sea" and "Peoples of the Sea," refusing to give more accurate
+information either from jealousy or from a desire to hide from other
+nations the sources of their wealth.
+
+The peoples with whom they traded were not mere barbarians, contented
+with worthless objects of barter; their clients included the inhabitants
+of the iEgean, who, if inferior to the great nations of the East,
+possessed an independent and growing civilization, traces of which are
+still coming to light from many quarters in the shape of tombs, houses,
+palaces, utensils, ornaments, representations of the gods, and household
+and funerary furniture,--not only in the Cyclades, but on the mainland
+of Asia Minor and of Greece. No inferior goods or tinsel wares would
+have satisfied the luxurious princes who reigned in such ancient cities
+as Troy and Mycenae, and who wanted the best industrial products of
+Egypt and Syria--costly stuffs, rare furniture, ornate and well-wrought
+weapons, articles of jewellery, vases of curious and delicate
+design--such objects, in fact, as would have been found in use among the
+sovereigns and nobles of Memphis or of Babylon. For articles to offer in
+exchange they were not limited to the natural or roughly worked products
+of their own country. Their craftsmen, though less successful in general
+technique than their Oriental contemporaries, exhibited considerable
+artistic intelligence and an extraordinary manual skill. Accustomed at
+first merely to copy the objects sold to them by the Phoenicians,
+they soon developed a style of their own; the Mycenaean dagger in the
+illustration on page 299, though several centuries later in date than
+that of the Pharaoh Ahmosis, appears to be traceable to this ancient
+source of inspiration, although it gives evidence of new elements in
+its method of decoration and in its greater freedom of treatment. The
+inhabitants of the valleys of the Nile and of the Orontes, and probably
+also those of the Euphrates and Tigris, agreed in the, high value they
+set upon these artistic objects in gold, silver, and bronze, brought
+to them from the further shores of the Mediterranean, which, while
+reproducing their own designs, modified them to a certain extent; for
+just as we now imitate types of ornamental work in vogue among nations
+less civilized than ourselves, so the iEgean people set themselves the
+task through their potters and engravers of reproducing exotic models.
+The Phoenician traders who exported to Greece large consignments
+of objects made under various influences in their own workshops, or
+purchased in the bazaars of the ancient world, brought back as a return
+cargo an equivalent number of works of art, bought in the towns of the
+West, which eventually found their way into the various markets of Asia
+and Africa. These energetic merchants were not the first to ply this
+profitable trade of maritime carriers, for from the time of the Memphite
+empire the products of northern regions had found their way, through the
+intermediation of the Hauinibu, as far south as the cities of the
+Delta and the Thebaid. But this commerce could not be said to be
+either regular or continuous; the transmission was carried on from one
+neighbouring tribe to another, and the Syrian sailors were merely the
+last in a long chain of intermediaries--a tribal war, a migration, the
+caprice of some chief, being sufficient to break the communication,
+and even cause the suspension of transit for a considerable period.
+The Phoenicians desired to provide against such risks by undertaking
+themselves to fetch the much-coveted objects from their respective
+sources, or, where this was not possible, from the ports nearest the
+place of their manufacture. Reappearing with each returning year in
+the localities where they had established emporia, they accustomed the
+natives to collect against their arrival such products as they could
+profitably use in bartering with one or other of their many customers.
+They thus established, on a fixed line of route, a kind of maritime
+trading service, which placed all the shores of the Mediterranean in
+direct communication with each other, and promoted the blending of the
+youthful West with the ancient East.
+
+[Illustration: 302.jpg TAILPIECE]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III--THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY
+
+
+
+THUTMOSIS I. AND HIS ARMY--HATSHOPSITU AND THUTMOSIS III.
+
+
+_Thutmosis I.'s campaign in Syria--The organisation of the Egyptian
+army: the infantry of the line, the archers, the horses, and the
+charioteers--The classification of the troops according to their
+arms--Marching and encampment in the enemy's country: battle
+array--Chariot-charges--The enumeration and distribution of the
+spoil--The vice-royalty of Rush and the adoption of Egyptian customs by
+the Ethiopian tribes._
+
+_The first successors of Thutmosis I.: Ahmasi and Hatshopsitit,
+Thutmosis II--The temple of Deir el-Bahari and the buildings
+of Karnah--The Ladders of Incense--The expedition to Puanit: bartering
+with the natives, the return of the fleet._
+
+_Thutmosis III.: his departure for Asia, the battle of Megiddo and
+the subjection of Southern Syria--The year 23 to the year 28 of his
+reign--Conquest of Lotanu and of Mitanni--The campaign of the 33rd year
+of the king's reign._
+
+
+[Illustration: 305.jpg Page Image]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III--THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY
+
+
+_Thutmosis I. and his army--Hatshopsitu and Thutmosis III._
+
+
+The account of the first expedition undertaken by Thutmosis in Asia,
+a region at that time new to the Egyptians, would be interesting if
+we could lay our hands upon it. We should perhaps find in the midst of
+official documents, or among the short phrases of funerary biographies,
+some indication of the impression which the country produced upon its
+conquerors.
+
+With the exception of a few merchants or adventurers, no one from Thebes
+to Memphis had any other idea of Asia than that which could be gathered
+from the scattered notices of it in the semi-historical romances of
+the preceding age. The actual sight of the country must have been a
+revelation; everything appearing new and paradoxical to men of whom
+the majority had never left their fatherland, except on some warlike
+expedition into Ethiopia or on some rapid raid along the coasts of the
+Red Sea. Instead of their own narrow valley, extending between its two
+mountain ranges, and fertilised by the periodical overflowing of the
+Nile which recurred regularly almost to a day, they had before them
+wide irregular plains, owing their fertility not to inundations, but
+to occasional rains or the influence of insignificant streams; hills of
+varying heights covered with vines and other products of cultivation;
+mountains of different altitudes irregularly distributed, clothed with
+forests, furrowed with torrents, their summits often crowned with snow
+even in the hottest period of summer: and in this region of nature,
+where everything was strange to them, they found nations differing
+widely from each other in appearance and customs, towns with crenellated
+walls perched upon heights difficult of access; and finally, a
+civilization far excelling that which they encountered anywhere in
+Africa outside their own boundaries. Thutmosis succeeded in reaching on
+his first expedition a limit which none of his successors was able
+to surpass, and the road taken by him in this campaign--from Gaza to
+Megiddo, from Megiddo to Qodshu, from Qodshu to Carchemish--was that
+which was followed henceforward by the Egyptian troops in all their
+expeditions to the Euphrates. Of the difficulties which he encountered
+on his way we have no information. On arriving at Naharaim, however,
+we know that he came into contact with the army of the enemy, which
+was under the command of a single general--perhaps the King of Mitanni
+himself, or one of the lieutenants of the "Cossaean King of Babylon"--who
+had collected together most of the petty princes of the northern country
+to resist the advance of the intruder. The contest was hotly fought out
+on both sides, but victory at length remained with the invaders, and
+innumerable prisoners fell into their hands. The veteran Ahmosi, son
+of Abina, who was serving in his last campaign, and his cousin, Ahmosi
+Pannekhabit, distinguished themselves according to their wont. The
+former, having seized upon a chariot, brought it, with the three
+soldiers who occupied it, to the Pharaoh, and received once more "the
+collar of gold;" the latter killed twenty-one of the enemy, carrying
+off their hands as trophies, captured a chariot, took one prisoner, and
+obtained as reward a valuable collection of jewellery, consisting of
+collars, bracelets, sculptured lions, choice vases, and costly weapons.
+A stele, erected on the banks of the Euphrates not far from the scene of
+the battle, marked the spot which the conqueror wished to be recognised
+henceforth as the frontier of his empire. He re-entered Thebes with
+immense booty, by which gods as well as men profited, for he consecrated
+a part of it to the embellishment of the temple of Amon, and the sight
+of the spoil undoubtedly removed the lingering prejudices which the
+people had cherished against expeditions beyond the isthmus. Thutmosis
+was held up by his subjects to the praise of posterity as having come
+into actual contact with that country and its people, which had hitherto
+been known to the Egyptians merely through the more or less veracious
+tales of exiles and travellers. The aspect of the great river of the
+Naharaim, which could be compared with the Nile for the volume of its
+waters, excited their admiration. They were, however, puzzled by the
+fact that it flowed from north to south, and even were accustomed
+to joke at the necessity of reversing the terms employed in Egypt to
+express going up or down the river. This first Syrian campaign became
+the model for most of those subsequently undertaken by the Pharaohs. It
+took the form of a bold advance of troops, directed from Zalu towards
+the north-east, in a diagonal line through the country, who routed on
+the way any armies which might be opposed to them, carrying by assault
+such towns as were easy of capture, while passing by others which seemed
+strongly defended--pillaging, burning, and slaying on every side. There
+was no suspension of hostilities, no going into winter quarters, but a
+triumphant return of the expedition at the end of four or five months,
+with the probability of having to begin fresh operations in the
+following year should the vanquished break out into revolt.*
+
+     * From the account of the campaigns of Amenothes II., I
+     thought we might conclude that this Pharaoh wintered in
+     Syria at least once; but the text does not admit of this
+     interpretation, and we must, therefore, for the present give
+     up the idea that the Pharaohs ever spent more than a few
+     months of the year on hostile territory.
+
+The troops employed in these campaigns were superior to any others
+hitherto put into the field. The Egyptian army, inured to war by its
+long struggle with the Shepherd-kings, and kept in training since the
+reign of Ahmosis by having to repulse the perpetual incursions of the
+Ethiopian or Libyan barbarians, had no difficulty, in overcoming the
+Syrians; not that the latter were wanting in courage or discipline,
+but owing to their limited supply of recruits, and the political
+disintegration of the country, they could not readily place under arms
+such enormous numbers as those of the Egyptians. Egyptian military
+organisation had remained practically unchanged since early times: the
+army had always consisted, firstly, of the militia who held fiefs, and
+were under the obligation of personal service either to the prince of
+the nome or to the sovereign; secondly, of a permanent force, which was
+divided into two corps, distributed respectively between the Sa'id and
+the Delta. Those companies which were quartered on the frontier, or
+about the king either at Thebes or at one of the royal residences, were
+bound to hold themselves in readiness to muster for a campaign at any
+given moment. The number of natives liable to be levied when occasion
+required, by "generations," or as we should say by classes, may have
+amounted to over a hundred thousand men,* but they were never all
+called out, and it does not appear that the army on active service
+ever contained more than thirty thousand men at a time, and probably on
+ordinary occasions not much more than ten or fifteen thousand.**
+
+     * The only numbers which we know are those given by
+     Herodotus for the Saite period, which are evidently
+     exaggerated. Coming down to modern times, we see that
+     Mehemet-Ali, from 1830 to 1840, had nearly 120,000 men in
+     Syria, Egypt, and the Sudan; and in 1841, at the time when
+     the treaties imposed upon him the ill-kept obligation of
+     reducing his army to 18,000 men, it still contained 81,000.
+     We shall probably not be far wrong in estimating the total
+     force which the Pharaohs of the XVIIIth dynasty, lords of
+     the whole valley of the Nile, and of part of Asia, had at
+     their disposal at 120,000 or 130,000 men; these, however,
+     were never all called out at once.
+
+     ** We have no direct information respecting the armies
+     acting in Syria; we only know that, at the battle of Qodshu,
+     Ramses II. had against him 2500 chariots containing three
+     men each, making 7500 charioteers, besides a troop estimated
+     at the Ramesseum at 8000 men, at Luxor at 9000, so that the
+     Syrian army probably contained about 20,000 men. It would
+     seem that the Egyptian army was less numerous, and I
+     estimate it with great hesitation at about 15,000 or 18,000
+     men: it was considered a powerful army, while that of the
+     Hittites was regarded as an innumerable host. A passage in
+     the Anastasi Papyrus, No. 1, tells us the composition of a
+     corps led by Ramses II. against the tribes in the vicinity
+     of Qocoir and the Rahanu valley; it consisted of 5000 men,
+     of whom 620 were Shardana, 1600 Qahak, 70 Mashauasha, and
+     880 Negroes.
+
+The infantry was, as we should expect, composed of troops of the line
+and light troops. The former wore either short wigs arranged in rows
+of curls, or a kind of padded cap by way of a helmet, thick enough to
+deaden blows; the breast and shoulders were undefended, but a short
+loin-cloth was wrapped round the hips, and the stomach and upper part
+of the thighs were protected by a sort of triangular apron, sometimes
+scalloped at the sides, and composed of leather thongs attached to a
+belt. A buckler of moderate dimensions had been substituted for the
+gigantic shield of the earlier Theban period; it was rounded at the
+top and often furnished with a solid metal boss, which the experienced
+soldiers always endeavoured to present to the enemy's lances and
+javelins. Their weapons consisted of pikes about five feet long, with
+broad bronze or copper points, occasionally of flails, axes, daggers,
+short curved swords, and spears; the trumpeters were armed with daggers
+only, and the officers did not as a rule encumber themselves with either
+buckler or pike, but bore and axe and dagger, an occasionally a bow.
+
+[Illustration: 311.jpg A PLATOON (TROOP) OF EGYPTIAN SPEARMEN AT DEIR
+EL-BAHARI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Naville.
+
+The light infantry was composed chiefly of bowmen--_pidatu_--the
+celebrated archers of Egypt, whose long bows and arrows, used with
+deadly skill, speedily became renowned throughout the East; the quiver,
+of the use of which their ancestors were ignorant, had been borrowed
+from the Asiatics, probably from the Hyksos, and was carried hanging at
+the side or slung over the shoulder. Both spearmen and archers were for
+the most part pure-bred Egyptians, and were divided into regiments of
+unequal strength, each of which usually bore the name of some god--as,
+for example, the regiment of Ra or of Phtah, of Arnon or of Sutkhu*--in
+which the feudal contingents, each commanded by its lord or his
+lieutenants, fought side by side with the king's soldiers furnished
+from the royal domains. The effective force of the army was made up by
+auxiliaries taken from the tribes of the Sahara and from the negroes of
+the Upper Nile.**
+
+     * The army of Ramses II. at the battle of Qodshu comprised
+     four corps, which bore the names of Amon, Ra, Phtah, and
+     Sutkhu. Other lesser corps were named the _Tribe of
+     Pharaoh,_ the _Tribe of the Beauty of the Solar dish._
+     These, as far as I can judge, must have been troops raised
+     on the royal domains by a system of local recruiting, who
+     were united by certain common privileges and duties which
+     constituted them an hereditary militia, whence they were
+     called _tribes_.
+
+     ** These Ethiopian recruits are occasionally represented in
+     the Theban tombs of the XVIIIth dynasty, among others in the
+     tomb of Pahsukhir.
+
+These auxiliaries were but sparingly employed in early times, but their
+numbers were increased as wars became more frequent and necessitated
+more troops to carry them on. The tribes from which they were drawn
+supplied the Pharaohs with an inexhaustible reserve; they were
+courageous, active, indefatigable, and inured to hardships, and if it
+had not been for their turbulent nature, which incited them to continual
+internal dissensions, they might readily have shaken off the yoke of
+the Egyptians. Incorporated into the Egyptian army, and placed under
+the instruction of picked officers, who subjected them to rigorous
+discipline, and accustomed them to the evolutions of regular troops,
+they were transformed from disorganised hordes into tried and invincible
+battalions.*
+
+     * The armies of Hatshopsitu already included Libyan
+     auxiliaries, some of which are represented at Deir el-
+     Bahari; others of Asiatic origin are found under Amenothes
+     IV., but they are not represented on the monuments among the
+     regular troops until the reign of Ramses II., when the
+     Shardana appear for the first time among the king's body-
+     guard.
+
+[Illustration: 313.jpg A PLATOON OF EGYPTIAN ARCHERS AT DEIR EL-BAHARI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+The old army, which had conquered Nubia in the days of the Papis and
+Usirtasens, had consisted of these three varieties of foot-soldiers
+only, but since the invasion of the Shepherds, a new element had been
+incorporated into the modern army in the-shape of the chariotry, which
+answered to some extent to the cavalry of our day as regards their
+tactical employment and efficacy. The horse, when once introduced into
+Egypt, soon became fairly adapted to its environment. It retained both
+its height and size, keeping the convex forehead--which gave the head a
+slightly curved profile--the slender neck, the narrow hind-quarters, the
+lean and sinewy legs, and the long flowing tail which had characterised
+it in its native country. The climate, however, was enervating, and
+constant care had to be taken, by the introduction of new blood from
+Syria, to prevent the breed from deteriorating.*
+
+     * The numbers of horses brought from Syria either as spoils
+     of war or as tribute paid by the vanquished are frequently
+     recorded in the Annals of Thutmosis III. Besides the usual
+     species, powerful stallions were imported from Northern
+     Syria, which were known by the Semitic name of Abiri, the
+     strong. In the tombs of the XVIIIth dynasty, the arrival of
+     Syrian horses in Egypt is sometimes represented.
+
+[Illustration: 314.jpg THE EGYPTIAN CHARIOT PRESERVED IN THE FLORENCE
+MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Petrie.
+
+The Pharaohs kept studs of horses in the principal cities of the Nile
+valley, and the great feudal lords, following their example, vied with
+each other in the possession of numerous breeding stables. The office of
+superintendent to these establishments, which was at the disposal of
+the Master of the Horse, became in later times one of the most important
+State appointments.*
+
+     * In the story of the conquest of Egypt by the Ethiopian
+     Pionkhi, studs are indicated at Hermopolis, at Athribis, in
+     the towns to the east and in the centre of the Delta, and at
+     Sais. Diodorus Siculus relates that, in his time, the
+     foundations of 100 stables, each capable of containing 200
+     horses, were still to be seen on the western bank of the
+     river between Memphis and Thebes.
+
+[Illustration: 315.jpg THE KING CHARGING ON HIS CHARIOT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+The first chariots introduced into Egypt were, like the horses, of
+foreign origin, but when built by Egyptian workmen they soon became more
+elegant, if not stronger than their models. Lightness was the quality
+chiefly aimed at; and at length the weight was so reduced that it
+was possible for a man to carry his chariot on his shoulders without
+fatigue. The materials for them were on this account limited to oak or
+ash and leather; metal, whether gold or silver, iron or bronze, being
+used but sparingly, and then only for purposes of ornamentation. The
+wheels usually had six, but sometimes eight spokes, or occasionally only
+four. The axle consisted of a single stout pole of acacia. The framework
+of the chariot was composed of two pieces of wood mortised together so
+as to form a semicircle or half-ellipse, and closed by a straight bar;
+to this frame was fixed a floor of sycomore wood or of plaited leather
+thongs. The sides of the chariot were formed of upright panels, solid
+in front and open at the sides, each provided with a handrail. The pole,
+which was of a single piece of wood, was bent into an elbow at about
+one-fifth of its length from the end, which was inserted into the centre
+of the axletree. On the gigantic T thus formed was fixed the body of the
+chariot, the hinder part resting on the axle, and the front attached
+to the bent part of the pole, while the whole was firmly bound together
+with double leather thongs. A yoke of hornbeam, shaped like a bow, to
+which the horses were harnessed, was fastened to the other extremity of
+the pole. The Asiatics placed three men in a chariot, but the Egyptians
+only two; the warrior--_sinni_--whose business it was to fight, and
+the shield-bearer--_qazana_--who protected his companion with a buckler
+during the engagement. A complete set of weapons was carried in
+the chariot--lances, javelins, and daggers, curved spear, club, and
+battle-axe--while two bow-cases as well as two large quivers were hung
+at the sides. The chariot itself was very liable to upset, the slightest
+cause being sufficient to overturn it. Even when moving at a slow pace,
+the least inequality of the ground shook it terribly, and when driven
+at full speed it was only by a miracle of skill that the occupants could
+maintain their equilibrium. At such times the charioteer would stand
+astride of the front panels, keeping his right foot only inside the
+vehicle, and planting the other firmly on the pole, so as to lessen
+the jolting, and to secure a wider base on which to balance himself.
+To carry all this into practice long education was necessary, for which
+there were special schools of instruction, and those who were destined
+to enter the army were sent to these schools when little more than
+children. To each man, as soon as he had thoroughly mastered all the
+difficulties of the profession, a regulation chariot and pair of horses
+were granted, for which he was responsible to the Pharaoh or to his
+generals, and he might then return to his home until the next call to
+arms. The warrior took precedence of the shield-bearer, and both were
+considered superior to the foot-soldier; the chariotry, in fact, like
+the cavalry of the present day, was the aristocratic branch of the army,
+in which the royal princes, together with the nobles and their sons,
+enlisted. No Egyptian ever willingly trusted himself to the back of a
+horse, and it was only in the thick of a battle, when his chariot was
+broken, and there seemed no other way of escaping from the melee, that a
+warrior would venture to mount one of his steeds. There appear, however,
+to have been here and there a few horsemen, who acted as couriers or
+aides-de-camp; they used neither saddle-cloth nor stirrups, but were
+provided with reins with which to guide their animals, and their seat
+on horseback was even less secure than the footing of the driver in his
+chariot.
+
+[Illustration: 318.jpg AN EGYPTIAN LEARNING TO RIDE, FROM A BAS-RELIEF
+IN THE BOLOGNA MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Flinders Petrie.
+
+The infantry was divided into platoons of six to ten men each, commanded
+by an officer and marshalled round an ensign, which represented either
+a sacred animal, an emblem of the king or of his double, or a divine
+figure placed upon the top of a pike; this constituted an object of
+worship to the group of soldiers to whom it belonged. We are unable
+to ascertain how many of these platoons, either of infantry or of
+chariotry, went to form a company or a battalion, or by what ensigns the
+different grades were distinguished from each other, or what was their
+relative order of rank. Bodies of men, to the number of forty or fifty,
+are sometimes represented on the monuments, but this may be merely by
+chance, or because the draughtsman did not take the trouble to give the
+proper number accurately. The inferior officers were equipped very much
+like the soldiers, with the exception of the buckler, which they do not
+appear to have carried, and certainly did not when on the march: the
+superior officers might be known by their umbrella or flabellum, a
+distinction which gave them the right of approaching the king's person.
+
+[Illustration: 319.jpg THE WAR-DANCE OF THE TIMIHU AT DEIR EL-BAHARI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+The military exercises to which all these troops were accustomed
+probably differed but little from those which were in vogue with the
+armies of the Ancient Empire; they consisted in wrestling, boxing,
+jumping, running either singly or in line at regular distances from
+each other, manual exercises, fencing, and shooting at a target; the
+war-dance had ceased to be in use among the Egyptian regiments as a
+military exercise, but it was practised by the Ethiopian and Libyan
+auxiliaries. At the beginning of each campaign, the men destined to
+serve in it were called out by the military scribes, who supplied them
+with arms from the royal arsenals. Then followed the distribution of
+rations. The soldiers, each carrying a small linen bag, came up in
+squads before the commissariat officers, and each received his own
+allowance.*
+
+     * We see the distribution of arms made by the scribes and
+     other officials of the royal arsenals represented in the
+     pictures at Medinet-Abu. The calling out of the classes was
+     represented in the Egyptian tombs of the XVIIIth dynasty, as
+     well as the distribution of supplies.
+
+Once in the enemy's country the army advanced in close order, the
+infantry in columns of four, the officers in rear, and the chariots
+either on the right or left flank, or in the intervals between
+divisions. Skirmishers thrown out to the front cleared the line of
+march, while detached parties, pushing right and left, collected
+supplies of cattle, grain, or drinking-water from the fields and
+unprotected villages. The main body was followed by the baggage train;
+it comprised not only supplies and stores, but cooking-utensils,
+coverings, and the entire paraphernalia of the carpenters' and
+blacksmiths' shops necessary for repairing bows, lances, daggers, and
+chariot-poles, the whole being piled up in four-wheeled carts drawn by
+asses or oxen. The army was accompanied by a swarm of non-combatants,
+scribes, soothsayers, priests, heralds, musicians, servants, and
+women of loose life, who were a serious cause of embarrassment to the
+generals, and a source of perpetual danger to military discipline. At
+nightfall they halted in a village, or more frequently bivouacked in an
+entrenched camp, marked out to suit the circumstances of the case. This
+entrenchment was always rectangular, its length being twice as great as
+its width, and was surrounded by a ditch, the earth from which, being
+banked up on the inside, formed a rampart from five to six feet in
+height; the exterior of this was then entirely faced with shields,
+square below, but circular in shape at the top. The entrance to the camp
+was by a single gate in one of the longer sides, and a plank served as a
+bridge across the trench, close to which two detachments mounted guard,
+armed with clubs and naked swords.
+
+[Illustration: 321.jpg A COLUMN OF TROOPS ON THE MARCH, CHARIOTS AND
+INFANTRY]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The royal quarters were situated at one end of the camp. Here, within an
+enclosure, rose an immense tent, where the Pharaoh found all the luxury
+to which he was accustomed in his palaces, even to a portable chapel,
+in which each morning he could pour out water and burn incense to his
+father, Amon-Ra of Thebes. The princes of the blood who formed his
+escort, his shield-bearers and his generals, were crowded together hard
+by, and beyond, in closely packed lines, were the horses and chariots,
+the draught bullocks, the workshops and the stores.
+
+[Illustration: 322.jpg AN EGYPTIAN FORTIFIED CAMP, FORCED BY THE ENEMY]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato. It represents
+     the camp of Ramses II. before Qodshu: the upper angle of the
+     enclosure and part of the surrounding wall have been
+     destroyed by the Khati, whose chariots are pouring in at the
+     breach. In the centre is the royal tent, surrounded by
+     scenes of military life. This picture has been sculptured
+     partly over an earlier one representing one of the episodes
+     of the battle; the latter had been covered with stucco, on
+     which the new subject was executed. Part of the stucco has
+     fallen away, and the king in his chariot, with a few other
+     figures, has reappeared, to the great detriment of the later
+     picture.
+
+[Illustration: 322b.jpg TWO COMPANIES ON THE MARCH]
+
+The soldiers, accustomed from childhood to live in the open air,
+erected no tents or huts of boughs for themselves in these temporary
+encampments, but bivouacked in the open, and the sculptures on the
+facades of the Theban pylons give us a minute picture of the way in
+which they employed themselves when off duty. Here one man, while
+cleaning his armour, superintends the cooking. Another, similarly
+engaged, drinks from a skin of wine held up by a slave. A third has
+taken his chariot to pieces, and t is replacing some portion the worse
+for wear. Some are sharpening their daggers or lances; others mend their
+loin-cloths or sandals, or exchange blows with fists and sticks. The
+baggage, linen, arms, and provisions are piled in disorder on the
+ground; horses, oxen, and asses are eating or chewing the cud at their
+ease; while here and there a donkey, relieved of his burden, rolls
+himself on the ground and brays with delight.*
+
+     * We are speaking of the camp of Thutmosis III. near Aluna,
+     the day before the battle of Megiddo, and the words put into
+     the mouths of the soldiers to mark their vigilance are the
+     same as those which we find in the Ramesseum and at Luxor,
+     written above the guards of the camp where Ramses II. is
+     reposing.
+[Illustration: 325.jpg SCENES FROM MILITARY LIFE IN AN EGYPTIAN CAMP]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+The success of the Egyptians in battle was due more to the courage and
+hardihood of the men than to the strategical skill of their commanders.
+We find no trace of manouvres, in the sense in which we understand the
+word, either in their histories or on their bas-reliefs, but they joined
+battle boldly with the enemy, and the result was decided by a more or
+less bloody conflict. The heavy infantry was placed in the centre, the
+chariots were massed on the flanks, while light troops thrown out to
+the front began the action by letting fly volleys of arrows and stones,
+which through the skill of the bowmen and slingers did deadly execution;
+then the pikemen laid their spears in rest, and pressing straight
+forward, threw their whole weight against the opposing troops. At the
+same moment the charioteers set off at a gentle trot, and gradually
+quickened their pace till they dashed at full speed upon the foe, amid
+the confused rumbling of wheels and the sharp clash of metal.
+
+[Illustration: 327.jpg ENCOUNTER BETWEEN EGYPTIAN AND ASIATIC CHARIOTS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a drawing by Champolion.
+
+The Egyptians, accustomed by long drilling to the performance of such
+evolutions, executed these charges as methodically as though they were
+still on their parade-ground at Thebes; if the disposition of the ground
+were at all favourable, not a single chariot would break the line, and
+the columns would sweep across the field without swerving or falling
+into disorder. The charioteer had the reins tied round his body, and
+could, by throwing his weight either to the right or the left, or by
+slackening or increasing the pressure through a backward or forward
+motion, turn, pull up, or start his horses by a simple movement of the
+loins: he went into battle with bent bow, the string drawn back to
+his ear, the arrow levelled ready to let fly, while the shield-bearer,
+clinging to the body of the chariot with one hand, held out his buckler
+with the other to shelter his comrade. It would seem that the Syrians
+were less skilful; their bows did not carry so far as those of their
+adversaries, and consequently they came within the enemy's range some
+moments before it was possible for them to return the volley with
+effect. Their horses would be thrown down, their drivers would fall
+wounded, and the disabled chariots would check the approach of those
+following and overturn them, so that by the time the main body came up
+with the enemy the slaughter would have been serious enough to render
+victory hopeless. Nevertheless, more than one charge would be necessary
+finally to overturn or scatter the Syrian chariots, which, once
+accomplished, the Egyptian charioteer would turn against the
+foot-soldiers, and, breaking up their ranks, would tread them down under
+the feet of his horses.*
+
+     * The whole of the above description is based on incidents
+     from the various pictures of battles which appear on the
+     monuments of Ramses II.
+
+Nor did the Pharaoh spare himself in the fight; his splendid dress, the
+urasus on his forehead, and the nodding plumes of his horses made him
+a mark for the blows of the enemy, and he would often find himself in
+positions of serious danger. In a few hours, as a rule, the conflict
+would come to an end.
+
+[Illustration: 328.jpg Ramses II.]
+
+[Illustration: 328-text.jpg]
+
+Once the enemy showed signs of giving way, the Egyptian chariots dashed
+upon them precipitously, and turned the retreat into a rout: the pursuit
+was, however, never a long One; some fortress was always to be found
+close at hand where the remnant of the defeated host could take refuge.*
+The victors, moreover, would be too eager to secure the booty, and to
+strip the bodies of the dead, to allow time for following up the foe.
+
+     * After the battle of Megiddo, the remnants of the Syrian
+     army took refuge in the city, where Thutmosis III. besieged
+     them; similarly under Ramses II. the Hittite princes took
+     refuge in Qodshu after their defeat.
+
+The prisoners were driven along in platoons, their arms bound in strange
+and contorted attitudes, each under the charge of his captor; then came
+the chariots, arms, slaves, and provisions collected on the battle-field
+or in the camp, then other trophies of a kind unknown in modern warfare.
+When an Egyptian killed or mortally wounded any one, he cut off, not
+the head, but the right hand or the phallus, and brought it to the
+royal scribes. These made an accurate inventory of everything, and even
+Pharaoh did not disdain to be present at the registration. The booty did
+not belong to the persons who obtained it, but was thrown into a common
+stock which was placed at the disposal of the sovereign: one part he
+reserved for the gods, especially for his father Amon of Thebes, who
+had given him the victory; another part he kept for himself, and the
+remainder was distributed among his army. Each man received a reward
+in proportion to his rank and services, such as male or female slaves,
+bracelets, necklaces, arms, vases, or a certain measured weight of gold,
+known as the "gold of bravery." A similar sharing of the spoil took
+place after every successful engagement: from Pharaoh to the meanest
+camp-follower, every man who had contributed to the success of a
+campaign returned home richer than he had set out, and the profits which
+he derived from a war were a liberal compensation for the expenses in
+which it had involved him.
+
+[Illustration: 330.jpg COUNTING OF THE HANDS]
+
+The results of the first expedition of Thutmosis I. were of a decisive
+character; so much so, indeed, that he never again, it would seem,
+found it necessary during the remainder of his life to pass the isthmus.
+Northern Syria, it is true, did not remain long under tribute, if
+indeed it paid any at all after the departure of the Egyptians, but
+the southern part of the country, feeling itself in the grip of the new
+master, accepted its defeat: Gaza became the head-quarters of a garrison
+which secured the door of Asia for future invasion,* and Pharaoh, freed
+from anxiety in this quarter, gave his whole time to the consolidation
+of his power in Ethiopia.
+
+     * This fact is nowhere explicitly stated on the monuments:
+     we may infer it, however, from the way in which Thutmosis
+     III. tells how he reached Gaza without opposition at the
+     beginning of his first campaign, and celebrated the
+     anniversary of his coronation there. On the other hand, we
+     learn from details in the lists that the mountains and
+     plains beyond Gaza were in a state of open rebellion.
+
+The river and desert tribes of this region soon forgot the severe lesson
+which he had given them: as soon as the last Egyptian soldier had left
+their territory they rebelled once more, and began a fresh series of
+inroads which had to be repressed anew year after year. Thutmosis I. had
+several times to drive them back in the years II. and III., but was able
+to make short work of their rebellions. An inscription at Tombos on the
+Nile, in the very midst of the disturbed districts, told them in brave
+words what he was, and what he had done since he had come to the throne.
+Wherever he had gone, weapon in hand, "seeking a warrior, he had found
+none to withstand him; he had penetrated to valleys which were unknown
+to his ancestors, the inhabitants of which had never beheld the wearers
+of the double diadem." All this would have produced but little effect
+had he not backed up his words by deeds, and taken decisive measures
+to restrain the insolence of the barbarians. Tombos lies opposite to
+Hannek, at the entrance to that series of rapids known as the Third
+Cataract. The course of the Nile is here barred by a formidable dyke
+of granite, through which it has hollowed out six winding channels of
+varying widths, dotted here and there with huge polished boulders and
+verdant islets. When the inundation is at its height, the rocks are
+covered and the rapids disappear, with the exception of the lowest,
+which is named Lokoli, where faint eddies mark the place of the more
+dangerous reefs; and were it not that the fall here is rather more
+pronounced and the current somewhat stronger, few would suspect the
+existence of a cataract at the spot. As the waters go down, however, the
+channels gradually reappear. When the river is at its lowest, the three
+westernmost channels dry up almost completely, leaving nothing but a
+series of shallow pools; those on the east still maintain their flow,
+but only one of them, that between the islands of Tombos and Abadin,
+remains navigable. Here Thutmosis built, under invocation of the gods of
+Heliopolis, one of those brickwork citadels, with its rectangular keep,
+which set at nought all the efforts and all the military science of the
+Ethiopians: attached to it was a harbour, where each vessel on its way
+downstream put in for the purpose of hiring a pilot.*
+
+The monarchs of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties had raised fortifications
+at the approaches to Wady Haifa, and their engineers skilfully chose the
+sites so as completely to protect from the ravages of the Nubian pirates
+that part of the Nile which lay between Wady Haifa and Philse.*
+
+     * The foundation of this fortress is indicated in an
+     emphatic manner in the Tombos inscription: "The masters of
+     the Great Castle (the gods of Heliopolis) have made a
+     fortress for the soldiers of the king, which the nine
+     peoples of Nubia combined could not carry by storm, for,
+     like a young panther before a bull which lowers its head,
+     the souls of his Majesty have blinded them with
+     fear." Quarries of considerable size, where Cailliaud
+     imagined he could distinguish an overturned colossus, show
+     the importance which the establishment had attained in
+     ancient times; the ruins of the town cover a fairly large
+     area near the modern village of Kerman.
+
+Henceforward the garrison at Tombos was able to defend the mighty curve
+described by the river through the desert of Mahas, together with the
+island of Argo, and the confines of Dongola. The distance between Thebes
+and this southern frontier was a long one, and communication was slow
+during the winter months, when the subsidence of the waters had rendered
+the task of navigation difficult for the Egyptian ships. The king
+was obliged, besides, to concentrate his attention mainly on Asiatic
+affairs, and was no longer able to watch the movements of the African
+races with the same vigilance as his predecessors had exercised before
+Egyptian armies had made their way as far as the banks of the Euphrates.
+Thutmosis placed the control of the countries south of Assuan in the
+hands of a viceroy, who, invested with the august title of "Royal Son of
+Kush," must have been regarded as having the blood of Ra himself running
+in his veins.*
+
+     * The meaning of this title was at first misunderstood.
+     Champollion and Rosellini took it literally, and thought it
+     referred to Ethiopian princes, who were vassals or enemies
+     of Egypt. Birch persists in regarding them as Ethiopians
+     driven out by their subjects, restored by the Pharaohs as
+     viceroys, while admitting that they may have belonged to the
+     solar family.
+
+Sura, the first of these viceroys whose name has reached us, was in
+office at the beginning of the campaign of the year III.* He belonged,
+it would seem, to a Theban family, and for several centuries afterwards
+his successors are mentioned among the nobles who were in the habit
+of attending the court. Their powers were considerable: they commanded
+armies, built or restored temples, administered justice, and received
+the homage of loyal sheikhs or the submission of rebellious ones.** The
+period for which they were appointed was not fixed by law, and they held
+office simply at the king's pleasure. During the XIXth dynasty it was
+usual to confer this office, the highest in the state, on a son of the
+sovereign, preferably the heir-apparent. Occasionally his appointment
+was purely formal, and he continued in attendance on his father, while
+a trusty substitute ruled in his place: often, however, he took the
+government on himself, and in the regions of the Upper Nile served an
+apprenticeship to the art of ruling.
+
+     * He is mentioned in the Sehel inscriptions as "the royal
+     son Sura." Nahi, who had been regarded as the first holder of
+     the office, and who was still in office under Thutmosis
+     III., had been appointed by Thutmosis I., but after Sura.
+
+     ** Under Thutmosis III., the viceroy Nahi restored the
+     temple at Semneh; under Tutankhamon, the viceroy Hui
+     received tribute from the Ethiopian princes, and presented
+     them to the sovereign.
+
+[Illustration: 336.jpg A CITY OF MODERN NUBIA--THE ANCIENT DONGOLA]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Insinger.
+
+This district was in a perpetual state of war--a war without danger, but
+full of trickery and surprises: here he prepared himself for the larger
+arena of the Syrian campaigns, learning the arts of generalship more
+perfectly than was possible in the manouvres of the parade-ground.
+Moreover, the appointment was dictated by religious as well as by
+political considerations. The presumptive heir to the throne was to his
+father what Horus had been to Osiris--his lawful successor, or, if need
+be, his avenger, should some act of treason impose on him the duty of
+vengeance: and was it not in Ethiopia that Horus had gained his first
+victories over Typhon? To begin like Horus, and flesh his maiden steel
+on the descendants of the accomplices of Sit, was, in the case of the
+future sovereign, equivalent to affirming from the outset the reality of
+his divine extraction.*
+
+     * In the _Orbiney Papyrus_ the title of "Prince of Kush" was
+     assigned to the heir-presumptive to the throne.
+
+As at the commencement of the Theban dynasties, it was the river valley
+only in these regions of the Upper Nile which belonged to the Pharaohs.
+From this time onward it gave support to an Egyptian population as far
+as the juncture of the two Niles: it was a second Egypt, but a poorer
+one, whose cities presented the same impoverished appearance as that
+which we find to-day in the towns of Nubia. The tribes scattered right
+and left in the desert, or distributed beyond the confluence of the two
+Niles among the plains of Sennar, were descended from the old indigenous
+races, and paid valuable tribute every year in precious metals, ivory,
+timber, or the natural products of their districts, under penalty of
+armed invasion.*
+
+     * The tribute of the Ganbatiu, or people of the south, and
+          that of Kush and of the Uauaiu, is mentioned repeatedly
+          in the _Annales de Thutmosis III._ for the year XXXI.,
+          for the year XXXIII., and for the year XXXIV. The
+          regularity with which this item recurs, unaccompanied by
+          any mention of war, following after each Syrian campaign,
+          shows that it was an habitual operation which was
+          registered as an understood thing. True, the inscription
+          does not give the item for every year, but then it only
+          dealt with Ethiopian affairs in so far as they were
+          subsidiary to events in Asia; the payment was none the
+          less an annual one, the amount varying in accordance with
+          local agreement.
+
+Among these races were still to be found descendants of the Mazaiu and
+Uauaiu, who in days gone by had opposed the advance of the victorious
+Egyptians: the name of the Uauaiu was, indeed, used as a generic term to
+distinguish all those tribes which frequented the mountains between the
+Nile and the Red Sea,* but the wave of conquest had passed far beyond
+the boundaries reached in early campaigns, and had brought the Egyptians
+into contact with nations with whom they had been in only indirect
+commercial relations in former times.
+
+     * The Annals of Thutmosis III. mention the tribute of Puanit
+     for the peoples of the coast, the tribute of Uauait for the
+     peoples of the mountain between the Nile and the sea, the
+     tribute of Kush for the peoples of the south, or Ganbatiu.
+
+[Illustration: 338.jpg ARRIVAL OF AN ETHIOPIAN QUEEN BRINGING TRIBUTE TO
+THE VICEROY OF KUSII]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+
+Some of these were light-coloured men of a type similar to that of the
+modern Abyssinians or Gallas: they had the same haughty and imperious
+carriage, the same well-developed and powerful frames, and the same love
+of fighting. Most of the remaining tribes were of black blood, and such
+of them as we see depicted on the monuments resemble closely the negroes
+inhabiting Central Africa at the present day.
+
+[Illustration: 339.jpg TYPICAL GALLA WOMAN]
+
+They have the same elongated skull, the low prominent forehead, hollow
+temples, short flattened nose, thick lips, broad shoulders, and salient
+breast, the latter contrasting sharply with the undeveloped appearance
+of the lower part of the body, which terminates in thin legs almost
+devoid of calves. Egyptian civilization had already penetrated among
+these tribes, and, as far as dress and demeanour were concerned, their
+chiefs differed in no way from the great lords who formed the escort
+of the Pharaoh. We see these provincial dignitaries represented in the
+white robe and petticoat of starched, pleated, and gauffered linen;
+an innate taste for bright colours, even in those early times, being
+betrayed by the red or yellow scarf in which they wrapped themselves,
+passing it over one shoulder and round the waist, whence the ends
+depended and formed a kind of apron. A panther's skin covered the back,
+and one or two ostrich-feathers waved from the top of the head or
+were fastened on one side to the fillet confining the hair, which was
+arranged in short curls and locks, stiffened with gum and matted with
+grease, so as to form a sort of cap or grotesque aureole round the
+skull. The men delighted to load themselves with rings, bracelets,
+earrings, and necklaces, while from their arms, necks, and belts hung
+long strings of glass beads, which jingled with every movement of the
+wearer. They seem to have frequently chosen a woman as their ruler, and
+her dress appears to have closely resembled that of the Egyptian
+ladies. She appeared before her subjects in a chariot drawn by oxen,
+and protected from the sun by an umbrella edged with fringe. The common
+people went about nearly naked, having merely a loin-cloth of some woven
+stuff or an animal's skin thrown round their hips. Their heads were
+either shaven, or adorned with tufts of hair stiffened with gum. The
+children of both sexes wore no clothes until the age of puberty; the
+women wrapped themselves in a rude garment or in a covering of linen,
+and carried their children on the hip or in a basket of esparto grass on
+the back, supported by a leather band which passed across the forehead.
+One characteristic of all these tribes was their love of singing and
+dancing, and their use of the drum and cymbals; they were active and
+industrious, and carefully cultivated the rich soil of the plain,
+devoting themselves to the raising of cattle, particularly of oxen,
+whose horns they were accustomed to train fantastically into the shapes
+of lyres, bows, and spirals, with bifurcations at the ends, or with
+small human figures as terminations. As in the case of other negro
+tribes, they plied the blacksmith's and also the goldsmith's trade,
+working up both gold and silver into rings, chains, and quaintly shaped
+vases, some specimens of their art being little else than toys, similar
+in design to those which delighted the Byzantine Caesars of later date.
+
+[Illustration: 341.jpg GOLD EPERGNE REPRESENTING SCENES FROM ETHIOPIAN
+LIFE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a painting on the tomb of Hui.
+
+A wall-painting remains of a gold epergne, which represents men and
+monkeys engaged in gathering the fruit of a group of dom-palms. Two
+individuals lead each a tame giraffe by the halter, others kneeling on
+the rim raise their hands to implore mercy from an unseen enemy, while
+negro prisoners, grovelling on their stomachs, painfully attempt
+to raise their head and shoulders from the ground. This, doubtless,
+represents a scene from the everyday life of the people of the Upper
+Nile, and gives a faithful picture of what took place among many of its
+tribes during a rapid inroad of some viceroy of Kush or a raid by his
+lieutenants.
+
+The resources which Thutmosis I. was able to draw regularly from these
+southern regions, in addition to the wealth collected during his Syrian
+campaign, enabled him to give a great impulse to building work. The
+tutelary deity of his capital--Amon-Ra--who had ensured him the victory
+in all his battles, had a prior claim on the bulk of the spoil; he
+received it as a matter of course, and his temple at Thebes was thereby
+considerably enlarged; we are not, however, able to estimate exactly
+what proportion fell to other cities, such as Kummeh, Elephantine,*
+Abydos,** and Memphis, where a few scattered blocks of stone still bear
+the name of the king. Troubles broke out in Lower Egypt, but they were
+speedily subdued by Thutmosis, and he was able to end his days in the
+enjoyment of a profound peace, undisturbed by any care save that of
+ensuring a regular succession to his throne, and of restraining the
+ambitions of those who looked to become possessed of his heritage.***
+
+     * Wiedemann found his name there cut in a block of brown
+     freestone.
+
+     ** A stele at Abydos speaks of the building operations
+     carried on by Thutmosis I. in that town.
+
+     *** The expressions from which we gather that his reign was
+     disturbed by outbreaks of internal rebellion seem to refer
+     to a period subsequent to the Syrian expedition, and prior
+     to his alliance with the Princess Hatshopsitu.
+
+His position was, indeed, a curious one; although _de facto_ absolute in
+power, his children by Queen Ahmasi took precedence of him, for by her
+mother's descent she had a better right to the crown than her husband,
+and legally the king should have retired in favour of hie sons as soon
+as they were old enough to reign. The eldest of them, Uazmosu, died
+early.* The second, Amenmosu, lived at least to attain adolescence; he
+was allowed to share the crown with his father from the fourth year of
+the latter's reign, and he also held a military command in the Delta,**
+but before long he also died, and Thutmosis I. was left with only one
+son--a Thutmosis like himself--to succeed him. The mother of this prince
+was a certain Mutnofrit,*** half-sister to the king on his father's
+side, who enjoyed such a high rank in the royal family that her husband
+allowed her to be portrayed in royal dress; her pedigree on the mother's
+side, however, was not so distinguished, and precluded her son from
+being recognised as heir-apparent, hence the occupation of the "seat of
+Horus" reverted once more to a woman, Hatshopsitu, the eldest daughter
+of Ahmasi.
+
+     * Uazmosu is represented on the tomb of Pahiri at El-Kab,
+     where Mr. Griffith imagines he can trace two distinct
+     Uazmosu; for the present, I am of opinion that there was but
+     one, the son of Thutmosis I. His funerary chapel was
+     discovered at Thebes; it is in a very bad state of
+     preservation.
+
+     ** Amenmosu is represented at El-Kab, by the side of his
+     brother Uazmosu. Also on a fragment where we find him, in
+     the fourth year of his father's reign, honoured with a
+     cartouche at Memphis, and consequently associated with his
+     father in the royal power.
+
+     *** Mutnofrit was supposed by Mariette to have been a
+     daughter of Thutmosis IL; the statue reproduced on p. 345
+     has shown us that she was wife of Thutmosis I. and mother of
+     Thutmosis II.
+
+Hatshopsitu herself was not, however, of purely divine descent. Her
+maternal ancestor, Sonisonbu, had not been a scion of the royal house,
+and this flaw in her pedigree threatened to mar, in her case, the
+sanctity of the solar blood. According to Egyptian belief, this defect
+of birth could only be remedied by a miracle,* and the ancestral god,
+becoming incarnate in the earthly father at the moment of conception,
+had to condescend to infuse fresh virtue into his race in this manner.
+
+
+* A similar instance of divine substitution is known to us in the case
+of two other sovereigns, viz. Amenothes III., whose father, Titmosis
+IV., was born under conditions analogous to those attending the birth of
+Thutmosis I.; and Ptolemy Caesarion, whose father, Julius Caesar, was not
+of Egyptian blood.
+
+
+[Illustration: 344.jpg PORTRAIT OF THE QUEEN AHMASI]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Naville.
+
+The inscriptions with which Hatshopsitu decorated her chapel relate how,
+on that fateful night, Amon descended upon Ahmasi in a flood of perfume
+and light. The queen received him favourably, and the divine spouse on
+leaving her announced to her the approaching birth of a daughter, in
+whom his valour and strength should be manifested once more here below.
+The sequel of the story is displayed in a series of pictures before our
+eyes.
+
+[Illustration: 345.jpg QUEEN MUTNOFRIT IN THE GIZEH MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The protecting divinities who preside over the birth of children conduct
+the queen to her couch, and the sorrowful resignation depicted on her
+face, together with the languid grace of her whole figure, display in
+this portrait of her a finished work of art. The child enters the world
+amid shouts of joy, and the propitious genii who nourish both her and
+her double constitute themselves her nurses. At the appointed time,
+her earthly father summons the great nobles to a solemn festival, and
+presents to them his daughter, who is to reign with him over Egypt and
+the world.*
+
+     * The association of Hatshopsitu with her father on the
+     throne, has now been placed beyond doubt by the inscriptions
+     discovered and commented on by Naville in 1895.
+
+[Illustration: 346.jpg QUEEN HATSHOPSITU IN MALE COSTUME]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Naville.
+
+From henceforth Hatshopsitu adopts every possible device to conceal her
+real sex. She changes the termination of her name, and calls herself
+Hatshopsiu, the chief of the nobles, in lieu of Hatshopsitu, the chief
+of the favourites. She becomes the King Makeri, and on the occasion
+of all public ceremonies she appears in male costume. We see her
+represented on the Theban monuments with uncovered shoulders, devoid of
+breasts, wearing the short loin-cloth and the keffieh, while the diadem
+rests on her closely cut hair, and the false beard depends from her
+chin.
+
+[Illustration: 347.jpg BUST OF QUEEN HATSHOPSITU]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Mertens.
+     This was the head of one of the sphinxes which formed an
+     avenue at Deir el-Bahari; it was brought over by Lepsius and
+     is now in the Berlin Museum. The fragment has undergone
+     extensive restoration, but this has been done with the help
+     of fragments of other statues, in which the details here
+     lost were in a good state of preservation.
+
+She retained, however, the feminine pronoun in speaking of herself, and
+also an epithet, inserted in her cartouche, which declared her to be the
+betrothed of Amon--khnumit Amaunu.*
+
+     * We know how greatly puzzled the early Egyptologists were
+     by this manner of depicting the queen, and how Champollion,
+     in striving to explain the monuments of the period, was
+     driven to suggest the existence of a regent, Amenenthes, the
+     male counterpart and husband of Hatshopsitu, whose name he
+     read Amense. This hypothesis, adopted by Rosellini, with
+     some slight modifications, was rejected by Birch. This
+     latter writer pointed out the identity of the two personages
+     separated by Champollion, and proved them to be one and the
+     same queen, the Amenses of Manetho; he called her Amun-num-
+     hc, but he made her out to be a sister of Amenothes I.,
+     associated on the throne with her brothers Thutmosis I. and
+     Thutmosis IL, and regent at the beginning of the reign of
+     Thutmosis III. Hineks tried to show that she was the
+     daughter of Thutmosis I., the wife of Thutmosis II. and the
+     sister of Thutmosis III.; it is only quite recently that her
+     true descent and place in the family tree has been
+     recognised. She was, not the sister, but the aunt of
+     Thutmosis III. The queen, called by Birch Amun-num-het, the
+     latter part of her name being dropped and the royal prenomen
+     being joined to her own name, was subsequently styled Ha-asu
+     or Hatasu, and this form is still adopted by some writers;
+     the true reading is Hatshopsitu or Hatshopsitu, then
+     Hatshopsiu, or Hatshepsiu, as Naville has pointed out.
+
+Her father united her while still young to her brother Thutmosis, who
+appears to have been her junior, and this fact doubtless explains the
+very subordinate part which he plays beside the queen. When Thutmosis
+I. died, Egyptian etiquette demanded that a man should be at the head of
+affairs, and this youth succeeded his father in office: but Hatshopsitu,
+while relinquishing the semblance of power and the externals of pomp to
+her husband,* kept the direction of the state entirely in her own hands.
+The portraits of her which have been preserved represent her as having
+refined features, with a proud and energetic expression. The oval of
+the face is elongated, the cheeks a little hollow, and the eyes deep set
+under the arch of the brow, while the lips are thin and tightly closed.
+
+     * It is evident, from the expressions employed by Thutmosis
+     I. in associating his daughter with himself on the throne,
+     that she was unmarried at the time, and Naville thinks that
+     she married her brother Thutmosis II. after the death of her
+     father. It appears to me more probable that Thutmosis I.
+     married her to her brother after she had been raised to the
+     throne, with a view to avoiding complications which might
+     have arisen in the royal family after his own death. The
+     inscription at Shutt-er-Ragel, which has furnished Mariette
+     with the hypothesis that Thutmosis I. and Thutmosis IL
+     reigned simultaneously, proves that the person mentioned in
+     it, a certain Penaiti, flourished under both these Pharaohs,
+     but by no means shows that these two reigned together; he
+     exercised the functions which he held by their authority
+     during their successive reigns.
+
+[Illustration: 348.jpg PAINTING ON THE TOMB OF THE KINGS]
+
+She governed with so firm a hand that neither Egypt nor its foreign
+vassals dared to make any serious attempt to withdraw themselves from
+her authority. One raid, in which several prisoners were taken, punished
+a rising of the Shausu in Central Syria, while the usual expeditions
+maintained order among the peoples of Ethiopia, and quenched any attempt
+which they might make to revolt. When in the second year of his reign
+the news was brought to Thutmosis II. that the inhabitants of the Upper
+Nile had ceased to observe the conditions which his father had imposed
+upon them, he "became furious as a panther," and assembling his troops
+set out for war without further delay. The presence of the king with the
+army filled the rebels with dismay, and a campaign of a few weeks put an
+end to their attempt at rebelling.
+
+The earlier kings of the XVIIIth dynasty had chosen for their last
+resting-place a spot on the left bank of the Nile at Thebes, where the
+cultivated land joined the desert, close to the pyramids built by their
+predecessors. Probably, after the burial of Amenothes, the space was
+fully occupied, for Thutmosis I. had to seek his burying-ground some way
+up the ravine, the mouth of which was blocked by their monuments. The
+Libyan chain here forms a kind of amphitheatre of vertical cliffs, which
+descend to within some ninety feet of the valley, where a sloping mass
+of detritus connects them by a gentle declivity with the plain.
+
+[Illustration: 350.jpg THE AMPHITHEATRE AT DEIR EL-BAHARI, AS IT
+APPEARED BEPOEE NAVILLe's EXCAVATIONS]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The great lords and the queens in the times of the Antufs and the
+Usirtasens had taken possession of this spot, but their chapels were by
+this period in ruins, and their tombs almost all lay buried under the
+waves of sand which the wind from the desert drives perpetually over
+the summit of the cliffs. This site was seized on by the architects
+of Thutmosis, who laid there the foundations of a building which was
+destined to be unique in the world. Its ground plan consisted of an
+avenue of sphinxes, starting from the plain and running between the
+tombs till it reached a large courtyard, terminated on the west by a
+colonnade, which was supported by a double row of pillars.
+
+[Illustration: 351.jpg THE NORTHERN COLLONADE]
+
+     Drawn by Bouclier, from a photograph supplied by Naville.
+
+Above and beyond this was the vast middle platform,* connected with the
+upper court by the central causeway which ran through it from end to
+end; this middle platform, like that below it, was terminated on the
+west by a double colonnade, through which access was gained to two
+chapels hollowed out of the mountain-side, while on the north it was
+bordered with excellent effect by a line of proto-Dorio columns ranged
+against the face of the cliff.
+
+     * The English nomenclature employed in describing this
+     temple is that used in the _Guide to Deir el-Bahari_,
+     published by the _Egypt Exploration Fund_.--Tr.
+
+This northern colonnade was never completed, but the existing part is of
+as exquisite proportions as anything that Greek art has ever produced.
+At length we reach the upper platform, a nearly square courtyard,
+cutting on one side into the mountain slope, the opposite side being
+enclosed by a wall pierced by a single door, while to right and left ran
+two lines of buildings destined for purposes connected with the daily
+worship of the temple. The sanctuary was cut out of the solid rock,
+but the walls were faced with white limestone; some of the chambers
+are vaulted, and all of them decorated with bas-reliefs of exquisite
+workmanship, perhaps the finest examples of this period. Thutmosis I.
+scarcely did more than lay the foundations of this magnificent building,
+but his mummy was buried in it with great pomp, to remain there until a
+period of disturbance and general insecurity obliged those in charge of
+the necropolis to remove the body, together with those of his family, to
+some securer hiding-place.* The king was already advanced in age at the
+time of his death, being over fifty years old, to judge by the incisor
+teeth, which are worn and corroded by the impurities of which the
+Egyptian bread was full.
+
+     * Both E. de Rouge and Mariette were opposed to the view
+     that the temple was founded by Thutmosis I., and Naville
+     agrees with them. Judging from the many new texts discovered
+     by Naville, I am inclined to think that Thutmosis I. began
+     the structure, but from plans, it would appear, which had
+     not been so fully developed as they afterwards became. Prom
+     indications to be found here and there in the inscriptions
+     of the Ramesside period, I am not, moreover, inclined to
+     regard Deir el-Bahari as the funerary chapel of tombs which
+     were situated in some unknown place elsewhere, but I believe
+     that it included the burial-places of Thutmosis I.,
+     Thutmosis II., Queen Hatshopsitu, and of numerous
+     representatives of their family; indeed, it is probable that
+     Thutmosis III. and his children found here also their last
+     resting-place.
+
+[Illustration: 353.jpg HEAD OF THE MUMMY OF THUTMOSIS I.]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph taken by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The body, though small and emaciated, shows evidence of unusual muscular
+strength; the head is bald, the features are refined, and the mouth
+still bears an expression characteristic of shrewdness and cunning.*
+
+     * The coffin of Thutmosis I. was usurped by the priest-king
+     Pinozmu I., son of Pionkhi, and the mummy was lost. I fancy
+     I have discovered it in mummy No. 5283, of which the head
+     presents a striking resemblance to those of Thutmosis II.
+     and III.
+
+Thutmosis II. carried on the works begun by his father, but did not long
+survive him.* The mask on his coffin represents him with a smiling and
+amiable countenance, and with the fine pathetic eyes which show his
+descent from the Pharaohs of the XIIth dynasty.
+
+     * The latest year up to the present known of this king is
+     the IInd, found upon the Aswan stele. Erman, followed by Ed.
+     Meyer, thinks that Hatshop-situ could not have been free
+     from complicity in the premature death of Thutmosis II.; but
+     I am inclined to believe, from the marks of disease found on
+     the skin of his mummy, that the queen was innocent of the
+     crime here ascribed to her.
+
+[Illustration: 354.jpg HEAD OF THE MUMMY OF THUTMOSIS II.]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph in the possession of
+     Emil Brugsch Bey.
+
+His statues bear the same expression, which indeed is that of the mummy
+itself. He resembles Thutmosis I., but his features are not so marked,
+and are characterised by greater gentleness. He had scarcely reached the
+age of thirty when he fell a victim to a disease of which the process of
+embalming could not remove the traces. The skin is scabrous in patches,
+and covered with scars, while the upper part of the skull is bald; the
+body is thin and somewhat shrunken, and appears to have lacked vigour
+and muscular power. By his marriage with his sister, Thutmosis left
+daughters only,* but he had one son, also a Thutmosis, by a woman of
+low birth, perhaps merely a slave, whose name was Isis.** Hatshopsitu
+proclaimed this child her successor, for his youth and humble parentage
+could not excite her jealousy. She betrothed him to her one surviving
+daughter, Hatshopsitu II., and having thus settled the succession in the
+male line, she continued to rule alone in the name of her nephew who was
+still a minor, as she had done formerly in the case of her half-brother.
+
+     * Two daughters of Queen Hatshopsitu I. are known, of whom
+     one, Nofiruri, died young, and Hatshopsitu II. Maritri, who
+     was married to her half-brother on her father's side,
+     Thutmosis III., who was thus her cousin as well. Amenothes
+     II. was offspring of this marriage.
+
+     ** The name of the mother of Thutmosis III. was revealed to
+     us on the wrappings found with the mummy of this king in the
+     hiding-place of Deir el-Bahari; the absence of princely
+     titles, while it shows the humble extraction of the lady
+     Isis, explains at the same time the somewhat obscure
+     relations between Hatshopsitu and her nephew.
+
+Her reign was a prosperous one, but whether the flourishing condition
+of things was owing to the ability of her political administration or
+to her fortunate choice of ministers, we are unable to tell. She pressed
+forward the work of building with great activity, under the direction
+of her architect Sanmut, not only at Deir el-Bahari, but at Karnak, and
+indeed everywhere in Thebes. The plans of the building had been arranged
+under Thutmosis I., and their execution had been carried out so quickly,
+that in many cases the queen had merely to see to the sculptural
+ornamentation on the all but completed walls.
+
+This work, however, afforded her sufficient excuse, according to
+Egyptian custom, to attribute the whole structure to herself, and the
+opinion she had of her own powers is exhibited with great naiveness in
+her inscriptions. She loves to pose as premeditating her actions long
+beforehand, and as never venturing on the smallest undertaking without
+reference to her divine father.
+
+[Illustration: 356.jpg The Coffin Of Thutmosis I.]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph in the possession
+     of Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+This is what I teach to mortals who shall live in centuries to come, and
+whose hearts shall inquire concerning the monument which I have raised
+to my father, speaking and exclaiming as they contemplate it: as for me,
+when I sat in the palace and thought upon him who created me, my heart
+prompted me to raise to him two obelisks of electrum, whose apices
+should pierce the firmaments, before the noble gateway which is between
+the two great pylons of the King Thutmosis I. And my heart led me to
+address these words to those who shall see my monuments in after-years
+and who shall speak of my great deeds: Beware of saying, 'I know not,
+I know not why it was resolved to carve this mountain wholly of gold!'
+These two obelisks, My Majesty has made them of electrum for my father
+Anion, that my name may remain and live on in this temple for ever and
+ever; for this single block of granite has been cut, without let or
+obstacle, at the desire of My Majesty, between the first of the second
+month of Pirifc of the Vth year, and the 30th of the fourth month of
+Shomu of the VIth year, which makes seven months from the day when they
+began to, quarry it. One of these two monoliths is still standing among
+the ruins of Karnak, and the grace of its outline, the finish of its
+hieroglyphics, and the beauty of the figures which cover it, amply
+justify the pride which the queen and her brother felt in contemplating
+it.
+
+[Illustration: 356b Avenue Of Rams And Pylon At Karnak]
+
+[Illustration: 356b-text]
+
+[Illustration: 357.jpg THE STATUE OF SANMUT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Mortens:
+     the original is in the Berlin Museum, whither Lepsius
+     brought it. Sanmut is squatting and holding between his
+     arras and knees the young king Thut-mosis III,, whose head
+     with the youthful side lock appears from under his chin.
+
+The tops of the pyramids were gilt, so that "they could be seen from
+both banks of the river," and "their brilliancy lit up the two lands of
+Egypt:" needless to say these metal apices have long disappeared.
+
+[Illustration: 338.jpg Page Image]
+
+     Drawn by Fauoher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+Later on, in the the queen's reign, Amon enjoined a work which was more
+difficult to carry out. On a day when Hatshopsitu had gone to the temple
+to offer prayers, "her supplications arose up before the throne of the
+Lord of Karnak, and a command was heard in the sanctuary, a behest of
+the god himself, that the ways which lead to Puanit should be explored,
+and that the roads to the 'Ladders of Incense' should be trodden."*
+
+     * The word "Ladders" is the translation of the Egyptian word
+     "Khatiu," employed in the text to designate the country laid
+     out in terraces where the incense trees grew; cf. with a
+     different meaning, the "ladders" of the eastern
+     Mediterranean.
+
+Gums required for the temple service had hitherto reached the Theban
+priests solely by means of foreign intermediaries; so that in the slow
+transport across Africa they lost much of their freshness, besides being
+defiled by passing through impure hands. In addition to these drawbacks,
+the merchants confounded under the one term "Aniti" substances which
+differed considerably both in value and character, several of them,
+indeed, scarcely coming under the category of perfumes, and hence being
+unacceptable to the gods. One kind, however, found favour with them
+above all others, being that which still abounds in Somali-land at the
+present day--a gum secreted by the incense sycomore.*
+
+     * From the form of the trees depicted on the monument, it is
+     certain that the Egyptians went to Puanit in search of the
+     _Boswellia Thurifera_ Cart.; but they brought back with them
+     other products also, which they confounded together under
+     the name "incense."
+
+It was accounted a pious work to send and obtain it direct from the
+locality in which it grew, and if possible to procure the plants
+themselves for acclimatisation in the Nile valley. But the relations
+maintained in former times with the people of these aromatic regions
+had been suspended for centuries. "None now climbed the 'Ladders of
+Incense,' none of the Egyptians; they knew of them from hearsay, from
+the stories of people of ancient times, for these products were brought
+to the kings of the Delta, thy fathers, to one or other of them, from
+the times of thy ancestors the kings of the Said who lived of yore." All
+that could be recalled of this country was summed up in the facts, that
+it lay to the south or to the extreme east, that from thence many of the
+gods had come into Egypt, while from out of it the sun rose anew every
+morning. Amon, in his omniscience, took upon himself to describe it and
+give an exact account of its position. "The 'Ladders of Incense' is a
+secret province of Tonutir, it is in truth a place of delight. I created
+it, and I thereto lead Thy Majesty, together with Mut, Hathor, Uirit,
+the Lady of Puanit, Uirit-hikau, the magician and regent of the gods,
+that the aromatic gum may be gathered at will, that the vessels may be
+laden joyfully with living incense trees and with all the products of
+this earth." Hatshopsitu chose out five well-built galleys, and
+manned them with picked crews. She caused them to be laden with such
+merchandise as would be most attractive to the barbarians, and placing
+the vessels under the command of a royal envoy, she sent them forth on
+the Bed Sea in quest of the incense.
+
+We are not acquainted with the name of the port from which the fleet set
+sail, nor do we know the number of weeks it took to reach the land of
+Puanit, neither is there any record of the incidents which befell it
+by the way. It sailed past the places frequented by the mariners of
+the XIIth dynasty--Suakin, Massowah, and the islands of the Ked Sea;
+it touched at the country of the Ilim which lay to the west of the Bab
+el-Mandeb, went safely through the Straits, and landed at last in the
+Land of Perfumes on the Somali coast.* There, between the bay of Zeilah
+and Bas Hafun, stretched the Barbaric region, frequented in later times
+by the merchants of Myos Hormos and of Berenice.
+
+     * That part of Puanit where the Egyptians landed was at
+     first located in Arabia by Brugsch, then transferred to
+     Somali-land by Mariette, whose opinion was accepted by most
+     Egyptologists. Dumichen, basing his hypothesis on a passage
+     where Puanit is mentioned as "being on both sides of the
+     sea," desired to apply the name to the Arabian as well as to
+     the African coast, to Yemen and Hadhramaut as well as to
+     Somali-land; this suggestion was adopted by Lieblein, and
+     subsequently by Ed. Meyer, who believed that its inhabitants
+     were the ancestors of the Sabseans. Since then Krall has
+     endeavoured to shorten the distance between this country and
+     Egypt, and he places the Puanit of Hatshopsitu between
+     Suakin and Massowah. This was, indeed, the part of the
+     country known under the XIIth dynasty at the time when it
+     was believed that the Nile emptied itself thereabouts into
+     the Red Sea, in the vicinity of the Island of the Serpent
+     King, but I hold, with Mariette, that the Puanit where the
+     Egyptians of Hatshopsitu's time landed is the present
+     Somali-land--a view which is also shared by Navillo, but
+     which Brugsch, in the latter years of his life, abandoned.
+
+[Illustration: 361.jpg AN INHABITANT OF THE LAND OF PUANIT]
+
+     Drawn by Fauchon-Gudin, from a photograph by Gayet.
+
+The first stations which the latter encountered beyond Cape
+Direh--Avails, Malao, Mundos, and Mosylon--were merely open roadsteads
+offering no secure shelter; but beyond Mosylon, the classical navigators
+reported the existence of several wadys, the last of which, the Elephant
+River, lying between Bas el-Eil and Cape Guardafui, appears to have been
+large enough not only to afford anchorage to several vessels of light
+draught, but to permit of their performing easily any evolutions
+required. During the Roman period, it was there, and there only, that
+the best kind of incense could be obtained, and it was probably at this
+point also that the Egyptians of Hatshopsitu's time landed. The Egyptian
+vessels sailed up the river till they reached a place beyond the
+influence of the tide, and then dropped anchor in front of a village
+scattered along a bank fringed with sycomores and palms.*
+
+     * I have shown, from a careful examination of the bas-
+     reliefs, that the Egyptians must have landed, not on the
+     coast itself, as was at first believed, but in the estuary
+     of a river, and this observation has been accepted as
+     decisive by most Egyptologists; besides this, newly
+     discovered fragments show the presence of a hippopotamus.
+     Since then I have sought to identify the landing-place of
+     the Egyptians with the most important of the creeks
+     mentioned by the Graeco-Roman merchants as accessible for
+     their vessels, viz. that which they called the Elephant
+     River, near to the present Ras el-Fil.
+
+The huts of the inhabitants were of circular shape, each being
+surmounted with a conical roof; some of them were made of closely
+plaited osiers, and there was no opening in any of them save the door.
+They were built upon piles, as a protection from the rise of the
+river and from wild animals, and access to them was gained by means of
+moveable ladders. Oxen chewing the cud rested beneath them. The natives
+belonged to a light-coloured race, and the portraits we possess of them
+resemble the Egyptian type in every particular. They were tall and thin,
+and of a colour which varied between brick-red and the darkest brown.
+Their beards were pointed, and the hair was cut short in some instances,
+while in others it was arranged in close rows of curls or in small
+plaits. The costume of the men consisted of a loin-cloth only, while the
+dress of the women was a yellow garment without sleeves, drawn in at the
+waist and falling halfway below the knee.
+
+The royal envoy landed under an escort of eight soldiers and an officer,
+but, to prove his pacific intentions, he spread out upon a low table a
+variety of presents, consisting of five bracelets two gold necklaces, a
+dagger with strap and sheath complete, a battle-axe, and eleven strings
+of glass beads.
+
+[Illustration: 303.jpg A VILLAGE ON THE BANK OF THE RIVER, WITH LADDERS
+OF INCENSE]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+The inhabitants, dazzled by the display of so many valuable objects, ran
+to meet the new-comers, headed by their sheikh, and expressed a natural
+astonishment at the sight of the strangers. "How is it," they exclaimed,
+"that you have reached this country hitherto unknown to men? Have you
+come down by way of the sky, or have you sailed on the waters of the
+Tonutir Sea? You have followed the path of the sun, for as for the king
+of the land of Egypt, it is not possible to elude him, and we live, yea,
+we ourselves, by the breath which he gives us." The name of their chief
+was Parihu, who was distinguished from his subjects by the boomerang
+which he carried, and also by his dagger and necklace of beads: his
+right leg, moreover, appears to have been covered with a kind of
+sheath composed of rings of some yellow metal, probably gold.* He was
+accompanied by his wife Ati, riding on an ass, from which she alighted
+in order to gain a closer view of the strangers. She was endowed with
+a type of beauty much admired by the people of Central Africa, being so
+inordinately fat that the shape of her body was scarcely recognisable
+under the rolls of flesh which hung down from it. Her daughter, who
+appeared to be still young, gave promise of one day rivalling, if not
+exceeding, her mother in size.**
+
+     * Mariette compares this kind of armour to the "dangabor" of
+     the Congo tribes, but the "dangabor "is worn on the arm.
+     Livingstone saw a woman, the sister of Sebituaneh, the
+     highest lady of the Sesketeh, who wore on each leg eighteen
+     rings of solid brass as thick as the finger, and three rings
+     of copper above the knee. The weight of these shining rings
+     impeded her walking, and produced sores on her ankles; but
+     it was the fashion, and the inconvenience became nothing. As
+     to the pain, it was relieved by a bit of rag applied to the
+     lower rings.
+
+     ** These are two instances of abnormal fat production--the
+     earliest with which we are acquainted.
+
+After an exchange of compliments, the more serious business of the
+expedition was introduced. The Egyptians pitched a tent, in which they
+placed the objects of barter with which they were provided, and to
+prevent these from being too great a temptation to the natives, they
+surrounded the tent with a line of troops.
+
+[Illustration: 365.jpg PRINCE PARIHU AND THE PRINCESS OF PUANIT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+The main conditions of the exchange were arranged at a banquet, in
+which they spread before the barbarians a sumptuous display of Egyptian
+delicacies, consisting of bread, beer, wine, meat, and carefully
+prepared and flavoured vegetables. Payment for every object was to be
+made at the actual moment of purchase. For several days there was a
+constant stream of people, and asses groaned beneath their burdens. The
+Egyptian purchases comprised the most varied objects: ivory tusks, gold,
+ebony, cassia, myrrh, cynocephali and green monkeys, greyhounds, leopard
+skins, large oxen, slaves, and last, but not least, thirty-one incense
+trees, with their roots surrounded by a ball of earth and placed in
+large baskets. The lading of the ships was a long and tedious affair.
+All available space being at length exhausted, and as much cargo placed
+on board as was compatible with the navigation of the vessel, the
+squadron set sail and with all speed took its way northwards.
+
+[Illustration: 366.jpg THE EMBARKATION OF THE INCENSE SYCOMORES ON
+BOARD THE EGYPTIAN FLEET]
+
+     Drawn by Bouclier, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+The Egyptians touched at several places on the coast on their return
+journey, making friendly alliances with the inhabitants; the Him added
+a quota to their freight, for which room was with difficulty found on
+board,--it consisted not only of the inevitable gold, ivory, and skins,
+but also of live leopards and a giraffe, together with plants and fruits
+unknown on the banks of the Nile.*
+
+     * Lieblein thought that their country was explored, not by
+     the sailors who voyaged to Puanit, but by a different body
+     who proceeded by land, and this view was accepted by Ed.
+     Meyer. The completed text proves that there was but a single
+     expedition, and that the explorers of Puanit visited the
+     Ilim also. The giraffe which they gave does not appear in
+     the cargo of the vessels at Puanit; the visit must,
+     therefore, have been paid on the return voyage, and the
+     giraffe was probably represented on the destroyed part of
+     the walls where Naville found the image of this animal
+     wandering at liberty among the woods.
+
+The fleet at length made its reappearance in Egyptian ports, having
+on board the chiefs of several tribes on whose coasts the sailors had
+landed, and "bringing back so much that the like had never been brought
+of the products of Puanit to other kings, by the supreme favour of
+the venerable god, Amon Ra, lord of Karnak." The chiefs mentioned were
+probably young men of superior family, who had been confided to the
+officer in command of the squadron by local sheikhs, as pledges to the
+Pharaoh of good will or as commercial hostages. National vanity, no
+doubt, prompted the Egyptians to regard them as vassals coming to do
+homage, and their gifts as tributes denoting subjection. The Queen
+inaugurated a solemn festival in honour of the explorers. The Theban
+militia was ordered out to meet them, the royal flotilla escorting them
+as far as the temple landing-place, where a procession was formed to
+carry the spoil to the feet of the god. The good Theban folk, assembled
+to witness their arrival, beheld the march past of the native hostages,
+the incense sycomores, the precious gum itself, the wild animals,
+the giraffe, and the oxen, whose numbers were doubtless increased a
+hundredfold in the accounts given to posterity with the usual official
+exaggeration. The trees were planted at Deir el-Bahari, where a sacred
+garden was prepared for them, square trenches being cut in the rock and
+filled with earth, in which the sycomore, by frequent watering, came to
+flourish well.*
+
+     * Naville found these trenches still filled with vegetable
+     mould, and in several of them roots, which gave every
+     indication of the purpose to which the trenches were
+     applied. A scene represents seven of the incense sycomores
+     still growing in their pots, and offered by the queen to the
+     Majesty "of this god Amonra of Karnak."
+
+The great heaps of fresh resin were next the objects of special
+attention. Hatshopsitu "gave a bushel made of electrum to gauge the mass
+of gum, it being the first time that they had the joy of measuring the
+perfumes for Amon, lord of Karnak, master of heaven, and of presenting
+to him the wonderful products of Puanit. Thot, the lord of Hermo-polis,
+noted the quantities in writing; Safkhitabui verified the list. Her
+Majesty herself prepared from it, with her own hands, a perfumed unguent
+for her limbs; she gave forth the smell of the divine dew, her perfume
+reached even to Puanit, her skin became like wrought gold,* and her
+countenance shone like the stars in the great festival hall, in the
+sight of the whole earth."
+
+     * In order to understand the full force of the imagery here
+     employed, one must remember that the Egyptian artists
+     painted the flesh of women as light yellow.
+
+Hatshopsitu commanded the history of the expedition to be carved on the
+wall of the colonnades which lay on the west side of the middle platform
+of her funerary chapel: we there see the little fleet with sails
+spread, winging its way to the unknown country, its safe arrival at its
+destination, the meeting with the natives, the animated palavering, the
+consent to exchange freely accorded; and thanks to the minuteness
+with which the smallest details have been portrayed, we can as it were
+witness, as if on the spot, all the phases of life on board ship, not
+only on Egyptian vessels, but, as we may infer, those of other
+Oriental nations generally. For we may be tolerably sure that when the
+Phoenicians ventured into the distant parts of the Mediterranean, it was
+after a similar fashion that they managed and armed their vessels.
+
+[Illustration: 369.jpg SOME OF THE INCENSE TREES BROUGHT FROM PUANIT TO
+DEIR EL-BAIIAKI]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+Although the natural features of the Asiatic or Greek coast on which
+they effected a landing differed widely from those of Puanit, the
+Phoenician navigators were themselves provided with similar objects of
+exchange, and in their commercial dealings with the natives the methods
+of procedure of the European traders were doubtless similar to those of
+the Egyptians with the barbarians of the Red Sea.
+
+Hatshopsitu reigned for at least eight years after this memorable
+expedition, and traces of her further activity are to be observed in
+every part of the Nile valley. She even turned her attention to the
+Delta, and began the task of reorganising this part of her kingdom,
+which had been much neglected by her predecessors. The wars between the
+Theban princes and the lords of Avaris had lasted over a century, and
+during that time no one had had either sufficient initiative or leisure
+to superintend the public works, which were more needed here than in any
+other part of Egypt. The canals were silted up with mud, the marshes and
+the desert had encroached on the cultivated lands, the towns had become
+impoverished, and there were some provinces whose population consisted
+solely of shepherds and bandits. Hatshopsitu desired to remedy these
+evils, if only for the purpose of providing a practicable road for her
+armies marching to Zalu _en route_ for Syria.*
+
+     * This follows from the great inscription at Stabl-Antar,
+     which is commonly interpreted as proving that the Shepherd-
+     kings still held sway in Egypt in the reign of Thutmosis
+     III., and that they were driven out by him and his aunt. It
+     seems to me that the queen is simply boasting that she had
+     repaired the monuments which had been injured by the
+     Shepherds during the time they sojourned in Egypt, in the
+     land of Avaris. Up to the present time no trace of these
+     restorations has been found on the sites. The expedition to
+     Puanit being mentioned in lines 13, 14, they must be of
+     later date than the year IX. of Hatshopsitu and Thutmosis
+     III.
+
+She also turned her attention to the mines of Sinai, which had not been
+worked by the Egyptian kings since the end of the XIIth dynasty. In the
+year XVI. an officer of the queen's household was despatched to the
+Wady Magharah, the site of the ancient works, with orders to inspect the
+valleys, examine the veins, and restore there the temple of the goddess
+Hathor; having accomplished his mission, he returned, bringing with
+him a consignment of those blue and green stones which were so highly
+esteemed by the Egyptians.
+
+Meanwhile, Thutmosis III. was approaching manhood, and his aunt, the
+queen, instead of abdicating in his favour, associated him with herself
+more frequently in the external acts of government.*
+
+     * The account of the youth of Thutmosis III., such as
+     Brugsch made it out to be from an inscription of this king,
+     the exile of the royal child at Buto, his long sojourn in
+     the marshes, his triumphal return, must all be rejected.
+     Brugsch accepted as actual history a poetical passage where
+     the king identifies himself with Horus son of Isis, and
+     goes so far as to attribute to himself the adventures of the
+     god.
+
+She was forced to yield him precedence in those religious ceremonies
+which could be performed by a man only, such as the dedication of one of
+the city gates of Ombos, and the foundation and marking out of a temple
+at Medinet-Habu; but for the most part she obliged him to remain in
+the background and take a secondary place beside her. We are unable to
+determine the precise moment when this dual sovereignty came to an end.
+It was still existent in the XVIth year of the reign, but it had ceased
+before the XXIInd year. Death alone could take the sceptre from the
+hands that held it, and Thutmosis had to curb his impatience for many
+a long day before becoming the real master of Egypt. He was about
+twenty-five years of age when this event took place, and he immediately
+revenged himself for the long repression he had undergone, by
+endeavouring to destroy the very remembrance of her whom he regarded as
+a usurper. Every portrait of her that he could deface without exposing
+himself to being accused of sacrilege was cut away, and he substituted
+for her name either that of Thutmosis I. or of Thutmosis II.
+
+[Illustration: 372.jpg THUTMOSIS III., FROM HIS STATUE IN THE TURIN
+MUSEUM]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie.
+
+A complete political change was effected both at home and abroad from
+the first day of his accession to power. Hatshopsitu had been averse to
+war. During the whole of her reign there had not been a single campaign
+undertaken beyond the isthmus of Suez, and by the end of her life she had
+lost nearly all that her father had gained in Syria; the people of Kharu
+had shaken off the yoke,* probably at the instigation of the king of the
+Amorites,** and nothing remained to Egypt of the Asiatic province but
+Gaza, Sharuhana,*** and the neighbouring villages. The young king set
+out with his army in the latter days of the year XXII. He reached Gaza
+on the 3rd of the month of Pakhons, in time to keep the anniversary
+of his coronation in that town, and to inaugurate the 24th year of his
+reign by festivals in honour of his father Amon.**** They lasted the
+usual length of time, and all the departments of State took part in
+them, but it was not a propitious moment for lengthy ceremonies.
+
+     * E. de Rouge thought that he had discovered, in a slightly
+     damaged inscription bearing upon the Puanit expedition, the
+     mention of a tribute paid by the Lotanu. There is nothing in
+     the passage cited but the mention of the usual annual dues
+     paid by the chiefs of Puanit and of the Ilim.
+
+     ** This is at least what may be inferred from the account of
+     the campaign, where the Prince of Qodshu, a town of the
+     Amauru (Amorites), figures at the head of the coalition
+     formed against Thutmosis III.
+
+     *** This is the conclusion to be adopted from the beginning
+     of the inscription of Thutmosis III.: "Now, during the
+     duration of these same years, the country of the Lotanu was
+     in discord until other times succeeded them, when the people
+     who were in the town of Sharuhana, from the town of Yurza,
+     to the most distant regions of the earth, succeeded in
+     making a revolt against his Majesty."
+
+     **** The account of this campaign has been preserved to us
+     on a wall adjoining the granite sanctuary at Karnak.
+
+The king left Gaza the following day, the 5th of Pakhons; he marched
+but slowly at first, following the usual caravan route, and despatching
+troops right and left to levy contributions on the cities of the
+Plain--Migdol, Yapu (Jaffa), Lotanu, Ono--and those within reach on the
+mountain spurs, or situated within the easily accessible wadys, such as
+Sauka (Socho), Hadid, and Harilu. On the 16th day he had not proceeded
+further than Yahmu, where he received information which caused him to
+push quickly forward. The lord of Qodshu had formed an alliance with the
+Syrian princes on the borders of Naharaim, and had extorted from them
+promises of help; he had already gone so far as to summon contingents
+from the Upper Orontes, the Litany, and the Upper Jordan, and was
+concentrating them at Megiddo, where he proposed to stop the way of the
+invading army. Thutmosis called together his principal officers, and
+having imparted the news to them, took counsel with them as to a plan
+of attack. Three alternative routes were open to him. The most direct
+approached the enemy's position on the front, crossing Mount Carmel by
+the saddle now known as the Umm el-Fahm; but the great drawback attached
+to this route was its being so restricted that the troops would be
+forced to advance in too thin a file; and the head of the column would
+reach the plain and come into actual conflict with the enemy while the
+rear-guard would only be entering the defiles in the neighbourhood
+of Aluna. The second route bore a little to the east, crossing the
+mountains beyond Dutina and reaching the plain near Taanach; but it
+offered the same disadvantages as the other. The third road ran north
+of _Zafiti_, to meet the great highway which cuts the hill-district of
+Nablus, skirting the foot of Tabor near Jenin, a little to the north of
+Megiddo. It was not so direct as the other two, but it was easier for
+troops, and the king's generals advised that it should be followed. The
+king was so incensed that he was tempted to attribute their prudence to
+cowardice. "By my life! by the love that Ra hath for me, by the favour
+that I enjoy from my master Amon, by the perpetual youth of my nostril
+in life and power, My Majesty will go by the way of Aluna, and let him
+that will go by the roads of which ye have spoken, and let him that will
+follow My Majesty. What will be said among the vile enemies detested of
+Ra: 'Doth not His Majesty go by another way? For fear of us he gives
+us a wide berth,' they will cry." The king's counsellors did not insist
+further. "May thy father Amon of Thebes protect thee!" they exclaimed;
+"as for us, we will follow Thy Majesty whithersoever thou goest, as it
+befitteth a servant to follow his master." The word of command was given
+to the men; Thutmosis himself led the vanguard, and the whole army,
+horsemen and foot-soldiers, followed in single file, wending their way
+through the thickets which covered the southern slopes of Mount Carmel.*
+
+     * The position of the towns mentioned and of the three roads
+     has been discussed by E. de Rouge, also by P. de Saulcy, who
+     fixed the position of Yahmu at El-Kheimeh, and showed that
+     the Egyptian army must have passed through the defiles of
+     Umm el-Rahm. Conder disagreed with this opinion in certain
+     respects, and identified Aluna, Aruna, at first with
+     Arrabeh, and afterwards with Arraneh; he thought that
+     Thutmosis came out upon Megiddo from the south-east, and he
+     placed Megiddo at Mejeddah, near Beisan, while Tomkins
+     placed Aruna in the Wady el-Arrian. W. Max Millier seems to
+     place Yahinu too much to the north, in the neighbourhood of
+     Jett.
+
+They pitched their camp on the evening of the 19th near Aluna, and on
+the morning of the 20th they entered the wild defiles through which it
+was necessary to pass in order to reach the enemy. The king had taken
+precautionary measures against any possible attempt of the natives to
+cut the main column during this crossing of the mountains. His position
+might at any moment have become a critical one, had the allies taken
+advantage of it and attacked each battalion as it issued on to the plain
+before it could re-form. But the Prince of Qodshu, either from ignorance
+of his adversary's movements, or confident of victory in the open,
+declined to take the initiative. Towards one o'clock in the afternoon,
+the Egyptians found themselves once more united on the further side of
+the range, close to a torrent called the Qina, a little to the south of
+Megiddo. When the camp was pitched, Thutmosis announced his intention of
+engaging the enemy on the morrow. A council of war was held to decide
+on the position that each corps should occupy, after which the officers
+returned to their men to see that a liberal supply of rations was served
+out, and to organise an efficient system of patrols. They passed round
+the camp to the cry: "Keep a good heart: courage! Watch well, watch
+well! Keep alive in the camp!" The king refused to retire to rest until
+he had been assured that "the country was quiet, and also the host, both
+to south and north." By dawn the next day the whole army was in motion.
+It was formed into a single line, the right wing protected by the
+torrent, the left extended into the plain, stretching beyond Megiddo
+towards the north-west. Thutmosis and his guards occupied the centre,
+standing "armed in his chariot of electrum like unto Horus brandishing
+his pike, and like Montu the Theban god." The Syrians, who had not
+expected such an early attack, were seized with panic, and fled in the
+direction of the town, leaving their horses and chariots on the field;
+but the citizens, fearing lest in the confusion the Egyptians should
+effect an entrance with the fugitives, had closed their gates and
+refused to open them. Some of the townspeople, however, let down ropes
+to the leaders of the allied party, and drew them up to the top of the
+ramparts: "and would to heaven that the soldiers of His Majesty had not
+so far forgotten themselves as to gather up the spoil left by the vile
+enemy! They would then have entered Megiddo forthwith; for while the men
+of the garrison were drawing up the Lord of Qodshu and their own prince,
+the fear of His Majesty was upon their limbs, and their hands failed
+them by reason of the carnage which the royal urous carried into
+their ranks." The victorious soldiery were dispersed over the fields,
+gathering together the gilded and silvered chariots of the Syrian
+chiefs, collecting the scattered weapons and the hands of the slain, and
+securing the prisoners; then rallying about the king, they greeted him
+with acclamations and filed past to deliver up the spoil. He reproached
+them for having allowed themselves to be drawn away from the heat of
+pursuit. "Had you carried Megiddo, it would have been a favour granted
+to me by Ra my father this day; for all the kings of the country being
+shut up within it, it would have been as the taking of a thousand towns
+to have seized Megiddo." The Egyptians had made little progress in the
+art of besieging a stronghold since the times of the XIIth dynasty. When
+scaling failed, they had no other resource than a blockade, and even the
+most stubborn of the Pharaohs would naturally shrink from the tedium of
+such an undertaking. Thutmosis, however, was not inclined to lose the
+opportunity of closing the campaign by a decisive blow, and began the
+investment of the town according to the prescribed modes.
+
+[Illustration: 378.jpg AN EGYPTIAN ENCAMPMENT BEFORE A BESIEGED TOWN]
+
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+
+His men were placed under canvas, and working under the protection of
+immense shields, supported on posts, they made a ditch around the walls,
+strengthening it with a palisade. The king constructed also on the east
+side a fort which he called "Manakhpirri-holds-the-Asiatics." Famine
+soon told on the demoralised citizens, and their surrender brought about
+the submission of the entire country. Most of the countries situated
+between the Jordan and the sea--Shunem, Cana, Kinnereth, Hazor, Bedippa,
+Laish, Merom, and Acre--besides the cities of the Hauran--Hamath,
+Magato, Ashtaroth, Ono-repha, and even Damascus itself--recognised the
+suzerainty of Egypt, and their lords came in to the camp to do homage.*
+
+     * The names of these towns are inscribed on the lists of
+     Karnak published by Mariette.
+
+The Syrian losses did not amount to more than 83 killed and 400
+prisoners, showing how easily they had been routed; but they had
+abandoned considerable supplies, all of which had fallen into the hands
+of the victors. Some 724 chariots, 2041 mares, 200 suits of armour, 602
+bows, the tent of the Prince of Qodshu with its poles of cypress inlaid
+with gold, besides oxen, cows, goats, and more than 20,000 sheep, were
+among the spoil. Before quitting the plain of Bsdraelon, the king caused
+an official survey of it to be made, and had the harvest reaped. It
+yielded 208,000 bushels of wheat, not taking into account what had been
+looted or damaged by the marauding soldiery. The return homewards of the
+Egyptians must have resembled the exodus of some emigrating tribe rather
+than the progress of a regular army
+
+Thutmosis caused a long list of the vanquished to be engraved on the
+walls of the temple which he was building at Karnak, thus affording the
+good people of Thebes an opportunity for the first time of reading
+on the monuments the titles of the king's Syrian subjects written in
+hieroglyphics. One hundred and nineteen names follow each other in
+unbroken succession, some of them representing mere villages, while
+others denoted powerful nations; the catalogue, however, was not to end
+even here. Having once set out on a career of conquest, the Pharaoh had
+no inclination to lay aside his arms. From the XXIIth year of his reign
+to that of his death, we have a record of twelve military expeditions,
+all of which he led in person. Southern Syria was conquered at the
+outset--the whole of Kharu as far as the Lake of Grennesareth, and the
+Amorite power was broken at one blow.
+
+[Illustration: 380.jpg SOME OF THE PLANTS AND ANIMALS BROUGHT BACK FROM
+PUANIT]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+
+The three succeeding campaigns consolidated the rule of Egypt in the
+country of the Negeb, which lay to the south-west of the Dead Sea, in
+Phoenicia, which prudently resigned itself to its fate, and in that part
+of Lotanii occupying the northern part of the basin of the Orontes.**
+
+     * We know of these three campaigns from the indirect
+     testimony of the Annals, which end in the year XXIX. with
+     the mention of the fifth campaign. The only dated one is
+     referred to the year XXV., and we know of that of the Negeb
+     only by the _Inscription of Amenemhabi_, 11. 3-5: the
+     campaign began in the Negeb of Judah, but the king carried
+     it to Naharaim the same year.
+
+None of these expeditions appear to have been marked by any successes
+comparable to the victory at Megiddo, for the coalition of the Syrian
+chiefs did not survive the blow which they then sustained; but Qodshu
+long remained the centre of resistance, and the successive defeats which
+its inhabitants suffered never disarmed for more than a short interval
+the hatred which they felt for the Egyptian.
+
+[Illustration: 381.jpg PART OF THE TRIUMPHAL LISTS OF THUTMOSIS III.]
+
+     On One Of The Pylons Of The Temple At Karnak. Drawn by
+     Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+
+During these years of glorious activity considerable tribute poured in
+to both Memphis and Thebes; not only ingots of gold and silver, bars and
+blocks of copper and lead, blocks of lapis-lazuli and valuable vases,
+but horses, oxen, sheep, goats, and useful animals of every kind, in
+addition to all of which we find, as in Hatshopsitu's reign, the mention
+of rare plants and shrubs brought back from countries traversed by the
+armies in their various expeditions. The Theban priests and _savants_
+exhibited much interest in such curiosities, and their royal pupil gave
+orders to his generals to collect for their benefit all that appeared
+either rare or novel. They endeavoured to acclimatise the species or
+the varieties likely to be useful, and in order to preserve a record of
+these experiments, they caused a representation of the strange plants or
+animals to be drawn on the walls of one of the chapels which they were
+then building to one of their gods. These pictures may still be seen
+there in interminable lines, portraying the specimens brought from
+the Upper Lotanu in the XXVth year of Thutmosis, and we are able to
+distinguish, side by side with many plants peculiar to the regions of
+the Euphrates, others having their habitat in the mountains and valleys
+of tropical Africa.
+
+This return to an aggressive policy on the part of the Egyptians, after
+the weakness they had exhibited during the later period of Hatshopsitu's
+regency, seriously disconcerted the Asiatic sovereigns. They had vainly
+flattered themselves that the invasion of Thutmosis I. was merely the
+caprice of an adventurous prince, and they hoped that when his love of
+enterprise had expended itself, Egypt would permanently withdraw within
+her traditional boundaries, and that the relations of Elam with Babylon,
+Carchemish with Qodshu, and the barbarians of the Persian Gulf with the
+inhabitants of the Iranian table-land would resume their former course.
+This vain delusion was dispelled by the advent of a new Thutmosis, who
+showed clearly by his actions that he intended to establish and maintain
+the sovereignty of Egypt over the western dependencies, at least, of
+the ancient Chaldaean empire, that is to say, over the countries which
+bordered the middle course of the Euphrates and the coasts of the
+Mediterranean. The audacity of his marches, the valour of his men, the
+facility with which in a few hours he had crushed the assembled forces
+of half Syria, left no room to doubt that he was possessed of personal
+qualities and material resources sufficient to carry out projects of
+the most ambitious character. Babylon, enfeebled by the perpetual
+dissensions of its Cossaean princes, was no longer in a position to
+contest with him the little authority she still retained over the
+peoples of Naharaim or of Coele-Syria; protected by the distance which
+separated her from the Nile valley, she preserved a sullen neutrality,
+while Assyria hastened to form a peaceful alliance with the invading
+power. Again and again its kings sent to Thutmosis presents in
+proportion to their resources, and the Pharaoh naturally treated their
+advances as undeniable proofs of their voluntary vassalage. Each time
+that he received from them a gift of metal or lapis-lazuli, he proudly
+recorded their tribute in the annals of his reign; and if, in exchange,
+he sent them some Egyptian product, it was in smaller quantities, as
+might be expected from a lord to his vassal.*
+
+     * The "tribute of Assur" is mentioned in this way under the
+     years XXIII. and XXIV. The presents sent by the Pharaoh in
+     return are not mentioned in any Egyptian text, but there is
+     frequent reference to them in the Tel el-Amarna tablets. It
+     may be mentioned here that the name of Nineveh does not
+     occur on the Egyptian monuments, but only that of the town
+     Nii, in which Champollion wrongly recognised the later
+     capital of Assyria.
+
+Sometimes there would accompany the convoy, surrounded by an escort of
+slaves and women, some princess, whom the king would place in his harem
+or graciously pass on to one of his children; but when, on the other
+hand, an even distant relative of the Pharaoh was asked in marriage for
+some king on the banks of the Tigris or Euphrates, the request was met
+with a disdainful negative: the daughters of the Sun were of too noble
+a race to stoop to such alliances, and they would count it a humiliation
+to be sent in marriage to a foreign court.
+
+[Illustration: 384.jpg SOME OF THE OBJECTS CARRIED IN TRIBUTE TO THE
+SYRIANS]
+
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after Champollion.
+
+Free transit on the main road which ran diagonally through Kharu was
+ensured by fortresses constructed at strategic points,* and from this
+time forward Thutmosis was able to bring the whole force of his army
+to bear upon both Coele-Syria and Naharaim.** He encamped, in the year
+XXVII., on the table-land separating the Afrin and the Orontes from the
+Euphrates, and from that centre devastated the district of Uanit,***
+which lay to the west of Aleppo; then crossing "the water of Naharaim"
+in the neighbourhood of Carchemish, he penetrated into the heart of
+Mitanni.
+
+     * The castle, for instance, near Megiddo, previously
+     referred to, which, after having contributed to the siege of
+     the town, probably served to keep it in subjection.
+
+     ** The accounts of the campaigns of Thutmosis III. have been
+     preserved in the Annals in a very mutilated condition, the
+     fragments of which were discovered at different times. They
+     are nothing but extracts from an official account, made for
+     Amon and his priests.
+
+     *** The province of the Tree Uanu; cf. with this designation
+     the epithet "Shad Erini," "mountain of the cedar tree,"
+     which the Assyrians bestowed on the Amanus.
+
+The following year he reappeared in the same region. Tunipa, which had
+made an obstinate resistance, was taken, together with its king, and 329
+of his nobles were forced to yield themselves prisoners. Thutmosis "with
+a joyous heart" was carrying them away captive, when it occurred to him
+that the district of Zahi, which lay away for the most part from the
+great military highroads, was a tempting prey teeming with spoil. The
+barns were stored with wheat and barley, the cellars were filled with
+wine, the harvest was not yet gathered in, and the trees bent under the
+weight of their fruit. Having pillaged Senzauru on the Orontes,* he
+made his way to the westwards through the ravine formed by the Ishahr
+el-Kebir, and descended suddenly on the territory of Arvad. The towns
+once more escaped pillage, but Thutmosis destroyed the harvests,
+plundered the orchards, carried off the cattle, and pitilessly wasted
+the whole of the maritime plain.
+
+     * Senzauru was thought by Ebers to be "the double Tyre."
+     Brugsch considered it to be Tyre itself. It is, I believe,
+     the Sizara of classical writers, the Shaizar of the Arabs,
+     and is mentioned in one of the Tel el-Amarna tablets in
+     connection with Nii.
+
+There was such abundance within the camp that the men were continually
+getting drunk, and spent their time in anointing themselves with oil,
+which they could do only in Egypt at the most solemn festivals. They
+returned to Syria in the year XXX., and their good fortune again
+favoured them. The stubborn Qodshu was harshly dealt with; Simyra and
+Arvad, which hitherto had held their own, now opened their gates to him;
+the lords of Upper Lotanu poured in their contributions without delay,
+and gave up their sons and brothers as hostages. In the year XXXI., the
+city of Anamut in Tikhisa, on the shores of Lake Msrana, yielded in its
+turn;* on the 3rd of Pakhons, the anniversary of his coronation, the
+Lotanu renewed their homage to him in person.
+
+     * The site of the Tikhisa country is imperfectly defined.
+     Nisrana was seemingly applied to the marshy lake into which
+     the Koweik flows, and it is perhaps to be found in the name
+     Kin-nesrin. In this case Tikhisa would be the country near
+     the lake; the district of the Grseco-Roruan Chalkis is
+     situated on the right of the military road.
+
+The return of the expedition was a sort of triumphal procession. At
+every halting-place the troops found quarters and provisions prepared
+for them, bread and cakes, perfumes, oil, wine, and honey being provided
+in such quantities that they were obliged on their departure to leave
+the greater part behind them. The scribes took advantage of this
+peaceful state of affairs to draw up minute accounts of the products of
+Lotanu--corn, barley, millet, fruits, and various kinds of oil--prompted
+doubtless by the desire to arrive at a fairly just apportionment of
+the tribute. Indeed, the results of the expedition were considered so
+satisfactory that they were recorded on a special monument dedicated in
+the palace at Thebes. The names of the towns and peoples might change
+with every war, but the spoils suffered no diminution. In the year
+XXXIII., the kingdoms situated to the west of the Euphrates were so
+far pacified that Thutmosis was able without risk to carry his arms to
+Mesopotamia. He entered the country by the fords of Carchemish, near to
+the spot where his grandfather, Thutmosis I., had erected his stele half
+a century previously. He placed another beside this, and a third to the
+eastward to mark the point to which he had extended the frontier of his
+empire.. The Mitanni, who exercised a sort of hegemony over the whole of
+Naharaim, were this time the objects of his attack. Thirty-two of their
+towns fell one after another, their kings were taken captive and the
+walls of their cities were razed, without any serious resistance. The
+battalions of the enemy were dispersed at the first shock, and Pharaoh
+"pursued them for the space of a mile, without one of them daring to
+look behind him, for they thought only of escape, and fled before him
+like a flock of goats." Thutmosis pushed forward as far certainly as the
+Balikh, and perhaps on to the Khabur or even to the Hermus; and as he
+approached the frontier, the king of Singar, a vassal of Assyria, sent
+him presents of lapis-lazuli.
+
+When this prince had retired, another chief, the lord of the Great
+Kkati, whose territory had not even been threatened by the invaders,
+deemed it prudent to follow the example of the petty princes of the
+plain of the Euphrates, and despatched envoys to the Pharaoh bearing
+presents of no great value, but testifying to his desire to live on good
+terms with Egypt. Still further on, the inhabitants of Nii begged the
+king's acceptance of a troop of slaves and two hundred and sixty mares;
+he remained among them long enough to erect a stele commemorating his
+triumph, and to indulge in one of those extensive hunts which were the
+delight of Oriental monarchs. The country abounded in elephants. The
+soldiers were employed as beaters, and the king and his court succeeded
+in killing one hundred and twenty head of big game, whose tusks were
+added to the spoils. These numbers indicate how the extinction of such
+animals in these parts was brought about. Beyond these regions, again,
+the sheikhs of the Lamnaniu came to meet the Pharaoh. They were a poor
+people, and had but little to offer, but among their gifts were some
+birds of a species unknown to the Egyptians, and two geese, with which,
+however, His Majesty deigned to be satisfied.*
+
+     * The campaign of the year XXXI. It is mentioned in the
+     _Annals of Thulmosis III._, 11. 17-27; the reference to the
+     elephant-hunt occurs only in the _Inscription of
+     Amenemhabi_, 11. 22, 23; an allusion to the defeat of the
+     kings of Mitanni is found in a mutilated inscription from
+     the tomb of Manakhpirrisonbu. It was probably on his return
+     from this campaign that Thutmosis caused the great list to
+     be engraved which, while it includes a certain number of
+     names assigned to places beyond the Euphrates, ought
+     necessarily to contain the cities of the Mitanni.
+
+END OF VOL. IV.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldaea, Syria,
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