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diff --git a/17322-h/17322-h.htm b/17322-h/17322-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5fae96f --- /dev/null +++ b/17322-h/17322-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,12799 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <title> + History of Egypt, by Maspero, Volume 2 + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 2em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + pre { font-family: Times; font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, +Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 2 (of 12), by G. Maspero + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 2 (of 12) + +Author: G. Maspero + +Editor: A.H. Sayce + +Translator: M.L. McClure + +Release Date: December 16, 2005 [EBook #17322] +Last Updated: September 7, 2016 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT, CHALDÆA *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + +</pre> + + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/spines.jpg" width="100%" alt="Spines " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/cover.jpg" width="100%" alt="Cover " /> + </div> + <h1> + HISTORY OF EGYPT <br /><br /> CHALDEA, SYRIA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA + </h1> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By G. MASPERO, <br /><br /> Honorable Doctor of Civil Laws, and Fellow of + Queen’s College, <br /> Oxford; Member of the Institute and Professor at + the College of France + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Edited by A. H. SAYCE, <br /> Professor of Assyriology, Oxford + </h3> + <h4> + Translated by M. L. McCLURE, <br /> Member of the Committee of the Egypt + Exploration Fund + </h4> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + CONTAINING OVER TWELVE HUNDRED COLORED PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Volume II. + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + LONDON <br /> THE GROLIER SOCIETY <br /> PUBLISHERS + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="100%" alt="Frontispiece " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="100%" alt="Titlepage " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="001 (150K)" src="images/001.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="002 (150K)" src="images/002.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + <i>THE POLITICAL CONSTITUTION OF EGYPT</i> + </h2> + <p> + <i>THE KING, QUEEN, AND ROYAL PRINCES—PHARAONIC ADMINISTRATION</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>FEUDALISM AND THE EGYPTIAN PRIESTHOOD, THE MILITARY—THE CITIZENS + AND THE COUNTRY-PEOPLE.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The cemeteries of Gizeh and Saqqâra: the Great Sphinx; the mastabas, + their chapel and its decoration, the statues of the double, the sepulchral + vault—Importance of the wall-paintings and texts of the mastabas in + determining the history of the Memphite dynasties.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The king and the royal family—Double nature and titles of the + sovereign: his Horus-names, and the progressive formation of the Pharaonic + Protocol—Royal etiquette an actual divine worship; the insignia and + prophetic statues of Pharaoh, Pharaoh the mediator between the gods and + his subjects—Pharaoh in family life; his amusements, his + occupations, his cares—His harem: the women, the queen, her origin, + her duties to the king—His children: their position in the State; + rivalry among them during the old age and at the death of their father; + succession to the throne, consequent revolutions.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The royal city: the palace and its occupants—The royal household + and its officers: Pharaoh’s jesters, dwarfs, and magicians—The royal + domain and the slaves, the treasury and the establishments which provided + for its service: the buildings and places for the receipt of taxes—The + scribe, his education, his chances of promotion: the career of Amten, his + successive offices, the value of his personal property at his death.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Egyptian feudalism: the status of the lords, their rights, their + amusements, their obligations to the sovereign—The influence of the + gods: gifts to the temples, and possessions in mortmain; the priesthood, + its hierarchy, and the method of recruiting its ranks—The military: + foreign mercenaries; native militia, their privileges, their training.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The people of the towns—The slaves, men without a master—Workmen + and artisans; corporations: misery of handicraftsmen—Aspect of the + towns: houses, furniture, women in family life—Festivals; periodic + markets, bazaars: commerce by barter, the weighing of precious metals.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The country people—The villages; serfs, free peasantry—Rural + domains; the survey, taxes; the bastinado, the corvée—Administration + of justice, the relations between peasants and their lords; misery of the + peasantry; their resignation and natural cheerfulness; their improvidence; + their indifference to political revolutions.</i> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I—THE POLITICAL CONSTITUTION OF + EGYPT </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0001"> CHAPTER II—THE MEMPHITE EMPIRE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkC2HCH0001"> CHAPTER III—THE FIRST THEBAN EMPIRE </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>List of Illustrations</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0001"> Spines </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0002"> Cover </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0003"> Frontispiece </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0004"> Titlepage </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0005"> 003.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0006"> 004.jpg the Mastaba of Khomtini in The + Necropolis Of GÎzeh </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0007"> 006.jpg the Great Sphinx of GÎzeh Partially + Uncovered, And the Pyramid of Khephren </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0008"> 008.jpg TetiniÔnkhÛ, Sitting Before the + Funeral Repast </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0009"> 009.jpg the Façade and The Stele of The Tomb + Of Phtahshopsisu at Saqqara </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0010"> 010.jpg Stele in the Form of a Door </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0011"> 014.jpg a Representation of the Domains Of + The Lord Ti, Bringing to Him Offerings in Procession </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0012"> 015.jpg the Representation of The Lord Ti + Assisting At The Preliminaries of the Sacrifice and Offerings </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0013"> 021.jpg the Birth of a King and his Double + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0014"> 023.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0015"> 024.jpg the Adult King Advancing, Followed by + his Double </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0016"> 026.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0017"> 027.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0018"> 028.jpg the Goddess Adopts The King by + Suckling Him </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0019"> 029.jpg the Cucupha-headed Sceptre. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0020"> 030.jpg Different Postures for Approaching + the King </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0021"> 037.jpg Pharaoh in his Harem </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0022"> 039.jpg Pharaoh Gives Solemn Audience to One + of His Ministers </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0023"> 042.jpg The Queen Shakes the Sistrum While + The King Offers The Sacrifice </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0024"> 042b.jpg the Island and Temple of Phil. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0025"> 051.jpg Men and Women Singers, Flute-players, + Harpists, And Dancers, from the Tomb of Ti </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0026"> 052.jpg the Dwarf Khnumhotpu, Superintendent + of The Royal Linen </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0027"> 059.jpg the Packing of The Linen and Its + Removal to The White Storehouse. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0028"> 061.jpg Measuring the Wheat and Depositing It + in The Granaries </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0029"> 063.jpg Plan of a Princely Storehouse for + Provisions </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0030"> 065.jpg the Staff of a Government Officer in + The Time Of The Memphite Dynasties </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0031"> 067.jpg The Crier Announces the Arrival of + Five Registrars Of The Temple of King ÛsirnirÎ, Of the Vth Dynasty </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0032"> 068.jpg the Funeral Stele of The Tomb Of + Amten, The “grand Huntsman.” </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0033"> 072.jpg Statue of Amten, Found in his Tomb + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0034"> 075.jpg Plan of the Villa Of a Great Egyptian + Noble </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0035"> 077.jpg Hunting With the Boomerang and + Fishing With The Double Harpoon in a Marsh Or Pool </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0036"> 078.jpg Prince Api, Borne in a Palanquin, + Inspects His Funerary Domain </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0037"> 079.jpg a Dwarf Playing With Cynocephali and + A Tame Ibis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0038"> 080.jpg in a Nile Boat </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0039"> 092.jpg Some of the Military Athletic + Exercises </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0040"> 095.jpg War-dance Performed by Egyptian + Soldiers Before A Battle </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0041"> 098.jpg Two Blacksmiths Working the Bellows + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0042"> 099.jpg Stone-cutters Finishing the Dressing + of Limestone Blocks </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0043"> 101.jpg a Workshop of Shoemakers + Manufacturing Sandals </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0044"> 101.jpg the Baker Making his Bread and + Placing It in The Oven </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0045"> 103.jpg the House of a Great Egyptian Lord + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0046"> 104.jpg Plan of a Part Of the Ancient Town Of + Kahun </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0047"> 105.jpg Stele of SÎtÛ, Representing the Front + Of a House </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0048"> 106.jpg a Street in the Higher Quarter of + Modern SiÛt </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0049"> 107.jpg a Hall With Columns in One of the + Xiith Dynasty Houses at Gurob </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0050"> 108a.jpg Wooden Head-rest </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0051"> 108b.jpg Pigeon on Wheels </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0052"> 109.jpg Apparatus for Striking a Light </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0053"> 110.jpg Mitral Paintings in the Ruins of an + Ancient House At Kahun </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0054"> 111.jpg Woman Grinding Grain </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0055"> 114.jpg Two Women Weaving Linen at a + Horizantal Loom </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0056"> 118.jpg One of the Forms Of Egyptian Scales + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0057"> 118b.jpg Scenes in a Bazaar </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0058"> 123.jpg Part of the Modern Village Of Karnak, + to The West Of the Temple of ApÎt </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0059"> 125.jpg a Boundary Stele </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0060"> 128.jpg the Levying of The Tax: The Taxpayer + in The Scribe’s Office </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0061"> 130.jpg Levying the Tax: The Taxpayer in The + Hands of The Exactors </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0062"> 131.jpg Levying the Tax: The Bastinado </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0063"> 132.jpg Collosal Statue of a King </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0064"> 136.jpg Colored Sculptures in the Palace </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0065"> 142a.jpg Two FellahÎn Work the Shadouf in a + Garden </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0066"> 142b.jpg Cutting and Carrying the Harvest + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0067"> 147.jpg a Flock of Goats and the Song Of A + Goatherd </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0068"> 148.jpg Tailpiece </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0005"> 149.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0006"> 150.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0007"> 151.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0008"> 154.jpg Map Sinaitic Peninsular, Time of + Memphite Empire </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0009"> 156.jpg A Barbarian MonÎti from Sinai </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0010"> 157.jpg Two Refuge Towers of the + HirÛ-shÂÎtÛ, in The Wady BÎar </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0011"> 159.jpg View of the Oasis Of Wady FeÎkÂn in + The Peninsula Of Sinai </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0012"> 163.jpg the Mining Works of Wady Maghara + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0013"> 164.jpg the High Castle of The Miners—haÎt-qaÎt—at + The Confluence of Wady Genneh and Wady Maghara </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0014"> 167.jpg the Pyramid of MêdÛm </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0015"> 171.jpg the Court and The Two StelÆ of The + Chapel Adjoining the Pyramid of MêdÛm </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0016"> 173.jpg NofkÎt, Lady of MêdÛm </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0017"> 176.jpg the Triumphal Bas-reliefs of Kheops + on The Rocks Of Wady Maghara </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0018"> 176b.jpg Profile of Head Of a Mummy, (a Man) + Thebes </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0019"> 177.jpg Pyramids of Gizeh </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0020"> 179.jpg KhÛÎt, the Great Pyramid of GÎzeh, + The Sphinx, And the Temple of The Sphinx </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0021"> 181a.jpg the Movable Flagstone at The + Entrance to The Great Pyramid </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0022"> 181b.jpg the Interior of The Great Pyramid + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0023"> 183.jpg the Ascending Passage of The Great + Pyramid </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0024"> 187.jpg the Name of Kheops Drawn in Red on + Several Blocks Of the Great Pyramid </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0025"> 188.jpg Alabaster Statue of Khephren </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0026"> 188b.jpg the Pyramid of Khephren </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0027"> 192.jpg Diorite Statue of MenraÛrÏ </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0028"> 194.jpg the Coffin of Mykerinos </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0029"> 196.jpg the Granite Sarcophagus of Mykerinos + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0030"> 198.jpg Diorite Statue of Khephren, GÎzeu + Museum </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0031"> 208.jpg Map Oleander Lower </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0032"> 211.jpg Table of the IVth Dynasty </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0033"> 215.jpg Table of Pharaohs Of the Vth Dynasty + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0034"> 210.jpg Statue in Rose-coloured Granite of + the Pharaoh AnÛ, in the GÎzeh Museum </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0035"> 217.jpg Triumphal Bas-relief of Pharaoh + SahÛrÛ, on The Rocks of Wady Magharah. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0036"> 219.jpg Passenger Vessel Under Sail </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0037"> 223.jpg Map of Nubia in the Time Of The + Memphite Empire </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0038"> 225.jpg Head of an Inhabitant Of PÛanÎt </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0039"> 234a.jpg Avenue of Sphinxes—karnak + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0041"> 236.jpg One of the Wooden Panels Of Hosi, in + The GÎzeh Museum </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0042"> 237.jpg a Sculptor’s Studio, and Egyptian + Painters At Work </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0043"> 238.jpg Cellarer Coating a Jar With Pitch + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0044"> 239.jpg Baker Kneading his Dough </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0045"> 241.jpg the Sheikh-el Beled in The Gizeh + Museum </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0046"> 242.jpg the Kneeling Scribe in The Gizeh + Museum </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0047"> 246.jpg Peasant Going to Market </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0048"> 247.jpg Kofir, the Director of Granaries + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0049"> 249.jpg Bas-relief in Ivory </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0050"> 252.jpg Stele of the Daughter Of Kheops </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0051"> 253.jpg the Pharaoh MenkauhorÛ </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0052"> 255.jpg the Mastabat-el-faraun, Looking + Towards The West Façade </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0053"> 265.jpg the Island of Elephantine </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0054"> 266.jpg the Island of Elephantine Seen from + The Ruins Of Syenne </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0055"> 267.jpg the First Cataract </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0056"> 269.jpg Small Wady, Five Hours Beyond + Ed-doueÎg, on The Road to the Red Sea </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0057"> 270.jpg the Rocks of The Island Of Sehêl, + With Some Of The Votive Inscriptions </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0058"> 275.jpg the Mountain of Aswan and The Tombs + Of The Princes of Elephantine </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0059"> 278.jpg HirkhÛf Receiving Posthumous Homage + at the Door Of his Tomb from His Son </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0060"> 282.jpg Head of the Mummy Of Metesouphis I + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0061"> 283.jpg Plan of the Pyramid Of Unas </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0062"> 284.jpg the Sepulchral Chamber in The + Pyramid of Unas, And his Sarcophaous </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0063"> 286.jpg the Entrance to The Pyramid of Unas + at SaqqÀra </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0064"> 289.jpg Table of the Dates Of The Kings Vith + Dynasty </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0005"> 293.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0006"> 294.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0007"> 295.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0008"> 297.jpg Map, the Fayum </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0009"> 298.jpg Flat-bottomed Vessel of Bronze + Open-work Bearing The Cartouches of Pharaoh KhÎti I </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0010"> 300.jpg Part of the Walls Of El-kab on The + Northern Side </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0011"> 302.jpg the Second Fortress of Abydos—the + ShÛnet-ez-zebÎb—as Seen from the East </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0012"> 304.jpg Attack Upon an Egyptian Fortress by + Troops Of Various Arms </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0013"> 306.jpg Denderah—temple of Tentyra + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0014"> 306-text.jpg—temple of Tentyra </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0015"> 309.jpg Map, Plain of Thebes </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0016"> 310.jpg Map, the Principality of SiÛt </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0017"> 311.jpg the Heavy Infantry of The Princes Of + SiÛt, Armed With Lance and Buckler </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0018"> 313.jpg Palette Inscribed With the Name of + MirikarÎ </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0019"> 314.jpg the Brick Pyramid of AntÛfÂa, at + Thebes </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0020"> 318.jpg the Pharaoh Monthotpu Receiving The + Homage of His Successor—antue—in the Shat Er-rigeleh. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0021"> 325.jpg an Asiatic Chief is Presented to + KhnÛmhotpÛ By Nofirhoptu, and by Khiti, the Superintendent of The + Huntsmen </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0022"> 326.jpg Some of the Band Of Asiatics, With + Their Beasts, Brought from KhnÛmhotpÛ </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0023"> 327.jpg the Women Passing by in Procession, + In Charge Of A Warrior and of a Man Playing Upon the Lyre </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0024"> 334.jpg Plan of the Temple Of Sarbut El + Khadim </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0025"> 335.jpg the Ruins of The Temple Of Hathor + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0026"> 338.jpg Map </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0027"> 344.jpg One of The Façades Of the Fortress + Of Kubban </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0028"> 345.jpg the Second Cataract Between Hamkeh + and Wady Halfa </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0029"> 346.jpg the Second Cataract at Low Nile </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0030"> 349.jpg the Triumphal Stele of Usirtasen I. + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0031"> 351.jpg the Rapids of The Nile at Semneh, + and The Two Fortresses Built by Usirtasen Iii </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0032"> 353.jpg the Channel of The Nile Between The + Two Fortresses of Semneh and Kummeh </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0033"> 355.jpg KÛshite Prisoners Brought to Egypt + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0034"> 362.jpg the Routes Leading from The Nile to + The Red Sea, Between Koptos and Kosseir. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0035"> 372.jpg the Statue of Nofrit </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0036"> 376.jpg One of the Tanis Sphinxes in The + GÎzeh Museum </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0037"> 381.jpg the Obelisk of Ûsirtasen I., Still + Standing In The Plain of Heliopolis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0038"> 384.jpg Usirtasen I. Of Abydos </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0039"> 385.jpg a Part of the Ancient Sacred Lake Of + Osiris Near The Temple of Abydos </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0040"> 386.jpg the Site of The Ancient + Heracleopolis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0041"> 387.jpg SobkÛ, the God of The FayÛm, Under + The Form Of A Sacred Crocodile </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0042"> 388.jpg the Remains of The Obelisk Of Begig + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0043"> 389.jpg the Ruined Pedestal of One Of The + Colossi Of BiahmÛ </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0044"> 390.jpg a View in the FayÛm In The + Neighbourhood of The Village of FidemÎn </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0045"> 391.jpg the Court of The Small Temple </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0046"> 392.jpg the Shores of The Birket-kerun Near + The Embouchure of the Wady Nazleh </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0047"> 393.jpg the Two Pyramids of The Xiith + Dynasty at Lisht </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0048"> 394.jpg Painting at the Entrance of The + Fifth Tomb </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0049"> 395.jpg Pectoral Ornament of Usirtasen Iii + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0050"> 396.jpg the Pyramid of Illahun, at The + Entrance Of The Fa.Ûm </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0051"> 399.jpg the Mountain of Silt With The Tombs + Of The Princes </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0052"> 401.jpg Map of Principality Of the Gazelle + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0053"> 405.jpg the Modern Cemetery of Zawyet + El-meiyetÎn </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0054"> 408.jpg the Tombs of Princes Of The + Gazelle-nome At Beni-hasan </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0055"> 410.jpg the Colossal Statue of King + Sovkhotpu in The Louvre </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0056"> 414.jpg Statue of HarsÛf in the Vienna + Museum </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0057"> 415.jpg Statue of SovkhotpÛ Iii. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0058"> 417.jpg One of the Overturned and Broken + Statues Of MirmasiiaÛ at Tanis </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/003.jpg" width="100%" alt="003.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER I—THE POLITICAL CONSTITUTION OF EGYPT + </h2> + <p> + <i>The king, the queen, and the royal princes—Administration under + the Pharaohs—Feudalism and the Egyptian priesthood, the military—The + citizens and country people.</i> + </p> + <p> + Between the Fayûm and the apex of the Delta, the Lybian range expands and + forms a vast and slightly undulating table-land, which runs parallel to + the Nile for nearly thirty leagues. The Great Sphinx Harmakhis has mounted + guard over its northern extremity ever since the time of the Followers of + Horus. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Illustration: Drawn by Boudier, from <i>La Description de + l’Egypte,</i> A., vol. v. pl. 7. vignette, which is also by + Boudier, represents a man bewailing the dead, in the + attitude adopted at funerals by professional mourners of + both sexes; the right fist resting on the ground, while the + left hand scatters on the hair the dust which he has just + gathered up. The statue is in the Gîzeh Museum. +</pre> + <p> + Hewn out of the solid rock at the extreme margin of the mountain-plateau, + he seems to raise his head in order that he may be the first to behold + across the valley the rising of his father the Sun. Only the general + outline of the lion can now be traced in his weather-worn body. The lower + portion of the head-dress has fallen, so that the neck appears too slender + to support the weight of the head. The cannon-shot of the fanatical + Mamelukes has injured both the nose and beard, and the red colouring which + gave animation to his features has now almost entirely disappeared. But in + spite of this, even in its decay, it still bears a commanding expression + of strength and dignity. The eyes look into the far-off distance with an + intensity of deep thought, the lips still smile, the whole face is + pervaded with calmness and power. The art that could conceive and hew this + gigantic statue out of the mountain-side, was an art in its maturity, + master of itself and sure of its effects. How many centuries were needed + to bring it to this degree of development and perfection! + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/004.jpg" width="100%" + alt="004.jpg the Mastaba of Khomtini in The Necropolis Of GÎzeh " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Lepsius. The + cornerstone at the top of the mastaba, at the extreme left + of the hieroglyphic frieze, had been loosened and thrown to + the ground by some explorer; the artist has restored it to + its original position. +</pre> + <p> + In later times, a chapel of alabaster and rose granite was erected + alongside the god; temples were built here and there in the more + accessible places, and round these were grouped the tombs of the whole + country. The bodies of the common people, usually naked and uncoffined, + were thrust under the sand, at a depth of barely three feet from the + surface. Those of a better class rested in mean rectangular chambers, + hastily built of yellow bricks, and roofed with pointed vaulting. No + ornaments or treasures gladdened the deceased in his miserable + resting-place; a few vessels, however, of coarse pottery contained the + provisions left to nourish him during the period of his second existence. + </p> + <p> + Some of the wealthy class had their tombs cut out of the mountain-side; + but the majority preferred an isolated tomb, a “mastaba,” * comprising a + chapel above ground, a shaft, and some subterranean vaults. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * “The Arabic word ‘mastaba,’ plur. ‘masatib,’ denotes the + stone bench or platform seen in the streets of Egyptian + towns in front of each shop. A carpet is spread on the + ‘mastaba,’ and the customer sits upon it to transact his + business, usually side by side with the seller. In the + necropolis of Saqqâra, there is a temple of gigantic + proportions in the shape of a ‘mastaba.‘The inhabitants of + the neighbourhood call it ‘Mastabat-el-Farâoun,’ the seat of + Pharaoh, in the belief that anciently one of the Pharaohs + sat there to dispense justice. The Memphite tombs of the + Ancient Empire, which thickly cover the Saqqâra plateau, are + more or less miniature copies of the ‘Mastabat-el- + Farâoun.‘Hence the name of mastabas, which has always been + given to this kind of tomb, in the necropolis of Saqqâra.” + </pre> + <p> + From a distance these chapels have the appearance of truncated pyramids, + varying in size according to the fortune or taste of the owner; there are + some which measure 30 to 40 ft. in height, with a façade 160 ft. long, and + a depth from back to front of some 80 ft., while others attain only a + height of some 10 ft. upon a base of 16 ft. square.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The mastaba of Sabû is 175 ft. 9 in. long, by about 87 ft. + 9 in. deep, but two of its sides have lost their facing; + that of Ranimait measures 171 ft. 3 in. by 84 ft. 6 in. on + the south front, and 100 ft. on the north front. On the + other hand, the mastaba of Papû is only 19 ft. 4 in. by 29 + ft. long, and that of KMbiûphtah 42 ft. 4 in. by 21 ft. 8 + in. +</pre> + <p> + The walls slope uniformly towards one another, and usually have a smooth + surface; sometimes, however, their courses are set back one above the + other almost like steps. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/006.jpg" width="100%" + alt="006.jpg the Great Sphinx of GÎzeh Partially Uncovered, And the Pyramid of Khephren " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey, + taken in the course of the excavations begun in 1886, with + the funds furnished by a public subscription opened by the + <i>Journal des Débats.</i> +</pre> + <p> + The brick mastabas were carefully cemented externally, and the layers + bound together internally by fine sand poured into the interstices. Stone + mastabas, on the contrary, present a regularity in the decoration of their + facings alone; in nine cases out of ten the core is built of rough stone + blocks, rudely cut into squares, cemented with gravel and dried mud, or + thrown together pell-mell without mortar of any kind. The whole building + should have been orientated according to rule, the four sides to the four + cardinal points, the greatest axis directed north and south; but the + masons seldom troubled themselves to find the true north, and the + orientation is usually incorrect.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Thus the axis of the tomb of Pirsenû is 17° east of the + magnetic north. In some cases the divergence is only 1° or + 2°, more often it is 6°, 7°, 8°, or 9°, as can be easily + ascertained by consulting the work of Mariette. +</pre> + <p> + The doors face east, sometimes north or south, but never west. One of + these is but the semblance of a door, a high narrow niche, contrived so as + to face east, and decorated with grooves framing a carefully walled-up + entrance; this was for the use of the dead, and it was believed that the + ghost entered or left it at will. The door for the use of the living, + sometimes preceded by a portico, was almost always characterized by great + simplicity. Over it is a cylindrical tympanum, or a smooth flagstone, + bearing sometimes merely the name of the dead person, sometimes his titles + and descent, sometimes a prayer for his welfare, and an enumeration of the + days during which he was entitled to receive the worship due to ancestors. + They invoked on his behalf, and almost always precisely in the same words, + the “Great God,” the Osiris of Mendes, or else Anubis, dwelling in the + Divine Palace, that burial might be granted to him in Amentît, the land of + the West, the very great and very good, to him the vassal of the Great + God; that he might walk in the ways in which it is good to walk, he the + vassal of the Great God; that he might have offerings of bread, cakes, and + drink, at the New Year’s Feast, at the feast of Thot, on the first day of + the year, on the feast of Ûagaît, at the great fire festival, at the + procession of the god Mînû, at the feast of offerings, at the monthly and + half-monthly festivals, and every day. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/008.jpg" width="100%" + alt="008.jpg TetiniÔnkhÛ, Sitting Before the Funeral Repast " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph of the original monument + which is preserved in the Liverpool Museum; cf. Gatty, + <i>Catalogue of the Mayer Collection;</i> I. Egyptian + Antiquities, No. 294, p. 45. +</pre> + <p> + The chapel is usually small, and is almost lost in the great extent of the + building.* It generally consists merely of an oblong chamber, approached + by a rather short passage.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Thus the chapel of the mastaba of Sabu is only 14 ft. 4 + in. long, by about 3 ft. 3 in. deep, and that of the tomb of + Phtahshopsisû, 10 ft. 4 in. by 3 ft. 7 in. + + ** The mastaba of Tinti has four chambers, as has also that + of Assi-ônkhû; but these are exceptions, as may be + ascertained by consulting the work of Mariette. Most of + those which contain several rooms are ancient one-roomed + mastabas, which have been subsequently altered or enlarged; + this is the case with the mastabas of Shopsi and of + Ankhaftûka. A few, however, were constructed from the outset + with all their apartments—that of Râônkhûmai, with six + chambers and several niches; that of Khâbiûphtah, with three + chambers, niches, and doorway ornamented with two pillars; + that of Ti, with two chambers, a court surrounded with + pillars, a doorway, and long inscribed passages; and that of + Phtahhotpû, with seven chambers, besides niches. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/009.jpg" width="100%" + alt="009.jpg the Façade and The Stele of The Tomb Of Phtahshopsisu at Saqqara " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Dûhichen. +</pre> + <p> + At the far end, and set back into the western wall, is a huge quadrangular + stele, at the foot of which is seen the table of offerings, made of + alabaster, granite or limestone placed flat upon the ground, and sometimes + two little obelisks or two altars, hollowed at the top to receive the + gifts mentioned in the inscription on the exterior of the tomb. The + general appearance is that of a rather low, narrow doorway, too small to + be a practicable entrance. The recess thus formed is almost always left + empty; sometimes, however, the piety of relatives placed within it a + statue of the deceased. Standing there, with shoulders thrown back, head + erect, and smiling face, the statue seems to step forth to lead the double + from its dark lodging where it lies embalmed, to those glowing plains + where he dwelt in freedom during his earthly life: another moment, + crossing the threshold, he must descend the few steps leading into the + public hall. On festivals and days of offering, when the priest and family + presented the banquet with the customary rites, this great painted figure, + in the act of advancing, and seen by the light of flickering torches or + smoking lamps, might well appear endued with life. It was as if the dead + ancestor himself stepped out of the wall and mysteriously stood before his + descendants to claim their homage. The inscription on the lintel repeats + once more the name and rank of the dead. Faithful portraits of him and of + other members of his family figure in the bas-reliefs on the door-posts. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/010.jpg" width="100%" + alt="010.jpg Stele in the Form of a Door " /> + </div> + <p> + The little scene at the far end represents him seated tranquilly at table, + with the details of the feast carefully recorded at his side, from the + first moment when water is brought to him for ablution, to that when, all + culinary skill being exhausted, he has but to return to his dwelling, in a + state of beatified satisfaction. The stele represented to the visitor the + door leading to the private apartments of the deceased; the fact of its + being walled up for ever showing that no living mortal might cross its + threshold. The inscription which covered its surface was not a mere + epitaph informing future generations who it was that reposed beneath. It + perpetuated the name and genealogy of the deceased, and gave him a civil + status, without which he could not have preserved his personality in the + world beyond; the nameless dead, like a living man without a name, was + reckoned as non-existing. Nor was this the only use of the stele; the + pictures and prayers inscribed upon it acted as so many talismans for + ensuring the continuous existence of the ancestor, whose memory they + recalled. They compelled the god therein invoked, whether Osiris or the + jackal Anubis, to act as mediator between the living and the departed; + they granted to the god the enjoyment of sacrifices and those good things + abundantly offered to the deities, and by which they live, on condition + that a share of them might first be set aside for the deceased. By the + divine favour, the soul or rather the doubles of the bread, meat, and + beverages passed into the other world, and there refreshed the human + double. It was not, however, necessary that the offering should have a + material existence, in order to be effective; the first comer who should + repeat aloud the name and the formulas inscribed upon the stone, secured + for the unknown occupant, by this means alone, the immediate possession of + all the things which he enumerated. + </p> + <p> + The stele constitutes the essential part of the chapel and tomb. In many + cases it was the only inscribed portion, it alone being necessary to + ensure the identity and continuous existence of the dead man; often, + however, the sides of the chamber and passage were not left bare. When + time or the wealth of the owner permitted, they were covered with scenes + and writing, expressing at greater length the ideas summarized by the + figures and inscriptions of the stele. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/014.jpg" width="100%" + alt="014.jpg a Representation of the Domains Of The Lord Ti, Bringing to Him Offerings in Procession " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin taken from a “squeeze” taken from the + tomb of Ti. The domains are represented as women. The name + is written before each figure with the designation of the + landowner. +</pre> + <p> + Neither pictorial effect nor the caprice of the moment was permitted to + guide the artist in the choice of his subjects; all that he drew, pictures + or words, bad a magical purpose. Every individual who built for himself an + “eternal house,” either attached to it a staff of priests of the double, + of inspectors, scribes, and slaves, or else made an agreement with the + priests of a neighbouring temple to serve the chapel in perpetuity. Lands + taken from his patrimony, which thus became the “Domains of the Eternal + House,” rewarded them for their trouble, and supplied them with meats, + vegetables, fruits, liquors, linen and vessels for sacrifice. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0012" id="linkimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/015.jpg" width="100%" + alt="015.jpg the Representation of The Lord Ti Assisting At The Preliminaries of the Sacrifice and Offerings " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Dumichen, + Besultate, vol. i. pl. 13. +</pre> + <p> + In theory, these “liturgies” were perpetuated from year to year, until the + end of time; but in practice, after three or four generations, the older + ancestors were forsaken for those who had died more recently. + Notwithstanding the imprecations and threats of the donor against the + priests who should neglect their duty, or against those who should usurp + the funeral endowments, sooner or later there came a time when, forsaken + by all, the double was in danger of perishing for want of sustenance. In + order to ensure that the promised gifts, offered in substance on the day + of burial, should be maintained throughout the centuries, the relatives + not only depicted them upon the chapel walls, but represented in addition + the lands which produced them, and the labour which contributed to their + production. On one side we see ploughing, sowing, reaping, the carrying of + the corn, the storing of the grain, the fattening of the poultry, and the + driving of the cattle. A little further on, workmen of all descriptions + are engaged in their several trades: shoemakers ply the awl, glassmakers + blow through their tubes, metal founders watch over their smelting-pots, + carpenters hew down trees and build a ship; groups of women weave or spin + under the eye of a frowning taskmaster, who seems impatient of their + chatter. Did the double in his hunger desire meat? He might choose from + the pictures on the wall the animal that pleased him best, whether kid, + ox, or gazelle; he might follow the course of its life, from its birth in + the meadows to the slaughter-house and the kitchen, and might satisfy his + hunger with its flesh. The double saw himself represented in the paintings + as hunting, and to the hunt he went; he was painted eating and drinking + with his wife, and he ate and drank with her; the pictured ploughing, + harvesting, and gathering into barns, thus became to him actual realities. + In fine, this painted world of men and things represented upon the wall + was quickened by the same life which animated the double, upon whom it all + depended: the <i>picture</i> of a meal or of a slave was perhaps that + which best suited the <i>shade</i> of guest or of master. + </p> + <p> + Even to-day, when we enter one of these decorated chapels, the idea of + death scarcely presents itself: we have rather the impression of being in + some old-world house, to which the master may at any moment return. We see + him portrayed everywhere upon the walls, followed by his servants, and + surrounded by everything which made his earthly life enjoyable. One or two + statues of him stand at the end of the room, in constant readiness to + undergo the “Opening of the Mouth” and to receive offerings. Should these + be accidentally removed, others, secreted in a little chamber hidden in + the thickness of the masonry, are there to replace them. These inner + chambers have rarely any external outlet, though occasionally they are + connected with the chapel by a small opening, so narrow that it will + hardly admit of a hand being passed through it. Those who came to repeat + prayers and burn incense at this aperture were received by the dead in + person. The statues were not mere images, devoid of consciousness. Just as + the double of a god could be linked to an idol in the temple sanctuary in + order to transform it into a prophetic being, capable of speech and + movement, so when the double of a man was attached to the effigy of his + earthly body, whether in stone, metal, or wood, a real living person was + created and was introduced into the tomb. So strong was this conviction + that the belief has lived on through two changes of religion until the + present day. The double still haunts the statues with which he was + associated in the past. As in former times, he yet strikes with madness or + death any who dare to disturb is repose; and one can only be protected + from him by breaking, at the moment of discovery, the perfect statues + which the vault contains. The double is weakened or killed by the + mutilation of these his sustainers.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The legends still current about the pyramids of Gîzeh + furnish some good examples of this kind of superstition. + “The guardian of the Eastern pyramid was an idol... who had + both eyes open, and was seated on a throne, having a sort of + halberd near it, on which, if any one fixed his eye, he + heard a fearful noise, which struck terror to his heart, and + caused the death of the hearer. There was a spirit appointed + to wait on each guardian, who departed not from before + him.” The keeping of the other two pyramids was in like + manner entrusted to a statue, assisted by a spirit. I have + collected a certain number of tales resembling that of + Mourtadi in the <i>Études de Mythologie et Archéologie + Égyptiennes,</i> vol. i. p. 77, et seq. +</pre> + <p> + The statues furnish in their modelling a more correct idea of the deceased + than his mummy, disfigured as it was by the work of the embalmers; they + were also less easily destroyed, and any number could be made at will. + Hence arose the really incredible number of statues sometimes hidden away + in the same tomb. These sustainers or imperishable bodies of the double + were multiplied so as to insure for him a practical immortality; and the + care with which they were shut into a secure hiding-place, increased their + chances of preservation. All the same, no precaution was neglected that + could save a mummy from destruction. The shaft leading to it descended to + a mean depth of forty to fifty feet, but sometimes it reached, and even + exceeded, a hundred feet. Running horizontally from it is a passage so low + as to prevent a man standing upright in it, which leads to the sepulchral + chamber properly so called, hewn out of the solid rock and devoid of all + ornament; the sarcophagus, whether of fine limestone, rose-granite, or + black basalt, does not always bear the name and titles of the deceased. + The servants who deposited the body in it placed beside it on the dusty + floor the quarters of the ox, previously slaughtered in the chapel, as + well as phials of perfume, and large vases of red pottery containing muddy + water; after which they walled up the entrance to the passage and filled + the shaft with chips of stone intermingled with earth and gravel. The + whole, being well watered, soon hardened into a compact mass, which + protected the vault and its master from desecration. + </p> + <p> + During the course of centuries, the ever-increasing number of tombs at + length formed an almost uninterrupted chain of burying-places on the + table-land. At Gîzeh they follow a symmetrical plan, and line the sides of + regular roads; at Saqqâra they are scattered about on the surface of the + ground, in some places sparsely, in others huddled confusedly together. + Everywhere the tombs are rich in inscriptions, statues, and painted or + sculptured scenes, each revealing some characteristic custom, or some + detail of contemporary civilization. From the womb, as it were, of these + cemeteries, the Egypt of the Memphite dynasties gradually takes new life, + and reappears in the full daylight of history. Nobles and fellahs, + soldiers and priests, scribes and craftsmen,—the whole nation lives + anew before us; each with his manners, his dress, his daily round of + occupation and pleasures. It is a perfect picture, and although in places + the drawing is defaced and the colour dimmed, yet these may be restored + with no great difficulty, and with almost absolute certainty. The king + stands out boldly in the foreground, and his tall figure towers over all + else. He so completely transcends his surroundings, that at first sight + one may well ask if he does not represent a god rather than a man; and, as + a matter of fact, he is a god to his subjects. They call him “the good + god,” “the great god,” and connect him with Râ through the intervening + kings, the successors of the gods who ruled the two worlds. His father + before him was “Son of Râ,” as was also his grandfather, and his + great-grandfather, and so through all his ancestors, until from “son of + Râ” to “son of Râ” they at last reached Râ himself. Sometimes an + adventurer of unknown antecedents is abruptly inserted in the series, and + we might imagine that he would interrupt the succession of the solar line; + but on closer examination we always find that either the intruder is + connected with the god by a genealogy hitherto unsuspected, or that he is + even more closely related to him than his predecessors, inasmuch as Râ, + having secretly descended upon the earth, had begotten him by a mortal + mother in order to rejuvenate the race.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A legend, preserved for us in the Westcar Papyrus (Erman’s + edition, pl. ix. 11. 5-11, pl. x. 1. 5, et seq.), maintains + that the first three kings of the Vth dynasty, Ûsirkaf, + Sahûrî, and Kakiû, were children born to Râ, lord of + Sakhîbû, by Rûdîtdidît, wife of a priest attached to the + temple of that town. +</pre> + <p> + If things came to the worst, a marriage with some princess would soon + legitimise, if not the usurper himself, at least his descendants, and thus + firmly re-establish the succession. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0013" id="linkimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:37%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/021.jpg" + alt="021.jpg the Birth of a King and his Double " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a photograph by Gay. +The king is Amenôthes III. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The Pharaohs, therefore, are blood-relations of the Sun-god, some through + their father, others through their mother, directly begotten by the God, + and their souls as well as their bodies have a supernatural origin; each + soul being a double detached from Horus, the successor of Osiris, and the + first to reign alone over Egypt. This divine double is infused into the + royal infant at birth, in the same manner as the ordinary double is + incarnate in common mortals. It always remained concealed, and seemed to + lie dormant in those princes whom destiny did not call upon to reign, but + it awoke to full self-consciousness in those who ascended the throne at + the moment of their accession. From that time to the hour of their death, + and beyond it, all that they possessed of ordinary humanity was completely + effaced; they were from henceforth only “the sons of Râ,” the Horus, + dwelling upon earth, who, during his sojourn here below, renews the + blessings of Horus, son of Isis. Their complex nature was revealed at the + outset in the form and arrangement of their names. Among the Egyptians the + choice of a name was not a matter of indifference; not only did men and + beasts, but even inanimate objects, require one or more names, and it may + be said that no person or thing in the world could attain to complete + existence until the name had been conferred. The most ancient names were + often only a short word, which denoted some moral or physical quality, as + Titi the Runner, Mini the Lasting, Qonqeni the Crusher, Sondi the + Formidable, Uznasît the Flowery-tongued. They consisted also of short + sentences, by which the royal child confessed his faith in the power of + the gods, and his participation in the acts of the Sun’s life—“Khâfrî,” + his rising is Râ; “Men-kaûhorû,” the doubles of Horus last for ever; + “Usirkerî,” the double of Râ is omnipotent. Sometimes the sentence is + shortened, and the name of the god is understood: as for instance, + “Ûsirkaf,” his double is omnipotent; “Snofmi,” he has made me good; + “Khûfïïi,” he has protected me, are put for the names “Usirkerî,” + “Ptahsnofrûi,” “Khnûmkhûfûi,” with the suppression of Râ, Phtah, and + Khnûrnû. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0014" id="linkimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/023.jpg" width="100%" alt="023.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + The name having once, as it were, taken possession of a man on his + entrance into life, never leaves him either in this world or the next; the + prince who had been called Unas or Assi at the moment of his birth, + retained this name even after death, so long as his mummy existed, and his + double was not annihilated. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + {Hieroglyphics indicated by [—], see the page images in + the HTML file} +</pre> + <p> + When the Egyptians wished to denote that a person or thing was in a + certain place, they inserted their names within the picture of the place + in question. Thus the name of Teti is written inside a picture of Teti’s + castle, the result being the compound hieroglyph [—] Again, when the + son of a king became king in his turn, they enclose his ordinary name in + the long flat-bottomed frame [—] which we call a cartouche; the + elliptical part [—] of which is a kind of plan of the world, a + representation of those regions passed over by Râ in his journey, and over + which Pharaoh, because he is a son of Râ, exercises his rule. When the + names of Teti or Snofrûi, following the group [——] which + respectively express sovereignty over the two halves of Egypt, the South + and the North, the whole expression describing exactly the visible person + of Pharaoh during his abode among mortals. But this first name chosen for + the child did not include the whole man; it left without appropriate + designation the double of Horus, which was revealed in the prince at the + moment of accession. The double therefore received a special title, which + is always constructed on a uniform plan: first the picture [—] + hawk-god, who desired to leave to his descendants a portion of his soul, + then a simple or compound epithet, specifying that virtue of Horus which + the Pharaoh wished particularly to possess—“Horû nîb-mâîfc,” Horus + master of Truth; “Horû miri-toûi,” Horus friend of both lands; “Horû + nîbkhâùû,” Horus master of the risings; “Horu mazîti,” Horus who crushes + his enemies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0015" id="linkimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/024.jpg" width="100%" + alt="024.jpg the Adult King Advancing, Followed by his Double " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from an illustration in Arundale- + Bonomi-Birch’s <i>Gallery of Antiquities from the British + Museum,</i> pl. 31. The king thus represented is Thutmosis II. + of the XVIIIth dynasty; the spear, surmounted by a man’s + head, which the double holds in his hand, probably recalls + the human victims formerly sacrificed at the burial of a + chief. +</pre> + <p> + The variable part of these terms is usually written in an oblong + rectangle, terminated at the lower end by a number of lines portraying in + a summary way the façade of a monument, in the centre of which a bolted + door may sometimes be distinguished: this is the representation of the + chapel where the double will one day rest, and the closed door is the + portal of the tomb.* The stereotyped part of the names and titles, which + is represented by the figure of the god, is placed outside the rectangle, + sometimes by the side of it, sometimes upon its top: the hawk is, in fact, + free by nature, and could nowhere remain imprisoned against his will. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is what is usually known as the “Banner Name;” + indeed, it was for some time believed that this sign + represented a piece of stuff, ornamented at the bottom by + embroidery or fringe, and bearing on the upper part the + title of a king. Wilkinson thought that this “square title,” + as he called it, represented a house. The real meaning of + the expression was determined by Professor Flinders Petrie + and by myself. +</pre> + <p> + This artless preamble was not enough to satisfy the love of precision + which is the essential characteristic of the Egyptians. When they wished + to represent the double in his sepulchral chamber, they left out of + consideration the period in his existence during which he had presided + over the earthly destinies of the sovereign, in order to render them + similar to those of Horus, from whom the double proceeded. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0016" id="linkimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/026.jpg" width="100%" alt="026.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + They, therefore, withdrew him from the tomb which should have been his + lot, and there was substituted for the ordinary sparrow-hawk one of those + groups which symbolize sovereignty over the two countries of the Nile—the + coiled urasus of the North, and the vulture of the South, [—]; there + was then finally added a second sparrow-hawk, the golden sparrow-hawk, [—], + the triumphant sparrow-hawk which had delivered Egypt from Typhon. The + soul of Snofrai, which is called, as a surviving double, [—], “Horus + master of Truth,” is, as a living double, entitled “[—]” “[—]” + the Lord of the Vulture and of the “Urous,” master of Truth, and Horus + triumphant.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Ka, or double name, represented in this illustration + is that of the Pharaoh Khephren, the builder of the second + of the great pyramids at Gîzeh; it reads “Horu usir-Hâîti,” + Horus powerful of heart. +</pre> + <p> + On the other hand, the royal prince, when he put on the diadem, received, + from the moment of his advancement to the highest rank, such an increase + of dignity, that his birth-name—even when framed in a cartouche and + enhanced with brilliant epithets—was no longer able to fully + represent him. This exaltation of his person was therefore marked by a new + designation. As he was the living flesh of the sun, so his surname always + makes allusion to some point in his relations with his father, and + proclaims the love which he felt for the latter, “Mirirî,” or that the + latter experienced for him, “Mirnirî,” or else it indicates the stability + of the doubles of Râ, “Tatkerî,” their goodness, “Nofirkerî,” or some + other of their sovereign virtues. Several Pharaohs of the IVth dynasty had + already dignified themselves by these surnames; those of the VIth were the + first to incorporate them regularly into the royal preamble. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0017" id="linkimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/027.jpg" width="100%" alt="027.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0018" id="linkimage-0018"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/028.jpg" + alt="028.jpg the Goddess Adopts The King by Suckling Him " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by Insinger. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + There was some hesitation at first as to the position the surname ought to + occupy, and it was sometimes placed after the birth-name, as in “Papi + Nofirkerî,” sometimes before it, as in [—] “Nofirkerî Papî.” It was + finally decided to place it at the beginning, preceded by the group [—] + “King of Upper and Lower Egypt,” which expresses in its fullest extent the + power granted by the gods to the Pharaoh alone; the other, or birth-name, + came after it, accompanied by the words [—]. “Son of the Sun.” There + were inscribed, either before or above these two solar names —which + are exclusively applied to the visible and living body of the master—the + two names of the sparrow-hawk, which belonged especially to the soul; + first, that of the double in the tomb, and then that of the double while + still incarnate. Four terms seemed thus necessary to the Egyptians in + order to define accurately the Pharaoh, both in time and in eternity. + </p> + <p> + Long centuries were needed before this subtle analysis of the royal + person, and the learned graduation of the formulas which corresponded to + it, could transform the Nome chief, become by conquest suzerain over all + other chiefs and king of all Egypt, into a living god here below, the + all-powerful son and successor of the gods; but the divine concept of + royalty, once implanted in the mind, quickly produced its inevitable + consequences. From the moment that the Pharaoh became god upon earth, the + gods of heaven, his fathers or his brothers, and the goddesses recognized + him as their son, and, according to the ceremonial imposed by custom in + such cases, consecrated his adoption by offering him the breast to suck, + as they would have done to their own child. + </p> + <p> + Ordinary mortals spoke of him only in symbolic words, designating him by + some periphrasis: Pharaoh, “Pirûi-Aûi,” the Double Palace, “Prûîti,” the + Sublime Porte, His Majesty,* the Sun of the two lands, Horus master of the + palace, or, less ceremoniously, by the indeterminate pronoun “One.” + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The title “Honûf” is translated by the same authors, + sometimes as “His Majesty,” sometimes as “His Holiness.” The + reasons for translating it “His Majesty,” as was originally + proposed by Champollion, and afterwards generally adopted, + have been given last of all by E. de Rougé. +</pre> + <p> + The greater number of these terms is always accompanied by a wish + addressed to the sovereign for his “life,” “health,” and “strength,” the + initial signs of which are written after all his titles. He accepts all + this graciously, and even on his own initiative, swears by his own life, + or by the favour of Râ, but he forbids his subjects to imitate him: for + them it is a sin, punishable in this world and in the next, to adjure the + person of the sovereign, except in the case in which a magistrate requires + from them a judicial oath. + </p> + <p> + He is approached, moreover, as a god is approached, with downcast eyes, + and head or back bent; they “sniff the earth” before him, they veil their + faces with both hands to shut out the splendour of his appearance; they + chant a devout form of adoration before submitting to him a petition. No + one is free from this obligation: his ministers themselves, and the great + ones of his kingdom, cannot deliberate with him on matters of state, + without inaugurating the proceeding by a sort of solemn service in his + honour, and reciting to him at length a eulogy of his divinity. They did + not, indeed, openly exalt him above the other gods, but these were rather + too numerous to share heaven among them, whilst he alone rules over the + “Entire Circuit of the Sun,” and the whole earth, its mountains and + plains, are in subjection under his sandalled feet. People, no doubt, + might be met with who did not obey him, but these were rebels, adherents + of Sît, “Children of Euin,” who, sooner or later, would be overtaken by + punishment. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0020" id="linkimage-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/030.jpg" width="100%" + alt="030.jpg Different Postures for Approaching the King " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger. The + picture represents Khâmhaît presenting the superintendents + of storehouses to Tûtânkhamon, of the XVIIIth dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0019" id="linkimage-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:24%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/029.jpg" + alt="029.jpg the Cucupha-headed Sceptre. " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from the engraving in Prisse +d’Avennes +</pre> + </div> + <p> + While hoping that his fictitious claim to universal dominion would be + realized, the king adopted, in addition to the simple costume of the old + chiefs, the long or short petticoat, the jackal’s tail, the turned-up + sandals, and the insignia of the supreme gods,—the ankh, the crook, + the flail, and the sceptre tipped with the head of a jerboa or a hare, + which we misname the cucupha-headed sceptre.* He put on the many-coloured + diadems of the gods, the head-dresses covered with feathers, the white and + the red crowns either separately or combined so as to form the pshent. The + viper or uraeus, in metal or gilded wood, which rose from his forehead, + was imbued with a mysterious life, which made it a means of executing his + vengeance and accomplishing his secret purposes. It was supposed to vomit + flames and to destroy those who should dare to attack its master in + battle. The supernatural virtues which it communicated to the crown, made + it an enchanted thing which no one could resist. Lastly, Pharaoh had his + temples where his enthroned statue, animated by one of his doubles, + received worship, prophesied, and fulfilled all the functions of a Divine + Being, both during his life, and after he had rejoined in the tomb his + ancestors the gods, who existed before him and who now reposed impassively + within the depths of their pyramids.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This identification, suggested by Champollion, is, from + force of custom, still adhered to, in nearly all works on + Egyptology. But we know from ancient evidence that the + cucupha was a bird, perhaps a hoopoe; the sceptre of the + gods, moreover, is really surmounted by the head of a + quadruped having a pointed snout and long retreating ears, + and belonging to the greyhound, jackal, or jerboa species. + + ** This method of distinguishing deceased kings is met with + as far back as the “Song of the Harpist,” which the + Egyptians of the Ramesside period attributed to the founder + of the XIth dynasty. The first known instance of a temple + raised by an Egyptian king to his double is that of + Amenôthes III. +</pre> + <p> + Man, as far as his body was concerned, and god in virtue of his soul and + its attributes, the Pharaoh, in right of this double nature, acted as a + constant mediator between heaven and earth. He alone was fit to transmit + the prayers of men to his fathers and his brethren the gods. Just as the + head of a family was in his household the priest <i>par excellence</i> of + the gods of that family,—just as the chief of a nome was in his nome + the priest <i>par excellence</i> in regard to the gods of the nome,—so + was Pharaoh the priest <i>par excellence</i> of the gods of all Egypt, who + were his special deities. He accompanied their images in solemn + processions; he poured out before them the wine and mystic milk, recited + the formulas in their hearing, seized the bull who was the victim with a + lasso and slaughtered it according to the rite consecrated by ancient + tradition. Private individuals had recourse to his intercession, when they + asked some favour from on high; as, however, it was impossible for every + sacrifice to pass actually through his hands, the celebrating priest + proclaimed at the beginning of each ceremony that it was the king who made + the offering—<i>Sûtni di hotpu</i>—he and none other, to + Osiris, Phtah, and Ka-Harmakhis, so that they might grant to the faithful + who implored the object of their desires, and, the declaration being + accepted in lieu of the act, the king was thus regarded as really + officiating on every occasion for his subjects.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + *I do not agree with Prof. Ed. Meyer, or with Prof. Erman, + who imagine that this was the first instance of the + practice, and that it had been introduced into Nubia before + its adoption on Egyptian soil. Under the Ancient Empire we + meet with more than one functionary who styles himself, in + some cases during his master’s lifetime, in others shortly + after his death, “Prophet of Horus who lives in the palace,” + or “Prophet of Kheops,” “Prophet of Sondi,” “Prophet of + Kheops, of Mykerinos, of Usirkaf,” or “of other sovereigns.” + </pre> + <p> + He thus maintained daily intercourse with the gods, and they, on their + part, did not neglect any occasion of communicating with him. They + appeared to him in dreams to foretell his future, to command him to + restore a monument which was threatened with ruin, to advise him to set + out to war, to forbid him risking his life in the thick of the fight.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Among other examples, the texts mention the dream in which + Thûtmosis IV., while still a royal prince, received from + Phrâ-Harmakhis orders to unearth the Great Sphinx, the dream + in which Phtah forbids Minephtah to take part in the battle + against the peoples of the sea, that by which Tonûatamon, + King of Napata, is persuaded to undertake the conquest of + Egypt. Herodotus had already made us familiar with the + dreams of Sabaco and of the high priest Sethos. +</pre> + <p> + Communication by prophetic dreams was not, however, the method usually + selected by the gods: they employed as interpreters of their wishes the + priests and the statues in the temples. The king entered the chapel where + the statue was kept, and performed in its presence the invocatory rites, + and questioned it upon the subject which occupied his mind. The priest + replied under direct inspiration from on high, and the dialogue thus + entered upon might last a long time. Interminable discourses, whose + records cover the walls of the Theban temples, inform us what the Pharaoh + said on such occasions, and in what emphatic tones the gods replied. + Sometimes the animated statues raised their voices in the darkness of the + sanctuary and themselves announced their will; more frequently they were + content to indicate it by a gesture. When they were consulted on some + particular subject and returned no sign, it was their way of signifying + their disapprobation. If, on the other hand, they significantly bowed + their head, once or twice, the subject was an acceptable one, and they + approved it. No state affair was settled without asking their advice, and + without their giving it in one way or another. + </p> + <p> + The monuments, which throw full light on the supernatural character of the + Pharaohs in general, tell us but little of the individual disposition of + any king in particular, or of their everyday life. When by chance we come + into closer intimacy for a moment with the sovereign, he is revealed to us + as being less divine and majestic than we might have been led to believe, + had we judged him only by his impassive expression and by the pomp with + which he was surrounded in public. Not that he ever quite laid aside his + grandeur; even in his home life, in his chamber or his garden, during + those hours when he felt himself withdrawn from public gaze, those highest + in rank might never forget when they approached him that he was a god. He + showed himself to be a kind father, a good-natured husband,* ready to + dally with his wives and caress them on the cheek as they offered him a + flower, or moved a piece upon the draught-board. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * As a literary example of what the conduct of a king was + like in his family circle, we may quote the description of + King Minîbphtah, in the story of Satni-Khâmoîs. The pictures + of the tombs at Tel-el-Amarna show us the intimate terms on + which King Khuniaton lived with his wife and daughters, both + big and little. +</pre> + <p> + He took an interest in those who waited on him, allowed them certain + breaches of etiquette when he was pleased with them, and was indulgent to + their little failings. If they had just returned from foreign lands, a + little countrified after a lengthy exile from the court, he would break + out into pleasantries over their embarrassment and their unfashionable + costume,—kingly pleasantries which excited the forced mirth of the + bystanders, but which soon fell flat and had no meaning for those outside + the palace. The Pharaoh was fond of laughing and drinking; indeed, if we + may believe evil tongues, he took so much at times as to incapacitate him + for business. The chase was not always a pleasure to him, hunting in the + desert, at least, where the lions evinced a provoking tendency to show as + little respect for the divinity of the prince as for his mortal subjects; + but, like the chiefs of old, he felt it a duty to his people to destroy + wild beasts, and he ended by counting the slain in hundreds, however short + his reign might be.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + *Amenôthes III. had killed as many as a hundred and two + lions during the first ten years of his reign. +</pre> + <p> + A considerable part of his time was taken up in war—in the east, + against the Libyans in the regions of the Oasis; in the Nile Valley to the + south of Aswan against the Nubians; on the Isthmus of Suez and in the + Sinaitic Peninsula against the Bedouin; frequently also in a civil war + against some ambitious noble or some turbulent member of his own family. + He travelled frequently from south to north, and from north to south, + leaving in every possible place marked traces of his visits—on the + rocks of Elephantine and of the first cataract, on those of Silsilis or of + El-Kab, and he appeared to his vassals as Tûmû himself arisen among them + to repress injustice and disorder. He restored or enlarged the monuments, + regulated equitably the assessment of taxes and charges, settled or + dismissed the lawsuits between one town and another concerning the + appropriation of the water, or the possession of certain territories, + distributed fiefs which had fallen vacant, among his faithful servants, + and granted pensions to be paid out of the royal revenues.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These details are not found on the historical monuments, + but are furnished to us by the description given in “The + Book of Knowledge of what there is in the other world” of + the course of the sun across the domain of the hours of + night; the god is there described as a Pharaoh passing + through his kingdom, and all that he does for his vassals, + the dead, is identical with what Pharaoh was accustomed to + do for his subjects, the living. +</pre> + <p> + At length he re-entered Memphis, or one of his usual residences, where + fresh labours awaited him. He gave audience daily to all, whether high or + low, who were, or believed that they were, wronged by some official, and + who came to appeal to the justice of the master against the injustice of + his servant. If he quitted the palace when the cause had been heard, to + take boat or to go to the temple, he was not left undisturbed, but + petitions and supplications assailed him by the way. In addition to this, + there were the daily sacrifices, the despatch of current affairs, the + ceremonies which demanded the presence of the Pharaoh, and the reception + of nobles or foreign envoys. One would think that in the midst of so many + occupations he would never feel time hang heavy on his hands. He was, + however, a prey to that profound <i>ennui</i> which most Oriental monarchs + feel so keenly, and which neither the cares nor the pleasures of ordinary + life could dispel. Like the Sultans of the “Arabian Nights,” the Pharaohs + were accustomed to have marvellous tales related to them, or they + assembled their councillors to ask them to suggest some fresh amusement: a + happy thought would sometimes strike one of them, as in the case of him + who aroused the interest of Snofrûi by recommending him to have his boat + manned by young girls barely clad in large-meshed network. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0021" id="linkimage-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/037.jpg" width="100%" alt="037.jpg Pharaoh in his Harem " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin. +</pre> + <p> + All his pastimes were not so playful. The Egyptians by nature were not + cruel, and we have very few records either in history or tradition of + bloodthirsty Pharaohs; but the life of an ordinary individual was of so + little value in their eyes, that they never hesitated to sacrifice it, + even for a caprice. A sorcerer had no sooner boasted before Kheops of + being able to raise the dead, than the king proposed that he should try + the experiment on a prisoner whose head was to be forthwith cut off. The + anger of Pharaoh was quickly excited, and once aroused, became an + all-consuming fire; the Egyptians were wont to say, in describing its + intensity, “His Majesty became as furious as a panther.” The wild beast + often revealed itself in the half-civilized man. + </p> + <p> + The royal family was very numerous. The women were principally chosen from + the relatives of court officials of high rank, or from the daughters of + the great feudal lords; there were, however, many strangers among them, + daughters or sisters of petty Libyan, Nubian, or Asiatic kings; they were + brought into Pharaoh’s house as hostages for the submission of their + respective peoples. They did not all enjoy the same treatment or + consideration, and their original position decided their status in the + harem, unless the amorous caprice of their master should otherwise decide. + Most of them remained merely concubines for life, others were raised to + the rank of “royal spouses,” and at least one received the title and + privileges of “great spouse,” or queen. This was rarely accorded to a + stranger, but almost always to a princess born in the purple, a daughter + of Râ, if possible a sister of the Pharaoh, and who, inheriting in the + same degree and in equal proportion the flesh and blood of the Sun-god, + had, more than others, the right to share the bed and throne of her + brother.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It would seem that Queen Mirisônkhû, wife of Khephren, was + the daughter of Kheops, and consequently her husband’s + sister. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0022" id="linkimage-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/039.jpg" width="100%" + alt="039.jpg Pharaoh Gives Solemn Audience to One of His Ministers " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after Lepsius. The king is Amenôthes + III. (XVIIIth. dynasty). +</pre> + <p> + She had her own house, and a train of servants and followers as large as + those of the king; while the women of inferior rank were more or less shut + up in the parts of the palace assigned to them, she came and went at + pleasure, and appeared in public with or without her husband. The preamble + of official documents in which she is mentioned, solemnly recognizes her + as the living follower of Horus, the associate of the Lord of the Vulture + and the Uraeus, the very gentle, the very praiseworthy, she who sees her + Horus, or Horus and Sit, face to face. Her union with the god-king + rendered her a goddess, and entailed upon her the fulfilment of all the + duties which a goddess owed to a god. They were varied and important. The + woman, indeed, was supposed to combine in herself more completely than a + man the qualities necessary for the exercise of magic, whether legitimate + or otherwise: she saw and heard that which the eyes and ears of man could + not perceive; her voice, being more flexible and piercing, was heard at + greater distances; she was by nature mistress of the art of summoning or + banishing invisible beings. While Pharaoh was engaged in sacrificing, the + queen, by her incantations, protected him from malignant deities, whose + interest it was to divert the attention of the celebrant from holy things: + she put them to flight by the sound of prayer and sistrum, she poured + libations and offered perfumes and flowers. In processions she walked + behind her husband, gave audience with him, governed for him while he was + engaged in foreign wars, or during his progresses through his kingdom: + such was the work of Isis while her brother Osiris was conquering the + world. Widowhood did not always entirely disqualify her. If she belonged + to the solar race, and the new sovereign was a minor, she acted as regent + by hereditary right, and retained the authority for some years longer.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The best-known of these queen regencies is that which + occurred during the minority of Thûtmosis III., about the + middle of the XVIIIth dynasty. Queen Tûaû also appears to + have acted as regent for her son Ramses II. during his first + Syrian campaigns. +</pre> + <p> + It occasionally happened that she had no posterity, or that the child of + another woman inherited the crown. In that case there was no law or custom + to prevent a young and beautiful widow from wedding the son, and thus + regaining her rank as Queen by a marriage with the successor of her + deceased husband. It was in this manner that, during the earlier part of + the IVth dynasty, the Princess Mirtîttefsi ingratiated herself + successively in the favour of Snofrûi and Kheops.* Such a case did not + often arise, and a queen who had once quitted the throne had but little + chance of again ascending it. Her titles, her duties, her supremacy over + the rest of the family, passed to a younger rival: formerly she had been + the active companion of the king, she now became only the nominal spouse + of the god,** and her office came to an end when the god, of whom she had + been the goddess, quitting his body, departed heavenward to rejoin his + father the Sun on the far-distant horizon. + </p> + <p> + Children swarmed in the palace, as in the houses of private individuals: + in spite of the number who died in infancy, they were reckoned by tens, + sometimes by the hundred, and more than one Pharaoh must have been puzzled + to remember exactly the number and names of his offspring.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * M. de Rougé was the first to bring this fact to light in + his <i>Becherches sur les monuments qu’on peut attribuer aux + six premières dynasties de Manéthon,</i> pp. 36-38. Mirtîttefsi + also lived in the harem of Khephren, but the title which + connects her with this king—<i>Amahhit</i>, the vassal—proves + that she was then merely a nominal wife; she was probably by + that time, as M. de Rougé says, of too advanced an age to + remain the favourite of a third Pharaoh. + + ** The title of “divine spouse” is not, so far as we know at + present, met with prior to the XVIIIth dynasty. It was given + to the wife of a living monarch, and was retained by her + after his death; the divinity to whom it referred was no + other than the king himself. + + *** This was probably so in the case of the Pharaoh Ramses + II., more than one hundred and fifty of whose children, boys + and girls, are known to us, and who certainly had others + besides of whom we know nothing. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0023" id="linkimage-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/042.jpg" width="100%" + alt="042.jpg The Queen Shakes the Sistrum While The King Offers The Sacrifice " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bas-relief in the temple of + Ibsambûl: Nofrîtari shakes behind Ramses II. two sistra, on + which are representations of the head of Hâthor. +</pre> + <p> + The origin and rank of their mothers greatly influenced the condition of + the children. No doubt the divine blood which they took from a common + father raised them all above the vulgar herd but those connected with the + solar line on the maternal side occupied a decidedly much higher position + than the rest: as long as one of these was living, none of his less + nobly-born brothers might aspire to the crown.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Proof of this fact is furnished us, in so far as the + XVIIIth dynasty is concerned, by the history of the + immediate successors of Thûtmosis I., the Pharaohs Thûtmosis + IL, Thûtmosis III., Queen Hâtshopsîtû, Queen Mûtnofrît, and + Isis, concubine of Thûtmosis IL and mother of Thûtmosis III. +</pre> + <p> + Those princesses who did not attain to the rank of queen by marriage, were + given in early youth to some well-to-do relative, or to some courtier of + high descent whom Pharaoh wished to honour; they filled the office of + priestesses to the goddesses Nît or Hâthor, and bore in their households + titles which they transmitted to their children, with such rights to the + crown as belonged to them. The most favoured of the princes married an + heiress rich in fiefs, settled on her domain, and founded a race of feudal + lords. Most of the royal sons remained at court, at first in their + father’s service and subsequently in that of their brothers’ or nephews’: + the most difficult and best remunerated functions of the administration + were assigned to them, the superintendence of public works, the important + offices of the priesthood, the command of the army. It could have been no + easy matter to manage without friction this multitude of relations and + connections, past and present queens, sisters, concubines, uncles, + brothers, cousins, nephews, sons and grandsons of kings who crowded the + harem and the palace. The women contended among themselves for the + affection of the master, on behalf of themselves or their children. The + children were jealous of one another, and had often no bond of union + except a common hatred for the son whom the chances of birth had destined + to be their ruler. As long as he was full of vigour and energy, Pharaoh + maintained order in his family; but when his advancing years and failing + strength betokened an approaching change in the succession, competition + showed itself more openly, and intrigue thickened around him or around his + nearest heirs. Sometimes, indeed, he took precautions to prevent an + outbreak and its disastrous consequences, by solemnly associating with + himself in the royal power the son he had chosen to succeed him: Egypt in + this case had to obey two masters, the younger of whom attended to the + more active duties of royalty, such as progresses through the country, the + conducting of military expeditions, the hunting of wild beasts, and the + administration of justice; while the other preferred to confine himself to + the <i>rôle</i> of adviser or benevolent counsellor. Even this precaution, + however, was insufficient to prevent disasters. The women of the seraglio, + encouraged from without by their relations or friends, plotted secretly + for the removal of the irksome sovereign.* Those princes who had been + deprived by their father’s decision of any legitimate hope of reigning, + concealed their discontent to no purpose; they were arrested on the first + suspicion of disloyalty, and were massacred wholesale; their only chance + of escaping summary execution was either by rebellion** or by taking + refuge with some independent tribe of Libya or of the desert of Sinai. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The passage of the Uni inscription, in which mention is + made of a lawsuit carried on against Queen Amîtsi, probably + refers to some harem conspiracy. The celebrated lawsuit, + some details of which are preserved for us in a papyrus of + Turin, gives us some information in regard to a conspiracy + which was hatched in the harem against Ramses II. + + ** A passage in the “Instructions of Amenemhâît” describes in + somewhat obscure terms an attack on the palace by + conspirators, and the wars which followed their undertaking. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0024" id="linkimage-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/042b.jpg" width="100%" + alt="042b.jpg the Island and Temple of Phil. " /> + </div> + <p> + Did we but know the details of the internal history of Egypt, it would + appear to us as stormy and as bloody as that of other Oriental empires: + intrigues of the harem, conspiracies in the palace, murders of + heirs-apparent, divisions and rebellions in the royal family, were the + almost inevitable accompaniment of every accession to the Egyptian throne. + </p> + <p> + The earliest dynasties had their origin in the “White Wall,” but the + Pharaohs hardly ever made this town their residence, and it would be + incorrect to say that they considered it as their capital; each king chose + for himself in the Memphite or Letopolite nome, between the entrance to + the Fayûni and the apex of the Delta, a special residence, where he dwelt + with his court, and from whence he governed Egypt. Such a multitude as + formed his court needed not an ordinary palace, but an entire city. A + brick wall, surmounted by battlements, formed a square or rectangular + enclosure around it, and was of sufficient thickness and height not only + to defy a popular insurrection or the surprises of marauding Bedouin, but + to resist for a long time a regular siege. At the extreme end of one of + its façades, was a single tall and narrow opening, closed by a wooden door + supported on bronze hinges, and surmounted with a row of pointed metal + ornaments; this opened into a long narrow passage between the external + wall and a partition wall of equal strength; at the end of the passage in + the angle was a second door, sometimes leading into a second passage, but + more often opening into a large courtyard, where the dwelling-houses were + somewhat crowded together: assailants ran the risk of being annihilated in + the passage before reaching the centre of the place.* The royal residence + could be immediately distinguished by the projecting balconies on its + façade, from which, as from a tribune, Pharaoh could watch the evolutions + of his guard, the stately approach of foreign envoys, Egyptian nobles + seeking audience, or such officials as he desired to reward for their + services. They advanced from the far end of the court, stopped before the + balcony, and after prostrating themselves stood up, bowed their heads, + wrung and twisted their hands, now quickly, now slowly, in a rhythmical + manner, and rendered worship to their master, chanting his praises, before + receiving the necklaces and jewels of gold which he presented to them by + his chamberlains, or which he himself deigned to fling to them.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * No plan or exact drawing of any of the palaces of the + Ancient Empire has come down to us, but, as Erman has very + justly pointed out, the signs found in contemporary + inscriptions give us a good general idea of them. The doors + which lead from one of the hours of the night to another, in + the “Book of the Other World,” show us the double passage + leading to the courtyard. The hieroglyph [—] gives us the + name Ûôskhît (literally, <i>the broad</i> [place]) of the + courtyard on to which the passage opened, at the end of + which the palace and royal judgment-seat (or, in the other + world, the tribunal of Osiris, the court of the double + truth) were situated. + + ** The ceremonial of these receptions is not represented on + any monuments with which we are at present acquainted, prior + to the XVIIIth dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + It is difficult for us to catch a glimpse of the detail of the internal + arrangements: we find, however, mention made of large halls “resembling + the hall of Atûmû in the heavens,” whither the king repaired to deal with + state affairs in council, to dispense justice and sometimes also to + preside at state banquets. Long rows of tall columns, carved out of rare + woods and painted with bright colours, supported the roofs of these + chambers, which were entered by doors inlaid with gold and silver, and + incrusted with malachite or lapis-lazuli.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is the description of the palace of Amon built by + Ramses III. Ramses II. was seated in one of these halls, on + a throne of gold, when he deliberated with his councillors + in regard to the construction of a cistern in the desert for + the miners who were going to the gold-mines of Akiti. The + room in which the king stopped, after leaving his + apartments, for the purpose of putting on his ceremonial + dress and receiving the homage of his ministers, appears to + me to have been called during the Ancient Empire “Pi-dait” + —“The House of Adoration,” the house in which the king was + worshipped, as in temples of the Ptolemaic epoch, was that + in which the statue of the god, on leaving the sanctuary, + was dressed and worshipped by the faithful. Sinûhît, under + the XIIth dynasty, was granted an audience in the “Hall of + Electrum.” + </pre> + <p> + The private apartments, the “âkhonûiti,” were entirely separate, but they + communicated with the queen’s dwelling and with the harem of the wives of + inferior rank. The “royal children” occupied a quarter to themselves, + under the care of their tutors; they had their own houses and a train of + servants proportionate to their rank, age, and the fortune of their + mother’s family. The nobles who had appointments at court and the royal + domestics lived in the palace itself, but the offices of the different + functionaries, the storehouses for their provisions, the dwellings of + their <i>employés</i>, formed distinct quarters outside the palace, + grouped around narrow courts, and communicating with each other by a + labyrinth of lanes or covered passages. The entire building was + constructed of wood or bricks, less frequently of roughly dressed stone, + badly built, and wanting in solidity. The ancient Pharaohs were no more + inclined than the Sultans of later days to occupy palaces in which their + predecessors had lived and died. Each king desired to possess a habitation + after his own heart, one which would not be haunted by the memory, or + perchance the double, of another sovereign. These royal mansions, hastily + erected, hastily filled with occupants, were vacated and fell into ruin + with no less rapidity: they grew old with their master, or even more + rapidly than he, and his disappearance almost always entailed their ruin. + In the neighbourhood of Memphis many of these palaces might be seen, which + their short-lived masters had built for eternity, an eternity which did + not last longer than the lives of their builders.* + </p> + <p> + Nothing could present a greater variety than the population of these + ephemeral cities in the climax of their splendour. We have first the + people who immediately surrounded the Pharaoh,** the retainers of the + palace and of the harem, whose highly complex degrees of rank are revealed + to us on the monuments.*** His person was, as it were, minutely subdivided + into departments, each requiring its attendants and their appointed + chiefs. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The song of the harp-player on the tomb of King Antûf + contains an allusion to these ruined palaces: “The gods + [kings] who were of yore, and who repose in their tombs, + mummies and manes, all buried alike in their pyramids, when + castles are built they no longer have a place in them; see, + thus it is done with them! I have heard the poems in praise + of Imhotpû and of Hardidif which are sung in the songs, and + yet, see, where are their places to-day? their walls are + destroyed, their places no more, as though they have never + existed!” + + ** They are designated by the general terms of Shonîtiû, the + “people of the circle,” and Qonbîtiû, the “people of the + corner.” These words are found in religious inscriptions + referring to the staff of the temples, and denote the + attendants or court of each god; they are used to + distinguish the notables of a town or borough, the sheikhs, + who enjoyed the right to superintend local administration + and dispense justice. + + *** The Egyptian scribes had endeavoured to draw up an + hierarchical list of these offices. At present we possess + the remains of two lists of this description. One of these, + preserved in the “Hood Papyrus” in the British Museum, has + been published and translated by Maspero, in <i>Études + Égyptiennes,</i> vol. ii. pp. 1-66; another and more complete + copy, discovered in 1890, is in the possession of M. + Golénischeff. The other list, also in the British Museum, + was published by Prof. Petrie in a memoir of <i>The Egypt + Exploration Fund </i>; in this latter the names and titles are + intermingled with various other matter. To these two works + may be added the lists of professions and trades to be found + <i>passim</i> on the monuments, and which have been commented on + by Brugsch. +</pre> + <p> + His toilet alone gave employment to a score of different trades. There + were royal barbers, who had the privilege of shaving his head and chin; + hairdressers who made, curled, and put on his black or blue wigs and + adjusted the diadems to them; there were manicurists who pared and + polished his nails, perfumers who prepared the scented oils and pomades + for the anointing of his body, the kohl for blackening his eyelids, the <i>rouge</i> + for spreading on his lips and cheeks. His wardrobe required a whole troop + of shoemakers, belt-makers, and tailors, some of whom had the care of + stuffs in the piece, others presided over the body-linen, while others + took charge of his garments, comprising long or short, transparent or + thick petticoats, fitting tightly to the hips or cut with ample fulness, + draped mantles and flowing pelisses. Side by side with these officials, + the laundresses plied their trade, which was an important one among a + people devoted to white, and in whose estimation want of cleanliness in + dress entailed religious impurity. Like the fellahîn of the present time, + they took their linen daily to wash in the river; they rinsed, starched, + smoothed, and pleated it without intermission to supply the incessant + demands of Pharaoh and his family.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The “royal laundrymen” and their chiefs are mentioned in + the Conte des deux frères under the XIXth dynasty, as well + as their laundries on the banks of the Nile. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0025" id="linkimage-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/051.jpg" width="100%" + alt="051.jpg Men and Women Singers, Flute-players, Harpists, And Dancers, from the Tomb of Ti " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from a squeeze taken at Saqqâra in + 1878 by Mariette +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0026" id="linkimage-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:39%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/052.jpg" + alt="052.jpg the Dwarf Khnumhotpu, Superintendent of The Royal Linen " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a photograph by Emil +Brugsch- Bey; the original +is at Gizeh +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The task of those set over the jewels was no easy one, when we consider + the enormous variety of necklaces, bracelets, rings, earrings, and + sceptres of rich workmanship which ceremonial costume required for + particular times and occasions. The guardianship of the crowns almost + approached to the dignity of the priesthood; for was not the uraeus, which + ornamented each one, a living goddess? The queen required numerous + waiting-women, and the same ample number of attendants were to be + encountered in the establishments of the other ladies of the harem. Troops + of musicians, singers, dancers, and almehs whiled away the tedious hours, + supplemented by buffoons and dwarfs. The great Egyptian lords evinced a + curious liking for these unfortunate beings, and amused themselves by + getting together the ugliest and most deformed creatures. They are often + represented on the tombs beside their masters in company with his pet dog, + or a gazelle, or with a monkey which they sometimes hold in leash, or + sometimes are engaged in teasing. Sometimes the Pharaoh bestowed his + friendship on his dwarfs, and confided to them occupations in his + household. One of them, Khnûmhotpû, died superintendent of the royal + linen. The staff of servants required for supplying the table exceeded all + the others in number. It could scarcely be otherwise if we consider that + the master had to provide food, not only for his regular servants,* but + for all those of his <i>employés</i> and subjects whose business brought + them to the royal residence: even those poor wretches who came to complain + to him of some more or less imaginary grievance were fed at his expense + while awaiting his judicial verdict. Head-cooks, butlers, pantlers, + pastrycooks, fishmongers, game or fruit dealers—if all enumerated, + would be endless. The bakers who baked the ordinary bread were not to be + confounded with those who manufactured biscuits. The makers of pancakes + and dough-nuts took precedence of the cake-bakers, and those who concocted + delicate fruit preserves ranked higher than the common dryer of dates. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Even after death they remained inscribed + on the registers of the palace, and had + rations served out to them every day as + funeral offerings. +</pre> + <p> + If one had held a post in the royal household, however low the occupation, + it was something to be proud of all one’s life, and after death to boast + of in one’s epitaph. The chiefs to whom this army of servants rendered + obedience at times rose from the ranks; on some occasion their master had + noticed them in the crowd, and had transferred them, some by a single + promotion, others by slow degrees, to the highest offices of the state. + Many among them, however, belonged to old families, and held positions in + the palace which their fathers and grandfathers had occupied before them, + some were members of the provincial nobility, distant descendants of + former royal princes and princesses, more or less nearly related to the + reigning sovereign.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It was the former who, I believe, formed the class of + <i>rokhu sûton</i> so often mentioned on the monuments. This + title is generally supposed to have been a mark of + relationship with the royal family. M. de Rougé proved long + ago that this was not so, and that functionaries might bear + this title even though they were not blood relations of the + Pharaohs. It seems to me to have been used to indicate a + class of courtiers whom the king condescended to “know” + (<i>rokhu</i>) directly, without the intermediary of a + chamberlain, the “persons known by the king;” the others + were only his “friends” (samirû). +</pre> + <p> + They had been sought out to be the companions of his education and of his + pastimes, while he was still living an obscure life in the “House of the + Children;” he had grown up with them and had kept them about his person as + his “sole friends” and counsellors. He lavished titles and offices upon + them by the dozen, according to the confidence he felt in their capacity + or to the amount of faithfulness with which he credited them. A few of the + most favoured were called “Masters of the Secret of the Royal House;” they + knew all the innermost recesses of the palace, all the passwords needed in + going from one part of it to another, the place where the royal treasures + were kept, and the modes of access to it. Several of them were “Masters of + the Secret of all the Royal Words,” and had authority over the high + courtiers of the palace, which gave them the power of banishing whom they + pleased from the person of the sovereign. Upon others devolved the task of + arranging his amusements; they rejoiced the heart of his Majesty by + pleasant songs, while the chiefs of the sailors and soldiers kept watch + over his safety. To these active services were attached honorary + privileges which were highly esteemed, such as the right to retain their + sandals in the palace, while the general crowd of courtiers could only + enter unshod; that of kissing the knees and not the feet of the “good + god,” and that of wearing the panther’s skin. Among those who enjoyed + these distinctions were the physicians of the king, chaplains, and men of + the roll—“khri-habi.” The latter did not confine themselves to the + task of guiding Pharaoh through the intricacies of ritual, nor to that of + prompting him with the necessary formulas needed to make the sacrifice + efficacious; they were styled “Masters of the Secrets of Heaven,” those + who see what is in the firmament, on the earth and in Hades, those who + know all the charms of the soothsayers, prophets, or magicians. The laws + relating to the government of the seasons and the stars presented no + mysteries to them, neither were they ignorant of the months, days, or + hours propitious to the undertakings of everyday life or the starting out + on an expedition, nor of those times during which any action was + dangerous. They drew their inspirations from the books of magic written by + Thot, which taught them the art of interpreting dreams or of curing the + sick, or of invoking and obliging the gods to assist them, and of + arresting or hastening the progress of the sun on the celestial ocean. + Some are mentioned as being able to divide the waters at their will, and + to cause them to return to their natural place, merely by means of a short + formula. An image of a man or animal made by them out of enchanted wax, + was imbued with life at their command, and became an irresistible + instrument of their wrath. Popular stories reveal them to us at work. “Is + it true,” said Kheops to one of them, “that thou canst replace a head + which has been cut off?” On his admitting that he could do so, Pharaoh + immediately desired to test his power. “Bring me a prisoner from prison + and let him be slain.” The magician, at this proposal, exclaimed: “Nay, + nay, not a man, sire my master; do not command that this sin should be + committed; a fine animal will suffice!” A goose was brought, “its head was + cut off and the body was placed on the right side, and the head of the + goose on the left side of the hall: he recited what he recited from his + book of magic, the goose began to hop forward, the head moved on to it, + and, when both were united, the goose began to cackle. A pelican was + produced, and underwent the same process. His Majesty then caused a bull + to be brought forward, and its head was smitten to the ground: the + magician recited what he recited from his book of magic, the bull at once + arose, and he replaced on it what had fallen to the earth.” The great + lords themselves deigned to become initiated into the occult sciences, and + were invested with these formidable powers. A prince who practised magic + would enjoy amongst us nowadays but small esteem: in Egypt sorcery was not + considered incompatible with royalty, and the magicians of Pharaoh often + took Pharaoh himself as their pupil.* + </p> + <p> + Such were the king’s household, the people about his person, and those + attached to the service of his family. His capital sheltered a still + greater number of officials and functionaries who were charged with the + administration of his fortune—that is to say, what he possessed in + Egypt.** In theory it was always supposed that the whole of the soil + belonged to him, but that he and his predecessors had diverted and + parcelled off such an amount of it for the benefit of their favourites, or + for the hereditary lords, that only half of the actual territory remained + under his immediate control. He governed most of the nomes of the Delta in + person:*** beyond the Fayum, he merely retained isolated lands, enclosed + in the middle of feudal principalities and often at considerable distance + from each other. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We know the reputation, extending even to the classical + writers of antiquity, of the Pharaohs Nechepso and Nectanebo + for their skill in magic. Arab writers have, moreover, + collected a number of traditions concerning the marvels + which the sorcerers of Egypt were in the habit of + performing; as an instance, I may quote the description + given by Makrîzî of one of their meetings, which is probably + taken from some earlier writer. + + ** They were frequently distinguished from their provincial + or manorial colleagues by the addition of the word <i>khonû</i> + to their titles, a term which indicates, in a general + manner, the royal residence. They formed what we should + nowadays call the departmental staff of the public officers, + and might be deputed to act, at least temporarily, in the + provinces, or in the service of one of the feudal princes, + without thereby losing their status as functionaries of the + <i>khonû</i> or central administration. + + *** This seems, at any rate, an obvious inference from the + almost total absence of feudal titles on the most ancient + monuments of the Delta. Erman, who was struck by this fact, + attributed it to a different degree of civilization in the + two halves of Egypt; I attribute it to a difference in + government. Feudal titles naturally predominate in the + South, royal administrative titles in the North. +</pre> + <p> + The extent of the royal domain varied with different dynasties, and even + from reign to reign: if it sometimes decreased, owing to too frequently + repeated concessions,* its losses were generally amply compensated by the + confiscation of certain fiefs, or by their lapsing to the crown. The + domain was always of sufficient extent to oblige the Pharaoh to confide + the larger portion of it to officials of various kinds, and to farm merely + a small remainder of the “royal slaves:” in the latter case, he reserved + for himself all the profits, but at the expense of all the annoyance and + all the outlay; in the former case, he obtained without any risk the + annual dues, the amount of which was fixed on the spot, according to the + resources of the nome. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We find, at different periods, persons who call themselves + masters of new domains or strongholds—Pahûrnofir, under the + IIIrd dynasty; several princes of Hermopolis, under the VIth + and VIIth; Khnûmhotpû at the begining of the XIIth. In + connection with the last named, we shall have occasion, + later on, to show in what manner and with what rapidity one + of these great <i>new</i> fiefs was formed. +</pre> + <p> + In order to understand the manner in which the government of Egypt was + conducted, we should never forget that the world was still ignorant of the + use of money, and that gold, silver, and copper, however abundant we may + suppose them to have been, were mere articles of exchange, like the most + common products of Egyptian soil. Pharaoh was not then, as the State is + with us, a treasurer who calculates the total of his receipts and expenses + in ready money, banks his revenue in specie occupying but little space, + and settles his accounts from the same source. His fiscal receipts were in + kind, and it was in kind that he remunerated his servants for their + labour: cattle, cereals, fermented drinks, oils, stuffs, common or + precious metals,—“all that the heavens give, all that the earth + produces, all that the Nile brings from its mysterious sources,” * —constituted + the coinage in which his subjects paid him their contributions, and which + he passed on to his vassals by way of salary. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This was the most usual formula for the offering on the + funerary stelo, and sums up more completely than any other + the nature of the tax paid to the gods by the living, and + consequently the nature of that paid to the king; here, as + elsewhere, the domain of the gods is modelled on that of the + Pharaohs. +</pre> + <p> + One room, a few feet square, and, if need be, one safe, would easily + contain the entire revenue of one of our modern empires: the largest of + our emporiums would not always have sufficed to hold the mass of + incongruous objects which represented the returns of a single Egyptian + province. As the products in which the tax was paid took various forms, it + was necessary to have an infinite variety of special agents and suitable + places to receive it; herdsmen and sheds for the oxen, measurers and + granaries for the grain, butlers and cellarers for the wine, beer, and + oils. The product of the tax, while awaiting redistribution, could only be + kept from deteriorating in value by incessant labour, in which a score of + different classes of clerks and workmen in the service of the treasury all + took part, according to their trades. If the tax were received in oxen, it + was led to pasturage, or at times, when a murrain threatened to destroy + it, to the slaughter-house and the currier; if it were in corn, it was + bolted, ground to flour, and made into bread and pastry; if it were in + stuffs, it was washed, ironed, and folded, to be retailed as garments or + in the piece. The royal treasury partook of the character of the farm, the + warehouse, and the manufactory. + </p> + <p> + Each of the departments which helped to swell its contents, occupied + within the palace enclosure a building, or group of buildings, which was + called its “house,” or, as we should say, its storehouse. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0027" id="linkimage-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/059.jpg" width="100%" + alt="059.jpg the Packing of The Linen and Its Removal to The White Storehouse. " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a chromolithograph in Lepsius, + <i>Denhm.</i>, ii. 96. +</pre> + <p> + There was the “White Storehouse,” where the stuffs and jewels were kept, + and at times the wine; the “Storehouse of the Oxen,” the “Gold + Storehouse,” the “Storehouse for Preserved Fruits,” the “Storehouse for + Grain,” the “Storehouse for Liquors,” and ten other storehouses of the + application of which we are not always sure. In the “Storehouse of + Weapons” (or Armoury) were ranged thousands of clubs, maces, pikes, + daggers, bows, and bundles of arrows, which Pharaoh distributed to his + recruits whenever a war forced him to call out his army, and which were + again warehoused after the campaign. The “storehouses” were further + subdivided into rooms or store-chambers,* each reserved for its own + category of objects. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Aît, Âî. Lefébure has collected a number of passages in + which these storehouses are mentioned, in his notes <i>Sur + différents mots et noms Égyptiens.</i> In many of the cases + which he quotes, and in which he recognizes an office of the + State, I believe reference to be made to a trade: many of + the ari âît-afû, “people of the store-chambers for meat,” + were probably butchers; many of the ari âît-hiqÎtû, “people + of the store-chamber for beer,” were probably keepers of + drink-shops, trading on their own account in the town of + Abydos, and not <i>employés</i> attached to the exchequer of + Pharaoh or of the ruler of Thinis. +</pre> + <p> + It would be difficult to enumerate the number of store-chambers in the + outbuildings of the “Storehouse of Provisions”—store-chambers for + butcher’s meat, for fruits, for beer, bread, and wine, in which were + deposited as much of each article of food as would be required by the + court for some days, or at most for a few weeks. They were brought there + from the larger storehouses, the wines from vaults, the oxen from their + stalls, the corn from the granaries. The latter were vast brick-built + receptacles, ten or more in a row, circular in shape and surmounted by + cupolas, but having no communication with each other. They had only two + openings, one at the top for pouring in the grain, another on the ground + level for drawing it out; a notice posted up outside, often on the shutter + which closed the chamber, indicated the character and quantity of the + cereals within. For the security and management of these, there were + employed troops of porters, store-keepers, accountants, “primates” who + superintended the works, record-keepers, and directors. Great nobles + coveted the administration of the “storehouses,” and even the sons of + kings did not think it derogatory to their dignity to be entitled + “Directors of the Granaries,” or “Directors of the Armoury.” There was no + law against pluralists, and more than one of them boasts on his tomb of + having held simultaneously five or six offices. These storehouses + participated like all the other dependencies of the crown, in that duality + which characterized the person of the Pharaoh. They would be called in + common parlance, the Storehouse or the Double White Storehouse, the + Storehouse or the Double Gold Storehouse, the Double Warehouse, the Double + Granary. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0028" id="linkimage-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/061.jpg" width="100%" + alt="061.jpg Measuring the Wheat and Depositing It in The Granaries " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a scene on the tomb of Amoni at + Beni-Hasan. On the right, near the door, is a heap of grain, + from which the measurer fills his measure in order to empty + it into the sack which one of the porters holds open. In the + centre is a train of slaves ascending the stairs which lead + to the loft above the granaries; one of them empties his + sack into a hole above the granary in the presence of the + overseer. The inscriptions in ink on the outer wall of the + receptacles, which have already been filled, indicate the + number of measures which each one of them contains. +</pre> + <p> + The large towns, as well as the capital, possessed their double + storehouses and their store-chambers, into which were gathered the + products of the neighbourhood, but where a complete staff of employés was + not always required: in such towns we meet with “localities” in which the + commodities were housed merely temporarily. The least perishable part of + the provincial dues was forwarded by boat to the royal residence,* and + swelled the central treasury. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The boats employed for this purpose formed a flotilla, and + their commanders constituted a regularly organized transport + corps, who are frequently to be found represented on the + monuments of the New Empire, carrying tribute to the + residence of the king or of the prince, whose retainers they + were. +</pre> + <p> + The remainder was used on the spot for paying workman’s wages, and for the + needs of the Administration. We see from the inscriptions, that the staffs + of officials who administered affairs in the provinces was similar to that + in the royal city. Starting from the top, and going down to the bottom of + the scale, each functionary supervised those beneath him, while, as a + body, they were all responsible for their depot. Any irregularity in the + entries entailed the bastinado; peculators were punished by imprisonment, + mutilation, or death, according to the gravity of the offence. Those whom + illness or old age rendered unfit for work, were pensioned for the + remainder of their life. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0029" id="linkimage-0029"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/063.jpg" width="100%" + alt="063.jpg Plan of a Princely Storehouse for Provisions " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Lepsius, <i>Denkm</i>., iii. 95. The + illustration is taken from one of the tombs at Tel el- + Amarna. The storehouse consists of four blocks, isolated by + two avenues planted with trees, which intersect each other + in the form of a cross. Behind the entrance gate, in a small + courtyard, is a kiosque, in which the master sat for the + purpose of receiving the stores or of superintending their + distribution; two arms of the cross are lined by porticoes, + under which are the entrances to the “chambers” (dît) for + the stores, which are filled with jars of wine, linen- + chests, dried fish, and other articles. +</pre> + <p> + The writer, or, as we call him, the scribe, was the mainspring of all this + machinery. We come across him in all grades of the staff: an insignificant + registrar of oxen, a clerk of the Double White Storehouse, ragged, humble, + and badly paid, was a scribe just as much as the noble, the priest, or the + king’s son. Thus the title of scribe was of no value in itself, and did + not designate, as one might naturally think, a savant educated in a school + of high culture, or a man of the world, versed in the sciences and the + literature of his time; El-kab was a scribe who knew how to read, write, + and cipher, was fairly proficient in wording the administrative formulas, + and could easily apply the elementary rules of book-keeping. There was no + public school in which the scribe could be prepared for his future career; + but as soon as a child had acquired the first rudiments of letters with + some old pedagogue, his father took him with him to his office, or + entrusted him to some friend who agreed to undertake his education. The + apprentice observed what went on around him, imitated the mode of + procedure of the <i>employés</i>, copied in his spare time old papers, + letters, bills, flowerily-worded petitions, reports, complimentary + addresses to his superiors or to the Pharaoh, all of which his patron + examined and corrected, noting on the margin letters or words imperfectly + written, improving the style, and recasting or completing the incorrect + expressions.* As soon as he could put together a certain number of + sentences or figures without a mistake, he was allowed to draw up bills, + or to have the sole superintendence of some department of the treasury, + his work being gradually increased in amount and difficulty; when he was + considered to be sufficiently <i>au courant</i> with the ordinary + business, his education was declared to be finished, and a situation was + found for him either in the place where he had begun his probation, or in + some neighbouring office.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We still possess school exercises of the XIXth and XXth + dynasties, e.g. the <i>Papyrus Anastasi n IV</i>., and the + <i>Anastasi Papyrus n V.</i>, in which we find a whole string of + pieces of every possible style and description—business + letters, requests for leave of absence, complimentary verses + addressed to a superior, all probably a collection of + exercises compiled by some professor, and copied by his + pupils in order to complete their education as scribes; the + master’s corrections are made at the top and bottom of the + pages in a bold and skilful hand, very different from that + of the pupil, though the writing of the latter is generally + more legible to our modern eyes (<i>Select Papyri,</i> vol. i. + pls. lxxxiii.-cxxi.). + + ** Evidence of this state of things seems to be furnished by + all the biographies of scribes with which we are acquainted, + e.g. that of Amten; it is, moreover, what took place + regularly throughout the whole of Egypt, down to the latest + times, and what probably still occurs in those parts of the + country where European ideas have not yet made any deep + impression. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0030" id="linkimage-0030"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/065.jpg" width="100%" + alt="065.jpg the Staff of a Government Officer in The Time Of The Memphite Dynasties " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a wall-painting on the tomb of + Khûnas. Two scribes are writing on tablets. Before the + scribe in the upper part of the picture we see a palette, + with two saucers, on a vessel which serves as an ink-bottle, + and a packet of tablets tied together, the whole supported + by a bundle of archives. The scribe in the lower part rests + his tablet against an ink-bottle, a box for archives being + placed before him. Behind them a <i>nakht-khrôû</i> announces the + delivery of a tablet covered with figures which the third + scribe is presenting to the master. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0031" id="linkimage-0031"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/067.jpg" width="100%" + alt="067.jpg The Crier Announces the Arrival of Five Registrars Of The Temple of King ÛsirnirÎ, Of the Vth Dynasty " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a picture in the tomb of + Shopsisûri. Four registrars of the funerary temple of + Ûsirnirî advance in a crawling posture towards the master, + the fifth has just risen and holds himself in a stooping + attitude, while an usher introduces him and transmits to him + an order to send in his accounts. +</pre> + <p> + Thus equipped, the young man ended usually by succeeding his father or his + patron: in most of the government administrations, we find whole dynasties + of scribes on a small scale, whose members inherited the same post for + several centuries. The position was an insignificant one, and the salary + poor, but the means of existence were assured, the occupant was exempted + from forced labour and from military service, and he exercised a certain + authority in the narrow world in which he lived; it sufficed to make him + think himself happy, and in fact to be so. “One has only to be a scribe,” + said the wise man, “for the scribe takes the lead of all.” Sometimes, + however, one of these contented officials, more intelligent or ambitious + than his fellows, succeeded in rising above the common mediocrity: his + fine handwriting, the happy choice of his sentences, his activity, his + obliging manner, his honesty—perhaps also his discreet dishonesty—attracted + the attention of his superiors and were the cause of his promotion. The + son of a peasant or of some poor wretch, who had begun life by keeping a + register of the bread and vegetables in some provincial government office, + had been often known to crown his long and successful career by exercising + a kind of vice-regency over the half of Egypt. His granaries overflowed + with corn, his storehouses were always full of gold, fine stuffs, and + precious vases, his stalls “multiplied the backs” of his oxen; the sons of + his early patrons, having now become in turn his <i>protégés</i>, did not + venture to approach him except with bowed head and bended knee. + </p> + <p> + No doubt the Amten whose tomb was removed to Berlin by Lepsius, and put + together piece by piece in the museum, was a <i>parvenu</i> of this kind. + He was born rather more than four thousand years before our era under one + of the last kings of the IIIrd dynasty, and he lived until the reign of + the first king of the IVth dynasty, Snofrûi. He probably came from the + Nome of the Bull, if not from Xoïs itself, in the heart of the Delta. His + father, the scribe Anûpûmonkhû, held, in addition to his office, several + landed estates, producing large returns; but his mother, Nibsonît, who + appears to have been merely a concubine, had no personal fortune, and + would have been unable even to give her child an education. Anûpûmonkhû + made himself entirely responsible for the necessary expenses, “giving him + all the necessities of life, at a time when he had not as yet either corn, + barley, income, house, men or women servants, or troops of asses, pigs, or + oxen.” As soon as he was in a condition to provide for himself, his father + obtained for him, in his native Nome, the post of chief scribe attached to + one of the “localities” which belonged to the Administration of + Provisions. On behalf of the Pharaoh, the young man received, registered, + and distributed the meat, cakes, fruits, and fresh vegetables which + constituted the taxes, all on his own responsibility, except that he had + to give an account of them to the “Director of the Storehouse” who was + nearest to him. We are not told how long he remained in this occupation; + we see merely that he was raised successively to posts of an analogous + kind, but of increasing importance. The provincial offices comprised a + small staff of <i>employés, </i> consisting always of the same officials:—a + chief, whose ordinary function was “Director of the Storehouse;” a few + scribes to keep the accounts, one or two of whom added to his ordinary + calling that of keeper of the archives; paid ushers to introduce clients, + and, if need be, to bastinado them summarily at the order of the + “director;” lastly, the “strong of voice,” the criers, who superintended + the incomings and outgoings, and proclaimed the account of them to the + scribes to be noted down forthwith. A vigilant and honest crier was a man + of great value. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0032" id="linkimage-0032"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/068.jpg" width="100%" + alt="068.jpg the Funeral Stele of The Tomb Of Amten, The ‘grand Huntsman.’ " /> + </div> + <p> + He obliged the taxpayer not only to deliver the exact number of measures + prescribed as his quota, but also compelled him to deliver good measure in + each case; a dishonest crier, on the contrary, could easily favour + cheating, provided that he shared in the spoil. Amten was at once “crier” + and “taxer of the colonists” to the civil administrator of the Xoïte nome: + he announced the names of the peasants and the payments they made, then + estimated the amount of the local tax which each, according to his income, + had to pay. He distinguished himself so pre-eminently in these delicate + duties, that the civil administrator of Xoïs made him one of his + subordinates. He became “Chief of the Ushers,” afterwards “Master Crier,” + then “Director of all the King’s flax” in the Xoïfce nome—an office + which entailed on him the supervision of the culture, cutting, and general + preparation of flax for the manufacture which was carried on in Pharaoh’s + own domain. It was one of the highest offices in the Provincial + Administration, and Amten must have congratulated himself on his + appointment. + </p> + <p> + From that moment his career became a great one, and he advanced quickly. + Up to that time he had been confined in offices; he now left them to + perform more active service. The Pharaohs, extremely jealous of their own + authority, usually avoided placing at the head of the nomes in their + domain, a single ruler, who would have appeared too much like a prince; + they preferred having in each centre of civil administration, governors of + the town or province, as well as military commanders who were jealous of + one another, supervised one another, counterbalanced one another, and did + not remain long enough in office to become dangerous. Amten held all these + posts successively in most of the nomes situated in the centre or to the + west of the Delta. His first appointment was to the government of the + village of Pidosû, an unimportant post in itself, but one which entitled + him to a staff of office, and in consequence procured for him one of the + greatest indulgences of vanity that an Egyptian could enjoy. The staff + was, in fact, a symbol of command which only the nobles, and the officials + associated with the nobility, could carry without transgressing custom; + the assumption of it, as that of the sword with us, showed every one that + the bearer was a member of a privileged class. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0033" id="linkimage-0033"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:41%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/072.jpg" + alt="072.jpg Statue of Amten, Found in his Tomb " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from Lepsius, Denkm., +ii. 120 a; the original +is in the Berlin Museum. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + Amten was no sooner ennobled, than his functions began to expand; villages + were rapidly added to villages, then towns to towns, including such an + important one as Bûto, and finally the nomes of the Harpoon, of the Bull, + of the Silurus, the western half of the Saïte nome, the nome of the + Haunch, and a part of the Fayûm came within his jurisdiction. The western + half of the Saïte nome, where he long resided, corresponded with what was + called later the Libyan nome. It reached nearly from the apex of the Delta + to the sea, and was bounded on one side by the Canopic branch of the Nile, + on the other by the Libyan range; a part of the desert as well as the + Oases fell under its rule. It included among its population, as did many + of the provinces of Upper Egypt, regiments composed of nomad hunters, who + were compelled to pay their tribute in living or dead game. Amten was + metamorphosed into Chief Huntsman, scoured the mountains with his men, and + thereupon became one of the most important personages in the defence of + the country. The Pharaohs had built fortified stations, and had from time + to time constructed walls at certain points where the roads entered the + valley—at Syene, at Coptos, and at the entrance to the Wady Tûmilât. + Amten having been proclaimed “Primate of the Western Gate,” that is, + governor of the Libyan marches, undertook to protect the frontier against + the wandering Bedouin from the other side of Lake Mareotis. His duties as + Chief Huntsman had been the best preparation he could have had for this + arduous task. They had forced him to make incessant expeditions among the + mountains, to explore the gorges and ravines, to be acquainted with the + routes marked out by wells which the marauders were obliged to follow in + their incursions, and the pathways and passes by which they could descend + into the plain of the Delta; in running the game to earth, he had gained + all the knowledge needful for repulsing the enemy. Such a combination of + capabilities made Amten the most important noble in this part of Egypt. + When old age at last prevented him from leading an active life, he + accepted, by way of a pension, the governorship of the nome of the Haunch: + with civil authority, military command, local priestly functions, and + honorary distinctions, he lacked only one thing to make him the equal of + the nobles of ancient family, and that was permission to bequeath without + restriction his towns and offices to his children. + </p> + <p> + His private fortune was not as great as we might be led to think. He + inherited from his father only one estate, but had acquired twelve others + in the nomes of the Delta whither his successive appointments had led him—namely, + in the Saïte, Xoïte, and Letopolite nomes. He received subsequently, as a + reward for his services, two hundred portions of cultivated land, with + numerous peasants, both male and female, and an income of one hundred + loaves daily, a first charge upon the funeral provision of Queen + Hâpûnimâit. He took advantage of this windfall to endow his family + suitably. His only son was already provided for, thanks to the munificence + of Pharaoh; he had begun his administrative career by holding the same + post of scribe, in addition to the office of provision registrar, which + his father had held, and over and above these he received by royal grant, + four portions of cornland with their population and stock. Amten gave + twelve portions to his other children and fifty to his mother Nibsonît, by + means of which she lived comfortably in her old age, and left an annuity + for maintaining worship at her tomb. He built upon the remainder of the + land a magnificent villa, of which he has considerately left us the + description. The boundary wall formed a square of 350 feet on each face, + and consequently contained a superficies of 122,500 square feet. The + well-built dwelling-house, completely furnished with all the necessities + of life, was surrounded by ornamental and fruit-bearing trees,—the + common palm, the nebbek, fig trees, and acacias; several ponds, neatly + bordered with greenery, afforded a habitat for aquatic birds; trellised + vines, according to custom, ran in front of the house, and two plots of + ground, planted with vines in full bearing, amply supplied the owner with + wine every year. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0034" id="linkimage-0034"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/075.jpg" width="100%" + alt="075.jpg Plan of the Villa Of a Great Egyptian Noble " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + This plan is taken from a Theban tomb of the XVIIIth + dynasty; but it corresponds exactly with the description + which Amten has left us of his villa. +</pre> + <p> + It was there, doubtless, that Amten ended his days in peace and quietude + of mind. The tableland whereon the Sphinx has watched for so many + centuries was then crowned by no pyramids, but mastabas of fine white + stone rose here and there from out of the sand: that in which the mummy of + Amten was to be enclosed was situated not far from the modern village of + Abûsîr, on the confines of the nome of the Haunch, and almost in sight of + the mansion in which his declining years were spent.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The site of Amten’s manorial mansion is nowhere mentioned + in the inscriptions; but the custom of the Egyptians to + construct their tombs as near as possible to the places + where they resided, leads me to consider it as almost + certain that we ought to look for its site in the Memphite + plain, in the vicinity of the town of Abûsîr, but in a + northern direction, so as to keep within the territory of + the Letopolite nome, where Amten governed in the name of the + king. +</pre> + <p> + The number of persons of obscure origin, who in this manner had risen in a + few years to the highest honours, and died governors of provinces or + ministers of Pharaoh, must have been considerable. Their descendants + followed in their fathers’ footsteps, until the day came when royal favour + or an advantageous marriage secured them the possession of an hereditary + fief, and transformed the son or grandson of a prosperous scribe into a + feudal lord. It was from people of this class, and from the children of + the Pharaoh, that the nobility was mostly recruited. In the Delta, where + the authority of the Pharaoh was almost everywhere directly felt, the + power of the nobility was weakened and much curtailed; in Middle Egypt it + gained ground, and became stronger and stronger in proportion as one + advanced southward. The nobles held the principalities of the Gazelle, of + the Hare, of the Serpent Mountain, of Akhmîm, of Thinis, of Qasr-es-Sayad, + of El-Kab, of Aswan, and doubtless others of which we shall some day + discover the monuments. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0035" id="linkimage-0035"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/077.jpg" width="100%" + alt="077.jpg Hunting With the Boomerang and Fishing With The Double Harpoon in a Marsh Or Pool " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Gayet. +</pre> + <p> + They accepted without difficulty the fiction according to which Pharaoh + claimed to be absolute master of the soil, and ceded to his subjects only + the usufruct of their fiefs; but apart from the admission of the + principle, each lord proclaimed himself sovereign in his own domain, and + exercised in it, on a small scale, complete royal authority. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0036" id="linkimage-0036"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/078.jpg" width="100%" + alt="078.jpg Prince Api, Borne in a Palanquin, Inspects His Funerary Domain " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch- + Bey. The tomb of Api was discovered at Saqqâra in 1884. It + had been pulled down in ancient times, and a new tomb built + on its ruins, about the time of the XIIth dynasty; all that + remains of it is now in the museum at Gîzeh. +</pre> + <p> + Everything within the limits of this petty state belonged to him—woods, + canals, fields, even the desert-sand: after the example of the Pharaoh, he + farmed a part himself, and let out the remainder, either in farms or as + fiefs, to those of his followers who had gained his confidence or his + friendship. After the example of Pharaoh, also, he was a priest, and + exercised priestly functions in relation to all the gods—that is, + not of all Egypt, but of all the deities of the nome. He was an + administrator of civil and criminal law, received the complaints of his + vassals and serfs at the gate of his palace, and against his decisions + there was no appeal. He kept up a flotilla, and raised on his estate a + small army, of which he was commander-in-chief by hereditary right. He + inhabited a fortified mansion, situated sometimes within the capital of + the principality itself, sometimes in its neighbourhood, and in which the + arrangements of the royal city were reproduced on a smaller scale. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0037" id="linkimage-0037"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/079.jpg" width="100%" + alt="079.jpg a Dwarf Playing With Cynocephali and A Tame Ibis " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a chromolithograph in Flinders + Petrie’s <i>Medûm,</i> pl. xxiv. +</pre> + <p> + Side by side with the reception halls was the harem, where the legitimate + wife, often a princess of solar rank, played the rôle of queen, surrounded + by concubines, dancers, and slaves. The offices of the various departments + were crowded into the enclosure, with their directors, governors, scribes + of all ranks, custodians, and workmen, who bore the same titles as the + corresponding employés in the departments of the State: their White + Storehouse, their Gold Storehouse, their Granary, were at times called the + Double White Storehouse, the Double Gold Storehouse, the Double Granary, + as were those of the Pharaoh. Amusements at the court of the vassal did + not differ from those at that of the sovereign: hunting in the desert and + the marshes, fishing, inspection of agricultural works, military + exercises, games, songs, dancing, doubtless the recital of long stories, + and exhibitions of magic, even down to the contortions of the court + buffoon and the grimaces of the dwarfs. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0038" id="linkimage-0038"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/080.jpg" width="100%" alt="080.jpg in a Nile Boat " /> + </div> + <p> + It amused the prince to see one of these wretched favourites leading to + him by the paw a cynocephalus larger than himself, while a mischievous + monkey slyly pulled a tame and stately ibis by the tail. From time to time + the great lord proceeded to inspect his domain: on these occasions he + travelled in a kind of sedan chair, supported by two mules yoked together; + or he was borne in a palanquin by some thirty men, while fanned by large + flabella; or possibly he went up the Nile and the canals in his beautiful + painted barge. The life of the Egyptian lords may be aptly described as in + every respect an exact reproduction of the life of the Pharaoh on a + smaller scale. + </p> + <p> + Inheritance in a direct or indirect line was the rule, but in every case + of transmission the new lord had to receive the investiture of the + sovereign either by letter or in person. The duties enforced by the feudal + state do not appear to have been onerous. In the first place, there was + the regular payment of a tribute, proportionate to the extent and + resources of the fief. In the next place, there was military service: the + vassal agreed to supply, when called upon, a fixed number of armed men, + whom he himself commanded, unless he could offer a reasonable excuse such + as illness or senile incapacity.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Prince Amoni, of the Gazelle nome, led a body of four + hundred men and another body of six hundred, levied in his + principality, into Ethiopia under these conditions; the + first that he served in the royal army, was as a substitute + for his father, who had grown too old. Similarly, under the + XVIIIth dynasty, Âhmosis of El-Kab commanded the war-ship, + the Calf, in place of his father. The Uni inscription + furnishes us with an instance of a general levy of the + feudal contingents in the time of the VIth dynasty (1. 14, + et seq.). +</pre> + <p> + Attendance at court was not obligatory: we notice, however, many nobles + about the person of Pharaoh, and there are numerous examples of princes, + with whose lives we are familiar, filling offices which appear to have + demanded at least a temporary residence in the palace, as, for instance, + the charge of the royal wardrobe. When the king travelled, the great + vassals were compelled to entertain him and his suite, and to escort him + to the frontier of their domain. On the occasion of such visits, the king + would often take away with him one of their sons to be brought up with his + own children: an act which they on their part considered a great honour, + while the king on his had a guarantee of their fidelity in the person of + these hostages. Such of these young people as returned to their fathers’ + roof when their education was finished, were usually most loyal to the + reigning dynasty. They often brought back with them some maiden born in + the purple, who consented to share their little provincial sovereignty, + while in exchange one or more of their sisters entered the harem of the + Pharaoh. Marriages made and marred in their turn the fortunes of the great + feudal houses. Whether she were a princess or not, each woman received as + her dowry a portion of territory, and enlarged by that amount her + husband’s little state; but the property she brought might, in a few + years, be taken by her daughters as portions and enrich other houses. The + fief seldom could bear up against such dismemberment; it fell away + piecemeal, and by the third or fourth generation had disappeared. + Sometimes, however, it gained more than it lost in this matrimonial game, + and extended its borders till they encroached on neighbouring nomes or + else completely absorbed them. There were always in the course of each + reign several great principalities formed, or in the process of formation, + whose chiefs might be said to hold in their hands the destinies of the + country. Pharaoh himself was obliged to treat them with deference, and he + purchased their allegiance by renewed and ever-increasing concessions. + </p> + <p> + Their ambition was never satisfied; when they were loaded with favours, + and did not venture to ask for more for themselves, they impudently + demanded them for such of their children as they thought were poorly + provided for. Their eldest son “knew not the high favours which came from + the king. Other princes were his privy counsellers, his chosen friends, or + foremost among his friends!” he had no share in all this. Pharaoh took + good care not to reject a petition presented so humbly: he proceeded to + lavish appointments, titles, and estates on the son in question; if + necessity required it, he would even seek out a wife for him, who might + give him, together with her hand, a property equal to that of his father. + The majority of these great vassals secretly aspired to the crown: they + frequently had reason to believe that they had some right to it, either + through their mother or one of their ancestors. Had they combined against + the reigning house, they could easily have gained the upper hand, but + their mutual jealousies prevented this, and the overthrow of a dynasty to + which they owed so much would, for the most part, have profited them but + little: as soon as one of them revolted, the remainder took arms in + Pharaoh’s defence, led his armies and fought his battles. If at times + their ambition and greed harassed their suzerain, at least their power was + at his service, and their self-interested allegiance was often the means + of delaying the downfall of his house. + </p> + <p> + Two things were specially needful both for them and for Pharaoh in order + to maintain or increase their authority—the protection of the gods, + and a military organization which enabled them to mobilize the whole of + their forces at the first signal. The celestial world was the faithful + image of our own; it had its empires and its feudal organization, the + arrangement of which corresponded to that of the terrestrial world. The + gods who inhabited it were dependent upon the gifts of mortals, and the + resources of each individual deity, and consequently his power, depended + on the wealth and number of his worshippers; anything influencing one had + an immediate effect on the other. The gods dispensed happiness, health, + and vigour;* to those who made them large offerings and instituted pious + foundations, they lent their own weapons, and inspired them with needful + strength to overcome their enemies. They even came down to assist in + battle, and every great encounter of armies involved an invisible struggle + among the immortals. The gods of the side which was victorious shared with + it in the triumph, and received a tithe of the spoil as the price of their + help; the gods of the vanquished were so much the poorer, their priests + and their statues were reduced to slavery, and the destruction of their + people entailed their own downfall. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I may here remind my readers of the numberless bas-reliefs + and stelae on which the king is represented as making an + offering to a god, who replies in some such formula as the + following: “I give thee health and strength;” or, “I give + thee joy and life for millions of years.” + </pre> + <p> + It was, therefore, to the special interest of every one in Egypt, from the + Pharaoh to the humblest of his vassals, to maintain the good will and + power of the gods, so that their protection might be effectively ensured + in the hour of danger. Pains were taken to embellish their temples with + obelisks, colossi, altars, and bas-reliefs; new buildings were added to + the old; the parts threatened with ruin were restored or entirely rebuilt; + daily gifts were brought of every kind—animals which were sacrificed + on the spot, bread, flowers, fruit, drinks, as well as perfumes, stuffs, + vases, jewels, bricks or bars of gold, silver, lapis-lazuli, which were + all heaped up in the treasury within the recesses of the crypts.* If a + dignitary of high rank wished to perpetuate the remembrance of his honours + or his services, and at the same time to procure for his double the + benefit of endless prayers and sacrifices, he placed “by special + permission” ** a statue of himself on a votive stele in the part of the + temple reserved for this purpose,—in a courtyard, chamber, + encircling passage, as at Karnak,*** or on the staircase of Osiris as in + that leading up to the terrace in the sanctuary of Abydos; he then sealed + a formal agreement with the priests, by which the latter engaged to + perform a service in his name, in front of this commemorative monument, a + stated number of times in the year, on the days fixed by universal + observance or by local custom. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See the “Poem of Pentaûîrît” for the grounds on which + Ramses II. bases his imperative appeal to Araon for help: + “Have I not made thee numerous offerings? I have filled thy + temple with my prisoners. I have built thee an everlasting + temple, and have not spared my wealth in endowing it for + thee; I lay the whole world under contribution in order to + stock thy domain.... I have built thee whole pylons in + stone, and have myself reared the flagstaffs which adorn + them; I have brought thee obelisks from Elephantine.” + + ** The majority of the votive statues were lodged in a + temple “by special favour of a king “—em HOSÎtû nti KUÎr + sûton—as a recompense for services rendered. Some only of + the stelae bear an inscription to the above effect, no + authorization from the king was required for the + consecration of a stele in a temple. + + *** It was in the encircling passage of the limestone temple + built by the kings of the XIIth dynasty, and now completely + destroyed, that all the Karnak votive statues were + discovered. Some of them still rest on the stone ledge on + which they were placed by the priests of the god at the + moment of consecration. +</pre> + <p> + For this purpose he assigned to them annuities in kind, charges on his + patrimonial estates, or in some cases, if he were a great lord, on the + revenues of his fief,—such as a fixed quantity of loaves and drinks + for each of the celebrants, a fourth part of the sacrificial victim, a + garment, frequently also lands with their cattle, serfs, existing + buildings, farming implements and produce, along with the conditions of + service with which the lands were burdened. These gifts to the god—“notir + hotpûû”—were, it appears, effected by agreements analogous to those + dealing with property in mortmain in modern Egypt; in each nome they + constituted, in addition to the original temporalities of the temple, a + considerable domain, constantly enlarged by fresh endowments. The gods had + no daughters for whom to provide, nor sons among whom to divide their + inheritance; all that fell to them remained theirs for ever, and in the + contracts were inserted imprecations threatening with terrible ills, in + this world and the next, those who should abstract the smallest portion + from them. Such menaces did not always prevent the king or the lords from + laying hands on the temple revenues: had this not been the case, Egypt + would soon have become a sacerdotal country from one end to the other. + Even when reduced by periodic usurpations, the domain of the gods formed, + at all periods, about one-third of the whole country.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The tradition handed down by Diodorus tells us that the + goddess Isis assigned a third of the country to the priests; + the whole of Egypt is said to have been divided into three + equal parts, the first of which belonged to the priests, the + second to the kings, and the third to the warrior class. + When we read, in the great Harris Papyrus, the list of the + property possessed by the temple of the Theban Amon alone, + all over Egypt, under Ramses III., we can readily believe + that the tradition of the Greek epoch in no way exaggerated + matters. +</pre> + <p> + Its administration was not vested in a single body of Priests, + representing the whole of Egypt and recruited or ruled everywhere in the + same fashion. There were as many bodies of priests as there were temples, + and every temple preserved its independent constitution with which the + clergy of the neighbouring temples had nothing to do: the only master they + acknowledged was the lord of the territory on which the temple was built, + either Pharaoh or one of his nobles. The tradition which made Pharaoh the + head of the different worships in Egypt* prevailed everywhere, but Pharaoh + soared too far above this world to confine himself to the functions of any + one particular order of priests: he officiated before all the gods without + being specially the minister of any, and only exerted his supremacy in + order to make appointments to important sacerdotal posts in his domain.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The only exception to this rule was in the case of the + Theban kings of the XXIst dynasty, and even here the + exception is more apparent than real. As a matter of fact, + these kings, Hrihor and Pinozmû, began by being high priests + of Amon before ascending the throne; they were pontiffs who + became Pharaohs, not Pharaohs who created themselves + pontiffs. Possibly we ought to place Smonkharî of the XIVth + dynasty in the same category, if, as Brugsch assures us, his + name, Mîr-mâshâù, is identical with the title of the high + priest of Osiris at Mendes, thus proving that he was pontiff + of Osiris in that town before he became king. + + ** Among other instances, we have that of the king of the + XXIst Tanite dynasty, who appointed Mankhopirrî, high priest + of the Theban Amon, and that of the last king of the same + dynasty, Psûsennes IL, who conferred the same office on + prince Aûpûti, son of Sheshonqû. The king’s right of + nomination harmonized very well with the hereditary + transmission of the priestly office through members of the + same family, as we shall have occasion to show later on. +</pre> + <p> + He reserved the high priesthood of the Memphite Phtah and that of Râ of + Heliopolis either for the princes of his own family or more often for his + most faithful servants; they were the docile instruments of his will, + through whom he exerted the influence of the gods, and disposed of their + property without having the trouble of administrating it. The feudal + lords, less removed from mortal affairs than the Pharaoh, did not disdain + to combine the priesthood of the temples dependent on them with the + general supervision of the different worships practised on their lands. + The princes of the Gazelle nome, for instance, bore the title of + “Directors of the Prophets of all the Gods,” but were, correctly speaking, + prophets of Horus, of Khnûmû master of Haoîrît, and of Pakhît mistress of + the Speos-Artemidos. The religious suzerainty of such princes was the + complement of their civil and military power, and their ordinary income + was augmented by some portion at least of the revenues which the lands in + mortmain furnished annually. The subordinate sacerdotal functions were + filled by professional priests whose status varied according to the gods + they served and the provinces in which they were located. Although between + the mere priest and the chief prophet there were a number of grades to + which the majority never attained, still the temples attracted many people + from divers sources, who, once established in this calling of life, not + only never left it, but never rested until they had introduced into it the + members of their families. The offices they filled were not necessarily + hereditary, but the children, born and bred in the shelter of the + sanctuary, almost always succeeded to the positions of their fathers, and + certain families thus continuing in the same occupation for generations, + at last came to be established as a sort of sacerdotal nobility.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We possess the coffins of the priests of the Theban Montû + for nearly thirty generations, viz. from the XXVth dynasty + to the time of the Ptolemies. The inscriptions give us their + genealogies, as well as their intermarriages, and show us + that they belonged almost exclusively to two or three + important families who intermarried with one another or took + their wives from the families of the priests of Amon. +</pre> + <p> + The sacrifices supplied them with daily meat and drink; the temple + buildings provided them with their lodging, and its revenues furnished + them with a salary proportionate to their position. They were exempted + from the ordinary taxes, from military service, and from forced labour; it + is not surprising, therefore, that those who were not actually members of + the priestly families strove to have at least a share in their advantages. + The servitors, the workmen and the <i>employés</i> who congregated about + them and constituted the temple corporation, the scribes attached to the + administration of the domains, and to the receipt of offerings, shared <i>de + facto</i> if not <i>de jure</i> in the immunity of the priesthood; as a + body they formed a separate religious society, side by side, but distinct + from, the civil population, and freed from most of the burdens which + weighed so heavily on the latter. + </p> + <p> + The soldiers were far from possessing the wealth and influence of the + clergy. Military service in Egypt was not universally compulsory, but + rather the profession and privilege of a special class of whose origin but + little is known. Perhaps originally it comprised only the descendants of + the conquering race, but in historic times it was not exclusively confined + to the latter, and recruits were raised everywhere among the fellahs,* the + Bedouin of the neighbourhood, the negroes,** the Nubians,*** and even from + among the prisoners of war, or adventurers from beyond the sea.**** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is shown, <i>inter alia,</i> by the real or supposititious + letters in which the master-scribe endeavours to deter his + pupil from adopting a military career, recommending that of + a scribe in preference. + + ** Uni, under Papi I., recruited his army from among the + inhabitants of the whole of Egypt, from Elephantine to + Letopolis at the mouth of the Delta, and as far as the + Mediterranean, from among the Bedouin of Libya and of the + Isthmus, and even from the six negro races of Nubia + <i>(Inscription d’Ouni, 11. 14-19)</i>. + + *** The Nubian tribe of the Mâzaiû, afterwards known as the + Libyan tribe of the Mâshaûasha, furnished troops to the + Egyptian kings and princes for centuries; indeed, the Mâzaiû + formed such an integral part of the Egyptian armies that + their name came to be used in Coptic as a synonym for + soldier, under the form “matoï.” + + **** Later on we shall come across the Shardana of the Royal + Guard under Ramses II. (E. de Rougé, <i>Extrait d’un mémoire + sur les attaques,</i> p. 5); later still, the Ionians, Carians, + and Greek mercenaries will be found to play a decisive part + in the history of the Saïte dynasties. +</pre> + <p> + This motley collection of foreign mercenaries composed ordinarily the + body-guard of the king or of his barons, the permanent nucleus round which + in times of war the levies of native recruits were rallied. Every Egyptian + soldier received from the chief to whom he was attached, a holding of land + for the maintenance of himself and his family. In the fifth century B.C. + twelve <i>aruræ</i> of arable land was estimated as ample pay for each + man,* and tradition attributes to the fabulous Sesostris the law which + fixed the pay at this rate. The soldiers were not taxed, and were exempt + from forced labour during the time that they were away from home on active + service; with this exception they were liable to the same charges as the + rest of the population. Many among them possessed no other income, and + lived the precarious life of the fellah,—tilling, reaping, drawing + water, and pasturing their cattle,—in the interval between two + musters. Others possessed of private fortunes let their holdings out at a + moderate rental, which formed an addition to their patrimonial income.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus, ii. 168. The arura being equal to 27.82 ares + [an are = 100 square metres], the military fief contained + 27*82 x 12 = 333.84 ares. [The “arura,” according to F. L. + Griffith, was a square of 100 Egyptian cubits, making about + 3/5 of an acre, or 2600 square metres.—Trs.] The <i>chifliks</i> + created by Mohammed-Ali, with a view to bringing the + abandoned districts into cultivation, allotted to each + labourer who offered to reclaim it, a plot of land varying + from one to three feddans, i.e. from 4200.83 square metres + to 12602.49 square metres, according to the nature of the + soil and the necessities of each family. The military fiefs + of ancient Egypt were, therefore, nearly three times as + great in extent as these <i>abadiyehs</i>, which were considered, + in modern Egypt, sufficient to supply the wants of a whole + family of peasants; they must, therefore, have secured not + merely a bare subsistence, but ample provision for their + proprietors. + + ** Diodorus Siculus says in so many words (i. 74) that “the + farmers spent their life in cultivating lands which had been + let to them at a moderate rent by the king, by the priests, + and <i>by the warriors</i>.” + </pre> + <p> + Lest they should forget the conditions upon which they possessed this + military holding, and should regard themselves as absolute masters of it, + they were seldom left long in possession of the same place: Herodotus + asserts that their allotments were taken away-yearly and replaced by + others of equal extent. It is difficult to say if this law of perpetual + change was always in force; at any rate, it did not prevent the soldiers + from forming themselves in time into a kind of aristocracy, which even + kings and barons of highest rank could not ignore. They were enrolled in + special registers, with the indication of the holding which was + temporarily assigned to them. A military scribe kept this register in + every royal nome or principality. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0039" id="linkimage-0039"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/092.jpg" width="100%" + alt="092.jpg Some of the Military Athletic Exercises " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a scene in the tomb of Amoni- + Amenemhâît at Beni-Hasan. +</pre> + <p> + He superintended the redistribution of the lands, the registration of + privileges, and in addition to his administrative functions, he had in + time of war the command of the troops furnished by his own district; in + which case he was assisted by a “lieutenant,” who as opportunity offered + acted as his substitute in the office or on the battle-field. Military + service was not hereditary, but its advantages, however trifling they may + appear to us, seemed in the eyes of the fellahs so great, that for the + most part those who were engaged in it had their children also enrolled. + While still young the latter were taken to the barracks, where they were + taught not only the use of the bow, the battle-axe, the mace, the lance, + and the shield, but were all instructed in such exercises as rendered the + body supple, and prepared them for manoeuvring, regimental marching, + running, jumping, and wrestling either with closed or open hand. They + prepared themselves for battle by a regular war-dance, pirouetting, + leaping, and brandishing their bows and quivers in the air. Their training + being finished, they were incorporated into local companies, and invested + with their privileges. When they were required for service, part or the + whole of the class was mustered; arms kept in the arsenal were distributed + among them, and they were conveyed in boats to the scene of action. The + Egyptians were not martial by temperament; they became soldiers rather + from interest than inclination. + </p> + <p> + The power of Pharaoh and his barons rested entirely upon these two + classes, the priests and the soldiers; the remainder, the commonalty and + the peasantry, were, in their hands, merely an inert mass, to be taxed and + subjected to forced labour at will. The slaves were probably regarded as + of little importance; the bulk of the people consisted of free families + who were at liberty to dispose of themselves and their goods. Every fellah + and townsman in the service of the king, or of one of his great nobles, + could leave his work and his village when he pleased, could pass from the + domain in which he was born into a different one, and could traverse the + country from one end to the other, as the Egyptians of to-day still do. + </p> + <p> + His absence entailed neither loss of goods, nor persecution of the + relatives he left behind, and he himself had punishment to fear only when + he left the Nile Valley without permission, to reside for some time in a + foreign land.* But although this independence and liberty were in + accordance with the laws and customs of the land, yet they gave rise to + inconveniences from which it was difficult to escape in practical life. + Every Egyptian, the King excepted, was obliged, in order to get on in + life, to depend on one more powerful than himself, whom he called his + master. The feudal lord was proud to recognize Pharaoh as his master, and + he himself was master of the soldiers and priests in his own petty state. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The treaty between Ramses and the Prince of Khiti contains + a formal extradition clause in reference to Egyptians or + Hittites, who had quitted their native country, of course + without the permission of their sovereign. The two + contracting parties expressly stipulate that persons + extradited on one side or the other shall not be punished + for having emigrated, that their property is not to be + confiscated, nor are their families to be held responsible + for their flight. From this clause it follows that in + ordinary times unauthorized emigration brought upon the + culprit corporal punishment and the confiscation of his + goods, as well as various penalties on his family. The way + in which Sinûhît makes excuses for his flight, the fact of + his asking pardon before returning to Egypt, the very terms + of the letter in which the king recalls him and assures him + of impunity, show us that the laws against emigration were + in full force under the XIIth dynasty. + + ** The expressions which bear witness to this fact are very + numerous: Miri nîbûf = “He who loves his master;” Aqû hâîti + ni nîbûf = “He who enters into the heart of his master,” etc. + They recur so frequently in the texts in the case of persons + of all ranks, that it was thought no importance ought to be + attached to them. But the constant repetition of the word + NIB, “master,” shows that we must alter this view, and give + these phrases their full meaning. +</pre> + <p> + From the top to the bottom of the social scale every free man acknowledged + a master, who secured to him justice and protection in exchange for his + obedience and fealty. The moment an Egyptian tried to withdraw himself + from this subjection, the peace of his life was at an end; he became a man + without a master, and therefore without a recognized protector.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The expression, “a man without a master,” occurs several + times in the <i>Berlin Papyrus</i>, No. ii. For instance, the + peasant who is the hero of the story, says of the lord + Mirûitensi, that he is “the rudder of heaven, the guide of + the earth, the balance which carries the offerings, the + buttress of tottering walls, the support of that which + falls, <i>the great master who takes whoever is without a + master</i> to lavish on him the goods of his house, a jug of + beer and three loaves” each day. +</pre> + <p> + Any one might stop him on the way, steal his cattle, merchandise, or + property on the most trivial pretext, and if he attempted to protest, + might beat him with almost certain impunity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0040" id="linkimage-0040"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/095.jpg" width="100%" + alt="095.jpg War-dance Performed by Egyptian Soldiers Before A Battle " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the tomb of Khîti at Beni- + Hasan. These are soldiers of the nome of Gazelle. +</pre> + <p> + The only resource of the victim was to sit at the gate of the palace, + waiting to appeal for justice till the lord or the king should appear. If + by chance, after many rebuffs, his humble petition were granted, it was + only the beginning of fresh troubles. Even if the justice of the cause + were indisputable, the fact that he was a man without home or master + inspired his judges with an obstinate mistrust, and delayed the + satisfaction of his claims. In vain he followed his judges with his + complaints and flatteries, chanting their virtues in every key: “Thou art + the father of the unfortunate, the husband of the widow, the brother of + the orphan, the clothing of the motherless: enable me to proclaim thy name + as a law throughout the land. Good lord, guide without caprice, great + without littleness, thou who destroyest falsehood and causest truth to be, + come at the words of my mouth; I speak, listen and do justice. O generous + one, generous of the generous, destroy the cause of my trouble; here I am, + uplift me; judge me, for behold me a suppliant before thee.” If he were an + eloquent speaker and the judge were inclined to listen, he was willingly + heard, but his cause made no progress, and delays, counted on by his + adversary, effected his ruin. The religious law, no doubt, prescribed + equitable treatment for all devotees of Osiris, and condemned the + slightest departure from justice as one of the gravest sins, even in the + case of a great noble, or in that of the king himself; but how could + impartiality be shown when the one was the recognized protector, the + “master” of the culprit, while the plaintiff was a vagabond, attached to + no one, “a man without a master”! + </p> + <p> + The population of the towns included many privileged persons other than + the soldiers, priests, or those engaged in the service of the temples. + Those employed in royal or feudal administration, from the “superintendent + of the storehouse” to the humblest scribe, though perhaps not entirely + exempt from forced labour, had but a small part of it to bear.* These <i>employés</i> + constituted a middle class of several grades, and enjoyed a fixed income + and regular employment: they were fairly well educated, very + self-satisfied, and always ready to declare loudly their superiority over + any who were obliged to gain their living by manual labour. Each class of + workmen recognized one or more chiefs,—the shoemakers, their + master-shoemakers, the masons, their master-masons, the blacksmiths, their + master-blacksmiths,—who looked after their interests and represented + them before the local authorities.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is a fair inference from the indirect testimony of + the Letters: the writer, in enumerating the liabilities of + the various professions, implies by contrast that the scribe + (i.e. the <i>employé</i> in general) is not subject to them, or + is subject to a less onerous share of them than others. The + beginning and end of the instructions of Khîti would in + themselves be sufficient to show us the advantages which the + middle classes under the XIIth dynasty believed they could + derive from adopting the profession of scribe. + + ** The stelæ of Abydos are very useful to those who desire + to study the populations of a small town. They give us the + names of the head-men of trades of all kinds; the head-mason + Didiû, the master-mason Aa, the master-shoemaker Kahikhonti, + the head-smiths Ûsirtasen-Ûati, Hotpû, Hot-pûrekhsû. +</pre> + <p> + It was said among the Greeks, that even robbers were united in a + corporation like the others, and maintained an accredited superior as + their representative with the police, to discuss the somewhat delicate + questions which the practice of their trade gave occasion to. When the + members of the association had stolen any object of value, it was to this + superior that the person robbed resorted, in order to regain possession of + it: it was he who fixed the amount required for its redemption, and + returned it without fail, upon the payment of this sum. Most of the + workmen who formed a state corporation, lodged, or at least all of them + had their stalls, in the same quarter or street, under the direction of + their chief. Besides the poll and the house tax, they were subject to a + special toll, a trade licence which they paid in products of their + commerce or industry.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The registers (for the most part unpublished), which are + contained in European museums show us that fishermen paid in + fish, gardeners in flowers and vegetables, etc., the taxes + or tribute which they owed to their lords. In the great + inscription of Abydos the weavers attached to the temple of + Seti I. are stated to have paid their tribute in stuffs. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0041" id="linkimage-0041"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/098.jpg" width="100%" + alt="098.jpg Two Blacksmiths Working the Bellows " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Rosellini, Monumenti Civili, + pl. 2 a. +</pre> + <p> + Their lot was a hard one, if we are to believe the description which + ancient writers have handed down to us: “I have never seen a blacksmith on + an embassy—nor a smelter sent on a mission—but what I have + seen is the metal worker at his toil,—at the mouth of the furnace of + his forge,—his fingers as rugged as the crocodile,—and + stinking more than fish-spawn.—The artisan of any kind who handles + the chisel,—does not employ so much movement as he who handles the + hoe;* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The literal translation would be, “The artisan of all + kinds who handles the chisel is more motionless than he who + handles the hoe.” Both here, and in several other passages + of this little satiric poem, I have been obliged to + paraphrase the text in order to render it intelligible to + the modern reader. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0042" id="linkimage-0042"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/099.jpg" width="100%" + alt="099.jpg Stone-cutters Finishing the Dressing of Limestone Blocks " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Rosellini, <i>Monumenti civili</i>, + pl. xlviii. 2. +</pre> + <p> + —but for him his fields are the timber, his business is the metal,—and + at night when the other is free,—he, he works with his hands over + and above what he has already done,—for at night, he works at home + by the lamp.—The stone-cutter who seeks his living by working in all + kinds of durable stone,—when at last he has earned something—and + his two arms are worn out, he stops;—but if at sunrise he remain + sitting,—his legs are tied to his back.* —The barber who + shaves until the evening,—when he falls to and eats, it is without + sitting down** —while running from street to street to seek custom;—if + he is constant [at work] his two arms fill his belly—as the bee eats + in proportion to its toil.—Shall I tell thee of the mason—how + he endures misery?—Exposed to all the winds—while he builds + without any garment but a belt—and while the bunch of lotus-flowers + [which is fixed] on the [completed] houses—is still far out of his + reach,*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is an allusion to the cruel manner in which the + Egyptians were accustomed to bind their prisoners, as it + were in a bundle, with the legs bent backward along the back + and attached to the arms. The working-day commenced then, as + now, at sunrise, and lasted till sunset, with a short + interval of one or two hours at midday for the workmen’s + dinner and siesta. + + ** Literally, “He places himself on his elbow.” The metaphor + seems to me to be taken from the practice of the trade + itself: the barber keeps his elbow raised when shaving and + lowers it when he is eating. + + *** This passage is conjecturally translated. I suppose the + Egyptian masons had a custom analogous to that of our own, + and attached a bunch of lotus to the highest part of a + building they had just finished: nothing, however, has come + to light to confirm this conjecture. +</pre> + <p> + —his two arms are worn out with work; his provisions are placed + higgledy piggledy amongst his refuse,—he consumes himself, for he + has no other bread than his fingers—and he becomes wearied all at + once.—He is much and dreadfully exhausted—for there is + [always] a block [to be dragged] in this or that building,—a block + of ten cubits by six,—there is [always] a block [to be dragged] in + this or that month [as far as the] scaffolding poles [to which is fixed] + the bunch of lotus-flowers on the [completed] houses.—When the work + is quite finished,—if he has bread, he returns home,—and his + children have been beaten unmercifully [during his absence].—The + weaver within doors is worse off there than a woman;—squatting, his + knees against his chest,—he does not breathe.—If during the + day he slackens weaving,—he is bound fast as the lotuses of the + lake;—and it is by giving bread to the doorkeeper, that the latter + permits him to see the light. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0043" id="linkimage-0043"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/101.jpg" width="100%" + alt="101.jpg a Workshop of Shoemakers Manufacturing Sandals " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Champollion’s <i>Monuments de + l’Êypte et de la Nubie</i>. This Picture belongs to the XVIIIth + dynasty; but the sandals in it are, however, quite like + those to be seen on more ancient monuments. +</pre> + <p> + The dyer, his fingers reeking—and their smell is that of fish-spawn;—his + two eyes are oppressed with fatigue,—his hand does not stop,—and, + as he spends his time in cutting out rags—he has a hatred of + garments.—The shoemaker is very unfortunate;—he moans + ceaselessly,—his health is the health of the spawning fish,—and + he gnaws the leather.—The baker makes dough,—subjects the + loaves to the fire;—while his head is inside the oven,—his son + holds him by the legs;—if he slips from the hands of his son,—he + falls there into the flames.” These are the miseries inherent to the + trades themselves: the levying of the tax added to the catalogue a long + sequel of vexations and annoyances, which were renewed several times in + the year at regular intervals. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0044" id="linkimage-0044"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/102.jpg" width="100%" + alt="102.jpg the Baker Making his Bread and Placing It in The Oven " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the painted picture in one of + the small antechambers of the tomb of Ramses III., at Bab- + el-Molûk. +</pre> + <p> + Even at the present day, the fellah does not pay his contributions except + under protest and by compulsion, but the determination not to meet + obligations except beneath the stick, was proverbial from ancient times: + whoever paid his dues before he had received a merciless beating would be + overwhelmed with reproaches by his family, and jeered at without pity by + his neighbours. The time when the tax fell due, came upon the nomes as a + terrible crisis which affected the whole population. For several days + there was nothing to be heard but protestations, threats, beating, cries + of pain from the tax-payers, and piercing lamentations from women and + children. The performance over, calm was re-established, and the good + people, binding up their wounds, resumed their round of daily life until + the next tax-gathering. + </p> + <p> + The towns of this period presented nearly the same confined and mysterious + appearance as those of the present day.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I have had occasion to make “soundings” or excavations at + various points in very ancient towns and villages, at + Thebes, Abydos and Mataniyeh, and I give here a <i>résumé</i> of + my observations. Professor Petrie has brought to light and + regularly explored several cities of the XIIth and XVIIIth + dynasties, situated at the entrance to the Fayûm. I have + borrowed many points in my description from the various + works which he has published on the subject, <i>Kahun, Gurob + and Hawara,</i> 1890; and <i>Illahun, Kahun and Gurob</i>, 1891. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0045" id="linkimage-0045"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/103.jpg" width="100%" + alt="103.jpg the House of a Great Egyptian Lord " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a water-colour by Boussac, <i>Le + Tombeau d’Anna</i> in the <i>Mémoires de la Mission Française</i>. + The house was situated at Thebes, and belonged to the + XVIIIth dynasty. The remains of the houses brought to light + by Mariette at Abydos belong to the same type, and date back + to the XIIth dynasty. By means of these, Mariette was + enabled to reconstruct an ancient Egyptian house at the + Paris Exhibition of 1877. The picture of the tomb of Anna + reproduces in most respects, we may therefore assume, the + appearance of a nobleman’s dwelling at all periods. At the + side of the main building we see two corn granaries with + conical roofs, and a great storehouse for provisions. +</pre> + <p> + They were grouped around one or more temples, each of which was surrounded + by its own brick enclosing wall, with its enormous gateways: the gods + dwelt there in real castles, or, if this word appears too ambitious, + redouts, in which the population could take refuge in cases of sudden + attack, and where they could be in safety. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0046" id="linkimage-0046"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/104.jpg" width="100%" + alt="104.jpg Plan of a Part Of the Ancient Town Of Kahun " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + From a plan made and published by Professor Flinders Petrie, + <i>Illahun, Kahun and Gurob</i>, pl. xiv. +</pre> + <p> + The towns, which had all been built at one period by some king or prince, + were on a tolerably regular ground plan; the streets were paved and fairly + wide; they crossed each other at right angles, and were bordered with + buildings on the same line of frontage. The cities of ancient origin, + which had increased with the chance growth of centuries, presented a + totally different aspect. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0047" id="linkimage-0047"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/105.jpg" width="100%" + alt="105.jpg Stele of SÎtÛ, Representing the Front Of a House " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey. The + monument is the stele of Sîtû (IVth dynasty), in the Gîzeh + Museum. +</pre> + <p> + A network of lanes and blind alleys, narrow, dark, damp, and badly built, + spread itself out between the houses, apparently at random: here and there + was an arm of a canal, all but dried up, or a muddy pool where the cattle + came to drink, and from which the women fetched the water for their + households; then followed an open space of irregular shape, shaded by + acacias or sycamores, where the country-folk of the suburbs held their + market on certain days, twice or thrice a month; then came waste ground + covered with filth and refuse, over which the dogs of the neighbourhood + fought with hawks and vultures. The residence of the prince or royal + governor, and the houses of rich private persons, covered a considerable + area, and generally presented to the street a long extent of bare walls, + crenellated like those of a fortress: the only ornament admitted on them + consisted of angular grooves, each surmounted by two open lotus flowers + having their stems intertwined. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0048" id="linkimage-0048"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/106.jpg" width="100%" + alt="106.jpg a Street in the Higher Quarter of Modern SiÛt " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph, taken in 1884, by Emil + Brugsch-Bey. +</pre> + <p> + Within these walls domestic life was entirely secluded, and as it were + confined to its own resources; the pleasure of watching passers-by was + sacrificed to the advantage of not being seen from outside. The entrance + alone denoted at times the importance of the great man who concealed + himself within the enclosure. Two or three steps led up to the door, which + sometimes had a columned portico, ornamented with statues, lending an air + of importance to the building. The houses of the citizens were small, and + built of brick; they contained, however, some half-dozen rooms, either + vaulted, or having flat roofs, and communicating with each other usually + by arched doorways. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0049" id="linkimage-0049"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/107.jpg" width="100%" + alt="107.jpg a Hall With Columns in One of the Xiith Dynasty Houses at Gurob " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Professor Petrie, + <i>Elahun, Kahun and Gurob</i>, pl. xvi. 3. +</pre> + <p> + A few houses boasted of two or three stories; all possessed a terrace, on + which the Egyptians of old, like those of to-day, passed most of their + time, attending to household cares or gossiping with their neighbours over + the party wall or across the street. The hearth was hollowed out in the + ground, usually against a wall, and the smoke escaped through a hole in + the ceiling: they made their fires of sticks, wood charcoal, and the dung + of oxen and asses. In the houses of the rich we meet with state + apartments, lighted in the centre by a square opening, and supported by + rows of wooden columns; the shafts, which were octagonal, measured ten + inches in diameter, and were fixed into flat circular stone bases. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0050" id="linkimage-0050"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:24%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/108a.jpg" alt="108a.jpg Wooden Head-rest " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a head-rest in my +possession obtained at +Gebelên (XIth dynasty) +</pre> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0051" id="linkimage-0051"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:23%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/108b.jpg" alt="108b.jpg Pigeon on Wheels " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a sketch by Petrie, +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The family crowded themselves together into two or three rooms in winter, + and slept on the roof in the open air in summer, in spite of risk from + affections of the stomach and eyes; the remainder of the dwelling was used + for stables or warehouses. The store-chambers were often built in pairs; + they were of brick, carefully limewashed internally, and usually assumed + the form of an elongated cone, in imitation of the Government storehouses. + For the valuables which constituted the wealth of each household—wedges + of gold or silver, precious stones, ornaments for men or women—there + were places of concealment, in which the possessors attempted to hide them + from robbers or from the tax-collectors. But the latter, accustomed to the + craft of the citizens, evinced a peculiar aptitude for ferreting out the + hoard: they tapped the walls, lifted and pierced the roofs, dug down into + the soil below the foundations, and often brought to light, not only the + treasure of the owner, but all the surroundings of the grave and human + corruption. It was actually the custom, among the lower and middle + classes, to bury in the middle of the house children who had died at the + breast. The little body was placed in an old tool or linen box, without + any attempt at embalming, and its favourite playthings and amulets were + buried with it: two or three infants are often found occupying the same + coffin. The playthings were of an artless but very varied character; dolls + of limestone, enamelled pottery or wood, with movable arms and wigs of + artificial hair; pigs, crocodiles, ducks, and pigeons on wheels, pottery + boats, miniature sets of household furniture, skin balls filled with hay, + marbles, and stone bowls. However, strange it may appear, we have to fancy + the small boys of ancient Egypt as playing at bowls like ours, or + impudently whipping their tops along the streets without respect for the + legs of the passers-by. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0052" id="linkimage-0052"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/109.jpg" width="100%" + alt="109.jpg Apparatus for Striking a Light " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch published in Fl. + Petrie, <i>Illahun, Kdhun and Gurob,</i> pl. vii. The bow is + represented in the centre; on the left, at the top, is the + nut; below it the fire-stick, which was attached to the end + of the stock; at the bottom and right, two pieces of wood + with round carbonized holes, which took fire from the + friction of the rapidly rotating stick. +</pre> + <p> + Some care was employed upon the decoration of the chambers. The + rough-casting of mud often preserves its original grey colour; sometimes, + however, it was limewashed, and coloured red or yellow, or decorated with + pictures of jars, provisions, and the interiors as well as the exteriors + of houses. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0053" id="linkimage-0053"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/110.jpg" width="100%" + alt="110.jpg Mitral Paintings in the Ruins of an Ancient House At Kahun " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the facsimile in Petrie’s + <i>Illahun, Kahun and Gurob</i>, pl. xvi. 6. +</pre> + <p> + The bed was not on legs, but consisted of a low framework, like the + “angarebs” of the modern Nubians, or of mats which were folded up in the + daytime, but upon which they lay in their clothes during the night, the + head being supported by a head-rest of pottery, limestone, or wood: the + remaining articles of furniture consisted of one or two roughly hewn seats + of stone, a few lion-legged chairs or stools, boxes and trunks of varying + sizes for linen and implements, kohl, or perfume, pots of ababaster or + porcelain, and lastly, the fire-stick with the bow by which it was set in + motion, and some roughly made pots and pans of clay or bronze. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0054" id="linkimage-0054"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/111.jpg" width="100%" alt="111.jpg Woman Grinding Grain " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Béchard (cf. + Mariette, <i>Alburn photographique du Musée de Boulaq</i>, pl. + 20; Maspero, <i>Guide du Visiteur</i>, P- 220, Nos. 1012, 1013). +</pre> + <p> + Men rarely entered their houses except to eat and sleep; their employments + or handicrafts were such as to require them for the most part to work + out-of-doors. The middle-class families owned, almost always, one or two + slaves—either purchased or born in the house—who did all the + hard work: they looked after the cattle, watched over the children, acted + as cooks, and fetched water from the nearest pool or well. Among the poor + the drudgery of the household fell entirely upon the woman. She spun, + wove, cut out and mended garments, fetched fresh water and provisions, + cooked the dinner, and made the daily bread. She spread some handfuls of + grain upon an oblong slab of stone, slightly hollowed on its upper + surface, and proceeded to crush them with a smaller stone like a painter’s + muller, which she moistened from time to time. For an hour and more she + laboured with her arms, shoulders, loins, in fact, all her body; but an + indifferent result followed from the great exertion. The flour, made to + undergo several grindings in this rustic mortar, was coarse, uneven, mixed + with bran, or whole grains, which had escaped the pestle, and contaminated + with dust and abraded particles of the stone. She kneaded it with a little + water, blended with it, as a sort of yeast, a piece of stale dough of the + day before, and made from the mass round cakes, about half an inch thick + and some four inches in diameter, which she placed upon a flat flint, + covering them with hot ashes. The bread, imperfectly raised, often badly + cooked, borrowed, from the organic fuel under which it was buried, a + special odour, and a taste to which strangers did not readily accustom + themselves. The impurities which it contained were sufficient in the long + run to ruin the strongest teeth; eating it was an action of grinding + rather than chewing, and old men were not unfrequently met with whose + teeth had been gradually worn away to the level of the gums, like those of + an aged ass or ox.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The description of the woman grinding grain and kneading + dough is founded on statues in the Gîzeh Museum. All the + European museums possess numerous specimens of the bread in + question, and the effect which it produces in the long run + on the teeth of those who habitually used it as an article + of diet, has been observed in mummies of the most important + personages. +</pre> + <p> + Movement and animation were not lacking at certain hours of the day, + particularly during the morning, in the markets and in the neighbourhood + of the temples and government buildings: there was but little traffic + anywhere else; the streets were silent, and the town dull and sleepy. It + woke up completely only three or four times a year, at seasons of solemn + assemblies “of heaven and earth:” the houses were then opened and their + inhabitants streamed forth, the lively crowd thronging the squares and + crossways. To begin with, there was New Year’s Day, quickly followed by + the Festival of the Bead, the “Ûagaît.” On the night of the 17th of Thot, + the priests kindled before the statues in the sanctuaries and sepulchral + chapels, the fire for the use of the gods and doubles during the twelve + ensuing months. Almost at the same moment the whole country was lit up + from one end to the other: there was scarcely a family, however poor, who + did not place in front of their door a new lamp in which burned an oil + saturated with salt, and who did not spend the whole night in feasting and + gossiping.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The night of the 17th Thot—which, according to our + computation, would be the night of the 16th to the 17th + —was, as may be seen from the Great Inscription of Siût, + appointed for the ceremony of “lighting the fire” before the + statues of the dead and of the gods. As at the “Feast of + Lamps” + </pre> + <p> + The festivals of the living gods attracted considerable crowds, who came + not only from the nearest nomes, but also from great distances in caravans + and in boats laden with merchandise, for religious sentiment did not + exclude commercial interests, and the pilgrimage ended in a fair. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0055" id="linkimage-0055"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/114.jpg" width="100%" + alt="114.jpg Two Women Weaving Linen at a Horizantal Loom " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a picture on the tomb of Khnûm- + hotpû at Beni-Hasan. This is the loom which was + reconstructed in 1889 for the Paris Exhibition, and which is + now to be seen in the galleries of the Trocadero. +</pre> + <p> + For several days the people occupied mentioned by Herodotus, the religious + ceremony was accompanied by a general illumination which lasted all the + night; the object of this, probably, was to facilitate the visit which the + souls of the dead were supposed to pay at this time to the family + residence themselves solely in prayers, sacrifices, and processions, in + which the faithful, clad in white, with palms in their hands, chanted + hymns as they escorted the priests on their way. “The gods of heaven + exclaim ‘Ah! ah! ‘in satisfaction, the inhabitants of the earth are full + of gladness, the Hâthors beat their tabors, the great ladies wave their + mystic whips, all those who are gathered together in the town are drunk + with wine and crowned with flowers; the tradespeople of the place walk + joyously about, their heads scented with perfumed oils, all the children + rejoice in honour of the goddess, from the rising to the setting of the + sun.” * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The people of Dendera crudely enough called this the + “Feast of Drunkenness.” From what we know of the earlier + epochs, we are justified in making this description a + general one, and in applying it, as I have done here, to the + festivals of other towns besides Dendera. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0056" id="linkimage-0056"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:34%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/118.jpg" + alt="118.jpg One of the Forms Of Egyptian Scales " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +after a sketch by Rosellini +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The nights were as noisy as the days: for a few hours, they made up + energetically for long months of torpor and monotonous existence. The god + having re-entered the temple and the pilgrims taken their departure, the + regular routine was resumed and dragged on its tedious course, interrupted + only by the weekly market. At an early hour on that day, the peasant folk + came in from the surrounding country in an interminable stream, and + installed themselves in some open space, reserved from time immemorial for + their use. The sheep, geese, goats, and large-horned cattle were grouped + in the centre, awaiting purchasers. Market-gardeners, fishermen, fowlers + and gazelle-hunters, potters, and small tradesmen, squatted on the + roadsides or against the houses, and offered their wares for the + inspection of their customers, heaped up in reed baskets, or piled on low + round tables: vegetables and fruits, loaves or cakes baked during the + night, meat either raw or cooked in various ways, stuffs, perfumes, + ornaments,—all the necessities and luxuries of daily life. It was a + good opportunity for the workpeople, as well as for the townsfolk, to lay + in a store of provisions at a cheaper rate than from the ordinary shops; + and they took advantage of it, each according to his means. + </p> + <p> + Business was mostly carried on by barter. The purchasers brought with them + some product of their toil—a new tool, a pair of shoes, a reed mat, + pots of unguents or cordials; often, too, rows of cowries and a small box + full of rings, each weighing a “tabnû,” made of copper, silver, or even + gold, all destined to be bartered for such things as they needed. When it + came to be a question of some large animal or of objects of considerable + value, the discussions which arose were keen and stormy: it was necessary + to be agreed not only as to the amount, but as to the nature of the + payment to be made, and to draw up a sort of invoice, or in fact an + inventory, in which beds, sticks, honey, oil, pick-axes, and garments, all + figure as equivalents for a bull or a she-ass. Smaller retail bargains did + not demand so many or such complicated calculations. Two townsfolk stop + for a moment in front of a fellah who offers onions and corn in a basket + for sale. The first appears to possess no other circulating medium than + two necklaces made of glass beads or many-coloured enamelled terra-cotta; + the other flourishes about a circular fan with a wooden handle, and one of + those triangular contrivances used by cooks for blowing up the fire. “Here + is a fine necklace which will suit you,” cries the former, “it is just + what you are wanting;” while the other breaks in with: “Here is a fan and + a ventilator.” The fellah, however, does not let himself be disconcerted + by this double attack, and proceeding methodically, he takes one of the + necklaces to examine it at his leisure: “Give it to me to look at, that I + may fix the price.” The one asks too much, the other offers too little; + after many concessions, they at last come to an agreement, and settle on + the number of onions or the quantity of grain which corresponds exactly + with the value of the necklace or the fan. A little further on, a customer + wishes to get some perfumes in exchange for a pair of sandals, and + conscientiously praises his wares: “Here,” says he, “is a strong pair of + shoes.” But the merchant has no wish to be shod just then, and demands a + row of cowries for his little pots: “You have merely to take a few drops + of this to see how delicious it is,” he urges in a persuasive tone. A + seated customer has two jars thrust under his nose by a woman—they + probably contain some kind of unguent: “Here is something which smells + good enough to tempt you.” Behind this group two men are discussing the + relative merits of a bracelet and a bundle of fish-hooks; a woman, with a + small box in her hand, is having an argument with a merchant selling + necklaces; another woman seeks to obtain a reduction in the price of a + fish which is being scraped in front of her. Exchanging commodities for + metal necessitated two or three operations not required in ordinary + barter. The rings or thin bent strips of metal which formed the “tabnû” + and its multiples,* did not always contain the regulation amount of gold + or silver, and were often of light weight. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The rings of gold in the Museum at Leyden, which were used + as a basis of exchange, are made on the Chaldæo-Babylonian + pattern, and belong to the Asiatic system. +</pre> + <p> + They had to be weighed at every fresh transaction in order to estimate + their true value, and the interested parties never missed this excellent + opportunity for a heated discussion: after having declared for a quarter + of an hour that the scales were out of order, that the weighing had been + carelessly performed, and that it should be done over again, they at last + came to terms, exhausted with wrangling, and then went their way fairly + satisfied with one another.* It sometimes happened that a clever and + unscrupulous dealer would alloy the rings, and mix with the precious metal + as much of a baser sort as would be possible without danger of detection. + The honest merchant who thought he was receiving in payment for some + article, say eight tabnû of fine gold, and who had handed to him eight + tabnû of some alloy resembling gold, but containing one-third of silver, + lost in a single transaction, without suspecting it, almost one-third of + his goods. The fear of such counterfeits was instrumental in restraining + the use of tabnû for a long time among the people, and restricted the + buying and selling in the markets to exchange in natural products or + manufactured objects. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The weighing of rings is often represented on the + monuments from the XVIIIth dynasty onwards. I am not + acquainted with any instance of this on the bas-reliefs of + the Ancient Empire. The giving of false weight is alluded to + in the paragraph in the “Negative Confession,” in which the + dead man declares that he has not interfered with the beam + of the scales (cf. vol. i. p. 271) <i>civili,</i> pl. lii. 1. As + to the construction of the Egyptian scales, and the working + of their various parts, see Flinders Petrie’s remarks in <i>A + Season in Egypt</i>, P- 42, and the drawings which he has + brought together on pl. xx. of the same work. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0057" id="linkimage-0057"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/118b.jpg" width="100%" alt="118b.jpg Scenes in a Bazaar " /> + </div> + <p> + We must, perhaps, agree with Fr. Lenormant, in his conclusion that the + only kind of national metal of exchange in use in Egypt was a copper wire + or plate bent thus [—]. this being the sign invariably used in the + hieroglyphics in writing the word <i>tàbnû</i>. + </p> + <p> + The present rural population of Egypt scarcely ever live in isolated and + scattered farms; they are almost all concentrated in hamlets and villages + of considerable extent, divided into quarters often at some distance from + each other. The same state of things existed in ancient times, and those + who would realize what a village in the past was like, have only to visit + any one of the modern market towns scattered at intervals along the valley + of the Nile:—half a dozen fairly built houses, inhabited by the + principal people of the place; groups of brick or clay cottages thatched + with durra stalks, so low that a man standing upright almost touches the + roof with his head; courtyards filled with tall circular mud-built sheds, + in which the corn and durra for the household is carefully stored, and + wherever we turn, pigeons, ducks, geese, and animals all living + higgledly-piggledly with the family. The majority of the peasantry were of + the lower class, but they were not everywhere subjected to the same degree + of servitude. The slaves, properly so called, came from other countries; + they had been bought from foreign merchants, or they had been seized in a + raid and had lost their liberty by the fortune of war.* Their master + removed them from place to place, sold them, used them as he pleased, + pursued them if they succeeded in escaping, and had the right of + recapturing them as soon as he received information of their whereabouts. + They worked for him under his overseer’s orders, receiving no regular + wages, and with no hope of recovering their liberty.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The first allusion to prisoners of war brought back to + Egypt, is found in the biography of Uni. The method in which + they were distributed among the officers and soldiers is + indicated in several inscriptions of the New Empire, in that + of Ahmosis Pannekhabît, in that of Ahmosis si-Abîna, where + one of the inscriptions contains a list of slaves, some of + whom are foreigners, in that of Amenemhabi. We may form + some idea of the number of slaves in Egypt from the fact + that in thirty years Ramses III. presented 113,433 of them + to the temples alone. The “Directors of the Royal Slaves,” + at all periods, occupied an important position at the court + of the Pharaohs. + + ** A scene reproduced by Lepsius shows us, about the time of + the VIth dynasty, the harvest gathered by the “royal slaves” + in concert with the tenants of the dead man. One of the + petty princes defeated by the Ethiopian Piônkhi Miamûn + proclaims himself to be “one of the royal slaves who pay + tribute in kind to the royal treasury.” Amten repeatedly + mentions slaves of this kind, “sûtiû.” + </pre> + <p> + Many chose concubines from their own class, or intermarried with the + natives and had families: at the end of two or three generations their + descendants became assimilated with the indigenous race, and were neither + more nor less than actual serfs attached to the soil, who were made over + or exchanged with it.* The landed proprietors, lords, kings, or gods, + accommodated this population either in the outbuildings belonging to their + residences, or in villages built for the purpose, where everything + belonged to them, both houses and people. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is the status of serfs, or <i>mirîtiû,</i> as shown in the + texts of every period. They are mentioned along with the + fields or cattle attached to a temple or belonging to a + noble. Ramses II. granted to the temple of Abydos “an + appanage in cultivated lands, in serfs (<i>mirîtiû</i>), in + cattle.” The scribe Anna sees in his tomb “stalls of bulls, + of oxen, of calves, of milch cows, as well as serfs, in the + mortmain of Amon.” Ptolemy I. returned to the temple at Bûto + “the domains, the boroughs, the serfs, the tillage, the + water supply, the cattle, the geese, the flocks, all the + things” which Xerxes had taken away from Kabbisha. The + expression passed into the language, as a word used to + express the condition of a subject race: “I cause,” said + Thûtmosis III., “Egypt to be a sovereign (<i>hirît</i>) to whom + all the earth is a slave” (<i>mirîtû</i>). +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0058" id="linkimage-0058"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/123.jpg" width="100%" + alt="123.jpg Part of the Modern Village Of Karnak, to The West Of the Temple of ApÎt " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato, taken in 1886. +</pre> + <p> + The condition of the free agricultural labourer was in many respects + analogous to that of the modern fellah. Some of them possessed no other + property than a mud cabin, just large enough for a man and his wife, and + hired themselves out by the day or the year as farm servants. Others were + emboldened to lease land from the lord or from a soldier in the + neighbourhood. The most fortunate acquired some domain of which they were + supposed to receive only the product, the freehold of the property + remaining primarily in the hands of the Pharaoh, and secondarily in that + of lay or religious feudatories who held it of the sovereign: they could, + moreover, bequeath, give, or sell these lands and buy fresh ones without + any opposition. They paid, besides the capitation tax, a ground rent + proportionate to the extent of their property, and to the kind of land of + which it consisted.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The capitation tax, the ground rent, and the house duty of + the time of the Ptolemies, already existed under the rule of + the native Pharaohs. Brugsch has shown that these taxes are + mentioned in an inscription of the time of Ameuôthes III. +</pre> + <p> + It was not without reason that all the ancients attributed the invention + of geometry to the Egyptians. The perpetual encroachments of the Nile and + the displacements it occasioned, the facility with which it effaced the + boundaries of the fields, and in one summer modified the whole face of a + nome, had forced them from early times to measure with the greatest + exactitude the ground to which they owed their sustenance. The territory + belonging to each town and nome was subjected to repeated surveys made and + co-ordinated by the Royal Administration, thus enabling Pharaoh to know + the exact area of his estates. The unit of measurement was the arura; that + is to say, a square of a hundred cubits, comprising in round numbers + twenty-eight ares.* A considerable staff of scribes and surveyors was + continually occupied in verifying the old measurements or in making fresh + ones, and in recording in the State registers any changes which might have + taken place.** Each estate had its boundaries marked out by a line of + stelas which frequently bore the name of the tenant at the time, and the + date when the landmarks were last fixed.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * [One “are” equals 100 square metres.—Tr.] + + ** We learn from the expressions employed in the great + inscription of Beni-Hasan (11. 13—58, 131-148) that the + cadastral survey had existed from the very earliest times; + there are references in it to previous surveys. We find a + surveying scene on the tomb of Zosirkerîsonbû at Thebes, + under the XVIIIth dynasty. Two persons are measuring a field + of wheat by means of a cord; a third notes down the result + of their work. + + *** The great inscription of Beni-Hasan tells us of the + stelæ which bounded the principality of the Gazelle on the + North and South, and of those in the plain which marked the + northern boundary of the nome of the Jackal; we also possess + three other stelo which were used by Amenôthes IV. to + indicate the extreme limits of his new city of Khûtniaton. + In addition to the above stele, we also know of two others + belonging to the XIIth dynasty which marked the boundaries + of a private estate, and which are reproduced, one on plate + 106, the other in the text of <i>Monuments divers</i>, p. 30; + also the stele of Bûhani under Thûtmosis IV. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0059" id="linkimage-0059"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:32%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/125.jpg" alt="125.jpg a Boundary Stele " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a photograph given +by Mariette, Monuments +divers, pl. 47 a. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + Once set up, the stele received a name which gave it, as it were, a living + and independent personality. It sometimes recorded the nature of the soil, + its situation, or some characteristic which made it remarkable—the + “Lake of the South,” the “Eastern Meadow,” the “Green Island,” the + “Fisher’s Pool,” the “Willow Plot,” the “Vineyard,” the “Vine Arbour,” the + “Sycamore;” sometimes also it bore the name of the first master or the + Pharaoh under whom it had been erected—the “Nurse-Phtahhotpû,” the + “Verdure-Kheops,” the “Meadow-Didifrî,” the “Abundance-Sahûri,” + “Khafri-Great-among-the Doubles.” Once given, the name clung to it for + centuries, and neither sales, nor redistributions, nor revolutions, nor + changes of dynasty, could cause it to be forgotten. The officers of the + survey inscribed it in their books, together with the name of the + proprietor, those of the owners of adjoining lands, and the area and + nature of the ground. They noted down, to within a few cubits, the extent + of the sand, marshland, pools, canals, groups of palms, gardens or + orchards, vineyards and cornfields,* which it contained. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See in the great inscription of Beni-Hasan the passage in + which are enumerated at full length, in a legal document, + the constituent parts of the principality of the Gazelle, + “its watercourses, its fields, its trees, its sands, from + the river to the mountain of the West” (11. 46-53). +</pre> + <p> + The cornland in its turn was divided into several classes, according to + whether it was regularly inundated, or situated above the highest rise of + the water, and consequently dependent on a more or less costly system of + artificial irrigation. All this was so much information of which the + scribes took advantage in regulating the assessment of the land-tax. + </p> + <p> + Everything tends to make us believe that this tax represented one-tenth of + the gross produce, but the amount of the latter varied. It depended on the + annual rise of the Nile, and it followed the course of it with almost + mathematical exactitude: if there were too much or too little water, it + was immediately lessened, and might even be reduced to nothing in extreme + cases. The king in his capital and the great lords in their fiefs had set + up nilo-meters, by means of which, in the critical weeks, the height of + the rising or subsiding flood was taken daily. Messengers carried the news + of it over the country: the people, kept regularly informed of what was + happening, soon knew what kind of season to expect, and they could + calculate to within very little what they would have to pay. In theory, + the collecting of the tax was based on the actual amount of land covered + by the water, and the produce of it was constantly varying. In practice it + was regulated by taking the average of preceding years, and deducting from + that a fixed sum, which was never departed from except in extraordinary + circumstances.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We know that this was so, in so far as the Roman period is + concerned, from a passage in the edict of Tiberius + Alexander. The practice was such a natural one, that I have + no hesitation in tracing it back to the time of the Ancient + Empire; repeatedly condemned as a piece of bad + administration, it reappeared continually. At Beni-Hasan, + the nomarch Amoni boasts that, “when there had been abundant + Niles, and the owners of wheat and barley crops had thriven, + he had not increased the rate of the land-tax,” which seems + to indicate that, so far as he was concerned, he had fixed + the tax to pay his dues without difficulty. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0060" id="linkimage-0060"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/128.jpg" width="100%" + alt="128.jpg the Levying of The Tax: The Taxpayer in The Scribe’s Office " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a picture at Beni-Hasan. This + picture and those which follow it represent a census in the + principality of the Gazelle under the XIIth dynasty as well + as the collection of a tax. +</pre> + <p> + The year would have to be a very bad one before the authorities would + lower the ordinary rate: the State in ancient times was not more willing + to deduct anything from its revenue than the modern State would be.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The two decrees of Rosetta and of Canopus, however, + mention reductions granted by the Ptolemies after an + insufficient rise of the Nile. +</pre> + <p> + The payment of taxes was exacted in wheat, durra, beans, and field + produce, which were stored in the granaries of the nome. It would seem + that the previous deduction of one-tenth of the gross amount of the + harvest could not be a heavy burden, and that the wretched fellah ought to + have been in a position on land at a permanent figure, based on the + average of good and bad harvests. + </p> + <p> + It was not so, however, and the same writers who have given us such a + lamentable picture of the condition of the workmen in the towns, have + painted for us in even darker colours the miseries which overwhelmed the + country people. “Dost thou not recall the picture of the farmer, when the + tenth of his grain is levied? Worms have destroyed half of the wheat, and + the hippopotami have eaten the rest; there are swarms of rats in the + fields, the grasshoppers alight there, the cattle devour, the little birds + pilfer, and if the farmer lose sight for an instant of what remains upon + the ground, it is carried off by robbers;* the thongs, moreover, which + bind the iron and the hoe are worn out, and the team has died at the + plough. It is then that the scribe steps out of the boat at the + landing-place to levy the tithe, and there come the keepers of the doors + of the granary with cudgels and the negroes with ribs of palm-leaves, who + come crying: ‘Come now, corn!’ There is none, and they throw the + cultivator full length upon the ground; bound, dragged to the canal, they + fling him in head first;** his wife is bound with him, his children are + put into chains; the neighbours, in the mean time, leave him and fly to + save their grain.” + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This last danger survives even to the present day. During + part of the year the fellahîn spend the night in their + fields; if they did not see to it, their neighbours would + not hesitate to come and cut their wheat before the harvest, + or root up their vegetables while still immature. + + ** The same kind of torture is mentioned in the decree of + Harmhabi, in which the lawless soldiery are represented as + “running from house to house, dealing blows right and left + with their sticks, ducking the fellahîn head downwards in + the water, and not leaving one of them with a whole skin.” + This treatment was still resorted to in Egypt not long ago, + in order to extract money from those taxpayers whom beatings + had failed to bring to reason. +</pre> + <p> + One might be tempted to declare that the picture is too dark a one to be + true, did one not know from other sources of the brutal ways of filling + the treasury which Egypt has retained even to the present day. In the same + way as in the town, the stick facilitated the operations of the + tax-collector in the country: it quickly opened the granaries of the rich, + it revealed resources to the poor of which he had been ignorant, and it + only failed in the case of those who had really nothing to give. Those who + were insolvent were not let off even when they had been more than half + killed: they and their families were sent to prison, and they had to work + out in forced labour the amount which they had failed to pay in current + merchandise.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is evident from a passage in the <i>Sallier Papyrus n° + I</i>, quoted above, in which we see the taxpayer in fetters, + dragged out to clean the canals, his whole family, wife and + children, accompanying him in bonds. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0061" id="linkimage-0061"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/130.jpg" width="100%" + alt="130.jpg Levying the Tax: The Taxpayer in The Hands of The Exactors " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a picture on the tomb of Khîti + at Beni-Hasan (cf. Champollion, <i>Monuments de l’Egypte</i>, pl. + cccxc. 4; Rosellini, <i>Monumenti civili</i>, pl. cxxiv. b). +</pre> + <p> + The collection of the taxes was usually terminated by a rapid revision of + the survey. The scribe once more recorded the dimensions and character of + the domain lands in order to determine afresh the amount of the tax which + should be imposed upon them. It often happened, indeed, that, owing to + some freak of the Nile, a tract of ground which had been fertile enough + the preceding year would be buried under a gravel bed, or transformed into + a marsh. The owners who thus suffered were allowed an equivalent + deduction; as for the farmers, no deductions of the burden were permitted + in their case, but a tract equalling in value that of the part they had + lost was granted to them out of the royal or seignorial domain, and their + property was thus made up to its original worth. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0062" id="linkimage-0062"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/131.jpg" width="100%" + alt="131.jpg Levying the Tax: The Bastinado " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a picture on the tomb of Khîti + at Beni-Hasan. +</pre> + <p> + What the collection of the taxes had begun was almost always brought to a + climax by the <i>corvées</i>. However numerous the royal and seignorial + slaves might have been, they were insufficient for the cultivation of all + the lands of the domains, and a part of Egypt must always have lain + fallow, had not the number of workers been augmented by the addition of + those who were in the position of freemen. + </p> + <p> + This excess of cultivable land was subdivided into portions of equal + dimensions, which were distributed among the inhabitants of neighbouring + villages by the officers of a “regent” nominated for that purpose. Those + dispensed from agricultural service were—the destitute, soldiers on + service and their families, certain <i>employés</i> of the public works, + and servitors of the temple;* all other country-folk without exception had + to submit to it, and one or more portions were allotted to each, according + to his capabilities.** Orders issued at fixed periods called them + together, themselves, their servants and their beasts of burden, to dig, + sow, keep watch in the fields while the harvest was proceeding, to cut and + carry the crops, the whole work being done at their own expense and to the + detriment of their own interests.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * That the scribes, i.e. the employés of the royal or + princely government, were exempt from enforced labour, is + manifest from the contrast drawn by the letter-writers of + the Sallier and Anastasi Papyri between themselves and the + peasants, or persons belonging to other professions who were + liable to it. The circular of Dorion defines the classes of + soldiers who were either temporarily or permanently exempt + under the Greek kings. + + ** Several fragments of the Turin papyri contain memoranda + of enforced labour performed on behalf of the temples, and + of lists of persons liable to be called on for such labour. + + *** All these details are set forth in the Ptolemaic period, + in the letter to Dorion which refers to a royal edict. As + Signor Lumbroso has well remarked, the Ptolemies merely + copied exactly the misdeeds of the old native governments. + Indeed, we come across frequent allusions to the enforced + labour of men and beasts in inscriptions of the Middle + Empire at Beni-Hasan or at Siût; many of the pictures on the + Memphite tombs show bands of such labourers at work in the + fields of the great landowners or of the king. +</pre> + + <p><a name="linkimage-0063" id="linkimage-0063"> + </a></p> + + <p><a href="images/132.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a></p> + + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="132th (131K) Collosal Statue of a King" src="images/132th.jpg" + width="100%" /></div> + <p> + As a sort of indemnity, a few allotments were left uncultivated for their + benefit; to these they sent their flocks after the subsidence of the + inundation, for the pasturage on them was so rich that the sheep were + doubly productive in wool and offspring. This was a mere apology for a + wage: the forced labour for the irrigation brought them no compensation. + The dykes which separate the basins, and the network of canals for + distributing the water and irrigating the land, demand continual + attention: every year some need strengthening, others re-excavating or + cleaning out. The men employed in this work pass whole days standing in + the water, scraping up the mud with both hands in order to fill the + baskets of platted leaves, which boys and girls lift on to their heads and + carry to the top of the bank: the semi-liquid contents ooze through the + basket, trickle over their faces and soon coat their bodies with a black + shining mess, disgusting even to look at. Sheikhs preside over the work, + and urge it on with abuse and blows. When the gangs of workmen had toiled + all day, with only an interval of two hours about noon for a siesta and a + meagre pittance of food, the poor wretches slept on the spot, in the open + air, huddled one against another and but ill protected by their rags from + the chilly nights. The task was so hard a one, that malefactors, + bankrupts, and prisoners of war were condemned to it; it wore out so many + hands that the free peasantry were scarcely ever exempt. Having returned + to their homes, they were not called until the next year to any + established or periodic <i>corvée</i>, but many an irregular one came and + surprised them in the midst of their work, and forced them to abandon all + else to attend to the affairs of king or lord. Was a new chamber to be + added to some neighbouring temple, were materials wanted to strengthen or + rebuild some piece of wall which had been undermined by the inundation, + orders were issued to the engineers to go and fetch a stated quantity of + limestone or sandstone, and the peasants were commanded to assemble at the + nearest quarry to cut the blocks from it, and if needful to ship and + convey them to their destination. Or perhaps the sovereign had caused a + gigantic statue of himself to be carved, and a few hundred men were + requisitioned to haul it to the place where he wished it to be set up. The + undertaking ended in a gala, and doubtless in a distribution of food and + drink: the unfortunate creatures who had been got together to execute the + work could not always have felt fitly compensated for the precious time + they had lost, by one day of drunkenness and rejoicing. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0064" id="linkimage-0064"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/136.jpg" width="100%" + alt="136.jpg Colored Sculptures in the Palace " /> + </div> + <p> + We may ask if all these corvées were equally legal? Even if some of them + were illegal, the peasant on whom they fell could not have found the means + to escape from them, nor could he have demanded legal reparation for the + injury which they caused him. Justice, in Egypt and in the whole Oriental + world, necessarily emanates from political authority, and is only one + branch of the administration amongst others, in the hands of the lord and + his representatives. Professional magistrates were unknown—men + brought up to the study of law, whose duty it was to ensure the observance + of it, apart from any other calling—but the same men who commanded + armies, offered sacrifices, and assessed or received taxes, investigated + the disputes of ordinary citizens, or settled the differences which arose + between them and the representatives of the lords or of the Pharaoh. In + every town and village, those who held by birth or favour the position of + governor were ex-officio invested with the right of administering justice. + For a certain number of days in the month, they sat at the gate of the + town or of the building which served as their residence, and all those in + the town or neighbourhood possessed of any title, position, or property, + the superior priesthood of the temples, scribes who had advanced or grown + old in office, those in command of the militia or the police, the heads of + divisions or corporations, the “qonbîtiû,” the “people of the angle,” + might if they thought fit take their place beside them, and help them to + decide ordinary lawsuits. The police were mostly recruited from foreigners + and negroes, or Bedouin belonging to the Nubian tribe of the Mâzaiû. The + litigants appeared at the tribunal, and waited under the superintendence + of the police until their turn came to speak: the majority of the + questions were decided in a few minutes by a judgment by which there was + no appeal; only the more serious cases necessitated a cross-examination + and prolonged discussion. All else was carried on before this patriarchal + jury as in our own courts of justice, except that the inevitable stick too + often elucidated the truth and cut short discussions: the depositions of + the witnesses, the speeches on both sides, the examination of the + documents, could not proceed without the frequent taking of oaths “by the + life of the king” or “by the favour of the gods,” in which the truth often + suffered severely. Penalties were varied somewhat—the bastinado, + imprisonment, additional days of work for the corvée, and, for grave + offences, forced labour in the Ethiopian mines, the loss of nose and ears, + and finally, death by strangulation, by beheading,* by empalement, and at + the stake. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The only known instance of an execution by hanging is that + of Pharaoh’s chief baker, in Gen. xl. 19, 22, xli. 13; but + in a tomb at Thebes we see two human victims executed by + strangulation. The Egyptian hell contains men who have been + decapitated, and the block on which the damned were beheaded + is frequently mentioned in the texts. +</pre> + <p> + Criminals of high rank obtained permission to carry out on themselves the + sentence passed upon them, and thus avoided by suicide the shame of public + execution. Before tribunals thus constituted, the fellah who came to + appeal against the exactions of which he was the victim had little chance + of obtaining a hearing: had not the scribe who had overtaxed him, or who + had imposed a fresh corvée upon him, the right to appear among the Judges + to whom he addressed himself? Nothing, indeed, prevented him from + appealing from the latter to his feudal lord, and from him to Pharaoh, but + such an appeal would be for him a mere delusion. When he had left his + village and presented his petition, he had many delays to encounter before + a solution could be arrived at; and if the adverse party were at all in + favour at court, or could command any influence, the sovereign decision + would confirm, even if it did not aggravate, the sentence of the previous + judges. In the mean while the peasants’ land remained uncultivated, his + wife and children bewailed their wretchedness, and the last resources of + the family were consumed in proceedings and delays: it would have been + better for him at the outset to have made up his mind to submit without + resistance to a fate from which he could not escape. + </p> + <p> + In spite of taxes, requisitions, and forced labour, the fellahîn came off + fairly well, when the chief to whom they belonged proved a kind master, + and did not add the exactions of his own personal caprice to those of the + State. The inscriptions which princes caused to be devoted to their own + glorification, are so many enthusiastic panegyrics dealing only with their + uprightness and kindness towards the poor and lowly. Every one of them + represents himself as faultless: “the staff of support to the aged, the + foster father of the children, the counsellor of the unfortunate, the + refuge in which those who suffer from the cold in Thebes may warm + themselves, the bread of the afflicted which never failed in the city of + the South.” Their solicitude embraced everybody and everything: “I have + caused no child of tender age to mourn; I have despoiled no widow; I have + driven away no tiller of the soil; I have taken no workmen away from their + foreman for the public works; none have been unfortunate about me, nor + starving in my time. When years of scarcity arose, as I had cultivated all + the lands of the nome of the Gazelle to its northern and southern + boundaries, causing its inhabitants to live, and creating provisions, none + who were hungry were found there, for I gave to the widow as well as to + the woman who had a husband, and I made no distinction between high and + low in all that I gave. If, on the contrary, there were high Niles, the + possessors of lands became rich in all things, for I did not raise the + rate of the tax upon the fields.” The canals engrossed all the prince’s + attention; he cleaned them out, enlarged them, and dug fresh ones, which + were the means of bringing fertility and plenty into the most remote + corners of his property. His serfs had a constant supply of clean water at + their door, and were no longer content with such food as durra; they ate + wheaten bread daily. His vigilance and severity were such that the + brigands dared no longer appear within reach of his arm, and his soldiers + kept strict discipline: “When night fell, whoever slept by the roadside + blessed me, and was [in safety] as a man in his own house; the fear of my + police protected him, the cattle remained in the fields as in the stable; + the thief was as the abomination of the god, and he no more fell upon the + vassal, so that the latter no more complained, but paid exactly the dues + of his domain, for love” of the master who had procured for him this + freedom from care. This theme might be pursued at length, for the + composers of epitaphs varied it with remarkable cleverness and versatility + of imagination. The very zeal which they display in describing the lord’s + virtues betrays how precarious was the condition of his subjects. There + was nothing to hinder the unjust prince or the prevaricating officer from + ruining and ill-treating as he chose the people who were under his + authority. He had only to give an order, and the corvée fell upon the + proprietors of a village, carried off their slaves and obliged them to + leave their lands uncultivated; should they declare that they were + incapable of paying the contributions laid on them, the prison opened for + them and their families. If a dyke were cut, or the course of a channel + altered, the nome was deprived of water: prompt and inevitable ruin came + upon the unfortunate inhabitants, and their property, confiscated by the + treasury in payment of the tax, passed for a small consideration into the + hands of the scribe or of the dishonest administrator. Two or three years + of neglect were almost enough to destroy a system of irrigation: the + canals became filled with mud, the banks crumbled, the inundation either + failed to reach the ground, or spread over it too quickly and lay upon it + too long. Famine soon followed with its attendant sicknesses: men and + animals died by the hundred, and it was the work of nearly a whole + generation to restore prosperity to the district. + </p> + <p> + The lot of the fellah of old was, as we have seen, as hard as that of the + fellah of to-day. He himself felt the bitterness of it, and complained at + times, or rather the scribes complained for him, when with selfish + complacency they contrasted their calling with his. He had to toil the + whole year round,—digging, sowing, working the shadouf from morning + to night for weeks, hastening at the first requisition to the corvée, + paying a heavy and cruel tax,—all without even the certainty of + enjoying what remained to him in peace, or of seeing his wife and children + profit by it. So great, however, was the elasticity of his temperament + that his misery was not sufficient to depress him: those monuments upon + which his life is portrayed in all its minutias, represent him as animated + with inexhaustible cheerfulness. The summer months ended, the ground again + becomes visible, the river retires into its bed, the time of sowing is at + hand: the peasant takes his team and his implements with him and goes off + to the fields. In many places, the soil, softened by the water, offers no + resistance, and the hoe easily turns it up; elsewhere it is hard, and only + yields to the plough. While one of the farm-servants, almost bent double, + leans his whole weight on the handles to force the ploughshare deep into + the soil, his comrade drives the oxen and encourages them by his songs: + these are only two or three short sentences, set to an unvarying chant, + and with the time beaten on the back of the nearest animal. Now and again + he turns round towards his comrade and encourages him: “Lean hard!”—“Hold + fast!” + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0065" id="linkimage-0065"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/142.jpg" width="100%" + alt="142.jpg Two FellahÎn Work the Shadouf in a Garden " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph. +</pre> + <p> + The sower follows behind and throws handfuls of grain into the furrow: a + flock of sheep or goats brings up the rear, and as they walk, they tread + the seed into the ground. The herdsmen crack their whips and sing some + country song at the top of their voices,—based on the complaint of + some fellah seized by the corvée to clean out a canal. “The digger is in + the water with the fish,—he talks to the silurus, and exchanges + greetings with the oxyrrhynchus:—West! your digger is a digger from + the West!”* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The silurus is the electrical fish of the Nile. The text + ironically hints that the digger, up to his waist in water, + engaged in dredging the dykes or repairing a bank swept away + by an inundation, is liable at any moment to salute, i.e. to + meet with a silurus or an oxyrrhynchus ready to attack him; + he is doomed to death, and this fact the couplet expresses + by the words, “West! your digger is a digger from the West.” + The West was the region of the tombs; and the digger, owing + to the dangers of his calling, was on his way thither. +</pre> + <p><a name="linkimage-0066" id="linkimage-0066"></a></p> + + <p><a href="images/142b.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a></p> + + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="142bth (168K) Cutting and Carrying the Harvest" + src="images/142bth.jpg" width="100%" /></div> + + <p> + All this takes place under the vigilant eye of the master: as soon as his + attention is relaxed, the work slackens, quarrels arise, and the spirit of + idleness and theft gains the ascendency. Two men have unharnessed their + team. One of them quickly milks one of the cows, the other holds the + animal and impatiently awaits his turn: “Be quick, while the farmer is not + there.” They run the risk of a beating for a potful of milk. The weeks + pass, the corn has ripened, the harvest begins. The fellahîn, armed with a + short sickle, cut or rather saw the stalks, a handful at a time. As they + advance in line, a flute-player plays them captivating tunes, a man joins + in with his voice marking the rhythm by clapping his hands, the foreman + throwing in now and then a few words of exhortation: “What lad among you, + when the season is over, can say: ‘It is I who say it, to thee and to my + comrades, you are all of you but idlers!’—Who among you can say: ‘An + active lad for the job am I!’” A servant moves among the gang with a tall + jar of beer, offering it to those who wish for it. “Is it not good!” says + he; and the one who drinks answers politely: “‘Tis true, the master’s beer + is better than a cake of durra!” The sheaves once bound, are carried to + the singing of fresh songs addressed to the donkeys who bear them: “Those + who quit the ranks will be tied, those who roll on the ground will be + beaten,—Geeho! then.” And thus threatened, the ass trots forward. + Even when a tragic element enters the scene, and the bastinado is + represented, the sculptor, catching the bantering spirit of the people + among whom he lives, manages to insinuate a vein of comedy. A peasant, + summarily condemned for some misdeed, lies flat upon the ground with bared + back: two friends take hold of his arms, and two others his legs, to keep + him in the proper position. His wife or his son intercedes for him to the + man with the stick: “For mercy’s sake strike on the ground!” And as a + fact, the bastinado was commonly rather a mere form of chastisement than + an actual punishment: the blows, dealt with apparent ferocity, missed + their aim and fell upon the earth; the culprit howled loudly, but was let + off with only a few bruises. + </p> + <p> + An Arab writer of the Middle Ages remarks, not without irony, that the + Egyptians were perhaps the only people in the world who never kept any + stores of provisions by them, but each one went daily to the market to buy + the pittance for his family. The improvidence which he laments over in his + contemporaries had been handed down from their most remote ancestors. + Workmen, fellahîn, <i>employés</i>, small townsfolk, all lived from hand + to mouth in the Egypt of the Pharaohs. Pay-days were almost everywhere + days of rejoicing and extra eating: no one spared either the grain, oil, + or beer of the treasury, and copious feasting continued unsparingly, as + long as anything was left of their wages. As their resources were almost + always exhausted before the day of distribution once more came round, + beggary succeeded to fulness of living, and a part of the population was + literally starving for several days. This almost constant alternation of + abundance and dearth had a reactionary influence on daily work: there were + scarcely any seignorial workshops or undertakings which did not come to a + standstill every month on account of the exhaustion of the workmen, and + help had to be provided for the starving in order to avoid popular + seditions. Their improvidence, like their cheerfulness, was perhaps an + innate trait in the national character: it was certainly fostered and + developed by the system of government adopted by Egypt from the earliest + times. What incentive was there for a man of the people to calculate his + resources and to lay up for the future, when he knew that his wife, his + children, his cattle, his goods, all that belonged to him, and himself to + boot, might be carried off at any moment, without his having the right or + the power to resent it? He was born, he lived, and he died in the + possession of a master. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0067" id="linkimage-0067"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/147.jpg" width="100%" + alt="147.jpg a Flock of Goats and the Song Of A Goatherd " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch- + Bey. The picture is taken from the tomb of Ti. +</pre> + <p> + The lands or houses which his father had left him, were his merely on + sufferance, and he enjoyed them only by permission of his lord. Those + which he acquired by his own labour went to swell his master’s domain. If + he married and had sons, they were but servants for the master from the + moment they were brought into the world. Whatever he might enjoy to-day, + would his master allow him possession of it to-morrow? Even life in the + world beyond did not offer him much more security or liberty: he only + entered it in his master’s service and to do his bidding; he existed in it + on tolerance, as he had lived upon this earth, and he found there no rest + or freedom unless he provided himself abundantly with “respondents” and + charmed statuettes. He therefore concentrated his mind and energies on the + present moment, to make the most of it as of almost the only thing which + belonged to him: he left to his master the task of anticipating and + providing for the future. In truth, his masters were often changed; now + the lord of one town, now that of another; now a Pharaoh of the Memphite + or Theban dynasties, now a stranger installed by chance upon the throne of + Horns. The condition of the people never changed; the burden which crushed + them was never lightened, and whatever hand happened to hold the stick, it + never fell the less heavily upon their backs. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0068" id="linkimage-0068"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/148.jpg" width="100%" alt="148.jpg Tailpiece " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkBimage-0005" id="linkBimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/149.jpg" width="100%" alt="149.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0006" id="linkBimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/150.jpg" width="100%" alt="150.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <i>THE MEMPHITE EMPIRE</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>THE ROYAL PYRAMID BUILDERS: KHEOPS, KHEPHREN, MYKERINOS—MEMPHITE + LITERATURE AND ART—EXTENSION OF EGYPT TOWARDS THE SOUTH, AND THE + CONQUEST OP NUBIA BY THE PHARAOHS.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Snofrûi—The desert which separates Africa from Asia: its physical + configuration, its inhabitants, their incursions into Egypt, and their + relations with the Egyptians—The peninsula of Sinai: the turquoise + and copper mines, the mining works of the Pharaohs—The two tombs of + Snofrûi: the pyramid and the mastabas of Mêdûm, the statues of Bahotpû and + his wife Nofrît.</i> F + </p> + <p> + <i>Kheops, Ehephren, and Myherinos—The Great Pyramid: its + construction and internal arrangements—The pyramids of Khephren and + Myherinos; the rifling of them—Legend about the royal pyramid + builders: the impiety of Kheops and Khephren, the piety of Myherinos; the + brick pyramid of Asychis—The materials employed in building, and the + quarries of Turah; the plans, the worship of the royal “double;” the Arab + legends about the guardian genii of the pyramids.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The kings of the fifth dynasty: Ùsirkaf, Sahûri, Kalciû, and the + romance about their advent—The relations of the Delta to the peoples + of the North: the shipping and maritime commerce of the Egyptians—Nubia + and its tribes: the Ûaûaiû and the Mazaiû, Pûanît, the dwarfs and the + Danga—Egyptian literature: the Proverbs of Phtahhotpû—The + arts: architecture, statuary and its chief examples, bas-reliefs, + painting, industrial art.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The development of Egyptian feudalism, and the advent of the sixth + dynasty: Ati, Imhotpâ, Teti—Papi I. and his minister Uni: the affair + of Queen Amitsi; the wars against the Hirû-Shâîtû and the country of Tiba—Metesûphis + I. and the second Papi: progress of the Egyptian power in Nubia—the + lords of Elephantine; Hirkhûf, Papinakhîti: the way for conquest prepared + by their explorations, the occupation of the Oases—The pyramids of + Saqqâra: Metesûphis the Second—Nitokris and the legend concerning + her—Preponderance of the feudal lords, and fall of the Memphite + dynasty.</i> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkB2HCH0001" id="linkB2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <a name="linkBimage-0007" + id="linkBimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/151.jpg" width="100%" alt="151.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER II—THE MEMPHITE EMPIRE + </h2> + <p> + <i>The royal pyramid builders: Kheops, Khephren, Mykerinos—Memphite + literature and art—Extension of Egypt towards the South, and the + conquest of Nubia by the Pharaohs.</i> + </p> + <p> + At that time “the Majesty of King Huni died, and the Majesty of King + Snofrûi arose to be a sovereign benefactor over this whole earth.” All + that we know of him is contained in one sentence: he fought against the + nomads of Sinai, constructed fortresses to protect the eastern frontier of + the Delta, and made for himself a tomb in the form of a pyramid. + </p> + <p> + The almost uninhabited country which connects Africa with Asia is flanked + towards the south by two chains of hills which unite at right angles, and + together form the so-called Gebel et-Tîh. This country is a tableland, + gently inclined from south to north, bare, sombre, covered with + flint-shingle, and siliceous rocks, and breaking out at frequent intervals + into long low chalky hills, seamed with wadys, the largest of which—that + of El-Arish—having drained all the others into itself, opens into + the Mediterranean halfway between Pelusiam and Gaza. Torrents of rain are + not infrequent in winter and spring, but the small quantity of water which + they furnish is quickly evaporated, and barely keeps alive the meagre + vegetation in the bottom of the valleys. Sometimes, after months of + absolute drought, a tempest breaks over the more elevated parts of the + desert.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In chap. viii. of the <i>Account of the Survey</i>, pp. 226- + 228, Mr. Holland describes a sudden rainstorm or “sell” on + December 3, 1867, which drowned thirty persons, destroyed + droves of camels and asses, flocks of sheep and goats, and + swept away, in the Wady Feîrân, a thousand palm trees and a + grove of tamarisks, two miles in length. Towards 4.30 in the + afternoon, a few drops of rain began to fall, but the storm + did not break till 5 p.m. At 5.15 it was at its height, and + it was not over till 9.30. The torrent, which at 8 p.m. was + 10 feet deep, and was about 1000 feet in width, was, at 6 + a.m. the next day, reduced to a small streamlet. +</pre> + <p> + The wind rises suddenly in squall-like blasts; thick clouds, borne one + knows not whence, are riven by lightning to the incessant accompaniment of + thunder; it would seem as if the heavens had broken up and were crashing + down upon the mountains. In a few moments streams of muddy water rushing + down the ravines, through the gulleys and along the slightest depressions, + hurry to the low grounds, and meeting there in a foaming concourse, follow + the fall of the land; a few minutes later, and the space between one + hillside and the other is occupied by a deep river, flowing with terrible + velocity and irresistible force. At the end of eight or ten hours the air + becomes clear, the wind falls, the rain ceases; the hastily formed river + dwindles, and for lack of supply is exhausted; the inundation comes to an + end almost as quickly as it began. In a short time nothing remains of it + but some shallow pools scattered in the hollows, or here and there small + streamlets which rapidly dry up. The flood, however, accelerated by its + acquired velocity, continues to descend towards the sea. The devastated + flanks of the hills, their torn and corroded bases, the accumulated masses + of shingle left by the eddies, the long lines of rocks and sand, mark its + route and bear evidence everywhere of its power. The inhabitants, taught + by experience, avoid a sojourn in places where tempests have once + occurred. It is in vain that the sky is serene above them and the sun + shines overhead; they always fear that at the moment in which danger seems + least likely to threaten them, the torrent, taking its origin some twenty + leagues off, may be on its headlong way to surprise them. And, indeed, it + comes so suddenly and so violently that nothing in its course can escape + it: men and beasts, before there is time to fly, often even before they + are aware of its approach, are swept away and pitilessly destroyed. The + Egyptians applied to the entire country the characteristic epithet of + To-Shûît, the land of Emptiness, the land of Aridity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0008" id="linkBimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/154.jpg" width="100%" + alt="154.jpg Map Sinaitic Peninsular, Time of Memphite Empire " /> + </div> + <p> + They divided it into various districts—the upper and lower Tonû, + Aia, Kadûma. They called its inhabitants Hirû-Shâîtû, the lords of the + Sands; Nomiû-Shâîtû, the rovers of the Sands; and they associated them + with the Amu—that is to say, with a race which we recognize as + Semitic. The type of these barbarians, indeed, reminds one of the Semitic + massive head, aquiline nose, retreating forehead, long beard, thick and + not infrequently crisp hair. They went barefoot, and the monuments + represent them as girt with a short kilt, though they also wore the <i>abayah</i>. + Their arms were those commonly used by the Egyptians—the bow, lance, + club, knife, battle-axe, and shield. They possessed great flocks of goats + or sheep, but the horse and camel were unknown to them, as well as to + their African neighbours. They lived chiefly upon the milk of their + flocks, and the fruit of the date-palm. A section of them tilled the soil: + settled around springs or wells, they managed by industrious labour to + cultivate moderately sized but fertile fields, flourishing orchards, + groups of palms, fig and olive trees, and vines. In spite of all this + their resources were insufficient, and their position would have been + precarious if they had not been able to supplement their stock of + provisions from Egypt or Southern Syria. They bartered at the frontier + markets their honey, wool, gums, manna, and small quantities of charcoal, + for the products of local manufacture, but especially for wheat, or the + cereals of which they stood in need. The sight of the riches gathered + together in the eastern plain, from Tanis to Bubastis, excited their + pillaging instincts, and awoke in them an irrepressible covetousness. The + Egyptian annals make mention of their incursions at the very commencement + of history, and they maintained that even the gods had to take steps to + protect themselves from them. The Gulf of Suez and the mountainous rampart + of Gebel Geneffeh in the south, and the marshes of Pelusium on the north, + protected almost completely the eastern boundary of the Delta; but the + Wady Tumilât laid open the heart of the country to the invaders. The + Pharaohs of the divine dynasties in the first place, and then those of the + human dynasties, had fortified this natural opening, some say by a + continuous wall, others by a line of military posts, flanked on the one + side by the waters of the gulf.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The existence of the wall, or of the line of military + posts, is of very ancient date, for the name Kîm-Oîrît is + already followed by the hieroglyph of the wall, or by that + of a fortified enclosure in the texts of the Pyramids. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0009" id="linkBimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/156.jpg" width="100%" + alt="156.jpg a Barbarian MonÎti from Sinai " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie. The + original is of the time of Nectanebo, and is at Karnak; I + have chosen it for reproduction in preference to the heads + of the time of the Ancient Empire, which are more injured, + and of which this is only the traditional copy. +</pre> + <p> + Snofrûi restored or constructed several castles in this district, which + perpetuated his name for a long time after his death. These had the square + or rectangular form of the towers, whose ruins are still to be seen on the + banks of the Nile. Standing night and day upon the battlements, the + sentinels kept a strict look-out over the desert, ready to give alarm at + the slightest suspicious movement. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0010" id="linkBimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/157.jpg" width="100%" + alt="157.jpg Two Refuge Towers of the HirÛ-shÂÎtÛ, in The Wady BÎar " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the vignette by E. H. Palmer, + <i>The Desert of the Exodus</i>, p. 317. + + The expression Kîm-Oîrît, “the very black,” is applied to + the northern part of the Red Sea, in contradistinction to + Ûaz-Oîrît, Uazît-Oîrît, “the very green,” the + Mediterranean; a town, probably built at a short distance + from the village of Maghfâr, had taken its name from the + gulf on which it was situated, and was also called Kîm- + Oîrît. +</pre> + <p> + The marauders took advantage of any inequality in the ground to approach + unperceived, and they were often successful in getting through the lines; + they scattered themselves over the country, surprised a village or two, + bore off such women and children as they could lay their hands on, took + possession of herds of animals, and, without carrying their depredations + further, hastened to regain their solitudes before information of their + exploits could have reached the garrison. If their expeditions became + numerous, the general of the Eastern Marches, or the Pharaoh himself, at + the head of a small army, started on a campaign of reprisals against them. + The marauders did not wait to be attacked, but betook themselves to + refuges constructed by them beforehand at certain points in their + territory. They erected here and there, on the crest of some steep hill, + or at the confluence of several wadys, stone towers put together without + mortar, and rounded at the top like so many beehives, in unequal groups of + three, ten, or thirty; here they massed themselves as well as they could, + and defended the position with the greatest obstinacy, in the hope that + their assailants, from the lack of water and provisions, would soon be + forced to retreat.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The members of the English Commission do not hesitate to + attribute the construction of these towers to the remotest + antiquity; the Bedouin call them “namûs,” plur. “nawamîs,” + mosquito-houses, and they say that the children of Israel + built them as a shelter during the night from mosquitos at + the time of the Exodus. The resemblance of these buildings + to the “Talayôt” of the Balearic Isles, and to the Scotch + beehive-shaped houses, has struck all travellers. +</pre> + <p> + Elsewhere they possessed fortified “duars,” where not only their families + but also their herds could find a refuge—circular or oval + enclosures, surrounded by low walls of massive rough stones crowned by a + thick rampart made of branches of acacia interlaced with thorny bushes, + the tents or huts being ranged behind, while in the centre was an empty + space for the cattle. These primitive fortresses were strong enough to + overawe nomads; regular troops made short work of them. The Egyptians took + them by assault, overturned them, cut down the fruit trees, burned the + crops, and retreated in security, after having destroyed everything in + their march. Each of their campaigns, which hardly lasted more than a few + days, secured the tranquillity of the frontier for some years.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The inscription of Uni (11. 22-32) furnishes us with the + invariable type of the Egyptian campaigns against the Hirû- + Shâîtû: the bas-reliefs of Karnak might serve to illustrate + it, as they represent the great raid led by Seti I. into the + territory of the Shaûsûs and their allies, between the + frontier of Egypt and the town of Hebron. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0011" id="linkBimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/159.jpg" width="100%" + alt="159.jpg View of the Oasis Of Wady FeÎkÂn in The Peninsula Of Sinai " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the water-colour drawing published by + Lepsius, <i>Denhn.</i>, i. 7, No. 2. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0012" id="linkBimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/163.jpg" + alt="163.jpg the Mining Works of Wady Maghara " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Plan made by Thuillier, +from the sketch by Brugscii, +<i>Wanderung nach den Tiirhis +Minen</i>, p. 70. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + To the south of Gebel et-Tîh, and cut off from it almost completely by a + moat of wadys, a triangular group of mountains known as Sinai thrusts a + wedge-shaped spur into the Red Sea, forcing back its waters to the right + and left into two narrow gulfs, that of Akabah and that of Suez. Gebel + Katherin stands up from the centre and overlooks the whole peninsula. A + sinuous chain detaches itself from it and ends at Gebel Serbâl, at some + distance to the northwest; another trends to the south, and after + attaining in Gebel Umm-Shomer an elevation equal to that of Gebel + Katherin, gradually diminishes in height, and plunges into the sea at + Ras-Mohammed. A complicated system of gorges and valleys—Wady Nasb, + Wady Kidd, Wady Hebrân, Wady Baba—furrows the country and holds it + as in a network of unequal meshes. Wady Feîrân contains the most fertile + oasis in the peninsula. A never-failing stream waters it for about two or + three miles of its length; quite a little forest of palms enlivens both + banks—somewhat meagre and thin, it is true, but intermingled with + acacias, tamarisks, nabecas, carob trees, and willows. Birds sing amid + their branches, sheep wander in the pastures, while the huts of the + inhabitants peep out at intervals from among the trees. Valleys and + plains, even in some places the slopes of the hills, are sparsely covered + with those delicate aromatic herbs which affect a stony soil. Their life + is a perpetual struggle against the sun: scorched, dried up, to all + appearance dead, and so friable that they crumble to pieces in the fingers + when one attempts to gather them, the spring rains annually infuse into + them new life, and bestow upon them, almost before one’s eyes, a green and + perfumed youth of some days’ duration. The summits of the hills remain + always naked, and no vegetation softens the ruggedness of their outlines, + or the glare of their colouring. The core of the peninsula is hewn, as it + were, out of a block of granite, in which white, rose-colour, brown, or + black predominate, according to the quantities of felspar, quartz, or + oxides of iron which the rocks contain. Towards the north, the masses of + sandstone which join on to Gebel et-Tîh assume all possible shades of red + and grey, from a delicate lilac neutral tint to dark purple. The tones of + colour, although placed crudely side by side, present nothing jarring nor + offensive to the eye; the sun floods all, and blends them in his light. + The Sinaitic peninsula is at intervals swept, like the desert to the east + of Egypt, by terrible tempests, which denude its mountains and transform + its wadys into so many ephemeral torrents. The Monîtû who frequented this + region from the dawn of history did not differ much from the “Lords of the + Sands;” they were of the same type, had the same costume, the same arms, + the same nomadic instincts, and in districts where the soil permitted it, + made similar brief efforts to cultivate it. They worshipped a god and a + goddess whom the Egyptians identified with Horus and Hâthor; one of these + appeared to represent the light, perhaps the sun, the other the heavens. + They had discovered at an early period in the sides of the hills rich + metalliferous veins, and strata, bearing precious stones; from these they + learned to extract iron, oxides of copper and manganese, and turquoises, + which they exported to the Delta. The fame of their riches, carried to the + banks of the Nile, excited the cupidity of the Pharaohs; expeditions + started from different points of the valley, swept down upon the + peninsula, and established themselves by main force in the midst of the + districts where the mines lay. These were situated to the north-west, in + the region of sandstone, between the western branch of Gebel et-Tîh and + the Gulf of Suez. They were collectively called Mafkaît, the country of + turquoises, a fact which accounts for the application of the local + epithet, lady of Mafkaît, to Hâthor. The earliest district explored, that + which the Egyptians first attacked, was separated from the coast by a + narrow plain and a single range of hills: the produce of the mines could + be thence transported to the sea in a few hours without difficulty. + Pharaoh’s labourers called this region the district of Baîfc, the mine <i>par + excellence</i>, or of Bebît, the country of grottoes, from the numerous + tunnels which their predecessors had made there: the name Wady Maghara, + Valley of the Cavern, by which the site is now designated, is simply an + Arabic translation of the old Egyptian word. + </p> + <p> + The Monîtû did not accept this usurpation of their rights without a + struggle, and the Egyptians who came to work among them had either to + purchase their forbearance by a tribute, or to hold themselves always in + readiness to repulse the assaults of the Monîtû by force of arms. Zosiri + had already taken steps to ensure the safety of the turquoise-seekers at + their work; Snofrûi was not, therefore, the first Pharaoh who passed that + way, but none of his predecessors had left so many traces of his presence + as he did in this out-of-the-way corner of the empire. There may still be + seen, on the north-west slope of the Wady Maghara, the bas-relief which + one of his lieutenants engraved there in memory of a victory gained over + the Monîtû. A Bedouin sheikh fallen on his knees prays for mercy with + suppliant gesture, but Pharaoh has already seized him by his long hair, + and brandishes above his head a white stone mace to fell him with a single + blow. + </p> + <p> + The workmen, partly recruited from the country itself, partly despatched + from the banks of the Nile, dwelt in an entrenched camp upon an isolated + peak at the confluence of Wady Genneh and Wady Maghara. A zigzag pathway + on its smoothest slope ends, about seventeen feet below the summit, at the + extremity of a small and slightly inclined tableland, upon which are found + the ruins of a large village; this is the High Castle—Hâît-Qaît of + the ancient inscriptions. Two hundred habitations can still be made out + here, some round, some rectangular, constructed of sandstone blocks + without mortar, and not larger than the huts of the fellahîn: in former + times a flat roof of wicker-work and puddled clay extended over each. The + entrance was not so much a door as a narrow opening, through which a fat + man would find it difficult to pass; the interior consisted of a single + chamber, except in the case of the chief of the works, whose dwelling + contained two. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0013" id="linkBimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/164.jpg" width="100%" + alt="164.jpg the High Castle of The Miners--haÎt-qaÎt--at The Confluence of Wady Genneh and Wady Maghara " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the photograph published in the + Ordnance Survey of the Peninsula of Sinai, Photographs, vol. + ii. pls. 59, 60. +</pre> + <p> + A rough stone bench from two to two and a half feet high surrounds the + plateau on which the village stands; a <i>cheval défrise</i> made of + thorny brushwood probably completed the defence, as in the <i>duars</i> of + the desert. The position was very strong and easily defended. Watchmen + scattered over the neighbouring summits kept an outlook over the distant + plain and the defiles of the mountains. Whenever the cries of these + sentinels announced the approach of the foe, the workmen immediately + deserted the mine and took refuge in their citadel, which a handful of + resolute men could successfully hold, as long as hunger and thirst did not + enter into the question. As the ordinary springs and wells would not have + been sufficient to supply the needs of the colony, they had transformed + the bottom of the valley into an artificial lake. A dam thrown across it + prevented the escape of the waters, which filled the reservoir more or + less completely according to the season. It never became empty, and + several species of shellfish flourished in it—among others, a kind + of large mussel which the inhabitants generally used as food, which with + dates, milk, oil, coarse bread, a few vegetables, and from time to time a + fowl or a joint of meat, made up their scanty fare. Other things were of + the same primitive character. The tools found in the village are all of + flint: knives, scrapers, saws, hammers, and heads of lances and arrows. A + few vases brought from Egypt are distinguished by the fineness of the + material and the purity of the design; but the pottery in common use was + made on the spot from coarse clay without care, and regardless of beauty. + As for jewellery, the villagers had beads of glass or blue enamel, and + necklaces of strung cowrie-shells. In the mines, as in their own houses, + the workmen employed stone tools only, with handles of wood, or of plaited + willow twigs, but their chisels or hammers were more than sufficient to + cut the yellow sandstone, coarse-grained and very friable as it was, in + the midst of which they worked.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * E. H. Palmer, however, from his observations, is of + opinion that the work in the tunnels of the mines was + executed entirely by means of bronze chisels and tools; the + flint implements serving only to incise the scenes which + cover the surfaces of the rocks. +</pre> + <p> + The tunnels running straight into the mountain were low and wide, and were + supported at intervals by pillars of sandstone left <i>in situ</i>. These + tunnels led into chambers of various sizes, whence they followed the lead + of the veins of precious mineral. The turquoise sparkled on every side—on + the ceiling and on the walls—and the miners, profiting by the + slightest fissures, cut round it, and then with forcible blows detached + the blocks, and reduced them to small fragments, which they crushed, and + carefully sifted so as not to lose a particle of the gem. The oxides of + copper and of manganese which they met with here and elsewhere in moderate + quantities, were used in the manufacture of those beautiful blue enamels + of various shades which the Egyptians esteemed so highly. The few hundreds + of men of which the permanent population was composed, provided for the + daily exigencies of industry and commerce. Royal inspectors arrived from + time to time to examine into their condition, to rekindle their zeal, and + to collect the product of their toil. When Pharaoh had need of a greater + quantity than usual of minerals or turquoises, he sent thither one of his + officers, with a select body of carriers, mining experts, and + stone-dressers. Sometimes as many as two or three thousand men poured + suddenly into the peninsula, and remained there one or two months; the + work went briskly forward, and advantage was taken of the occasion to + extract and transport to Egypt beautiful blocks of diorite, serpentine or + granite, to be afterwards manufactured there into sarcophagi or statues. + Engraved stelæ, to be seen on the sides of the mountains, recorded the + names of the principal chiefs, the different bodies of handicraftsmen who + had participated in the campaign, the name of the sovereign who had + ordered it and often the year of his reign. + </p> + <p> + It was not one tomb only which Snofrui had caused to be built, but two. He + called them “Khâ,” the Rising, the place where the dead Pharaoh, + identified with the sun, is raised above the world for ever. One of these + was probably situated near Dahshur; the other, the “Khâ rîsi,” the + Southern Rising, appears to be identical with the monument of Mêdûm. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0014" id="linkBimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/167.jpg" width="100%" + alt="167.jpg the Pyramid of MêdÛm " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the plans of Flinders Petrie, + <i>Medum</i>, pl. ii. +</pre> + <p> + The pyramid, like the mastaba,* represents a tumulus with four sides, in + which the earthwork is replaced by a structure of stone or brick. It + indicates the place in which lies a prince, chief, or person of rank in + his tribe or province. It was built on a base of varying area, and was + raised to a greater or less elevation according to the fortune of the + deceased or of his family.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * No satisfactory etymon for the word <i>pyramid</i>, has as yet + been proposed: the least far-fetched is that put forward by + Cantor-Eisenlohr, according to which <i>pyramid</i> is the Greek + form, irupauç, of the compound term “piri-m-ûisi,” which in + Egyptian mathematical phraseology designates the <i>salient + angle</i>, the ridge or height of the pyramid. + + ** The brick pyramids of Abydos were all built for private + persons. The word “mirit,” which designates a pyramid in + the texts, is elsewhere applied to the tombs of nobles and + commoners as well as to those of kings. +</pre> + <p> + The fashion of burying in a pyramid was not adopted in the environs of + Memphis until tolerably late times, and the Pharaohs of the primitive + dynasties were interred, as their subjects were, in sepulchral chambers of + mastabas. Zosiri was the only exception, if the step-pyramid of Saqqâra, + as is probable, served for his tomb.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is difficult to admit that a pyramid of considerable + dimensions could have disappeared without leaving any traces + behind, especially when we see the enormous masses of + masonry which still mark the sites of those which have been + most injured; besides, the inscriptions connect none of the + predecessors of Snofrûi with a pyramid, unless it be Zosiri. + The step-pyramid of Saqqâra, which is attributed to the + latter, belongs to the same type as that of Mêdûm; so does + also the pyramid of Rigah, whose occupant is unknown. If we + admit that this last-mentioned pyramid served as a tomb to + some intermediate Pharaoh between Zosiri and Snofrûi—for + instance, Hûni—the use of pyramids would be merely + exceptional for sovereigns anterior to the IVth dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + The motive which determined Snofrûi’s choice of Mêdûm as a site, is + unknown to us: perhaps he dwelt in that city of Heracleopolis, which in + course of time frequently became the favourite residence of the kings; + perhaps he improvised for himself a city in the plain between El-Wastah + and Kafr el-Ayat. His pyramid, at the present time, is composed of three + large unequal cubes with slightly inclined sides, arranged in steps one + above the other. Some centuries ago five could be still determined, and in + ancient times, before ruin had set in, as many as seven. Each block marked + a progressive increase of the total mass, and bad its external face + polished—a fact which we can still determine by examining the slabs + one behind another; a facing of large blocks, of which many of the courses + still exist towards the base, covered the whole, at one angle from the + apex to the foot, and brought it into conformity with the type of the + classic pyramid. The passage had its orifice in the middle of the north + face about sixty feèt above the ground: it is five feet high, and dips at + a tolerably steep angle through the solid masonry. At a depth of a hundred + and ninety-seven feet it becomes level, without increasing in aperture, + runs for forty feet on this plane, traversing two low and narrow chambers, + then making a sharp turn it ascends perpendicularly until it reaches the + floor of the vault. The latter is hewn out of the mountain rock, and is + small, rough, and devoid of ornament: the ceiling appears to be in three + heavy horizontal courses of masonry, which project one beyond the other + corbel-wise, and give the impression of a sort of acutely pointed arch. + Snofrûi slept there for ages; then robbers found a way to him, despoiled + and broke up his mummy, scattered the fragments of his coffin upon the + ground, and carried off the stone sarcophagus. The apparatus of beams and + cords of which they made use for the descent, hung in their place above + the mouth of the shaft until ten years ago. The rifling of the tomb took + place at a remote date, for from the XXth dynasty onwards the curious were + accustomed to penetrate into the passage: two scribes have scrawled their + names in ink on the back of the framework in which the stone cover was + originally inserted. The sepulchral chapel was built a little in front of + the east face; it consisted of two small-sized rooms with bare surfaces, a + court whose walls abutted on the pyramid, and in the court, facing the + door, a massive table of offerings flanked by two large stelo without + inscriptions, as if the death of the king had put a stop to the decoration + before the period determined on by the architects. It was still accessible + to any one during the XVIIIth dynasty, and people came there to render + homage to the memory of Snofrûi or his wife Mirisônkhû. Visitors recorded + in ink on the walls their enthusiastic, but stereotyped impressions: they + compared the “Castle of Snofrûi” with the firmament, “when the sun arises + in it; the heaven rains incense there and pours out perfumes on the roof.” + Ramses II., who had little respect for the works of his predecessors, + demolished a part of the pyramid in order to procure cheaply the materials + necessary for the buildings which he restored to Heracleopolis. His + workmen threw down the waste stone and mortar beneath the place where they + were working, without troubling themselves as to what might be beneath; + the court became choked up, the sand borne by the wind gradually invaded + the chambers, the chapel disappeared, and remained buried for more than + three thousand years. + </p> + <p> + The officers of Snofrûi, his servants, and the people of his city wished, + according to custom, to rest beside him, and thus to form a court for him + in the other world as they had done in this. The menials were buried in + roughly made trenches, frequently in the ground merely, without coffins or + sarcophagi. The body was not laid out its whole length on its back in the + attitude of repose: it more frequently rested on its left side, the head + to the north, the face to the east, the legs bent, the right arm brought + up against the breast, the left following the outline of the chest and + legs.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * W. Fl. Petrie, <i>Medum</i>, pp. 21, 22. Many of these mummies + were mutilated, some lacking a leg, others an arm or a hand; + these were probably workmen who had fallen victims to an + accident during the building of the pyramid. In the majority + of cases the detached limb had been carefully placed with + the body, doubtless in order that the double might find it + in the other world, and complete himself when he pleased for + the exigencies of his new existence. +</pre> + <p> + The people who were interred in a posture so different from that with + which we are familiar in the case of ordinary mummies, belonged to a + foreign race, who had retained in the treatment of their dead the customs + of their native country. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0015" id="linkBimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/171.jpg" width="100%" + alt="171.jpg the Court and The Two StelÆ of The Chapel Adjoining the Pyramid of MêdÛm " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Fl. Petrie, <i>Ten + Years’ Digging in Egypt</i>, p. 141. +</pre> + <p> + The Pharaohs often peopled their royal cities with prisoners of war, + captured on the field of battle, or picked up in an expedition through an + enemy’s country. Snofrûi peopled his city with men from the Libyan tribes + living on the borders of the Western desert or Monîtû captives.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Petrie thinks that the people who were interred in a + contracted position belonged to the aboriginal race of the + valley, reduced to a condition of servitude by a race who + had come from Asia, and who had established the kingdom of + Egypt. The latter were represented by the mummies disposed + at full length (<i>Medum</i>, p. 21). +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0016" id="linkBimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:27%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/173.jpg" + alt="173.jpg NofkÎt, Lady of MêdÛm " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +taken by Éinil +Brugsch-Bey. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The body having been placed in the grave, the relatives who had taken part + in the mourning heaped together in a neighbouring hole the funerary + furniture, flint implements, copper needles, miniature pots and pans made + of rough and badly burned clay, bread, dates, and eatables in dishes + wrapped up in linen. The nobles ranged their mastabas in a single line to + the north of the pyramid; these form fine-looking masses of considerable + size, but they are for the most part unfinished and empty. Snofrûi having + disappeared from the scene, Kheops who succeeded him forsook the place, + and his courtiers, abandoning their unfinished tombs, went off to + construct for themselves others around that of the new king. We rarely + find at Mêdûm finished and occupied sepulchres except that of individuals + who had died before or shortly after Snofrûi. The mummy of Eânofir, found + in one of them, shows how far the Egyptians had carried the art of + embalming at this period. His body, though much shrunken, is well + preserved: it had been clothed in some fine stuff, then covered over with + a layer of resin, which a clever sculptor had modelled in such a manner as + to present an image resembling the deceased; it was then rolled in three + or four folds of thin and almost transparent gauze. + </p> + <p> + Of these tombs the most important belonged to the Prince Nofirmâît and his + wife Atiti: it is decorated with bas-reliefs of a peculiar composition; + the figures have been cut in outline in the limestone, and the hollows + thus made are filled in with a mosaic of tinted pastes which show the + moulding and colour of the parts. Everywhere else the ordinary methods of + sculpture have been employed, the bas-reliefs being enhanced by brilliant + colouring in a simple and delicate manner. + </p> + <p> + The figures of men and animals are portrayed with a vivacity of manner + which is astonishing; and the other objects, even the hieroglyphs, are + rendered with an accuracy which does not neglect the smallest detail. The + statues of Eâhotpû and of the lady Nofrît, discovered in a half-ruined + mastaba, have fortunately reached us without having suffered the least + damage, almost without losing anything of their original freshness; they + are to be seen in the Gîzeh Museum just as they were when they left the + hands of the workman. Eâhotpû was the son of a king, perhaps of Snofrûi: + but in spite of his high origin, I find something humble and retiring in + his physiognomy. Nofrît, on the contrary, has an imposing appearance: an + indescribable air of resolution and command invests her whole person, and + the sculptor has cleverly given expression to it. She is represented in a + robe with a pointed opening in the front: the shoulders, the bosom, the + waist, and hips, are shown under the material of the dress with a purity + and delicate grace which one does not always find in more modern works of + art. The wig, secured on the forehead by a richly embroidered band, frames + with its somewhat heavy masses the firm and rather plump face: the eyes + are living, the nostrils breathe, the mouth smiles and is about to speak. + The art of Egypt has at times been as fully inspired; it has never been + more so than on the day in which it produced the statue of Nofrît. + </p> + <p> + The worship of Snofrûi was perpetuated from century to century. After the + fall of the Memphite empire it passed through periods of intermittence, + during which it ceased to be observed, or was observed only in an + irregular way; it reappeared under the Ptolemies for the last time before + becoming extinct for ever. Snofrûi was probably, therefore, one of the + most popular kings of the good old times; but his fame, however great it + may have been among the Egyptians, has been eclipsed in our eyes by that + of the Pharaohs who immediately followed him—Kheops, Khephren, and + Mykerinos. Not that we are really better acquainted with their history. + All we know of them is made up of two or three series of facts, always the + same, which the contemporaneous monuments teach us concerning these + rulers. Khnûmû-Khûfûi,* abbreviated into Khûfûi, the Kheops** of the + Greeks, was probably the son of Snofrûi.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The existence of the two cartouches Khûfûi and Khnûmû- + Khûfûi on the same monuments has caused much embarrassment + to Egyptologists: the majority have been inclined to see + here two different kings, the second of whom, according to + M. Robiou, would have been the person who bore the pre-nomen + of Dadûfri. Khnûmû-Khûfûi signifies “the god Khnûmû protects + me.” + + ** Kheops is the usual form, borrowed from the account of + Herodotus; Diodorus writes Khembes or Khemmes, Eratosthenes + Saôphis, and Manetho Souphis. + + *** The story in the “Westcar” papyrus speaks of Snofrûi as + father of Khûfûi; but this is a title of honour, and proves + nothing. The few records which we have of this period give + one, however, the impression that Kheops was the son of + Snofrûi, and, in spite of the hesitation of de Rougé, this + affiliation is adopted by the majority of modern historians. +</pre> + <p> + [175.jpg alabaster statue of kheops] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey. +</pre> + <p> + He reigned twenty-three years, and successfully defended the mines of the + Sinaitic peninsula against the Bedouin; he may still be seen on the face + of the rocks in the Wady Maghara sacrificing his Asiatic prisoners, now + before the jackal Anubis, now before the ibis-headed Thot. The gods reaped + advantage from his activity and riches; he restored the temple of Hâ-thor + at Den-dera, embellished that of Bubastis, built a stone sanctuary to the + Isis of the Sphinx, and consecrated there gold, silver, bronze, and wooden + statues of Horus, Nephthys, Selkît, Phtah, Sokhît, Osiris, Thot, and + Hâpis. Scores of other Pharaohs had done as much or more, on whom no one + bestowed a thought a century after their death, and Kheops would have + succumbed to the same indifference had he not forcibly attracted the + continuous attention of posterity by the immensity of his tomb.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * All the details relating to the Isis of the Sphinx are + furnished by a stele of the daughter of Kheops, discovered + in the little temple of the XXIst dynasty, situated to the + west of the Great Pyramid, and preserved in the Gîzeh + Museum. It was not a work entirely of the XXIst dynasty, as + Mr. Petrie asserts, but the inscription, barely readable, + engraved on the face of the plinth, indicates that it was + remade by a king of the Saïte period, perhaps by Sabaco, in + order to replace an ancient stele of the same import which + had fallen into decay. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0017" id="linkBimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/176.jpg" width="100%" + alt="176.jpg the Triumphal Bas-reliefs of Kheops on The Rocks Of Wady Maghara " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph published in the + <i>Ordnance Survey, Photographs</i>, vol. iii. pl. 5. On the left + stands the Pharaoh, and knocks down a Monîti before the + Ibis-headed Thot; upon the right the picture is destroyed, + and we see the royal titles only, without figures. The + statue bears no cartouche, and considerations purely + artistic cause me to attribute it to Kheops: it may equally + well represent Dadûfrî, the successor of Kheops, or + Shopsiskaf, who followed Mykerinos. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0018" id="linkBimage-0018"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/176b.jpg" width="100%" + alt="176b.jpg Profile of Head Of a Mummy, (a Man) Thebes " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0019" id="linkBimage-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/177.jpg" width="100%" alt="177.jpg Pyramids of Gizeh " /> + </div> + <p> + The Egyptians of the Theban period were compelled to form their opinions + of the Pharaohs of the Memphite dynasties in the same way as we do, less + by the positive evidence of their acts than by the size and number of + their monuments: they measured the magnificence of Kheops by the + dimensions of his pyramid, and all nations having followed this example, + Kheops has continued to be one of the three or four names of former times + which sound familiar to our ears. The hills of Gîzeh in his time + terminated in a bare wind-swept table-land. A few solitary mastabas were + scattered here and there on its surface, similar to those whose ruins + still crown the hill of Dahshur.* The Sphinx, buried even in ancient times + to its shoulders, raised its head half-way down the eastern slope, at its + southern angle;** beside him*** the temple of Osiris, lord of the + Necropolis, was fast disappearing under the sand; and still further back + old abandoned tombs honey-combed the rock.**** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * No one has noticed, I believe, that several of the + mastabas constructed under Kheops, around the pyramid, + contain in the masonry fragments of stone belonging to some + more ancient structures. Those which I saw bore carvings of + the same style as those on the beautiful mastabas of + Dahshur. + + ** The stele of the Sphinx bears, on line 13, the cartouche + of Khephren in the middle of a blank. We have here, I + believe, an indication of the clearing of the Sphinx + effected under this prince, consequently an almost certain + proof that the Sphinx was already buried in sand in the time + of Kheops and his predecessors. + + *** Mariette identifies the temple which he discovered to + the south of the Sphinx with that of Osiris, lord of the + Necropolis, which is mentioned in the inscription of the + daughter of Kheops. This temple is so placed that it must + have been sanded up at the same time as the Sphinx; I + believe, therefore, that the restoration effected by Kheops, + according to the inscription, was merely a clearing away of + the sand from the Sphinx analogous to that accomplished by + Khephren. + + **** These sepulchral chambers are not decorated in the + majority of instances. The careful scrutiny to which I + subjected them in 1885-86 causes me to believe that many of + them must be almost contemporaneous with the Sphinx; that is + to say, that they had been hollowed out and occupied a + considerable time before the period of the IVth dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + Kheops chose a site for his Pyramid on the northern edge of the plateau, + whence a view of the city of the White Wall, and at the same time of the + holy city of Heliopolis, could be obtained. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0020" id="linkBimage-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/179.jpg" width="100%" + alt="179.jpg KhÛÎt, the Great Pyramid of GÎzeh, The Sphinx, And the Temple of The Sphinx " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey. The + temple of the Sphinx is in the foreground, covered with sand + up to the top of the walls. The second of the little + pyramids below the large one is that whose construction is + attributed to Honîtsonû, the daughter of Kheops, and with + regard to which the dragomans of the Saite period told such + strange stories to Herodotus. +</pre> + <p> + A small mound which commanded this prospect was roughly squared, and + incorporated into the masonry; the rest of the site was levelled to + receive the first course of stones. The pyramid when completed had a + height of 476 feet on a base 764 feet square; but the decaying influence + of time has reduced these dimensions to 450 and 730 feet respectively. It + possessed, up to the Arab conquest, its polished facing, coloured by age, + and so subtily jointed that one would have said that it was a single slab + from top to bottom.* The work of facing the pyramid began at the top; that + of the point was first placed in position, then the courses were + successively covered until the bottom was reached.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The blocks which still exist are of white limestone. + Letronne, after having asserted in his youth (Recherches sur + Dicuil, p. 107), on the authority of a fragment attributed + to Philo of Byzantium, that the facing was formed of + polychromatic zones of granite, of green breccia and other + different kinds of stone, renounced this view owing to the + evidence of Vyse. Perrot and Chipiez have revived it, with + some hesitation. + + ** Herodotus, ii. 125, the word “point” should not be taken + literally. The Great Pyramid terminated, like its neighbour, + in a platform, of which each side measured nine English feet + (six cubits, according to Diodorus Siculus, i. 63), and + which has become larger in the process of time, especially + since the destruction of the facing. The summit viewed from + below must have appeared as a sharp point. “Having regard + to the size of the monument, a platform of three metres + square would have been a more pointed extremity than that + which terminates the obelisks” (Letronne). +</pre> + <p> + In the interior every device had been employed to conceal the exact + position of the sarcophagus, and to discourage the excavators whom chance + or persistent search might have put upon the right track. Their first + difficulty would be to discover the entrance under the limestone casing. + It lay hidden almost in the middle of the northern face, on the level of + the eighteenth course, at about forty-five feet above the ground. A + movable flagstone, working on a stone pivot, disguised it so effectively + that no one except the priests and custodians could have distinguished + this stone from its neighbours. When it was tilted up, a yawning passage + was revealed,* three and a half feet in height, with a breadth of four + feet. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Strabo expressly states that in his time the subterranean + parts of the Great Pyramid were accessible: “It has on its + side, at a moderate elevation, a stone which can be moved, + [—Greek phrase—]”. “When it has been lifted up, a tortuous + passage is seen which leads to the tomb.” The meaning of + Strabo’s statement had not been mastered until Mr. Petrie + showed, what we may still see, at the entrance of one of the + pyramids of Dahshur, arrangements which bore witness to the + existence of a movable stone mounted on a pivot to serve as + a door. It was a method of closing of the same kind as that + described by Strabo, perhaps after he had seen it himself, + or had heard of it from the guides, and like that which Mr. + Petrie had reinstated, with much probability, at the + entrance of the Great Pyramid. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0021" id="linkBimage-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:39%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/181a.jpg" + alt="181a.jpg the Movable Flagstone at The Entrance to The Great Pyramid " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from Petrie’s The Pyramids +and Temples of Gîzeh, pl. xi. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The passage is an inclined plane, extending partly through the masonry and + partly through the solid rock for a distance of 318 feet; it passes + through an unfinished chamber and ends in a <i>cul-de-sac</i> 59 feet + further on. The blocks are so nicely adjusted, and the surface so finely + polished, that the joints can be determined only with difficulty. The + corridor which leads to the sepulchral chamber meets the roof at an angle + of 120° to the descending passage, and at a distance of 62 feet from the + entrance. It ascends for 108 feet to a wide landing-place, where it + divides into two branches. One of these penetrates straight towards the + centre, and terminates in a granite chamber with a high-pitched roof. This + is called, but without reason, the “Chamber of the Queen.” The other + passage continues to ascend, but its form and appearance are altered. It + now becomes a gallery 148 feet long and some 28 feet high, constructed of + beautiful Mokattam stone. The lower courses are placed perpendicularly one + on the top of the other; each of the upper courses projects above the one + beneath, and the last two, which support the ceiling, are only about 1 + foot 8 inches distant from each other. The small horizontal passage which + separates the upper landing from the sarcophagus chamber itself, presents + features imperfectly explained. It is intersected almost in the middle by + a kind of depressed hall, whose walls are channelled at equal intervals on + each side by four longitudinal grooves. The first of these still supports + a fine flagstone of granite which seems to hang 3 feet 7 inches above the + ground, and the three others were probably intended to receive similar + slabs. The latter is a kind of rectangular granite box, with a flat roof, + 19 feet 10 inches high, 1 foot 5 inches deep, and 17 feet broad. No + figures or hieroglyphs are to be seen, but merely a mutilated granite + sarcophagus without a cover. Such were the precautions taken against man: + the result witnessed to their efficacy, for the pyramid preserved its + contents intact for more than four thousand years.* But a more serious + danger threatened them in the great weight of the materials above. In + order to prevent the vault from being crushed under the burden of the + hundred metres of limestone which surmounted it, they arranged above it + five low chambers placed exactly one above the other in order to relieve + the superincumbent stress. The highest of these was protected by a pointed + roof consisting of enormous blocks made to lean against each other at the + top: this ingenious device served to transfer the perpendicular thrust + almost entirely to the lateral faces of the blocks. Although an earthquake + has to some extent dislocated the mass of masonry, not one of the stones + which encase the chamber of the king has been crushed, not one has yielded + by a hair’s-breadth, since the day when the workmen fixed it in its place. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Professor Petrie thinks that the pyramids of Gîzeh were + rifled, and the mummies which they contained destroyed + during the long civil wars which raged in the interval + between the VIth and XIIth dynasties. If this be true, it + will be necessary to admit that the kings of one of the + subsequent dynasties must have restored what had been + damaged, for the workmen of the Caliph Al-Mamoun brought + from the sepulchral chamber of the “Horizon” “a stone + trough, in which lay a stone statue in human form, enclosing + a man who had on his breast a golden pectoral, adorned with + precious stones, and a sword of inestimable value, and on + his head a carbuncle of the size of an egg, brilliant as the + sun, having characters which no man can read.” All the Arab + authors, whose accounts have been collected by Jomard, + relate in general the same story; one can easily recognize + from this description the sarcophagus still in its place, a + stone case in human shape, and the mummy of Kheops loaded + with jewels and arms, like the body of Queen Âhhotpû I. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0022" id="linkBimage-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/181b.jpg" width="100%" + alt="181b.jpg the Interior of The Great Pyramid " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from pl. ix., Petrie, The Pyramids + and Temples of Gîzeh. A is the descending passage, B the + unfinished chamber, and C the horizontal passage pierced in + the rock. D is the narrow passage which provides a + communication between chamber B and the landing where the + roads divide, and with the passage FG leading to the + “Chamber of the Queen.” E is the ascending passage, H the + high gallery, I and J the chamber of barriers, K the + sepulchral vault, L indicates the chambers for relieving the + stress; finally, a, are vents which served for the + aeration of the chambers during construction, and through + which libations were introduced on certain feast-days in + honour of Kheops. The draughtsman has endeavoured to render, + by lines of unequal thickness, the varying height of the + courses of masonry; the facing, which is now wanting, has + been reinstated, and the broken line behind it indicates the + visible ending of the courses which now form the northern + face of the pyramid. +</pre> + <p><a name="linkBimage-0023" id="linkBimage-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a></p> + + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"><img alt="" src="images/183.jpg" + width="100%" /></div> + +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Facsimile by Boudier +of a drawing published +in the <i>Description +de l’Egypte, Ant.</i>, +vol. v. pl. xiii. 2. +</pre> + <p> + Four barriers in all were thus interposed between the external world and + the vault.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This appears to me to follow from the analogous + arrangements which I met with in the pyramid of Saqqâra. Mr. + Petrie refuses to recognize here a barrier chamber (cf. the + notes which he has appended to the English translation of my + <i>Archéologie égyptienne</i>, p. 327, note 27,) but he confesses + that the arrangement of the grooves and of the flagstone is + still an enigma to him. Perhaps only one of the four + intended barriers was inserted in its place—that which + still remains. +</pre> + <p> + The Great Pyramid was called Khûît, the “Horizon” in which Khûfûî had to + be swallowed up, as his father the Sun was engulfed every evening in the + horizon of the west. It contained only the chambers of the deceased, + without a word of inscription, and we should not know to whom it belonged, + if the masons, during its construction, had not daubed here and there in + red paint among their private marks the name of the king, and the dates of + his reign.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The workmen often drew on the stones the cartouches of the + Pharaoh under whose reign they had been taken from the + quarry, with the exact date of their extraction; the + inscribed blocks of the pyramid of Kheops bear, among + others, a date of the year XVI. +</pre> + <p> + Worship was rendered to this Pharaoh in a temple constructed a little in + front of the eastern side of the pyramid, but of which nothing remains but + a mass of ruins. Pharaoh had no need to wait until he was mummified before + he became a god; religious rites in his honour were established on his + accession; and many of the individuals who made up his court attached + themselves to his double long before his double had become disembodied. + They served him faithfully during their life, to repose finally in his + shadow in the little pyramids and mastabas which clustered around him. Of + Dadûfri, his immediate successor, we can probably say that he reigned + eight years;* but Khephren, the next son who succeeded to the throne,** + erected temples and a gigantic pyramid, like his father. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * According to the arrangement proposed by E. de Rougé for + the fragments of the Turin Canon. E. de Rougé reads the name + Râ-tot-ef, and proposes to identify it with the Ratoises of + the lists of Manetho, which the copyists had erroneously put + out of its proper place. This identification has been + generally accepted. Analogy compels us to read Dadûfrî, like + Khâfrî, Menkaurî, in which case the hypothesis of de Rougé + falls to the ground. The worship of Dadûfrî was renewed + towards the Saite period, together with that of Kheops and + Khephren, according to some tradition which connected his + reign with that of these two kings. On the general scheme of + the Manethonian history of these times, see Maspero, <i>Notes + sur quelques points de Grammaire et d’Histoire dans le + Recueil de Travaux</i>, vol. xvii. pp. 122-138. + + ** The Westcar Papyrus considers Khâfri to be the son of + Khûfû; this falls in with information given us, in this + respect, by Diodorus Siculus. The form which this historian + assigns—I do not know on what authority—to the name of the + king, Khabryies, is nearer the original than the Khephren of + Herodotus. +</pre> + <p> + He placed it some 394 feet to the south-west of that of Kheops; and called + it Ûîrû, the Great. It is, however, smaller than its neighbour, and + attains a height of only 443 feet, but at a distance the difference in + height disappears, and many travellers have thus been led to attribute the + same elevation to the two. The facing, of which about one-fourth exists + from the summit downwards, is of nummulite limestone, compact, hard, and + more homogeneous than that of the courses, with rusty patches here and + there due to masses of a reddish lichen, but grey elsewhere, and with a + low polish which, at a distance, reflects the sun’s rays. Thick walls of + unwrought stone enclose the monument on three sides, and there may be seen + behind the west front, in an oblong enclosure, a row of stone sheds + hastily constructed of limestone and Nile mud. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0024" id="linkBimage-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/187.jpg" width="100%" + alt="187.jpg the Name of Kheops Drawn in Red on Several Blocks Of the Great Pyramid " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Facsimile by Faucher-Gudin of the sketch in Lepsius, Denkm., + ii., 1 c. +</pre> + <p> + Here the labourers employed on the works came every evening to huddle + together, and the refuse of their occupation still encumbers the ruins of + their dwellings, potsherds, chips of various kinds of hard stone which + they had been cutting, granite, alabaster, diorite, fragments of statues + broken in the process of sculpture, and blocks of smooth granite ready for + use. The chapel commands a view of the eastern face of the pyramid, and + communicated by a paved causeway with the temple of the Sphinx, to which + it must have borne a striking resemblance.* The plan of it can be still + clearly traced on the ground, and the rubbish cannot be disturbed without + bringing to light portions of statues, vases, and tables of offerings, + some of them covered with hieroglyphs, like the mace-head of white stone + which belonged in its day to Khephren himself. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The connection of the temple of the Sphinx with that of + the second pyramid was discovered in December, 1880, during + the last diggings of Mariette. I ought to say that the whole + of that part of the building into which the passage leads + shows traces of having been hastily executed, and at a time + long after the construction of the rest of the edifice; it + is possible that the present condition of the place does not + date back further than the time of the Antonines, when the + Sphinx was cleared for the last time in ancient days. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0025" id="linkBimage-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/188.jpg" width="100%" + alt="188.jpg Alabaster Statue of Khephren " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey. See + on p. 199 the carefully executed drawing of the best + preserved among the diorite statues which the Gîzeh Museum + now possesses of this Pharaoh. +</pre> + <p> + The internal arrangements of the pyramid are of the simplest character; + they consist of a granite-built passage carefully concealed in the north + face, running at first at an angle of 25°, and then horizontally, until + stopped by a granite barrier at a point which indicates a change of + direction; a second passage, which begins on the outside, at a distance of + some yards in advance of the base of the pyramid, and proceeds, after + passing through an unfinished chamber, to rejoin the first; finally, a + chamber hollowed in the rock, but surmounted by a pointed roof of fine + limestone slabs. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0026" id="linkBimage-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/188b.jpg" width="100%" + alt="188b.jpg the Pyramid of Khephren " /> + </div> + <p> + The sarcophagus was of granite, and, like that of Kheops, bore neither the + name of a king nor the representation of a god. The cover was fitted so + firmly to the trough that the Arabs could not succeed in detaching it when + they rifled the tomb in the year 1200 of our era; they were, therefore, + compelled to break through one of the sides with a hammer before they + could reach the coffin and take from it the mummy of the Pharaoh.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The second pyramid was opened to Europeans in 1816 by + Belzoni. The exact date of the entrance of the Arabs is + given us by an inscription, written in ink, on one of the + walls of the sarcophagus chamber: “Mohammed Ahmed Effendi, + the quarryman, opened it; Othman Effendi was present, as + well as the King Ali Mohammed, at the beginning and at the + closing.” The King Ali Mohammed was the son and successor of + Saladin. +</pre> + <p> + Of Khephren’s sons, Menkaûrî (Mykerinos), who was his successor, could + scarcely dream of excelling his father and grandfather;* his pyramid, the + Supreme—Hirû** —barely attained an elevation of 216 feet, and + was exceeded in height by those which were built at a later date.*** Up to + one-fourth of its height it was faced with syenite, and the remainder, up + to the summit, with limestone.**** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Classical tradition makes Mykerinos the son of Kheops. + Egyptian tradition regards him as the son of Khephren, and + with this agrees a passage in the Westcar Papyrus, in which + a magician prophesies that after Kheops his son (Khâfrî) + will yet reign, then the son of the latter (Menkaûrî), then + a prince of another family. + + ** An inscription, unfortunately much mutilated, from the + tomb of Tabhûni, gives an account of the construction of the + pyramid, and of the transport of the sarcophagus. + + *** Professor Petrie reckons the exact height of the pyramid + at 2564 ±15 or 2580 ± 2 inches; that is to say, 214 or 215 + feet in round numbers. + + **** According to Herodotus, the casing of granite extended + to half the height. Diodorus states that it did not go + beyond the fifteenth course. Professor Petrie discovered + that there were actually sixteen lower courses in red + granite. +</pre> + <p> + For lack of time, doubtless, the dressing of the granite was not + completed, but the limestone received all the polish it was capable of + taking. The enclosing wall was extended to the north so as to meet, and + become one with, that of the second pyramid. The temple was connected with + the plain by a long and almost straight causeway, which ran for the + greater part of its course* upon an embankment raised above the + neighbouring ground. This temple was in fair condition in the early years + of the eighteenth century,** and so much of it as has escaped the ravages + of the Mameluks, bears witness to the scrupulous care and refined art + employed in its construction. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This causeway should not be confounded, as is frequently + done, with that which may be seen at some distance to the + east in the plain: the latter led to limestone quarries in + the mountain to the south of the plateau on which the + pyramids stand. These quarries were worked in very ancient + times. + + ** Benoit de Maillet visited this temple between 1692 and + 1708. “It is almost square in form. There are to be found + inside four pillars which doubtless supported a vaulted roof + covering the altar of the idol, and one moved around these + pillars as in an ambulatory. These stones were cased with + granitic marble. I found some pieces still unbroken which + had been attached to the stones with mastic. I believe that + the exterior as well as the interior of the temple was cased + with this marble” (Le Mascrier, Description de l’Egypte, + 1735, pp. 223, 224). +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0027" id="linkBimage-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/192.jpg" width="100%" + alt="192.jpg Diorite Statue of MenraÛrÏ " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph, by Emil Brugsch-Bey, of + a statue preserved in the Museum of Gîzeh. +</pre> + <p> + Coming from the plain, we first meet with an immense halting-place + measuring 100 feet by 46 feet, and afterwards enter a large court with an + egress on each side: beyond this we can distinguish the ground-plan only + of five chambers, the central one, which is in continuation with the hall, + terminating at a distance of some 42 feet from the pyramid, exactly + opposite the middle point of the eastern face. The whole mass of the + building covers a rectangular area 184 feet long by a little over 177 feet + broad. Its walls, like those of the temple of the Sphinx, contained a core + of lime-stone 7 feet 10 inches thick, of which the blocks have been so + ingeniously put together as to suggest the idea that the whole is cut out + of the rock. This core was covered with a casing of granite and alabaster, + of which the remains preserve no trace of hieroglyphs or of wall scenes: + the founder had caused his name to be inscribed on the statues, which + received, on his behalf, the offerings, and also on the northern face of + the pyramid, where it was still shown to the curious towards the first + century of our era. The arrangement of the interior of the pyramid is + somewhat complicated, and bears witness to changes brought unexpectedly + about in the course of construction. The original central mass probably + did not exceed 180 feet in breadth at the base, with a vertical height of + 154 feet. It contained a sloping passage cut into the hill itself, and an + oblong low-roofed cell devoid of ornament. The main bulk of the work had + been already completed, and the casing not yet begun, when it was decided + to alter the proportions of the whole. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0028" id="linkBimage-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/194.jpg" width="100%" + alt="194.jpg the Coffin of Mykerinos " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin. The coffin is in the British Museum. + The drawing of it was published by Vyse, by Birch-Lenormant, + and by Lepsius. Herr Sethe has recently revived an ancient + hypothesis, according to which it had been reworked in the + Saite period, and he has added to archaeological + considerations, up to that time alone brought to bear upon + the question, new philological facts. +</pre> + <p> + Mykerinos was not, it appears, the eldest son and appointed heir of + Khephren; while still a mere prince he was preparing for himself a pyramid + similar to those which lie near the “Horizon,” when the deaths of his + father and brother called him to the throne. What was sufficient for him + as a child, was no longer suitable for him as a Pharaoh; the mass of the + structure was increased to its present dimensions, and a new inclined + passage was effected in it, at the end of which a hall panelled with + granite gave access to a kind of antechamber.* The latter communicated by + a horizontal corridor with the first vault, which was deepened for the + occasion; the old entrance, now no longer of use, was roughly filled up.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Vyse discovered here fragments of a granite sarcophagus, + perhaps that of the queen; the legends which Herodotus (ii. + 134, 135), and several Greek authors after him, tell + concerning this, show clearly that an ancient tradition + assumed the existence of a female mummy in the third pyramid + alongside of that of the founder Mykerinos. + + ** Vyse has noticed, in regard to the details of the + structure, that the passage now filled up is the only one + driven from the outside to the interior; all the others were + made from the inside to the outside, and consequently at a + period when this passage, being the only means of + penetrating into the interior of the monument, had not yet + received its present dimensions. +</pre> + <p> + Mykerinos did not find his last resting-place in this upper level of the + interior of the pyramid: a narrow passage, hidden behind the slabbing of + the second chamber, descended into a secret crypt, lined with granite and + covered with a barrel-vaulted roof. The sarcophagus was a single block of + blue-black basalt, polished, and carved into the form of a house, with a + façade having three doors and three openings in the form of windows, the + whole framed in a rounded moulding and surmounted by a projecting cornice + such as we are accustomed to see on the temples.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It was lost off the coast of Spain in the vessel which was + bringing it to England. We have only the drawing remaining + which was made at the time of its discovery, and published + by Vyse. M. Borchardt has attempted to show that it was + reworked under the XXVIth Saite dynasty as well as the + wooden coffin of the king. +</pre> + <p> + The mummy-case of cedar-wood had a man’s head, and was shaped to the form + of the human body; it was neither painted nor gilt, but an inscription in + two columns, cut on its front, contained the name of the Pharaoh, and a + prayer on his behalf: “Osiris, King of the two Egypts, Menkaûrî, living + eternally, given birth to by heaven, conceived by Nûît, flesh of Sibii, + thy mother Nûît has spread herself out over thee in her name of ‘Mystery + of the Heavens,’ and she has granted that thou shouldest be a god, and + that thou shouldest repulse thine enemies, O King of the two Egypts, + Menkaûrî, living eternally.” The Arabs opened the mummy to see if it + contained any precious jewels, but found within it only some leaves of + gold, probably a mask or a pectoral covered with hieroglyphs. When Vyse + reopened the vault in 1837, the bones lay scattered about in confusion on + the dusty floor, mingled with bundles of dirty rags and wrappings of + yellowish woollen cloth. + </p> + <p> + The worship of the three great pyramid-building kings continued in Memphis + down to the time of the Greeks and Romans. Their statues, in granite, + limestone, and alabaster, were preserved also in the buildings annexed to + the temple of Phtah, where visitors could contemplate these Pharaohs as + they were when alive. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0029" id="linkBimage-0029"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/196.jpg" width="100%" + alt="196.jpg the Granite Sarcophagus of Mykerinos " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a chromolithograph in Prisse + D’Avennes, <i>Histoire de l’Art Égyptien</i>. +</pre> + <p> + Those of Khephren show us the king at different ages, when young, mature, + or already in his decadence. They are in most cases cut out of a breccia + of green diorite, with long irregular yellowish veins, and of such + hardness that it is difficult to determine the tool with which they were + worked. The Pharaoh sits squarely on his royal throne, his hands on his + lap, his body firm and upright, and his head thrown back with a look of + self-satisfaction. A sparrow-hawk perched on the back of his seat covers + his head with its wings—an image of the god Horus protecting his + son. The modelling of the torso and legs of the largest of these statues, + the dignity of its pose, and the animation of its expression, make of it a + unique work of art which may be compared with the most perfect products of + antiquity. Even if the cartouches which tell us the name of the king had + been hammered away and the insignia of his rank destroyed, we should still + be able to determine the Pharaoh by his bearing: his whole appearance + indicates a man accustomed from his infancy to feel himself invested with + limitless authority. Mykerinos stands out less impassive and haughty: he + does not appear so far removed from humanity as his predecessor, and the + expression of his countenance agrees, somewhat singularly, with the + account of his piety and good nature preserved by the legends. The + Egyptians of the Theban dynasties, when comparing the two great pyramids + with the third, imagined that the disproportion in their size corresponded + with a difference of character between their royal occupants. Accustomed + as they were from infancy to gigantic structures, they did not experience + before “the Horizon” and “the Great” the feeling of wonder and awe which + impresses the beholder of to-day. They were not the less apt on this + account to estimate the amount of labour and effort required to complete + them from top to bottom. This labour seemed to them to surpass the most + excessive corvée which a just ruler had a right to impose upon his + subjects, and the reputation of Kheops and Khephren suffered much in + consequence. They were accused of sacrilege, of cruelty, and profligacy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0030" id="linkBimage-0030"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/198.jpg" width="100%" + alt="198.jpg Diorite Statue of Khephren, GÎzeu Museum " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey. It + is one of the most complete statues found by Mariette in the + temple of the Sphinx. +</pre> + <p> + It was urged against them that they had arrested the whole life of their + people for more than a century for the erection of their tombs. Kheops + began by closing the temples and by prohibiting the offering of + sacrifices: he then compelled all the Egyptians to work for him. To some + he assigned the task of dragging the blocks from the quarries of the + Arabian chain to the Nile: once shipped, the duty was incumbent on others + of transporting them as far as the Libyan chain. A hundred thousand men + worked at a time, and were relieved every three months.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Professor Petrie thinks that this detail rests upon an + authentic tradition. The inundation, he says, lasts three + months, during which the mass of the people have nothing to + do; it was during these three months that Kheops raised the + 100,000 men to work at the transport of the stone. The + explanation is very ingenious, but it is not supported by + the text: Herodotus does not relate that 100,000 men were + called by the corvée for three months every year; but from + three months to three months, possibly four times a year, + bodies of 100,000 men relieved each other at the work. The + figures which he quotes are well-known legendary numbers, + and we must leave the responsibility for them to the popular + imagination (Wiedemann, Herodots Zweites Buck, p. 465). +</pre> + <p> + The period of the people’s suffering was divided as follows: ten years in + making the causeway along which the blocks were dragged—a work, in + my opinion, very little less onerous than that of erecting the pyramid, + for its length was five <i>stadia</i>, its breadth ten <i>orgyio</i>, its + greatest height eight, and it was made of cut stone and covered with + figures.* Ten years, therefore, were consumed in constructing this + causeway and the subterranean chambers hollowed out in the hill.... As for + the pyramid itself, twenty years were employed in the making of it.... + There are recorded on it, in Egyptian characters, the value of the sums + paid in turnips, onions, and garlic, for the labourers attached to the + works; if I remember aright, the interpreter who deciphered the + inscription told me that the total amounted to sixteen hundred talents of + silver. If this were the case, how much must have been expended for iron + to make tools, and for provisions and clothing for the workmen?** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Diodorus Siculus declares that there were no causeways to + be seen in his time. The remains of one of them appear to + have been discovered and restored by Vyse. + + ** Herodotus, ii. 124, 125. The inscriptions which were read + upon the pyramids were the graffiti of visitors, some of + them carefully executed. The figures which were shown to + Herodotus represented, according to the dragoman, the value + of the sums expended for vegetables for the workmen; we + ought, probably, to regard them as the thousands which, in + many of the votive temples, served to mark the quantities of + different things presented to the god, that they might be + transmitted to the deceased. +</pre> + <p> + The whole resources of the royal treasure were not sufficient for such + necessaries: a tradition represents Kheops as at the end of his means, and + as selling his daughter to any one that offered, in order to procure + money.* Another legend, less disrespectful to the royal dignity and to + paternal authority, assures us that he repented in his old age, and that + he wrote a sacred book much esteemed by the devout.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus, ii. 126. She had profited by what she received + to build a pyramid for herself in the neighbourhood of the + great one—the middle one of the three small pyramids: it + would appear in fact, that this pyramid contained the mummy + of a daughter of Kheops, Honîtsonû. + + ** Manetho, Unger’s edition, p. 91. The ascription of a book + to Kheops, or rather the account of the discovery of a + “sacred book” under Kheops, is quite in conformity with + Egyptian ideas. The British Museum possesses two books, + which were thus discovered under this king; the one, a + medical treatise, in a temple at Coptos; the other comes + from Tanis. Among the works on alchemy published by M. + Berthelot, there are two small treatises ascribed to Sophé, + possibly Souphis or Kheops: they are of the same kind as the + book mentioned by Manetho, and which Syncellus says was + bought in Egypt. +</pre> + <p> + Khephren had imitated, and thus shared with, him, the hatred of posterity. + The Egyptians avoided naming these wretches: their work was attributed to + a shepherd called Philitis, who in ancient times pastured his flocks in + the mountain; and even those who did not refuse to them the glory of + having built the most enormous sepulchres in the world, related that they + had not the satisfaction of reposing in them after their death. The + people, exasperated at the tyranny to which they had been subject, swore + that they would tear the bodies of these Pharaohs from their tombs, and + scatter their fragments to the winds: they had to be buried in crypts so + securely placed that no one has succeeded in finding them. + </p> + <p> + Like the two older pyramids, “the Supreme” had its anecdotal history, in + which the Egyptians gave free rein to their imagination. We know that its + plan had been rearranged in the course of building, that it contained two + sepulchral chambers, two sarcophagi, and two mummies: these modifications, + it was said, belonged to two distinct reigns; for Mykerinos had left his + tomb unfinished, and a woman had finished it at a later date—according + to some, Nitokris, the last queen of the VIth dynasty; according to + others, Rhodopis, the Ionian who was the mistress of Psammetichus I. or of + Ainasis.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Zoega had already recognized that the Rhodopis of the + Greeks was no other than the Nitokris of Manetho, and his + opinion was adopted and developed by Bunsen. The legend of + Rhodopis was completed by the additional ascription to the + ancient Egyptian queen of the character of a courtesan: this + repugnant trait seems to have been borrowed from the same + class of legends as that which concerned itself with the + daughter of Kheops and her pyramid. The narrative thus + developed was in a similar manner confounded with another + popular story, in which occurs the episode of the slipper, + so well known from the tale of Cinderella. Herodotus + connects Rhodopis with his Amasis, Ælian with King + Psammetichus of the XXVIth dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + The beauty and richness of the granite casing dazzled all eyes, and + induced many visitors to prefer the least of the pyramids to its two + imposing sisters; its comparatively small size is excused on the ground + that its founder had returned to that moderation and piety which ought to + characterize a good king. “The actions of his father were not pleasing to + him; he reopened the temples and sent the people, reduced to the extreme + of misery, back to their religious observances and their occupations; + finally, he administered justice more equitably than all other kings. On + this head he is praised above those who have at any time reigned in Egypt: + for not only did he administer good justice, but if any one complained of + his decision he gratified him with some present in order to appease his + wrath.” There was one point, however, which excited the anxiety of many in + a country where the mystic virtue of numbers was an article of faith: in + order that the laws of celestial arithmetic should be observed in the + construction of the pyramids, it was necessary that three of them should + be of the same size. The anomaly of a third pyramid out of proportion to + the two others could be explained only on the hypothesis that Mykerinos, + having broken with paternal usage, had ignorantly infringed a decree of + destiny—a deed for which he was mercilessly punished. He first lost + his only daughter; a short time after he learned from an oracle that he + had only six more years to remain upon the earth. He enclosed the corpse + of his child in a hollow wooden heifer, which he sent to Sais, where it + was honoured with divine worship.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus, ii. 129-133. The manner in which Herodotus + describes the cow which was shown to him in the temple of + Sais, proves that he was dealing with Nit, in animal form, + Mihî-ûîrît, the great celestial heifer who had given birth + to the Sun. How the people could have attached to this + statue the legend of a daughter of Mykerinos is now + difficult to understand. The idea of a mummy or a corpse + shut up in a statue, or in a coffin, was familiar to the + Egyptians: two of the queens interred at Déir el-Baharî, + Nofritari Ahhotpû II., were found hidden in the centre of + immense Osirian figures of wood, covered with stuccoed + fabric. Egyptian tradition supposed that the bodies of the + gods rested upon the earth. The cow Mîhî-ûîrît might, + therefore, be bodily enclosed in a sarcophagus in the form + of a heifer, just as the mummified gazelle of Déîr el-Baharî + is enclosed in a sarcophagus of gazelle form; it is even + possible that the statue shown to Herodotus really contained + what was thought to be a mummy of the goddess. +</pre> + <p> + “He then communicated his reproaches to the god, complaining that his + father and his uncle, after having closed the temples, forgotten the gods + and oppressed mankind, had enjoyed a long life, while he, devout as he + was, was so soon about to perish. The oracle answered that it was for this + very reason that his days were shortened, for he had not done that which + he ought to have done. Egypt had to suffer for a hundred and fifty years, + and the two kings his predecessors had known this, while he had not. On + receiving this answer, Mykerinos, feeling himself condemned, manufactured + a number of lamps, lit them every evening at dusk, began to drink and to + lead a life of jollity, without ceasing for a moment night and day, + wandering by the lakes and in the woods wherever he thought to find an + occasion of pleasure. He had planned this in order to convince the oracle + of having spoken falsely, and to live twelve years, the nights counting as + so many days.” Legend places after him Asychis or Sasychis, a later + builder of pyramids, but of a different kind. The latter preferred brick + as a building material, except in one place, where he introduced a stone + bearing the following inscription: “Do not despise me on account of the + stone pyramids: I surpass them as much as Zeus the other gods. Because, a + pole being plunged into a lake and the clay which stuck to it being + collected, the brick out of which I was constructed was moulded from it.” + The virtues of Asychis and Mykerinos helped to counteract the bad + impression which Kheops and Khephren had left behind them. Among the five + legislators of Egypt Asychis stood out as one of the best. He regulated, + to minute details, the ceremonies of worship. He invented geometry and the + art of observing the heavens.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Diodorus, i. 94. It seems probable that Diodorus had + received knowledge from some Alexandrian writer, now lost, + of traditions concerning the legislative acts of Shashanqû + I. of the XXIInd dynasty; but the name of the king, commonly + written Sesonkhis, had been corrupted by the dragoman into + Sasykhis. +</pre> + <p> + He put forth a law on lending, in which he authorized the borrower to + pledge in forfeit the mummy of his father, while the creditor had the + right of treating as his own the tomb of the debtor: so that if the debt + was not met, the latter could not obtain a last resting-place for himself + or his family either in his paternal or any other tomb. + </p> + <p> + History knows nothing either of this judicious sovereign or of many other + Pharaohs of the same type, which the dragomans of the Greek period + assiduously enforced upon the respectful attention of travellers. It + merely affirms that the example given by Kheops, Khephren, and Mykerinos + were by no means lost in later times. From the beginning of the IVth to + the end of the XIVth dynasty—during more than fifteen hundred years—the + construction of pyramids was a common State affair, provided for by the + administration, secured by special services. Not only did the Pharaohs + build them for themselves, but the princes and princesses belonging to the + family of the Pharaohs constructed theirs, each one according to his + resources; three of these secondary mausoleums are ranged opposite the + eastern side of “the Horizon,” three opposite the southern face of “the + Supreme,” and everywhere else—near Abousir, at Saqqâra, at Dahshur + or in the Fayûm—the majority of the royal pyramids attracted around + them a more or less numerous cortège of pyramids of princely foundation + often debased in shape and faulty in proportion. The materials for them + were brought from the Arabian chain. A spur of the latter, projecting in a + straight line towards the Nile, as far as the village of Troiû, is nothing + but a mass of the finest and whitest limestone. The Egyptians had quarries + here from the earliest times. By cutting off the stone in every direction, + they lowered the point of this spur for a depth of some hundreds of + metres. The appearance of these quarries is almost as astonishing as that + of the monuments made out of their material. The extraction of the stone + was carried on with a skill and regularity which denoted ages of + experience. The tunnels were so made as to exhaust the finest and whitest + seams without waste, and the chambers were of an enormous extent; the + walls were dressed, the pillars and roofs neatly finished, the passages + and doorways made of a regular width, so that the whole presented more the + appearance of a subterranean temple than of a place for the extraction of + building materials.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The description of the quarries of Turah, as they were at + the beginning of the century, was somewhat briefly given by + Jomard, afterwards more completely by Perring. During the + last thirty years the Cairo masons have destroyed the + greater part of the ancient remains formerly existing in + this district, and have completely changed the appearance of + the place. +</pre> + <p> + Hastily written graffiti, in red and black ink, preserve the names of + workmen, overseers, and engineers, who had laboured here at certain dates, + calculations of pay or rations, diagrams of interesting details, as well + as capitals and shafts of columns, which were shaped out on the spot to + reduce their weight for transport. Here and there true official stelas are + to be found set apart in a suitable place, recording that after a long + interruption such or such an illustrious sovereign had resumed the + excavations, and opened fresh chambers. Alabaster was met with not far + from here in the Wady Gerrauî. The Pharaohs of very early times + established a regular colony here, in the very middle of the desert, to + cut the material into small blocks for transport: a strongly built dam, + thrown across the valley, served to store up the winter and spring rains, + and formed a pond whence the workers could always supply themselves with + water. Kheops and his successors drew their alabaster from Hâtnûbû, in the + neighbourhood of Hermopolis, their granite from Syene, their diorite and + other hard rocks, the favourite material for their sarcophagi, from the + volcanic valleys which separate the Nile from the Red Sea—especially + from the Wady Hammamât. As these were the only materials of which the + quantity required could not be determined in advance, and which had to be + brought from a distance, every king was accustomed to send the principal + persons of his court to the quarries of Upper Egypt, and the rapidity with + which they brought back the stone constituted a high claim on the favour + of their master. If the building was to be of brick, the bricks were made + on the spot, in the plain at the foot of the hills. If it was to be a + limestone structure, the neighbouring parts of the plateau furnished the + rough material in abundance. For the construction of chambers and for + casing walls, the rose granite of Elephantine and the limestone of Troiu + were commonly employed, but they were spared the labour of procuring these + specially for the occasion. The city of the White Wall had always at hand + a supply of them in its stores, and they might be drawn upon freely for + public buildings, and consequently for the royal tomb. The blocks chosen + from this reserve, and conveyed in boats close under the mountain-side, + were drawn up slightly inclined causeways by oxen to the place selected by + the architect. + </p> + <p> + The internal arrangements, the length of the passages and the height of + the pyramids, varied much: the least of them had a height of some + thirty-three feet merely. As it is difficult to determine the motives + which influenced the Pharaohs in building them of different sizes, some + writers have thought that the mass of each increased in proportion to the + time bestowed upon its construction—that is to say, to the length of + each reign. As soon as a prince mounted the throne, he would probably + begin by roughly sketching out a pyramid sufficiently capacious to contain + the essential elements of the tomb; he would then, from year to year, have + added fresh layers to the original nucleus, until the day of his death put + an end for ever to the growth of the monument.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This was the theory formulated by Lepsius, after the + researches made by himself, and the work done by Erbkam, and + the majority of Egyptologists adopted it, and still maintain + it. It was vigorously attacked by Perrot-Chipiez and by + Petrie; it was afterwards revived, with amendments, by + Borchardt whose conclusions have been accepted by Ed. Meyer. + The examinations which I have had the opportunity of + bestowing on the pyramids of Saqqâra, Abusir, Dahshur, + Rîgah, and Lisht have shown me that the theory is not + applicable to any of these monuments. +</pre> + <p> + This hypothesis is not borne out by facts: such a small pyramid as that of + Saqqâra belonged to a Pharaoh who reigned thirty years, while “the + Horizon” of Gîzeh is the work of Kheops, whose rule lasted only + twenty-three years. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0031" id="linkBimage-0031"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/208.jpg" width="100%" alt="208.jpg Map Oleander Lower " /> + </div> + <p> + The plan of each pyramid was arranged once for all by the architect, + according to the instructions he had received, and the resources at his + command. Once set on foot, the work was continued until its completion, + without addition or diminution, unless something unforeseen occurred. The + pyramids, like the mastabas, ought to present their faces to the four + cardinal points; but owing to unskilfulness or negligence, the majority of + them are not very accurately orientated, and several of them vary sensibly + from the true north. The great pyramid of Saqqâra does not describe a + perfect square at its base, but is an oblong rectangle, with its longest + sides east and west; it is stepped—that is to say, the six sloping + sided cubes of which it is composed are placed upon one another so as to + form a series of treads and risers, the former being about two yards wide + and the latter of unequal heights. The highest of the stone pyramids of + Dahshur makes at its lower part an angle of 54° 41’ with the horizon, but + at half its height the angle becomes suddenly more acute and is reduced to + 42° 59’. It reminds one of a mastaba with a sort of huge attic on the top. + Each of these monuments had its enclosing wall, its chapel and its college + of priests, who performed there for ages sacred rites in honour of the + deceased prince, while its property in mortmain was administered by the + chief of the “priests of the double.” Each one received a name, such as + “the Fresh,” “the Beautiful,” “the Divine in its places,” which conferred + upon it a personality and, as it were, a living soul. These pyramids + formed to the west of the White Wall a long serrated line whose + extremities were lost towards the south and north in the distant horizon: + Pharaoh could see them from the terraces of his palace, from the gardens + of his villa, and from every point in the plain in which he might reside + between Heliopolis and Mêdûm—as a constant reminder of the lot which + awaited him in spite of his divine origin. The people, awed and inspired + by the number of them, and by the variety of their form and appearance, + were accustomed to tell stories of them to one another, in which the + supernatural played a predominant part. They were able to estimate within + a few ounces the heaps of gold and silver, the jewels and precious stones, + which adorned the royal mummies or rilled the sepulchral chambers: they + were acquainted with every precaution taken by the architects to ensure + the safety of all these riches from robbers, and were convinced that magic + had added to such safeguards the more effective protection of talismans + and genii. There was no pyramid so insignificant that it had not its + mysterious protectors, associated with some amulet—in most cases + with a statue, animated by the double of the founder. The Arabs of to-day + are still well acquainted with these protectors, and possess a traditional + respect for them. The great pyramid concealed a black and white image, + seated on a throne and invested with the kingly sceptre. He who looked + upon the statue “heard a terrible noise proceeding from it which almost + caused his heart to stop beating, and he who had heard this noise would + die.” An image of rose-coloured granite watched over the pyramid of + Khephren, standing upright, a sceptre in its hand and the urous on its + brow, “which serpent threw himself upon him who approached it, coiled + itself around his neck, and killed him.” A sorcerer had invested these + protectors of the ancient Pharaohs with their powers, but another equally + potent magician could elude their vigilance, paralyze their energies, if + not for ever, at least for a sufficient length of time to ferret out the + treasure and rifle the mummy. The cupidity of the fellahîn, highly + inflamed by the stories which they were accustomed to hear, gained the + mastery over their terror, and emboldened them to risk their lives in + these well-guarded tombs. How many pyramids had been already rifled at the + beginning of the second Theban empire! + </p> + <p> + The IVth dynasty became extinct in the person of Shop-siskaf, the + successor and probably the son of Mykerinos.* The learned of the time of + Ramses II. regarded the family which replaced this dynasty as merely a + secondary branch of the line of Snofrûi, raised to power by the capricious + laws which settled hereditary questions.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The series of kings beginning with Mykerinos was drawn up + for the first time in an accurate manner by E. de Rougé, + <i>recherches sur les Monu-mails qu’on peut attribuer aux six + premières dynasties</i>, pp. 66-84, M. de Rouge’s results have + been since adopted by all Egyptologists. The table of the + IVTH dynasty, restored as far as possible with the + approximate dates, is subjoined:— +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0032" id="linkBimage-0032"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/211.jpg" width="100%" + alt="211.jpg Table of the Ivth Dynasty " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ** The fragments of the royal Turin Papyrus exhibit, in + fact, no separation between the kings which Manetho + attributes to the IVth dynasty and those which he ascribes + to the Vth, which seems to show that the Egyptian annalist + considered them all as belonging to one and the same family + of Pharaohs. +</pre> + <p> + Nothing on the contemporary monuments, it is true, gives indication of a + violent change attended by civil war, or resulting from a revolution at + court: the construction and decoration of the tombs continued without + interruption and without indication of haste, the sons-in-law of + Shopsiskaf and of Mykerinos, their daughters and grandchildren, possess + under the new kings, the same favour, the same property, the same + privileges, which they had enjoyed previously. It was stated, however, in + the time of the Ptolemies, that the Vth dynasty had no connection with the + IVth; it was regarded at Memphis as an intruder, and it was asserted that + it came from Elephantine.* The tradition was a very old one, and its + influence is betrayed in a popular story, which was current at Thebes in + the first years of the New Empire. Kheops, while in search of the + mysterious books of Thot in order to transcribe from them the text for his + sepulchral chamber,** had asked the magician Didi to be good enough to + procure them for him; but the latter refused the perilous task imposed + upon him. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Such is the tradition accepted by Manetho. Lepsius thinks + that the copyists of Manetho were under some distracting + influence, which made them transfer the record of the origin + of the VIth dynasty to the Vth: it must have been the VIth + dynasty which took its origin from Elephantine. I think the + safest plan is to respect the text of Manetho until we know + more, and to admit that he knew of a tradition ascribing the + origin of the Vth dynasty to Elephantine. + + ** The Great Pyramid is mute, but we find in other pyramids + inscriptions of some hundreds of lines. The author of the + story, who knew how much certain kings of the VIth dynasty + had laboured to have extracts of the sacred books engraved + within their tombs, fancied, no doubt, that his Kheops had + done the like, but had not succeeded in procuring the texts + in question, probably on account of the impiety ascribed to + him by the legends. It was one of the methods of explaining + the absence of any religious or funereal inscription in the + Great Pyramid. +</pre> + <p> + “‘Sire, my lord, it is not I who shall bring them to thee.’ His Majesty + asks: ‘Who, then, will bring them to me?’ Didi replies, ‘It is the eldest + of the three children who are in the womb of Rudîtdidît who will bring + them to thee.’ His Majesty says: ‘By the love of Râ! what is this that + thou tellest me; and who is she, this Rudîtdidît?’ Didi says to him: ‘She + is the wife of a priest of Râ, lord of Sakhîbû. She carries in her womb + three children of Râ, lord of Sakhîbû, and the god has promised to her + that they shall fulfil this beneficent office in this whole earth,* and + that the eldest shall be the high priest at Heliopolis.” His Majesty, his + heart was troubled at it, but Didi says to him: “‘What are these thoughts, + sire, my lord? Is it because of these three children? Then I say to thee: + ‘Thy son, his son, then one of these.’”** The good King Kheops doubtless + tried to lay his hands upon this threatening trio at the moment of their + birth; but Râ had anticipated this, and saved his offspring. When the time + for their birth drew near, the Majesty of Râ, lord of Sakhîbû, gave orders + to Isis, Nephthys, Maskhonît, Hiquît,*** and Khnûmû: “Come, make haste and + run to deliver Budîtdidît of these three children which she carries in her + womb to fulfil that beneficent office in this whole earth, and they will + build you temples, they will furnish your altars with offerings, they will + supply your tables with libations, and they will increase your mortmain + possessions.” + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This kind of circumlocution is employed on several + occasions in the old texts to designate royalty. It was + contrary to etiquette to mention directly, in common speech, + the Pharaoh, or anything belonging to his functions or his + family. Cf. pp. 28, 29 of this History. + + ** This phrase is couched in oracular form, as befitting the + reply of a magician. It appears to have been intended to + reassure the king in affirming that the advent of the three + sons of Râ would not be immediate: his son, then a son of + this son, would succeed him before destiny would be + accomplished, and one of these divine children succeed to + the throne in his turn. The author of the story took no + notice of Dadufrî or Shopsiskaf, of whose reigns little was + known in his time. + + *** Hiquît as the frog-goddess, or with a frog’s head, was + one of the mid-wives who is present at the birth of the sun + every morning. Her presence is, therefore, natural in the + case of the spouse about to give birth to royal sons of the + sun. +</pre> + <p> + The goddesses disguised themselves as dancers and itinerant musicians: + Khnûmû assumed the character of servant to this band of nautch-girls and + filled the bag with provisions, and they all then proceeded together to + knock at the door of the house in which Budîtdidît was awaiting her + delivery. The earthly husband Baûsîr, unconscious of the honour that the + gods had in store for him, introduced them to the presence of his wife, + and immediately three male children were brought into the world one after + the other. Isis named them, Maskhonît predicted for them their royal + fortune, while Khnûmû. infused into their limbs vigour and health; the + eldest was called Ûsirkaf, the second Sahûrî, the third Kakiû. Kaûsîr was + anxious to discharge his obligation to these unknown persons, and proposed + to do so in wheat, as if they were ordinary mortals: they had accepted it + without compunction, and were already on their way to the firmament, when + Isis recalled them to a sense of their dignity, and commanded them to + store the honorarium bestowed upon them in one of the chambers of the + house, where henceforth prodigies of the strangest character never ceased + to manifest themselves. Every time one entered the place a murmur was + heard of singing, music, and dancing, while acclamations such as those + with which kings are wont to be received gave sure presage of the destiny + which awaited the newly born. The manuscript is mutilated, and we do not + know how the prediction was fulfilled. If we may trust the romance, the + three first princes of the Vth dynasty were brothers, and of priestly + descent, but our experience of similar stories does not encourage us to + take this one very seriously: did not such tales affirm that Kheops and + Khephren were brothers also? + </p> + <p> + The Vth dynasty manifested itself in every respect as the sequel and + complement of the IVth.* It reckons nine Pharaohs after the three which + tradition made sons of the god Râ himself and of Rudîtdidîfc. They reigned + for a century and a half; the majority of them have left monuments, and + the last four, at least, Ûsirnirî Ânû, Menkaû-horû, Dadkerî Assi, and + Unas, appear to have ruled gloriously. They all built pyramids,** they + repaired temples and founded cities.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A list is appended of the known Pharaohs of the Vth + dynasty, restored as far as can be, with the closest + approximate dates of their reigns:— +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0033" id="linkBimage-0033"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/215.jpg" width="100%" + alt="215.jpg Table of Pharaohs Of the Vth Dynasty " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ** It is pretty generally admitted, but without convincing + proofs, that the pyramids of Abûsîr served as tombs for the + Pharaohs in the Vth dynasty, one for Sahûrî, another to + Ûsirnirî Anû, although Wiedemann considers that the + truncated pyramid of Dahshur was the tomb of this king. I am + inclined to think that one of the pyramids of Saqqâra was + constructed by Assi; the pyramid of Unas was opened in 1881, + and the results made known by Maspero, <i>Études de Mythologie + et d’Archéologie</i>, vol. i. p. 150, et seq., and <i>Recueil de + Travaux</i>, vols. iv. and v. The names of the majority of the + pyramids are known to us from the monuments: that of Ûsirkaf + was called “Ûâbisîtu”; that of Sahûrî, “Khâbi”; that of + Nofiririkerî, “Bi”; that of Anû, “Min-isûîtû”; that of + Menkaûhorû, “Nûtirisûîtû”; that of Assi, “Nutir”; that of + Unas, “Nofir-isûîtû.” + + *** Pa Sahûrî, near Esneh, for instance, was built by + Sahûrî. The modern name of the village of Sahoura still + preserves, on the same spot, without the inhabitants + suspecting it, the name of the ancient Pharaoh. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0034" id="linkBimage-0034"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/216.jpg" width="100%" + alt="216.jpg Statue in Rose-coloured Granite of the Pharaoh AnÛ, in the GÎzeh Museum " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey. +</pre> + <p> + The Bedouin of the Sinaitic peninsula gave them much to do. Sahûrî brought + these nomads to reason, and perpetuated the memory of his victories by a + stele, engraved on the face of one of the rocks in the Wady Magharah; Anû + obtained some successes over them, and Assi repulsed them in the fourth + year of his reign. On the whole, they maintained Egypt in the position of + prosperity and splendour to which their predecessors had raised it. + </p> + <p> + In one respect they even increased it. Egypt was not so far isolated from + the rest of the world as to prevent her inhabitants from knowing, either + by personal contact or by hearsay, at least some of the peoples dwelling + outside Africa, to the north and east. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0035" id="linkBimage-0035"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/217.jpg" width="100%" + alt="217.jpg Triumphal Bas-relief of Pharaoh SahÛrÛ, on The Rocks of Wady Magharah. " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the water-colour published in + Lepsius, <i>Denhn.</i>, i. pl. 8, No. 2 +</pre> + <p> + They knew that beyond the “Very Green,” almost at the foot of the + mountains behind which the sun travelled during the night, stretched + fertile islands or countries and nations without number, some barbarous or + semi-barbarous, others as civilized as they were themselves. They cared + but little by what names they were known, but called them all by a common + epithet, the Peoples beyond the Seas, “Haûi-nîbû.” If they travelled in + person to collect the riches which were offered to them by these peoples + in exchange for the products of the Nile, the Egyptians could not have + been the unadventurous and home-loving people we have imagined. They + willingly left their own towns in pursuit of fortune or adventure, and the + sea did not inspire them with fear or religious horror. The ships which + they launched upon it were built on the model of the Nile boats, and only + differed from the latter in details which would now pass unnoticed. The + hull, which was built on a curved keel, was narrow, had a sharp stem and + stern, was decked from end to end, low forward and much raised aft, and + had a long deck cabin: the steering apparatus consisted of one or two + large stout oars, each supported on a forked post and managed by a + steersman. It had one mast, sometimes composed of a single tree, sometimes + formed of a group of smaller masts planted at a slight distance from each + other, but united at the top by strong ligatures and strengthened at + intervals by crosspieces which made it look like a ladder; its single sail + was bent sometimes to one yard, sometimes to two; while its complement + consisted of some fifty men, oarsmen, sailors, pilots, and passengers. + Such were the vessels for cruising or pleasure; the merchant ships + resembled them, but they were of heavier build, of greater tonnage, and + had a higher freeboard. They had no hold; the merchandise had to remain + piled up on deck, leaving only just enough room for the working of the + vessel. They nevertheless succeeded in making lengthy voyages, and in + transporting troops into the enemy’s territory from the mouths of the Nile + to the southern coast of Syria. Inveterate prejudice alone could prevent + us from admitting that the Egyptians of the Memphite period went to the + ports of Asia and to the Haûi-nîbû by sea. Some, at all events, of the + wood required for building* and for joiner’s work of a civil or funereal + character, such as pine, cypress or cedar, was brought from the forests of + Lebanon or those of Amanus. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Cedar-wood must have been continually imported into Egypt. + It is mentioned in the Pyramid texts; in the tomb of Ti, and + in the other tombs of Saqqâra or Gîzeh, workmen are + represented making furniture of it. Chips of wood from the + coffins of the VIth dynasty, detached in ancient times and + found in several mastabas at Saqqâra, have been pronounced + to be, some cedar of Lebanon, others a species of pine which + still grows in Cilicia and in the north of Syria. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0036" id="linkBimage-0036"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/219.jpg" width="100%" + alt="219.jpg Passenger Vessel Under Sail " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch- + Bey; the picture is taken from one of the walls of the tomb + of Api, discovered at Saqqâra, and now preserved in the + Gîzeh Museum (VIth dynasty). The man standing at the bow is + the fore-pilot, whose duty it is to take soundings of the + channel, and to indicate the direction of the vessel to the + pilot aft, who works the rudder-oars. +</pre> + <p> + Beads of amber are still found near Abydos in the tombs of the oldest + necropolis, and we may well ask how many hands they had passed through + before reaching the banks of the Nile from the shores of the Baltic.* The + tin used to alloy copper for making bronze,** and perhaps bronze itself, + entered doubtless by the same route as the amber. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I have picked up in the tombs of the VIth dynasty at Kom- + es-Sultan, and in the part of the necropolis of Abydos + containing the tombs of the XIth and XIIth dynasties, a + number of amber beads, most of which were very small. + Mariette, who had found some on the same site, and who had + placed them in the Boulaq Museum, mistook them for corroded + yellow or brown glass beads. The electric properties which + they still possess have established their identity. + + ** I may recall the fact that the analysis of some objects + discovered at Mèdûm by Professor Petrie proved that they + were made of bronze, and contained 9.l per cent, of tin; the + Egyptians, therefore, used bronze from the IVth dynasty + downwards, side by side with pure copper. +</pre> + <p> + The tribes of unknown race who then peopled the coasts of the Ægean Sea, + were amongst the latest to receive these metals, and they transmitted them + either directly to the Egyptians or Asiatic intermediaries, who carried + them to the Nile Valley. Asia Minor had, moreover, its treasures of metal + as well as those of wood—copper, lead, and iron, which certain + tribes of miners and smiths, had worked from the earliest times. Caravans + plied between Egypt and the lands of Chaldæan civilization, crossing Syria + and Mesopotamia, perhaps even by the shortest desert route, as far as Ur + and Babylon. The communications between nation and nation were frequent + from this time forward, and very productive, but their existence and + importance are matters of inference, as we have no direct evidence of + them. The relations with these nations continued to be pacific, and, with + the exception of Sinai, Pharaoh had no desire to leave the Nile Valley and + take long journeys to pillage or subjugate countries from whence came so + much treasure. The desert and the sea which protected Egypt on the north + and east from Asiatic cupidity, protected Asia with equal security from + the greed of Egypt. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, towards the south, the Nile afforded an easy means of + access to those who wished to penetrate into the heart of Africa. The + Egyptians had, at the outset, possessed only the northern extremity of the + valley, from the sea to the narrow pass of Silsileh; they had then + advanced as far as the first cataract, and Syene for some time marked the + extreme limit of their empire. At what period did they cross this second + frontier and resume their march southwards, as if again to seek the cradle + of their race? They had approached nearer and nearer to the great bend + described by the river near the present village of Korosko,* but the + territory thus conquered had, under the Vth dynasty, not as yet either + name or separate organization: it was a dependency of the fiefdom of + Elephantine, and was under the immediate authority of its princes. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This appears to follow from a passage in the inscription + of Uni. This minister was raising troops and exacting wood + for building among the desert tribes whose territories + adjoined at this part of the valley: the manner in which the + requisitions were effected shows that it was not a question + of a new exaction, but a familiar operation, and + consequently that the peoples mentioned had been under + regular treaty obligations to the Egyptians, at least for + some time previously. +</pre> + <p> + Those natives who dwelt on the banks of the river appear to have offered + but a slight resistance to the invaders: the desert tribes proved more + difficult to conquer. The Nile divided them into two distinct bodies. On + the right side, the confederation of the Uaûaiu spread in the direction of + the Bed Sea, from the district around Ombos to the neighbourhood of + Korosko, in the valleys now occupied by the Ababdehs: it was bounded on + the south by the Mâzaiû tribes, from whom our contemporary Mâazeh have + probably descended. The Amamiu were settled on the left bank opposite to + the Mâzaiû, and the country of Iritît lay facing the territory of the + Uaûaiu. None of these barbarous peoples were subject to Egypt, but they + all acknowledged its suzerainty,—a somewhat dubious one, indeed, + analogous to that exercised over their descendants by the Khedives of + to-day. The desert does not furnish them with the means of subsistence: + the scanty pasturages of their wadys support a few flocks of sheep and + asses, and still fewer oxen, but the patches of cultivation which they + attempt in the neighbourhood of springs, yield only a poor produce of + vegetables or dourah. They would literally die of starvation were they not + able to have access to the banks of the Nile for provisions. On the other + hand, it is a great temptation to them to fall unawares on villages or + isolated habitations on the outskirts of the fertile lands, and to carry + off cattle, grain, and male and female slaves; they would almost always + have time to reach the mountains again with their spoil and to protect + themselves there from pursuit, before even the news of the attack could + reach the nearest police station. Under treaties concluded with the + authorities of the country, they are permitted to descend into the plain + in order to exchange peaceably for corn and dourah, the acacia-wood of + their forests, the charcoal that they make, gums, game, skins of animals, + and the gold and precious stones which they get from their mines: they + agree in return to refrain from any act of plunder, and to constitute a + desert police, provided that they receive a regular pay. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0037" id="linkBimage-0037"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/223.jpg" width="100%" + alt="223.jpg Map of Nubia in the Time Of The Memphite Empire " /> + </div> + <p> + The same arrangement existed in ancient times. The tribes hired themselves + out to Pharaoh. They brought him beams of “sont” at the first demand, when + he was in need of materials to build a fleet beyond the first cataract. + They provided him with bands of men ready armed, when a campaign against + the Libyans or the Asiatic tribes forced him to seek recruits for his + armies: the Mâzaiû entered the Egyptian service in such numbers, that + their name served to designate the soldiery in general, just as in Cairo + porters and night watchmen are all called Berberines. Among these people + respect for their oath of fealty yielded sometimes to their natural + disposition, and they allowed themselves to be carried away to plunder the + principalities which they had agreed to defend: the colonists in Nubia + were often obliged to complain of their exactions. When these exceeded all + limits, and it became impossible to wink at their misdoings any longer, + light-armed troops were sent against them, who quickly brought them to + reason. As at Sinai, these were easy victories. They recovered in one + expedition what the Ûaûaiû had stolen in ten, both in flocks and fellahîn, + and the successful general perpetuated the memory of his exploits by + inscribing, as he returned, the name of Pharaoh on some rock at Syene or + Elephantine: we may surmise that it was after this fashion that Usirkaf, + Nofiririkerî, and Unas carried on the wars in Nubia. Their armies probably + never went beyond the second cataract, if they even reached so far: + further south the country was only known by the accounts of the natives or + by the few merchants who had made their way into it. Beyond the Mâzaiû, + but still between the Nile and the Red Sea, lay the country of Pûanît, + rich in ivory, ebony, gold, metals, gums, and sweet-smelling resins. When + some Egyptian, bolder than his fellows, ventured to travel thither, he + could choose one of several routes for approaching it by land or sea. The + navigation of the Red Sea was, indeed, far more frequent than is usually + believed, and the same kind of vessels in which the Egyptians coasted + along the Mediterranean, conveyed them, by following the coast of Africa, + as far as the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. They preferred, however, to reach + it by land, and they returned with caravans of heavily laden asses and + slaves. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0038" id="linkBimage-0038"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/225.jpg" width="100%" + alt="225.jpg Head of an Inhabitant Of PÛanÎt " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Professor + Petrie. This head was taken from the bas-relief at Karnak, + on which the Pharaoh Harmhabi of the XVIIIth dynasty + recorded his victories over the peoples of the south of + Egypt. +</pre> + <p> + All that lay beyond Pûanît was held to be a fabulous region, a kind of + intermediate boundary land between the world of men and that of the gods, + the “Island of the Double,” “Land of the Shades,” where the living came + into close contact with the souls of the departed. It was inhabited by the + Dangas, tribes of half-savage dwarfs, whose grotesque faces and wild + gestures reminded the Egyptians of the god Bîsû (Bes). The chances of war + or trade brought some of them from time to time to Pûanît, or among the + Amamiû: the merchant who succeeded in acquiring and bringing them to Egypt + had his fortune made. Pharaoh valued the Dangas highly, and was anxious to + have some of them at any price among the dwarfs with whom he loved to be + surrounded; none knew better than they the dance of the god—that to + which Bîsû unrestrainedly gave way in his merry moments. Towards the end + of his reign Assi procured one which a certain Biûrdidi had purchased in + Pûanît. Was this the first which had made its appearance at court, or had + others preceded it in the good graces of the Pharaohs? His wildness and + activity, and the extraordinary positions which he assumed, made a lively + impression upon the courtiers of the time, and nearly a century later + there were still reminiscences of him. + </p> + <p> + A great official born in the time of Shopsiskaf, and living on to a great + age into the reign of Nofiririkerî, is described on his tomb as the + “Scribe of the House of Books.” This simple designation, occurring + incidentally among two higher titles, would have been sufficient in itself + to indicate the extraordinary development which Egyptian civilization had + attained at this time. The “House of Books” was doubtless, in the first + place, a depository of official documents, such as the registers of the + survey and taxes, the correspondence between the court and the provincial + governors or feudal lords, deeds of gift to temples or individuals, and + all kinds of papers required in the administration of the State. It + contained I also, however, literary works, many of which even at this + early date were already old, prayers drawn up during the first dynasties, + devout poetry belonging to times prior to the misty personage called Mini—hymns + to the gods of light, formulas of black magic, collections of mystical + works, such as the “Book of the Dead” * and the “Ritual of the Tomb;” + scientific treatises on medicine, geometry, mathematics, and astronomy; + manuals of practical morals; and lastly, romances, or those marvellous + stories which preceded the romance among Oriental peoples. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The “Book of the Dead” must have existed from + prehistoric times, certain chapters excepted, whose + relatively modern origin has been indicated by those who + ascribe the editing of the work to the time of the first + human dynasties. +</pre> + <p> + All these, if we had them, would form “a library much more precious to us + than that of Alexandria;” unfortunately up to the present we have been + able to collect only insignificant remains of such rich stores. In the + tombs have been found here and there fragments of popular songs. The + pyramids have furnished almost intact a ritual of the dead which is + distinguished by its verbosity, its numerous pious platitudes, and obscure + allusions to things of the other world; but, among all this trash, are + certain portions full of movement and savage vigour, in which poetic glow + and religious emotion reveal their presence in a mass of mythological + phraseology. In the Berlin Papyrus we may read the end of a philosophic + dialogue between an Egyptian and his soul, in which the latter applies + himself to show that death has nothing terrifying to man. “I say to myself + every day: As is the convalescence of a sick person, who goes to the court + after his affliction, such is death.... I say to myself every day: As is + the inhaling of the scent of a perfume, as a seat under the protection of + an outstretched curtain, on that day, such is death.... I say to myself + every day: As the inhaling of the odour of a garden of flowers, as a seat + upon the mountain of the Country of Intoxication, such is death.... I say + to myself every day: As a road which passes over the flood of inundation, + as a man who goes as a soldier whom nothing resists, such is death.... I + say to myself every day: As the clearing again of the sky, as a man who + goes out to catch birds with a net, and suddenly finds himself in an + unknown district, such is death.” Another papyrus, presented by Prisse + d’Avennes to the <i>Bibliothèque Nationale</i>, Paris, contains the only + complete work of their primitive wisdom which has come down to us. It was + certainly transcribed before the XVIIIth dynasty, and contains the works + of two classic writers, one of whom is assumed to have lived under the + IIIrd and the other under the Vth dynasty; it is not without reason, + therefore, that it has been called “the oldest book in the world.” The + first leaves are wanting, and the portion preserved has, towards its end, + the beginning of a moral treatise attributed to Qaqimnî, a contemporary of + Hûni. Then followed a work now lost: one of the ancient possessors of the + papyrus having effaced it with the view of substituting for it another + piece, which was never transcribed. + </p> + <p> + The last fifteen pages are occupied by a kind of pamphlet, which has had a + considerable reputation, under the name of the “Proverbs of Phtahhotpû.” + </p> + <p> + This Phtahhotpû, a king’s son, flourished under Menkaûhorû and Assi: his + tomb is still to be seen in the necropolis of Saqqâra. He had sufficient + reputation to permit the ascription to him, without violence to + probability, of the editing of a collection of political and moral maxims + which indicate a profound knowledge of the court and of men generally. It + is supposed that he presented himself, in his declining years, before the + Pharaoh Assi, exhibited to him the piteous state to which old age had + reduced him, and asked authority to hand down for the benefit of posterity + the treasures of wisdom which he had stored up in his long career. The + nomarch Phtahhotpû says: “‘Sire, my lord, when age is at that point, and + decrepitude has arrived, debility comes and a second infancy, upon which + misery falls heavily every day: the eyes become smaller, the ears + narrower, strength is worn out while the heart continues to beat; the + mouth is silent and speaks no more; the heart becomes darkened and no + longer remembers yesterday; the bones become painful, everything which was + good becomes bad, taste vanishes entirely; old age renders a man miserable + in every respect, for his nostrils close up, and he breathes no longer, + whether he rises up or sits down. If the humble servant who is in thy + presence receives an order to enter on a discourse befitting an old man, + then I will tell to thee the language of those who know the history of the + past, of those who have heard the gods; for if thou conductest thyself + like them, discontent shall disappear from among men, and the two lands + shall work for thee!’ The majesty of this god says: ‘Instruct me in the + language of old times, for it will work a wonder for the children of the + nobles; whosoever enters and understands it, his heart weighs carefully + what it says, and it does not produce satiety.’” We must not expect to + find in this work any great profundity of thought. Clever analyses, subtle + discussions, metaphysical abstractions, were not in fashion in the time of + Phtahhotpû. Actual facts were preferred to speculative fancies: man + himself was the subject of observation, his passions, his habits, his + temptations and his defects, not for the purpose of constructing a system + therefrom, but in the hope of reforming the imperfections of his nature + and of pointing out to him the road to fortune. Phtahhotpû, therefore, + does not show much invention or make deductions. He writes down his + reflections just as they occur to him, without formulating them or drawing + any conclusion from them as a whole. Knowledge is indispensable to getting + on in the world; hence he recommends knowledge. Gentleness to subordinates + is politic, and shows good education; hence he praises gentleness. He + mingles advice throughout on the behaviour to be observed in the various + circumstances of life, on being introduced into the presence of a haughty + and choleric man, on entering society, on the occasion of dining with a + dignitary, on being married. “If thou art wise, thou wilt go up into thine + house, and love thy wife at home; thou wilt give her abundance of food, + thou wilt clothe her back with garments; all that covers her limbs, her + perfumes, is the joy of her life; as long as thou lookest to this, she is + as a profitable field to her master.” To analyse such a work in detail is + impossible: it is still more impossible to translate the whole of it. The + nature of the subject, the strangeness of certain precepts, the character + of the style, all tend to disconcert the reader and to mislead him in his + interpretations. From the very earliest times ethics has been considered + as a healthy and praiseworthy subject in itself, but so hackneyed was it, + that a change in the mode of expressing it could alone give it freshness. + Phtahhotpû is a victim to the exigencies of the style he adopted. Others + before him had given utterance to the truths he wished to convey: he was + obliged to clothe them in a startling and interesting form to arrest the + attention of his readers. In some places he has expressed his thought with + such subtlety, that the meaning is lost in the jingle of the words. The + art of the Memphite dynasties has suffered as much as the literature from + the hand of time, but in the case of the former the fragments are at least + numerous and accessible to all. The kings of this period erected temples + in their cities, and, not to speak of the chapel of the Sphinx, we find in + the remains still existing of these buildings chambers of granite, + alabaster and limestone, covered with religious scenes like those of more + recent periods, although in some cases the walls are left bare. Their + public buildings have all, or nearly all, perished; breaches have been + made in them by invading armies or by civil wars, and they have been + altered, enlarged, and restored scores of times in the course of ages; but + the tombs of the old kings remain, and afford proof of the skill and + perseverance exhibited by the architects in devising and carrying out + their plans. Many of the mastabas occurring at intervals between Gîzeh and + Mêdûm have, indeed, been hastily and carelessly built, as if by those who + were anxious to get them finished, or who had an eye to economy; we may + observe in all of them neglect and imperfection,—all the + trade-tricks which an unscrupulous jerry-builder then, as now, could be + guilty of, in order to keep down the net cost and satisfy the natural + parsimony of his patrons without lessening his own profits.* Where, + however, the master-mason has not been hampered by being forced to work + hastily or cheaply, he displays his conscientiousness, and the choice of + materials, the regularity of the courses, and the homogeneousness of the + building leave nothing to be desired; the blocks are adjusted with such + precision that the joints are almost invisible, and the mortar between + them has been spread with such a skilful hand that there is scarcely an + appreciable difference in its uniform thickness.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The similarity of the materials and technicalities of + construction and decoration seem to me to prove that the + majority of the tombs were built by a small number of + contractors or corporations, lay or ecclesiastical, both at + Memphis, under the Ancient, as well as at Thebes, under the + New Empire. + + ** Speaking of the Great Pyramid and of its casing, + Professor Petrie says: “Though the stones were brought as + close as [—] inch, or, in fact, into contact, and the mean + opening of the joint was but [—] inch, yet the builders + managed to fill the joint with cement, despite the great + area of it, and the weight of the stone to be moved—some 16 + tons. To merely place such stones in exact contact at the + sides would be careful work; but to do so with cement in the + joint seems almost impossible.” + </pre> + <p> + The long low flat mass which the finished tomb presented to the eye is + wanting in grace, but it has the characteristics of strength and + indestructibility well suited to an “eternal house.” The façade, however, + was not wanting in a certain graceful severity: the play of light and + shade distributed over its surface by the stelæ, niches, and deep-set + doorways, varied its aspect in the course of the day, without lessening + the impression of its majesty and serenity which nothing could disturb. + The pyramids themselves are not, as we might imagine, the coarse and + ill-considered reproduction of a mathematical figure disproportionately + enlarged. The architect who made an estimate for that of Kheops, must have + carefully thought out the relative value of the elements contained in the + problem which had to be solved—the vertical height of the summit, + the length of the sides on the ground line, the angle of pitch, the + inclination of the lateral faces to one another—before he discovered + the exact proportions and the arrangement of lines which render his + monument a true work of art, and not merely a costly and mechanical + arrangement of stones.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Cf. Borchardt’s article, <i>Wie wurden die Boschungen der + Pyramiden bestimmt?</i> in which the author—an architect by + profession as well as an Egyptologist—interprets the + theories and problems of the <i>Rhind mathematical Papyrus</i> in + a new manner, comparing the result with his own + calculations, made from measurements of pyramids still + standing, and in which he shows, by an examination of the + diagrams discovered on the wall of a mastaba at Mêdûm, that + the Egyptian contractors of the Memphite period were, at + that early date, applying the rules and methods of procedure + which we find set forth in the Papyri of Theban times. +</pre> + <p> + The impressions which he desired to excite, have been felt by all who came + after him when brought face to face with the pyramids. From a great + distance they appear like mountain-peaks, breaking the monotony of the + Libyan horizon; as we approach them they apparently decrease in size, and + seem to be merely unimportant inequalities of ground on the surface of the + plain. It is not till we reach their bases that we guess their enormous + size. The lower courses then stretch seemingly into infinity to right and + left, while the summit soars up out of our sight into the sky. “The effect + is gained by majesty and simplicity of form, in the contrast and + disproportion between the stature of man and the immensity of his + handiwork: the eye fails to take it in; it is even difficult for the mind + to grasp it. We see, we may touch hundreds of courses formed of blocks, + two hundred cubic feet in size,... and thousands of others scarcely less + in bulk, and wo are at a loss to know what force has moved, transported, + and raised so great a number of colossal stones, how many men were needed + for the work, what amount of time was required for it, what machinery they + used; and in proportion to our inability to answer these questions, we + increasingly admire the power which regarded such obstacles as trifles.” + </p> + <p> + We are not acquainted with the names of any of the men who conceived these + prodigious works. The inscriptions mention in detail the princes, nobles, + and scribes who presided over all the works undertaken by the sovereign, + but they have never deigned to record the name of a single architect.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The title “mir kaûtû nîbû nîti sûton,” frequently met + with under the Ancient Empire, does not designate the + architects, as many Egyptologists have thought: it signifies + “director of all the king’s works,” and is applicable to + irrigation, dykes and canals, mines and quarries, and all + branches of an engineer’s profession, as well as to those of + the architect’s. The “directors of all the king’s works ” + were dignitaries deputed by Pharaoh to take the necessary + measurements for the building of temples, for dredging + canals, for quarrying stone and minerals; they were + administrators, and not professionals possessing the + technical knowledge of an architect or engineer. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0039" id="linkBimage-0039"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/230.jpg" width="100%" + alt=" 230.jpg Avenue of Sphinxes--karnak " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0040" id="linkBimage-0040"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/230-text.jpg" height="50" width="438" alt=" 230-text.jpg " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0041" id="linkBimage-0041"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/236.jpg" + alt="236.jpg One of the Wooden Panels Of Hosi, in The GÎzeh Museum " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by Emil Brugsch-Bey. +The original is now +in the Gîzeh Museum. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + They were people of humble extraction, living hard lives under fear of the + stick, and their ordinary assistants, the draughtsmen, painters, and + sculptors, were no better off than themselves; they were looked upon as + mechanics of the same social status as the neighbouring shoemaker or + carpenter. The majority of them were, in fact, clever mechanical workers + of varying capability, accustomed to chisel out a bas-relief or set a + statue firmly on its legs, in accordance with invariable rules which they + transmitted unaltered from one generation to another: some were found + among them, however, who displayed unmistakable genius in their art, and + who, rising above the general mediocrity, produced masterpieces. Their + equipment of tools was very simple—iron picks with wooden handles, + mallets of wood, small hammers, and a bow for boring holes. The sycamore + and acacia furnished them with a material of a delicate grain and soft + texture, which they used to good advantage: Egyptian art has left us + nothing which, in purity of Hue and delicacy of modelling, surpasses the + panels of the tomb of Hosi, with their seated or standing male figures and + their vigorously cut hieroglyphs in the same relief as the picture. Egypt + possesses, however, but few trees of suitable fibre for sculptural + purposes, and even those which were fitted for this use were too small and + stunted to furnish blocks of any considerable size. The sculptor, + therefore, turned by preference to the soft white limestone of Turah. + </p> + <p> + He quickly detached the general form of his statue from the mass of stone, + fixed the limits of its contour by means of dimension guides applied + horizontally from top to bottom, and then cut away the angles projecting + beyond the guides, and softened off the outline till he made his modelling + correct. This simple and regular method of procedure was not suited to + hard stone: the latter had to be first chiselled, but when by dint of + patience the rough hewing had reached the desired stage, the work of + completion was not entrusted to metal tools. Stone hatchets were used for + smoothing off the superficial roughnesses, and it was assiduously polished + to efface the various tool-marks left upon its surface. The statues did + not present that variety of gesture, expression, and attitude which we aim + at to-day. They were, above all things, the accessories of a temple or + tomb, and their appearance reflects the particular ideas entertained with + regard to their nature. The artists did not seek to embody in them the + ideal type of male or female beauty: they were representatives made to + perpetuate the existence of the model. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0042" id="linkBimage-0042"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/237.jpg" width="100%" + alt="237.jpg a Sculptor’s Studio, and Egyptian Painters At Work " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a chromolithograph by Prisse + d’Avennes, <i>Histoire de l’Art Égyptien</i>. The original is in + the tomb of Rakhmirî, who lived at Thebes under the XVIIIth + dynasty. The methods which were used did not differ from + those employed by the sculptors and painters of the Memphite + period more than two thousand years previously. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0043" id="linkBimage-0043"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:41%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/238.jpg" + alt="238.jpg Cellarer Coating a Jar With Pitch " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, from +a photograph by Emil +Brugsch-Bey. The original +is now in the Gîzeh Museum. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The Egyptians wished the double to be able to adapt itself easily to its + image, and in order to compass that end, it was imperative that the stone + presentment should be at least an approximate likeness, and should + reproduce the proportions and peculiarities of the living prototype for + whom it was meant. The head had to be the faithful portrait of the + individual: it was enough for the body to be, so to speak, an average one, + showing him at his fullest development and in the complete enjoyment of + his physical powers. The men were always represented in their maturity, + the women never lost the rounded breast and slight hips of their girlhood, + but a dwarf always preserved his congenital ugliness, for his salvation in + the other world demanded that it should be so. Had he been given normal + stature, the double, accustomed to the deformity of his members in this + world, would have been unable to accommodate himself to an upright + carriage, and would not have been in a fit condition to resume his course + of life. + </p> + <p> + The particular pose of the statue was dependent on the social position of + the person. The king, the nobleman, and the master are always standing or + sitting: it was in these postures they received the homage of their + vassals or relatives. The wife shares her husband’s seat, stands upright + beside him, or crouches at his feet as in daily life. The son, if his + statue was ordered while he was a child, wears the dress of childhood; if + he had arrived to manhood, he is represented in the dress and with the + attitude suited to his calling. Slaves grind the grain, cellarers coat + their amphoræ with pitch, bakers knead their dough, mourners make + lamentation and tear their hair. The exigencies of rank clung to the + Egyptians in temple and tomb, wherever their statues were placed, and left + the sculptor who represented them scarcely any liberty. He might be + allowed to vary the details and arrange the accessories to his taste; he + might alter nothing in the attitude or the general likeness without + compromising the end and aim of his work. The statues of the Memphite + period may be counted at the present day by hundreds. + </p> + <p> + Some are in the heavy and barbaric style which has caused them to be + mistaken for primaeval monuments: as, for instance, the statues of Sapi + and his wife, now in the Louvre, which are attributed to the beginning of + the IIIrd dynasty or even earlier. Groups exactly resembling these in + appearance are often found in the tombs of the Vth and VIth dynasties, + which according to this reckoning would be still older than that of Sapi: + they were productions of an inferior studio, and their supposed archaism + is merely the want of skill of an ignorant sculptor. The majority of the + remaining statues are not characterized either by glaring faults or by + striking merits: they constitute an array of honest good-natured folk, + without much individuality of character and no originality. They may be + easily divided into five or six groups, each having a style in common, and + all apparently having been executed on the lines of a few chosen models; + the sculptors who worked for the mastaba contractors were distributed + among a very few studios, in which a traditional routine was observed for + centuries. They did not always wait for orders, but, like our modern + tombstone-makers, kept by them a tolerable assortment of half-finished + statues, from which the purchaser could choose according to his taste. The + hands, feet, and bust lacked only the colouring and final polish, but the + head was merely rough-hewn, and there were no indications of dress; when + the future occupant of the tomb or his family had made their choice, a few + hours of work were sufficient to transform the rough sketch into a + portrait, such as it was, of the deceased they desired to commemorate, and + to arrange his garment according to the latest fashion. If, however, the + relatives or the sovereign* declined to be satisfied with these + commonplace images, and demanded a less conventional treatment of body for + the double of him whom they had lost, there were always some among the + assistants to be found capable of entering into their wishes, and of + seizing the lifelike expression of limbs and features. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It must not be forgotten that the statues were often, like + the tomb itself, given by the king to the man whose services + he desired to reward. His burying-place then bore the + formulary, “By the favour of the king,” as I have mentioned + previously. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0044" id="linkBimage-0044"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:35%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/239.jpg" + alt="239.jpg Baker Kneading his Dough " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by Béchard. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0045" id="linkBimage-0045"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/241.jpg" width="100%" + alt="241.jpg the Sheikh-el Beled in The Gizeh Museum " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey. +</pre> + <p> + We possess at the present day, scattered about in museums, some score of + statues of this period, examples of consummate art,—the Khephrens, + the Kheops, the Anû, the Nofrît, the Râhotpû I have already mentioned, the + “Sheîkh-el-Beled” and his wife, the sitting scribe of the Louvre and that + of Gîzeh, and the kneeling scribe. Kaâpirû, the “Sheîkh-el-Beled,” was + probably one of the directors of the corvée employed to build the Great + Pyramid.* He seems to be coming forward to meet the beholder, with an + acacia staff in his hand. He has the head and shoulders of a bull, and a + common cast of countenance, whose vulgarity is not wanting in energy. The + large, widely open eye has, by a trick of the sculptor, an almost uncanny + reality about it. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It was discovered by Mariette at Saqqâra. “The head, + torso, arms, and even the staff, were intact; but the + pedestal and legs were hopelessly decayed, and the statue + was only kept upright by the sand which surrounded it.” The + staff has since been broken, and is replaced by a more + recent one exactly like it. In order to set up the figure, + Mariette was obliged to supply new feet, which retain the + colour of the fresh wood. By a curious coincidence, Kaâpirû + was an exact portrait of one of the “Sheikhs el-Beled,” or + mayors of the village of Saqqâra: the Arab workmen, always + quick to see a likeness, immediately called it the “Sheikh + el-Beled,” and the name has been retained ever since. +</pre> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="242b THE SITTING SCRIBE IN THE GÎZEH MUSEUM" + src="images/242b.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey. + This scribe was discovered at Saqqâra, by M. de Morgan, in + the beginning of 1893. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0046" id="linkBimage-0046"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:35%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/242.jpg" + alt="242.jpg the Kneeling Scribe in The Gizeh Museum " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a photograph by +Émil Brugsch-Bey. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The socket which holds it has been hollowed out and filled with an + arrangement of black and white enamel; a rim of bronze marks the outline + of the lids, while a little silver peg, inserted at the back of the pupil, + reflects the light and gives the effect of the sparkle of a living glance. + The statue, which is short in height, is of wood, and one would be + inclined to think that the relative plasticity of the material counts for + something in the boldness of the execution, were it not that though the + sitting scribe of the Louvre is of limestone, the sculptor has not shown + less freedom in its composition. We recognize in this figure one of those + somewhat flabby and heavy subordinate officials of whom so many examples + are to be seen in Oriental courts. He is squatting cross-legged on the + pedestal, pen in hand, with the outstretched leaf of papyrus conveniently + placed on the right: he waits, after an interval of six thousand years, + until Pharaoh or his vizier deigns to resume the interrupted dictation. + His colleague at the Gîzeh Museum awakens in us no less wonder at his + vigour and self-possession; but, being younger, he exhibits a fuller and + firmer figure with a smooth skin, contrasting strongly with the deeply + wrinkled appearance of the other, aggravated as it is by his flabbiness. + The “kneeling scribe” preserves in his pose and on his countenance that + stamp of resigned indecision and monotonous gentleness which is impressed + upon subordinate officials by the influence of a life spent entirely under + the fear of the stick. Banofir, on the contrary, is a noble lord looking + upon his vassals passing in file before him: his mien is proud, his head + disdainful, and he has that air of haughty indifférence which is befitting + a favourite of the Pharaoh, possessor of generously bestowed sinecures, + and lord of a score of domains. The same haughtiness of attitude + distinguishes the director of the granaries, Nofir. We rarely encounter a + small statue so expressive of vigour and energy. Sometimes there may be + found among these short-garmented people an individual wrapped and almost + smothered in an immense <i>abayah</i>; or a naked man, representing a + peasant on his way to market, his bag on his left shoulder, slightly bent + under the weight, carrying his sandals in his other hand, lest they should + be worn out too quickly in walking. Everywhere we observe the traits of + character distinctive of the individual and his position, rendered with a + scrupulous fidelity: nothing is omitted, no detail of the characteristics + of the model is suppressed. Idealisation we must not expect, but we have + here an intelligent and sometimes too realistic fidelity. Portraits have + been conceived among other peoples and in other periods in a different + way: they have never been better executed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0047" id="linkBimage-0047"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:26%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/246.jpg" + alt="246.jpg Peasant Going to Market " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by Béchard. The +original is at Gizeh. +Vth dynasty. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The decoration of the sepulchres provided employment for scores of + draughtsmen, sculptors, and painters, whose business it was to multiply in + these tombs scenes of everyday life which were indispensable to the + happiness or comfort of the double. The walls are sometimes decorated with + isolated pictures only, each one of which represents a distinct operation; + more frequently we find traced upon them a single subject whose episodes + are superimposed one upon the other from the ground to the ceiling, and + represent an Egyptian panorama from the Nile to the desert. In the lower + portion, boats pass to and fro, and collide with each other, while the + boatmen come to blows with their boat-hooks within sight of hippopotami + and crocodiles. In the upper portions we see a band of slaves engaged in + fowling among the thickets of the river-bank, or in the making of small + boats, the manufacture of ropes, the scraping and salting of fish. Under + the cornice, hunters and dogs drive the gazelle across the undulating + plains of the desert. Every row represents one of the features of the + country; but the artist, instead of arranging the pictures in perspective, + separated them and depicted them one above the other. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0048" id="linkBimage-0048"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/247.jpg" width="100%" + alt="247.jpg Kofir, the Director of Granaries " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey. + original is in the Gîzeh Museum.—Vth dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0049" id="linkBimage-0049"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:26%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/249.jpg" alt="249.jpg Bas-relief in Ivory " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by Bouriant. The +original is in +private possession. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The groups are repeated in one tomb after another; they are always the + same, but sometimes they are reduced to two or three individuals, + sometimes increased in number, spread out and crowded with figures and + inscriptions. Each chief draughtsman had his book of subjects and texts, + which he combined in various ways, at one time bringing them close + together, at another duplicating or extending them according to the means + put at his disposal or the space he had to cover. The same men, the same + animals, the same features of the landscape, the same accessories, appear + everywhere: it is industrial and mechanical art at its highest. The whole + is, however, harmonious, agreeable to the eye, and instructive. The + conventionalisms of the drawing as well as those of the composition are + very different from ours. Whether it is man or beast, the subject is + invariably presented in outline by the brush, or by the graving tool in + sharp relief upon the background; but the animals are represented in + action, with their usual gait, movement, and play of limbs distinguishing + each species. The slow and measured walk of the ox, the short step, + meditative ears, and ironical mouth of the ass, the calm strength of the + lion at rest, the grimaces of the monkeys, the slender gracefulness of the + gazelle and antelope, are invariably presented with a consummate skill in + drawing and expression. The human figure is the least perfect: every one + is acquainted with those strange figures, whose heads in profile, with the + eye drawn in full face, are attached to a torso seen from the front and + supported by limbs in profile. These are truly anatomical monsters, and + yet the appearance they present to us is neither laughable nor grotesque. + The defective limbs are so deftly connected with those which are normal, + that the whole becomes natural: the correct and fictitious lines are so + ingeniously blent together that they seem to rise necessarily from each + other. The actors in these dramas are constructed in such a paradoxical + fashion that they could not exist in this world of ours; they live + notwithstanding, in spite of the ordinary laws of physiology, and to any + one who will take the trouble to regard them without prejudice, their + strangeness will add a charm which is lacking in works more conformable to + nature. A layer of colour spread over the whole heightens and completes + them. This colouring is never quite true to nature nor yet entirely false. + It approaches reality as far as possible, but without pretending to copy + it in a servile way. The water is always a uniform blue, or broken up by + black zigzag lines; the skin of the men is invariably brown, that of the + women pale yellow. + </p> + <p> + The shade befitting each being or object was taught in the workshops, and + once the receipt for it was drawn up, it was never varied in application. + The effect produced by these conventional colours, however, was neither + discordant nor jarring. The most brilliant colours were placed alongside + each other with extreme audacity, but with a perfect knowledge of their + mutual relations and combined effect. They do not jar with, or exaggerate, + or kill each other: they enhance each other’s value, and by their contact + give rise to half-shades which harmonize with them. The sepulchral + chapels, in cases where their decoration had been completed, and where + they have reached us intact, appear to us as chambers hung with + beautifully luminous and interesting tapestry, in which rest ought to be + pleasant during the heat of the day to the soul which dwells within them, + and to the friends who come there to hold intercourse with the dead. + </p> + <p> + The decoration of palaces and houses was not less sumptuous than that of + the sepulchres, but it has been so completely destroyed that we should + find it difficult to form an idea of the furniture of the living if we did + not see it frequently depicted in the abode of the double. The great + armchairs, folding seats, footstools, and beds of carved wood, painted and + inlaid, the vases of hard stone, metal, or enamelled ware, the necklaces, + bracelets, and ornaments on the walls, even the common pottery of which we + find the remains in the neighbourhood of the pyramids, are generally + distinguished by an elegance and grace reflecting credit on the + workmanship and taste of the makers.* The squares of ivory which they + applied to their linen-chests and their jewel-cases often contained actual + bas-reliefs in miniature of as bold workmanship and as skilful execution + as the most beautiful pictures in the tombs: on these, moreover, were + scenes of private life—dancing or processions bringing offerings and + animals.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The study of the alabaster and diorite vases found near + the pyramids has furnished Petrie with very ingenious views + on the methods among the Egyptians of working hard stone. + Examples of stone toilet or sacrificial bottles are not + unfrequent in our museums: I may mention those in the Louvre + which bear the cartouches of Dadkerî Assi (No. 343), of Papi + I., and of Papi II., the son of Papi I.; not that they are + to be reckoned among the finest, but because the cartouches + fix the date of their manufacture. They came from the + pyramids of these sovereigns, opened by the Arabs at the + beginning of this century: the vase of the VIth dynasty, + which is in the Museum at Florence, was brought from Abydos. + + ** M. Grébaut bought at the Great Pyramids, in 1887, a + series of these ivory sculptures of the Ancient Empire. They + are now at the Gîzeh Museum. Others belonging to the same + find are dispersed among private collections: one of them is + reproduced on p. 249 of this History. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0050" id="linkBimage-0050"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/251.jpg" width="100%" + alt="251.jpg Stele of the Daughter Of Kheops " /> + </div> + <p> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Bochard. + </p> + <p> + One would like to possess some of those copper and golden statues which + the Pharaoh Kheops consecrated to Isis in honour of his daughter: only the + representation of them upon a stele has come down to us; and the fragments + of sceptres or other objects which too rarely have reached us, have + unfortunately no artistic value. + </p> + <p> + A taste for pretty things was common, at least among the upper classes, + including not only those about the court, but also those in the most + distant nomes of Egypt. The provincial lords, like the courtiers of the + palace, took a pride in collecting around them in the other world + everything of the finest that the art of the architect, sculptor, and + painter could conceive and execute. Their mansions as well as their + temples have disappeared, but we find, here and there on the sides of the + hills, the sepulchres which they had prepared for themselves in rivalry + with those of the courtiers or the members of the reigning family. They + turned the valley into a vast series of catacombs, so that wherever we + look the horizon is bounded by a row of historic tombs. Thanks to their + rock-cut sepulchres, we are beginning to know the Nomarchs of the Gazelle + and the Hare, those of the Serpent-Mountain, of Akhmîm, Thinis, + Qasr-es-Sayad, and Aswan,—all the scions, in fact, of that feudal + government which preceded the royal sovereignty on the banks of the Nile, + and of which royalty was never able to entirely disembarrass itself. The + Pharaohs of the IVth dynasty had kept them in such check that we can + hardly find any indications during their reigns of the existence of these + great barons; the heads of the Pharaonic administration were not recruited + from among the latter, but from the family and domestic circle of the + sovereign. It was in the time of the kings of the Vth dynasty, it would + appear, that the barons again entered into favour and gradually gained the + upper hand; we find them in increasing numbers about Anû, Menkaûhorû, and + Assi. Did Unas, who was the last ruler of the dynasty of Elephantine, die + without issue, or were his children prevented from succeeding him by + force? The Egyptian annals of the time of the Ramessides bring the direct + line of Menés to an end with this king. A new line of Memphite origin + begins after him. + </p> + <p> + It is almost certain that the transmission of power was not accomplished + without contention, and that there were many claimants to the crown. One + of the latter, Imhotpû, whose legitimacy was always disputed, has left + hardly any traces of his accession to power,* but Ati established himself + firmly on the throne for a year at least:** he pushed on actively the + construction of his pyramid, and sent to the valley of Hammamât for the + stone of his sarcophagus. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The monuments furnish proof that their contemporaries + considered these ephemeral rulers as so many illegitimate + pretenders. Phtahshopsîsû and his son Sabû-Abibi, who + exercised important functions at the court, mention only + Unas and Teti III.; Uni, who took office under Teti III., + mentions after this king only Papi I. and Mihtimsaûf I. The + official succession was, therefore, regulated at this epoch + in the same way as we afterwards find it in the table of + Saqqâra, Unas, Teti III., Papi I., Mihtimsaûf I., and in the + Royal Canon of Turin, without the intercalation of any other + king. + + ** Brugsch, in his Histoire d’Egypte, pp. 44, 45, had + identified this king with the first Metesouphis of Manetho: + E. de Rougé prefers to transfer him to one of the two + Memphite series after the VIth dynasty, and his opinion has + been adopted by Wiedemann. The position occupied by his + inscription among those of Hamraamât has decided me in + placing him at the end of the Vth or beginning of the VIth + dynasty: this E. Meyer has also done. +</pre> + <p> + We know not whether revolution or sudden death put an end to his activity: + the “Mastabat-el-Faraun” of Saqqâra, in which he hoped to rest, never + exceeded the height which it has at present.* His name was, however, + inscribed in certain official lists,** and a tradition of the Greek period + maintained that he had been assassinated by his guards.*** Teti III. was + the actual founder of the VIth dynasty,**** historians representing him as + having been the immediate successor of Unas. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ati is known only from the Hammamât, inscription dated in + the first year of his reign. He was identified by Brugsch + with the Othoes of Manetho, and this identification has been + generally adopted. M. de Rougé is inclined to attribute to + him as <i>prænomen</i> the cartouche Usirkeri, which is given in + the Table of Abydos between those of Teti III. and Papi I. + Mariette prefers to recognize in Urikeri an independent + Pharaoh of short reign. Several blocks of the Mastabat-el- + Faraun at Saqqâra contain the cartouche of Unas, a fact + which induced Mariette to regard this as the tomb of the + Pharaoh. The excavations of 1881 showed that Unas was + entombed elsewhere, and the indications are in favour of + attributing the mastaba to Ati. We know, indeed, the + pyramids of Teti III., of the two Papis, and of Metesouphis + I.; Ati is the only prince of this period with whose tomb we + are unacquainted. It is thus by elimination, and not by + direct evidence, that the identification has been arrived + at: Ati may have drawn upon the workshops of his predecessor + Unas, which fact would explain the presence on these blocks + of the cartouche of the latter. + + ** Upon that of Abydos, if we agree with E. de Rougé that + the cartouche Usirkeri contains his prænomen; upon that + from which Manetho borrowed, if we admit his identification + with Othoes. + + *** Manetho (Unger’s edition, p. 101), where the form of the + name is Othoes. + + **** He is called Teti Menephtah, with the cartouche + prænomen of Seti I., on a monument of the early part of the + XIXth dynasty, in the Museum at Marseilles: we see him in + his pyramid represented as standing. This pyramid was opened + in 1881, and its chambers are covered with long funerary + inscriptions. It is a work of the time of Seti I., and not a + contemporary production of the time of Menkaûhorû. +</pre> + <p> + He lived long enough to build at Saqqâra a pyramid whose internal chambers + are covered with inscriptions,* and his son succeeded him without + opposition. Papi I. reigned at least twenty years.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The true pronunciation of this name would be Pipi, and of + the one before it Titi. The two other Tetis are Teti I. of + the Ist dynasty, and Zosir-Teti, or Teti II., of the IIIrd. + + ** From fragment 59 of the Royal Canon of Turin, An + inscription in the quarries of Hât-nûbû bears the date of + the year 24: if it has been correctly copied, the reign must + have been four years at least longer than the chronologists + of the time of the Ramessides thought. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0052" id="linkBimage-0052"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/255.jpg" width="100%" + alt="255.jpg the Mastabat-el-faraun, Looking Towards The West Façade " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Béchard. +</pre> + <p> + He manifested his activity in all corners of his empire, in the nomes of + the Said as well as in those of the Delta, and his authority extended + beyond the frontiers by which the power of his immediate predecessors had + been limited. He owned sufficient territory south of Elephantine to regard + Nubia as a new kingdom added to those which constituted ancient Egypt: we + therefore see him entitled in his preamble “the triple Golden Horus,” “the + triple Conqueror-Horus,” “the Delta-Horus,” “the Said-Horus,” “the + Nubia-Horus.” The tribes of the desert furnished him, as was customary, + with recruits for his army, for which he had need enough, for the Bedouin + of the Sinaitic Peninsula were on the move, and were even becoming + dangerous. Papi, aided by Uni, his prime minister, undertook against them + a series of campaigns, in which he reduced them to a state of + helplessness, and extended the sovereignty of Egypt for the time over + regions hitherto unconquered. + </p> + <p> + Uni began his career under Teti.* At first a simple page in the palace,** + he succeeded in obtaining a post in the administration of the treasury, + and afterwards that of inspector of the woods of the royal domain.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The beginning of the first line is wanting, and I have + restored it from other inscriptions of the same kind: “I + was born under Unas.” Uni could not have been born before + Unas; the first office that he filled under Teti III. was + while he was a child or youth, while the reign of Unas + lasted thirty years. + + ** Literally, “crown-bearer.” This was a title applied + probably to children who served the king in his private + apartments, and who wore crowns of natural flowers on their + heads: the crown was doubtless of the same form as those + which we see upon the brows of women on several tombs of the + Memphite epoch. + + *** The word “Khoniti” probably indicates lands with + plantations of palms or acacias, the thinly wooded forests + of Egypt, and also of the vines which belonged to the + personal domain of the Pharaoh. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0051" id="linkBimage-0051"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/253.jpg" + alt="253.jpg the Pharaoh MenkauhorÛ " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by Faucher-Gudin. +Original in the +Louvre +</pre> + </div> + <p> + Papi took him into his friendship at the beginning of his reign, and + conferred upon him the title of “friend,” and the office of head of the + cabinet, in which position he acquitted himself with credit. Alone, + without other help than that of a subordinate scribe, he transacted all + the business and drew up all the documents connected with the harem and + the privy council. He obtained an ample reward for his services. Pharaoh + granted to him, as a proof of his complete satisfaction, the furniture of + a tomb in choice white limestone; one of the officials of the necropolis + was sent to obtain from the quarries at Troiû the blocks required, and + brought back with him a sarcophagus and its lid, a door-shaped stele with + its setting and a table of offerings. He affirms with much + self-satisfaction that never before had such a thing happened to any one; + moreover, he adds, “my wisdom charmed his Majesty, my zeal pleased him, + and his Majesty’s heart was delighted with me.” All this is pure + hyperbole, but no one was surprised at it in Egypt; etiquette required + that a faithful subject should declare the favours of his sovereign to be + something new and unprecedented, even when they presented nothing + extraordinary or out of the common. Gifts of sepulchral furniture were of + frequent occurrence, and we know of more than one instance of them + previous to the VIth dynasty—for example, the case of the physician + Sokhît-niônkhû, whose tomb still exists at Saqqâra, and whom Pharaoh + Sahurî rewarded by presenting him with a monumental stele in stone from + Turah. Henceforth Uni could face without apprehension the future which + awaited him in the other world; at the same time, he continued to make his + way no less quickly in this, and was soon afterwards promoted to the rank + of “sole friend” and superintendent of the irrigated lands of the king. + The “sole friends” were closely attached to the person of their master. In + all ceremonies, their appointed place was immediately behind him, a place + of the highest honour and trust, for those who occupied it literally held + his life in their hands. They made all the arrangements for his + processions and journeys, and saw that the proper ceremonial was + everywhere observed, and that no accident was allowed to interrupt the + progress of his train. Lastly, they had to take care that none of the + nobles ever departed from the precise position to which his birth or + office entitled him. This was a task which required a great deal of tact, + for questions of precedence gave rise to nearly as many heart-burnings in + Egypt as in modern courts. Uni acquitted himself so dexterously, that he + was called upon to act in a still more delicate capacity. Queen Amîtsi was + the king’s chief consort. Whether she had dabbled in some intrigue of the + palace, or had been guilty of unfaithfulness in act or in intention, or + had been mixed up in one of those feminine dramas which so frequently + disturb the peace of harems, we do not know. At any rate, Papi considered + it necessary to proceed against her, and appointed Uni to judge the case. + Aided only by his secretary, he drew up the indictment and decided the + action so discreetly, that to this day we do not know of what crime Amîtsi + was accused or how the matter ended. Uni felt great pride at having been + preferred before all others for this affair, and not without reason, + “for,” says he, “my duties were to superintend the royal forests, and + never before me had a man in my position been initiated into the secrets + of the Royal Harem; but his Majesty initiated me into them because my + wisdom pleased his Majesty more than that of any other of his lieges, more + than that of any other of his mamelukes, more than that of any other of + his servants.” These antecedents did not seem calculated to mark out Uni + as a future minister of war; but in the East, when a man has given proofs + of his ability in one branch of administration, there is a tendency to + consider him equally well fitted for service in any of the others, and the + fiat of a prince transforms the clever scribe of to-day into the general + of to-morrow. No one is surprised, not even the person promoted; he + accepts his new duties without flinching, and frequently distinguishes + himself as much in their performance as though he had been bred to them + from his youth up. When Papi had resolved to give a lesson to the Bedouin + of Sinai, he at once thought of Uni, his “sole friend,” who had so + skilfully conducted the case of Queen Amîtsi. The expedition was not one + of those which could be brought to a successful issue by the troops of the + frontier nomes; it required a considerable force, and the whole military + organization of the country had to be brought into play. “His Majesty + raised troops to the number of several myriads, in the whole of the south + from Elephantine to the nome of the Haunch, in the Delta, in the two + halves of the valley, in each fort of the forts of the desert, in the land + of Iritît, among the blacks of the land of Maza, among the blacks of the + land of Amamît, among the blacks of the land of Ûaûait, among the blacks + of the land of Kaaû, among the blacks of To-Tamû, and his Majesty sent me + at the head of this army. It is true, there were chiefs there, there were + mamelukes of the king there, there were sole friends of the Great House + there, there were princes and governors of castles from the south and from + the north, ‘gilded friends,’ directors of the prophets from the south and + the north, directors of districts at the head of troops from the south and + the north, of castles and towns that each one ruled, and also blacks from + the regions which I have mentioned, but it was I who gave them their + orders—although my post was only that of superintendent of the + irrigated lands of Pharaoh,—so much so that every one of them obeyed + me like the others.” It was not without much difficulty that he brought + this motley crowd into order, equipped them, and supplied them with + rations. At length he succeeded in arranging everything satisfactorily; by + dint of patience and perseverance, “each one took his biscuit and sandals + for the march, and each one of them took bread from the towns, and each + one of them took goats from the peasants.” He collected his forces on the + frontier of the Delta, in the “Isle of the North,” between the “Gate of + Imhotpû” and the “Tell of Horû nib-mâît,” and set out into the desert. He + advanced, probably by Gebel Magharah and Gebel Helal, as far as + Wady-el-Arîsh, into the rich and populous country which lay between the + southern slopes of Gebel Tîh and the south of the Dead Sea: once there he + acted with all the rigour permitted by the articles of war, and paid back + with interest the ill usage which the Bedouin had inflicted on Egypt. + “This army came in peace, it completely destroyed the country of the Lords + of the Sands. This army came in peace, it pulverized the country of the + Lords of the Sands. This army came in peace, it demolished their ‘douars.’ + This army came in peace, it cut down their fig trees and their vines. This + army came in peace, it burnt the houses of all their people. This army + came in peace, it slaughtered their troops to the numbers of many myriads. + This army came in peace, it brought back great numbers of their people as + living captives, for which thing his Majesty praised me more than for + aught else.” * As a matter of fact, these poor wretches were sent off as + soon as taken to the quarries or to the dockyards, thus relieving the king + from the necessity of imposing compulsory labour too frequently on his + Egyptian subjects. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The locality of the tribes against which Uni waged war + can, I think, be fixed by certain details of the campaign, + especially the mention of the oval or circular enclosures + “ûanît” within which they entrenched themselves. These + enclosures, or ndars, correspond to the nadami which are + mentioned by travellers in these regions, and which are + singularly characteristic. The “Lords of the Sands” + mentioned by Uni occupied the naûami country, i.e. the Negeb + regions situated on the edge of the desert of Tih, round + about Aîn-Qadis, and beyond it as far as Akabah and the Dead + Sea. Assuming this hypothesis to be correct, the route + followed by Uni must have been the same as that which was + discovered and described nearly twenty years ago, by + Holland. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0053" id="linkBimage-0053"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:37%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/265.jpg" + alt="265.jpg the Island of Elephantine " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Plan drawn up by Thuillier, +from the Map of the +<i>Commission d’Egypte.</i> +</pre> + </div> + <p> + “His Majesty sent me five times to lead this army in order to penetrate + into the country of the Lords of the Sands, on each occasion of their + revolt against this army, and I bore myself so well that his Majesty + praised me beyond everything.” The Bedouin at length submitted, but the + neighbouring tribes to the north of them, who had no doubt assisted them, + threatened to dispute with Egypt the possession of the territory which it + had just conquered. As these tribes had a seaboard on the Mediterranean, + Uni decided to attack them by sea, and got together a fleet in which he + embarked his army. The troops landed on the coast of the district of Tiba, + to the north of the country of the Lords of the Sands, thereupon “they set + out. I went, I smote all the barbarians, and I killed all those of them + who resisted.” On his return, Uni obtained the most distinguished marks of + favour that a subject could receive, the right to carry a staff and to + wear his sandals in the palace in the presence of Pharaoh. + </p> + <p> + These wars had occupied the latter part of the reign; the last of them + took place very shortly before the death of the sovereign. The domestic + administration of Papi I. seems to have been as successful in its results, + as was his activity abroad. He successfully worked the mines of Sinai, + caused them to be regularly inspected, and obtained an unusual quantity of + minerals from them; the expedition he sent thither, in the eighteenth year + of his reign, left behind it a bas-relief in which are recorded the + victories of Uni over the barbarians and the grants of territory made to + the goddess Hâthor. Work was carried on uninterruptedly at the quarries of + Hatnûbû and Kohanû; building operations were carried on at Memphis, where + the pyramid was in course of erection, at Abydos, whither the oracle of + Osiris was already attracting large numbers of pilgrims, at Tanis, at + Bubastis, and at Heliopolis. The temple of Dendera was falling into ruins; + it was restored on the lines I of the original plans which were + accidentally discovered, and this piety displayed towards one of the most + honoured deities was rewarded, as it deserved to be, by the insertion of + the title of “son of Hâthor” in the royal cartouche. The vassals rivalled + their sovereign in activity, and built new towns on all sides to serve + them as residences, more than one of which was named after the Pharaoh. + The death of Papi I. did nothing to interrupt this movement; the elder of + his two sons by his second wife, Mirirî-ônkhnas, succeeded him without + opposition. Mirnirî Mihtimsaûf I. (Metesouphis) was almost a child when he + ascended the throne. The recently conquered Bedouin gave him no trouble; + the memory of their reverses was still too recent to encourage them to + take advantage of his minority and renew hostilities. Uni, moreover, was + at hand, ready to recommence his campaigns at the slightest provocation. + Metesouphis had retained him in all his offices, and had even entrusted + him with new duties. “Pharaoh appointed me governor-general of Upper + Egypt, from Elephantine in the south to Letopolis in the north, because my + wisdom was pleasing to his Majesty, because my zeal was pleasing to his + Majesty, because the heart of his Majesty was satisfied with me.... When I + was in my place I was above all his vassals, all his mamelukes, and all + his servants, for never had so great a dignity been previously conferred + upon a mere subject. I fulfilled to the satisfaction of the king my office + as superintendent of the South, so satisfactorily, that it was granted to + me to be second in rank to him, accomplishing all the duties of a + superintendent of works, judging all the cases which the royal + administration had to judge in the south of Egypt as second judge, to + render judgment at all hours determined by the royal administration in + this south of Egypt as second judge, transacting as a governor all the + business there was to do in this south of Egypt.” The honour of fetching + the hard stone blocks intended for the king’s pyramid fell to him by + right: he proceeded to the quarries of Abhaît, opposite Sehel, to select + the granite for the royal sarcophagus and its cover, and to those of + Hatnûbû for the alabaster for the table of offerings. The transport of the + table was a matter of considerable difficulty, for the Nile was low, and + the stone of colossal size: Uni constructed on the spot a raft to carry + it, and brought it promptly to Saqqâra in spite of the sandbanks which + obstruct navigation when the river is low.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Prof. Petrie has tried to prove from the passage which + relates to the transport, that the date of the reign of Papi + I. must have been within sixty years of 3240 B.C.; this date + I believe to be at least four centuries too late. It is, + perhaps, to this voyage of Uni that the inscription of the + Vth year of Metesouphis I. refers, given by Blackden-Frazer + in A Collection of Hieratic Graffiti from the Alabaster + Quarry of Rat-nub, pl. xv. 2. +</pre> + <p> + This was not the limit of his enterprise: the Pharaohs had not as yet a + fleet in Nubia, and even if they had had, the condition of the channel was + such as to prevent it from making the passage of the cataract. He demanded + acacia-wood from the tribes of the desert, the peoples of Iritit and + Uaûaît, and from the Mâzaiû, laid down his ships on the stocks, built + three galleys and two large lighters in a single year; during this time + the river-side labourers had cleared five channels through which the + flotilla passed and made its way to Memphis with its ballast of granite. + This was Uni’s last exploit; he died shortly afterwards, and was buried in + the cemetery at Abydos, in the sarcophagus which had been given him by + Papi I. + </p> + <p> + Was it solely to obtain materials for building the pyramid that he had + re-established communication by water between Egypt and Nubia? The + Egyptians were gaining ground in the south every day, and under their rule + the town of Elephantine was fast becoming a depot for trade with the + Soudan.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The growing importance of Elephantine is shown by the + dimensions of the tombs which its princes had built for + themselves, as well as by the number of graffiti + commemorating the visits of princes and functionaries, and + still remaining at the present day. +</pre> + <p> + The town occupied only the smaller half of a long narrow island, which was + composed of detached masses of granite, formed gradually into a compact + whole by accumulations of sand, and over which the Nile, from time + immemorial, had deposited a thick coating of its mud. It is now shaded by + acacias, mulberry trees, date trees, and dôm palms, growing in some places + in lines along the pathways, in others distributed in groups among the + fields. Half a dozen saqiyehs, ranged in a line along the river-bank, + raise water day and night, with scarcely any cessation of their monotonous + creaking. The inhabitants do not allow a foot of their narrow domain to + lie idle; they have cultivated wherever it is possible small plots of + durra and barley, bersim and beds of vegetables. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0054" id="linkBimage-0054"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/266.jpg" width="100%" + alt="266.jpg the Island of Elephantine Seen from The Ruins Of Syenne " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato. In the + foreground are the ruins of the Roman mole built of brick, + which protected the entrance to the harbour of Syene; in the + distance is the Libyan range, surmounted by the ruins of + several mosques and of a Coptic monastery. Cf. the woodcut + on p. 275 of the present work. +</pre> + <p> + A few scattered buffaloes and cows graze in corners, while fowls and + pigeons without number roam about in flocks on the look-out for what they + can pick up. It is a world in miniature, tranquil and pleasant, where life + is passed without effort, in a perpetually clear atmosphere and in the + shade of trees which never lose their leaf. The ancient city was crowded + into the southern extremity, on a high plateau of granite beyond the reach + of inundations. Its ruins, occupying a space half a mile in circumference, + are heaped around a shattered temple of Khnûrnû, of which the most ancient + parts do not date back beyond the sixteenth century before our era. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0055" id="linkBimage-0055"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/267.jpg" width="100%" alt="267.jpg the First Cataract " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Map by Thuillier, from <i>La Description de l’Egypte, Ant</i>., + vol. i. pl. 30, 1. I have added the ancient names in those + cases where it has been possible to identify them with the + modern localities. +</pre> + <p> + It was surrounded with walls, and a fortress of sun-dried brick perched + upon a neighbouring island to the south-west, gave it complete com-mand + over the passages of the cataract. An arm of the river ninety yards wide + separated it from Sûanît, whose closely built habitations were ranged + along the steep bank, and formed, as it were, a suburb. Marshy pasturages + occupied the modern site of Syene; beyond these were gardens, vines, + furnishing wine celebrated throughout the whole of Egypt, and a forest of + date palms running towards the north along the banks of the stream. The + princes of the nome of Nubia encamped here, so to speak, as frontier-posts + of civilization, and maintained frequent but variable relations with the + people of the desert. It gave the former no trouble to throw, as occasion + demanded it, bodies of troops on the right or left sides of the valley, in + the direction of the Red Sea or in that of the Oasis; however little they + might carry away in their raids—of oxen, slaves, wood, charcoal, + gold dust, amethysts, cornelian or green felspar for the manufacture of + ornaments—it was always so much to the good, and the treasury of the + prince profited by it. They never went very far in their expeditions: if + they desired to strike a blow at a distance, to reach, for example, those + regions of Pûanît of whose riches the barbarians were wont to boast, the + aridity of the district around the second cataract would arrest the + advance of their foot-soldiers, while the rapids of Wady Haifa would offer + an almost impassable barrier to their ships. In such distant operations + they did not have recourse to arms, but disguised themselves as peaceful + merchants. An easy road led almost direct from their capital to Ras Banât, + which they called the “Head of Nekhabît,” on the Red Sea; arrived at the + spot where in later times stood one of the numerous Berenices, and having + quickly put together a boat from the wood of the neighbouring forest, they + made voyages along the coast, as far as the Sinaitic peninsula and the + Hirû-Shâîtû on the north, as well as to the land of Pûânît itself on the + south. The small size of these improvised vessels rendered such + expeditions dangerous, while it limited their gain; they preferred, + therefore, for the most part the land journey. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0056" id="linkBimage-0056"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/269.jpg" width="100%" + alt="269.jpg Small Wady, Five Hours Beyond Ed-doueÎg, on The Road to the Red Sea " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Golénischeff. +</pre> + <p> + It was fatiguing and interminable: donkeys—the only beast of burden + they were acquainted with, or, at least, employed—could make but + short stages, and they spent months upon months in passing through + countries which a caravan of camels would now traverse in a few weeks.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The <i>History of the Peasant</i>, in the Berlin Papyri Nos. + ii. and iv., affords us a good example of the use made of + pack-asses; the hero was on his way across the desert, from + the “Wady Natrûn” to Henasieh, with a quantity of merchandise + which he intended to sell, when an unscrupulous artisan, + under cover of a plausible pretext, stole his train of pack- + asses and their loads. Hirkhûf brought back with him a + caravan of three hundred asses from one of his journeys; cf. + p. 278 of the present work. +</pre> + <p> + The roads upon which they ventured were those which, owing to the + necessity for the frequent watering of the donkeys and the impossibility + of carrying with them adequate supplies of water, were marked out at + frequent intervals by wells and springs, and were therefore necessarily of + a tortuous and devious character. Their choice of objects for barter was + determined by the smallness of their bulk and weight in comparison with + their value. The Egyptians on the one side were provided with stocks of + beads, ornaments, coarse cutlery, strong perfumes, and rolls of white or + coloured cloth, which, after the lapse of thirty-five centuries, are + objects still coveted by the peoples of Africa. The aborigines paid for + these articles of small value, in gold, either in dust or in bars, in + ostrich feathers, lions’ and leopards’ skins, elephants’ tusks, cowrie + shells, billets of ebony, incense, and gum arabic. Considerable value was + attached to cynocephali and green monkeys, with which the kings or the + nobles amused themselves, and which they were accustomed to fasten to the + legs of their chairs on days of solemn reception; but the dwarf, the + Danga, was the rare commodity which was always in demand, but hardly ever + attainable.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Domichen, <i>Geographische Inschriften</i>, vol. i. xxxi. 1. 1, + where the dwarfs and pigmies who came to the court of the + king, in the period of the Ptolemies, to serve in his + household, are mentioned. Various races of diminutive + stature, which have since been driven down to the upper + basin of the Congo, formerly extended further northward, and + dwelt between Darfûr and the marshes of Bahr-el-Ghazâl. As + to the Danga, cf. what has been said on p. 226 of the + present work. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0057" id="linkBimage-0057"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/270.jpg" width="100%" + alt="270.jpg the Rocks of The Island Of Sehêl, With Some Of The Votive Inscriptions " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph taken by Dévèria in 1864. +</pre> + <p> + Partly by commerce, and partly by pillage, the lords of Elephantine became + rapidly wealthy, and began to play an important part among the nobles of + the Said: they were soon obliged to take serious precautions against the + cupidity which their wealth excited among the tribes of Konusît. They + entrenched themselves behind a wall of sun-dried brick, some seven and a + half miles long, of which the ruins are still an object of wonder to the + traveller. It was flanked towards the north by the ramparts of Syene, and + followed pretty regularly the lower course of the valley to its abutment + at the port of Mahatta opposite Philas: guards distributed along it, kept + an eye upon the mountain, and uttered a call to arms, when the enemy came + within sight. Behind this bulwark the population felt quite at ease, and + could work without fear at the granite quarries on behalf of the Pharaoh, + or pursue in security their callings of fishermen and sailors. The + inhabitants of the village of Satît and of the neighbouring islands + claimed from earliest times the privilege of piloting the ships which went + up and down the rapids, and of keeping clear the passages which were used + for navigation. They worked under the protection of their goddesses Anûkît + and Satît: travellers of position were accustomed to sacrifice in the + temple of the goddesses at Sehêl, and to cut on the rock votive + inscriptions in their honour, in gratitude for the prosperous voyage + accorded to them. We meet their scrawls on every side, at the entrance and + exit of the cataract, and on the small islands where they moored their + boats at nightfall during the four or five days required for the passage; + the bank of the stream between Elephantine and Philæ is, as it were, an + immense visitors’ book, in which every generation of Ancient Egypt has in + turn inscribed itself. The markets and streets of the twin cities must + have presented at that time the same motley blending of types and costumes + which we might have found some years back in the bazaars of modern Syene. + Nubians, negroes of the Soudan, perhaps people from Southern Arabia, + jostled there with Libyans and Egyptians of the Delta. What the princes + did to make the sojourn of strangers agreeable, what temples they + consecrated to their god Khnûmû and his companions, in gratitude for the + good things he had bestowed upon them, we have no means of knowing up to + the present. Elephantine and Syene have preserved for us nothing of their + ancient edifices; but the tombs which they have left tell us their + history. They honeycomb in long lines the sides of the steep hill which + looks down upon the whole extent of the left bank of the Nile opposite the + narrow channel of the port of Aswan. A rude flight of stone steps led from + the bank to the level of the sepulchres. The mummy having been carried + slowly on the shoulders of the bearers to the platform, was deposited for + a moment at the entrance cf the chapel. The decoration of the latter was + rather meagre, and was distinguished neither by the delicacy of its + execution nor by the variety of the subjects. More care was bestowed upon + the exterior, and upon the walls on each side of the door, which could be + seen from the river or from the streets of Elephantine. An inscription + borders the recess, and boasts to every visitor of the character of the + occupant: the portrait of the deceased, and sometimes that of his son, + stand to the right and left: the scenes devoted to the offerings come + next, when an artist of sufficient skill could be found to engrave them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0058" id="linkBimage-0058"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/275.jpg" width="100%" + alt="275.jpg the Mountain of Aswan and The Tombs Of The Princes of Elephantine " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger. The + entrance to the tombs are halfway up; the long trench, + cutting the side of the mountain obliquely, shelters the + still existing steps which led to the tombs of Pharaonic + times. On the sky-line may be noted the ruins of several + mosques and Coptic monasteries. +</pre> + <p> + The expeditions of the lords of Elephantine, crowned as they frequently + were with success, soon attracted the attention of the Pharaohs: + Metesouphis deigned to receive in person at the cataract the homage of the + chiefs of Ûaûaît and Iritît and of the Màzaiû during the early days of the + fifth year of his reign.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The words used in the inscription, “The king himself went + and returned, ascending the mountain to see what there was + on the mountain,” prove that Metesouphis inspected the + quarries in person. Another inscription, discovered in 1893, + gives the year V. as the date of his journey to Elephantine, + and adds that he had negotiations with the heads of the four + great Nubian races. +</pre> + <p> + The most celebrated caravan guide at this time was Hirkhûf, own cousin to + Mikhû, Prince of Elephantine. He had entered upon office under the + auspices of his father Iri, “the sole friend.” A king whose name he does + not mention, but who was perhaps Unas, more probably Papi I., despatched + them both to the country of the Amamît. The voyage occupied seven months, + and was extraordinarily successful: the sovereign, encouraged by this + unexpected good fortune, resolved to send out a fresh expedition. Hirkhûf + had the sole command of it; he made his way through Iritît, explored the + districts of Satir and Darros, and retraced his steps after an absence of + eight months. He brought back with him a quantity of valuable commodities, + “the like of which no one had ever previously brought back.” He was not + inclined to regain his country by the ordinary route: he pushed boldly + into the narrow wadys which furrow the territory of the people of Iritît, + and emerged upon the region of Situ, in the neighbourhood of the cataract, + by paths in which no official traveller who had visited the Amamît had up + to this time dared to travel. A third expedition which started out a few + years later brought him into regions still less frequented. It set out by + the Oasis route, proceeded towards the Amamît, and found the country in an + uproar. The sheikhs had convoked their tribes, and were making + preparations to attack the Timihû “towards the west corner of the heaven,” + in that region where stand the pillars which support the iron firmament at + the setting sun. The Timihû were probably Berbers by race and language. + Their tribes, coming from beyond the Sahara, wandered across the frightful + solitudes which bound the Nile Valley on the west. The Egyptians had + constantly to keep a sharp look out for them, and to take precautions + against their incursions; having for a long time acted only on the + defensive, they at length took the offensive, and decided, not without + religious misgivings, to pursue them to their retreats. As the inhabitants + of Mendes and of Busiris had relegated the abode of their departed to the + recesses of the impenetrable marshes of the Delta, so those of Siût and + Thinis had at first believed that the souls of the deceased sought a home + beyond the sands: the good jackal Anubis acted as their guide, through the + gorge of the Cleft or through the gate of the Oven, to the green islands + scattered over the desert, where the blessed dwelt in peace at a + convenient distance from their native cities and their tombs. They + constituted, as we know, a singular folk, those <i>uiti</i> whose members + dwelt in coffins, and who had put on the swaddling clothes of the dead; + the Egyptians called the Oasis which they had colonised, the land of the + shrouded, or of mummies, <i>ûît</i>, and the name continued to designate + it long after the advance of geographical knowledge had removed this + paradise further towards the west. The Oases fell one after the other into + the hands of frontier princes—that of Bahnesa coming under the + dominion of the lord of Oxyrrhynchus, that of Dakhel under the lords of + Thinis. The Nubians of Amamît had relations, probably, with the Timihû, + who owned the Oasis of Dush—a prolongation of that of Dakhel, on the + parallel of Elephantine. Hirkhûf accompanied the expedition to the Amamît, + succeeded in establishing peace among the rival tribes, and persuaded them + “to worship all the gods of Pharaoh:” he afterwards reconciled the Iritît, + Amamît, and Ûaûaît, who lived in a state of perpetual hostility to each + other, explored their valleys, and collected from them such quantities of + incense, ebony, ivory, and skins that three hundred asses were required + for their transport. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0059" id="linkBimage-0059"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/278.jpg" width="100%" + alt="278.jpg HirkhÛf Receiving Posthumous Homage at the Door Of his Tomb from His Son " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph, taken in 1892, by + Alexander Gayet. +</pre> + <p> + He was even fortunate enough to acquire a Danga from the land of ghosts, + resembling the one brought from Pûanît by Biûrdidi in the reign of Assi + eighty years before. Metesouphis, in the mean time, had died, and his + young brother and successor, Papi II., had already been a year upon the + throne. The new king, delighted to possess a dwarf who could perform “the + dance of the god,” addressed a rescript to Hirkhuf to express his + satisfaction; at the same time he sent him a special messenger, Uni, a + distant relative to Papi I.‘s minister, who was to invite him to come and + give an account of his expedition. The boat in which the explorer embarked + to go down to Memphis, also brought the Danga, and from that moment the + latter became the most important personage of the party. For him all the + royal officials, lords, and sacerdotal colleges hastened to prepare + provisions and means of conveyance; his health was of greater importance + than that of his protector, and he was anxiously watched lest he should + escape. “When he is with thee in the boat, let there be cautious persons + about him, lest he should fall into the water; when he rests during the + night, let careful people sleep beside him, in case of his escaping + quickly in the night-time. For my Majesty desires to see this dwarf more + than all the treasures which are being imported from the land of Pûanît.” + Hirkhûf, on his return to Elephantine, engraved the royal letter and the + detailed account of his journeys to the lands of the south, on the façade + of his tomb. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0060" id="linkBimage-0060"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:38%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/282.jpg" + alt="282.jpg Head of the Mummy Of Metesouphis I " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, from +a photograph by Emil +Brugsch-Bey. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + These repeated expeditions produced in course of time more important and + permanent results than the capture of an accomplished dwarf, or the + acquisition of a fortune by an adventurous nobleman. The nations which + these merchants visited were accustomed to hear so much of Egypt, its + industries, and its military force, that they came at last to entertain an + admiration and respect for her, not unmingled with fear: they learned to + look upon her as a power superior to all others, and upon her king as a + god whom none might resist. They adopted Egyptian worship, yielded to + Egypt their homage, and sent the Egyptians presents: they were won over by + civilization before being subdued by arms. We are not acquainted with the + manner in which Nofirkiri-Papi II. turned these friendly dispositions to + good account in extending his empire to the south. The expeditions did not + all prove so successful as that of Hirkhûf, and one at least of the + princes of Elephantine, Papinakhîti, met with his death in the course of + one of them. Papi II. had sent him on a mission, after several others, “to + make profit out of the Ûaûaiû and the Iritît.” He killed considerable + numbers in this raid, and brought back great spoil, which he shared with + Pharaoh; “for he was at the head of many warriors, chosen from among the + bravest,” which was the cause of his success in the enterprise with which + his Holiness had deigned to entrust him. Once, however, the king employed + him in regions which were not so familiar to him as those of Nubia, and + fate was against him. He had received orders to visit the Amu, the Asiatic + tribes inhabiting the Sinaitic Peninsula, and to repeat on a smaller scale + in the south the expedition which Uni had led against them in the north; + he proceeded thither, and his sojourn having come to an end, he chose to + return by sea. To sail towards Pûanît, to coast up as far as the “Head of + Nekhabît,” to land there and make straight for Elephantine by the shortest + route, presented no unusual difficulties, and doubtless more than one + traveller or general of those times had safely accomplished it; + Papinakhîti failed miserably. As he was engaged in constructing his + vessel, the Hirû-Shâîtû fell upon him and massacred him, as well as the + detachment of troops who accompanied him: the remaining soldiers brought + home his body, which was buried by the side of the other princes in the + mountain opposite Syene. Papi II. had ample leisure to avenge the death of + his vassal and to send fresh expeditions to Iritît, among the Amamît and + even beyond, if, indeed, as the author of the chronological Canon of Turin + asserts,* he really reigned for more than ninety years; but the monuments + are almost silent with regard to him, and give us no information about his + possible exploits in Nubia. An inscription of his second year proves that + he continued to work the Sinaitic mines, and that he protected them from + the Bedouin. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The fragments of Manetho and the Canon of Eratosthenes + agree in assigning to him a reign of a hundred years—a fact + which seems to indicate that the missing unit in the Turin + list was nine: Papi II. would have thus died in the hundreth + year of his reign. A reign of a hundred years is impossible: + Mihtimsaûf I. having reigned fourteen years, it would be + necessary to assume that Papi II., son of Papi I., should + have lived a hundred and fourteen years at the least, even + on the supposition that he was a posthumous child. The + simplest solution is to suppose (1) that Papi II. lived a + hundred years, as Ramses II. did in later times, and that + the years of his life were confounded with the years of his + reign; or (2) that, being the brother of Mihtimsaûf I., he + was considered as associated with him on the throne, and + that the hundred years of his reign, including the fourteen + of the latter prince, were identified with the years of his + life. We may, moreover, believe that the chronologists, for. + lack of information on the VIth dynasty, have filled the + blanks in their annals by lengthening the reign of Papi II., + which in any case must have been very long. +</pre> + <p> + On the other hand, the number and beauty of the tombs in which mention is + made of him, bear witness to the fact that Egypt enjoyed continued + prosperity. Recent discoveries have done much to surround this king and + his immediate predecessors with an air of reality which is lacking in many + of the later Pharaohs. + </p> + <p> + Their pyramids, whose familiar designations we have deciphered in the + texts, have been uncovered at Saqqâra, and the inscriptions which they + contain, reveal to us the names of the sovereigns who reposed within. + Unas, Teti III., Papi I., Mete-souphis I., and Papi II. now have as + clearly defined a personality for us as Ramses II. or Seti I.; even the + mummy of Metesouphis has been discovered near his sarcophagus, and can be + seen under glass in the Gîzeh Museum. The body is thin and slender; the + head refined, and ornamented with the thick side-lock of boyhood; the + features can be easily distinguished, although the lower jaw has + disappeared and the pressure of the bandages has flattened the nose. All + the pyramids of the dynasty are of a uniform-type, the model being + furnished by that of Unas. The entrance is in the centre of the northern + façade, underneath the lowest course, and on the ground-level. An inclined + passage, obstructed by enormous stones, leads to an antechamber, whose + walls are partly bare, and partly covered with long columns of + hieroglyphs: a level passage, blocked towards the middle by three granite + barrier, ends in a nearly square chamber; on the left are three low cells + devoid of ornament, and on the right an oblong chamber containing the + sarcophagus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0061" id="linkBimage-0061"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/283.jpg" width="100%" + alt="283.jpg Plan of the Pyramid Of Unas " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + From drawings by Maspero, <i>La Pyramide d’Ounas</i>, in the + <i>Recueil de Travaux</i>, vol. iv. p. 177. +</pre> + <p> + These two principal rooms had high-pitched roofs. They were composed of + large slabs of limestone, the upper edges of which leaned one against the + other, while the lower edges rested on a continuous ledge which ran round + the chamber: the first row of slabs was surmounted by a second, and that + again by a third, and the three together effectively protected the + apartments of the dead against the thrust of the superincumbent mass, or + from the attacks of robbers. The wall-surfaces close to the sarcophagus in + the pyramid of Unas are decorated with many-coloured ornaments and + sculptured and painted doors representing the front of a house: this was, + in fact, the dwelling of the double, in which he resided with the dead + body. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0062" id="linkBimage-0062"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/284.jpg" width="100%" + alt="284.jpg the Sepulchral Chamber in The Pyramid of Unas, And his Sarcophaous " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph, taken in 1881, by Émil + Brugsch-Bey. +</pre> + <p> + The inscriptions, like the pictures in the tombs, were meant to furnish + the sovereign with provisions, to dispel serpents and malevolent + divinities, to keep his soul from death, and to lead him into the bark of + the sun or into the Paradise of Osiris. They constitute a portion of a + vast book, whose chapters are found scattered over the monuments of + subsequent periods. They are the means of restoring to us, not only the + religion but the most ancient language of Egypt: the majority of the + formulas contained in them were drawn up in the time of the earliest human + kings, perhaps even before Menés. + </p> + <p> + The history of the VIth dynasty loses itself in legend and fable. Two more + kings are supposed to have succeeded Papi Nofirkeri, Mirnirî Mihtimsaût + (Metesouphis II.) and Nîtaûqrît (Nitokris). Metesouphis II. was killed, so + runs the tale, in a riot, a year after his accession.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Manetho does not mention this fact, but the legend given + by Herodotus says that Nitokris wished to avenge the king, + her brother and predecessor, who was killed in a revolution; + and it follows from the narrative of the facts that this + anonymous brother was the Metesouphis of Manetho. The Turin + Papyrus assigns a reign of a year and a month to Mihtimsaul- + Metesouphis II. +</pre> + <p> + His sister, Nitokris, the “rosy-cheeked,” to whom, as was the custom, he + was married, succeeded him and avenged his death. She built an immense + subterranean hall; under pretext of inaugurating its completion, but in + reality with a totally different aim, she then invited to a great feast, + and received in this hall, a considerable number of Egyptians from among + those whom she knew to have been instigators of the crime. During the + entertainment, she diverted the waters of the Nile into the hall by means + of a canal which she had kept concealed. This is what is related of her. + They add, that “after this, the queen, of her own will, threw herself into + a great chamber filled with ashes, in order to escape punishment.” She + completed the pyramid of Mykerinos, by adding to it that costly casing of + Syenite which excited the admiration of travellers; she reposed in a + sarcophagus of blue basalt, in the very centre of the monument, above the + secret chamber where the pious Pharaoh had hidden his mummy.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The legend which ascribes the building of the third + pyramid to a woman has been preserved by Herodotus: E. de + Bunsen, comparing it with the observations of Vyse, was + inclined to attribute to Nitokris the enlarging of the + monument, which appears to me to have been the work of + Mykerinos himself. +</pre> + <p> + The Greeks, who had heard from their dragomans the story of the + “Rosy-cheeked Beauty,” metamorphosed the princess into a courtesan, and + for the name of Nitokris, substituted the more harmonious one of Rhodopis, + which was the exact translation of the characteristic epithet of the + Egyptian queen. One day while she was bathing in the river, an eagle stole + one of her gilded sandals, carried it off in the direction of Memphis, and + let it drop in the lap of the king, who was administering justice in the + open air. The king, astonished at the singular occurrence, and at the + beauty of the tiny shoe, caused a search to be made throughout the country + for the woman to whom it belonged: Rhodopis thus became Queen of Egypt, + and could build herself a pyramid. Even Christianity and the Arab conquest + did not entirely efface the remembrance of the courtesan-princess. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0063" id="linkBimage-0063"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/286.jpg" width="100%" + alt="286.jpg the Entrance to The Pyramid of Unas at SaqqÀra " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey. +</pre> + <p> + It is said that the spirit of the Southern Pyramid never appears abroad, + except in the form of a naked woman, who is very beautiful, but whose + manner of acting is such, that when she desires to make people fall in + love with her, and lose their wits, she smiles upon them, and immediately + they draw near to her, and she attracts them towards her, and makes them + infatuated with love; so that they at once lose their wits, and wander + aimlessly about the country. Many have seen her moving round the pyramid + about midday and towards sunset. It is Nitokris still haunting the + monument of her shame and her magnificence.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The lists of the VIth dynasty, with the approximate dates + of the kings, are as follows:— +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0064" id="linkBimage-0064"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/289.jpg" width="100%" + alt="289.jpg Table of the Dates Of The Kings Vith Dynasty " /> + </div> + <p> + After her, even tradition is silent, and the history of Egypt remains a + mere blank for several centuries. Manetho admits the existence of two + other Memphite dynasties, of which the first contains seventy kings during + as many days. Akhthoës, the most cruel of tyrants, followed next, and + oppressed his subjects for a long period: he was at last the victim of + raving madness, and met with his death from the jaws of a crocodile. It is + related that he was of Heracleopolite extraction, and the two dynasties + which succeeded him, the IXth and the Xth, were also Heracleopolitan. The + table of Abydos is incomplete, and the Turin Papyrus, in the absence of + other documents, too mutilated to furnish us with any exact information; + the contemporaries of the Ptolemies were almost entirely ignorant of what + took place between the end of the VIth and the beginning of the XIIth + dynasty; and Egyptologists, not finding any monuments which they could + attribute to this period, thereupon concluded that Egypt had passed + through some formidable crisis out of which she with difficulty extricated + herself.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Marsham (<i>Canon Chronicus</i>, edition, of Leipzig, 1676, p. + 29) had already declared in the seventeenth century that he + felt no hesitation in considering the Heracleopolites as + identical with the successors of Menes-Misraîm, who reigned + over the Mestraea, that is, over the Delta only. The idea of + an Asiatic invasion, analogous to that of the Hyksos, which + was put forward by Mariette, and accepted by Fr. Lenormant, + has found its chief supporters in Germany. Bunsen made of + the Heracleopolitan two subordinate dynasties reigning + simultaneously in Lower Egypt, and originating at + Heracleopolis in the Delta: they were supposed to have been + contemporaries of the last Memphite and first Theban + dynasties. Lepsius accepted and recognized in the + Heracleopolitans of the Delta the predecessors of the + Hyksos, an idea defended by Ebers, and developed by Krall in + his identification of the unknown invaders with the Hirû- + Shâîtû: it has been adopted by Ed. Meyer, and by Petrie. +</pre> + <p> + The so-called Heracleopolites of Manetho were assumed to have been the + chiefs of a barbaric people of Asiatic origin, those same “Lords of the + Sands” so roughly handled by Uni, but who are considered to have invaded + the Delta soon after, settled themselves in Heracleopolis Parva as their + capital, and from thence held sway over the whole valley. They appeared to + have destroyed much and built nothing; the state of barbarism into which + they sank, and to which they reduced the vanquished, explaining the + absence of any monuments to mark their occupation. This hypothesis, + however, is unsupported by any direct proof: even the dearth of monuments + which has been cited as an argument in favour of the theory, is no longer + a fact. The sequence of reigns and details of the revolutions are wanting; + but many of the kings and certain facts in their history are known, and we + are able to catch a glimpse of the general course of events. The VIIth and + VIIIth dynasties are Memphite, and the names of the kings themselves would + be evidence in favour of their genuineness, even if we had not the direct + testimony of Manetho: the one recurring most frequently is that of + Nofirkerî, the prenomen of Papi II., and a third Papi figures in them, who + calls himself Papi-Sonbû to distinguish himself from his namesakes. The + little recorded of them in Ptolemaic times, even the legend of the seventy + Pharaohs reigning seventy days, betrays a troublous period and a rapid + change of rulers.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The explanation of Prof. Lauth, according to which Manetho + is supposed to have made an independent dynasty of the five + Memphite priests who filled the interregnum of seventy days + during the embalming of Nitokris, is certainly very + ingenious, but that is all that can be said for it. The + legendary source from which Manetho took his information + distinctly recorded seventy successive kings, who reigned in + all seventy days, a king a day. +</pre> + <p> + We know as a fact that the successors of Nitokris, in the Royal Turin + Papyrus, scarcely did more than appear upon the throne. Nofirkerî reigned + a year, a month, and a day; Nofîrûs, four years, two months, and a day; + Abu, two years, one month, and a day. Each of them hoped, no doubt, to + enjoy the royal power for a longer period than his predecessors, and, like + the Ati of the VIth dynasty, ordered a pyramid to be designed for him + without delay: not one of them had time to complete the building, nor even + to carry it sufficiently far to leave any trace behind. As none of them + had any tomb to hand his name down to posterity, the remembrance of them + perished with their contemporaries. By dint of such frequent changes in + the succession, the royal authority became enfeebled, and its weakness + favoured the growing influence of the feudal families and encouraged their + ambition. The descendants of those great lords, who under Papi I. and II. + made such magnificent tombs for themselves, were only nominally subject to + the supremacy of the reigning sovereign; many of them were, indeed, + grandchildren of princesses of the blood, and possessed, or imagined that + they possessed, as good a right to the crown as the family on the throne. + Memphis declined, became impoverished, and dwindled in population. Its + inhabitants ceased to build those immense stone mastabas in which they had + proudly displayed their wealth, and erected them merely of brick, in which + the decoration was almost entirely confined to one narrow niche near the + sarcophagus. Soon the mastaba itself was given up, and the necropolis of + the city was reduced to the meagre proportions of a small provincial + cemetery. The centre of that government, which had weighed so long and so + heavily upon Egypt, was removed to the south, and fixed itself at + Heracleopolis the Great. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a name="linkCimage-0005" id="linkCimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/293.jpg" width="100%" alt="293.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0006" id="linkCimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/294.jpg" width="100%" alt="294.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <i>THE FIRST THEBAN EMPIRE</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>THE TWO HERACLEOPOLITAN DYNASTIES AND THE TWELFTH DYNASTY—THE + CONQUEST OF ETHIOPIA, AND THE MAKING OF GREATER EGYPT BY THE THEBAN KINGS.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The principality of Heracleopolis: Achthoës-Khîti and the + Heracleopolitan dynasties—Supremacy of the great barons: the feudal + fortresses, El-Kab and Abydos; ceaseless warfare, the army—Origin of + the Theban principality: the principality of Sidt, and the struggles of + its lords against the princes of Thebes—The kings of the XIth + dynasty and their buildings: the brick pyramids of Abydos and Thebes, and + the rude character of early Theban art.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The XIIth dynasty: Amenemdidît I., his accession, his wars; he shares + his throne with his son Usirtasen I., and the practice of a coregnancy + prevails among his immediate successors—The relations of Egypt with + Asia: the Amû in Egypt and the Egyptians among the Bedouin; the Adventures + of Sinûhît—The mining settlements in the Sinaitic peninsula: + Sarbût-el-Khddim and its chapel to Hâthor.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Egyptian policy in the Nile Valley—Nubia becomes part of Egypt: + works of the Pharaohs, the gold-mines and citadel of Kubân—Defensive + measures at the second cataract: the two fortresses and the Nilometer of + Semnêh—The vile Kush and its inhabitants: the wars against Kûsh and + their consequences; the gold-mines—Expeditions to Pûanît, and + navigation along the coasts of the Bed Sea: the Story of the Shipwrecked + Sailor.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Public works and new buildings—The restoration of the temples of + the Delta: Tanis and the sphinxes of Amenemhâît III., Bubastis, + Heliopolis, and the temple of Usirtasen I.—The increasing importance + of Thebes and Abydos—Heracleopolis and the Fayûm: the monuments of + Begig and of Biahmil, the fields and water-system of the Fayûm; preference + shown by the Pharaohs for this province—The royal pyramids of + Dashdr, Lisht, Ulahûn, and Haiodra.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The part played by the feudal lords under the XIIth dynasty—History + of the princes of Mondît-Khûfûi: Khnûmhotpil, Khîti, Amoni-Amenemhâît—The + lords of Thébes, and the accession of the XIIIth dynasty: the Sovkhotpûs + and the Nfirhotpûs—Completion of the conquest of Nubia; the XIVth + dynasty</i>. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkC2HCH0001" id="linkC2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <a name="linkCimage-0007" id="linkCimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/295.jpg" width="100%" alt="295.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER III—THE FIRST THEBAN EMPIRE + </h2> + <p> + <i>The two Heracleopolitan dynasties and the XIIth dynasty—The + conquest of Ethiopia, and the making of Greater Egypt by the Theban kings.</i> + </p> + <p> + The principality of the Oleander—Nârû—was bounded on the north + by the Memphite nome; the frontier ran from the left bank of the Nile to + the Libyan range, from the neighbourhood of Riqqah to that of Mêdûm. The + principality comprised the territory lying between the Nile and the Bahr + Yûsûf, from the above-mentioned two villages to the Harabshent Canal—a + district known to Greek geographers as the island of Heracleopolis;—it + moreover included the whole basin of the Fâyûm, on the west of the valley. + In very early times it had been divided into three parts: the Upper + Oleander—Nârû Khonîti—the Lower Oleander—Nârû Pahûi—and + the lake land—To-shît; and these divisions, united usually under the + supremacy of one chief, formed a kind of small state, of which + Heracleopolis was always the capital. The soil was fertile, well watered, + and well tilled, but the revenues from this district, confined between the + two arms of the river, were small in comparison with the wealth which + their ruler derived from his hands on the other side of the mountain + range. The Fayûm is approached by a narrow and winding gorge, more than + six miles in length—a depression of natural formation, deepened by + the hand of man to allow a free passage to the waters of the Nile. The + canal which conveys them leaves the Bahr Yûsûf at a point a little to the + north of Heracleopolis, carries them in a swift stream through the gorge + in the Libyan chain, and emerges into an immense amphitheatre, whose + highest side is parallel to the Nile valley, and whose terraced slopes + descend abruptly to about a hundred feet below the level of the + Mediterranean. Two great arms separate themselves from this canal to the + right and left—the Wady Tamieh and the Wady Nazleh; they wind at + first along the foot of the hills, and then again approaching each other, + empty themselves into a great crescent or horn-shaped lake, lying east and + west—the Moeris of Strabo, the Birket-Kerun of the Arabs. A third + branch penetrates the space enclosed by the other two, passes the town of + Shodû, and is then subdivided into numerous canals and ditches, whose + ramifications appear on the map as a network resembling the reticulations + of a skeleton leaf. The lake formerly extended beyond its present limits, + and submerged districts from which it has since withdrawn.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Most of the specialists who have latterly investigated the + Fayûm have greatly exaggerated the extent of the Birket- + Kerûn in historic times. Prof. Petrie states that it covered + the whole of the present province throughout the time of the + Memphite kings, and that it was not until the reign of + Amenemhâît I. that even a very small portion was drained. + Major Brown adopts this theory, and considers that it was + under Amenemhâît III. that the great lake of the Fayûm was + transformed into a kind of artificial reservoir, which was + the Mceris of Herodotus. The city of Shodû, Shadû, Shadît— + the capital of the Fayûm—and its god Sovkû are mentioned + even in the Pyramid texts: and the eastern district of the + Fayûm is named in the inscription of Amten, under the IIIrd + dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0008" id="linkCimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/297.jpg" width="100%" alt="297.jpg Map, the Fayum " /> + </div> + <p> + In years when the inundation was excessive, the surplus waters were + discharged into the lake; when, however, there was a low Nile, the storage + which had not been absorbed by the soil was poured back into the valley by + the same channels, and carried down by the Bahr-Yûsûf to augment the + inundation of the Western Delta. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0009" id="linkCimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/298.jpg" width="100%" + alt="298.jpg Flat-bottomed Vessel of Bronze Open-work Bearing The Cartouches of Pharaoh KhÎti I " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the original in the Louvre + Museum. +</pre> + <p> + The Nile was the source of everything in this principality, and hence they + were gods of the waters who received the homage of the three nomes. The + inhabitants of Heracleopolis worshipped the ram Harshafîtû, with whom they + associated Osiris of Narûdûf as god of the dead; the people of the Upper + Oleander adored a second ram, Khnûmû of Hâsmonîtû, and the whole Fayûm was + devoted to the cult of Sovkû the crocodile. Attracted by the fertility of + the soil, the Pharaohs of the older dynasties had from time to time taken + up their residence in Heracleopolis or its neighbourhood, and one of them—Snofrûi—had + built his pyramid at Mêdûm, close to the frontier of the nome. In + proportion as the power of the Memphites declined, the princes of the + Oleander grew more vigorous and enterprising; and when the Memphite kings + passed away, these princes succeeded their former masters and sat “upon + the throne of Horus.” + </p> + <p> + The founder of the IXth dynasty was perhaps Khîti I., Miribrî, the + Akhthoës of the Greeks. He ruled over all Egypt, and his name has been + found on rocks at the first cataract. A story dating from the time of the + Ramessides mentions his wars against the Bedouin of the regions east of + the Delta; and what Manetho relates of his death is merely a romance, in + which the author, having painted him as a sacrilegious tyrant like Kheops + and Khephren, states that he was dragged down under the water and there + devoured by a crocodile or hippopotamus, the appointed avengers of the + offended gods. His successors seem to have reigned ingloriously for more + than a century. Their deeds are unknown to history, but it was under the + reign of one of them—Nibkaûrî—that a travelling fellah, having + been robbed of his earnings by an artisan, is said to have journeyed to + Heracleopolis to demand justice from the governor, or to charm him by the + eloquence of his pleadings and the variety of his metaphors. It would, of + course, be idle to look for the record of any historic event in this + story; the common people, moreover, do not long remember the names of + unimportant princes, and the tenacity with which the Egyptians treasured + the memories of several kings of the Heracleopolitan line amply proves + that, whether by their good or evil qualities, they had at least made a + lasting impression upon the popular imagination. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0010" id="linkCimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/300.jpg" width="100%" + alt="300.jpg Part of the Walls Of El-kab on The Northern Side " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Grébaut. The + illustration shows a breach where the gate stood, and the + curves of the brickwork courses can clearly be traced both + to the right and the left of the opening. +</pre> + <p> + The history of this period, as far as we can discern it through the mists + of the past, appears to be one confused struggle: from north to south war + raged without intermission; the Pharaohs fought against their rebel + vassals, the nobles fought among themselves, and—what scarcely + amounted to warfare—there were the raids on all sides of pillaging + bands, who, although too feeble to constitute any serious danger to large + cities, were strong enough either in numbers or discipline to render the + country districts uninhabitable, and to destroy national prosperity. The + banks of the Nile already bristled with citadels, where the monarchs lived + and kept watch over the lands subject to their authority: other fortresses + were established wherever any commanding site—such as a narrow part + of the river, or the mouth of a defile leading into the desert—presented + itself. All were constructed on the same plan, varied only by the sizes of + the areas enclosed, and the different thickness of the outer walls. The + outline of their ground-plan formed a parallelogram, whose enclosure wall + was often divided into vertical panels easily distinguished by the + different arrangements of the building material. At El-Kab and other + places the courses of crude brick are slightly concave, somewhat + resembling a wide inverted arch whose outer curve rests on the ground. In + other places there was a regular alternation of lengths of curved courses, + with those in which the courses were strictly horizontal. The object of + this method of structure is still unknown, but it is thought that such + building offers better resistance to shocks of earthquake. The most + ancient fortress at Abydos, whose ruins now lie beneath the mound of + Kom-es-Sultân, was built in this way. Tombs having encroached upon it by + the time of the VIth dynasty, it was shortly afterwards replaced by + another and similar fort, situate rather more than a hundred yards to the + south-east; the latter is still one of the best-preserved specimens of + military architecture dating from the times immediately preceding the + first Theban empire.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * My first opinion was that the second fortress had been + built towards the time of the XVIIIth dynasty at the + earliest, perhaps even under the XXth. Further consideration + of the details of its construction and decoration now leads + me to attribute it to the period between the VIth and XIIth + dynasties. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0011" id="linkCimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/302.jpg" width="100%" + alt="302.jpg the Second Fortress of Abydos--the ShÛnet-ez-zebÎb--as Seen from the East " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey. + Modern Arabs call it Shûnet-ez-Zébïb, the storehouse of + raisins. +</pre> + <p> + The exterior is unbroken by towers or projections of any kind, and + consists of four sides, the two longer of which are parallel to each other + and measure 143 yards from east to west: the two shorter sides, which are + also parallel, measure 85 yards from north to south. The outer wall is + solid, built in horizontal courses, with a slight batter, and decorated by + vertical grooves, which at all hours of the day diversify the surface with + an incessant play of light and shade. When perfect it can hardly have been + less than 40 feet in height. The walk round the ramparts was crowned by a + slight, low parapet, with rounded battlements, and was reached by narrow + staircases carefully constructed in the thickness of the walls. A + battlemented covering wall, about five and a half yards high, encircled + the building at a distance of some four feet. The fortress itself was + entered by two gates, and posterns placed at various points between them + provided for sorties of the garrison. The principal entrance was concealed + in a thick block of building at the southern extremity of the east front. + The corresponding entrance in the covering wall was a narrow opening + closed by massive wooden doors; behind it was a small <i>place d’armes</i>, + at the further end of which was a second gate, as narrow as the first, and + leading into an oblong court hemmed in between the outer rampart and two + bastions projecting at right angles from it; and lastly, there was a gate + purposely placed at the furthest and least obvious corner of the court. + Such a fortress was strong enough to resist any modes of attack then at + the disposal of the best-equipped armies, which knew but three ways of + taking a place by force, viz. scaling, sapping, and breaking open the + gates. The height of the walls effectually prevented scaling. The pioneers + were kept at a distance by the brave, but if a breach were made in that, + the small flanking galleries fixed outside the battlements enabled the + besieged to overwhelm the enemy with stones and javelins as they + approached, and to make the work of sapping almost impossible. Should the + first gate of the fortress yield to the assault, the attacking party would + be crowded together in the courtyard as in a pit, few being able to enter + together; they would at once be constrained to attack the second gate + under a shower of missiles, and did they succeed in carrying that also, it + was at the cost of enormous sacrifice. The peoples of the Nile Valley knew + nothing of the swing battering-ram, and no representation of the + hand-worked battering-ram has ever been found in any of their + wall-paintings or sculptures; they forced their way into a stronghold by + breaking down its gates with their axes, or by setting fire to its doors. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0012" id="linkCimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/304.jpg" width="100%" + alt="304.jpg Attack Upon an Egyptian Fortress by Troops Of Various Arms " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a scene in the tomb of Amoni- + Amenemhâît at Beni-Hasan. +</pre> + <p> + While the sappers were hard at work, the archers endeavoured, by the + accuracy of their aim, to clear the enemy from the curtain, while soldiers + sheltered behind movable mantelets tried to break down the defences and + dismantle the flanking galleries with huge metal-tipped lances. In dealing + with a resolute garrison none of these methods proved successful; nothing + but close siege, starvation, or treachery could overcome its resistance. + </p> + <p> + The equipment of Egyptian troops was lacking in uniformity, and men armed + with slings, or bows and arrows, lances, wooden swords, clubs, stone or + metal axes, all fought side by side. The head was protected by a padded + cap, and the body by shields, which were small for light infantry, but of + great width for soldiers of the line. The issue of a battle depended upon + a succession of single combats between foes armed with the same weapons; + the lancers alone seem to have charged in line behind their huge bucklers. + As a rule, the wounds were trifling, and the great skill with which the + shields were used made the risk of injury to any vital part very slight. + Sometimes, however, a lance might be driven home into a man’s chest, or a + vigorously wielded sword or club might fracture a combatant’s skull and + stretch him unconscious on the ground. With the exception of those thus + wounded and incapacitated for flight, very few prisoners were taken, and + the name given to them, “Those struck down alive”—<i>sokirûonkhû</i>—sufficiently + indicates the method of their capture. The troops were recruited partly + from the domains of military fiefs, partly from tribes of the desert or + Nubia, and by their aid the feudal princes maintained the virtual + independence which they had acquired for themselves under the last kings + of the Memphite line. Here and there, at Hermopolis, Shit, and Thebes, + they founded actual dynasties, closely connected with the Pharaonic + dynasty, and even occasionally on an equality with it, though they assumed + neither the crown nor the double cartouche. Thebes was admirably adapted + for becoming the capital of an important state. It rose on the right bank + of the Nile, at the northern end of the curve made by the river towards + Hermonthis, and in the midst of one of the most fertile plains of Egypt. + Exactly opposite to it, the Libyan range throws out a precipitous spur + broken up by ravines and arid amphitheatres, and separated from the + river-bank by a mere strip of cultivated ground which could be easily + defended. A troop of armed men stationed on this neck of land could + command the navigable arm of the Nile, intercept trade with Nubia at their + pleasure, and completely bar the valley to any army attempting to pass + without having first obtained authority to do so. The advantages of this + site do not seem to have been appreciated during the Memphite period, when + the political life of Upper Egypt was but feeble. Elephantine, El-Kab, and + Koptos were at that period the principal cities of the country. + Elephantine particularly, owing to its trade with the Soudan, and its + constant communication with the peoples bordering the Red Sea, was daily + increasing in importance. Hermonthis, the Aûnû of the South, occupied much + the same position, from a religious point of view, as was held in the + Delta by Heliopolis, the Aûnû of the North, and its god Montû, a form of + the Solar Horus, disputed the supremacy with Mînû, of Koptos. Thebes long + continued to be merely an insignificant village of the Uisit nome and a + dependency of Hermonthis. It was only towards the end of the VIIIth + dynasty that Thebes began to realize its power, after the triumph of + feudalism over the crown had culminated in the downfall of the Memphite + kings. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0013" id="linkCimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/306.jpg" width="100%" + alt="306.jpg Denderah--temple of Tentyra " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0014" id="linkCimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/306-text.jpg" width="100%" + alt="306-text.jpg--temple of Tentyra " /> + </div> + <p> + A family which, to judge from the fact that its members affected the name + of Monthotpû, originally came from Hermonthis, settled in Thebes and made + that town the capital of a small principality, which rapidly enlarged its + borders at the expense of the neighbouring nomes. All the towns and cities + of the plain, Mâdûfc, Hfûîfc, Zorît, Hermonthis, and towards the south, + Aphroditopolis Parva, at the gorge of the Two Mountains (Gebelên) which + formed the frontier of the fief of El-Kab, Kûsît towards the north, + Denderah, and Hû, all fell into the hands of the Theban princes and + enormously increased their territory. After the lapse of a very few years, + their supremacy was accepted more or less willingly by the adjacent + principalities of El-Kab, Elephantine, Koptos, Qasr-es-Sayad, Thinis, and + Ekhmîm. Antûf, the founder of the family, claimed no other title than that + of Lord of Thebes, and still submitted to the suzerainty of the + Heracleopolitan kings. His successors considered themselves strong enough + to cast off this allegiance, if not to usurp all the insignia of royalty, + including the uraeus and the cartouche. Monthotpû I., Antûf II., and Antûf + III. must have occupied a somewhat remarkable position among the great + lords of the south, since their successors credited them with the + possession of a unique preamble. It is true that the historians of a later + date did not venture to place them on a par with the kings who were + actually independent; they enclosed their names in the cartouche without + giving them a prenomen; but, at the same time, they invested them with a + title not met with elsewhere, that of the first Horus—<i>Horû tapi</i>. + They exercised considerable power from the outset. It extended over + Southern Egypt, over Nubia, and over the valleys lying between the Nile + and the Red Sea.* The origin of the family was somewhat obscure, but in + support of their ambitious projects, they did not fail to invoke the + memory of pretended alliances between their ancestors and daughters of the + solar race; they boasted of their descent from the Papis, from Usirnirî + Anû, Sahûri, and Snofrûi, and claimed that the antiquity of their titles + did away with the more recent rights of their rivals. + </p> + <p> + The revolt of the Theban princes put an end to the IXth dynasty, and, + although supported by the feudal powers of Central and Northern Egypt, and + more especially by the lords of the Terebinth nome, who viewed the sudden + prosperity of the Thebans with a very evil eye, the Xth dynasty did not + succeed in bringing them back to their allegiance.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In the “Hall of Ancestors” the title of “Horus” is + attributed to several Antûfs and Monthotpûs bearing the + cartouche. This was probably the compiler’s ingenious device + for marking the subordinate position of these personages as + compared with that of the Heracleopolitan Pharaohs, who + alone among their contemporaries had a right to be placed on + such official lists, even when those lists were compiled + under the great Theban dynasties. The place in the XIth + dynasty of princes bearing the title of “Horus” was first + determined by E. de Rougé. + + ** The history of the house of Thebes was restored at the + same time as that of the Heracleopolitan dynasties, by + Maspero, in the <i>Revue Critique</i>, 1889, vol. ii. p. 220. The + difficulty arising from the number of the Theban kings + according to Manetho, considered in connection with the + forty-three years which made the total duration of the + dynasty, has been solved by Barucchi, <i>Discord critici + sojpra la Cronologia Egizia</i>, pp. 131-134. These forty-three + years represent the length of time that the Theban dynasty + reigned alone, and which are ascribed to it in the Royal + Canon; but the number of its kings includes, besides the + recognized Pharaohs of the line, those princes who were + contemporary with the Heracleopolitan rulers and are + officially reckoned as forming the Xth dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + The family which held the fief of Siût when the war broke out, had ruled + there for three generations. Its first appearance on the scene of history + coincided with the accession of Akhthoës, and its elevation was probably + the reward of services rendered by its chief to the head of the + Heracleopolitan family.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * By ascribing to the princes of Siut an average reign equal + to that of the Pharaohs, and admitting with Lepsius that the + IXth dynasty consisted of four or five kings, the accession + of the first of these princes would practically coincide + with the reign of Akhthoës. The name of Khîti, borne by two + members of this little local dynasty, may have been given in + memory of the Pharaoh Khiti Miribrî; there was also a second + Khîti among the Heracleopolitan sovereigns, and one of the + Khîtis of Siut may have been his contemporary. The family + claimed a long descent, and said of itself that it was “an + ancient litter”; but the higher rank and power of “prince” + —hiqû—it owed to Khîti I. [Miribri?—Ed.] or some other + king of the Heracleo-politian line. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0015" id="linkCimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/309.jpg" width="100%" alt="309.jpg Map, Plain of Thebes " /> + </div> + <p> + From this time downwards, the title of “ruler”—<i>hiqû</i>—which + the Pharaohs themselves sometimes condescended to take, was hereditary in + the family, who grew in favour from year to year. Khiti I., the fourth of + this line of princes, was brought up in the palace of Heracleopolis, and + had learned to swim with the royal children. On his return home he + remained the personal friend of the king, and governed his domains wisely, + clearing the canals, fostering agriculture, and lightening the taxes + without neglecting the army. His heavy infantry, recruited from among the + flower of the people of the north, and his light infantry, drawn from the + pick of the people of the south, were counted by thousands. He resisted + the Theban pretensions with all his might, and his son Tefabi followed in + his footsteps. “The first time,” said he, “that my foot-soldiers fought + against the nomes of the south which were gathered together from + Elephantine in the south to Gau on the north, I conquered those nomes, I + drove them towards the southern frontier, I overran the left bank of the + Nile in all directions. When I came to a town I threw down its walls, I + seized its chief, I imprisoned him at the port (landing-place) until he + paid me ransom. As soon as I had finished with the left bank, and there + were no longer found any who dared resist, I passed to the right bank; + like a swift hare I set full sail for another chief.... I sailed by the + north wind as by the east, by the south as by the west, and him whose ship + I boarded I vanquished utterly; he was cast into the water, his boats fled + to shore, his soldiers were as bulls on whom falleth the lion; I compassed + his city from end to end, I seized his goods, I cast them into the fire.” + Thanks to his energy and courage, he “extinguished the rebellion by the + counsel and according to the tactics of the jackal Uapûaîtû, god of Siût.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0016" id="linkCimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/310.jpg" width="100%" + alt="310.jpg Map, the Principality of SiÛt " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0017" id="linkCimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/311.jpg" width="100%" + alt="311.jpg the Heavy Infantry of The Princes Of SiÛt, Armed With Lance and Buckler " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger, taken in + 1882. The scene forms part of the decoration of one of the + walls of the tomb of Khîti III. +</pre> + <p> + From that time “no district of the desert was safe from his terrors,” and + he “carried flame at his pleasure among the nomes of the south.” Even + while bringing desolation to his foes, he sought to repair the ills which + the invasion had brought upon his own subjects. He administered such + strict justice that evil-doers disappeared as though by magic. “When night + came, he who slept on the roads blessed me, because he was as safe as in + his own house; for the fear which was shed abroad by my soldiers protected + him; and the cattle in the fields were as safe there as in the stable; the + thief had become an abomination to the god, and he no longer oppressed the + serf, so that the latter ceased to complain, and paid the exact dues of + his land for love of me.” In the time of Khîti II., the son of Tefabi, the + Heracleopolitans were still masters of Northern Egypt, but their authority + was even then menaced by the turbulence of their own vassals, and + Heracleopolis itself drove out the Pharaoh Mirikarî, who was obliged to + take refuge in Siût with that Kkîti whom he called his father. Khîti + gathered together such an extensive fleet that it encumbered the Nile from + Shashhotpû to Gebel-Abufodah, from one end of the principality of the + Terebinth to the other. Vainly did the rebels unite with the Thebans; + Khîti “sowed terror over the world, and himself alone chastised the nomes + of the south.” While he was descending the river to restore the king to + his capital, “the sky grew serene, and the whole country rallied to him; + the commanders of the south and the archons of Heracleopolis, their legs + tremble beneath them when the royal urous, ruler of the world, comes to + suppress crime; the earth trembles, the South takes ship and flies, all + men flee in dismay, the towns surrender, for fear takes hold on their + members.” Mirikarî’s return was a triumphal progress: “when he came to + Heracleopolis the people ran forth to meet him, rejoicing in their lord; + women and men together, old men as well as children.” But fortune soon + changed. Beaten again and again, the Thebans still returned to the attack; + at length they triumphed, after a struggle of nearly two hundred years, + and brought the two rival divisions of Egypt under their rule. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0018" id="linkCimage-0018"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:22%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/313.jpg" + alt="313.jpg Palette Inscribed With the Name of MirikarÎ " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from the original, +now in the Museum +of the Louvre.** +</pre> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ** The palette is of wood, and bears the name of + a contemporary personage; the outlines of the hieroglyphs + are inlaid with silver wire. It was probably found in the + necropolis of Meîr, a little to the north of Siût. The + sepulchral pyramid of the Pharaoh Mirikarî is mentioned on a + coffin in the Berlin Museum. +</pre> + <p> + The few glimpses to be obtained of the early history of the first Theban + dynasty give the impression of an energetic and intelligent race. Confined + to the most thinly populated, that is, the least fertile part of the + valley, and engaged on the north in a ceaseless warfare which exhausted + their resources, they still found time for building both at Thebes and in + the most distant parts of their dominions. If their power made but little + progress southwards, at least it did not recede, and that part of Nubia + lying between Aswan and the neighbourhood of Korosko remained in their + possession. The tribes of the desert, the Amamiû, the Mâzaiû, and the + Uaûaiû often disturbed the husbandmen by their sudden raids; yet, having + pillaged a district, they did not take possession of it as conquerors, but + hastily returned to their mountains. The Theban princes kept them in check + by repeated counter-raids, and renewed the old treaties with them. The + inhabitants of the Great Oasis in the west, and the migratory peoples of + the Land of the Gods, recognized the Theban suzerainty on the traditional + terms. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0019" id="linkCimage-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/314.jpg" width="100%" + alt="314.jpg the Brick Pyramid of AntÛfÂa, at Thebes " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Prisse d’Avennes. + This pyramid is now completely destroyed. +</pre> + <p> + As in the times of Uni, the barbarians made up the complement of the army + with soldiers who were more inured to hardships and more accustomed to the + use of arms than the ordinary fellahîn; and several obscure Pharaohs—such + as Monthotpû I. and Antûf III.—owed their boasted victories over + Libyans and Asiatics* to the energy of their mercenaries. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The cartouches of Antûfâa, inscribed on the rocks of + Elephantine, are the record of a visit which this prince + paid to Syenê, probably on his return from some raid; many + similar inscriptions of Pharaohs of the XIIth dynasty were + inscribed in analogous circumstances. Nûbkhopirrî Antûf + boasted of having worsted the Amû and the negroes. On one of + the rocks of the island of Konosso, Monthotpû Nibhotpûrî + sculptured a scene of offerings in which the gods are + represented as granting him victory over all peoples. Among + the ruins of the temple which he built at Gebelên, is a + scene in which he is presenting files of prisoners from + different countries to the Theban gods. +</pre> + <p> + But the kings of the XIth dynasty were careful not to wander too far from + the valley of the Nile. Egypt presented a sufficiently wide field for + their activity, and they exerted themselves to the utmost to remedy the + evils from which the country had suffered for hundreds of years. They + repaired the forts, restored or enlarged the temples, and evidences of + their building are found at Koptos, Gebelên, El-Kab, and Abydos. Thebes + itself has been too often overthrown since that time for any traces of the + work of the XIth dynasty kings in the temple of Amon to be + distinguishable; but her necropolis is still full of their “eternal + homes,” stretching in lines across the plain, opposite Karnak, at Drah + abû’l-Neggah, and on the northern slopes of the valley of Deir-el-Baharî. + Some were excavated in the mountain-side, and presented a square façade of + dressed stone, surmounted by a pointed roof in the shape of a pyramid. + Others were true pyramids, sometimes having a pair of obelisks in front of + them, as well as a temple. None of them attained to the dimensions of the + Memphite tombs; for, with only its own resources at command, the kingdom + of the south could not build monuments to compete with those whose + construction had taxed the united efforts of all Egypt, but it used a + crude black brick, made without grit or straw, where the Egyptians of the + north had preferred more costly stone. These inexpensive pyramids were + built on a rectangular base not more than six and a half feet high; and + the whole erection, which was simply faced with whitewashed stucco, never + exceeded thirty-three feet in height. The sepulchral chamber was generally + in the centre; in shape it resembled an oven, its roof being “vaulted” by + the overlapping of the courses. Often also it was constructed partly in + the base, and partly in the foundations below the base, the empty space + above it being intended merely to lighten the weight of the masonry. There + was not always an external chapel attached to these tombs, but a stele + placed on the substructure, or fixed in one of the outer faces, marked the + spot to which offerings were to be brought for the dead; sometimes, + however, there was the addition of a square vestibule in front of the + tomb, and here, on prescribed days, the memorial ceremonies took place. + The statues of the double were rude and clumsy, the coffins heavy and + massive, and the figures with which they were decorated inelegant and out + of proportion, while the stelæ are very rudely cut. From the time of the + VIth dynasty the lords of the Saïd had been reduced to employing workmen + from Memphis to adorn their monuments; but the rivalry between the Thebans + and the Heracleopolitans, which set the two divisions of Egypt against + each other in constant hostility, obliged the Antufs to entrust the + execution of their orders to the local schools of sculptors and painters. + It is difficult to realize the degree of rudeness to which the unskilled + workmen who made certain of the Akhmîtn and Gebelên sarcophagi must have + sunk; and even at Thebes itself, or at Abydos, the execution of both + bas-reliefs and hieroglyphs shows minute carefulness rather than any real + skill or artistic feeling. Failing to attain to the beautiful, the + Egyptians endeavoured to produce the sumptuous. Expeditions to the Wady + Ham marnât to fetch blocks of granite for sarcophagi become more and more + frequent, and wells were sunk from point to point along the road leading + from Koptos to the mountains. Sometimes these expeditions were made the + occasion for pushing on as far as the port of Saû and embarking on the Eed + Sea. A hastily constructed boat cruised along by the shore, and gum, + incense, gold, and the precious stones of the country were brought from + the land of the Troglodytes. On the return of the convoy with its block of + stone, and various packages of merchandise, there was no lack of scribes + to recount the dangers of the campaign in exaggerated language, or to + congratulate the reigning Pharaoh on having sown abroad the fame and + terror of his name in the countries of the gods, and as far as the land of + Pûanît. + </p> + <p> + The final overthrow of the Heracleopolitan dynasty, and the union of the + two kingdoms under the rule of the Theban house, are supposed to have been + the work of that Monthotpû whose throne-name was Nibkhrôûrî; his, at any + rate, was the name which the Egyptians of Kamesside times inscribed in the + royal lists as that of the founder and most illustrious representative of + the XIth dynasty. The monuments commemorate his victories over the Uaûaiû + and the barbarous inhabitants of Nubia. Even after he had conquered the + Delta he still continued to reside in Thebes; there he built his pyramid, + and there divine honours were paid him from the day after his decease. A + scene carved on the rocks north of Silsileh represents him as standing + before his son Antûf; he is of gigantic stature, and one of his wives + stands behind him.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Brugsch makes him out to be a descendant of Amenemhâît, + the prince of Thebes who lived under Monthotpu Nibtûirî, and + who went to bring the stone for that Pharaoh’s sarcophagus + from the Wady Hammamât. He had previously supposed him to be + this prince himself. Either of these hypotheses becomes + probable, according as Nibtûirî is supposed to have lived + before or after Nibkhrôûrî. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0020" id="linkCimage-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/318.jpg" width="100%" + alt="318.jpg the Pharaoh Monthotpu Receiving The Homage of His Successor--antue--in the Shat Er-rigeleh. " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a sketch by Petrie, <i>Ten Years’ + Digging in Egypt</i>, p. 74, No. 2. +</pre> + <p> + Three or four kings followed him in rapid succession; the least + insignificant among them appearing to have been a Monthotpii Nibtouiri. + Nothing but the prenomen—Sonkherî—is known of the last of + these latter princes, who was also the only one of them ever entered on + the official lists. In their hands the sovereignty remained unchanged from + what it had been almost uninterruptedly since the end of the VIth dynasty. + They solemnly proclaimed their supremacy, and their names were inscribed + at the head of public documents; but their power scarcely extended beyond + the limits of their family domain, and the feudal chiefs never concerned + themselves about the sovereign except when he evinced the power or will to + oppose them, allowing him the mere semblance of supremacy over the greater + part of Europe. Such a state of affairs could only be reformed by + revolution. Amenemhâît I., the leader of the new dynasty, was of the + Theban race; whether he had any claim to the throne, or by what means he + had secured the stability of his rule, we do not know. Whether he had + usurped the crown or whether he had inherited it legitimately, he showed + himself worthy of the rank to which fortune had raised him, and the + nobility saw in him a new incarnation of that type of kingship long known + to them by tradition only, namely, that of a Pharaoh convinced of his own + divinity and determined to assert it. He inspected the valley from one end + to another, principality by principality, nome by nome, “crushing crime, + and arising like Tûmû himself; restoring that which he found in ruins, + settling the bounds of the towns, and establishing for each its + frontiers.” The civil wars had disorganized everything; no one knew what + ground belonged to the different nomes, what taxes were due from them, nor + how questions of irrigation could be equitably decided. Amenemhâît set up + again the boundary stelae, and restored its dependencies to each nome: “He + divided the waters among them according to that which was in the cadastral + surveys of former times.” Hostile nobles, or those whose allegiance was + doubtful, lost the whole or part of their fiefs; those who had welcomed + the new order of things received accessions of territory as the reward of + their zeal and devotion. Depositions and substitutions of princes had + begun already in the time of the XIth dynasty. Antûf V., for instance, + finding the lord of Koptos too lukewarm, had had him removed and promptly + replaced. The fief of Siût accrued to a branch of the family which was + less warlike, and above all less devoted to the old dynasty than that of + Khîti had been. Part of the nome of the Gazelle was added to the dominions + of Nûhri, prince of the Hare nome; the eastern part of the same nome, with + Monaît-Khûfûi as capital, was granted to his father-in-law, Khnûmhotpû I. + Expeditions against the Ûaûaiû, the Mâzaiû, and the nomads of Libya and + Arabia delivered the fellahîn from their ruinous raids and ensured to the + Egyptians safety from foreign attack. Amenemhâît had, moreover, the wit to + recognize that Thebes was not the most suitable place of residence for the + lord of all Egypt; it lay too far to the south, was thinly populated, + ill-built, without monuments, without prestige, and almost without + history. He gave it into the hands of one of his relations to govern in + his name, and proceeded to establish himself in the heart of the country, + in imitation of the glorious Pharaohs from whom he claimed to be + descended. But the ancient royal cities of Kheops and his children had + ceased to exist; Memphis, like Thebes, was now a provincial town, and its + associations were with the VIth and VIIIth dynasties only. Amenemhâît took + up his abode a little to the south of Dahshur, in the palace of Titoûi, + which he enlarged and made the seat of his government. Conscious of being + in the hands of a strong ruler, Egypt breathed freely after centuries of + distress, and her sovereign might in all sincerity congratulate himself on + having restored peace to his country. “I caused the mourner to mourn no + longer, and his lamentation was no longer heard,—perpetual fighting + was no longer witnessed,—while before my coming they fought together + as bulls unmindful of yesterday,—and no man’s welfare was assured, + whether he was ignorant or learned.”—“I tilled the land as far as + Elephantine,—I spread joy throughout the country, unto the marshes + of the Delta.—At my prayer the Nile granted the inundation to the + fields:—no man was an hungered under me, no man was athirst under + me,—for everywhere men acted according to my commands, and all that + I said was a fresh cause of love.” + </p> + <p> + In the court of Amenemhâît, as about all Oriental sovereigns, there were + doubtless men whose vanity or interests suffered by this revival of the + royal authority; men who had found it to their profit to intervene between + Pharaoh and his subjects, and who were thwarted in their intrigues or + exactions by the presence of a prince determined on keeping the government + in his own hands. + </p> + <p> + These men devised plots against the new king, and he escaped with + difficulty from their conspiracies. “It was after the evening meal, as + night came on,—I gave myself up to pleasure for a time,—then I + lay down upon the soft coverlets in my palace, I abandoned myself to + repose,—and my heart began to be overtaken by slumber; when, lo! + they gathered together in arms to revolt against me,—and I became + weak as a serpent of the field.—Then I aroused myself to fight with + my own hands,—and I found that I had but to strike the unresisting.—When + I took a foe, weapon in hand, I make the wretch to turn and flee;—strength + forsook him, even in the night; there were none who contended, and nothing + vexatious was effected against me.” The conspirators were disconcerted by + the promptness with which Amenemhâît had attacked them, and apparently the + rebellion was suppressed on the same night in which it broke out. But the + king was growing old, his son Usirtasen was very young, and the nobles + were bestirring themselves in prospect of a succession which they supposed + to be at hand. The best means of putting a stop to their evil devices and + of ensuring the future of the dynasty was for the king to appoint the + heir-presumptive, and at once associate him with himself in the exercise + of his sovereignty. In the XXth year of his reign, Amenemhâît solemnly + conferred the titles and prerogatives of royalty upon his son Usirtasen: + “I raised thee from the rank of a subject,—I granted thee the free + use of thy arm that thou mightest be feared.—As for me, I apparelled + myself in the fine stuffs of my palace until I appeared to the eye as the + flowers of my garden,—and I perfumed myself with essences as freely + as I pour forth the water from my cisterns.” Usirtasen naturally assumed + the active duties of royalty as his share. “He is a hero who wrought with + the sword, a mighty man of valour without peer: he beholds the barbarians, + he rushes forward and falls upon their predatory hordes. He is the hurler + of javelins who makes feeble the hands of the foe; those whom he strikes + never more lift the lance. Terrible is he, shattering skulls with the + blows of his war-mace, and none resisted him in his time. He is a swift + runner who smites the fugitive with the sword, but none who run after him + can overtake him. He is a heart alert for battle in his time. He is a lion + who strikes with his claws, nor ever lets go his weapon. He is a heart + girded in armour at the sight of the hosts, and who leaves nothing + standing behind him. He is a valiant man rushing forward when he beholds + the fight. He is a soldier rejoicing to fall upon the barbarians: he + seizes his buckler, he leaps forward and kills without a second blow. None + may escape his arrow; before he bends his bow the barbarians flee from his + arms like dogs, for the great goddess has charged him to fight against all + who know not her name, and whom he strikes he spares not; he leaves + nothing alive.” The old Pharaoh “remained in the palace,” waiting until + his son returned to announce the success of his enterprises, and + contributing by his counsel to the prosperity of their common empire. Such + was the reputation for wisdom which he thus acquired, that a writer who + was almost his contemporary composed a treatise in his name, and in it the + king was supposed to address posthumous instructions to his son on the art + of governing. He appeared to his son in a dream, and thus admonished him: + “Hearken unto my words!—Thou art king over the two worlds, prince + over the three regions. Act still better than did thy predecessors.—Let + there be harmony between thy subjects and thee,—lest they give + themselves up to fear; keep not thyself apart in the midst of them; make + not thy brother solely from the rich and noble, fill not thy heart with + them alone; yet neither do thou admit to thy intimacy chance-comers whose + place is unknown.” The king confirmed his counsels by examples taken from + his own life, and from these we have learned some facts in his history. + The little work was widely disseminated and soon became a classic; in the + time of the XIXth dynasty it was still copied in schools and studied by + young scribes as an exercise in style. Usirfcasen’s share in the + sovereignty had so accustomed the Egyptians to consider this prince as the + king <i>de facto</i>, that they had gradually come to write his name alone + upon the monuments. When Amenemhâît died, after a reign of thirty years, + Ûsirtasen was engaged in a war against the Libyans. Dreading an outbreak + of popular feeling, or perhaps an attempted usurpation by one of the + princes of the blood, the high officers of the crown kept Amenemhâît’s + death secret, and despatched a messenger to the camp to recall the young + king. He left his tent by night, unknown to the troops, returned to the + capital before anything had transpired among the people, and thus the + transition from the founder to his immediate successor—always a + delicate crisis for a new dynasty—seemed to come about quite + naturally. The precedent of co-regnancy having been established, it was + scrupulously followed by most of the succeeding sovereigns. In the XIIIth + year of his sovereignty, and after having reigned alone for thirty-two + years, Ûsirtasen I. shared his throne with Amenemhâît II.; and thirty-two + years later Amenemhâît II. acted in a similar way with regard to Ûsirtasen + II. Amenemhâît III. and Amenemhâît IV. were long co-regnant. The only + princes of this house in whose cases any evidence of co-regnancy is + lacking are Ûsirtasen III., and the queen Sovknofriûrî, with whom the + dynasty died out. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0021" id="linkCimage-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/325.jpg" width="100%" + alt="325.jpg an Asiatic Chief is Presented to KhnÛmhotpÛ By Nofirhoptu, and by Khiti, the Superintendent of The Huntsmen " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a chromolithograph in Lepsius, + <i>Denhm.</i>, ii. 133. +</pre> + <p> + It lasted two hundred and thirteen years, one month, and twenty-seven + days,* and its history can be ascertained with greater certainty and + completeness than that of any-other dynasty which ruled over Egypt. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + *This is its total duration, as given in the Turin papyrus. + Several Egyptologists have thought that Manetho had, in his + estimate, counted the years of each sovereign as + consecutive, and have hence proposed to conclude that the + dynasty only lasted 168 years (Brugscii), or 160 (Lieblein), + or 194 (Ed. Meyer). It is simpler to admit that the compiler + of the papyrus was not in error; we do not know the length + of the reigns of Ûsirtasen II., Ûsirtasen III., and + Amenemhâît III., and their unknown years may be considered + as completing the tale of the two hundred and thirteen + years. +</pre> + <p> + We are doubtless far from having any adequate idea of its great + achievements, for the biographies of its eight sovereigns, and the details + of their interminable wars are very imperfectly known to us. The + development of its foreign and domestic policy we can, however, follow + without a break. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0022" id="linkCimage-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/326.jpg" width="100%" + alt="326.jpg Some of the Band Of Asiatics, With Their Beasts, Brought from KhnÛmhotpÛ " /> + </div> + <p> + Asia had as little attraction for these kings as for their Memphite + predecessors; they seem to have always had a certain dread of its warlike + races, and to have merely contented themselves with repelling their + attacks. Amenemhâît I. had completed the line of fortresses across the + isthmus, and these were carefully maintained by his successors. The + Pharaohs were not ambitious of holding direct sway over the tribes of the + desert, and scrupulously avoided interfering with their affairs as long as + the “Lords of the Sands” agreed to respect the Egyptian frontier. + Commercial relations were none the less frequent and certain on this + account. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0023" id="linkCimage-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/327.jpg" width="100%" + alt="327.jpg the Women Passing by in Procession, In Charge Of A Warrior and of a Man Playing Upon the Lyre " /> + </div> + <p> + Dwellers by the streams of the Delta were accustomed to see the continuous + arrival in their towns of isolated individuals or of whole bands driven + from their homes by want or revolution, and begging for refuge under the + shadow of Pharaoh’s throne, and of caravans offering the rarest products + of the north and of the east for sale. A celebrated scene in one of the + tombs of Beni-Hasan illustrates what usually took place. We do not know + what drove the thirty-seven Asiatics, men, women, and children, to cross + the Red Sea and the Arabian desert and hills in the VIth year of Usirtasen + II.;* they had, however, suddenly appeared in the Gazelle nome, and were + there received by Khîti, the superintendent of the huntsmen, who, as his + duty was, brought them before the prince Khnûmhotpû. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This bas-relief was first noticed and described by + Champollion, who took the immigrants for Greeks of the + archaic period. Others have wished to consider it as + representing Abraham, the sons of Jacob, or at least a band + of Jews entering into Egypt, and on the strength of this + hypothesis it has often been reproduced. +</pre> + <p> + The foreigners presented the prince with green eye-paint, antimony powder, + and two live ibexes, to conciliate his favour; while he, to preserve the + memory of their visit, had them represented in painting upon the walls of + his tomb. The Asiatics carry bows and arrows, javelins, axes, and clubs, + like the Egyptians, and wear long garments or close-fitting loin-cloths + girded on the thigh. One of them plays, as he goes, on an instrument whose + appearance recalls that of the old Greek lyre. The shape of their arms, + the magnificence and good taste of the fringed and patterned stuffs with + which they are clothed, the elegance of most of the objects which they + have brought with them, testify to a high standard of civilisation, equal + at least to that of Egypt. Asia had for some time provided the Pharaohs + with slaves, certain perfumes, cedar wood and cedar essences, enamelled + vases, precious stones, lapis-lazuli, and the dyed and embroidered woollen + fabrics of which Chaldæa kept the monopoly until the time of the Komans. + Merchants of the Delta braved the perils of wild beasts and of robbers + lurking in every valley, while transporting beyond the isthmus products of + Egyptian manufacture, such as fine linens, chased or <i>cloisonné</i> + jewellery, glazed pottery, and glass paste or metal amulets. Adventurous + spirits who found life dull on the banks of the Nile, men who had + committed crimes, or who believed themselves suspected by their lords on + political grounds, conspirators, deserters, and exiles were well received + by the Asiatic tribes, and sometimes gained the favour of the sheikhs. In + the time of the XIIth dynasty, Southern Syria, the country of the “Lords + of the Sands,” and the kingdom of Kadûma were full of Egyptians whose + eventful careers supplied the scribes and storytellers with the themes of + many romances. + </p> + <p> + Sinûhît, the hero of one of these stories, was a son of Amenemhâît I., and + had the misfortune involuntarily to overhear a state secret. He happened + to be near the royal tent when news of his father’s sudden death was + brought to Usirtasen. Fearing summary execution, he fled across the Delta + north of Memphis, avoided the frontier-posts, and struck into the desert. + “I pursued my way by night; at dawn I had reached Pûteni, and set out for + the lake of Kîmoîrî. Then thirst fell upon me, and the death-rattle was in + my throat, my throat cleaved together, and I said, ‘It is the taste of + death!’ when suddenly I lifted up my heart and gathered my strength + together: I heard the lowing of the herds. I perceived some Asiatics; + their chief, who had been in Egypt, knew me; he gave me water, and caused + milk to be boiled for me, and I went with him and joined his tribe.” But + still Sinûhît did not feel himself in safety, and fled into Kadûma, to a + prince who had provided an asylum for other Egyptian exiles, and where he + “could hear men speak the language of Egypt.” Here he soon gained honours + and fortune. “The chief preferred me before his children, giving me his + eldest daughter in marriage, and he granted me that I should choose for + myself the best of his land near the frontier of a neighbouring country. + It is an excellent land, Aîa is its name. Figs are there and grapes; wine + is more plentiful than water; honey abounds in it; numerous are its olives + and all the produce of its trees; there are corn and flour without end, + and cattle of all kinds. Great, indeed, was that which was bestowed upon + me when the prince came to invest me, installing me as prince of a tribe + in the best of his land. I had daily rations of bread and wine, day by + day; cooked meat and roasted fowl, besides the mountain game which I took, + or which was placed before me in addition to that which was brought me by + my hunting dogs. Much butter was made for me, and milk prepared in every + kind of way. There I passed many years, and the children which were born + to me became strong men, each ruling his own tribe. When a messenger was + going to the interior or returning from it, he turned aside from his way + to come to me, for I did kindness to all: I gave water to the thirsty, I + set again upon his way the traveller who had been stopped on it, I + chastised the brigand. The Pitaîtiû, who went on distant campaigns to + fight and repel the princes of foreign lands, I commanded them and they + marched forth; for the prince of Tonû made me the general of his soldiers + for long years. When I went forth to war, all countries towards which I + set out trembled in their pastures by their wells. I seized their cattle, + I took away their vassals and carried off their slaves, I slew the + inhabitants, the land was at the mercy of my sword, of my bow, of my + marches, of my well-conceived plans glorious to the heart of my prince. + Thus, when he knew my valour, he loved me, making me chief among his + children when he saw the strength of my arms. + </p> + <p> + “A valiant man of Tonu came to defy me in my tent; he was a hero beside + whom there was none other, for he had overthrown all his adversaries. He + said: ‘Let Sinûhît fight with me, for he has not yet conquered me!’ and he + thought to seize my cattle and therewith to enrich his tribe. The prince + talked of the matter with me. I said: ‘I know him not. Verily, I am not + his brother. I keep myself far from his dwelling; have I ever opened his + door, or crossed his enclosures? Doubtless he is some jealous fellow + envious at seeing me, and who believes himself fated to rob me of my cats, + my goats, my kine, and to fall on my bulls, my rams, and my oxen, to take + them.... If he has indeed the courage to fight, let him declare the + intention of his heart! Shall the god forget him whom he has heretofore + favoured? This man who has challenged me to fight is as one of those who + lie upon the funeral couch. I bent my bow, I took out my arrows, I + loosened my poignard, I furbished my arms. At dawn all the land of Tonu + ran forth; its tribes were gathered together, and all the foreign lands + which were its dependencies, for they were impatient to see this duel. + Each heart was on live coals because of me; men and women cried ‘Ah!’ for + every heart was disquieted for my sake, and they said: ‘Is there, indeed, + any valiant man who will stand up against him? Lo! the enemy has buckler, + battle-axe, and an armful of javelins.’ When he had come forth and I + appeared, I turned aside his shafts from me. When not one of them touched + me, he fell upon me, and then I drew my bow against him. When my arrow + pierced his neck, he cried out and fell to the earth upon his nose; I + snatched his lance from him, I shouted my cry of victory upon his back. + While the country people rejoiced, I made his vassals whom he had + oppressed to give thanks to Montu. This prince, Ammiânshi, bestowed upon + me all the possessions of the vanquished, and I took away his goods, I + carried off his cattle. All that he had desired to do unto me that did I + unto him; I took possession of all that was in his tent, I despoiled his + dwelling; therewith was the abundance of my treasure and the number of my + cattle increased.” In later times, in Arab romances such as that of Antar + or that of Abû-Zeît, we find the incidents and customs described in this + Egyptian tale; there we have the exile arriving at the court of a great + sheikh whose daughter he ultimately marries, the challenge, the fight, and + the raids of one people against another. Even in our own day things go on + in much the same way. Seen from afar, these adventures have an air of + poetry and of grandeur which fascinates the reader, and in imagination + transports him into a world more heroic and more noble than our own. He + who cares to preserve this impression would do well not to look too + closely at the men and manners of the desert. Certainly the hero is brave, + but he is still more brutal and treacherous; fighting is one object of his + existence, but pillage is a far more important one. How, indeed, should it + be otherwise? the soil is poor, life hard and precarious, and from + remotest antiquity the conditions of that life have remained unchanged; + apart from firearms and Islam, the Bedouin of to-day are the same as the + Bedouin of the days of Sinûhît. + </p> + <p> + There are no known documents from which we can derive any certain + information as to what became of the mining colonies in Sinai after the + reign of Papi II. Unless entirely abandoned, they must have lingered on in + comparative idleness; for the last of the Memphites, the Heracleopohtans, + and the early Thebans were compelled to neglect them, nor was their active + life resumed until the accession of the XIIth dynasty. The veins in the + Wady Maghara were much exhausted, but a series of fortunate explorations + revealed the existence of untouched deposits in the Sarbût-el-Khâdîm, + north of the original workings. From the time of Amenemhâît II. these new + veins were worked, and absorbed attention during several generations. + Expeditions to the mines were sent out every three or four years, + sometimes annually, under the command of such high functionaries as + “Acquaintances of the King,” “Chief Lectors,” and Captains of the Archers. + As each mine was rapidly worked out, the delegates of the Pharaohs were + obliged to find new veins in order to meet industrial demands. The task + was often arduous, and the commissioners generally took care to inform + posterity very fully as to the anxieties which they had felt, the pains + which they had taken, and the quantities of turquoise or of oxide of + copper which they had brought into Egypt. Thus the Captain Haroëris tells + us that, on arriving at Sarbût in the month Pha-menoth of an unknown year + of Amenemhâît III., he made a bad beginning in his work of exploration. + Wearied of fruitless efforts, the workmen were quite ready to desert him + if he had not put a good face on the business and stoutly promised them + the support of the local Hâthor. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0024" id="linkCimage-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/334.jpg" width="100%" + alt="334.jpg Plan of the Temple Of Sarbut El Khadim " /> + </div> + <p> + And, as a matter of fact, fortune did change. When he began to despair, + “the desert burned like summer, the mountain was on fire, and the vein + exhausted; one morning the overseer who was there questioned the miners, + the skilled workers who were used to the mine, and they said: ‘There is + turquoise for eternity in the mountain.’ At that very moment the vein + appeared.” And, indeed, the wealth of the deposit which he found so + completely indemnified Haroëris for his first disappointments, that in the + month Pachons, three months after the opening of these workings, he had + finished his task and prepared to leave the country, carrying his spoils + with him. From time to time Pharaoh sent convoys of cattle and provisions—corn, + sixteen oxen, thirty geese, fresh vegetables, live poultry—to his + vassals at the mines. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0025" id="linkCimage-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/335.jpg" width="100%" + alt="335.jpg the Ruins of The Temple Of Hathor " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph in the <i>Ordnance Survey, + Photo-graphs</i>, vol. iii. pl. 8. +</pre> + <p> + The mining population increased so fast that two chapels were built, + dedicated to Hâthor, and served by volunteer priests. One of these + chapels, presumably the oldest, consists of a single rock-cut chamber, + upheld by one large square pillar, walls and pillar having been covered + with finely sculptured scenes and inscriptions which are now almost + effaced. The second chapel included a beautifully proportioned rectangular + court, once entered by a portico supported on pillars with Hâthor-head + capitals, and beyond the court a narrow building divided into many small + irregular chambers. The edifice was altered and rebuilt, and half + destroyed; it is now nothing by a confused heap of ruins, of which the + original plan cannot be traced. Votive stehe of all shapes and sizes, in + granite, sandstone, or limestone, were erected here and there at random in + the two chambers and in the courts between the columns, and flush with the + walls. Some are still <i>in situ</i>, others lie scattered in the midst of + the ruins. Towards the middle of the reign of Amenemhâît III., the + industrial demand for turquoise and for copper ore became so great that + the mines of Sarbût-el-Khâdîm could no longer meet it, and those in the + Wady Maghara were re-opened. The workings of both sets of mines were + carried on with unabated vigour under Amenemhâîfc IV., and were still in + full activity when the XIIIth dynasty succeeded the XIIth on the Egyptian + throne. Tranquillity prevailed in the recesses of the mountains of Sinai + as well as in the valley of the Nile, and a small garrison sufficed to + keep watch over the Bedouin of the neighbourhood. Sometimes the latter + ventured to attack the miners, and then fled in haste, carrying off their + meagre booty; but they were vigorously pursued under the command of one of + the officers on the spot, and generally caught and compelled to disgorge + their plunder before they had reached the shelter of their “douars.” The + old Memphite kings prided themselves on these armed pursuits as though + they were real victories, and had them recorded in triumphal bas-reliefs; + but under the XIIth dynasty they were treated as unimportant frontier + incidents, almost beneath the notice of the Pharaoh, and the glory of them—such + as it was—he left to his captains then in command of those + districts. + </p> + <p> + Egypt had always kept up extensive commercial relations with certain + northern countries lying beyond the Mediterranean. The reputation for + wealth enjoyed by the Delta sometimes attracted bands of the Haiû-nîbû to + come prowling in piratical excursions along its shores; but their + expeditions seldom turned out successfully, and even if the adventurers + escaped summary execution, they generally ended their days as slaves in + the Fayûm, or in some village of the Said. At first their descendants + preserved the customs, religion, manners, and industries of their distant + home, and went on making rough pottery for daily use, which was decorated + in a style recalling that of vases found in the most ancient tombs of the + Ægean archipelago; but they were gradually assimilated to their + surroundings, and their grandchildren became fellahîn like the rest, + brought up from infancy in the customs and language of Egypt. + </p> + <p> + The relations with the tribes of the Libyan desert, the Tihûnû and the + Timihû, were almost invariably peaceful; although occasional raids of one + of their bands into Egyptian territory would provoke counter raids into + the valleys in which they took refuge with their flocks and herds. Thus, + in addition to the captive Haiû-nîbû, another heterogeneous element, soon + to be lost in the mass of the Egyptian population, was supplied by + detachments of Berber women and children. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0026" id="linkCimage-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/338.jpg" width="100%" alt="338.jpg Map " /> + </div> + <p> + The relations Egypt with her northern neighbours during the hundred years + of the XIIth dynasty were chiefly commercial, but occasionally this + peaceful intercourse was broken by sudden incursions or piratical + expeditions which called for active measures of repression, and were the + occasion of certain romantic episodes. The foreign policy of the Pharaohs + in this connexion was to remain strictly on the defensive. Ethiopia + attracted all their attention, and demanded all their strength. The same + instinct which had impelled their predecessors to pass successively beyond + Gebel-Silsileh and Elephantine now drove the XIIth dynasty beyond the + second cataract, and even further. The nature of the valley compelled them + to this course. From the Tacazze, or rather from the confluence of the two + Niles down to the sea, the whole valley forms as it were a Greater Egypt; + for although separated by the cataracts into different divisions, it is + everywhere subject to the same physical conditions. In the course of + centuries it has more than once been forcibly dismembered by the chances + of war, but its various parts have always tended to reunite, and have + coalesced at the first opportunity. The Amami, the Irittt, and the Sitiu, + all those nations which wandered west of the river, and whom the Pharaohs + of the VIth and subsequently of the XIth dynasty either enlisted into + their service or else conquered, do not seem to have given much trouble to + the successors of Amenemhâît I. The Ûaûaiû and the Mâzaiû were more + turbulent, and it was necessary to subdue them in order to assure the + tranquillity of the colonists scattered along the banks of the river from + Philo to Korosko. They were worsted by Amenemhâît I. in several + encounters. + </p> + <p> + Ûsirtasen I. made repeated campaigns against them, the earlier ones being + undertaken in his father’s lifetime. Afterwards he pressed on, and + straightway “raised his frontiers” at the rapids of Wady Haifa; and the + country was henceforth the undisputed property of his successors. It was + divided into nomes like Egypt itself; the Egyptian language succeeded in + driving out the native dialects, and the local deities, including Didûn, + the principal god, were associated or assimilated with the gods of Egypt. + Khnûmû was the favourite deity of the northern nomes, doubtless because + the first colonists were natives of Elephantine, and subjects of its + princes. In the southern nomes, which had been annexed under the Theban + kings and were peopled with Theban immigrants, the worship of Khnûmû was + carried on side by side with the worship of Amon, or Amon-Ra, god of + Thebes. In accordance with local affinities, now no longer intelligible, + the other gods also were assigned smaller areas in the new territory—Thot + at Pselcis and Pnûbsît, where a gigantic nabk tree was worshipped, Râ near + Derr, and Horus at Miama and Baûka. The Pharaohs who had civilized the + country here received divine honours while still alive. Ûsirtasen III. was + placed in triads along with Didûn, Amon, and Khnûmû; temples were raised + to him at Semneh, Shotaûi, and Doshkeh; and the anniversary of a decisive + victory which he had gained over the barbarians was still celebrated on + the 21st of Pachons, a thousand years afterwards, under Thutmosis III. The + feudal system spread over the land lying between the two cataracts, where + hereditary barons held their courts, trained their armies, built their + castles, and excavated their superbly decorated tombs in the + mountain-sides. The only difference between Nubian Egypt and Egypt proper + lay in the greater heat and smaller wealth of the former, where the + narrower, less fertile, and less well-watered land supported a smaller + population and yielded less abundant revenues. + </p> + <p> + The Pharaoh kept the charge of the more important strategical points in + his own hands. Strongholds placed at bends of the river and at the mouths + of ravines leading into the desert, secured freedom of navigation, and + kept off the pillaging nomads. The fortress of Derr [Kubbân?—Ed.], + which was often rebuilt, dates in part at least from the early days of the + conquest of Nubia. Its rectangular boundary—a dry brick wall—is + only broken by easily filled up gaps, and with some repairs it would still + resist an Ababdeh attack.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The most ancient bricks in the fortifications of Derr, + easily distinguishable from those belonging to the later + restorations, are identical in shape and size with those of + the walls at Syene and El-Kab; and the wall at El-Kab was + certainly built not later than the XIIth dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + The most considerable Nubian works of the XIIth dynasty were in the three + places from which the country can even now be most effectively commanded, + namely, at the two cataracts, and in the districts extending from Derr to + Dakkeh. Elephantine already possessed an entrenched camp which commanded + the rapids and the land route from Syene to Philo. Usirtasen III. restored + its great wall; he also cleared and widened the passage to Sériel, as did + Papi I. to such good effect that easy and rapid communication between + Thebes and the new towns was at all times practicable. Some little + distance from Phihe he established a station for boats, and an emporium + which he called Hirû Khâkerî—“the Ways of Khâkerî”—after his + own throne name—Khâkerî.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The widening of the passage was effected in the VIIIth + year of his reign, the same year in which he established the + Egyptian frontier at Semneh. The other constructions are + mentioned, but not very clearly, in a stele of the same year + which came from Elephantine, and is now in the British + Museum. The votive tablet, engraved in honour of Anûkît at + Sehêl, in which the king boasts of having made for the + goddess “the excellent channel [called] ‘the Ways of + Khâkeûrî,’” probably refers to this widening and deepening + of the passage in the VIIIth year. +</pre> + <p> + Its exact site is unknown, but it appears to have completed on the south + side the system of walls and redoubts which protected the cataract + provinces against either surprise or regular attacks of the barbarians. + Although of no appreciable use for the purposes of general security, the + fortifications of Middle Nubia were of great importance in the eyes of the + Pharaohs. They commanded the desert roads leading to the Eed Sea, and to + Berber and Gebel Barkel on the Upper Nile. The most important fort + occupied the site of the present village of Kuban, opposite Dakkeh, and + commanded the entrance to the Wady Olaki, which leads to the richest gold + deposits known to Ancient Egypt. The valleys which furrow the mountains of + Etbai, the Wady Shauanîb, the Waddy Umm Teyur, Gebel Iswud, Gebel Umm + Kabriteh, all have gold deposits of their own. The gold is found in + nuggets and in pockets in white quartz, mixed with iron oxides and + titanium, for which the ancients had no use. The method of mining + practised from immemorial antiquity by the Uaûaiû of the neighbourhood was + of the simplest, and traces of the workings may be seen all over the sides + of the ravines. Tunnels followed the direction of the lodes to a depth of + fifty-five to sixty-five yards; the masses of quartz procured from them + were broken up in granite mortars, pounded small and afterwards reduced to + a powder in querns, similar to those used for crushing grain; the residue + was sifted on stone tables, and the finely ground parts afterwards washed + in bowls of sycamore wood, until the gold dust had settled to the bottom.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The gold-mines and the method of working them under the + Ptolemies have been described by Agatharchides; the + processes employed were very ancient, and had hardly changed + since the time of the first Pharaohs, as is shown by a + comparison of the mining tools found in these districts with + those which have been collected at Sinai, in the turquoise- + mines of the Ancient Empire. +</pre> + <p> + This was the Nubian gold which was brought into Egypt by nomad tribes, and + for which the Egyptians themselves, from the time of the XIIth dynasty + onwards, went to seek in the land which produced it. They made no attempt + to establish permanent colonies for working the mines, as at Sinai; but a + detachment of troops was despatched nearly every year to the spot to + receive the amount of precious metal collected since their previous visit. + The king Usirtasen would send at one time the prince of the nome of the + Gazelle on such an expedition, with a contingent of four hundred men + belonging to his fief; at another time, it would be the faithful Sihâthor + who would triumphantly scour the country, obliging young and old to work + with redoubled efforts for his master Amenemhâît II. On his return the + envoy would boast of having brought back more gold than any of his + predecessors, and of having crossed the desert without losing either a + soldier or a baggage animal, not even a donkey. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0027" id="linkCimage-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/344.jpg" width="100%" + alt="344.jpg One of The Façades Of the Fortress Of Kubban " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger, taken in + 1881. +</pre> + <p> + Sometimes a son of the reigning Pharaoh, even the heir-presumptive, would + condescend to accompany the caravan. Amenemhâît III. repaired or rebuilt + the fortress of Kubbân, the starting-place of the little army, and the + spot to which it returned. It is a square enclosure measuring 328 feet on + each side; the ramparts of crude brick are sloped slightly inwards, and + are strengthened at intervals by bastions projecting from the external + face of the wall. The river protected one side; the other three were + defended by ditches communicating with the Nile. There were four + entrances, one in the centre of each façade: that on the east, which faced + the desert, and was exposed to the severest attacks, was flanked by a + tower. + </p> + <p> + The cataract of Wady Haifa offered a natural barrier to invasion from the + south. Even without fortification, the chain of granite rocks which + crosses the valley at this spot would have been a sufficient obstacle to + prevent any fleet which might attempt the passage from gaining access to + northern Nubia. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0028" id="linkCimage-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/345.jpg" width="100%" + alt="345.jpg the Second Cataract Between Hamkeh and Wady Halfa " /> + </div> + <p> + The Nile here has not the wild and imposing aspect which it assumes lower + down, between Aswan and Philae. It is bordered by low and receding hills, + devoid of any definite outline. Masses of bare black rock, here and there + covered by scanty herbage, block the course of the river in some places in + such profusion, that its entire bed seems to be taken up by them. For a + distance of seventeen miles the main body of water is broken up into an + infinitude of small channels in its width of two miles; several of the + streams thus formed present, apparently, a tempting course to the + navigator, so calm and safe do they appear, but they conceal ledges of + hidden reefs, and are unexpectedly forced into narrow passages obstructed + by granite boulders. The strongest built and best piloted boat must be + dashed to pieces in such circumstances, and no effort or skilfulness on + the part of the crew would save the vessel should the owner venture to + attempt the descent. The only channel at all available for transit runs + from the village of Aesha on the Arabian side, winds capriciously from one + bank to another, and emerges into calm water a little above Nakhiet Wady + Haifa. During certain days in August and September the natives trust + themselves to this stream, but only with boats lightly laden; even then + their escape is problematical, for they are in hourly danger of + foundering. As soon as the inundation begins to fall, the passage becomes + more difficult: by the middle of October it is given up, and communication + by water between Egypt and the countries above Wady Haifa is suspended + until the return of the inundation. By degrees, as the level of the water + becomes lower, remains of wrecks jammed between the rocks, or embedded in + sandbanks, emerge into view, as if to warn sailors and discourage them + from an undertaking so fraught with perils. Usirtasen I. realized the + importance of the position, and fortified its approaches. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0029" id="linkCimage-0029"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/346.jpg" width="100%" + alt="346.jpg the Second Cataract at Low Nile " /> + </div> + <p> + He selected the little Nubian town of Bohani, which lay exactly opposite + to the present village of Wady Haifa, and transformed it into a strong + frontier fortress. Besides the usual citadel, he built there a temple + dedicated to the Theban god Amon and to the local Horus; he then set up a + stele commemorating his victories over the peoples beyond the cataract. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0030" id="linkCimage-0030"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:46%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/349.jpg" + alt="349.jpg the Triumphal Stele of Usirtasen I. " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a photograph of +the original in the +museum at Florence. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + Ten of their principal chiefs had passed before Amon as prisoners, their + arms tied behind their backs, and had been sacrificed at the foot of the + altar by the sovereign himself: he represented them on the stele by + enclosing their names in battlemented cartouches, each surmounted by the + bust of a man bound by a long cord which is held by the conqueror. + </p> + <p> + Nearly a century later Ûsirtasen III. enlarged the fortress, and finding + doubtless that it was not sufficiently strong to protect the passage of + the cataract, he stationed outposts at various points, at Matûga, Fakus, + and Kassa. They served as mooring-places where the vessels which went up + and down stream with merchandise might be made fast to the bank at sunset. + The bands of Bedouin, lurking in the neighbourhood, would have rejoiced to + surprise them, and by their depredations to stop the commerce between the + Said and the Upper Nile, during the few weeks in which it could be carried + on with a minimum of danger. A narrow gorge crossed by a bed of granite, + through which the Nile passes at Semneh, afforded another most favourable + site for the completion of this system of defence. On cliffs rising sheer + above the current, the king constructed two fortresses, one on each bank + of the river, which completely commanded the approaches by land and water. + On the right bank at Kummeh, where the position was naturally a strong + one, the engineers described an irregular square, measuring about two + hundred feet each side; two projecting bastions flanked the entrance, the + one to the north covering the approaching pathways, the southern one + commanding the river-bank. A road with a ditch runs at about thirteen feet + from the walls round the building, closely following its contour, except + at the north-west and south-east angles, where there are two projections + which formed bastions. The town on the other bank, Samninû-Kharp-Khâkerî, + occupied a less favourable position: its eastern flank was protected by a + zone of rocks and by the river, but the three other sides were of easy + approach. They were provided with ramparts which rose to the height of + eighty-two feet above the plain, and were strengthened at unequal + distances by enormous buttresses. These resembled towers without parapets, + overlooking every part of the encircling road, and from them the defenders + could take the attacking sappers in flank. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0031" id="linkCimage-0031"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/351.jpg" width="100%" + alt="351.jpg the Rapids of The Nile at Semneh, and The Two Fortresses Built by Usirtasen Iii " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Map drawn up by Thuillier from the somewhat obsolete survey + of Cailliaud +</pre> + <p> + The intervals between them had been so calculated as to enable the archers + to sweep the intervening space with their arrows. The main building is of + crude brick, with beams laid horizontally between; the base of the + external rampart is nearly vertical, while the upper part forms an angle + of some seventy degrees with the horizon, making the scaling of it, if not + impossible, at least very difficult. Each of the enclosing walls of the + two fortresses surrounded a town complete in itself, with temples + dedicated to their founders and to the Nubian deities, as well as numerous + habitations, now in ruins. The sudden widening of the river immediately to + the south of the rapids made a kind of natural roadstead, where the + Egyptian squadron could lie without danger on the eve of a campaign + against Ethiopia; the galiots of the negroes there awaited permission to + sail below the rapids, and to enter Egypt with their cargoes. At once a + military station and a river custom-house, Semneh was the necessary + bulwark of the new Egypt, and Usirtasen III. emphatically proclaimed the + fact, in two decrees, which he set up there for the edification of + posterity. “Here is,” so runs the first, “the southern boundary fixed in + the year VIII. under his Holiness of Khâkerî, Usirtasen, who gives life + always and for ever, in order that none of the black peoples may cross it + from above, except only for the transport of animals, oxen, goats, and + sheep belonging to them.” The edict of the year XVI. reiterates the + prohibition of the year VIII., and adds that “His Majesty caused his own + statue to be erected at the landmarks which he himself had set up.” The + beds of the first and second cataracts were then less worn away than they + are now; they are therefore more efficacious in keeping back the water and + forcing it to rise to a higher level above. The cataracts acted as + indicators of the inundation, and if their daily rise and fall were + studied, it was possible to announce to the dwellers on the banks lower + down the river the progress and probable results of the flood. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0032" id="linkCimage-0032"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/353.jpg" width="100%" + alt="353.jpg the Channel of The Nile Between The Two Fortresses of Semneh and Kummeh " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Reproduction by Faucher-Gudin of a sketch published by + Cailliaud, <i>Voyage à Méroe, Atlas</i>, vol. ii. pl. xxx. +</pre> + <p> + As long as the dominion of the Pharaohs reached no further than Philæ, + observations of the Nile were always taken at the first cataract; and it + was from Elephantine that Egypt received the news of the first appearance + and progress of the inundation. Amenemhâît III. set up a new nilometer at + the new frontier, and gave orders to his officers to observe the course of + the flood. They obeyed him scrupulously, and every time that the + inundation appeared to them to differ from the average of ordinary years, + they marked its height on the rocks of Semneh and Kummeh, engraving side + by side with the figure the name of the king and the date of the year. The + custom was continued there under the XIIIth dynasty; afterwards, when the + frontier was pushed further south, the nilometer accompanied it. + </p> + <p> + The country beyond Semneh was virgin territory, almost untouched and quite + uninjured by previous wars. Its name now appears for the first time upon + the monuments, in the form of Kaûshû—the humbled Kûsh. It comprised + the districts situated to the south within the immense loop described by + the river between Dongola and Khartoum, those vast plains intersected by + the windings of the White and Blue Niles, known as the regions of Kordofan + and Darfur; it was bounded by the mountains of Abyssinia, the marshes of + Lake Nû, and all those semi-fabulous countries to which were relegated the + “Isles of the Manes” and the “Lands of Spirits.” It was separated from the + Red Sea by the land of Pûanît; and to the west, between it and the + confines of the world, lay the Timihû. Scores of tribes, white, + copper-coloured, and black, bearing strange names, wrangled over the + possession of this vaguely defined territory; some of them were still + savage or emerging from barbarism, while others had attained to a pitch of + material civilization almost comparable with that of Egypt. The same + diversity of types, the same instability and the same want of intelligence + which characterized the tribes of those days, still distinguish the medley + of peoples who now frequent the upper valley of the Nile. They led the + same sort of animal life, guided by impulse, and disturbed, owing to the + caprices of their petty chiefs, by bloody wars which often issued in + slavery or in emigration to distant regions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0033" id="linkCimage-0033"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/355.jpg" width="100%" + alt="355.jpg KÛshite Prisoners Brought to Egypt " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Guclin, from the water-colour drawing by + Mr. Blackden. +</pre> + <p> + With such shifting and unstable conditions, it would be difficult to build + up a permanent State. From time to time some kinglet, more daring, + cunning, tenacious, or better fitted to govern than the rest, extended his + dominion over his neighbours, and advanced step by step, till he united + immense tracts under his single rule. As by degrees his kingdom enlarged, + he made no efforts to organize it on any regular system, to introduce any + uniformity in the administration of its affairs, or to gain the adherence + of its incongruous elements by just laws which would be equally for the + good of all: when the massacres which accompanied his first victories were + over, when he had incorporated into his own army what was left of the + vanquished troops, when their children were led into servitude and he had + filled his treasury with their spoil and his harem with their women, it + never occurred to him that there was anything more to be done. If he had + acted otherwise, it would not probably have been to his advantage. Both + his former and present subjects were too divergent in language and origin, + too widely separated by manners and customs, and too long in a state of + hostility to each other, to draw together and to become easily welded into + a single nation. As soon as the hand which held them together relaxed its + hold for a moment, discord crept in everywhere, among individuals as well + as among the tribes, and the empire of yesterday resolved itself into its + original elements even more rapidly than it had been formed. The clash of + arms which had inaugurated its brief existence died quickly away, the + remembrance of its short-lived glory was lost after two or three + generations in the horrors of a fresh invasion: its name vanished without + leaving a trace behind. The occupation of Nubia brought Egypt into contact + with this horde of incongruous peoples, and the contact soon entailed a + struggle. It is futile for a civilized state to think of dwelling + peacefully with any barbarous nation with which it is in close proximity. + Should it decide to check its own advances, and impose limits upon itself + which it shall not pass over, its moderation is mistaken for feebleness + and impotence; the vanquished again take up the offensive, and either + force the civilized power to retire, or compel it to cross its former + boundary. The Pharaohs did not escape this inevitable consequence of + conquest: their southern frontier advanced continually higher and higher + up the Nile, without ever becoming fixed in a position sufficiently strong + to defy the attacks of the Barbarians. Usirtasen I. had subdued the + countries of Hahû, of Khonthanunofir, and Shaad, and had beaten in battle + the Shemîk, the Khasa, the Sus, the Aqîn, the Anu, the Sabiri, and the + people of Akîti and Makisa. Amenemhâît II., Usirtasen II., and Usirtasen + III. never hesitated to “strike the humbled Kush” whenever the opportunity + presented itself. The last-mentioned king in particular chastised them + severely in his VIIIth, XIIth, XVIth, and XIXth years, and his victories + made him so popular, that the Egyptians of the Greek period, identifying + him with the Sesostris of Herodotus, attributed to him the possession of + the universe. On the base of a colossal statue of rose granite which he + erected in the temple of Tanis, we find preserved a list of the tribes + which he conquered: the names of them appear to us most outlandish—Alaka, + Matakaraû, Tûrasû, Pamaîka, Uarakî, Paramakâ—and we have no clue as + to their position on the map. We know merely that they lived in the + desert, on both sides of the Nile, in the latitude of Berber or + thereabouts. Similar expeditions were sent after Ûsirtasen’s time, and + Amenem-hâît III. regarded both banks of the Nile, between Semneh and + Dongola, as forming part of the territory of Egypt proper. Little by + little, and by the force of circumstances, the making of Greater Egypt was + realized; she approached nearer and nearer towards the limit which had + been prescribed for her by nature, to that point where the Nile receives + its last tributaries, and where its peerless valley takes its origin in + the convergence of many others. + </p> + <p> + The conquest of Nubia was on the whole an easy one, and so much personal + advantage accrued from these wars, that the troops and generals entered on + them without the least repugnance. A single fragment has come down to us + which contains a detailed account of one of these campaigns, probably that + conducted by Usirtasen III. in the XVIth year of his reign. The Pharaoh + had received information that the tribes of the district of Hûâ, on the + Tacazze, were harassing his vassals, and possibly also those Egyptians who + were attracted by commerce to that neighbourhood. He resolved to set out + and chastise them severely, and embarked with his fleet. It was an + expedition almost entirely devoid of danger: the invaders landed only at + favourable spots, carried off any of the inhabitants who came in their + way, and seized on their cattle—on one occasion as many as a hundred + and twenty-three oxen and eleven asses, on others less. Two small parties + marched along the banks, and foraging to the right and left, drove the + booty down to the river. The tactics of invasion have scarcely undergone + any change in these countries; the account given by Cailliaud of the first + conquest of Fazogl by Ismail-Pasha, in 1822, might well serve to complete + the fragments of the inscription of Usirtasen III., and restore for us, + almost in every detail, a faithful picture of the campaigns carried on in + these regions by the kings of the XIIth dynasty. The people are hunted + down in the same fashion; the country is similarly ravaged by a handful of + well-armed, fairly disciplined men attacking naked and disconnected + hordes, the young men are massacred after a short resistance or forced to + escape into the woods, the women are carried off as slaves, the huts + pillaged, villages burnt, whole tribes exterminated in a few hours. + Sometimes a detachment, having imprudently ventured into some thorny + thicket to attack a village perched on a rocky summit, would experience a + reverse, and would with great difficulty regain the main body of troops, + after having lost three-fourths of its men. In most cases there was no + prolonged resistance, and the attacking party carried the place with the + loss of merely two or three men killed or wounded. The spoil was never + very considerable in any one locality, but its total amount increased as + the raid was carried afield, and it soon became so bulky that the party + had to stop and retrace their steps, in order to place it for safety in + the nearest fortress. The booty consisted for the most part of herds of + oxen and of cumbrous heaps of grain, as well as wood for building + purposes. But it also comprised objects of small size but of great value, + such as ivory, precious stones, and particularly gold. The natives + collected the latter in the alluvial tracts watered by the Tacazze, the + Blue Nile and its tributaries. The women were employed in searching for + nuggets, which were often of considerable size; they enclosed them in + little leather cases, and offered them to the merchants in exchange for + products of Egyptian industry, or they handed them over to the goldsmiths + to be made into bracelets, ear, nose, or finger rings, of fairly fine + workmanship. Gold was found in combination with several other metals, from + which they did not know how to separate it: the purest gold had a pale + yellow tint, which was valued above all others, but electrum, that is to + say, gold alloyed with silver in the proportion of eighty per cent., was + also much in demand, while greyish-coloured gold, mixed with platinum, + served for making common jewellery.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Cailliaud has briefly described the auriferous sand of the + Qamâmyl, and the way in which it is worked: it is from him + that I have borrowed the details given in the text. From + analyses which I caused to be made at the Bûlaq Museum of + Egyptian jewellery of the time of the XVIIIth dynasty, which + had been broken and were without value, from an archeo- + logical or artistic point of view, I have demonstrated the + presence of the platinum and silver mentioned by Cailliaud + as being found in the nuggets from the Blue Nile. +</pre> + <p> + None of these expeditions produced any lasting results, and the Pharaohs + established no colonies in any of these countries. Their Egyptian subjects + could not have lived there for any length of time without deteriorating by + intermarriage with the natives or from the effects of the climate; they + would have degenerated into a half-bred race, having all the vices and + none of the good qualities of the aborigines. The Pharaohs, therefore, + continued their hostilities without further scruples, and only sought to + gain as much as possible from their victories. They cared little if + nothing remained after they had passed through some district, or if the + passage of their armies was marked only by ruins. They seized upon + everything which came across their path—men, chattels, or animals—and + carried them back to Egypt; they recklessly destroyed everything for which + they had no use, and made a desert of fertile districts which but + yesterday had been covered with crops and studded with populous villages. + The neighbouring inhabitants, realizing their incapacity to resist regular + troops, endeavoured to buy off the invaders by yielding up all they + possessed in the way of slaves, flocks, wood, or precious metals. The + generals in command, however, had to reckon with the approaching low Nile, + which forced them to beat a retreat; they were obliged to halt at the + first appearance of it, and they turned homewards “in peace,” their only + anxiety being to lose the smallest possible number of men or captured + animals on their return journey. + </p> + <p> + As in earlier times, adventurous merchants penetrated into districts not + reached by the troops, and prepared the way for conquest. The princes of + Elephantine still sent caravans to distant parts, and one of them, + Siranpîtû, who lived under Ûsirtasen I. and Amenemhâit II., recorded his + explorations on his tomb, after the fashion of his ancestors: the king at + several different times had sent him on expeditions to the Soudan, but the + inscription in which he gives an account of them is so mutilated, that we + cannot be sure which tribes he visited. We learn merely that he collected + from them skins, ivory, ostrich feathers—everything, in fact, which + Central Africa has furnished as articles of commerce from time immemorial. + It was not, however, by land only that Egyptian merchants travelled to + seek fortune in foreign countries: the Red Sea attracted them, and served + as a quick route for reaching the land of Pûanît, whose treasures in + perfumes and rarities of all kinds had formed the theme of ancient + traditions and navigators’ tales. Relations with it had been infrequent, + or had ceased altogether, during the wars of the Heracleo-politan period: + on their renewal it was necessary to open up afresh routes which had been + forgotten for centuries. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0034" id="linkCimage-0034"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/362.jpg" width="100%" + alt="362.jpg the Routes Leading from The Nile to The Red Sea, Between Koptos and Kosseir. " /> + </div> + <p> + Traffic was confined almost entirely to two or three out of the many,—one + which ran from Elephantine or from Nekhabît to the “Head of Nekhabît,” the + Berenice of the Greeks; others which started from Thebes or Koptos, and + struck the coast at the same place or at Saû, the present Kosseir. The + latter, which was the shortest as well as the favourite route, passed + through Wady Hammamât, from whence the Pharaohs drew the blocks of granite + for their sarcophagi. The officers who were sent to quarry the stone often + took advantage of the opportunity to visit the coast, and to penetrate as + far as the Spice Regions. As early as the year VIII. of Sônkherî, the + predecessor of Amenemhâît I., the “sole friend” Hûnû had been sent by this + road, “in order to take the command of a squadron to Pûanît, and to + collect a tribute of fresh incense from the princes of the desert.” He got + together three thousand men, distributed to each one a goatskin bottle, a + crook for carrying it, and ten loaves, and set out from Koptos with this + little army. No water was met with on the way: Hûnû bored several wells + and cisterns in the rock, one at a halting-place called Bait, two in the + district of Adahaît, and finally one in the valleys of Adabehaît. Having + reached the seaboard, he quickly constructed a great barge, freighted it + with merchandise for barter, as well as with provisions, oxen, cows, and + goats, and set sail for a cruise along the coast: it is not known how far + he went, but he came back with a large cargo of all the products of the + “Divine Land,” especially of incense. On his return, he struck off into + the Uagai valley, and thence reached that of Rohanû, where he chose out + splendid blocks of stone for a temple which the king was building: “Never + had ‘Royal Cousin’ sent on an expedition done as much since the time of + the god Râ!” Numbers of royal officers and adventurers followed in his + footsteps, but no record of them has been preserved for us. Two or three + names only have escaped oblivion—that of Khnûmhotpû, who in the + first year of Ûsirtasen I. erected a stele in the Wady Gasûs in the very + heart of the “Divine Land;” and that of Khentkhîtioîrû, who in the + XXVIIIth year of Amenemhâît II. entered the haven of Saû after a fortunate + cruise to Pûanît, without having lost a vessel or even a single man. + Navigation is difficult in the Red Sea. The coast as a rule is + precipitous, bristling with reefs and islets, and almost entirely without + strand or haven. No river or stream runs into it; it is bordered by no + fertile or wooded tract, but by high cliffs, half disintegrated by the + burning sun, or by steep mountains, which appear sometimes a dull red, + sometimes a dingy grey colour, according to the material—granite or + sandstone—which predominates in their composition. The few tribes + who inhabit this desolate region maintain a miserable existence by fishing + and hunting: they were considered, during the Greek period, to be the most + unfortunate of mortals, and if they appeared to be so to the mariners of + the Ptolemies, doubtless they enjoyed the same reputation in the more + remote time of the Pharaohs. A few fishing villages, however, are + mentioned as scattered along the littoral; watering-places, at some + distance apart, frequented on account of their wells of brackish water by + the desert tribes: such were Nahasît, Tap-Nekhabît, Saû, and Tâû: these + the Egyptian merchant-vessels used as victualling stations, and took away + as cargo the products of the country—mother-of-pearl, amethysts, + emeralds, a little lapis-lazuli, a little gold, gums, and sweet-smelling + resins. If the weather was favourable, and the intake of merchandise had + been scanty, the vessel, braving numerous risks of shipwreck, continued + its course as far as the latitude of Sûakîn and Massowah, which was the + beginning of Pûanît properly so called. Here riches poured down to the + coast from the interior, and selection became a difficulty: it was hard to + decide which would make the best cargo, ivory or ebony, panthers’ skins or + rings of gold, myrrh, incense, or a score of other sweet-smelling gums. So + many of these odoriferous resins were used for religious purposes, that it + was always to the advantage of the merchant to procure as much of them as + possible: incense, fresh or dried, was the staple and characteristic + merchandise of the Red Sea, and the good people of Egypt pictured Pûanît + as a land of perfumes, which attracted the sailor from afar by the + delicious odours which were wafted from it. + </p> + <p> + These voyages were dangerous and trying: popular imagination seized upon + them and made material out of them for marvellous tales. The hero chosen + was always a daring adventurer sent by his master to collect gold from the + mines of Nubia; by sailing further and further up the river, he reached + the mysterious sea which forms the southern boundary of the world. “I set + sail in a vessel one hundred and fifty cubits long, forty wide, with one + hundred and fifty of the best sailors in the land of Egypt, who had seen + heaven and earth, and whose hearts were more resolute than those of lions. + They had foretold that the wind would not be contrary, or that there would + be even none at all; but a squall came upon us unexpectedly while we were + in the open, and as we approached the land, the wind freshened and raised + the waves to the height of eight cubits. As for me, I clung to a beam, but + those who were on the vessel perished without one escaping. A wave of the + sea cast me on to an island, after having spent three days alone with no + other companion than my own heart. I slept there in the shade of a + thicket; then I set my legs in motion in quest of something for my mouth.” + The island produced a quantity of delicious fruit: he satisfied his hunger + with it, lighted a fire to offer a sacrifice to the gods, and immediately, + by the magical power of the sacred rites, the inhabitants, who up to this + time had been invisible, were revealed to his eyes. “I heard a sound like + that of thunder, which I at first took to be the noise of the flood-tide + in the open sea; but the trees quivered, the earth trembled. I uncovered + my face, and I perceived that it was a serpent which was approaching. He + was thirty cubits in length, and his wattles exceeded two cubits; his body + was incrusted with gold, and his colour appeared like that of real lapis. + He raised himself before me and opened his mouth; while I prostrated + myself before him, he said to me: ‘Who hath brought thee, who hath brought + thee, little one, who hath brought thee? If thou dost not tell me + immediately who brought thee to this island, I will cause thee to know thy + littleness: either thou shalt faint like a woman, or thou shalt tell me + something which I have not yet heard, and which I knew not before thee.’ + Then he took me into his mouth and carried me to his dwelling-place, and + put me down without hurting me; I was safe and sound, and nothing had been + taken from me.” Our hero tells the serpent the story of his shipwreck, + which moves him to pity and induces him to reciprocate his confidence. + “Fear nothing, fear nothing, little one, let not thy countenance be sad! + If thou hast come to me, it is the god who has spared thy life; it is he + who has brought thee into this ‘Isle of the Double,’ where nothing is + lacking, and which is filled with all good things. Here thou shalt pass + one month after another till thou hast remained four months in this + island, then shall come a vessel from thy country with mariners; thou + canst depart with them to thy country, and thou shalt die in thy city. To + converse rejoices the heart, he who enjoys conversation bears misfortune + better; I will therefore relate to thee the history of this island.” The + population consisted of seventy-five serpents, all of one family: it + formerly comprised also a young girl, whom a succession of misfortunes had + cast on the island, and who was killed by lightning. The hero, charmed + with such good nature, overwhelmed the hospitable dragon with thanks, and + promised to send him numerous presents on his return home. “I will slay + asses for thee in sacrifice, I will pluck birds for thee, I will send to + thee vessels filled with all the riches of Egypt, meet for a god, the + friend of man in a distant country unknown to men.” The monster smiled, + and replied that it was needless to think of sending presents to one who + was the ruler of Pûanît; besides, “as soon as thou hast quitted this + place, thou wilt never again see this island, for it will be changed into + waves.”—“And then, when the vessel appeared, according as he had + predicted to me, I went and perched upon a high tree and sought to + distinguish those who manned it. I next ran to tell him the news, but I + found that he was already informed of its arrival, and he said to me: ‘A + pleasant journey home, little one; mayst thou behold thy children again, + and may thy name be well spoken of in thy town; such are my wishes for + thee!’ He added gifts to these obliging words. I placed all these on board + the vessel which had come, and prostrating myself, I adored him. He said + to me: ‘After two months thou shalt reach thy country, thou wilt press thy + children to thy bosom, and thou shalt rest in thy sepulchre.’ After that I + descended the shore to the vessel, and I hailed the sailors who were in + it. I gave thanks on the shore to the master of the island, as well as to + those who dwelt in it.” This might almost be an episode in the voyages of + Sindbad the Sailor; except that the monsters which Sindbad met with in the + course of his travels were not of such a kindly disposition as the + Egyptian serpent: it did not occur to them to console the shipwrecked with + the charm of a lengthy gossip, but they swallowed them with a healthy + appetite. Putting aside entirely the marvellous element in the story, what + strikes us is the frequency of the relations which it points to between + Egypt and Pûanît. The appearance of an Egyptian vessel excites no + astonishment on its coasts: the inhabitants have already seen many such, + and at such regular intervals, that they are able to predict the exact + date of their arrival. The distance between the two countries, it is true, + was not considerable, and a voyage of two months was sufficient to + accomplish it. While the new Egypt was expanding outwards in all + directions, the old country did not cease to add to its riches. The two + centuries during which the XIIth dynasty continued to rule were a period + of profound peace; the monuments show us the country in full possession of + all its resources and its arts, and its inhabitants both cheerful and + contented. More than ever do the great lords and royal officers expatiate + in their epitaphs upon the strict justice which they have rendered to + their vassals and subordinates, upon the kindness which they have shown to + the fellahîn, on the paternal solicitude with which, in the years of + insufficient inundations or of bad harvests, they have striven to come + forward and assist them, and upon the unheard-of disinterestedness which + kept them from raising the taxes during the times of average Niles, or of + unusual plenty. Gifts to the gods poured in from one end of the country to + the other, and the great building works, which had been at a standstill + since the end of the VIth dynasty, were recommenced simultaneously on all + sides. There was much to be done in the way of repairing the ruins, of + which the number had accumulated during the two preceding centuries. Not + that the most audacious kings had ventured to lay their hands on the + sanctuaries: they emptied the sacred treasuries, and partially confiscated + their revenues, but when once their cupidity was satisfied, they respected + the fabrics, and even went so far as to restore a few inscriptions, or, + when needed, to replace a few stones. These magnificent buildings required + careful supervision: in spite of their being constructed of the most + durable materials—sand-stone, granite, limestone,—in spite of + their enormous size, or of the strengthening of their foundations by a bed + of sand and by three or four courses of carefully adjusted blocks to form + a substructure, the Nile was ever threatening them, and secretly working + at their destruction. Its waters, filtering through the soil, were + perpetually in contact with the lower courses of these buildings, and kept + the foundations of the walls and the bases of the columns constantly damp: + the saltpetre which the waters had dissolved in their passage, + crystallising on the limestone, would corrode and undermine everything, if + precautions were not taken. When the inundation was over, the subsidence + of the water which impregnated the subsoil caused in course of time + settlements in the most solid foundations: the walls, disturbed by the + unequal sinking of the ground, got out of the perpendicular and cracked; + this shifting displaced the architraves which held the columns together, + and the stone slabs which formed the roof. These disturbances, aggravated + from year to year, were sufficient, if not at once remedied, to entail the + fall of the portions attacked; in addition to this, the Nile, having + threatened the part below with destruction, often hastened by direct + attacks the work of ruin, which otherwise proceeded slowly. A breach in + the embankments protecting the town or the temple allowed its waters to + rush violently through, and thus to effect large gaps in the decaying + walls, completing the overthrow of the columns and wrecking the entrance + halls and secret chambers by the fall of the roofs. At the time when Egypt + came under the rule of the XIIth dynasty there were but few cities which + did not contain some ruined or dilapidated sanctuary. Amenemhâît I., + although fully occupied in reducing the power of the feudal lords, + restored; the temples as far as he was able, and his successors pushed + forward the work vigorously for nearly two centuries. + </p> + <p> + The Delta profited greatly by this activity in building. The monuments + there had suffered more than anywhere else: fated to bear the first shock + of foreign invasion, and transformed into fortresses while the towns in + which they were situated were besieged, they have been captured again and + again by assault, broken down by attacking engines, and dismantled by all + the conquerors of Egypt, from the Assyrians to the Arabs and the Turks. + The fellahîn in their neighbourhood have for centuries come to them to + obtain limestone to burn in their kilns, or to use them as a quarry for + sandstone or granite for the doorways of their houses, or for the + thresholds of their mosques. Not only have they been ruined, but the + remains of their ruins have, as it were, melted away and almost entirely + disappeared in the course of ages. And yet, wherever excavations have been + made among these remains which have suffered such deplorable + ill-treatment, colossi and inscriptions commemorating the Pharaohs of the + XIIth dynasty have been brought to light. Amenemhâît I. founded a great + temple at Tanis in honour of the gods of Memphis: the vestiges of the + columns still scattered on all sides show that the main body of the + building was of rose granite, and a statue of the same material has + preserved for us a portrait of the king. He is seated, and wears the tall + head-dress of Osiris. He has a large smiling face, thick lips, a short + nose, and big staring eyes: the expression is one of benevolence and + gentleness, rather than of the energy and firmness which one would expect + in the founder of a dynasty. The kings who were his successors all + considered it a privilege to embellish the temple and to place in it some + memorial of their veneration for the god. Ûsirtasen I., following the + example of his father, set up a statue of himself in the form of Osiris: + he is sitting on his throne of grey granite, and his placid face + unmistakably recalls that of Amenemhâît I. Amenemhâît II., Usirtasen II., + and his wife Nofrît have also dedicated their images within the sanctuary. + </p> + <p> + Nofrît’s is of black granite: her head is almost eclipsed by the heavy + Hâthor wig, consisting of two enormous tresses of hair which surround the + cheeks, and lie with an outward curve upon the breast; her eyes, which + were formerly inlaid, have fallen out, the bronze eyelids are lost, her + arms have almost disappeared. What remains of her, however, gives us none + the less the impression of a young and graceful woman, with a lithe and + well-proportioned body, whose outlines are delicately modelled under the + tight-fitting smock worn by Egyptian women; the small and rounded breasts + curve outward between the extremities of her curls and the embroidered hem + of her garment; and a pectoral bearing the name of her husband lies flat + upon her chest, just below the column of her throat. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0035" id="linkCimage-0035"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:37%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/372.jpg" alt="372.jpg the Statue of Nofrit " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a photograph by +Insinger.* + +</pre> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +* In addition to the complete statue, +the Museum at Gîzeh possesses a torso +from the same source. I believe I can +recognize another portrait of the same +queen in a beautiful statue in black +granite, which has been in the Museum at +Marseilles since the beginning of the +present century. +</pre> + <p> + These various statues have all an evident artistic relationship to the + beautiful granite figures of the Ancient Empire. The sculptors who + executed them belonged to the same school as those who carved Khephren out + of the solid diorite: there is the same facile use of the chisel, the same + indifference to the difficulties presented by the material chosen, the + same finish in the detail, the same knowledge of the human form. One is + almost tempted to believe that Egyptian art remained unchanged all through + those long centuries, and yet as soon as a statue of the early period is + placed side by side with one of the XIIth dynasty, we immediately perceive + something in the one which is lacking in the other. It is a difference in + feeling, even if the technique remains unmodified. It was the man himself + that the sculptors desired to represent in the older Pharaohs, and however + haughty may be the countenance which we admire in the Khephren, it is the + human element which predominates in him. The statues of Amenemhâît I. and + his successors appear, on the contrary, to represent a superior race: at + the time when these were produced, the Pharaoh had long been regarded as a + god, and the divine nature in him had almost eliminated the human. Whether + intentionally or otherwise, the sculptors idealized their model, and made + him more and more resemble the type of the divinities. The head always + appears to be a good likeness, but smoothed down and sometimes lacking in + expression. + </p> + <p> + Not only are the marks of age rendered less apparent, and the features + made to bear the stamp of perpetual youth, but the characteristics of the + individual, such as the accentuation of the eyebrows, the protuberance of + the cheek-bones, the projection of the under lip, are all softened down as + if intentionally, and made to give way to a uniform expression of majestic + tranquillity. One king only, Amenemhâît III., refused to go down to + posterity thus effaced, and caused his portrait to be taken as he really + was. He has certainly the round full face of Amenemhâît or of Usirtasen + I., and there is an undeniable family likeness between him and his + ancestors; but at the first glance we feel sure that the artist has not in + any way flattered his model. The forehead is low and slightly retreating, + narrow across the temples; his nose is aquiline, pronounced in form, and + large at the tip; the thick lips are slightly closed; his mouth has a + disdainful curve, and its corners are turned down as if to repress the + inevitable smile common to most Egyptian statues; the chin is full and + heavy, and turns up in front in spite of the weight of the false beard + dependent from it; he has small narrow eyes, with full lids; his + cheekbones are accentuated and projecting, the cheeks hollow, and the + muscles about the nose and mouth strongly defined. The whole presents so + strange an aspect, that for a long time statues of this type have been + persistently looked upon as productions of an art which was only partially + Egyptian. It is, indeed, possible that the Tanis sphinxes were turned out + of workshops where the principles and practice of the sculptor’s art had + previously undergone some Asiatic influence; the bushy mane which + surrounds the face, and the lion’s ears emerging from it, are exclusively + characteristic of the latter. The purely human statues in which we meet + with the same type of countenance have no peculiarity of workmanship which + could be attributed to the imitation of a foreign art. If the nameless + masters to whom we owe their existence desired to bring about a reaction + against the conventional technique of their contemporaries, they at least + introduced no foreign innovations; the monuments of the Memphite period + furnished them with all the models they could possibly wish for. + </p> + <p> + Bubastis had no less occasion than Tanis to boast of the generosity of the + Theban Pharaohs. The temple of Bastît, which had been decorated by Kheops + and Khephren, was still in existence: Amenemhâît I., Usirtasen I., and + their immediate successors confined themselves to the restoration of + several chambers, and to the erection of their own statues, but Usirtasen + III. added to it a new structure which must have made it rival the finest + monuments in Egypt. He believed, no doubt, that he was under particular + obligations to the lioness goddess of the city, and attributed to her aid, + for unknown reasons, some of his successes in Nubia; it would appear that + it was with the spoil of a campaign against the country of the Hûâ that he + endowed a part of the new sanctuary.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The fragment found by Naville formed part of an + inscription engraved on a wall: the wars which it was + customary to commemorate in a temple were always selected + from those in which the whole or a part of the booty had + been consecrated to the use of the local divinity. +</pre> + <p> + Nothing now remains of it except fragments of the architraves and granite + columns, which have been used over again by Pharaohs of a later period + when restoring or altering the fabric. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0036" id="linkCimage-0036"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/376.jpg" width="100%" + alt="376.jpg One of the Tanis Sphinxes in The GÎzeh Museum " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch- + Bey, taken in 1881. The sphinx bears on its breast the + cartouche of Psiûkhânû, a Tanite Pharaoh of the XXIst + dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + A few of the columns belong to the lotiform type. The shaft is composed of + eight triangular stalks rising from a bunch of leaves, symmetrically + arranged, and bound together at the top by a riband, twisted thrice round + the bundle; the capital is formed by the union of the eight lotus buds, + surmounted by a square member on which rests the architrave. Other columns + have Hâthor-headed capitals, the heads being set back to back, and bearing + the flat head-dress ornamented with the urous. The face of the goddess, + which is somewhat flattened when seen closely on the eye-level, stands out + and becomes more lifelike in proportion as the spectator recedes from it; + the projection of the features has been calculated so as to produce the + desired effect at the right height when seen from below. The district + lying between Tanis and Bubastis is thickly studded with monuments built + or embellished by the Amenemhâîts and Usirtasens: wherever the pickaxe is + applied, whether at Fakus or Tell-Nebêsheh, remains of them are brought to + light—statues, stelæ, tables of offerings, and fragments of + dedicatory or historical inscriptions. While carrying on works in the + temple of Phtah at Memphis, the attention of these Pharaohs was attracted + to Heliopolis. The temple of Râ there was either insufficient for the + exigencies of worship, or had been allowed to fall into decay. Usirtasen + III. resolved, in the third year of his reign, to undertake its + restoration. The occasion appears to have been celebrated as a festival by + all Egypt, and the remembrance of it lasted long after the event: the + somewhat detailed account of the ceremonies which then took place was + copied out again at Thebes, towards the end of the XVIIIth dynasty. It + describes the king mounting his throne at the meeting of his council, and + receiving, as was customary, the eulogies of his “sole friends” and of the + courtiers who surrounded him: “Here,” says he, addressing them, “has my + Majesty ordained the works which shall recall my worthy and noble acts to + posterity. I raise a monument, I establish lasting decrees in favour of + Harmakhis, for he has brought me into the world to do as he did, to + accomplish that which he decreed should be done; he has appointed me to + guide this earth, he has known it, he has called it together and he has + granted me his help; I have caused the Eye which is in him to become + serene, in all things acting as he would have me to do, and I have sought + out that which he had resolved should be known. I am a king by birth, a + suzerain not of my own making; I have governed from childhood, petitions + have been presented to me when I was in the egg, I have ruled over the + ways of Anubis, and he raised me up to be master of the two halves of the + world, from the time when I was a nursling; I had not yet escaped from the + swaddling-bands when he enthroned me as master of men; creating me himself + in the sight of mortals, he made me to find favour with the Dweller in the + Palace, when I was a youth.... I came forth as Horus the eloquent, and I + have instituted divine oblations; I accomplish the works in the palace of + my father Atûmû, I supply his altar on earth with offerings, I lay the + foundations of my palace in his neighbourhood, in order that the memorial + of my goodness may remain in his dwelling; for this palace is my name, + this lake is my monument, all that is famous or useful that I have made + for the gods is eternity.” The great lords testified their approbation of + the king’s piety; the latter summoned his chancellor and commanded him to + draw up the deeds of gift and all the documents necessary for the carrying + out of his wishes. “He arose, adorned with the royal circlet and with the + double feather, followed by all his nobles; the chief lector of the divine + book stretched the cord and fixed the stake in the ground.” * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Stehn, <i>Urkunde uber den Bau des Sonnentempels zu On</i>, pl. + i. 11. 13—15. The priest here performed with the king the + more important of the ceremonies necessary in measuring the + area of the temple, by “inserting the measuring stakes,” + and marking out the four sides of the building with the + cord. +</pre> + <p> + This temple has ceased to exist; but one of the granite obelisks raised by + Usirtasen I. on each side of the principal gateway is still standing. The + whole of Heliopolis has disappeared: the site where it formerly stood is + now marked only by a few almost imperceptible inequalities in the soil, + some crumbling lengths of walls, and here and there some scattered blocks + of limestone, containing a few lines of mutilated inscriptions which can + with difficulty be deciphered; the obelisk has survived even the + destruction of the ruins, and to all who understand its language it still + speaks of the Pharaoh who erected it. + </p> + <p> + The undertaking and successful completion of so many great structures had + necessitated a renewal of the working of the ancient quarries, and the + opening of fresh ones. Amenemhâît I. sent Antuf, a great dignitary, chief + of the prophets of Mînû and prince of Koptos, to the valley of Rohanû, to + seek out fine granite for making the royal sarcophagi. Amenemhâît III. + had, in the XLIIIrd year of his reign, been present at the opening of + several fine veins of white limestone in the quarries of Turah, which + probably furnished material for the buildings proceeding at Heliopolis and + Memphis. Thebes had also its share of both limestone and granite, and + Amon, whose sanctuary up to this time had only attained the modest + proportions suited to a provincial god, at last possessed a temple which + raised him to the rank of the highest feudal divinities. Amon’s career had + begun under difficulties: he had been merely a vassal-god of Montû, lord + of Hermonthis (the Aûnû of the south), who had granted to him the + ownership of the village of Karnak only. The unforeseen good fortune of + the Antufs was the occasion of his emerging from his obscurity: he did not + dethrone Montû, but shared with him the homage of all the neighbouring + villages—Luxor, Medamut, Bayadîyeh; and, on the other side of the + Nile, Gurneh and Medînet-Habu. The accession of the XIIth dynasty + completed his triumph, and made him the most powerful authority in + Southern Egypt. He was an earth-god, a form of Mînû who reigned at Koptos, + at Akhmîm and in the desert, but he soon became allied to the sun, and + from thenceforth he assumed the name of Amon-Râ. The title of “sûton + nûtîrû” which he added to it would alone have sufficed to prove the + comparatively recent origin of his notoriety; as the latest arrival among + the great gods, he employed, to express his sovereignty, this word + “sûton,” king, which had designated the rulers of the valley ever since + the union of the two Egypts under the shadowy Menés. Reigning at first + alone, he became associated by marriage with a vague indefinite goddess, + called Maût, or Mût, the “mother,” who never adopted any more distinctive + name: the divine son who completed this triad was, in early times, Montû; + but in later times a being of secondary rank, chosen from among the genii + appointed to watch over the days of the month or the stars, was added, + under the name of Khonsû. Amenemhâît laid the foundations of the temple, + in which the cultus of Amon was carried on down to the latest times of + paganism. The building was supported by polygonal columns of sixteen + sides, some fragments of which are still existing. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0037" id="linkCimage-0037"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/381.jpg" width="100%" + alt="381.jpg the Obelisk of Ûsirtasen I., Still Standing In The Plain of Heliopolis " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger. +</pre> + <p> + The temple was at first of only moderate dimensions, but it was built of + the choicest sandstone and limestone, and decorated with exquisite + bas-reliefs. Ûsirtasen I. enlarged it, and built a beautiful house for the + high priest on the west side of the sacred lake. Luxor, Zorit, Edfu, + Hierakonpolis, El-Kab, Elephantine, and Dendera,* shared between them the + favour of the Pharaohs; the venerable town of Abydos became the object of + their special predilection. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Dümichen pointed out, in the masonry of the great eastern + staircase of the present temple of Hâthor, a stone obtained + from the earlier temple, which bears the name of Amenemhâît; + another fragment, discovered and published by Mariette, + shows that Amenemhâît I. is here again referred to. The + buildings erected by this monarch at Dondera must have been + on a somewhat large scale, if we may judge from the size of + this last fragment, which is the lintel of a door. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0038" id="linkCimage-0038"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/384.jpg" + alt="384.jpg Usirtasen I. Of Abydos " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a photograph +by M. de Banville. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + Its reputation for sanctity had been steadily growing from the time of the + Papis: its god, Khontamentît, who was identified with Osiris, had obtained + in the south a rank as high as that of the Mendesian Osiris in the north + of Egypt. He was worshipped as the sovereign of the sovereigns of the dead—he + who gathered around him and welcomed in his domains the majority of the + faithful of other cults. His sepulchre, or, more correctly speaking, the + chapel representing his sepulchre, in which one of his relics was + preserved, was here, as elsewhere, built upon the roof. Access to it was + gained by a staircase leading up on the left side of the sanctuary: on the + days of the passion and resurrection of Osiris solemn processions of + priests and devotees slowly mounted its steps, to the chanting of funeral + hymns, and above, on the terrace, away from the world of the living, and + with no other witnesses than the stars of heaven, the faithful celebrated + mysteriously the rites of the divine death and embalming. The “vassals of + Osiris” flocked in crowds to these festivals, and took a delight in + visiting, at least once during their lifetime, the city whither their + souls would proceed after death, in order to present themselves at the + “Mouth of the Cleft,” there to embark in the “bari” of their divine master + or in that of the Sun. They left behind them, “under the staircase of the + great god,” a sort of fictitious tomb, near the representation of the tomb + of Osiris, in the shape of a stele, which immortalized the memory of their + piety, and which served as a kind of hostelry for their soul, when the + latter should, in course of time, repair to this rallying-place of all + Osirian souls. The concourse of pilgrims was a source of wealth to the + population, the priestly coffers were filled, and every year the original + temple was felt to be more and more inadequate to meet the requirements of + worship. Usirtasen I. desired to come to the rescue: he despatched + Monthotpû, one of his great vassals, to superintend the works. The + ground-plan of the portico of white limestone which preceded the entrance + court may still be distinguished; this portico was supported by square + pillars, and, standing against the remains of these, we see the colossi of + rose granite, crowned with the Osirian head-dress, and with their feet + planted on the “Nine Bows,” the symbol of vanquished enemies. The best + preserved of these figures represents the founder, but several others are + likenesses of those of his successors who interested themselves in the + temple. Monthotpû dug a well which was kept fully supplied by the + infiltrations from the Nile. He enlarged and cleaned out the sacred lake + upon which the priests launched the Holy Ark, on the nights of the great + mysteries. The alluvial deposits of fifty centuries have not as yet wholly + filled it up: it is still an irregularly shaped pond, which dries up in + winter, but is again filled as soon as the inundation reaches the village + of El-Kharbeh. + </p> + <p> + A few stones, corroded with saltpetre, mark here and there the lines of + the landing stages, a thick grove of palms fringes its northern and + southern banks, but to the west the prospect is open, and extends as far + as the entrance to the gorge, through which the souls set forth in search + of Paradise and the solar bark. Buffaloes now come to drink and wallow at + midday where once floated the gilded “bari” of Osiris, and the murmur of + bees from the neighbouring orchards alone breaks the silence of the spot + which of old resounded with the rhythmical lamentations of the pilgrims. + </p> + <p> + Heracleopolis the Great, the town preferred by the earlier Theban Pharaohs + as their residence in times of peace, must have been one of those which + they proceeded to decorate <i>con amore</i> with magnificent monuments. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0039" id="linkCimage-0039"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/385.jpg" width="100%" + alt="385.jpg a Part of the Ancient Sacred Lake Of Osiris Near The Temple of Abydos " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey, + taken in 1884. +</pre> + <p> + Unfortunately it has suffered more than any of the rest, and nothing of it + is now to be seen but a few wretched remains of buildings of the Roman + period, and the ruins of a barbaric colonnade on the site of a Byzantine + basilica almost contemporary with the Arab conquest. Perhaps the enormous + mounds which cover its site may still conceal the remains of its ancient + temples. We can merely estimate their magnificence by casual allusions to + them in the inscriptions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0040" id="linkCimage-0040"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/386.jpg" width="100%" + alt="386.jpg the Site of The Ancient Heracleopolis " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Golénischeff +</pre> + <p> + We know, for instance, that Usirtasen III. rebuilt the sanctuary of + Harshâfîtû, and that he sent expeditions to the Wady Hammamât to quarry + blocks of granite worthy of his god: but the work of this king and his + successors has perished in the total ruin of the ancient town. Something + at least has remained of what they did in that traditional dependency of + Heracleopolis, the Fayum: the temple which they rebuilt to the god Sobkû + in Shodît retained its celebrity down to the time of the Cæsars, not so + much, perhaps, on account of the beauty of its architecture as for the + unique character of the religious rites which took place there daily. The + sacred lake contained a family of tame crocodiles, the image and + incarnation of the god, whom the faithful fed with their offerings—cakes, + fried fish, and drinks sweetened with honey. Advantage was taken of the + moment when one of these creatures, wallowing on the bank, basked + contentedly in the sun: two priests opened his jaws, and a third threw in + the cakes, the fried morsels, and finally the liquid. The crocodile bore + all this without even winking; he swallowed down his provender, plunged + into the lake, and lazily reached the opposite bank, hoping to escape for + a few moments from the oppressive liberality of his devotees. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0041" id="linkCimage-0041"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/387.jpg" width="100%" + alt="387.jpg SobkÛ, the God of The FayÛm, Under The Form Of A Sacred Crocodile " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch- + Bey, taken in 1885. The original in black granite is now in + the Berlin Museum. It represents one of the sacred + crocodiles mentioned by Strabo; we read on the base a Greek + inscription in honour of Ptolemy Neos Dionysos, in which the + name of the divine reptile “Petesûkhos, the great god,” is + mentioned. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0042" id="linkCimage-0042"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:39%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/388.jpg" + alt="388.jpg the Remains of The Obelisk Of Begig " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by Golûnischeff. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + As soon, however, as another of these approached, he was again beset at + his new post and stuffed in a similar manner. These animals were in their + own way great dandies: rings of gold or enamelled terra-cotta were hung + from their ears, and bracelets were soldered on to their front paws. The + monuments of Shodît, if any still exist, are buried under the mounds of + Medinet el-Fayûm, but in the neighbourhood we meet with more than one + authentic relic of the XIIth dynasty. It was Usirtasen I. who erected that + curious thin granite obelisk, with a circular top, whose fragments lie + forgotten on the ground near the village of Begig: a sort of basin has + been hollowed out around it, which fills during the inundation, so that + the monument lies in a pool of muddy water during the greater part of the + year. Owing to this treatment, most of the inscriptions on it have almost + disappeared, though we can still make out a series of five scenes in which + the king hands offerings to several divinities. Near to Biahmû there was + an old temple which had become ruinous: Amenemhâît III. repaired it, and + erected in front of it two of those colossal statues which the Egyptians + were wont to place like sentinels at their gates, to ward off baleful + influences and evil spirits. + </p> + <p> + The colossi at Biahmû were of red sandstone, and were seated on high + limestone pedestals, placed at the end of a rectangular court; the temple + walls hid the lower part of the pedestals, so that the colossi appeared to + tower above a great platform which sloped gently away from them on all + sides. Herodotus, who saw them from a distance at the time of the + inundation, believed that they crowned the summits of two pyramids rising + out of the middle of a lake. Near Illahun, Queen Sovkûnofriûri herself has + left a few traces of her short reign. + </p> + <p> + The Fayum, by its fertility and pleasant climate, justified the preference + which the Pharaohs of the XIIth dynasty bestowed upon it. On emerging from + the gorges of Illahun, it opens out like a vast amphitheatre of + cultivation, whose slopes descend towards the north till they reach the + desolate waters of the Birket-Kerun. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0043" id="linkCimage-0043"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/389.jpg" width="100%" + alt="389.jpg the Ruined Pedestal of One Of The Colossi Of BiahmÛ " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after Major Brown. +</pre> + <p> + On the right and left, the amphitheatre is isolated from the surrounding + mountains by two deep ravines, filled with willows, tamarisks, mimosas, + and thorny acacias. Upon the high ground, lands devoted to the culture of + corn, durra, and flax, alternate with groves of palms and pomegranates, + vineyards and gardens of olives, the latter being almost unknown elsewhere + in Egypt. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0044" id="linkCimage-0044"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/390.jpg" width="100%" + alt="390.jpg a View in the FayÛm In The Neighbourhood of The Village of FidemÎn " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Golenischeff. +</pre> + <p> + The slopes are covered with cultivated fields, irregularly terraced woods, + and meadows enclosed by hedges, while lofty trees, clustered in some + places and thinly scattered in others, rise in billowy masses of verdure + one behind the other. Shodît [Shâdû] stood on a peninsula stretching out + into a kind of natural reservoir, and was connected with the mainland by + merely a narrow dyke; the water of the inundation flowed into this + reservoir and was stored here during the autumn. Countless little rivulets + escaped from it, not merely such canals and ditches as we meet with in the + Nile Valley, but actual running brooks, coursing and babbling between the + trees, spreading out here and there into pools of water, and in places + forming little cascades like those of our own streams, but dwindling in + volume as they proceeded, owing to constant drains made on them, until + they were for the most part absorbed by the soil before finally reaching + the lake. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0045" id="linkCimage-0045"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/391.jpg" width="100%" + alt="391.jpg the Court of The Small Temple " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Major Brown. +</pre> + <p> + They brought down in their course part of the fertilizing earth + accumulated by the inundation, and were thus instrumental in raising the + level of the soil. The water of the Birkeh rose or fell according to the + season of the year. It formerly occupied a much larger area than it does + at present, and half of the surrounding districts was covered by it. Its + northern shores, now deserted and uncultivated, then shared in the + benefits of the inundation, and supplied the means of existence for a + civilized population. In many places we still find the remains of + villages, and walls of uncemented stone; a small temple even has escaped + the general ruin, and remains almost intact in the midst of the + desolation, as if to point out the furthest limit of Egyptian territory. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0046" id="linkCimage-0046"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/392.jpg" width="100%" + alt="392.jpg the Shores of The Birket-kerun Near The Embouchure of the Wady Nazleh " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Golénischeff. +</pre> + <p> + It bears no inscriptions, but the beauty of the materials of which it is + composed, and the perfection of the work, lead us to attribute its + construction to some prince of the XIIth dynasty. An ancient causeway runs + from its entrance to what was probably at one time the original margin of + the lake. The continual sinking of the level of the Birkeh has left this + temple isolated on the edge of the Libyan plateau, and all life has + retired from the surrounding district, and has concentrated itself on the + southern shores of the lake. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0047" id="linkCimage-0047"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/393.jpg" width="100%" + alt="393.jpg the Two Pyramids of The Xiith Dynasty at Lisht " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey. +</pre> + <p> + Here the banks are low and the bottom deepens almost imperceptibly. In + winter the retreating waters leave exposed long patches of the shore, upon + which a thin crust of snow-white salt is deposited, concealing the depths + of mud and quicksands beneath. Immediately after the inundation, the lake + regains in a few days the ground it had lost: it encroaches on the + tamarisk bushes which fringe its banks, and the district is soon + surrounded by a belt of marshy vegetation, affording cover for ducks, + pelicans, wild geese, and a score of different kinds of birds which + disport themselves there by the thousand. The Pharaohs, when tired of + residing in cities, here found varied and refreshing scenery, an equable + climate, gardens always gay with flowers, and in the thickets of the Kerun + they could pursue their favourite pastimes of interminable fishing and of + hunting with the boomerang. + </p> + <p> + They desired to repose after death among the scenes in which they had + lived. Their tombs stretch from Heracleo-polis till they nearly meet the + last pyramids of the Memphites: at Dahshur there are still two of them + standing. The northern one is an immense erection of brick, placed in + close proximity to the truncated pyramid, but nearer than it to the edge + of the plateau, so as to overlook the valley. We might be tempted to + believe that the Theban kings, in choosing a site immediately to the south + of the spot where Papi II. slept in his glory, were prompted by the desire + to renew the traditions of the older dynasties prior to those of the + Heracleopolitans, and thus proclaim to all beholders the antiquity of + their lineage. One of their residences was situated at no great distance, + near Miniet Dahshur, the city of Titoui, the favourite residence of + Amenemhâîfc I. It was here that those royal princesses, Nofirhonît, + Sonît-Sonbît, Sîthâthor, and Monît, his sisters, wives, and daughters, + whose tombs lie opposite the northern face of the pyramid, flourished side + by side with Amenemhâît III. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0048" id="linkCimage-0048"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/394.jpg" width="100%" + alt="394.jpg Painting at the Entrance of The Fifth Tomb " /> + </div> + <p> + There, as of old in their harem, they slept side by side, and, in spite of + robbers, their mummies have preserved the ornaments with which they were + adorned, on the eve of burial, by the pious act of their lords. The art of + the ancient jewellers, which we have hitherto known only from pictures on + the walls of tombs or on the boards of coffins, is here exhibited in all + its cunning. The ornaments comprise a wealth of gold gorgets, necklaces of + agate beads or of enamelled lotus-flowers, cornelian, amethyst, and onyx + scarabs. Pectorals of pierced gold-work, inlaid with flakes of vitreous + paste or precious stones, bear the cartouches of Usirtasen III. and of + Amenemhâît II., and every one of these gems of art reveals a perfection of + taste and a skilfulness of handling which are perfectly wonderful. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0049" id="linkCimage-0049"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/395.jpg" width="100%" + alt="395.jpg Pectoral Ornament of Usirtasen Iii " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch- + Bey. +</pre> + <p> + Their delicacy, and their freshness in spite of their antiquity, make it + hard for us to realize that fifty centuries have elapsed since they were + made. We are tempted to imagine that the royal ladies to whom they + belonged must still be waiting within earshot, ready to reply to our + summons as soon as we deign to call them; we may even anticipate the joy + they will evince when these sumptuous ornaments are restored to them, and + we need to glance at the worm-eaten coffins which contain their stiff and + disfigured mummies to recall our imagination to the stern reality of fact. + Two other pyramids, but in this case of stone, still exist further south, + to the left of the village of Lisht: their casing, torn off by the + fellahîn, has entirely disappeared, and from a distance they appear to be + merely two mounds which break the desert horizon line, rather than two + buildings raised by the hand of man. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0050" id="linkCimage-0050"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/396.jpg" width="100%" + alt="396.jpg the Pyramid of Illahun, at The Entrance Of The Fa.Ûm " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Golénischeff. +</pre> + <p> + The sepulchral chambers, excavated at a great depth in the sand, are now + filled with water which has infiltrated through the soil, and they have + not as yet been sufficiently emptied to permit of an entrance being + effected: one of them contained the body of Usirtasen I.; does Amenemhâît + I. or Amenemhâît II. repose in the other? We know, at all events, that + Usirtasen II. built for himself the pyramid of Illahun, and Amenemhâît + III. that of Hawâra. “Hotpû,” the tomb of Usirtasen II., stood upon a + rocky hill at a distance of some two thousand feet from the cultivated + lands. To the east of it lay a temple, and close to the temple a town, + Haît-Usirtasen-Hotpû—“the Castle of the Repose of Usirtasen”—which + was inhabited by the workmen employed in building the pyramid, who resided + there with their families. The remains of the temple consist of scarcely + anything more than the enclosing wall, whose sides were originally faced + with fine white limestone covered with hieroglyphs and sculptured scenes. + It adjoined the wall of the town, and the neighbouring quarters are almost + intact: the streets were straight, and crossed each other at right angles, + while the houses on each side were so regularly built that a single + policeman could keep his eye on each thoroughfare from one end to the + other. The structures were of rough material hastily put together, and + among the <i>débris</i> are to be found portions of older buildings, + stehe, and fragments of statues. The town began to dwindle after the + Pharaoh had taken possession of his sepulchre; it was abandoned during the + XIIIth dynasty, and its ruins were entombed in the sand which the wind + heaped over them. The city which Amenemhâît III. had connected with his + tomb maintained, on the contrary, a long existence in the course of the + centuries. The king’s last resting-place consisted of a large sarcophagus + of quartzose sandstone, while his favourite consort, Nofriuphtah, reposed + beside him in a smaller coffin. The sepulchral chapel was very large, and + its arrangements were of a somewhat complicated character. It consisted of + a considerable number of chambers, some tolerably large, and others of + moderate dimensions, while all of them were difficult of access and + plunged in perpetual darkness: this was the Egyptian Labyrinth, to which + the Greeks, by a misconception, have given a world-wide renown. Amenemhâît + III. or his architects had no intention of building such a childish + structure as that in which classical tradition so fervently believed. He + had richly endowed the attendant priests, and bestowed upon the cult of + his double considerable revenues, and the chambers above mentioned were so + many storehouses for the safekeeping of the treasure and provisions for + the dead, and the arrangement of them was not more singular than that of + ordinary storage depots. As his cult persisted for a long period, the + temple was maintained in good condition during a considerable time: it had + not, perhaps, been abandoned when the Greeks first visited it.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The identity of the ruins at Hawâra with the remains of + the Labyrinth, admitted by Jomard-Caristie and by Lepsius, + disputed by Vassali, has been definitely proved by Pétrie, + who found remains of the buildings erected by Amenemhâît + III. under the ruins of a village and some Græco-Roman + tombs. +</pre> + <p> + The other sovereigns of the XIIth dynasty must have been interred not far + from the tombs of Amenemhâît III. and Usirtasen II.: they also had their + pyramids, of which we may one day discover the site. The outline of these + was almost the same as that of the Memphite pyramids, but the interior + arrangements were different. As at Illahun and Dahshur, the mass of the + work consisted of crude bricks of large size, between which fine sand was + introduced to bind them solidly together, and the whole was covered with a + facing of polished limestone. The passages and chambers are not arranged + on the simple plan which we meet with in the pyramids of earlier date. + Experience had taught the Pharaohs that neither granite walls nor the + multiplication of barriers could preserve their mummies from profanation: + no sooner was vigilance relaxed, either in the time of civil war or under + a feeble administration, than robbers appeared on the scene, and boring + passages through the masonry with the ingenuity of moles, they at length, + after indefatigable patience, succeeded in reaching the sepulchral vault + and despoiling the mummy of its valuables. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0051" id="linkCimage-0051"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/399.jpg" width="100%" + alt="399.jpg the Mountain of Silt With The Tombs Of The Princes " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Émil Brugsch-Bey, + taken in 1884. +</pre> + <p> + With a view to further protection, the builders multiplied blind passages + and chambers without apparent exit, but in which a portion of the ceiling + was movable, and gave access to other equally mysterious rooms and + corridors. Shafts sunk in the corners of the chambers and again carefully + closed put the sacrilegious intruder on a false scent, for, after causing + him a great loss of time and labour, they only led down to the solid rock. + At the present day the water of the Nile fills the central chamber of the + Hawâra pyramid and covers the sarcophagus; it is possible that this was + foreseen, and that the builders counted on the infiltration as an + additional obstacle to depredations from without.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Indeed, it should be noted that in the Græco-Roman period + the presence of water in a certain number of the pyramids + was a matter of common knowledge, and so frequently was it + met with, that it was even supposed to exist in a pyramid + into which water had never penetrated, viz. that of Kheops. + Herodotus relates that, according to the testimony of the + interpreters who acted as his guides, the waters of the Nile + were carried to the sepulchral cavern of the Pharaoh by a + subterranean channel, and shut it in on all sides, like an + island. +</pre> + <p> + The hardness of the cement, which fastens the lid of the stone coffin to + the lower part, protects the body from damp, and the Pharaoh, lying + beneath several feet of water, still defies the greed of the robber or the + zeal of the archaeologist. + </p> + <p> + The absolute power of the kings kept their feudal vassals in check: far + from being suppressed, however, the seignorial families continued not only + to exist, but to enjoy continued prosperity. Everywhere, at Elephantine, + Koptos, Thinis, in Aphroditopolis, and in most of the cities of the Said + and of the Delta, there were ruling princes who were descended from the + old feudal lords or even from Pharaohs of the Memphite period, and who + were of equal, if not superior rank, to the members of the reigning + family. The princes of Siut no longer en-joyed an authority equal to that + exercised by their ancestors under the Heracleopolitan dynasties, but they + still possessed considerable influence. One of them, Hapizaûfi I., + excavated for himself, in the reign of Ûsirtasen I., nor far from the + burying-place of Khîti and Tefabi, that beautiful tomb, which, though + partially destroyed by Coptic monks or Arabs, still attracts visitors and + excites their astonishment. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0052" id="linkCimage-0052"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/401.jpg" width="100%" + alt="401.jpg Map of Principality Of the Gazelle " /> + </div> + <p> + The lords of Shashotpu in the south, and those of Hermopolis in the north, + had acquired to some extent the ascendency which their neighbours of Siût + had lost. The Hermopolitan princes dated at least from the time of the + VIth dynasty, and they had passed safely through the troublous times which + followed the death of Papi II. A branch of their family possessed the nome + of the Hare, while another governed that of the Gazelle. The lords of the + nome of the Hare espoused the Theban cause, and were reckoned among the + most faithful vassals of the sovereigns of the south: one of them, + Thothotpû, caused a statue of himself, worthy of a Pharaoh, to be erected + in his loyal town of Hermopolis, and their burying-places at el-Bersheh + bear witness to their power no less than to their taste in art. During the + troubles which put an end to the XIth dynasty, a certain Khnûmhotpû, who + was connected in some unknown manner with the lords of the nome of the + Gazelle, entered the Theban service and accompanied Amenemhâît I. on his + campaigns into Nubia. He obtained, as a reward of faithfulness, + Monâît-Khûfûi and the district of Khûît-Horû,—“the Horizon of + Horus,”—on the east bank of the Nile. On becoming possessed of the + western bank also, he entrusted the government of the district which he + was giving up to his eldest son, Nakhîti I.; but, the latter having died + without heirs, Usirtasen I. granted to Biqît, the sister of Nakhîti, the + rank and prerogative of a reigning princess. Biqît married Nûhri, one of + the princes of Hermopolis, and brought with her as her dowry the fiefdom + of the Gazelle, thus doubling the possessions of her husband’s house. + Khnûmhotpû II., the eldest of the children born of this union, was, while + still young, appointed Governor of Monâît-Khûfuî, and this title appears + to have become an appanage of his heir-apparent, just as the title of + “Prince of Kaûshû” was, from the XIXth dynasty onwards, the special + designation of the heir to the throne. The marriage of Khnûmhotpû II. with + the youthful Khîti, the heiress of the nome of the Jackal, rendered him + master of one of the most fertile provinces of Middle Egypt. The power of + this family was further augmented under Nakhîti II., son of Khnûmhotpû II. + and Khîti: Nakhîti, prince of the nome of the Jackal in right of his + mother, and lord of that of the Gazelle after the death of his father, + received from Usirtasen II. the administration of fifteen southern nomes, + from Aphroditopolis to Thebes. This is all we know of his history, but it + is probable that his descendants retained the same power and position for + several generations. The career of these dignitaries depended greatly on + the Pharaohs with whom they were contemporary: they accompanied the royal + troops on their campaigns, and with the spoil which they collected on such + occasions they built temples or erected tombs for themselves. The tombs of + the princes of the nome of the Gazelle are disposed along the right bank + of the Nile, and the most ancient are exactly opposite Minieh. It is at + Zawyet el-Meiyetîn and at Kom-el-Ahmar, nearly facing Hibonu, their + capital, that we find the burying-places of those who lived under the VIth + dynasty. The custom of taking the dead across the Nile had existed for + centuries, from the time when the Egyptians first cut their tombs in the + eastern range; it still continues to the present day, and part of the + population of Minieh are now buried, year after year, in the places which + their remote ancestors had chosen as the site of their “eternal houses.” + The cemetery lies peacefully in the centre of the sandy plain at the foot + of the hills; a grove of palms, like a curtain drawn along the river-side, + partially conceals it; a Coptic convent and a few Mahommedan hermits + attract around them the tombs of their respective followers, Christian or + Mussulman. The rock-hewn tombs of the XIIth dynasty succeed each other in + one long irregular line along the cliffs of Beni-Hasan, and the traveller + on the Nile sees their entrances continuously coming into sight and + disappearing as he goes up or descends the river. These tombs are entered + by a square aperture, varying in height and width according to the size of + the chapel. Two only, those of Amoni-Amenemhâît and of Khnûm-hotpû II., + have a columned façade, of which all the members—pillars, bases, + entablatures—have been cut in the solid rock: the polygonal shafts + of the façade look like a bad imitation of ancient Doric. Inclined planes + or nights of steps, like those at Elephantine, formerly led from the plain + up to the terrace. Only a few traces of these exist at the present day, + and the visitor has to climb the sandy slope as best he can: wherever he + enters, the walls present to his view inscriptions of immense extent, as + well as civil, sepulchral, military, and historical scenes. These are not + incised like those of the Memphite mastabas, but are painted in fresco on + the stone itself. The technical skill here exhibited is not a whit behind + that of the older periods, and the general conception of the subjects has + not altered since the time of the pyramid-building kings. The object is + always the same, namely, to ensure wealth to the double in the other + world, and to enable him to preserve the same rank among the departed as + he enjoyed among the living: hence sowing, reaping, cattle-rearing, the + exercise of different trades, the preparation and bringing of offerings, + are all represented with the same minuteness as formerly. But a new + element has been added to the ancient themes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0053" id="linkCimage-0053"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/405.jpg" width="100%" + alt="405.jpg the Modern Cemetery of Zawyet El-meiyetÎn " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger. +</pre> + <p> + We know, and the experience of the past is continually reiterating the + lesson, that the most careful precautions and the most conscientious + observation of customs were not sufficient to perpetuate the worship of + ancestors. The day was bound to come when not only the descendants of + Khnûmhotpû, but a crowd of curious or indifferent strangers, would visit + his tomb: he desired that they should know his genealogy, his private and + public virtues, his famous deeds, his court titles and dignities, the + extent of his wealth; and in order that no detail should be omitted, he + relates all that he did, or he gives the representation of it upon the + wall. In a long account of two hundred and twenty-two lines, he gives a <i>résumé</i> + of his family history, introducing extracts from his archives, to show the + favours received by his ancestors from the hands of their sovereigns. + Amoni and Khîti, who were, it appears, the warriors of their race, have + everywhere recounted the episodes of their military career, the movements + of their troops, their hand-to-hand fights, and the fortresses to which + they laid siege. These scions of the house of the Gazelle and of the Hare, + who shared with Pharaoh himself the possession of the soil of Egypt, were + no mere princely ciphers: they had a tenacious spirit, a warlike + disposition, an insatiable desire for enlarging their borders, together + with sufficient ability to realize their aims by court intrigues or + advantageous marriage alliances. We can easily picture from their history + what Egyptian feudalism really was, what were its component elements, what + were the resources it had at its disposal, and we may well be astonished + when we consider the power and tact which the Pharaohs must have displayed + in keeping such vassals in check during two centuries. + </p> + <p> + Amenemhâît I. had abandoned Thebes as a residence in favour of + Heracleopolis and Memphis, and had made it over to some personage who + probably belonged to the royal household. The nome of Ûisît had relapsed + into the condition of a simple fief, and if we are as yet unable to + establish the series of the princes who there succeeded each other + contemporaneously with the Pharaohs, we at least know that all those whose + names have come down to us played an important part in the history of + their times. Montûnsîsû, whose stele was engraved in the XXIVth year of + Amenemhâît I., and who died in the joint reign of this Pharaoh and his son + Usirtasen I., had taken his share in most of the wars conducted against + neighbouring peoples,—the Anîtiû of Nubia, the Monîtû of Sinai, and + the “Lords of the Sands:” he had dismantled their cities and razed their + fortresses. The principality retained no doubt the same boundaries which + it had acquired under the first Antûfs, but Thebes itself grew daily + larger, and gained in importance in proportion as its frontiers extended + southward. It had become, after the conquests of Usirtasen III., the very + centre of the Egyptian world—a centre from which the power of the + Pharaoh could equally well extend in a northerly direction towards the + Sinaitic Peninsula and Libya, or towards the Red Sea and the “humiliated + Kûsh” in the south. The influence of its lords increased accordingly: + under Amenemhâît III. and Amenemhâît IV. they were perhaps the most + powerful of the great vassals, and when the crown slipped from the grasp + of the XIIth dynasty, it fell into the hands of one of these feudatories. + It is not known how the transition was brought about which transferred the + sovereignty from the elder to the younger branch of the family of + Amenemhâît I. When Amenemhâît IV. died, his nearest heir was a woman, his + sister Sovkûnofriûrî: she retained the supreme authority for not quite + four years,* and then resigned her position to a certain Sovkhotpû.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * She reigned exactly three years, ten months, and eighteen + days, according to the fragments of the “Royal Canon of + Turin” (Lepsius, Auswahl der wichtigten Urkunden, pl. v. + col. vii. 1. 2). + + ** Sovkhotpû Khûtoûirî, according to the present published + versions of the Turin Papyrus, an identification which led + Lieblein (Recherches sur la Chronologie Égyptienne, pp. 102, + 103) and Wiedemann to reject the generally accepted + assumption that this first king of the XIIIth dynasty was + Sovkhotpû Sakhemkhûtoûirî. Still, the way in which the + monuments of Sovkhotpû Sakhemkhûtoûirî and his papyri are + intermingled with the monuments of Amenemhâît III. at Semneh + and in the Fayûm, show that it is difficult to separate him + from this monarch. Moreover, an examination of the original + Turin Papyrus shows that there is a tear before the word + Khûtoûirî on the first cartouche, no indication of which + appears in the facsimile, but which has, none the less, + slightly damaged the initial solar disk and removed almost + the whole of one sign. We are, therefore, inclined to + believe that <i>Sakhemkhûtoûirî</i> was written instead of + <i>Khûtoûirî</i>, and that, therefore, all the authorities are in + the right, from their different points of view, and that the + founder of the XIIIth dynasty was a Sakhemkhûtoûirî I., + while the Savkhotpû Sakhemkhûtoûirî, who occupies the + fifteenth place in the dynasty, was a Sakhemkhûtoûirî II. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0054" id="linkCimage-0054"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/408.jpg" width="100%" + alt="408.jpg the Tombs of Princes Of The Gazelle-nome At Beni-hasan " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a chromolithograph in Lepsius, + Denkm., i. pl. 61. The first tomb on the left, of which the + portico is shown, is that of Khnûmhotpû II. +</pre> + <p> + Was there a revolution in the palace, or a popular rising, or a civil war? + Did the queen become the wife of the new sovereign, and thus bring about + the change without a struggle? Sovkhotpû was probably lord of Ûisît, and + the dynasty which he founded is given by the native historians as of + Theban origin. His accession entailed no change in the Egyptian + constitution; it merely consolidated the Theban supremacy, and gave it a + recognized position. Thebes became henceforth the head of the entire + country: doubtless the kings did not at once forsake Heracleopolis and the + Fayûm, but they made merely passing visits to these royal residences at + considerable intervals, and after a few generations even these were given + up. Most of these sovereigns resided and built their Pyramids at Thebes, + and the administration of the kingdom became centralized there. The actual + capital of a king was determined not so much by the locality from whence + he ruled, as by the place where he reposed after death. Thebes was the + virtual capital of Egypt from the moment that its masters fixed on it as + their burying-place. + </p> + <p> + Uncertainty again shrouds the history of the country after Sovkhotpû I.: + not that monuments are lacking or names of kings, but the records of the + many Sovkhotpûs and Nonrhotpûs found in a dozen places in the valley, + furnish as yet no authentic means of ascertaining in what order to + classify them. The XIIIth dynasty contained, so it is said, sixty kings, + who reigned for a period of over 453 years.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is the number given in one of the lists of Manetho, + in Muller-Didot, <i>Fragmenta Historicorum Græcorum</i>, vol. ii. + p. 565. Lepsius’s theory, according to which the shepherds + overran Egypt from the end of the XIIth dynasty and + tolerated the existence of two vassal dynasties, the XIIIth + and XIVth, was disputed and refuted by E. de Rougé as soon + as it appeared; we find the theory again in the works of + some contemporary Egyptologists, but the majority of those + who continued to support it have since abandoned their + position. +</pre> + <p> + The succession did not always take place in the direct line from father to + son: several times, when interrupted by default of male heirs, it was + renewed without any disturbance, thanks to the transmission of royal + rights to their children by princesses, even when their husbands did not + belong to the reigning family. Monthotpû, the father of Sovkhotpu III., + was an ordinary priest, and his name is constantly quoted by his son; but + solar blood flowed in the veins of his mother, and procured for him the + crown. The father of his successor, Nofirhotpû IL, did not belong to the + reigning branch, or was only distantly connected with it, but his mother + Kamâît was the daughter of Pharaoh, and that was sufficient to make her + son of royal rank. With careful investigation, we should probably find + traces of several revolutions which changed the legitimate order of + succession without, however, entailing a change of dynasty. The + Nofirhotpûs and Sovkhotpûs continued both at home and abroad the work so + ably begun by the Amenemhâîts and the Usirtasens. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0055" id="linkCimage-0055"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/410.jpg" width="100%" + alt="410.jpg the Colossal Statue of King Sovkhotpu in The Louvre " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0056" id="linkCimage-0056"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:26%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/414.jpg" + alt="414.jpg Statue of HarsÛf in the Vienna Museum " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by Ernest de Bergmann. +From Dahshur, now at +Gîzeh. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + They devoted all their efforts to beautifying the principal towns of + Egypt, and caused important works to be carried on in most of them—at + Karnak, in the great temple of Amon, at Luxor, at Bubastis, at Tanis, at + Tell-Mokhdam, and in the sanctuary of Abydos. At the latter place, + Khâsoshûshrî Nofirhotpû restored to Khontamentit considerable possessions + which the god had lost; Nozirri sent thither one of his officers to + restore the edifice built by Usirtasen I.; Sovkûmsaûf II. dedicated his + own statue in this temple, and private individuals, following the example + set them by their sovereigns, vied with each other in their gifts of + votive stehe. The pyramids of this period were of moderate size, and those + princes who abandoned the custom of building them were content like + Aûtûabrî I. Horû with a modest tomb, close to the gigantic pyramids of + their ancestors. In style the statues of this epoch show a certain + inferiority when compared with the beautiful work of the XIIth dynasty: + the proportions of the human figure are not so good, the modelling of the + limbs is not so vigorous, the rendering of the features lacks + individuality; the sculptors exhibit a tendency, which had been growing + since the time of the Usirtasens, to represent all their sitters with the + same smiling, commonplace type of countenance. There are, however, among + the statues of kings and private individuals which have come down to us, a + few examples of really fine treatment. The colossal statue of Sovkhotpû + IV., which is now in the Louvre side by side with an ordinary-sized figure + of the same Pharaoh, must have had a good effect when placed at the + entrance to the temple at Tanis: his chest is thrown well forward, his + head is erect, and we feel impressed by that noble dignity which the + Memphite sculptors knew how to give to the bearing and features of the + diorite Khephren enthroned at Gîzeh. The sitting Mirmâshaû of Tanis lacks + neither energy nor majesty, and the Sovkûmsaûf of Abydos, in spite of the + roughness of its execution, decidedly holds its own among the other + Pharaohs. + </p> + <p> + The statuettes found in the tombs, and the smaller objects discovered in + the ruins, are neither less carefully nor less successfully treated. The + little scribe at Gîzeh, in the attitude of walking, is a <i>chef d’oeuvre</i> + of delicacy and grace, and might be attributed to one of the best schools + of the XIIth dynasty, did not the inscriptions oblige us to relegate it to + the Theban art of the XIIIth. The heavy and commonplace figure of the + magnate now in the Vienna Museum is treated with a rather coarse realism, + but exhibits nevertheless most skilful tooling. It is not exclusively at + Thebes, or at Tanis, or in any of the other great cities of Egypt, that we + meet with excellent examples of work, or that we can prove that + flourishing schools of sculpture existed at this period; probably there is + scarcely any small town which would not furnish us at the present day, if + careful excavation were carried out, with some monument or object worthy + of being placed in a museum. During the XIIIth dynasty both art and + everything else in Egypt were fairly prosperous. Nothing attained a very + high standard, but, on the other hand, nothing fell below a certain level + of respectable mediocrity. Wealth exercised, however, an injurious + influence upon artistic taste. The funerary statue, for instance, which + Aûtûabrî I. Horû ordered for himself was of ebony, and seems to have been + inlaid originally with gold, whereas Kheops and Khephren were content to + have theirs of alabaster and diorite. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0057" id="linkCimage-0057"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/415.jpg" + alt="415.jpg Statue of SovkhotpÛ III. " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from the sketch +by Lepsius; the +head was “quite +mutilated and +separated from t +he bust.” + </pre> + </div> + <p> + During this dynasty we hear nothing of the inhabitants of the Sinaitic + Peninsula to the east, or of the Libyans to the west: it was in the south, + in Ethiopia, that the Pharaohs expended all their surplus energy. The most + important of them, Sovkhotpu I., had continued to register the height of + the Nile on the rocks of Semneh, but after his time we are unable to say + where the Nilometer was moved to, nor, indeed, who displaced it. The + middle basin of the river as far as Gebel-Barkal was soon incorporated + with Egypt, and the population became quickly assimilated. The + colonization of the larger islands of Say and Argo took place first, as + their isolation protected them from sudden attacks: certain princes of the + XIIIth dynasty built temples there, and erected their statues within them, + just as they would have done in any of the most peaceful districts of the + Said or the Delta. Argo is still at the present day one of the largest of + these Nubian islands:* it is said to be 12 miles in length, and about 2 + 1/2 in width towards the middle. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The description of Argo + and its ruins is borrowed from + Caillaud, Voyage à Méroé, + vol. ii. pp. 1-7. +</pre> + <p> + It is partly wooded, and vegetation grows there with tropical luxuriance; + creeping plants climb from tree to tree, and form an almost impenetrable + undergrowth, which swarms with game secure from the sportsman. A score of + villages are dotted about in the clearings, and are surrounded by + carefully cultivated fields, in which durra predominates. An unknown + Pharaoh of the XIIIth dynasty built, near to the principal village, a + temple of considerable size; it covered an area, whose limits may still + easily be traced, of 174 feet wide by 292 long from east to west. The main + body of the building was of sandstone, probably brought from the quarries + of Tombos: it has been pitilessly destroyed piecemeal by the inhabitants, + and only a few insignificant fragments, on which some lines of hieroglyphs + may still be deciphered, remain <i>in situ</i>. A small statue of black + granite of good workmanship is still standing in the midst of the ruins. + It represents Sovkhotpû III. sitting, with his hands resting on his knees; + the head, which has been mutilated, lies beside the body. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0058" id="linkCimage-0058"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/417.jpg" width="100%" + alt="417.jpg One of the Overturned and Broken Statues Of MirmasiiaÛ at Tanis " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the photograph in Rougé-Banville’s + <i>Album photographique de la Mission de M. de Bougé</i>, No. + 114. +</pre> + <p> + The same king erected colossal statues of himself at Tanis, Bubastis, and + at Thebes: he was undisputed master of the whole Nile Valley, from near + the spot where the river receives its last tributary to where it empties + itself into the sea. The making of Egypt was finally accomplished in his + time, and if all its component parts were not as yet equally prosperous, + the bond which connected them was strong enough to resist any attempt to + break it, whether by civil discord within or invasions from without. The + country was not free from revolutions, and if we have no authority for + stating that they were the cause of the downfall of the XIIIth dynasty, + the lists of Manetho at least show that after that event the centre of + Egyptian power was again shifted. Thebes lost its supremacy, and the + preponderating influence passed into the hands of sovereigns who were + natives of the Delta. Xoïs, situated in the midst of the marshes, between + the Phatnitic and Sebennytic branches of the Nile, was one of those very + ancient cities which had played but an insignificant part in shaping the + destinies of the country. By what combination of circumstances its princes + succeeded in raising themselves to the throne of the Pharaohs, we know + not: they numbered, so it was said, seventy-five kings, who reigned four + hundred and eighty-four years, and whose mutilated names darken the pages + of the Turin Papyrus. The majority of them did little more than appear + upon the throne, some reigning three years, others two, others a year or + scarcely more than a few months: far from being a regularly constituted + line of sovereigns, they appear rather to have been a series of + Pretenders, mutually jealous of and deposing one another. + </p> + <p> + The feudal lords who had been so powerful under the Usirtasens had lost + none of their prestige under the Sovkhotpûs: and the rivalries of usurpers + of this kind, who seized the crown without being strong enough to keep it, + may perhaps explain the long sequence of shadowy Pharaohs with curtailed + reigns who constitute the XIVth dynasty. They did not withdraw from Nubia, + of that fact we are certain: but what did they achieve in the north and + north-east of the empire? The nomad tribes were showing signs of + restlessness on the frontier, the peoples of the Tigris and Euphrates were + already pushing the vanguards of their armies into Central Syria. While + Egypt had been bringing the valley of the Nile and the eastern corner of + Africa into subjection, Chaldæa had imposed both her language and her laws + upon the whole of that part of Western Asia which separated her from + Egypt: the time was approaching when these two great civilized powers of + the ancient world would meet each other face to face and come into fierce + collision. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="419 (33K)" src="images/419.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> END OF VOL. II. <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, +Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 2 (of 12), by G. Maspero + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT, CHALDÆA *** + +***** This file should be named 17322-h.htm or 17322-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/3/2/17322/ + +Produced by David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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