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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/17132-8.txt b/17132-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bec4287 --- /dev/null +++ b/17132-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8147 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Makers of Canada: Champlain, by N. E. Dionne + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Makers of Canada: Champlain + +Author: N. E. Dionne + +Release Date: November 22, 2005 [EBook #17132] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MAKERS OF CANADA: CHAMPLAIN *** + + + + +Produced by Brendan Lane, Stacy Brown Thellend and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +_THE MAKERS OF CANADA_ + +CHAMPLAIN + +BY + +N.E. DIONNE + + +TORONTO +MORANG & CO., LIMITED +1912 + +_Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada in the year 1905, +by Morang & Co., Limited, in the Department of Agriculture._ + + + + +CONTENTS + + +_CHAPTER I_ Page +CHAMPLAIN'S FIRST VOYAGE TO AMERICA 1 + +_CHAPTER II_ +ACADIA--STE. CROIX ISLAND--PORT ROYAL 17 + +_CHAPTER III_ +THE FOUNDING OF QUEBEC 39 + +_CHAPTER IV_ +CHAMPLAIN'S VOYAGES OF 1610, 1611, 1613 59 + +_CHAPTER V_ +THE RÉCOLLETS AND THEIR MISSIONS 81 + +_CHAPTER VI_ +WAR AGAINST THE IROQUOIS, 1615 101 + +_CHAPTER VII_ +FUR TRADE 119 + +_CHAPTER VIII_ +CHAMPLAIN, THE JESUITS AND THE SAVAGES 143 + +_CHAPTER IX_ +THE COMPANY OF NEW FRANCE OR HUNDRED ASSOCIATES 167 + +_CHAPTER X_ +THE CAPITULATION OF QUEBEC, 1629 187 + +_CHAPTER XI_ +THE LAST EVENTS OF 1629 199 + +_CHAPTER XII_ +QUEBEC RESTORED 211 + +_CHAPTER XIII_ +THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN NEW FRANCE 227 + +_CHAPTER XIV_ +THE GROWTH OF QUEBEC 243 + +_CHAPTER XV_ +CONCLUSION 261 + +CHRONOLOGICAL APPENDIX 283 + +INDEX 289 + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +In undertaking to write a biography of Samuel Champlain, the founder of +Quebec and the father of New France, our only design is to make somewhat +better known the dominant characteristics of the life and achievements +of a man whose memory is becoming more cherished as the years roll on. + +Every one will admire Champlain's disinterested actions, his courage, +his loyalty, his charity, and all those noble and magnificent qualities +which are rarely found united in one individual in so prominent a +degree. We cannot overpraise that self-abnegation which enabled him to +bear without complaint the ingratitude of many of his interpreters, and +the servants of the merchants; nor can we overlook, either, the charity +which he exercised towards the aborigines and new settlers; the +protection which he afforded them under trying circumstances, or his +zeal in promoting the honour and glory of God, and his respect for the +Récollet and Jesuit fathers who honoured him with their cordial +friendship. His wisdom is evidenced in such a practical fact as his +choice of Quebec as the capital of New France, despite the rival claims +of Montreal and Three Rivers, and his numerous writings reveal him to us +as a keen and sagacious observer, a man of science and a skilful and +intrepid mariner. As a cosmographer, Champlain added yet another laurel +to his crown, for he excelled all his predecessors, both by the ample +volume of his descriptions and by the logical arrangement of the +geographical data which he supplied. The impetus which he gave to +cartographical science can scarcely be overestimated. + +Naturalist, mariner, geographer, such was Samuel Champlain, and to a +degree remarkable for the age in which he lived. It is, perhaps, +unnecessary to dwell upon the morality of the virtuous founder. The +testimony of the Hurons, who, twenty years after his death, still +pointed to the life of Champlain as a model of all Christian virtues, is +sufficient, and it is certain that no governor under the old régime +presented a more brilliant example of faith, piety, uprightness, or +soundness of judgment. A brief outline of the character of Champlain has +been given in order that the plan of this biography may be better +understood. Let us now glance at his career more in detail. + +Before becoming the founder of colonies, Champlain entered the French +army, where he devoted himself to the religion of his ancestors. This +was the first important step in his long and eventful career. A martial +life, however, does not appear to have held out the same inducements as +that of a mariner. An opportunity was presented which enabled him to +gratify his tastes, when the Spanish government sent out an armada to +encounter the English in the Gulf of Mexico. Champlain was given the +command of a ship in this expedition, but his experience during the war +served rather as an occasion to develop his genius as a mariner and +cosmographer, than to add to his renown as a warrior. + +God, who in His providence disposes of the lives of men according to His +divine wisdom, directed the steps of Champlain towards the shores of the +future New France. If the mother country had not completely forgotten +this land of ours, discovered by one of her greatest captains, she had, +at least, neglected it. The honour of bringing the king's attention to +this vast country, which was French by the right of discovery, was +reserved for the modest son of Brouage. + +While Pierre du Gua, Sieur de Monts, was wasting his years and expending +large sums of money in his fruitless efforts to colonize the island of +Ste. Croix and Port Royal, Champlain's voyage to Acadia and his +discovery of the New England coast were practically useful, and in +consequence Champlain endeavoured to assure de Monts that his own +efforts would be more advantageously directed to the shores of the St. +Lawrence, for here it was obvious that the development of the country +must commence. + +Champlain's next step was to found Quebec. With this act began our +colonial history, the foundation of a Canadian people with its long line +of heroic characters distinguished by their simplicity and by their +adherence to the faith of their fathers. Quebec was founded, but nothing +more was accomplished at the moment owing to the lack of means. The +trials of Champlain now commenced. Day by day he had to contend against +his own countrymen. The attractions of fur trading were too great for +the merchants to induce them to settle down and develop the country +around them, and they were unwilling to fulfil their promises or to act +in accordance with the terms of their patents. + +During the next twenty years Champlain crossed the ocean eighteen times. +Each voyage was made in the interest of the colony, and he sought by +every means in his power, by prayers and petitions, to obtain the +control of the commerce of the country so as to make it beneficial to +all. In spite of his extraordinary exertions and the force of his will, +he foresaw the fatal issue of his labours. + +The settlers were few in number, bread and provisions were scarce, and +the condition of the infant colony was truly deplorable. At this +distressing period a British fleet arrived in the harbour of Quebec. +What was to be done? The rude fortress of St. Louis could not withstand +the assault of an armed fleet, even if it were well defended. But +Champlain had no ammunition, and he, therefore, adopted the only course +open to him of capitulating and handing over the keys of the fort to the +commander, Kirke. Champlain then left Quebec and returned to France. +Bitter was this journey to him, for it was like passing into exile to +see the familiar heights of Quebec fade into the distance, the city of +his foundation and the country of his adoption. + +We have an idea of his sorrow during the three years that England +maintained supremacy in Canada, for he says that the days were as long +as months. During his enforced sojourn in France, Champlain exerted all +his energies to revive interest in the abandoned colony. His plan was to +recover the country by all means. Finally success crowned his efforts, +and the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye gave back to France the young +settlement. Champlain recrossed the sea and planted the lily banner of +France upon the heights of Cape Diamond. + +In the year 1635 Champlain was taken ill, and died on Christmas Day, +after having devoted forty years of his life to the promotion of the +religion and commercial interests of the land of his ancestors, but he +bequeathed to the Canadian people the priceless heritage of Quebec, and +the memory of a pure and honest heart. + +Before Champlain's death, however, Quebec had commenced to develop. On +the Beauport coast might be seen the residences of many of the settlers +who arrived from the province of Perche in 1634. On the shores of the +river Lairet, the Jesuits had built a convent, where the young Indians +received instruction; and agriculture had received some attention. +Robert Giffard had established a colony at Beauport which formed the +nucleus of a population in this section of the country. Near Fort St. +Louis the steeple of Notre Dame de la Recouvrance gave witness that +Champlain had fulfilled his promise to build a church at Quebec if the +country was restored to her ancient masters. + +The colony was now entering upon an era of prosperity, and that harmony +and happiness which Champlain had longed for in his life, and which +occupied his thoughts even in death, were destined to be realized. + + N.E.D. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +CHAMPLAIN'S FIRST VOYAGE TO AMERICA + + +Samuel Champlain, the issue of the marriage of Antoine Champlain and +Marguerite Le Roy, was born at Brouage, now Hiers Brouage, a small +village in the province of Saintonge, France, in the year 1570, or +according to the _Biographie Saintongeoise_ in 1567. His parents +belonged to the Catholic religion, as their first names would seem to +indicate. + +When quite young Samuel Champlain was entrusted to the care of the +parish priest, who imparted to him the elements of education and +instilled his mind with religious principles. His youth appears to have +glided quietly away, spent for the most part with his family, and in +assisting his father, who was a mariner, in his wanderings upon the sea. +The knowledge thus obtained was of great service to him, for after a +while he became not only conversant with the life of a mariner, but also +with the science of geography and of astronomy. When Samuel Champlain +was about twenty years of age, he tendered his services to Marshal +d'Aumont, one of the chief commanders of the Catholic army in its +expedition against the Huguenots. + +When the League had done its work and the army was disbanded in 1598, +Champlain returned to Brouage, and sought a favourable opportunity to +advance his fortune in a manner more agreeable, if possible, to his +tastes, and more compatible with his abilities. In the meantime +Champlain did not remain idle, for he resolved to find the means of +making a voyage to Spain in order "to acquire and cultivate +acquaintance, and make a true report to His Majesty (Henry IV) of the +particularities which could not be known to any Frenchmen, for the +reason that they have not free access there." He left Blavet at the +beginning of the month of August, and ten days after he arrived near +Cape Finisterre. Having remained for six days at the Isle of Bayona, in +Galicia, he proceeded towards San Lucar de Barameda, which is at the +mouth of the river Seville, where he remained for three months. During +this time he went to Seville and made surveys of the place. While +Champlain was at Seville, a _patache_, or advice boat, arrived from +Porto Rico bearing a communication addressed to the king of Spain, +informing him that a portion of the English army had put out to sea with +the intention of attacking Porto Rico. + +The king fitted out twenty ships to oppose the English, one of which, +the _Saint Julien_, was commanded by Provençal, Champlain's uncle. +Champlain proposed to join the expedition under his uncle, but Provençal +was ordered elsewhere, and General Soubriago offered the command of the +_Saint Julien_ to Champlain, which he gladly accepted. + +The armada set sail in the beginning of January, 1599, and within six +days, favoured by a fresh breeze, the vessels sighted the Canary +Islands. Two months and six days later the armada drew near to the +island called La Désirade, which is the first island approached in this +passage to the Indies. The ships anchored for the first time at Nacou, +which is one of the finest ports of the Guadeloupe. After having passed +Marguerite Island and the Virgins, Champlain proceeded to San Juan de +Porto Rico,[1] where he found that both the town and the castle or +fortress had been abandoned, and that the merchants had either made +their escape or had been taken prisoners. The English army had left the +town and had taken the Spanish governor with them, as he had surrendered +on the condition that his life should be spared. + +On leaving Porto Rico the general divided the galleons into three +squadrons, and retained four vessels under his own command. Three were +sent to Porto Bello, and three, including Champlain's vessel, to New +Spain. Champlain arrived at Saint Jean de Luz eight days afterwards, +although the place is fully four hundred leagues from Porto Rico. This +fortress bore the name of San Juan d'Ulloa. Fifteen days afterwards we +find Champlain setting sail for Mexico, situated at a distance of over +one hundred leagues from San Juan. + +Champlain was evidently very much interested in this country, and his +description is that of an enthusiast: "It is impossible to see or desire +a more beautiful country than this kingdom of New Spain, which is three +hundred leagues in length, and two hundred in breadth.... The whole of +this country is ornamented with very fine rivers and streams ... the +land is very fertile, producing corn twice in the year ... the trees are +never devoid of fruit and are always green." The voyage to Mexico +occupied a month, and Champlain gave an animated description of the city +of Mexico, of its superb palaces, temples, houses and buildings, and +well laid streets, as well as of the surrounding country. + +After leaving Mexico, Champlain returned to San Juan de Luz, and from +there sailed in a _patache_ to Porto Bello, "the most pitiful and evil +residence in the world." The harbour, however, was good, and well +fortified. From Porto Bello to Panama, which is on the sea, the distance +is only seventeen leagues, and it is interesting to read Champlain's +description:-- + +"One may judge that if the four leagues of land which there are from +Panama to this river were cut through, one might pass from the South +Sea to the ocean on the other side, and thus shorten the route by more +than fifteen hundred leagues; and from Panama to the Straits of Magellan +would be an island, and from Panama to the New-found-lands would be +another island, so that the whole of America would be in two islands." + +It is thus seen that the idea of connecting the Atlantic ocean with the +Pacific by cutting through the Isthmus of Panama is not a modern one, as +it was promulgated by Champlain over three hundred years ago. + +At this time Spain was in great need of a good transportation service at +the isthmus. The treasures of Peru were sent to Europe by the Panama +route to Porto Bello, from where the ships sailed to the old continent. +The route between the Pacific coast and the Gulf of Mexico was +exceedingly bad. Sometimes the merchants forwarded European goods to +Panama, having them transported to Chagres. Here they were landed in +boats and conveyed to Cruces. From Cruces to Panama mules were employed +for the remainder of the journey. It was, however, the route taken by +travellers visiting Peru, Chili, New Granada, Venezuela, and other +Spanish possessions on the Pacific coast. The most regular connection +between the two oceans was from Fort Acapulco to Vera Cruz, through +Mexico. If Spain had adopted a better line of communication with her +western territories in the New World she might have derived vast +treasure from that source. In the year 1551 Lopez de Gomara, the author +of a "History of Indies," a work written with care and displaying +considerable erudition, proposed to unite the two oceans by means of +canals at three different points, Chagres, Nicaragua and Tehuantepec. +Gomara's proposals were not acted upon, and the honour of carrying out +the project was reserved for France. Ferdinand de Lesseps, who succeeded +in connecting the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea, was the man who, +after the lapse of centuries, seriously interested his fellow-countrymen +in boring the Isthmus of Panama. + +Champlain returned to San Juan de Luz, where he remained for fifteen +days, and he then proceeded to Havana, the rendezvous of the army and of +the fleet. Eighteen days later he embarked in a vessel bound for +Cartagena, where there was a good port, sheltered from all winds. Upon +his return to Havana Champlain met his general and spent four months in +collecting valuable information relating to the interesting island of +Cuba. From Havana he proceeded past the Bahama channel, approached +Bermuda Island, Terceira, one of the Azores, and sighted Cape St. +Vincent, where he captured two armed English vessels, which were taken +to Seville. + +Champlain returned to France in March, 1601, having been absent on his +first voyage for a period of two years and two months, during which time +he collected much valuable information. He also published a small +volume containing plans, maps and engravings, fairly well executed for +the time, and now exceedingly scarce. The manuscript of this volume is +still preserved; it covers one hundred and fifteen pages with sixty-two +drawings, coloured and surrounded with blue and yellow lines. It appears +to have been written between the years 1601 and 1603.[2] + +The first voyage of Champlain across the Atlantic, though important from +a military standpoint, did not suffice to satisfy the ambition of a man +whose thoughts were bent upon discovery and colonization. Champlain was +a navigator by instinct, and in his writings he gave to nautical science +the first place. + +"Of all the most useful and excellent arts," he writes, "that of +navigation has always seemed to me to occupy the first place. For the +more hazardous it is, the greater the perils and losses by which it is +attended, so much the more is it esteemed and exalted above all others, +being wholly unsuited to the timid and irresolute. By this art we obtain +a knowledge of different countries, regions and realms. By it we +attract and bring to our own land all kinds of riches; by it the +idolatry of Paganism is overthrown and Christianity proclaimed +throughout all the regions of the earth. This is the art which won my +love in my early years and induced me to expose myself almost all my +life to the impetuous waves of the ocean, and led me to explore the +coasts of a portion of America, especially those of New France, where I +have always desired to see the lily flourish, together with the only +religion, Catholic, Apostolic and Roman." + +After his return to France in the year 1601, Champlain received a +pension, together with the appointment of geographer to the king. Pierre +de Chauvin, Sieur de Tontuit, who had unsuccessfully endeavoured to +establish a settlement at Tadousac, died at this time, while Champlain +was residing in Paris. Here he had the good fortune to meet Aymar de +Chastes, governor of the town and château of Dieppe, under whose orders +he had served during the latter years of the war with the League. + +De Chastes, who had resolved to undertake the colonization of Canada, +obtained a commission from the king, and formed a company, composed of +several gentlemen and the principal merchants of Rouen. François Gravé, +Sieur du Pont, who had already accompanied Chauvin to Tadousac, was +chosen to return there and to examine the Sault St. Louis and the +country beyond. + +"Going from time to time to see the Sieur de Chastes," writes +Champlain, "judging that I might serve him in his design, he did me the +honour to communicate something of it to me, and asked me if it would be +agreeable to me to make the voyage, to examine the country, and to see +what those engaged in the undertaking should do. I told him that I was +very much his servant, but that I could not give myself license to +undertake the voyage without the commands of the king, to whom I was +bound, as well by birth as by the pension with which His Majesty +honoured me to enable me to maintain myself near his person, but that, +if it should please him to speak to the king about it, and give me his +commands, that it should be very agreeable to me, which he promised and +did, and received the king's orders for me to make the voyage and make a +faithful report thereof; and for that purpose M. de Gesvres, secretary +of his commandments, sent me with a letter to the said Du Pont-Gravé, +desiring him to take me in his ship and enable me to see and examine +what could be done in the country, giving me every possible assistance." + +"_Me voilà expédié_," says Champlain, "I leave Paris and take passage on +Pont-Gravé's ship in the year 1603, the 15th of the month of March." The +voyage was favourable for the first fifteen days, but on the 30th a +heavy storm arose, "more thunder than wind," which lasted until April +16th. On May 6th the vessel approached Newfoundland, and arrived at +Tadousac[3] on the 24th. Here they met with about one hundred Indians, +under the command of Anadabijou, who were rejoicing on account of their +recent victory over the Iroquois. The chief made a long harangue, +speaking slowly. He congratulated himself upon his friendship with the +French nation, and stated that he was happy to learn that the king was +anxious to send some of his subjects to reside in the country and to +assist them in their wars. Champlain was also informed that the +Etchemins, the Algonquins, and the Montagnais, to the number of about +one thousand, had lately been engaged in warfare with the Iroquois, whom +they had vanquished with the loss of one hundred men. + +On June 9th following, Champlain witnessed the spectacle of a grand +feast given by the Indians in commemoration of their victory. The +celebration consisted of dances, songs, speeches and games. Tessoüat, +the _sagamo_ of the Ottawas, was the chief captain, and took a prominent +part in the demonstration. + +After a long description of these public festivities, Champlain gives +ample details of the manners and customs of the Indians, especially of +their superstitions. The Indians believed that a God existed who was the +creator of all things, but they had a curious manner of explaining the +creation of man. "When God had made everything," they said, "He took a +quantity of arrows and fixed them in the earth, whence came men and +women, who have increased ever since." The _sagamo_ said they believed +in the existence of a God, a son, a mother and a sun; that God was the +greatest of the four; that the son and the sun were both good; that the +mother was a lesser person, and so was the father, who was less bad. + +The Indians were convinced that their deity had held communication with +their ancestors. One day five Indians ran towards the setting sun where +they met God, who asked them, "Where are you going?" "We are going to +seek our life," they replied. Then God said, "You will find it here." +But they did not hear the divine word, and went away. Then God took a +stone and touched two of them, and they were immediately turned into +stones. Addressing the three other Indians, God asked the same question, +"Where are you going?" and He was given the same answer. "Do not go +further," said the divine voice, "you will find your life here." Seeing +nothing, however, they continued their journey. Then God took two sticks +and touched two of them, and they were at once turned into sticks. The +fifth Indian, however, paused, and God gave him some meat, which he ate, +and he afterwards returned to his countrymen. + +These Indian tribes had their jugglers, whom they called _pilotois_, +from the Basques, or _autmoins_, which means a magician. These jugglers +exercised great sway over the Indians, who would not hesitate to kill a +Frenchman if the jugglers decided that it was necessary. + +In spite of their superstitions Champlain believed that it would be an +easy task to convert the Indians to Christianity, especially if the +French resided near them. This desirable end was not to be attained +without great difficulty, as Champlain soon realized, for the +missionaries toiled for many years before their efforts were crowned +with success. + +Champlain now proceeded to explore the river Saguenay for a distance of +twelve to fifteen leagues, and he thus describes the scenery:-- + +"All the land I have seen is composed of rocks, covered with fir woods, +cypress, birch, very unpleasing land, where I could not find a league of +plain land on each side." He also learned from the Indians of the +existence of Lake St. John, and of a salt sea flowing towards the north. +It was evidently Hudson Bay to which these northern tribes directed +Champlain's attention, and if they had not seen it themselves they had +probably heard of its existence from the Indians dwelling around the +southern or south-western shores of the bay, who came annually to +Nemiscau Lake to trade their furs. This lake was half way between Hudson +Bay and the river St. Lawrence. The Kilistinons and other Indians of the +north had regular communication with their _congénères_ scattered along +the shores of the St. Maurice and the several rivers which flow into +Lake St. John. + +When the French arrived in Canada with Chauvin, in the year 1600, they +began to monopolize the fur trade of all the Indian nations, but some +years later the English established themselves on the shores of Hudson +Bay, and prosecuted the trade for their own benefit. + +Champlain could not, evidently, have been in possession of any exact +information as to the existence of this large bay, as he was searching +for a northern passage to Cathay, the great _desideratum_ of all the +navigators and explorers of the time. + +After having promised to aid the various tribes gathered at Tadousac in +their wars, Champlain and Pont-Gravé proceeded to Sault St. Louis. This +expedition lasted fifteen days, during which they saw Hare Island, so +named by Jacques Cartier, and the Island of Orleans. The ship anchored +at Quebec where Champlain stopped to make a short description of the +country watered by the St. Lawrence, and they then proceeded to Sault +St. Louis. Here Champlain gathered much valuable information relating to +lakes Ontario and Erie, the Detroit River, Niagara Falls, and the rapids +of the St. Lawrence. Returning to Tadousac, he determined to explore +Gaspesia, and proceeded to visit Percé and Mal Bay, where he met Indians +at every turn. He also was informed by Prévert, from St. Malo, who was +exploring the country, of the existence of a copper mine. + +Champlain carefully noted all the information he had received, and after +his return to Tadousac he sailed again for France on August 16th, 1603, +and reached Havre de Grâce, after a passage of twenty-one days. On his +arrival in France, he heard that Aymar de Chastes had died a few weeks +previously, on August 13th. This was a great loss to Canada, and +especially to Champlain, for he was convinced that the noble and +enterprising de Chastes was seriously disposed to colonize New France. +"In this enterprise," he says, "I cannot find a single fault, because it +has been well inaugurated." With the death of de Chastes, the project of +colonizing would undoubtedly have fallen through had not Champlain been +present to promote another movement in this direction. Champlain had an +interview with the king, and presented him with a map of the country +which he had visited, and placed in his hands a relation of his +voyage.[4] Henry IV was so favourably impressed that he promised to +assist Champlain in his patriotic designs. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] This island is only forty leagues in length and twenty in breadth, +and belonged to the Spanish from the date of its discovery by Ponce de +Léon in 1509, to 1598. When Champlain visited the island it had been +taken by George Clifford, Earl of Cumberland. During the same year Sir +John Berkeley commanded, but being unable to remain there, he deserted +the place, and joined Clifford near the Azores, when both went to +England, having lost about seven hundred men during their expedition. + +[2] This volume is entitled _Brief Discours des choses plus remarquables +que Samuel Champlain de Brouage A reconneues aux Indes Occidentalles Au +voiage qu'il en a faict en icelles en l'année_ VeIIIJ. XXIX, _et en +l'année_ VIeJ, _comme ensuit_. + +This manuscript was discovered by M. Féret, antiquarian, poet and +librarian, of Dieppe. The Hakluyt Society had it translated in 1859, and +published at London. In 1870 the Reverend Laverdière, librarian of the +Laval University, of Quebec, had it printed in French, with the designs, +coloured for the most part, with the complete works of Champlain. This +manuscript is supposed to have been preserved by a collateral descendant +of Aymar de Chastes. + +[3] Tadousac means _breast_, and is derived from the Montagnais +_Totouchac_. Father Jérôme Lalemant says that the Indians called the +place _Sadilege_. + +[4] This volume is entitled _Des Sauvages ou Voyage de Samuel Champlain +de Brouage, fait en la Nouvelle France, l'an mil six cent trois ... A +Paris ... 1604_. + +Extremely rare. The original of the first edition is kept at the +Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris; this is the only copy known. + +This volume contains a dedication to Charles de Montmorency, admiral of +France, a letter in verse from the Sieur de la Franchise, and an extract +from the _Privilège du Roi_, dated November 15th, 1603, signed by +Brigard. + +The second edition does not differ much from the preceding, and its +title bears the date 1604. Purchas's _Pilgrims_ contains an English +version of this last edition. We find a synopsis of it in the _Mercure +François_, 1609, in the preface to the former called _Chronologie +Septennaire de l'Histoire de la paix entre les rois de France et +d'Espagne, 1598-1608_. This historical part has been borrowed by Victor +Palma Cayet for Champlain's Voyage, and its title is: _Navigation des +Français en la Nouvelle France dite Canada_. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +ACADIA--STE. CROIX ISLAND--PORT ROYAL + + +Soon after the period mentioned at the close of the previous chapter, +Pierre du Gua, Sieur de Monts, Governor of Pont, a native of the ancient +province of Saintonge, who had served under Henry IV, obtained a +commission as "Lieutenant genéral au pays de Cadie, du 40° au 46°," on +the condition that his energies should be especially directed to the +propagation of the Catholic faith. + +De Monts was a Huguenot; nevertheless he agreed to take with him to +America a number of Catholic priests, and to see that they were +respected and obeyed. Champlain was not satisfied with the choice of a +Protestant to colonize a country which he had intended to make solely +Catholic, and he states, "that those enterprises made hastily never +succeed." + +De Monts was not a stranger to America. He had first visited the country +with Chauvin in 1600, but when he left Tadousac he was so discouraged +that he determined, in the event of his becoming master of the +situation, to attempt colonization only in Acadia, or on the eastern +borders of the Atlantic running towards Florida. + +It was well known in France that Acadia was the richest and most +fertile part of the New World. Excellent harbours and good soil were +found there. Fish abounded near its coasts; its forests were numerous +and dense. An opinion existed that there were numerous mines, rich in +copper, coal and gypsum. This country was also the favourite of the +Normans, Britons and Basques, who for a hundred years had pursued their +callings as fishermen or traders without interruption. + +De Monts, however, was unable to bear the expense of this undertaking +alone, and he consequently formed a company, composed of merchants of +Rouen, La Rochelle and other towns. To further the enterprise Henry IV +diminished the duty on merchandises exported from Acadia and Canada, and +granted to the company the exclusive privilege of fur trading for a +period of ten years, "from Cape de Raze to the 40°, comprising all the +Acadian coast, Cape Breton, Baie des Chaleurs, Percé Island, Gaspé, +Chisedec, Miramichi, Tadousac and Canada River, from either side, and +all the bays and rivers which flow within these shores." + +Acadia of that day was not confined to the peninsula of our own time, +called Nova Scotia. It included that part of the continent which extends +from the river St. John to the Penobscot. These boundaries were the +cause of long quarrels and fierce and bloody wars between England and +France until they were finally settled by the Treaty of Utrecht. In the +early part of April, 1604, the king's proclamation confining the fur +trade to de Monts and his associates was published in every harbour of +France. Four ships were lying at anchor at Havre de Grâce, ready to +sail, and one hundred and twenty passages had been secured in two of the +ships. Pont-Gravé commanded one of the vessels of one hundred and twenty +tons burthen, and another vessel of one hundred and fifty tons was under +the charge of de Monts, who had taken on board Jean de Biencourt, Sieur +de Poutrincourt, a gentleman of Picardy, Samuel Champlain, some Catholic +priests and some Protestant ministers. Poutrincourt was going to America +with the intention of residing there with his family. He was a good +Catholic and a loyal subject. Champlain was attached to de Monts' +expedition as geographer and historian. + +The rendezvous had been fixed at Canseau, but de Monts proceeded +directly to Port au Mouton on the Acadian coast, where he decided to +await the arrival of Pont-Gravé. In the meantime Champlain explored the +country from Port au Mouton to Port Sainte Marguerite, now called St. +Mary's Bay. This occupied a whole month. He also named Cape Négré, Cape +Fourchu and Long Island. Champlain reported to de Monts that St. Mary's +Bay was a suitable place to establish a settlement, and, following this +advice, the lieutenant-general proceeded with Champlain to this bay, and +further explored the Bay of Fundy, or French Bay. They soon perceived +the entrance to another splendid port, which is now known as Annapolis +Bay, or Port Royal. + +Notwithstanding the authority of Lescarbot, Champlain was the first to +give this place the name of Port Royal, for he says himself, "I have +named this harbour Port Royal." When de Monts named the place La Baie +Française, Champlain did not hesitate to give to his chief the merit +which he deserved. + +Three rivers flow into this splendid harbour: the Rivière de l'Equille, +so called from a little fish of the size of our _éperlan_ or _lançon_, +which is found there in large quantities; the river named St. Antoine by +Champlain, and a stream called de la Roche by Champlain, and de +l'Orignac by Lescarbot. + +After having explored the harbour, Champlain traversed La Baie Française +to see whether he could discover the copper mine mentioned by Prévert of +St. Malo, and he soon arrived at a place which he named the Cape of Two +Bays, or Chignecto, and perceived the High Islands, where a copper mine +was found. + +On May 20th an expedition started from the Port of Mines, in search of a +place suitable for a permanent settlement. Proceeding towards the +south-west they stopped at the entrance of a large river, which was +named St. John, as it was on St. John's day that they arrived there. The +savages called the river Ouigoudi. "This river is dangerous," writes +Champlain, "if one does not observe carefully certain points and rocks +on the two sides. It is so narrow at its entrance and then becomes +broader. A certain point being passed it becomes narrower again, and +forms a kind of fall between two large cliffs, where the water runs so +rapidly that a piece of wood thrown in is drawn under and not seen +again. But by waiting till high tide you can pass this fall very easily. +Then it expands again to the extent of about a league in some places +where there are three islands." + +Champlain did not explore the river further, but he ascertained a few +days later that the Indians used the river in their journeys to +Tadousac, making but a short portage on the way. + +As preparations had shortly to be made for winter quarters, de Monts +decided to proceed southwards, and the party at length came to a number +of islands at the entrance of the river Ste. Croix, or Des Etchemins. +One of these islands was chosen for their establishment, and named Ste. +Croix, "because," says Lescarbot, "they perceived two leagues above this +island two streams flowing into the channel of the river, presenting the +appearance of a cross." De Monts at once commenced to fortify the place +by forming a barricade on a little inlet, which served as a station on +which he set up a cannon; it was situated halfway between the mainland +and the island of Ste. Croix. Some days afterwards all the French who +were waiting in St. Mary's Bay disembarked on the island. They were all +eager and willing to work, and commenced to render the place habitable. +They erected a storehouse and a residence for de Monts, and built an +oven and a hand-mill for grinding wheat. Some gardens were also laid +out, and various kinds of seeds were sown, which flourished well on the +mainland, though not on the island, which was too sandy. + +De Monts was anxious to ascertain the location of a mine of pure copper +which had been spoken of, and accordingly he despatched Champlain, with +a savage named Messamouet, who asserted that he could find the place. At +about eight leagues from the island, near the river St. John, they found +a mine of copper, which, however, was not pure, though fairly good. +According to the report of the miner, it would yield about eighteen per +cent. Lescarbot says that amidst the rocks, diamonds and some blue and +clear stones could be found as precious as turquoises. Champdoré, one of +the carpenters, took one of these stones to France, and had it divided +into many fragments and mounted by an artist. De Monts and Poutrincourt, +to whom they were presented, considered these gems so valuable that they +offered them to the king. A goldsmith offered Poutrincourt fifteen crown +pieces for one of them. + +Agriculture did not flourish on the island of Ste. Croix, which is about +half a league in circumference. The rays of the sun parched the sand so +that the gardens were entirely unproductive, and there was a complete +dearth of water. At the commencement there was a fair quantity of wood, +but when the buildings were finished there was scarcely any left; the +inhabitants, consequently, nearly perished from cold in the winter. All +the liquor, wine and beer became frozen, and as there was no water the +people were compelled to drink melted snow. A malignant epidemic of +scurvy broke out, and of seventy-nine persons thirty-five died from the +disease and more than twenty were at the point of death. + +This disease proved one of the obstacles to rapid colonization in New +France. It was epidemic, contagious and often fatal. It is a somewhat +remarkable fact that the epidemic was prevalent amongst the French only +when they were established on the soil, being rarely discovered on +ship-board. Jacques Cartier had experienced the horrors of this disease +in the winter of 1535-6, when out of his one hundred and ten men +twenty-five died, and only three or four remained altogether free from +attack. During the year 1542-3, Roberval saw fifty persons dying of the +disease at Charlesbourg Royal. At Ste. Croix the proportion of deaths +was still greater, thirty-five out of seventy-nine. There was a +physician attached to de Monts' party, but he did not understand the +disease, and therefore could not satisfactorily prescribe for it. De +Monts also consulted many physicians in Paris, but he did not receive +answers that were of much service to him. + +At the commencement of the seventeenth century scientific men +distinguished scurvy on land from scurvy on sea. They laboured under the +false impression that the one differed from the other. Champlain called +the disease _mal de terre_. It is certain, however, that the symptoms +did not vary in either case, as we may ascertain from the descriptions +furnished by Jacques Cartier and Champlain. + +The position of the settlement was soon proved to be untenable, and de +Monts was certainly to blame for this unhappy state of affairs. Why did +he abandon Port Royal, where he had found abundant water? Champlain, +however, defends the action of his chief. + +"It would be very difficult," he says, "to ascertain the character of +this region without spending a winter in it, for, on arriving here in +summer, everything is very agreeable in consequence of the woods, fine +country, and the many varieties of good fish which are found." We must +not forget, however, that the climate of this island differed very +little from that of Tadousac, which had greatly disappointed de Monts, +and that his sole object in settling in a more southern latitude was to +avoid the disagreeable consequences of the climate. + +Champlain made a plan of the island of Ste. Croix, indicating the +buildings constructed for the habitation of the settlers. We observe +many isolated tenements forming a large square. On one side was the +residence of Champlain, of Champdoré and d'Orville, with a large garden +opposite. Near d'Orville's residence was a small building set apart for +the missionaries. On the other side may be seen the storehouse, de +Monts' dwelling, a public hall where the people spent their leisure, and +a building for Boulay and the workmen. In an angle of the large square +were the residences of Genestou, Sourin, de Beaumont, La Motte, Bourioli +and Fougeray. A small fort is shown at one end of the island, approached +by a pathway. The chapel of the priest Aubry was located near the cannon +of the fort. Such was the plan of the first Acadian settlement. Much +expense had been incurred for a very poor result. + +De Monts was the directing spirit of the colony, and in spite of his +noble attempts, he realized that his efforts were fruitless and that he +would have to try another place for a permanent settlement. By the +direction of his chief, Champlain accordingly undertook to explore the +seacoast of Norembega. + +De Monts has found a defender in Moreau, who held that Ste. Croix was +only intended for winter quarters. If this had been his intention, we +can scarcely believe that he would have incurred so great an expense in +building a number of houses. Lescarbot, whose testimony is most +valuable, says: "When we go into a country to take possession of land we +don't stop on islands to imprison ourselves. If that island had been +supplied with rivers or streams, if the soil had been favourable to +agriculture, it would have been half wrong." But this island lacked the +very first element essential to life, fresh water. + +Towards the middle of May, 1605, every one's attention was directed +towards France, as the ships which had been expected for over a month +had not yet arrived. De Monts then determined to send his party to Gaspé +in two large boats to join Pont-Gravé. At this juncture, however, +Pont-Gravé arrived at Ste. Croix with his crew, comprising forty men. + +De Monts and Pont-Gravé held a consultation and decided to seek a more +suitable place for a settlement, rather than to return to France. De +Monts was still under the impression that the best plan was to attempt +to settle in the vicinity of Florida, although the result of Champlain's +exploration along the coast of the Norembega[5] was considered +unsatisfactory. + +Let us now examine what Champlain had accomplished during the month of +September, 1604. + +He left Ste. Croix on September 5th, in a _patache_, with twelve sailors +and two savages as guides. On the first day he covered twenty-five +leagues and discovered many islands, reefs and rocks. To another island, +four or five leagues in length, he gave the name of Ile des Monts +Déserts[6], which name has been preserved. On the following day +Champlain met some hunting Indians of the Etchemin tribe, proceeding +from the Pentagouet River to the Mount Desert Islands. "I think this +river," says Champlain, "is that which several pilots and historians +call Norembègue, and which most have described as large and extensive, +with very many islands, its mouth being in latitude 43°, 43', 30''.... +It is related also that there is a large, thickly-settled town of +savages, who are adroit and skilful, and who have cotton yards. I am +confident that most of those who mention it have not seen it, and speak +of it because they have heard persons say so, who know no more about it +than they themselves.... But that any one has ever entered it there is +no evidence, for then they would have described it in another manner, in +order to relieve the minds of many of this doubt." + +Champlain's description is written from personal knowledge, because he +had seen the Pentagouet River.[7] The country which it passes through is +agreeable, but there was no town or village, and no appearance of +either, with the exception of a few deserted cabins of the Souriquois or +Micmacs. + +Here Champlain met two Souriquois chiefs, Bessabé and Cabahis, and +succeeded in making them understand that he had been sent by de Monts to +visit their country, and to assure them of the friendship of the French +for the Souriquois. Champlain continued his journey southwards, and two +days later he again met Cabahis, of whom he asked particulars as to the +course of the river Norembègue. The chief replied "that they had already +passed the fall, which is situated at about twenty leagues from the +mouth of the river Penobscot. Here it widens into a lake, by way of +which the Indians pass to the river Ste. Croix, by going some distance +overland and then entering the river Etchemin. Another river also enters +the lake, along which they proceed for some days until they gain another +lake and pass through it. Reaching the end of it they again make a land +journey of some distance until they reach another small river, the mouth +of which is within a league of Quebec." This little river is the +Chaudière, which the Indians follow to reach Quebec. On September 20th +Champlain observed the mountains of Bedabedec, and after having +proceeded for ten or twelve leagues further he decided to return to Ste. +Croix and wait until the following year to continue his explorations. +His opinion was that the region he had explored was quite as +unfavourable for a settlement as Ste. Croix. + +On June 18th, 1605, de Monts, at the head of an expedition consisting of +Champlain, some gentlemen, twelve sailors and an Indian guide named +Panonias and his wife, set out from the island of Ste. Croix to explore +the country of the Armouchiquois, and reached the Pentagouet River in +twelve days. On July 20th they made about twenty leagues between +Bedabedec Point and the Kennebec River, at the mouth of which is an +island which they named _La Tortue_. + +Continuing their journey towards the south they observed some large +mountains, the abode of an Indian chief named Aneda. "I was satisfied +from the name," says Champlain, "that he was one of his tribe that had +discovered the plant called _aneda_, which Jacques Cartier said was so +powerful against the malady called scurvy, which harassed his company as +well as our own when they wintered in Canada. The savages have no +knowledge at all of this plant, and are not aware of its existence, +although the above mentioned savage has the same name." This supposition +was unfounded, because if this Indian had been of the same origin as the +aborigines who acquainted Jacques Cartier with the virtue of the +_aneda_ plant in cases of scurvy, he would have understood the meaning +of the word. _Aneda_ is the Iroquois word for the spruce tree, but there +is no evidence to prove that Champlain was ever aware that it was a +specific. Had he known of its efficacy he would have certainly employed +it. + +At Chouacouet de Monts and Champlain received visits from many Indians, +differing entirely from either the Etchemins or the Armouchiquois. They +found the soil tilled and cultivated, and the corn in the gardens was +about two feet in height. Beans, pumpkins and squash were also in +flower. The place was very pleasant and agreeable at the time, but +Champlain believed the weather was very severe in the winter. + +The party proceeded still further south, in sight of the Cap aux Iles +(Cape Porpoise), and on July 17th, 1605, they came to anchor at Cape St. +Louis,[8] where an Indian chief named Honabetha paid them a visit. To a +small river which they found in the vicinity they gave the name of Gua, +in honour of de Monts. The expedition passed the night of the 18th in a +small bay called Cape St. Louis. On the 19th they observed the cape of a +large bay, which they distinguished by the title of Ste. Suzanne du Cap +Blanc, and on July 20th they entered a spacious harbour, which proved +to be very dangerous on account of shoals and banks; they therefore +named it Mallebarre. + +Five weeks had now elapsed since the expedition had left Ste. Croix, and +no incident of importance had occurred. They had met many tribes of +Indians, and on each occasion their intercourse was harmonious. It is +true that they had not traversed more than three degrees of latitude, +but, although their progress was slow, their time was well spent. De +Monts was satisfied that it would be easier to colonize Acadia than this +American coast, and Champlain was still convinced that Port Royal was +the most favourable spot, unless de Monts preferred Quebec. + +The expedition returned to Ste. Croix in nine days, arriving there on +August 3rd. Here they found a vessel from France, under the command of +Captain des Antons, laden with provisions, and many things suitable for +winter use. There was now a chance of saving the settlers, although +their position was not enviable. + +De Monts was determined to try the climate of Port Royal, and to +endeavour to establish a settlement there. Two barques were fitted out +and laden with the frame work of the buildings at Ste. Croix. Champlain +and Pont-Gravé had set out before to select a favourable site around the +bay, well sheltered from the north-west wind. They chose a place +opposite an island at the mouth of the river de l'Equille, as being the +most suitable. Every one was soon busily engaged in clearing the ground +and in erecting houses. The plan of the settlement, says Champlain, was +ten fathoms long and eight fathoms wide, making the distance around +thirty-six fathoms. On the eastern side was a storehouse occupying the +width of it, with a very fine cellar, from five to six feet deep. On the +northern side were the quarters of Sieur de Monts, comfortably finished. +In the backyard were the dwellings of the workmen. At the corner of the +western side was a platform, upon which four cannon were placed, and at +the eastern corner a palisade was constructed in the shape of a +platform. There was nothing pretentious or elegant about these +buildings, but they were solid and useful. + +The installation of the new settlement being now complete, de Monts +returned to France, leaving Pont-Gravé in command. During the absence of +de Monts, Champlain determined to pursue his discoveries along the +American coast, and in this design he was favoured by de Monts, as the +latter had not altogether abandoned his idea of settling in Florida. The +season, however, was too far advanced, and Champlain therefore stopped +at the river St. John to meet Schoudon, with whom he agreed to set out +in search of the famous copper mine. They were accompanied by a miner +named Jacques, and a Slavonian very skilful in discovering minerals. He +found some pieces of copper and what appeared to be a mine, but it was +too difficult to work. Champlain accordingly returned to Port Royal, +where several of the men were suffering from scurvy. Out of forty-five, +twelve died during the winter. The surgeon from Honfleur, named +Deschamps, performed an autopsy on some of the bodies, and found them +affected in the same manner as those who had died at Ste. Croix. Snow +did not fall until December 20th, and the winter was not so severe as +the previous one. + +On March 16th, 1606, Champlain resumed his explorations, and travelled +eighteen leagues on that day. He anchored at an island to the south of +Manan. During the night his barque ran ashore and sustained injuries +which it required four days to repair. Champlain then proceeded to Port +aux Coquilles, seven or eight leagues distant, where he remained until +the twenty-ninth. Pont-Gravé, however, desired him to return to Port +Royal, being anxious to obtain news of his companions whom he had left +sick. Owing to indisposition, Champlain was obliged to delay his +departure until April 8th. + +Champlain and Pont-Gravé intended to return to France during the summer +of 1606. Seeing that the vessels promised by de Monts had not arrived, +they set out from Port Royal to Cape Breton or Gaspé, in search of a +vessel to cross the Atlantic, but when they were approaching Canseau, +they met Ralleau, the secretary of de Monts, who informed them that a +vessel had been despatched under the command of Poutrincourt, with +fifty settlers for the country. They, therefore, returned to Port Royal, +where they found Poutrincourt, who as lieutenant-general of de Monts +intended to remain at Port Royal during the year. + +On September 5th, Champlain left Port Royal on a voyage of discovery. +Poutrincourt joined the expedition, and they took with them a physician, +the carpenter Champdoré, and Robert Gravé, the son of François. This +last voyage, undertaken to please de Monts, did not result in anything +remarkable. They first paid a visit to Ste. Croix, where everything +remained unchanged, although the gardens were flourishing. From Ste. +Croix the expedition drifted southwards, and Champlain pointed out the +same bays, harbours, capes and mountains that he had observed before. +Schoudon, chief of the Etchemins, and Messamouet, captain of the +Micmacs, joined the party, and proceeded with them as far as Chouacouet, +where they intended to form an alliance with Olmechin and Marchim, two +Indian chiefs of this country. + +On October 2nd, 1606, the expedition reached Mallebarre, and for a few +days they anchored in a bay near Cape Batturier, which they named Port +Fortuné (Chatham). Five or six hundred savages were found at this place. +"It would be an excellent place," says Champlain, "to erect buildings, +and lay the foundation of a state, if the harbour was somewhat deeper +and the entrance safer." Poutrincourt stopped here for some days, and +in the meantime visited all the surrounding country, from which he +returned much pleased. + +According to a custom peculiar to the French since the days of Jacques +Cartier, de Monts had planted a large cross at the entrance of the +Kennebec River, and also at Mallebarre. Poutrincourt did the same at +Port Fortuné. The Indians seemed annoyed at this ceremony, which they +evidently considered as an encroachment upon their rights as +proprietors. They exhibited symptoms of discontent, and during the night +they killed four Frenchmen who had imprudently stayed ashore. They were +buried near the cross. This the Indians immediately threw down, but +Poutrincourt ordered it to be restored to its former position. + +On three different occasions the party attempted to pursue their +discoveries southwards, but they were prevented each time by a contrary +wind. They therefore resolved to return to Port Royal, which was +rendered imperative both by the approach of winter and the scarcity of +provisions. The result of the voyage was not altogether satisfactory. +Champlain had perhaps held a degree further south than on the former +occasion, but he had not discovered anything of importance. + +On their return to Port Royal, the voyagers were received with great +ceremony. Lescarbot, a Parisian lawyer, who had arrived some time +before, and some other Frenchmen, went to meet them and conducted them +to the fort, which had been decorated with evergreens and inscriptions. +On the principal door they had placed the arms of France, surrounded +with laurel crowns, and the king's motto: _Duo protegit unus_. Beneath +the arms of de Monts was placed this inscription: _Dabit Deus his quoque +finem_. The arms of Poutrincourt were wreathed with crowns of leaves, +with his motto: _In via virtuti nulla est via_. Lescarbot had composed a +short drama for the occasion, entitled, _Le Théâtre de Neptune_. + +The winter of 1606-07 was not very severe. The settlers lived happily in +spite of the scurvy, from which some of them died. Hunting afforded them +the means of providing a great variety of dishes, such as geese, ducks, +bears, beavers, partridges, reindeer, bustards, etc. They also organized +a society devoted to good cheer called, _Ordre du Bon Temps_, the +by-laws of which were definite, and were fixed by Champlain himself. The +Indians of the vicinity who were friendly towards the French colony were +in need of food, so that each day loaves of bread were distributed +amongst them. Their _sagamo_, named Membertou, was admitted as a guest +to the table of Poutrincourt. This famous Souriquois, who was very old +at that time--probably a hundred years, though he had not a single white +hair--pretended to have known Jacques Cartier at the time of his first +voyage, and claimed that in 1534 he was married, and the father of a +young family. + +Lescarbot, who was an able man and a good historian, records the +particulars above related, besides many other interesting facts +concerning Port Royal which appear to have escaped Champlain's +observation. Lescarbot was an active spirit in the life of the first +French colony in Acadia. He encouraged his companions to cultivate their +land, and he worked himself in the gardens, sowing wheat, oats, beans, +pease, and herbs, which he tended with care. He was also liked by the +Indians, and he would have rejoiced to see them converted to +Christianity. Lescarbot was a poet and a preacher, and had also a good +knowledge of the arts and of medicine. Charlevoix says: "He daily +invented something new for the public good. And there was never a +stronger proof of what a new settlement might derive from a mind +cultivated by study, and induced by patriotism to use its knowledge and +reflections. We are indebted to this advocate for the best memoirs of +what passed before his eyes, and for a history of French Florida. We +then behold an exact and judicious writer, a man with views of his own, +and who would have been as capable of founding a colony as of writing +its history." + +With the departure of Lescarbot and Champlain the best page of the +history of Port Royal is closed. The two men left on September 2nd, +1607, on board the _Jonas_, commanded by Nicholas Martin. They stopped +at Roscoff in Basse-Bretagne, and the vessel arrived at Havre de Grâce +in the early days of October. + +Poutrincourt, his son Biencourt, and Lescarbot made a pilgrimage to Mont +St. Michel, and Champlain went to Brouage, his native country, having +sojourned in America for three years and five months. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[5] Norembega was the name applied at that time to a vast tract of +country whose limits were nearly unknown. There was a river and a cape +called Norembega. The river is now the Penobscot, and the cape is the +southern extremity of the Acadian peninsula. + +[6] The Indians called this island _Pemetig_, which means _the island +which is ahead_. The French settled here in 1613, and founded St. +Sauveur on the north-eastern coast, in a splendid harbour which is +to-day known as Bar Harbour. The remains of many of the French who were +killed during the contest with the English, were interred at Point +Fernald. At the point nearest the mainland there is a bridge of seven +hundred feet in length, which communicates with the town of Trenton. + +[7] Champlain called the river _Peimtegoüet_. This word means _the place +of a river where rapids exist_. The English have given their preference +to the word _Penobscot_, which comes from the Indian _Penaouasket, the +place where the earth is covered with stones_. + +[8] The Pilgrim Fathers, the founders of New England, landed at this +place, which they named Plymouth, to preserve the name of the English +city from which they had sailed. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE FOUNDING OF QUEBEC + + +After his return to France, as before described, Champlain had an +interview with de Monts, and laid before him the journal which he had +prepared of his explorations in America, together with plans of the +ports and coasts which he had minutely examined during his visits. +Champlain proposed to de Monts to continue his explorations, and +advanced some reasons for prosecuting an enterprise upon which a large +sum had been already expended, and which he was persuaded would +ultimately afford the means of repairing their fortunes. De Monts, owing +to the failure of his own efforts as a colonizer, was not at first +inclined to listen to Champlain's proposals, but he was finally +convinced of the wisdom of his suggestions, and appointed him lieutenant +of an expedition to Quebec for the purpose of trading with the Indians. +The expedition was to return to France during the same year. De Monts +obtained another commission from the king, dated at Paris, January 9th, +1608, which gave him the monopoly of the fur trade in the lands, ports +and rivers of Canada for a period of one year. Two vessels were equipped +for this expedition, the _Don de Dieu_, captain Henry Couillard, and +the _Lévrier_, captain Nicholas Marion. Champlain was given the command +of the former vessel, and Pont-Gravé was in command of the latter. The +_Lévrier_ sailed from France on April 5th, and the _Don de Dieu_ eight +days later. The two vessels proceeded directly to Tadousac, without +calling at Percé, according to the usual custom. + +On the arrival of the _Don de Dieu_ at Tadousac, Champlain found that +Pont-Gravé had been attacked by Captain Darache, a Basque, who continued +to trade furs with the Indians in spite of the king's commands. Darache +had brought all his guns to bear upon the _Lévrier_, and Pont-Gravé +being unable to defend himself, had offered no resistance, whereupon +Darache's crew had boarded the vessel and carried off the cannon and +arms, at the same time intimating that they would continue to trade as +they pleased. The arrival of Champlain, however, altered the situation, +and Darache was compelled to sign an agreement by which he pledged +himself not to molest Pont-Gravé, or to do anything prejudicial to the +interest of the king or of de Monts. It was also agreed that all +differences should be settled by the authorities in France. After this +agreement was effected through Champlain's intervention, the carpenters +of the expedition fitted out a small barque to convey to Quebec all the +articles necessary for the use of the future settlement. + +[Illustration: Building the _Habitation_, Quebec, 1608 + +From the painting by C.W. Jefferys] + +In the meantime Champlain visited the river Saguenay, where he met some +Indians from whom he gathered information concerning Lake St. John and +its tributaries. The information did not differ greatly from that which +he had obtained in the year 1603. Champlain set out from Tadousac on the +last day of June and arrived at Quebec on July 3rd, "Where I searched," +he says, "for a place suitable for our settlement, but I could find none +more convenient or better situated than the point of Quebec, so called +by the savages, which was covered with nut trees." + +Champlain was accompanied by thirty men, amongst whom may be named +Nicholas Marsolet, Étienne Brûlé, Bonnerme, a doctor, Jean Duval, +Antoine Natel and La Taille. These names are specially recorded. +Champlain immediately employed some workmen to fell trees in order to +commence the construction of an _Habitation_. One party was engaged in +sawing timber, another in digging a cellar and some ditches, while +another party was sent to Tadousac with a barque to obtain supplies +which had been retained in the ships. Such was the beginning of +Champlain's city. Nothing great, it will be admitted, for a settlement +which its founder hoped before long would become the great warehouse of +New France. + +Until this date the merchants had traded with the Indians only in those +places where they could easily be met, and even Chauvin, who was +mentioned in a previous chapter, had not gone further than Tadousac. +Neither Three Rivers, nor the islands of Sorel at the entrance of the +Iroquois River, now called the Richelieu River, were known to French +navigators at this period, and although these places were easily +accessible to the aborigines, they were not so available as Quebec. + +Champlain well understood the advantages of founding his city on a spot +naturally fortified and where he could readily defend himself against +the attack of an enemy, whose approach he expected sooner or later. The +first foes, however, whom Champlain had to encounter were not the +Indians, but his own countrymen, members of his crew who under various +pretexts sought to kill their chief and give the command of the +settlement to the Basques. Jean Duval, the king's locksmith, was the +leader of this conspiracy against Champlain, and associated with him +were four vicious sailors to whom he promised a part of the reward which +had been offered for this treason. The conspirators agreed to preserve +secrecy, and fixed the night of the fourth day for the assassination of +their chief. + +On the day upon which the plot was to be put into execution, Captain Le +Testu[9] arrived from Tadousac in command of a vessel laden with +provisions, utensils, etc. After the vessel was unloaded, one of the +conspirators, a locksmith named Natel, approached the captain and +acquainted him with the details of the plot. Champlain also listened to +the man's account and promised to observe secrecy, although he took +precautions to frustrate the scheme by inviting the leader and the four +conspirators to an entertainment on board Captain Le Testu's barque. + +The men accepted the invitation, and as soon as they were on board they +were seized and held in custody until the following day. The deposition +of each man was then taken by Champlain in the presence of the pilot and +sailors, and set down in writing, after which the "worthies" were sent +to Tadousac, where Champlain requested Pont-Gravé to guard them for a +time. Some days after the men were returned to Quebec, where they were +placed on trial for attempted murder. + +The jury was composed of Champlain, Pont-Gravé, Le Testu, Bonnerme, the +mate and the second mate, and some sailors. The verdict was unanimous. +Duval was condemned to death on the spot as the instigator of the plot, +and the others were also sentenced to death, but their sentence was to +be carried out in France. Duval was strangled at Quebec, and his head +was placed on a pike which was set up in the most conspicuous part of +the fort. This was the second example of capital punishment in New +France. The first case recorded was at Charlesbourg Royal, or Cap-Rouge, +near Quebec, in the winter of 1542-3, when Michel Gaillon, one of +Roberval's companions, was put to death. + +Champlain was invested with executive, legislative and judiciary powers, +but the founder of Quebec never abused the authority intrusted to him. +From this time every one fulfilled his duty day by day, and Champlain +was able to continue his work in peace. + +The habitation was composed of three buildings of two stories, each one +of three fathoms long and two and a half wide. The storehouse was six +fathoms long and three wide, with a cellar six feet deep. There was a +gallery around the buildings, at the second story. There were also +ditches fifteen feet wide and six deep. On the outer side of the ditches +Champlain constructed several spurs, which enclosed a part of the +dwelling, at the point where he placed a cannon. Before the habitation +there was a square four fathoms wide and six or seven long, looking out +upon the river bank. Surrounding the habitation were very good gardens, +and an open space on the north side, some hundred and twenty paces long +and fifty or sixty wide. + +During the first weeks after his installation, Champlain made an +investigation of the vicinity. "Near Quebec," he says, "there is a +little river coming from a lake in the interior, distant six or seven +leagues from our settlement. I am of opinion that this river, which is +north a quarter north-west from our settlement, is the place where +Jacques Cartier wintered, since there are still, a league up the river, +remains of what seems to have been a chimney, the foundation of which +has been found, and indications of there having been ditches surrounding +their dwelling, which was small. We found also, large pieces of hewn, +worm-eaten timber, and some three or four cannon balls. All these things +show clearly that there was a settlement there founded by Christians; +and what leads me to say and believe that it was that of Jacques Cartier +is the fact that there is no evidence whatever that any one wintered and +built a house in these places except Jacques Cartier at the time of his +discoveries." + +This "little river coming from a lake in the interior," is evidently the +river St. Charles, called Ste. Croix by Cartier. Champlain's conjectures +about the place where Jacques Cartier wintered, are certainly correct. +It was near this spot also that the Jesuits erected their convent of +Notre Dame des Anges in 1626, namely, at two hundred feet from the +shore, where the river Lairet joins the St. Charles. + +Pont-Gravé sailed for France on September 18th, 1608, leaving Champlain +with twenty-seven men, and provisions for the approaching winter at +Quebec. The carpenters, sawyers, and other workmen were employed in +clearing up the place and in preparing gardens. + +Many Indians were encamped in the vicinity, who proved troublesome +neighbours, as they were constantly visiting the habitation, either to +beg food for their families or to express their fear of invisible +enemies. Champlain readily understood the character of these people, but +he was too charitable to refuse them assistance in their need; besides +he believed that they might easily be taught how to live and how to +cultivate the soil. It was a difficult task, however, to induce the +Indians to settle in any particular place. For generations they had led +a wandering life, subsisting on the products of their hunting and +fishing. This wild freedom was as necessary to their existence as the +open air, and all attempts to make them follow the habits of civilized +races seemed to tend towards their deterioration. + +The early days of the French settlement at Quebec were distinguished by +nothing remarkable. During the first winter scurvy and dysentery claimed +many victims. Natel, the locksmith, died towards the end of November, +and some time after Bonnerme, the doctor, was attacked and succumbed. +Eighteen others also suffered from scurvy of whom ten died, and there +were five deaths from dysentery, so that by the spring there were only +eight men living, and Champlain himself was seriously indisposed. This +was the third time that the founder of Quebec had had to experience the +effects of this terrible disease, and although he was beginning to +understand its causes, he was still unaware of a specific. "I am +confident," he says, "that, with good bread and fresh meat, a person +would not be liable to it." + +Many trials had been experienced by the settlers during their first +winter of 1608-09, and they welcomed the return of spring. Des +Marets[10] arrived at Quebec at this time, with tidings that Pont-Gravé, +his father-in-law, had arrived at Tadousac on May 28th. Champlain at +once repaired to Tadousac, where he received a letter from de Monts +requesting him to return to France to acquaint him with the progress +which he had made in the colony, and with the result of his +explorations. Champlain returned to Quebec, and immediately fitted out +an expedition to visit the country of the Iroquois, in the company of a +party of Montagnais. + +The Montagnais were anxious to carry on war against their ancient +enemies, and although the wars had no attraction for Champlain, he hoped +to be able to further his discoveries during the journey. Taking with +him the twenty men placed at his disposal by Pont-Gravé, Champlain +sailed from Quebec on June 18th, 1609. The command of the habitation +was given to Pont-Gravé in the meantime. The expedition proceeded +towards the island of St. Eloi, near the shores of which two or three +hundred savages were encamped in tents. They proved to be Hurons and +Algonquins who were on their way to Quebec to join Champlain's +expedition to the territory of the Iroquois. Their chiefs were named +Iroquet and Ochateguin, and Champlain explained to them the object of +his voyage. The next day the two chiefs paid a visit to Champlain and +remained silent for some time, meditating and smoking. After some +reflection the chiefs began to harangue their companions on the banks of +the river. They spoke for a long time in loud tones, and the substance +of their remarks has been summed up in these words:-- + +"Ten moons ago Champlain had declared that he desired to assist them +against their enemies, with whom they had been for a long time at +warfare, on account of many cruel acts committed by them against their +tribe, under colour of friendship. Having ever since longed for +vengeance, they had solicited all the savages whom they had seen on the +banks of the river to come and make an alliance. They had no children +with them but men versed in war and full of courage, and well acquainted +with the country and the rivers of the land of the Iroquois. They wanted +to go to Quebec in order that they might see the French houses, but +after three days they would return to engage in the war. As a token of +firm friendship and joy, Champlain should have muskets and arquebuses +fired." + +Champlain replied that he was glad to be able to fulfil his promise to +them; he had no other purpose than to assist them in their wars; he had +not come as a trader, but only with arms to fight. His word was given, +and it was his desire that it should be kept. Thus was the alliance +ratified which had been made in 1603 between the French and the Hurons, +Algonquins and Montagnais, and the alliance was never broken. + +Some historians have reproached Champlain for his intervention in the +wars between the Indians of Canada, and have suggested that it would +have been wiser to have preserved a strict neutrality, instead of taking +up arms against the redoubtable and valiant Iroquois. In order to +explain Champlain's actions, it is necessary to consider the relations +of the French towards the other tribes. Many years before the period of +which we are writing, certain French captains traded with the Montagnais +Indians of Tadousac. These Indians were on friendly terms with the +Hurons, the Algonquins Supérieurs of the Ottawa river, and the +Souriquois of Acadia, and were united in their desire to subdue the +terrible Iroquois. As the Iroquois did not trade, Champlain had no +relations with them of a business character, and therefore he was not +bound towards them in the same manner as he was towards the Hurons and +others. + +The Iroquois at first resided at Montreal and Three Rivers, while their +neighbours, the Algonquins, were scattered along the shores of the +Ottawa River, Lake Nipissing and French River. The Algonquins, who were +brave and very numerous, succeeded in driving the Iroquois back to Lake +Erie, and afterwards to Lake Ontario, near Lake Champlain. Here the +Iroquois were distributed in five tribes, forming a great confederation. +(1.) The Tsonnontouans or Senecas. (2.) The Goyogouins or Cayugas. (3.) +The Onontagues or Onondagas. (4.) The Onneyouts or Oneidas. (5.) The +Agniers or Mohawks. The Tsonnontouans were the most numerous, but the +Agniers were the bravest and wildest. + +The Iroquois or confederate tribes had by constant warfare become the +greatest warriors of New France, nor is this fact surprising when we +consider that they had waged successful warfare, extending over a long +period, against the vast coalition of Hurons, Algonquins, Montagnais and +Micmacs scattered from Lake Huron to Acadia. + +Anadabijou, chief of the Montagnais, made a long speech, telling his men +that they ought to feel proud of the friendship of the king of France +and of his people, upon whom they could rely for assistance in their +wars. It was from that date that the alliance between the Indians and +the French commenced, and, as Champlain was obliged to live in the +neighbourhood of the Montagnais and Algonquins, the only course open to +him, if he desired to live in peace, was to fulfil his promise made to +them. + +In this year, 1609, Anadabijou reminded Champlain of the agreement made +six years before. "Ten moons ago," he says, "the son of Iroquet had seen +you. You gave him a good reception, and promised with Pont-Gravé to +assist us against our enemies." To this Champlain replied, "My only +desire is to fulfil what I promised then." Thus was sealed this solemn +agreement. + +If Champlain had refused to make an alliance with these Indians, they +would have been a constant source of trouble, for although they were +less ferocious than the Iroquois, they were still barbarians. Champlain +and his few men could never have established a settlement at Quebec if +they had been forced to encounter the hostility of the neighbouring +Indians, for the whole of his work could have been overthrown by them in +a single day. + +The country of the Iroquois, on the contrary, was situated at a great +distance, and consequently he had not so much to fear from them. It was +Champlain's desire, however, to make a treaty with the Iroquois as well, +for they were at this time even, and long after remained, the terror of +North America. But war seemed necessary to the existence of the +Iroquois, and Champlain, notwithstanding the exercise of his diplomacy, +found it impossible to pacify these restless people. + +It is true that the people of New Netherland had been able to maintain +a neutral stand towards the Iroquois, and Champlain has been blamed for +not following this example. It must be borne in mind, however, that the +Dutch were powerful and numerous, and it was to their interest to live +in harmony with their immediate neighbours, the Iroquois. The Dutch had +also different intentions towards the Indians. They came to America +simply to trade, and to establish themselves and live quietly along the +shores of the Hudson River, while Champlain's idea was to civilize the +Indians and bring them under the influence of the Catholic missionaries. + +Champlain and the allied Indians left Quebec on June 28th, 1609. Des +Marets, La Routte, a pilot, and nine men accompanied the expedition. On +their voyage they passed certain rivers to which Champlain gave the +following names, Ste. Suzanne (River du Loup), du Pont (Nicolet), de +Gênes (Yamaska), and the Three Rivers.[11] The party stopped at the +entrance of the Iroquois River. Continuing their journey southwards, +they arrived at the Chambly Rapids. "No Christians had been in this +place before us," says Champlain. Seeing no prospect of being able to +cross the rapids alone, Champlain embarked with the Indians in their +canoes, taking only two men with him. Champlain's army, comprising +sixty men, then proceeded slowly towards Lake Champlain, and a few days +after the party arrived at Lake St. Sacrament (Lake George). On July +29th they encountered the Iroquois, who had come to fight, at the +extremity of Lake Champlain, on the western bank. The entire night was +spent by each army in dancing and singing, and in bandying words. At +daybreak Champlain's men stood to arms. The Iroquois were composed of +about two hundred men, stout and rugged in appearance, with their three +chiefs at their head, who could be distinguished by their large plumes. +The Indians opened their ranks and called upon Champlain to go to the +front. The arrows were beginning to fly on both sides when Champlain +discharged his musket, which was loaded with four balls, and killed two +of the chiefs and mortally wounded the third. This unexpected blow +caused great alarm among the Iroquois, who lost courage, abandoned their +camp and took to flight, seeking shelter in the woods. Fifteen or +sixteen men of Champlain's party were wounded, but the enemy had many +wounded, and ten or twelve were taken prisoners. + +This victory did not entail much hardship on the part of the French. +Champlain and his two companions did more to rout the Iroquois than the +sixty allies with their shower of arrows. The result of this day's +proceedings was highly satisfactory to the Indians, who gathered up the +arms and provisions left behind by the Iroquois, and feasted +sumptuously amidst dancing and singing. "The spot where this attack took +place," says Champlain, "is in the latitude of 43° and some minutes, and +the lake is called Champlain." This place is now called Ticonderoga, or +the Cheondoroga of the Indians. + +Champlain returned to Quebec with the Montagnais, and a few days after +he set out for Tadousac to see whether Pont-Gravé had arrived from +Gaspé. He met Pont-Gravé on the morrow, and they both decided to sail +for France, and to leave Quebec in the meantime under the command of +Pierre de Chauvin,[12] pending the decision of de Monts as to the future +of the colony. Both visited Quebec in order to invest Chauvin with +authority, and after leaving him everything necessary for the use of the +settlement, and placing fifteen men under his command, the two +commanders left Quebec on September 1st, 1609, and sailed from Tadousac +for France on the fifth day of the same month. + +Champlain had sojourned in New France since the beginning of July, 1608, +and during that interval he had made good use of his time. He had chosen +the most suitable place for a habitation which was destined to become +the metropolis of the French colony; he had constructed a fort and a +storehouse, and he had also explored a very important tract of country. +Champlain had also visited a part of the river Saguenay; he had made +himself acquainted with the vicinity of Quebec, and with the rivers, +streams and tributaries of the St. Lawrence and Ste. Croix. For the +second time he had seen the river St. Lawrence as far as the Iroquois +River over which he had sailed as far as Lake Champlain, whence it +receives its waters. Besides his achievements in exploration Champlain +had cemented friendly relations with the Montagnais, Algonquins and +Hurons; he had renewed his acquaintance with Anadabijou and formed an +alliance with Iroquet and Ochateguin, three of the most powerful chiefs +of these tribes. He was also well versed in their methods of warfare and +had studied their manners and customs and their treatment of their +prisoners, so that when he returned to France he was in a position to +give de Monts a great deal of valuable information, both as regards the +inhabitants and the best means of promoting trade with them. + +On his arrival in France Champlain proceeded at once to Fontainebleau, +where he met King Henry IV and de Monts. He had an audience with the +king and gave His Majesty a satisfactory account of his proceedings. He +also presented to the king a girdle made of porcupine quills, two little +birds of carnation colour, and the head of a fish caught in Lake +Champlain, which had a very long snout, and two or three rows of very +sharp teeth. + +To de Monts the visit of Champlain was of great importance, because the +fate of Quebec was bound up with him. After hearing Champlain's +narrative of his voyages in New France, de Monts decided to visit Rouen +in order to consult Collier and Legendre, his associates. After +deliberation they resolved to continue their efforts to colonize New +France and to further explore the great river St. Lawrence. In order to +realize means for defraying the expenses of the expedition, Pont-Gravé +was authorized to engage in any traffic that would help to accomplish +this end. In the meantime Lucas Legendre was ordered to purchase +merchandise for the expedition, to see to the repairs of the vessels, +and to obtain crews. After these details had been arranged de Monts and +Champlain returned to Paris to settle the more important questions. + +De Monts' commission, which had been issued for one year, had expired, +but he hoped that it would be renewed. His requests, which appeared just +and reasonable, were, however, refused, owing to protests on the part of +merchants of Bretagne and Normandy, who claimed that this monopoly was +ruinous to their commerce. Finally de Monts appealed to his former +partners, who decided to furnish two vessels, at their own expense, with +supplies and stores necessary for the settlement. Pont-Gravé was given +the command of a fur-trading vessel, and the other was laden with +provisions and stores necessary for the use of the settlers. Champlain +was informed that his services were dispensed with, but not believing +that this news could be true, he saw de Monts and asked him frankly +whether such was the case. De Monts told him that he could accompany the +expedition, if he chose to do so. Champlain therefore set out from Paris +on the last day of February, 1610, and proceeded to Rouen, where he +remained for two days, and then left for Honfleur, to meet Pont-Gravé +and Legendre, who informed him that the vessels were ready to sail. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[9] Le Testu's Christian name was Guillaume. His first voyage to +Newfoundland was made in 1601. He came to Quebec in 1608, 1610, 1611, +1612, 1613, 1614, and 1616. He was successively captain of the _Fleur de +Lys_, the _Trinité_ and the _Nativité_. He was very circumspect in his +dealings. + +[10] Champlain often speaks of this man. His true name was Claude Godet, +Sieur des Marets. His father, Cléophas Godet, a lawyer, had three sons, +Claude, Jean and Jessé. Jean was Sieur du Parc, and Jessé parish priest +of Chambois in 1634. Both Claude and Jean came to Canada. Claude des +Marets was married, in 1615, to Jeanne Gravé, only daughter of François +Gravé, Sieur du Pont. He died about the year 1626, leaving one child +named François, who came to New France with his grandfather, and was +present at the capitulation of Quebec in 1629. + +[11] This is the river _de Fouez_ of Jacques Cartier, and the +_Metaberoutin_ of the Indians, and now the river St. Maurice, to which +historians have given the name of Three Rivers, because two islands +divide it into three branches at its entrance; these branches are called +_Les Chenaux_, or the narrow channels. + +[12] Pierre de Chauvin, Sieur de la Pierre, called Captain Pierre by +Champlain, was born at Dieppe, but after the death of his relative, +Pierre de Chauvin, Sieur de Tontuit, he resided at Honfleur. There were +many families of Chauvin in Normandy during the seventeenth century, +notably the Chauvins, Sieurs de Tontuit, and the Chauvins, Sieurs de la +Pierre. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +CHAMPLAIN'S VOYAGES OF 1610, 1611, 1613 + + +Champlain embarked at Honfleur with eleven artisans for Quebec, on March +7th, 1610. The rough weather experienced during the first days of the +voyage rendered it necessary for the vessel to run into Portland, on the +English coast, and later to seek refuge in the harbour of the Isle of +Wight. At this time Champlain was taken suddenly ill, and was obliged to +return by boat to Havre de Grâce to undergo medical treatment. A month +after he rejoined his former vessel, which in the meantime had returned +to Honfleur to take in ballast. Champlain had now somewhat recovered, +although he was still weak and ill. + +The vessel left Honfleur on April 8th, and reached Tadousac on the 26th +of the same month; which was one of the shortest passages ever made up +to that time. "There were vessels," says Champlain, "which had arrived +on the 18th of the month, a thing which had not been seen for more than +sixty years, as the old mariners said who sail regularly to this +country." This remark proves that for more than half a century French +fishermen and navigators had been accustomed to proceed as far as +Tadousac. A Basque, named Lavalette, who had been accustomed to fish on +the Acadian coast from about the year 1565, also confirms the statement. + +On his arrival at Tadousac, Champlain ascertained from a young nobleman, +named du Parc,[13] who had wintered with Chauvin at Quebec, that all the +settlers were in good health, and that only a few of them had been +slightly ill. They had been able to procure fresh meat during the whole +season, and consequently scurvy had not made its appearance. "By +avoiding salt food and using fresh meat, the health is as good here as +in France." + +The Indians had been waiting from day to day for the return of +Champlain, for they wished him to accompany them to war. He therefore +went ashore to assure them that he would fulfil his promise under the +conditions made, namely, that upon his return they would point out to +him the three rivers, and the lake which they had described as +resembling a sea, the end of which could not be seen, and by means of +which he could return by way of the Saguenay to Tadousac. The Indians +had readily promised to do all this, but only in the following year. +Champlain had also promised the Hurons and Algonquins that he would +assist them in their wars, if they would show him their country, the +great lake and the copper mines. "I had accordingly," he said, "two +strings to my bow, so that, in case one should break, the other might +hold." + +On April 25th, 1610, Champlain set out from Tadousac for Quebec, where +he found Captain Chauvin and his companions in good health. They had +with them a stranger named Captain Batiscan, who was so pleased at +Champlain's return that he and his comrades showed their appreciation by +singing and dancing all night. Champlain entertained them at a banquet, +with which they were delighted. + +Some days after a party of the Montagnais, numbering about sixty men, +made their appearance at Quebec, _en route_ for the war. They presented +themselves before Champlain, and said: "Here are numerous Basques and +Mistigoches (so they named the Normans and Malouins) who say they will +go to the war with us. What do you think of it? Do they speak the +truth?" Champlain answered: "No, I know very well what they really mean; +they say this only to get possession of your commodities." The Indians +replied: "You have spoken the truth. They are women and want to make war +only upon our beavers." Confiding in Champlain's word, the Montagnais +went to Three Rivers under the agreement that a general rendezvous +should be held there with the French. The Hurons were to await them at +the entrance of the Iroquois River. + +Champlain started on his journey on June 14th. When he was eight leagues +from Quebec he met a canoe bearing an Algonquin and a Montagnais, who +entreated him to hasten towards Three Rivers, as the Algonquins and +Hurons would be at the meeting-place within two days. The Algonquins +presented Champlain with a piece of copper a foot long and quite pure, +and stated that there were large quantities to be found on the bank of a +river, near a great lake. The Indians also stated that they collected +the copper in lumps, and after they had melted it, spread it in sheets +and smoothed it with stones. Champlain was well pleased to receive this +present, although it was of small value. + +The Montagnais assembled at Three Rivers, and on June 18th they all set +out together. On the following day they arrived at an island situated at +the mouth of the river Richelieu, which the Montagnais used to frequent +when they wished to avoid the Iroquois. + +An alarm was soon given that the Algonquins had fallen in with a band of +Iroquois, numbering one hundred, who were strongly barricaded. Each man +then took his arms and set out in a canoe towards the enemy. The firing +immediately began, and Champlain was wounded by an arrow which pierced +his ear and entered his neck. He seized the arrow and withdrew it from +the wound. The Iroquois were much astonished at the noise caused by the +discharge of the French muskets, and some of them, seeing their +companions wounded or dead, threw themselves upon the ground whenever +they, heard a musket fired. Champlain resolved after a while to force +the barricade, sword in hand, which he accomplished without much +resistance, and entered the fort. Fifteen prisoners were taken, and the +rest were killed either by musket shots, arrows, or the sword. The +savages, according to their custom, scalped the dead. The Montagnais and +Algonquins had three killed and fifty wounded. On the following day +Pont-Gravé and Chauvin did some trading in peltry. + +Amongst Champlain's party there was a young lad named Nicholas Marsolet, +who desired to accompany the Algonquins in order to learn their +language, and he was pleased to learn that after much deliberation the +Algonquins had decided to take him, on the condition that Champlain +accepted a young Huron as hostage. The Indian boy was named Savignon by +the French. Lescarbot writes that he met this youth many times in Paris, +and that "he was a big and stout boy." + +The French and the allied Indians separated with many promises of +friendship. The Indians departed for the fall of the great river of +Canada, and the French, with Champlain at their head, proceeded to +Quebec. On the return journey they met at Lake St. Peter, Pont-Gravé, +who was on his way to Tadousac, to arrange some business connected with +headquarters. + +Pont-Gravé contemplated passing the winter at Quebec, but in the +meantime des Marets arrived from France, much to the delight of every +one, as his vessel was long overdue. The news which he brought, +however, was so serious that both Champlain and Pont-Gravé decided to +return to France. The intelligence received was to the effect that M. de +St. Luc had expelled the Catholics from Brouage, that the king had been +killed, and that the Duke of Sully and two other noblemen had shared the +same fate. + +Champlain was much distressed over the condition of affairs in France, +and on his departure he left du Parc in command of Quebec, and placed +under him sixteen men, "all of whom were enjoined to live soberly, and +in the fear of God, and in strict observance of the obedience due to the +authority of du Parc." The settlement was left with a plentiful supply +of kitchen vegetables, together with a sufficient quantity of Indian +corn, wheat, rye and barley. Everything was in good order when Champlain +set out from Quebec on August 8th, five days after Pont-Gravé's vessel +sailed from Tadousac for France. On September 27th they arrived at +Honfleur, the voyage having lasted one month and a half. + +This second voyage of Champlain did not restore de Monts' fortunes. The +withdrawal of the exclusive privilege of trading was the signal for a +large number of trading vessels to appear in the St. Lawrence. In fact +the operations were so great as to render the profits of the company +null. The disaster was so complete that Champlain says: "Many will +remember for a long time the loss made this year." For all the labour +which Champlain had bestowed upon the settlement the result was small, +and it was evident that if any French merchant were allowed without +restrictions to trade with the Indians, commerce would be ruined, and +the development of the settlement would be impossible. During the first +years a beaver skin could be exchanged in return for two knives, and now +fifteen or twenty were required for the same exchange. Champlain +therefore desired to establish some form of rule by which commerce could +be restricted, or in other words, whereby he or de Monts, or any one +else who would undertake the direction of the affairs of New France, +might be protected. + +It was during this winter of 1610-11, that Champlain, who was now more +than forty years of age, entertained thoughts of marriage. His constant +voyages during the past twelve years had probably prevented him from +entering into this estate before. It is, perhaps, somewhat surprising +that he so suddenly put aside this consideration against the marriage. +Did he contemplate residing permanently at Quebec, or did he foresee +that circumstances would render his remaining in New France improbable? +There is nothing in his narrative which throws any light on this +question. Champlain does not mention the name of his wife in any of his +writings, but we find later that she accompanied him to Quebec, where +she dwelt for four years. The name of Champlain's wife was Hélène +Boullé, the daughter of Nicholas Boullé, secretary of the king's +chamber, and of Marguerite Alix of St. Germain l'Auxerrois, Paris. +Hélène Boullé was born in 1598, and at the time of her marriage she was +only twelve years of age. Her parents were Calvinists, and she was +brought up in the same faith, but through the lessons and influence of +her husband she became a Catholic. + +The marriage settlements were executed at Paris on December 27th, 1610, +and signed by Choquillot and Arragon, notaries, in the presence of the +parents and friends of both parties. Among those who attended on that +occasion were Pierre du Gua, friend; Lucas Legendre, of Rouen, friend; +Hercule Rouer, merchant of Paris; Marcel Chenu, merchant of Paris; Jehan +Roernan, secretary of de Monts, Champlain's friend; François Lesaige, +druggist of the king's stables, friend and relative; Jehan Ravenel, +Sieur de la Merrois; Pierre Noël, Sieur de Cosigné, friend; Anthoine de +Murad, king's councillor and almoner; Anthoine Marye; Barbier, surgeon, +relative and friend; Geneviève Lesaige, wife of Simon Alix, uncle of +Hélène Boullé, on the mother's side. + +According to the terms of the contract, Nicholas Boullé and his wife +pledged themselves, by anticipated payment of the inheritance, to pay +six thousand livres cash, the day preceding the marriage. Champlain also +agreed to give his future wife the benefit of his wealth at his death. +Two days after, Nicholas Boullé sent to his son-in-law the sum of four +thousand five hundred livres, the balance was to be sent later on. + +The betrothal took place in the church of St. Germain l'Auxerrois, on +Wednesday, December 29th, 1610, and on the following day the marriage +was celebrated in the same church. As the young bride was not of +marriageable age, she returned to her family to live with them for two +years, as agreed by the contract. + +Champlain then resumed his colonization work, and had an interview with +de Monts, in order to induce him to take some action in his favour. +Although the profits to be realized from the enterprise were not +certain, it seemed probable that fur-trading, and developing the +resources of the country, might become advantageous. The expenses of the +undertaking were also small: a few barrels of biscuits, of pease and +cider would be found sufficient to sustain the fifteen or twenty men who +formed the nucleus of the colony. From year to year Champlain hoped to +be able to monopolize the fur trade, not for himself, but for the +company of de Monts. + +The vessels which were equipped for the expedition were ready to sail on +March 1st, 1611. The passage was very rough, and when about eight +leagues distant from the Great Banks of Newfoundland, the vessels were +in great danger through the number of icebergs which were encountered. +The cold was so intense that it was found difficult to navigate the +vessel. While in the vicinity of Newfoundland, they communicated with a +French ship, on board of which was Biencourt, son of Poutrincourt, who +was bound for Port Royal to meet his father. He had left France three +months previously, and had been unable to find his way to the Acadian +coast. + +After having sighted Gaspé, Champlain arrived at Tadousac on May 13th, +where he found all the country covered with snow. The savages were +informed of Champlain's arrival by cannon shot, and they soon made their +appearance. They stated that three or four trading vessels had arrived +within the last eight days, but that their business had been a failure +on account of the scarcity of furs. + +Champlain proceeded at once to Quebec, where he found everything in good +order, and neither du Parc nor his companions had suffered from any +sickness. Game had been abundant during the whole winter. Champlain +intended to visit Three Rivers, but Batiscan said that he would not be +prepared to conduct him there until next year. As he was unable to carry +out his designs, Champlain took with him Savignon and one Frenchman, and +visited the great fall. He made a careful examination of the country, +and says:-- + +"But in all that I saw I found no place more favourable than a little +spot to which barques and shallops can easily ascend with the help of a +strong wind, or by taking a winding course, in consequence of the +strong current. But above this place, which we named _La Place Royale_, +at the distance of a league from Mont Royal, there are a great many +little rocks and shoals which are very dangerous.... Formerly savages +tilled these lands.... There is a large number of other fine pastures, +where any number of cattle can graze.... After a careful examination, we +found this place one of the finest on this river. I accordingly gave +orders to cut down and clear up the woods in the Place Royale, so as to +level it and prepare it for building." + +This was the beginning of Montreal, the wealthiest city of Canada. + +Champlain constructed a wall four feet thick, three or four feet high, +and thirty feet long. This fort was placed on an elevation twelve feet +higher than the level of the soil, so that it was safe from inundation. +Champlain named the island Ste. Hélène, in honour of his wife, and he +found that a strong town could be built there. To-day this island is a +favourite resort for the inhabitants of Montreal, and it is an ornament +to the harbour of the large city. + +On June 13th two hundred Hurons arrived at Sault St. Louis, so called +from a young Frenchman named Louis, who was drowned in the rapids a few +days before. The Hurons were under the command of Ochateguin, Iroquet +and Tregouaroti. The latter was a brother of Savignon, the young Huron +whom Champlain had taken with him to France. The interview, which +lasted some time, was most cordial. The Indians said that they felt +somewhat uneasy on seeing so many Frenchmen who were not specially +united, and that they had desired to see Champlain alone, towards whom +they were as kindly disposed as towards their own children. + +Champlain questioned them on the sources of the great river, and on +their own country. Four of them declared that they had seen a large sea +at a great distance from their village. After exchanging their peltry +with Champlain's consent, some of the Hurons left to follow the +war-path, while others returned to their own country. This interview +occurred on July 18th, 1611. On the same day Champlain set out for +Quebec, where he arrived on the nineteenth. Here he found that certain +necessary repairs had to be made. He also planted some rose bushes, and +caused some oak wood to be placed on board a vessel for shipment to +France, as a specimen of the wood of the new colony, which he considered +suitable not only for marine wainscoting, but also for windows and +doors. + +Champlain sailed from Quebec on July 20th, and arrived at La Rochelle on +September 16th. De Monts was at Pons, in Saintonge, at this time, and it +was here that he received a visit from Champlain. After listening to +Champlain's narrative of his proceedings, de Monts decided to proceed to +court to arrange matters. He held a conference with the merchants at +Fontainebleau, but he found that they were unwilling to continue to +support the enterprise. He concluded a bargain with them for what +remained in the Quebec settlement by the payment of a certain sum of +money, and from that date de Monts' company ceased to exist. There was +only one man who had faith in the future of the colony, and who remained +staunch to its interests under all difficulties; this man was Champlain. + +De Monts had shown great energy in opposing the impediments to the +undertaking which were offered by the merchants of Rouen, St. Malo and +La Rochelle, and as he hoped to regain the money which he had already +expended, he considered that it was time to receive assistance from the +king. Louis XIII listened attentively to de Monts' requests, but he did +not accede to them. De Monts, therefore, informed Champlain that he was +compelled to abandon the enterprise. This was the last interview between +these two men. + +Champlain was now left to his own resources for continuing his work. His +personal means were small, and far too slender to enable him to support +a colony in its infancy. The thought of abandoning the settlement was +repugnant to him, not only on account of the years of labour he had +bestowed upon it, but also because he felt that there was every chance +of success with the aid of rich and powerful men. + +At the commencement of his description of his first voyage to Canada, +Champlain enumerates the reasons which induced him to continue his work +of discovery: "The desire which I have always had of making new +discoveries in New France, for the good, profit and glory of the French +name, and at the same time to lead the poor natives to the knowledge of +God, has led me to seek more and more for the greater facility of this +undertaking, which can only be secured by means of good regulations." + +Then he drew up a statement,[14] which he handed to President Jeannin, +whom he knew to be well disposed. + +The president encouraged Champlain, but in order that he might not be +deceived, he thought it better that Champlain should act under the +authority of some man whose influence would be sufficient to protect him +against the jealousy of the merchants. Champlain, therefore, addressed +himself through M. de Beaulieu, councillor and almoner in ordinary to +the king, to Charles de Bourbon, Comte de Soissons, then governor of +Dauphiné and Normandy. He urged upon the count the importance of the +undertaking, and explained the best means of regulating it, claiming +that the disorders which had hitherto existed threatened to ruin the +enterprise, and to bring dishonour to the name of the French. + +After having examined the map of the country, and studied the details of +the scheme, Soissons promised, under the sanction of the king, to assume +the protectorate of the undertaking. Louis XIII listened favourably to +the petition of his loyal subject, and granted the direction and control +of the settlement to the count, who in due course honoured Champlain +with the lieutenancy. Soon after this event, however, the count died, +and His Majesty committed the direction of affairs to Monseigneur Le +Prince de Condé, who retained Champlain as his lieutenant. + +After having caused his commission to be posted in all the ports of +Normandy, Champlain sailed from France on March 6th, in the vessel of +Pont-Gravé, and arrived at Pointe aux Vaches, near Tadousac, on April +24th, 1613. + +The savages came on board the vessel and inquired for Champlain. Some +one replied that he had remained in France. On hearing this, an old man +approached Champlain, who was walking in a corner of the vessel, and +examined the scar on his ear, which was caused by an arrow wound while +fighting for the Indians. On seeing this, the old man recognized +Champlain, and expressed his feelings by shouts of delight, in which he +was joined by his companions, who said, "Your people are awaiting you in +the harbour of Tadousac." + +On arriving at Tadousac, Champlain found that these Indians were almost +dying of hunger, and after having affixed the arms and commission of His +Majesty to a post in the port, he proceeded to Quebec, which he reached +on May 7th. The people of the settlement were all in good health, and +the winter having been less severe than usual, the river had not frozen +once. The leaves were beginning to appear on the trees, and the fields +were already decked with flowers. + +On the 13th of the month Champlain left for the Falls of St. Louis, +which he reached eight days afterwards. Here he met a number of the +Algonquins, who informed him that the bad treatment which they had +experienced during the previous year had discouraged them from coming to +trade, and that his long absence from the country had left the whole +tribe under the impression that he did not intend to return. On hearing +this, Champlain recognized that it would be advisable to visit the +Algonquins at once, in order to continue his discoveries, and to +preserve friendly relations with them. + +During his residence in France, Champlain had met a young Frenchman +named Nicholas du Vignau, who claimed to have seen the Northern Sea, +and said that the Algonquin River flowed from a lake which emptied into +it. He also stated that the journey from Sault St. Louis to this sea and +return could be accomplished in seventeen days, and that he had seen +there the wreck and débris of an English ship, on board of which were +eighty men. This intelligence seemed the more probable as the English +were supposed to have visited the Labrador coast in 1612, where they had +discovered a strait. + +Champlain requested a merchant of La Rochelle, named Georges, to give du +Vignau a passage on his ship, which he did willingly, and he also made +an affidavit before a notary concerning du Vignau's Relation. Du Vignau +came to Canada, and accompanied Champlain on his visit to the +Algonquins. The party, consisting of four Frenchmen and one savage, set +out from Ste. Helen's Island on May 27th, 1613. + +After having passed the falls they entered Lake St. Louis. On the last +day of May they passed Lake des Deux Montagnes, which Champlain called +Lake de Soissons. Some days after they came in sight of the river +Gatineau, the river Rideau and its fall, and the Chaudière Falls, where +they were forced to land. They also passed the rapid des Chats, Lake des +Chats, Madawaska River, Muskrat Lake, and Allumette Island, where an +Algonquin chief named Tessoüat resided. On the following day the Indians +gave a _tabagie_ in honour of Champlain, who after smoking the pipe of +peace with the party, explained to them that the object of his visit was +to assure them of his friendship, and to assist them in their wars, as +he had done before.[15] + +He told them also that he was making an excursion into their country to +observe the fertility of the soil, and study their lakes and rivers, and +to discover the sea which he was told was in their vicinity. Champlain +therefore requested them to furnish four canoes, and eight Indians as +guides, to conduct the party to the Nipissirini, in order to induce +their enemies to fight. + +The chief Tessoüat, speaking in behalf of the whole tribe, said that he +regarded Champlain as the most friendly of all the French, for the +others were unwilling to help them in their wars, but that they had +resolved not to go to the falls again, and that, owing to the long +absence of Champlain from the country, they had been compelled to go to +the wars alone. They therefore begged him to postpone his expedition +until the following year. + +They granted Champlain's request of four canoes with great reluctance, +and stated that the Nipissirini were sorcerers, and not their friends. +Champlain insisted on having the guides, and stated that he had brought +with him a young man who would find no difficulty in visiting the +country of the Nipissirini. + +Tessoüat thereupon addressed the young man by name, and said: "Nicholas, +is it true that you were among the Nebicerini?" "Yes," said he in +Algonquin language, "I was there." "You are a downright liar," replied +Tessoüat, "you know well that you slept at my side every night, with my +children, where you arose every morning; if you were among the people +mentioned, it was while sleeping. How could you have been as bold as to +lead your chief to believe lies, and so wicked as to be willing to +expose his life to so many dangers? You are a worthless fellow and ought +to be put to death, more cruelly than we do our enemies." + +Shortly after, Champlain advised the Indians that the young lad had +confessed that he had lied concerning his visits to the Nipissirini +country. By telling them the facts Champlain hoped to ensure the life of +Nicholas du Vignau, as the savages had said, "Give him to us, and we +promise that he shall not lie any more." + +On June 10th Champlain took leave of Tessoüat, after making him presents +and promising to return during the next year to assist in the war. +Continuing his course, Champlain again approached the Chaudière Falls, +where the savages went through a ceremony peculiar to them, which is +thus described: + +"After carrying their canoes to the foot of the falls, they assembled +in one spot, where one of them took up a collection in a wooden plate, +into which each one placed a piece of tobacco. The collection having +been made, the plate was placed in the middle of the troupe, as they all +danced around it, singing after their style. Then one of them made a +harangue, setting forth that for a long time they had been accustomed to +make this offering, by means of which they were insured protection +against their enemies, and that otherwise misfortune would befall them, +as they were convinced by the evil spirit; and that they lived on in +this superstition, as in many others. This done, the maker of the +harangue took the plate, and threw the tobacco into the midst of the +caldron, whereupon they all raised a loud cry." + +Such was the superstition of these savages that they considered a +favourable journey impossible without this uncouth ceremony. It was at +this portage that their enemies had been wont to surprise them. + +On June 17th they arrived at Sault St. Louis on their return journey. +Captain L'Ange, who was the confidant of Champlain, brought news that +Maisonneuve of St. Malo had arrived with a passport from the Prince de +Condé for three vessels. Champlain therefore allowed him to trade with +the savages. + +As the trade with the savages was now completed, Champlain resolved to +return to France by the first vessel which was ready to start. He +accepted a passage in Maisonneuve's vessel, which arrived at St. Malo on +August 26th. Champlain had an interview with the merchants, to whom he +represented that a good association could be formed in the future. The +merchants resolved to follow the example of those of Rouen and La +Rochelle. + +In concluding this chapter we may repeat the words of Champlain: "May +God by His grace cause this undertaking to prosper to His honour and +glory the conversion of these poor benighted ones, and to the honour and +welfare of France."[16] + +FOOTNOTES: + +[13] Jean Godet, Sieur du Parc, was a brother of Claude des Marets. He +came with his brother to Quebec in 1609, and wintered there. In 1616 he +commanded at Quebec. On his return to France, he remained at St. Germain +de Clairefeuille, where he died on November 16th, 1652. + +[14] This volume is entitled: _Les Voyages du Sieur de Champlain +Xaintongeois, capitaine pour le Roy, en la marine...._ A Paris, MDCXIII. +This volume contains a letter to the king, another one to the queen, +stanzas addressed to the French, an ode to Champlain on his book and his +marine maps, signed by Motin. The first book contains the voyages of +Champlain along the coasts of Acadia and New England. The second relates +to the voyages of Champlain to Quebec, in the years 1608, 1610 and 1611. +This edition is the most useful and the most interesting of all. Two +large maps of New France give an excellent idea of the country, though +they are not absolutely accurate. + +[15] In August, 1867, a farmer called Overman, found on his land, lot +12, township of Ross, county of Renfrew, Ontario, an astrolabe supposed +to have been lost by Champlain during this expedition. From June 6th, +1613, Champlain seems to have ceased his observations, as he does not +say after this date: "I have taken the latitude." This fact would seem +to prove that the instrument was not used after June 6th, 1613. Some +pamphlets have been written on the astrolabe, and they all agree that it +had belonged to Champlain. Mr. Russell, one of the writers, has given a +full description of it. + +[16] _Quatrième voyage du Sr. de Champlain, capitaine ordinaire pour le +Roy en la Marine, et Lieutenant de Monseigneur le Prince de Condé en la +Nouvelle France, fait en l'année 1613._ This Relation contains a letter +to Henri de Condé, and a geographical map, made in 1612, of a large size +and very curious. The history of this voyage is really a part of the +so-called edition of 1613, and the printing of it was done at the same +time as the Relations of the first, second and third voyages, which form +altogether a large volume of three hundred and twenty-five pages. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE RÉCOLLETS AND THEIR MISSIONS + + +Champlain's affection for New France, the land of his adoption, made him +anxious to continue his explorations, in order that he might become +familiar with every locality. In the course of his voyages he often had +to be conveyed in Indian canoes, especially on the lakes and rivers, but +this means was sufficient only when his object was to ascertain whether +the country was well watered, whether the rivers were more or less +navigable, whether the lakes abounded with fish, and whether the water +powers were capable of being turned to account. Up till this time the +founder of Quebec had pressed forward his work of exploration with an +energy that was almost astonishing. He had rowed up the Iroquois River +as far as lake Champlain, and he had also navigated the Ottawa River in +a manner that had even surprised the Algonquins. Still many things +remained to be done and to be seen, such as to observe the fertility of +the soil in different latitudes, to study the manners and customs of the +Indians, especially of the great Huron tribe, which was the most +populous and probably better disposed to receive Christian instruction +than the other tribes. Champlain's ambition had always been to +introduce Christianity in order to civilize the people. Thus we find in +his writings after his return to France in 1614, the words: + +"Without losing courage, I have not ceased to push on and visit various +nations of the savages, and by associating familiarly with them, I have +concluded, as well from their conversation as from the knowledge +attained, that there is no better way than, disregarding all storms and +difficulties, to have patience until His Majesty shall give the +requisite attention to the matter, and in the meantime to continue the +exploration of the country, but also to learn the language, and form +relations and friendship with the leading men of the villages and +tribes, in order to lay the foundations of a permanent edifice, as well +for the glory of God as for the renown of the French." + +It is well to observe the significance of these words from the pen of +Champlain. Is this the language of a common fur-trader, simply seeking +to increase his fortune? What were really Champlain's designs during all +these years of labour and self-sacrifice? Was he animated by the mere +curiosity of the tourist, or the ambition of a man of science? No. +Champlain desired, it is true, to gain an intimate knowledge of the +country, and his labours are highly valued as a geographer and +cosmographer, but his intention was to utilize all his varied +information to promote the Christian religion and at the same time to +increase the renown of his native land. + +Champlain deserves credit, not only for the idea of bringing +missionaries to Canada, but also for having realized his ideas. He +obtained the coöperation of many pious and zealous persons in France, +who willingly seconded his efforts, but it was owing to his own +steadfastness of purpose and to his great ability that his designs were +successfully carried out. After having formed a society of merchants to +take the material affairs of the colony in hand, Champlain tried to get +some religious orders to assume the direction of spiritual matters. He +had previously made known his plan to Louis Hoüel, king's councillor, +and comptroller of the salt works at Brouage, and sieur of Petit-Pré. +Hoüel was an honourable and pious man, and a friend of Champlain. He +told him that he was acquainted with some Récollets who would readily +agree to proceed to New France. Hoüel met Father du Verger, a man of +great virtue and ability, and principal of the order of the Immaculate +Conception. Father du Verger made an appeal to his confrères, all of +whom offered their services, and were ready to cross the ocean. + +The cardinals and bishops who were then gathered at St. Denis for their +great chapter, were in favour of the idea of sending the Récollets to +their foreign missions, and promised to raise a fund for the maintenance +of four monks, and the merchants of Rouen promised to maintain and +convey at least six Récollets gratuitously. The king issued letters for +the future church of Canada. The pope's nuncio, Guido Bentivoglio, +granted the requisite permission, in conformity with the pope's wishes, +but the bull establishing the church was only forwarded on May 20th, +1615. The brief of Paul V granted to the Récollets the following +privileges: + +"To receive all children born of believing and unbelieving parents, and +all others of what condition soever they may be, who, after promising to +keep and observe all that should be kept and observed by the faithful, +will embrace the truth of the Christian and Catholic faith; to baptize +even outside of the churches in case of necessity; to hear confessions +of penitents, and after diligently hearing them, to impose a salutary +penance according to their faults, and enjoin what should be enjoined in +conscience, to loose and absolve them from all sentences of +excommunication and other ecclesiastical pains and censures, as also +from all sorts of crimes, excesses, and delicts; to administer the +sacraments of the eucharist, marriage and extreme unction; to bless all +kinds of vestments, vessels and ornaments when holy unction is not +necessary; to dispense gratuitously new converts who have contracted or +would contract marriage in any degree of consanguinity, or affinity +whatever, except the first or second, or between ascending and +descending, provided the women have not been carried off by force, and +the two parties who have contracted or would contract be Catholics, and +there be just cause as well for the marriages already contracted as for +those desired to be contracted; to declare and pronounce the children +born and issued of such marriages legitimate; to have an altar which +they may decently carry, and thereon to celebrate in decent and becoming +places where the convenience of a church shall be wanting." + +The Reverend Father Garnier de Chapouin, provincial of the province of +St. Denis, appointed four monks as the founders of the future mission. +Their names were Father Denis Jamet, Jean d'Olbeau, Joseph Le Caron, and +a brother named Pacifique du Plessis, who received orders to accompany +them. These four monks were all remarkable for their virtue and +apostolic zeal. Father Jamet was appointed commissary, and Father +d'Olbeau was appointed his successor in the event of death. The king +granted them authority to build one or more convents in Canada, and to +send for as many monks as were required. It was impossible to send more +than four of them during the first year. + +On April 24th, 1615, the _St. Étienne_ sailed from Honfleur, and one +month later came to anchor at Tadousac. On June 25th, Father d'Olbeau +was able to say mass in a small chapel built at the foot of Mountain +Hill, Quebec. + +Soon after his arrival at Quebec, Champlain set out for the falls, +accompanied by Father Jamet. They reached the river des Prairies some +days after, and on June 24th, Father Jamet celebrated a solemn mass, at +which Champlain and some others assisted. This was the first mass +celebrated in Canada since the days of Jacques Cartier. + +In the early days of the settlement these brave missionaries had to +contend with many difficulties, which could be foreseen only by those +who were acquainted with the existing state of affairs. Many of these +difficulties arose from the fact that at least a fourth of the merchants +of the company were members of the so-called reformed, or Calvinistic +persuasion. It is easy to comprehend that the sympathies of these men +would not incline towards the Catholic religion. + +Champlain draws particular attention to the unfortunate results produced +by the existence of different creeds. Differences arose, and divisions +were created which sometimes resulted in quarrels between children of +the same country. These quarrels which were much to be deplored, did +not, however, occur in Quebec, because the French merchants did not deem +it advisable to send their ministers there, but replaced them by agents +who were often fanatical, and were for the Récollets a frequent source +of bitterness and annoyance. The most of the disorders occurred on board +the vessels, and were due to the fact that the crews were too hastily +engaged. + +The merchants, however, were bound to colonize the country with Catholic +settlers, and de Monts was also bound by similar conditions. Moreover, +the terms of the patents expressly stipulated that this should be +carried out. They were also forbidden to extend Calvinism among the +savages. "This policy," says Bancroft, "was full of wisdom." The +interpreters who could have greatly assisted the missionaries, proved on +the contrary an obstacle to the development of the Catholic religion, +for they refused to instruct the Récollets in the Indian languages, +which they had learnt before the arrival of the missionaries. + +Father Lalemant, a Jesuit, wrote in the year 1626: "This interpreter had +never wanted to communicate his knowledge of the language to any one, +not even to the Reverend Récollet Fathers, who had constantly importuned +him for ten years." So also wrote Father Le Jeune in his Relation of +1633. + +The difficulties that the missionaries had to overcome are therefore +readily understood. However they had the merit of preparing the way for +their successors, and the honour of planting the cross of Jesus Christ +everywhere, from Tadousac to Lake Huron. + +The number of missionaries was limited at the commencement, but some +others came to Canada later, particularly Fathers Guillaume Poullain, +Georges Le Baillif, and Paul Huet. These men, some of whom were of noble +birth, were remarkable for their virtues and their abilities. In the +annals of the primitive church of New France, their names are +illustrious, and around their memory gathers the aureole of sanctity. +During six years, from 1615 to 1621, the spiritual direction of the +colony was entrusted to six fathers and three friars. Father d'Olbeau +remained in charge of the habitation of Quebec, and Father Le Caron +resolved to proceed at once to the country of the Hurons. + +On July 9th, 1615, Champlain, Étienne Brûle, an interpreter, a servant, +and ten Indians, set out for the mouth of the Ottawa River. They rowed +up the river as far as the Mattawan, which they followed westwards, and +soon reached Lake Nipissing where they stopped for two days. This was on +July 26th. After having taken this short rest, they continued their +voyage, crossing Georgian Bay, and reached the land of the Hurons. Near +the shore they met the Attignaouantans, or people of the bear tribe, one +of the four chief branches of the great Huron family. Their village or +_bourgade_ was called Otouacha. On the second day of August, Champlain's +party visited the village of Carmeron, and on the following day, they +saw the encampments of Tonaguainchain, Tequenonquiayé and Carhagouha. In +the latter encampment Father Le Caron resided. + +[Illustration: Champlain on the shores of Georgian Bay, 1615 + +From the painting by Hummé] + +On July 12th Father Le Caron celebrated mass and sang the _Te Deum_, +after which the Indians planted a cross near the small chapel which had +been erected under Champlain's direction. The reverend father occupied a +hut within the palisade which formed the rampart of the village, and he +spent the fall and winter with the Hurons of Carhagouha. + +The Huron country was situated between the peninsula watered by Lake +Simcoe on the eastern side, and by the Georgian Bay on the western side. +It extended from north to south between the rivers Severn and +Nottawasaga. This land is twenty-five leagues in length and seven or +eight in width. The soil, though sandy, was fertile and produced in +abundance corn, beans, pumpkins and the annual helianth or sun-flower, +from which the Hurons extracted the oil. The neighbouring tribes, such +as the Ottawas and the Algonquins, used to procure their provisions from +the Hurons, as they were permanently cultivating their lands. + +Champlain observed, in 1615, that there were eighteen _bourgades_ or +villages, of which he mentions five, namely: Carhagouha, Toanché, +Carmeron, Tequenonquiayé and Cahiagué. Cahiagué was the most important, +and had two hundred huts; it was also the chief _bourgade_ of the tribe +called de la Roche. + +Four tribes of a common origin and a common language were living on the +Huron peninsula. They were: (1.) The Attignaouantans, or Tribe de +l'Ours; (2.) The Attignenonghacs, or Tribe de la Corde; (3.) The +Arendarrhonons, or Tribe de la Roche; (4.) The Tohontahenrats. The +general name given to these four tribes by the French was Ouendats. + +The most numerous and the most respected of the tribes were the tribes +de l'Ours and de la Corde, which had taken possession of the country; +the first about the year 1589, and the second twenty years after. The +oldest men of these tribes related to the missionaries, in 1638, that +their ancestors for the past two hundred years had been obliged to +change their residence every ten years. These two tribes were very +friendly, and in their councils treated each other like brothers. All +their business was conducted through the medium of a captain of war and +a captain of council. + +These tribes became popular and increased their numbers by adopting +members of other nations, so that in later years the Huron family became +one of the most powerful and redoubtable in North America. The identity +of language was a great factor in the accomplishment of this marvellous +result. The Andastes, of Virginia, were therefore speaking the Huron +language. The Tionnontatés became so identified with their neighbours +that they were named the Hurons of the Petun. The savages of the Neutral +Nation had also adopted the Huron idiom. This uniformity of language +formed a league between these nations which would have been broken with +the utmost difficulty. + +Father de Brébeuf calculated that, in his time, there were scattered +over the whole continent of North America about three hundred thousand +Indians who understood the Huron dialect. This was exaggerated, for the +aborigines covering the territory known to the Hurons from whom the +father had collected this information did not number three hundred +thousand persons. How could he rely upon these people, to whom a +thousand men represented simply an amazing number? How could the Hurons +make a census of an unsedentary people, wandering here and there +according to circumstances of war or other reasons, and recruiting +themselves with prisoners or with the remnants of conquered nations? + +To give only one example of these strange recruitings, let us examine +the composition of the great family of the Iroquois in Champlain's time. +It was a collection of disbanded tribes, who had belonged to the Hurons, +to the Tionnontatés, to the Neutral, to the Eries and du Feu tribes. The +Iroquois had separated themselves from the Hurons to form a branch which +acquired with time more vivacity than the tree from which it had sprung. +The Hurons were called the good Iroquois in order to distinguish them +from the wicked Iroquois who were reputed to be barbarous. They fought +against all the nations living in Canada, and their name was a subject +of general apprehension. + +Returning to the Hurons, we find that the Attignaouantans, or the tribe +de l'Ours, was the most populous, forming half of the whole Huron +family, namely about fifteen thousand souls. They were considered, +erroneously, as the most perfidious of all. Father de Brébeuf, who knew +them well, says that they were mild, charitable, polite and courteous. +Some years later, the tribe de l'Ours occupied fourteen villages, with +thirteen missions under the charge of the Jesuits. The whole mission, +called Immaculate Conception, had its principal seat at Ossossané, which +had replaced Carhagouha, mentioned by Champlain. The French called it La +Rochelle. Ossossané was the nearest village of the Iroquois territory. +Father du Creux' map places it on the western coast of the Huron +peninsula. + +The Attignenonghacs, or tribe de la Corde, were the oldest and the most +numerous, after the Attignaouantans. They praised their antiquity and +their traditions which had existed for two hundred years, and which had +been collected by word of mouth by the chiefs or captains. This +evidence, more or less valuable, seems to indicate that they had +preserved a family spirit, which is very laudable. The Attignenonghacs, +however, had founded a nationality, and their language was so developed +that, in 1635, Father de Brébeuf could recall to memory twelve nations +who spoke it. This tribe had no special features except that they were +very devoted to the French. The Jesuits opened in their midst two +missions called St. Ignace and St. Joseph. Teanaustayaé was one of the +most important villages of the Attignenonghacs. When the village of +Ihonatiria ceased to exist, the Jesuits called it St. Joseph. Here +perished, in 1648, Father Daniel, together with seven hundred Hurons. + +Toanché was another village of the same tribe. It has often changed its +name, and we may consider it as one of these flying _bourgades_ so +commonly found among the Hurons. Champlain had known the village of +Toanché under the name of Otouacha. When Father de Brébeuf came here for +the second time, in 1634, he was unable to recognize the village that he +had visited for the first time in 1626. It had been transported about +two miles from its former place. It was then situated at the western +entrance of a bay now Penetanguishene, on a point in the northern part +of Lake Huron, four leagues from Ossossané and seven from Teanaustayaé. + +The Arendarrhonons, or tribe de la Roche, were settled on the eastern +part of the peninsula. They were at first discovered by the French, and +they had, according to the laws of the country, the privilege of fur +trading. They were especially attached to Champlain, and twenty-two +years after his death they had not forgotten his remarkable virtues and +courage. The _bourgade_ of Cahiagué, comprising two hundred and sixty +huts and two thousand souls, was the chief place of the Arendarrhonons. +It was situated near the lake Ouentaron, now lake Simcoe, at the +northern extremity, near the small town of Orillia. The Jesuits +established a mission here, and their principal residence was on the +right shore of a small river called the Wye, near Penetanguishene. The +remains of a fort built there in 1639 could be seen a few years ago. + +Cahiagué was distant from Carhagouha fourteen leagues. It was situated +near the village of Scanonahenrat, where the Tohontahenrats, the fourth +Huron tribe, resided. They were less numerous than the others. +Scanonahenrat was situated at about two leagues from Ihonatiria of the +Attignenonghacs, and at three leagues from the Ataronchronons, another +Huron group of small importance, where finally the Jesuits took up their +residence. When these missions were flourishing, the Jesuits could +enumerate twenty-five different places where they could pursue their +calling with zeal. The Récollets had continued their course with +vigorous activity; they had sown the divine seed, but they were not +permitted to reap the reward of their labours, as the Jesuits did in the +future. + +Although the Hurons appeared to be happy, their mode of living was +miserable. Their principal articles of food were Indian corn and common +beans, which they prepared in various ways. Their clothing was made of +the skins of wild animals. Deer skin was used for their trousers, which +were cut loose, and their stockings were made of another piece of the +same skin, while their boots were formed of the skin of bears, beavers +and deer. They also wore a cloak in the Egyptian style, with sleeves +which were attached by a string behind. Most of them painted their faces +black and red, and dyed their hair, which some wore long, others short, +and others again on one side only. The women and girls were dressed +like men, except that they had their robes, which extended to the knee, +girt about them. They all dressed their hair in one uniform style, +carefully combed, dyed and oiled. For ornaments they wore quantities of +porcelain, chains and necklaces, besides bracelets and ear-rings. + +These people were of a happy temperament generally, though some had a +sad and gloomy countenance. Physically they were well proportioned. Some +of the men and women had fine figures, strong and robust, and many of +the women were powerful and of unusual height. The greater portion of +the work fell to the lot of the women, who looked after the housework, +tilled the land, laid up a store of wood for the winter, beat the hemp +and spun it, and made fishing nets from the thread. They also gathered +in the harvest and prepared it for food. The occupation of the men was +hunting for deer, fishing, and building their cabins, varied at times by +war. When they were free from these occupations, they visited other +tribes with whom they were acquainted for the purpose of traffic or +exchange, and their return was celebrated by dances and festivities. + +They had a certain form of marriage which Champlain thus describes. When +a girl had reached the age of eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen or +fifteen years, she had suitors, more or less, according to her +attractions, who wooed her for some time. The consent of the parents was +then asked, to whose wills the girl did not always submit, although the +most discreet of them did so. The favoured lover or suitor then +presented to the girl some necklaces, bracelets or chains of porcelain, +which she accepted if the suitor was agreeable to her. The suitor then +resided with her for three or four days, without saying anything to her +in the meantime, but if they did not agree, the girl left her suitor, +who forfeited his necklaces and the other presents which he had made, +and each was free to seek another companion if so disposed. This term of +probation was often extended to eight, or even to fifteen days. + +The children enjoyed great freedom. The parents indulged them too much +and never punished or corrected them. As a consequence they grew up bad +and vicious. They would often strike their mothers, and when they were +powerful enough they did not hesitate to strike their fathers. + +The Hurons did not recognize any divine power or worship of God. They +were without belief, and lived like brute beasts, with this exception, +that they had a sort of fear of an evil spirit. They had _ogni_ or +_manitous_, who were medicine-men, and who healed the sick, bound up the +wounded, foretold future events, and practised all the abuses and +illusions of the black arts. + +Champlain firmly believed that the conversion of the Hurons to +Christianity would have been easier if the country had been inhabited by +persons who would devote their energies to instructing them. Father Le +Caron and himself had often conversed with them regarding the Catholic +faith, the laws and customs of the French, and they had listened +attentively, sometimes saying: + +"You say things that pass our knowledge, and which we cannot understand +by words, being beyond our comprehension; but if you would do us a +service, come and dwell in this country, bringing your wives and +children, and when they are here, we shall see how you serve the God you +worship, and how you live with your wives and children, how you +cultivate and plant the soil, how you obey your laws, how you take care +of animals, and how you manufacture all that we see proceeding from your +inventive skill. When we see all this we shall learn more in a year than +in twenty by simply hearing your discourse; and if we cannot understand, +you shall take our children, who shall be as your own. And thus being +convinced that our life is a miserable one in comparison with yours, it +is easy to believe that we shall adopt yours, abandoning our own." + +The following was their mode of government. The older and leading men +assembled in a council, in which they settled upon and proposed all that +was necessary for the affairs of the village. This was done by a +plurality of voices, or in accordance with the advice of some one among +them whose judgment they considered superior; such a one was requested +by the company to give his opinion on the propositions that had been +made, and his opinion was minutely obeyed. They had no particular chief +with absolute command, but they honoured the older and more courageous +men, of which there were several in a village, whom they named captains, +as a mark of distinction and respect. + +They all deliberated in common, and whenever any member of the assembly +offered to do anything for the welfare of the village, or to go anywhere +for the service of the community, he was requested to present himself, +and if he was judged capable of carrying out what he proposed, they +exhorted him, by fair and favourable words, to do his duty. They +declared him to be an energetic man, fit for the undertaking, and +assured him that he would win honour in accomplishing his task. In a +word, they encouraged him by flatteries, in order that this favourable +disposition of his for the welfare of his fellow-citizens might continue +and increase. Then, according to his pleasure, he accepted or refused +the responsibility, and thereby he was held in high esteem. + +They had, moreover, general assemblies with representatives from remote +regions. These representatives came every year, one from each province, +and met in a town designated as the rendezvous of the assembly. Here +were celebrated great banquets and dances, for three weeks or a month, +according as they might determine. On these occasions they renewed +their friendship, resolved upon and decreed what they thought best for +the preservation of their country against their enemies, and made each +other handsome presents, after which they retired to their own +districts. + +In burying the dead, the Hurons took the body of the deceased, wrapped +it in furs, and covered it very carefully with the bark of trees. Then +they placed it in a cabin, of the length of the body, made of bark and +erected upon four posts. Others they placed in the ground, propping up +the earth on all sides that it might not fall on the body, which they +covered with the bark of trees, putting earth on top. Over this trench +they also made a little cabin. The bodies remained thus buried for a +period of eight or ten years. Then they held a general council, to which +all the people of the country were invited, for the purpose of +determining upon some place for the holding of a great festival. After +this they returned each to his own village, where they took all the +bones of the deceased, stripped them and made them quite clean. These +they kept very carefully, although the odour arising therefrom was +noxious. Then all the relatives and friends of the deceased took these +bones, together with their necklaces, furs, axes, kettles, and other +things highly valued, and carried them, with a quantity of edibles, to +the place assigned. Here, when all had assembled, they put the edibles +in a place designated by the men of the village, and engaged in banquets +and continual dancing. The festival lasted for the space of ten days, +during which other tribes from all quarters came to witness the +ceremonies. The latter were attended with great outlays. + +These details on the manners and customs of the Hurons are quoted nearly +_verbatim_ from Champlain's Relations, so they must be considered as +accurate.[17] + +FOOTNOTES: + +[17] This volume contains the following title: _Voyages et +Descouvertures faites en la Nouvelle France depuis l'année 1615, jusques +à la fin de l'année 1618. Par le Sieur de Champlain, Capitaine ordinaire +pour le Roy en la Mer du Ponant. Seconde Edition, MDCXIX_. This original +edition bears the date of 1619, and the second edition is dated 1627. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +WAR AGAINST THE IROQUOIS, 1615 + + +Champlain had promised for some years to assist the Hurons in their wars +against the Iroquois, and he found that the present time was opportune +for him to fulfil his pledge. He had visited every Huron tribe, and he +was aware that a general rendezvous had been fixed at Cahiagué. On +August 14th, 1615, ten Frenchmen, under the command of Champlain, +started from Carhagouha. On their way they stopped at the villages of +the Tohontahenrats and Attignenonghacs, and found the country well +watered and cultivated, and the villages populous. The people, however, +were ignorant, avaricious and untruthful, and had no idea either of a +divinity or of a religion. + +On August 17th, Champlain came in sight of Cahiagué, where the Hurons +had gathered, and after some hesitation, they decided to go to war. The +departure was delayed until September 1st, pending the arrival of some +of their warriors and the Andastes, who had promised five hundred men. +On their journey they passed by Lake Couchiching and Lake Ouantaron or +Simcoe. From there they decided to proceed by way of Sturgeon Lake, +after travelling by land for a distance of ten leagues. From Sturgeon +Lake flows the river Otonabi, which discharges into Rice Lake. + +They followed the river Trent to the Bay of Quinté in Lake Ontario or +Entouaronons. "Here," says Champlain, "is the entrance of the grand +river of St. Lawrence." They leisurely crossed Lake Ontario, and, having +hidden their canoes, penetrated the woods and crossed the river Chouagen +or Oswego, which flows from Lake Oneida where the Iroquois used to fish. + +On October 7th the Hurons had approached within four leagues of the +fortifications of their enemies, and on that day eleven Iroquois fell +into the hands of Champlain's men, and were made prisoners. Iroquet, the +chief of the Petite Nation, prepared to torture the prisoners, among +whom were four women and four children, but Champlain strongly opposed +this course. The Iroquois were engaged in reaping their corn when the +Hurons and their allies appeared before them on October 10th, or five +weeks after Champlain had started from Cahiagué. During this period +Champlain's army had undergone much fatigue, and it was desirable to +take some rest. + +The first day was spent in petty skirmishes. Instead of fighting in +ranks, the Hurons disbanded, and were consequently liable to be seized +by the vigilance of their enemies. Champlain recognized the danger of +this method of warfare, and persuaded his companions to preserve their +ranks. The last combat continued for about three hours, during which +Ochateguin and Orani, two of the allied chiefs, were wounded. Champlain +also received two arrow wounds, one in the leg and one in the knee. +There was great disorder in the ranks of the Hurons, and the chiefs had +no control over their men. The result, on the whole, was not in favour +of Champlain's allies, who in the absence of the Andastes were not +anxious to continue the attacks against the Iroquois, and consequently +determined to retreat as soon as possible. + +Champlain suffered much from his wounds. "I never found myself in such a +gehenna," he says, "as during this time, for the pain which I suffered +in consequence of the wound in my knee was nothing in comparison with +that which I endured while I was carried, bound and pinioned, on the +back of one of the savages." + +The retreat was very long, and on October 18th they arrived at the shore +of Lake Ontario. Here Champlain requested that he might have a canoe and +guides to conduct him to Quebec, and this was one of the conditions to +which they had agreed before he set out for the war. The Indians were +not to be trusted, however, and they refused his request. Champlain, +therefore, resolved to accept the hospitality of Darontal, chief of the +Arendarrhonons, or tribe de la Roche. The chief appeared kindly disposed +towards Champlain, and as it was the hunting season, he accompanied him +on his excursions. During one of these expeditions, Champlain lost his +way in the pursuit of a strange bird, and he was not found by the +savages until three days afterwards. The return journey to Cahiagué on +foot was painful, and during the nineteen days thus spent, much hardship +was undergone. The party arrived at Cahiagué on December 23rd, 1615. + +In the course of the winter, Champlain was chosen to act as judge of a +quarrel between the Algonquins of the Petite Nation, and the Hurons of +the tribe de l'Ours, which had arisen over the murder of one of the +Iroquois. The Attignaouantans had committed an Iroquois prisoner to the +custody of Iroquet, requesting him to burn him according to their +custom. Instead of carrying out this act, Iroquet had taken the young +man and treated him as a son. When the Attignaouantans were aware of +this, they sent one of their number to murder the young Iroquois. This +barbarous conduct made the Algonquins indignant, and they killed the +murderer. + +Champlain returned from the Petuneux in company with Father Le Caron at +the time when these crimes had just been committed. Witnesses were +summoned to meet Champlain at Cahiagué, and were each examined. The +trial lasted two days, during which the old men of both nations were +consulted, and the majority of them were favourable to a reconciliation +without conditions. Champlain exacted from them a promise that they +would accept his decision as final, and he then had a full meeting of +the two tribes assembled there. Addressing them, he said: + +"You Algonquins, and you Hurons, have always been friends. You have +lived like brothers; you take this name in your councils. Your conduct +now is unworthy of reasonable men. You are enough occupied in repelling +your enemies, who have pursued you, who rout you as often as possible, +pursuing you to your villages and taking you prisoners. These enemies, +seeing these divisions and wars among you, will be delighted and derive +great advantage therefrom. On account of the death of one man you will +hazard the lives of ten thousand, and run the risk of being reduced to +perpetual slavery. Although in fact one man was of great value, you +ought to consider how he has been killed; it was not with deliberate +purpose, nor for the sake of inciting a civil war. The Algonquins much +regret all that has taken place, and if they had supposed such a thing +would have happened, they would have sacrificed this Iroquois for the +satisfaction of the Hurons. Forget all, never think of it again, but +live good friends as before. In case you should not be pleased with my +advice, I request you to come in as large numbers as possible, to our +settlement, so that there, in presence of all the captains of vessels, +the friendship might be ratified anew, and measures taken to secure you +from your enemies." + +Champlain's advice was followed, and the savages went away satisfied, +except the Algonquins, who broke up and proceeded to their villages, +saying that the death of these two men had cost them too dearly. + +Champlain having spent the winter with Darontal, on May 20th left for +Quebec. The journey from Cahiagué to Sault St. Louis occupied forty +days. Champlain here found that Pont-Gravé had arrived from France with +two vessels, and that the reverend fathers were very pleased to see him +again. Darontal accompanied Champlain to Quebec, and greatly admired the +habitation and the mode of living adopted by the French. Before leaving +for France, Champlain enlarged the habitation by at least one-third, the +additions consisting of buildings and fortifications, in the +construction of which he used lime and sand which were found near at +hand. Some grain was also cut, and the gardens were left in good +condition. + +During the winter of 1615-16, Father Le Caron had received a visit from +Champlain, who was then returning from an expedition against the +Iroquois. Being at a loss to know how to employ their time, Champlain +and the Récollets resolved to pay a visit to the Tionnontatés, or people +of the Petun. The missionary was not well received by these people, +although Champlain was able to make an alliance, not only with the +Petuneux, but also with six or seven other tribes living in the +vicinity. + +Father Le Caron returned to his flock, the Hurons, and remained with +them until May 20th, studying their manners, trying to acquire their +language, and to improve their morals. Father Le Clercq says that he +compiled a dictionary which was seen in his own time, and which was +preserved as a relic. + +When the Hurons left their country to engage in fur trading with the +French at Sault St. Louis, Father Le Caron took passage in one of their +canoes, and arrived at Three Rivers on July 1st, 1616. Here he met +Father d'Olbeau, who had spent the winter with the Indians on the north +shore of the river St. Lawrence, between Tadousac and the Seven Islands. + +Father d'Olbeau had visited the Bersiamites, the Papinachois and others, +and he planted crosses everywhere, so that many years after, when some +Frenchmen were visiting the place, they found these evidences of his +labours. After two months of fatigue, Father d'Olbeau was compelled to +return to Quebec, as he was suffering from sore eyes, and was unable to +unclose his eyelids for several weeks. The two fathers arrived at Quebec +on July 11th, 1616, and Father Jamet was pleased to learn the result of +the missions of his confrères. The three missionaries had carefully +studied the country during the past year, and gained a fair knowledge of +the people. They realized at this time that their own resources limited +their power of doing good, and they therefore requested Champlain to +convoke a meeting of six inhabitants, to discuss the best means of +furthering the interests of the mission. Champlain was chosen president +of the meeting, and although the missionaries were present they took no +part in the deliberations. + +The resolutions adopted at this first council meeting in the new +settlement were preserved. It was decided that the nations down the +river and those of the north were, for the present, at least, incapable +of civilization. These tribes included the Montagnais, Etchemins, +Bersiamites, Papinachois and the great and little Esquimaux. They dwelt +in an uncultivated, barren and mountainous country, whose wild game and +fur-bearing animals sufficed to support them. Their habits were nomadic, +and excessive superstition was their only form of religion. By the +report of those who had visited the southern coasts, and had even +penetrated by land to Cadie, Cape Breton and Chaleurs Bay, Ile Percé and +Gaspé, the country there was more temperate, and susceptible of +cultivation. There would be found dispositions less estranged from +Christianity, as the people had more shame, docility and humanity than +the others. + +With regard to the upper river and the territory of the numerous tribes +of Indians visited by Monsieur de Champlain and Father Joseph +themselves, or by others, besides possessing an abundance of game, which +might attract the French there in hopes of trade, the land was much more +fertile and the climate more congenial than in the Indian country down +the river. The upper river Indians, such as the Algonquins, Iroquois, +Hurons, Nipissirini, Neuters, Fire Nation, were sedentary, generally +docile, susceptible of instruction, charitable, strong, robust, patient; +insensible, however, and indifferent to all that concerns salvation; +lascivious, and so material that when told that their soul was immortal, +they would ask what they would eat after death in the next world. In +general, none of the savages whom they had known had any idea of a +divinity, believing, nevertheless, in another world where they hoped to +enjoy the same pleasures as they took here below--a people, in short, +without subordination, law or form of government or system, gross in +religious matters, shrewd and crafty for trade and profit, but +superstitious to excess. + +It was the opinion of the council that none could ever succeed in +converting them, unless they made them men before they made them +Christians. To civilize them it was necessary first that the French +should mingle with them and habituate them to their presence and mode of +life, which could be done only by the increase of the colony, the +greatest obstacle to which was on the part of the gentlemen of the +company, who, to monopolize trade, did not wish the country to be +settled, and did not even wish to make the Indians sedentary, which was +the only condition favourable to the salvation of these heathen. + +The Protestants, or Huguenots, having the best share in the trade, it +was to be feared that the contempt they showed for the Catholic +mysteries would greatly retard the establishment of that faith. Even the +bad example of the French might be prejudicial, if those who had +authority in the country did not establish order. + +The mission among such numerous nations would be painful and laborious, +and so could advance but little unless they obtained from the gentlemen +of the company a greater number of missionaries free of expense. Even +then it would require many years and great labour to humanize these +utterly gross and barbarous nations, and even when this end was +partially attained, the sacrament, for fear of profanation, could be +administered only to an exceptional few among the adults. + +It finally appears to have been decided that they could not make +progress unless the colony was increased by a greater number of +settlers, mechanics and farmers; that free trade with the Indians should +be permitted, without distinction, to all Frenchmen; that in future +Huguenots should be excluded, and that it was necessary to render the +Indians sedentary, and bring them up to a knowledge of French manners +and laws. + +The council further agreed that by the help of zealous persons in +France, a seminary ought to be established in order to bring to +Christianity, young Indians, who might afterwards aid the missionaries +in converting their countrymen. It was deemed necessary to maintain the +missions which the fathers had established both up and down the river. +This could not be done unless the associated gentlemen showed all the +ardour to be expected from their zeal when informed of all things +faithfully, instead of being deluded by the reports of the clerks whom +they had sent the year before; the governor and the fathers having no +ground to be satisfied therewith. + +Champlain, who intended to return to France, desired the father +commissary and Father Le Caron to accompany him, in order that the +resolutions of the council might be submitted to the king for his +approval, and with a view of obtaining substantial assistance. The +voyage was a pleasant one, and Champlain and his party arrived at +Honfleur on September 10th, 1616. + +The merchants whom they interviewed at Paris were ready to promise to +support the mission, but nothing was realized from their promises, and +it soon became apparent that they cared more about the fur trade than +about religion. Champlain saw many people who he believed could assist +the settlement, but the winter was passed in useless negotiations. He +therefore prepared a greater shipment than usual from his own resources, +and he was fortunate in finding that his old friend, Louis Hébert, an +apothecary of Port Royal, was willing to accompany him. Hébert took his +family with him, composed of three children and his wife, named Marie +Rollet. Hébert afterwards rendered very valuable assistance to the +founder of Quebec. + +Father Jamet did not return to Quebec, and he was therefore replaced as +commissary by Father Le Caron, who appointed Father Huet as his +assistant. The vessel conveying the party sailed from Honfleur on April +11th, 1617, under the command of Captain Morel. The passage was very +rough, and when within sixty leagues of the Great Bank of Newfoundland, +numerous icebergs bore down on the ship like huge mountains. Father Le +Clercq says that in the general consternation Father Joseph, seeing that +all human succour could not deliver them from shipwreck, earnestly +implored the aid of heaven in the vows and prayers which he made +publicly on the vessel. He confessed all, and prepared himself to appear +before God. All were touched with compassion and deeply moved when Dame +Hébert raised her youngest child through the hatchway to let it share +with the rest the good father's blessing. They escaped only by a +miracle, as they acknowledged in their letters to France. + +The ship arrived at Tadousac on July 14th, and mass was said in a little +chapel which Father Huet had constructed with poles and branches, and a +sailor stood on either side of the altar with fir branches to drive away +the cloud of mosquitoes which caused great annoyance to the celebrant. +The mass was very solemn. Besides the French, there were many Indians +present who assisted with devotion amid the roar of the cannon of the +ship, and the muskets of the French. After the service a dinner was +given by Champlain on board the vessel. On the arrival of the party at +Quebec some days after, they found that the inhabitants were nearly +starving, and that Father d'Olbeau was anxiously awaiting the news from +France. + +Both Champlain and Father Le Caron were obliged to confess that their +mission had been unsuccessful. What, therefore, was to be done? To +return to Old France would have been contrary to the intentions of the +Récollets. They had been sent to Canada by their superiors, and they had +no order to act contrary to their instructions. After having studied the +situation they resolved that Father d'Olbeau should visit France, see +the king in person, and place before him the settlers' condition and +their own. During his absence Father Huet undertook the charge of the +mission at Tadousac, and Brother Pacifique du Plessis was appointed to +teach catechism to the Indians of Three Rivers. + +It was at about this time that Father Le Caron performed the first +marriage ceremony in Canada, the contracting parties being Étienne +Jonquest of Normandy, and Anne Hébert, eldest daughter of Louis Hébert. + +The condition of the Récollets at this time was unenviable. The agents +of the merchants were not better disposed towards them than the +interpreters. Some of these agents were demoralized, and the reproach +that they received from the fathers caused them to avoid their presence. +The conduct of some of these agents was so bad that even the Indians, +who were not strict in their morals, were scandalized. When we take into +consideration these circumstances, and the meagreness of the resources +of the order, and the difficulties they had in acquiring the language, +we can form a faint idea of the hardness of their lot, and it was not +without just cause that they decided to send Father d'Olbeau to France +with Champlain, in order that the true state of affairs might be urged +still further before the king. + +Father Le Clercq says: "Meanwhile Monsieur de Champlain employed all his +address and prudence, and the intrigues of his friends to obtain what +was necessary for the establishment of his new colony. Father d'Olbeau, +on his side, spared nothing; both spoke frequently to the members of the +company, but in vain, for these people, who always had their ears open +to flattering tales of the great profit to be made in the Indian trade, +closed them to the requests and entreaties made them. They therefore +contented themselves with what they could get." + +Father d'Olbeau at length received some consolation and compensation for +all his labours, when a bull was issued by the pope, granting a jubilee +to New France, which was celebrated at Quebec on July 29th, 1618, and +was the first of its kind. For the celebration of this religious +festival, the Récollets had built some huts, which were used as +stations, and French and Indians proceeded from one of those improvised +chapels to the other, singing the psalms and hymns of the church. In the +year 1618, the Récollets in New France were only three in number: +Fathers Le Caron and d'Olbeau, and Friar Modeste Guines. + +During the winter of 1617-18 the missionaries were called upon to decide +a difficult question. Two Frenchmen had disappeared in 1616, and the +discovery of their bones proved that they had been murdered. A diligent +search was instituted which led to the detection of the murderer, who +acknowledged his crime. The question of punishment, however, was +difficult from the fact that a clerk named Beauchesne, who had been +invested with extensive civil power by Champlain, was in the habit of +receiving gifts from the Indians. It was consequently considered +dangerous to do anything that would displease the Indians, as they were +known to be terrible in their vengeance. The Récollets had strongly +protested against this method of receiving gifts, which placed the +settlement in a false position towards the Indians. It was finally +decided to release the prisoner and to accept as hostages two young +Indians. When the matter was brought before Champlain, he approved of +the course adopted, and stated that it was not a wise policy to be too +severe. + +This affair, which at one time appeared likely to produce disagreeable +consequences, passed over without event, and some time after a party of +Indians visited Quebec for the purpose of effecting a complete +reconciliation. Thus, when Champlain left for France in 1618, the colony +was secure. + +Father Huet, who accompanied Champlain, was charged with many important +missions, one of which related to the administration of baptism to the +Indians. They were quite willing to be baptized, but they had no idea of +the nature of the sacrament, and although they promised to keep their +vows before the ceremony, they soon returned to their old superstitions. +Their want of sincerity was a trial to Father Huet, and he desired to +have the opinion of the Doctors of the Sorbonne to guide him in his +future actions. + +During the winter Father Le Caron went to Tadousac in order to continue +the work of Father d'Olbeau, and he remained there until the middle of +July, 1619. In the interval he had built a residence upon the ground +donated by the merchants, and had the satisfaction of leaving one +hundred and forty neophytes as the result of the labours of the mission. +Father d'Olbeau had his residence at Quebec. + +On his return to Canada Father Huet was accompanied by Father Guillaume +Poullain, three friars and two labourers. Champlain did not return this +year. The Récollets had received authority to build a convent at Quebec, +and the Prince de Condé had contributed fifteen hundred livres towards +the object. Charles de Boues, vicar-general of Pontoise, had also made a +personal subscription, and accepted the protectorate of the convent, +together with the title of syndic of Canadian missions. Other piously +disposed persons had also contributed towards the maintenance of the +religious institution. + +The establishment of a convent in Canada was a ray of light amid the +gloom which had hung over the settlement of New France during the past +four years, but the rejoicing on this occasion was soon turned into +mourning by the unexpected death of Friar du Plessis, who died at Three +Rivers on August 23rd, 1619. There were two other deaths during this +year which cast a shadow on the colony, that of Anne Hébert, and of her +husband, Étienne Jonquest, who survived his wife only a few weeks. + +The mission at Three Rivers was placed under the charge of Father Le +Caron, and from this date it was the object of the most pastoral +solicitude of the Récollets. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +FUR TRADE + + +The earliest reference by Champlain to the fur trade in Canada, is +contained in his relation of his voyage to Tadousac in the year 1603. +During this journey he encountered a number of Indians in a canoe, near +Hare Island, among whom was an Algonquin who appeared to be well versed +in the geography of the country watered by the Great Lakes. As a proof +of his knowledge, he gave to Champlain a description of the rapids of +the St. Lawrence, of Niagara Falls and Lake Ontario. When questioned as +to the natural resources of the country, he stated that he was +acquainted with a people called the good Iroquois (Hurons) who were +accustomed to exchange their peltry for the goods which the French had +given to the Algonquins. We have in this statement proof that the French +were known to the inhabitants of New France before the year 1603. + +In the year 1608, trading was conducted with the Indians at Tadousac, +but in 1610 it was alternately at Tadousac, and near Cape de la Victoire +at the entrance of the Richelieu River. During the latter period, the +fur trade was a failure, although the vessels annually carried from +twelve to fifteen thousand skins to France, which were sold at one +pistole each. From the year 1610, Tadousac ceased to be the rendezvous +of traders, and the great centre was at Sault St. Louis, until the year +1618. From this time, for several consecutive years, Three Rivers was +the principal trading-post, and finally the Indians went down to Quebec, +or to Cape de la Victoire, or du Massacre, and at a still later period +the Isle of Richelieu, opposite the parish of Deschambault, some fifteen +leagues above Quebec, was chosen as a trading-place. + +Champlain was not opposed to the fur trade; on the contrary, he favoured +it, provided that it was conducted honestly, as it afforded him +opportunities for making new discoveries, and also for maintaining +friendly relationship with the Indians. The Récollets had no connection +with the trade, although through their efforts commercial intercourse +was often facilitated. + +Speaking of the trading of 1618, Champlain mentions a class of men who +eventually attained considerable influence in colonial affairs. These +men were the factors or clerks employed and paid by the merchants. Some +of them obtained notoriety on account of their treason and bad conduct, +while others were distinguished by their devotedness to Champlain and +the missionaries. The clerks or factors were engaged by the fur trading +merchants who had their principal factory at Quebec. The staff consisted +of a chief clerk, of clerks and underclerks; and their functions were +to receive merchandise on its arrival, to place it in the store, and +when the trading was complete, to exchange the goods for skins, which +were then carefully packed for exportation. The clerks visited the +places chosen by the Indians for trading, and generally conducted the +exchanges themselves. Some of them employed the services of interpreters +who were readily found, and were frequently sent among the natives to +induce them to visit the clerks. The duties of the clerks were not +always easily performed. They had many difficulties to encounter, but as +successful trading might lead to future promotion, there were advantages +connected with the office. Thierry-Desdames, one of the underclerks at +Quebec in 1622, was appointed captain of the Island of Miscou, in +recognition of his faithful service. This is not the only instance of +promotion recorded by Champlain. Beauchesne and Loquin are also +mentioned in the Relations of 1618 and 1619. + +When Champlain returned from France in 1620, he was accompanied by Jean +Baptiste Guers, the business representative of the Duke of Montmorency, +who rendered good service to Champlain and the settlers. In the same +year Pont-Gravé traded at Three Rivers, and he was assisted by two +clerks called Loquin and Caumont, and an underclerk, Rouvier. Before +leaving for France, Pont-Gravé placed Caumont in charge of his factory. +Rouvier also left for France, under the pretext that the company +refused to increase his wages. The departure of a clerk, however, was of +small importance, when we consider the trouble which had arisen among +the associates. + +In the year 1612, Champlain, it appears, had placed too much confidence +in the influence of Henri de Condé, viceroy of New France. This nobleman +proved to be a source of trouble rather than a friend to the new colony. +Two years after, Champlain formed an association of the merchants of St. +Malo and Rouen, who invested a large capital for the development of +trade in Quebec. The chief members of the company were François Porrée, +Lucas Legendre, Louis Vermeulle, Mathieu d'Insterlo, Pierre Eon, Thomas +Cochon, Pierre Trublet, Vincent Gravé, Daniel Boyer and Corneille de +Bellois. By its constitution the operations of the company were to +extend over a period of eleven years, and its members engaged to +maintain the habitation of Quebec, and a fort, and to build new forts if +necessary, and also to pay the expenses of missionaries, and to send +labourers and workmen to Canada. The Prince de Condé received a salary +of three thousand livres, and the payment of this large amount annually +to the viceroy, caused the merchants to neglect their obligations +towards Champlain. + +In the meantime Condé conspired against the Queen Regent and was +incarcerated, and the Maréchal de Thémines was temporarily appointed in +his place. The office of secretary to the viceroy would appear to have +been lucrative, for one applicant, probably Boyer, offered Thémines four +thousand five hundred livres, if he would appoint him to the position. +Condé protested against the charge which had been made against his +agreement, and asked for his salary. De Villemenon, intendant of the +admiralty, opposed the application, and claimed the amount of the salary +for the Quebec settlement. + +While Champlain was present in France in 1617 he received a proscription +from the court of parliament, ordering him to resign his office of +lieutenant of the viceroy, as the Company of Rouen had decided to +suppress the salary of the viceroy. Champlain did not take any notice of +this injunction, but started for Quebec. On his return to France during +the same year (1617) Champlain met the Maréchal de Thémines, in order to +induce him, in his capacity of viceroy, to take some interest in the +affairs of New France, as the situation there was becoming +insupportable. The great personages were quarrelling over money matters; +the people of St. Malo were renewing their demands for liberty of +commerce, and the merchants were refusing to invest new capital. +Champlain had a series of difficulties, which he endeavoured to remove +before his return to Quebec, and he drew up his grievances in two large +factums, one of which was presented to the king, and the other to the +Board of Trade of Paris. + +In the factum to the king Champlain explained that France would derive +benefit from the colonization of Canada, provided workmen and labourers +were sent to the country. He also set forth the necessity of improving +the defense of the colony, as an attack might be expected at any time +from the English or Dutch. Champlain pointed out to the king, at the +same time, that by developing New France, he would be propagating the +Catholic faith amongst infidels, and that he would add to his wealth by +reason of the revenue to be derived from the vast forests of Canada. He +also made known to the king some of the projects which he had in view. +Amongst these were certain buildings and works which he proposed to +carry out. Quebec was to be named _Ludovica_, in honour of the king. A +church was to be erected and dedicated under the title of _Redeemer_, +and a fort was to be constructed on the cape of Quebec, flanked with +four bastions, which would command the river St. Lawrence. A second fort +was to be built opposite Quebec, which would complete the defense of the +face of the town, and a third fort would be constructed at Tadousac on a +promontory naturally fortified, to be manned by a garrison which would +be relieved every six months. + +These arrangements would provide for the defense of the country. +Champlain also intended to look after the education and the spiritual +wants of the settlement, by sending fifteen friars of the Récollet +order to New France, who were to found a convent near the Church of the +Redeemer. The king was also asked to send one hundred families to the +colony, each composed of a husband and wife and two children or a +servant under twenty years of age. With these provisions Champlain +believed that a settlement might be established in the name of France, +which would remain loyal to her interests, since it would rest upon the +sure foundation of strength, justice, commerce, and agriculture. + +In his explanations to the Board of Trade Champlain dwelt upon the +advantages which were to be derived from fishing, from the lumber +industry, agriculture and cattle raising, and from the working of the +mines and from trading. In short he endeavoured to induce the associates +to continue their operations. The members, however, were under the +impression that colonization would place obstacles in the way of +commerce, and that the inhabitants would soon monopolize the trade. Some +of the associates who were Protestants objected to colonization under +Catholic influence, and understanding that Champlain was a staunch +Catholic, they decided to have Pont-Gravé appointed as lieutenant of the +viceroy, in his place. + +Champlain was much affected on finding that he had a rival in Pont-Gravé +whom he had always respected as a father, neither would he accept such a +humiliating position. The king, however, intervened at this time, and +wrote a letter to the associates, requesting them to aid Champlain. + + "BY THE KING. + + "Dear, and well-beloved:--On the report made to us that + there has hitherto been bad management in the establishment of the + families and workmen sent to the settlement of Quebec, and other + places of New France, we write to you this letter, to declare to + you our desire that all things should proceed better in future; and + to tell you that it will give us pleasure that you should assist, + as much as you conveniently can, the Sieur Champlain in the things + requisite and necessary for the execution of the commands which he + has received from us, to choose experienced and trusty men to be + employed in the discovery, inhabiting, cultivating, and sowing the + lands; and do all the works which he shall judge necessary for the + establishment of the colonies which we desire to plant in the said + country, for the good of the service and the use of our subjects; + without, however, on account of the said discoveries and + settlements, your factors, clerks, and agents in the traffic of + peltry, being troubled or hindered in any way whatever during the + term which we have granted you. And fail not in this, for such is + our pleasure. Given at Paris March 12th, 1618. + + (Signed) "Louis." + (And below) "Potier." + +The merchants brought their affairs before the notice of the Council of +Tours, who decided that Champlain should retain his position. The action +of the council was a victory for Champlain, but it was soon followed by +another still more agreeable. The associates promised to provide for the +organization of emigration during the following year on a scale which +would assure the success of the settlement. By this arrangement eighty +persons, including three Récollet fathers would arrive in New France +during the year 1619. In order to have the proceedings regularly +conducted, Champlain caused papers to be prepared by notaries, which +were signed on December 21st, 1618, by Pierre du Gua and Lucas Legendre +in the name of the associates, and also by Vermeulle, Corneille de +Bellois and Mathieu d'Insterlo. The document is as follows: + +"List of persons to be sent to, and supported at, the settlement of +Quebec for the year 1619. + +"There shall be eighty persons, including the chief, three Récollet +fathers, clerks, officers, workmen and labourers. Every two persons +shall have a mattress, a paillasse, two blankets, three pairs of new +sheets, two coats each, six shirts, four pairs of shoes, and one capote. + +"For the arms:--Forty musquets, with their bandaliers, twenty-four +pikes, four arquebuses à rouet [wheel-lock] of four to five feet, one +thousand pounds of fine powder, one thousand pounds of powder for +common, six thousand pounds of lead, and a match-stump. + +"For the men:--A dozen scythes with their handles, hammers, and other +tools; twelve reaping-hooks, twenty-four spades, twelve picks, four +thousand pounds of iron, two barrels of steel, ten tons of lime [none +having been then found in this country], ten thousand curved, or twenty +thousand flat tiles, ten thousand bricks to build an oven and chimneys, +two mill-stones [the kind of stone fit for that purpose was not +discovered till some years afterwards.] + +"For the service of the table of the chief:--Thirty-six dishes, as many +bowls and plates, six saltcellars, six ewers, two basins, six pots of +six pints each, six pints, six chopines [about half a pint] six +demy-septiers, the whole of pewter, two dozen table-cloths, twenty-four +dozen napkins. + +"For the kitchen:--A dozen of copper boilers, six pairs andirons, six +frying-pans, six gridirons. + +"Shall also be taken out:--Two bulls of one year old, heifers, and as +many sheep as convenient; all kinds of seeds for sowing. + +"The commander of the settlement shall have charge of the arms and +ammunition which are actually there, and of those which shall afterwards +be sent, so long as he shall be in command; and the clerk or factor who +shall reside there shall take charge of all merchandise; as well as of +the furniture and utensils of the company, and shall send a regular +account of them, signed by him, by the ships. + +"Also shall be sent, a dozen mattresses complete, like those of +families, which shall be kept in the magazine for the use of the sick +and wounded, etc., etc. + +"Signed at Paris December 21st, 1618, and compared with the original [on +paper] by the undersigned." + +Champlain submitted this document to the king, who approved it, but +nevertheless the associates were afterwards unwilling to fulfil its +conditions. The Prince de Condé having been discharged from prison on +October 20th, 1619, the king forwarded to him his commission of viceroy, +and the Company of Rouen granted him a thousand écus. + +The prince gave five hundred écus to the Récollets for the construction +of a seminary at Quebec, and this was his only gift to the settlement of +New France. The prince afterwards sold his commission as viceroy to the +Duke of Montmorency, Admiral of France, for the sum of thirty thousand +écus. Dolu, grand almoner of the kingdom, was appointed intendant. The +duke renewed Champlain's commission as lieutenant of the viceroy, and at +the same time advised him to return to Quebec to strengthen his +positions everywhere, in order that the country might be secure against +invasion. + +The patronage of Montmorency greatly encouraged Champlain, for the duke +exercised great power. He therefore resolved to take his young wife to +Quebec with him, for she had never been to Canada. Champlain concluded +his private business in France, and took all his effects to the new +settlement, as he had determined to take up his residence there. Before +leaving France, all the difficulties in connection with his command were +removed, and the king wrote him a very gracious letter, in which His +Majesty expressed his esteem for his loyal and faithful subject. + +The new administration of the Duke of Montmorency created +dissatisfaction amongst the merchants of the society, which in fact had +only changed its name of the "Company of Rouen" to the "Company of +Montmorency or of de Caën." The associates forming the old company had +hoped that Champlain would have been placed in the shade, especially +when they learned that he intended to fortify Quebec and settle in the +country. No action, however, was taken until the new company had +commenced its administration. Champlain remained in ignorance of these +facts until the arrival of the vessels in the spring of 1621, when he +received letters from M. de Puiseux, _secrétaire des commandements du +roi_, from the intendant Dolu, from de Villemenon, intendant of the +admiralty, from Guillaume de Caën, one of the members of the new +association, and from the viceroy, which last is here given:-- + + "Monsieur Champlain: For many reasons I have thought fit + to exclude the former Company of Rouen and St. Malo from the trade + with New France, and to assist you and provide you with everything + necessary, I have chosen the Sieurs de Caën, uncle and nephew, and + their associates: one is a good merchant, and the other a good + naval captain, who can aid you well, and make the authority of the + king respected in my government. I recommend you to assist him and + those who shall apply to you on his part, so as to maintain them in + the enjoyment of the articles which I have granted them. I have + charged the Sieur Dolu, intendant of the affairs of the country, to + send you a copy of the treaty by the first voyage, so that you may + know to what they are bound, in order that they may execute their + engagement, as, on my part, I desire to perform what I have + promised. + + "I have taken care to preserve your appointments, as I believe you + will continue to serve the king well. + + "Your most affectionate and perfect friend, + + "Montmorency. + + "From Paris, February 2nd, 1621." + +The letter of Louis XIII was also satisfactory: + + "Champlain: I have perceived by your letters of August + 15th, with what affection you work at your establishment, and for + all that regards the good of my service: for which, as I am + thankful to you, so I shall have pleasure in recognizing it to your + advantage whenever the occasion shall offer: and I have willingly + granted some munitions of war, which were required to give you + better means to subsist and to continue in that good duty, which I + promise myself from your care and fidelity." + + "Paris, February 24th, 1621. + + "Louis." + +It was in this manner that the sentence of death was given to the old +company. + +Several members of the old Company of Rouen and St. Malo were +incorporated in the Company of Montmorency, which was composed of +Guillaume de Caën, Ezechiel de Caën, Guillaume Robin, three merchants of +Rouen; François de Troyes, president of the treasury of France at +Orleans; Jacques de Troyes, merchant; Claude Le Ragois, general receiver +of finance at Limoges; Arnould de Nouveau, Pierre de Verton, councillor +and secretary of the king, and François Hervé, merchant of Paris. The +two brothers de Caën belonged to the reformed religion. + +Dolu advised Champlain to restrain the hands of the clerks of the old +company, and to seize all the merchandise in the magazine. He claimed +that although this measure was rigorous, it was justified by the fact +that the company had not fulfilled its obligations towards the +settlement of New France. De Villemenon's letter was dictated in much +the same terms. Guillaume de Caën gave notice that he would soon arrive +in Quebec with arms and stores for the settlement. Dolu's letter +regarding the seizure of merchandise was couched in terms that might be +considered imperative, nevertheless Champlain deemed it prudent to act +with caution, and he therefore had conferred with Father George Le +Baillif and Captain Dumay[18] on the subject. + +The elder clerk had some clerks under him at Quebec, who after hearing +of the contents of Dolu's letter, were prepared to resist any +curtailment of their rights. Champlain appeased them, and assured them +that they would be allowed freedom of trading at least until the arrival +of Guillaume de Caën, the extent of whose authority was not yet known. + +Caumont, the chief clerk, declared that he was satisfied with this +arrangement, but nevertheless the situation was difficult. If the king +had given the order to confiscate the merchandise, then Dumay, whose +visit to Canada was for the purpose of fur trading, would become the +king of commerce in New France, and therefore he had nothing to lose in +awaiting de Caën's arrival. He proceeded at once to Tadousac, but +instead of meeting de Caën, he found that Pont-Gravé had arrived as the +representative of the old company, and that he had with him seventy-five +men and some clerks. + +Champlain was much distressed on receiving these tidings, for he foresaw +a conflict which would possibly entail bloodshed. The clerks also were +despondent. In order to avoid a quarrel, Champlain deemed it advisable +to protect his men, and he therefore installed his brother-in-law, +Eustache Boullé, and Captain Dumay with sixteen men, in the small fort +which he had erected at Cape Diamond during the preceding year. +Champlain defended himself within the habitation, where he quartered all +the men he could dispose of. If the clerks were inclined to fight he +would defend his position, but he hoped that these precautionary +measures would prove the means of preventing bloodshed. + +On May 7th, 1621, three of the clerks of Guillaume de Caën left Tadousac +and took up their quarters near the habitation. Father Le Baillif and +Jean Baptiste Guers asked them to produce their papers. They declared +that they had authority to trade from the old Company of Rouen, which +still existed through articles agreed to by the Duke of Montmorency, and +that a trial was at present pending between the two societies. On +receiving this information from Father Le Baillif, Champlain decided to +allow five clerks the necessary merchandise for trading; they were, +however, told that the old company had been dissolved, and that the new +company only was invested with authority to trade. The clerks were +satisfied with Champlain's decision, but they objected to the presence +of armed soldiers in the fort, which they claimed was not in accordance +with the king's commands. The clerks finally went to Three Rivers to +carry on their trade. + +On June 13th, Pont-Gravé arrived at Quebec. Here he was questioned as +to his authority, although he was treated with the respect and courtesy +due to his age and character. Pont-Gravé assured Champlain that the +disputes between the two companies would be resolved in a friendly way, +and that he had received news to this effect before he sailed from +Honfleur. He then started for Three Rivers to join his clerks. + +Some days after these events, a clerk named Rouvier, in the employ of de +Caën, arrived with letters from Dolu, de Villemenon, and Guillaume de +Caën, and left a copy of an order-in-council in favour of the old +company. Champlain also received a letter from the king. The +order-in-council granted permission to both companies to trade during +the year 1621, provided that both should contribute equally towards the +maintenance of the captains, soldiers, and the inhabitants of Quebec. + +Foreseeing a conflict between de Caën and Pont-Gravé, Champlain went to +Tadousac, and advised de Caën to respect Pont-Gravé's authority. De Caën +replied that he could not do so, as he had received authority privately +from the king. Champlain therefore assured the commandment to +Pont-Gravé's vessel, in order to protect his old friend, and thus it +happened that this affair which threatened to produce serious +consequences, was smoothed over through Champlain's intervention. +Pont-Gravé then took possession of his vessel in the presence of de +Caën, who offered no opposition, and a few days after they both returned +to France. + +De Caën had promised to send twenty-five men to Quebec, but he sent only +eighteen. A certain quantity of stores was also brought to Quebec at +this time by Jacques Halard, and a number of halberds, arquebuses, +lances, and many barrels of powder, which were delivered in the presence +of Jean Baptiste Varin, who had been sent by Guillaume de Caën, and +Guers. + +Father Georges Le Baillif also left for France during the autumn, as a +delegate from the inhabitants of the settlement, who had prepared a +memorandum of their grievances. This document was signed by Champlain, +Father Jamet, Father Le Caron, Louis Hébert, Guillaume Couillard, +Eustache Boullé, Pierre Reye, Olivier Le Tardif, J. Groux, Pierre +Desportes, Nicholas and J.B. Guers. On his arrival in France, Father Le +Baillif had an interview with the king, and placed the memorandum in +question in His Majesty's hands. The king admitted that the complaints +were well founded, but at the same time he stated that it was impossible +to grant all that was requested. The Huguenots were to retain their +commercial liberty, and Champlain obtained some supplies, and his +salary, which was formerly six hundred livres, was increased to twelve +hundred. + +Father Le Baillif's mission was unfruitful, for he brought word of the +amalgamation of the two companies, whose chiefs were Guillaume de Caën, +Ezechiel de Caën, and their nephew, Emery de Caën. The order-in-council +establishing this large company granted to them the liberty of trading +in New France, and all French subjects were eligible for admission to +the society. By this arrangement the de Caëns were obliged to pay the +sum of ten thousand livres to the members of the old Rouen association, +and a sum equal to the value of their goods, barques and canoes. The old +company received five-twelfths of the Company of Montmorency, +one-twelfth of which was reserved by de Monts, who was at that time +living at his residence in Saintonge. By this latter arrangement, +however, the de Caëns were relieved from the payment of the ten thousand +livres imposed upon them by the order-in-council. When Father Le Baillif +returned to Quebec in the spring of 1622, all the old rivalry had +disappeared. The Company of Rouen had adopted the name of the Company of +Montmorency with the de Caëns as chiefs. + +The principal articles stipulated in the agreement were:-- + +1. Champlain to be lieutenant of the viceroy, with precedence on land, +and to command the habitation of Quebec, and to have command of all the +French residents in New France. Ten men were also to be placed at his +disposal, who were to be maintained at the expense of de Caën, who was +also to pay to each an annual sum of twenty livres. + +2. The company was also to maintain six Récollet fathers, two of whom +were to be engaged in missions to the savages. + +3. The company was to support and maintain six families of labourers, +carpenters and masons, during the period of the agreement, the families +to be changed every two years. + +4. The company was to pay the sum of twelve hundred francs as a salary +to Champlain. + +5. Champlain was to enjoy the privilege of trading for eleven years, and +to this term the king added another eleven years. + +The first man to bring the news of a change of authority was a clerk +named Santein, but it was confirmed some days after by the arrival of +Pont-Gravé and Guillaume de Caën, who were accompanied by a clerk named +Le Sire, an underclerk named Thierry-Desdames,[19] and Raymond de la +Ralde. De Caën handed to Champlain a letter from the king, who advised +him to recognize the authority of the new company, and also to endeavour +to maintain peace and harmony. When de Caën had completed his trading at +Three Rivers he sailed again for France, leaving Pont-Gravé as chief +clerk at Quebec, and Le Baillif as underclerk at Tadousac. + +In order to establish good order throughout the country, Champlain +published certain ordinances, which should be regarded as the first code +of Canadian laws. Although it was desirable to maintain peace, it was +also necessary to prepare to resist the attacks of the Iroquois, who +were becoming more and more active. A party of the Iroquois had +approached Quebec, and were observed to be rambling in the vicinity of +the Récollets' convent, on the north shore of the River St. Charles. +They finally made an attack, but they were repulsed with loss by the +French and the Montagnais, whose chief was Mahicanaticouche, Champlain's +friend. This chief was the son of the famous Anadabijou, who had +contracted the first alliance with the French at Tadousac in 1603. + +In the year 1623, the vessels arrived from France later than usual, and +the rendezvous took place at Cape de la Victoire on July 23rd. On this +occasion the following persons were present: Champlain, Pont-Gravé, +Guillaume de Caën, Captain Duchesne, des Marets, De Vernet, Étienne +Brûlé, an interpreter, Loquin, a clerk, Father Nicholas Viel, and +Brother Sagard-Théodat. + +On his return to Quebec, Champlain declared that certain sailors had +appropriated a number of beaver skins, and he therefore confiscated them +and had them placed in the store, pending the decision of the company. +This infraction of the rules of commerce was trifling when compared with +the contraband which was carried on freely in the lower St. Lawrence. +The merchants of La Rochelle and the Basques were the most notorious in +this respect. Their vessels were constantly sailing from one shore to +another, trading furs, although they had no authority to do so. They +were found at Tadousac, at Bic, and at Green Island. The Spanish, +English and Dutch vessels also carried on an illegitimate trade in the +same waters. Champlain mentions the fact that a Spanish captain, whose +vessel was anchored at Green Island, had sent his sailors at night to +Tadousac, in order that they might watch what was being done, and hear +what was being said on board the _Admiral_. + +At the commencement of the spring of 1624, a dark cloud hung over New +France. The winter had been severe, and provisions were scarce. +Champlain had only four barrels of flour in the store, so that he was +anxiously awaiting assistance. On June 2nd he received good news. A +vessel of sixty tons was anchored at Tadousac, laden with pease, +biscuits and cider. To the starving settlement this was most welcome, +and some days after Guillaume de Caën arrived with still more +provisions. + +After having traded at Three Rivers, de Caën visited Quebec, the Island +of Orleans, and the vicinity of Cape Tourmente and the neighbouring +islands. He was now the proprietor of these lands, having received them +as a gift from the Duke of Montmorency. + +Champlain now resolved to recross the ocean, and to take with him his +young wife, who had spent four years in Quebec. Emery de Caën was given +the command of the settlement in the absence of Champlain. On August +18th two ships sailed from Tadousac, having on board Champlain, Hélène +Boullé, Font-Gravé, Guillaume de Caën, Father Piat, Brother Sagard, J.B. +Guers, Joubert, and Captain de la Vigne. At Gaspé, Raymond de la Ralde +and a pilot named Cananée joined the party. The voyage was brief and +pleasant to Champlain's party, but Cananée's ship was captured by the +Turks, and its commander was put to a cruel death.[20] + +FOOTNOTES: + +[18] His correct name was Dumé dit Leroy. He made a single voyage to +Quebec, and he had on board Jean Baptiste Guers, delegate of the Duke of +Montmorency. Dumé was born at St. Gomer de Fly, Beauvais. A member of +his family who resided at Havre de Grâce was one of the chief consignees +of the company of St. Christophe in the West Indies. + +[19] Thierry-Desdames arrived at Quebec in 1622, as underclerk of the +company, which position he occupied until 1628. We lose trace of him +after that date, but we find him again in 1639 at Miscou Island, where +he served as captain. He was a good Catholic, charitable, and a friend +of the Jesuits. + +[20] Cananée was one of the most famous French navigators of his time. +From 1608 to 1624 he used to fish on the banks of Miscou and in the +gulf. He was at first captain and co-proprietor of the _Mouton_, a +vessel of one hundred and twenty tons, but some years later, he +commanded the _Ste. Madeleine_, a ship of fifty tons. It was this vessel +that the Turks captured on the coast of Bretagne. Cananée was a fervent +Catholic. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +CHAMPLAIN, THE JESUITS AND THE SAVAGES + + +The first inhabitants of the settlement of New France were the +interpreters, clerks, and workmen, employed by the merchants. They were +termed the winterers, in opposition to the captains and sailors who +visited the colony for the purpose of trading only. The interpreters +present an interesting feature in the life of the new colony. Their +functions rendered it necessary for them to reside for an indefinite +period with an Indian tribe, in order to qualify themselves to act as +interpreters for their countrymen during trade, or for the missionaries +while catechising or providing other religious exercises. A daily +intercourse with the Indians was absolutely essential in order to induce +them to keep their appointments with the traders at the established +rendezvous. The interpreters had seldom any other occupation, although +some of them acted as clerks, and thereby received a larger salary, in +addition to a certain number of beaver skins which they could exchange +for goods. + +Étienne Brûlé and Nicholas Marsolet, who arrived at Quebec with +Champlain in the year 1608, acted as interpreters, but at first they did +not meet with much success. They were, however, both young and +intelligent, and Brûlé soon acquired a knowledge of the Huron language, +while Marsolet mastered the idiom of the Algonquin tongue. Brûlé spent +nearly all his life among the Hurons, who adopted him as a member of +their family, while Marsolet accompanied the Algonquins to Allumette +Island, and became one of their best friends. Historians of Canada +mention the names of many other interpreters of this period, some of +whom founded families, while others afterwards returned to France. In +the year 1613 three interpreters arrived, Nicholas du Vignau, Jacques +Hertel, and Thomas Godefroy. In the year 1618 there was only one +arrival, Jean Manet, who took up his residence among the people residing +on the shores of Lake Nipissing. + +In the year 1619 Jean Nicolet came to Canada, and won great esteem in +the country of his choice. He was the father of a large family, the +descendants of whom are very numerous. Three more interpreters came in +1621, Du Vernet, Le Baillif, and Olivier Le Tardif, and two in 1623, +namely, Jean-Paul Godefroy and Jacques Couillard, and finally in 1624 +Jean Richer and Lamontagne, thus making twelve interpreters between the +years 1608 and 1625. Of this number the two Godefroys, Marsolet, +Nicolet, Hertel, and Le Tardif were distinguished on account of the part +which they took in Canadian affairs; and the knowledge which they had +obtained of the native languages rendered them competent to discuss +delicate questions relating to the welfare of the colony. Their services +to the authorities, both civil and religious, were therefore at certain +periods exceedingly valuable. It is among these men that we may +fittingly seek for the founders of the Canadian race. + +The second class of settlers, or winterers, as they were termed, will be +spoken of later. From the year 1608 to 1613 not a single settler or head +of a family came to Canada, but at this latter date we find the names of +Abraham Martin, Nicholas Pivert and Pierre Desportes. They were married +and brought their wives and families with them. Abraham Martin and +Pierre Desportes had each a daughter, and Pivert had a niece. Guillaume +Couillard arrived during the same year, but he was a bachelor. We have +already spoken in a previous chapter of the return of Champlain from +France in the year 1617, on which occasion he was accompanied by Louis +Hébert and his family. There also arrived in 1617, Étienne Jonquest, to +whom we have likewise referred. In 1618 another family took up its +residence in New France, namely Adrien Duchesne, surgeon, and his wife. +Eustache Boullé, brother-in-law to Champlain, came over in 1618, and two +families arrived in 1619, but they were immediately sent back, as the +occupation of the head of one of the families was that of a butcher, and +the other was a needle manufacturer, and there was no opening for either +in a new settlement. In the year 1620, the settlers gave a cordial +welcome to Hélène Boullé, who was attended by three female servants. +From the year 1620 to 1625, history is silent as to new arrivals. +Champlain had made every effort to induce settlers to take up their +residence in Quebec, but the population was still very scanty. + +There were really only seven settled families at this time, composed of +twenty persons, seven men and seven women, and six children. Their names +were as follows:--Abraham Martin and his wife Marguerite Langlois, and +his two daughters, Anne and Marguerite; Pierre Desportes and his wife +Françoise Langlois, and a girl named Hélène; Nicholas Pivert and his +wife Marguerite Lesage, and their niece; Louis Hébert and his wife Marie +Rollet, and a son named Guillaume; Adrien Duchesne and his wife; +Guillaume Couillard, his wife, Guillemette Hébert, and a girl named +Louise; Champlain and his wife Hélène Boullé. + +When Abraham Martin came to Quebec, he was twenty-four years of age. The +official documents refer to him as king's pilot, and the Jesuits named +him Maître Abraham, while to the people he was Martin l'Ecossais. His +family gave to the Catholic Church of Canada her second priest in +chronological order. This priest, who was born at Quebec, was named +Charles Amador. After having served as a mariner for the Company of +Rouen, Abraham Martin became a farmer, and was the proprietor of two +portions of land, consisting of thirty-two acres.[21] He received +twenty acres of land from Adrien Duchesne, and twelve acres from the +Company of New France, on December 4th, 1635.[22] This property was +named the Plains of Abraham, and all the ground in the immediate +vicinity gradually assumed the same title. A part of the famous conflict +fought on September 13th, 1759, and known as the Battle of the Plains of +Abraham, actually occurred on the ground owned by Abraham Martin, and +thus it is that the name of this first settler has been perpetuated in +prose and verse. + +Louis Hébert, the son of a Parisian apothecary, followed the profession +of his father in Canada. He first tried to establish himself at Port +Royal, where we find him in the year 1606. He left Port Royal in 1607, +but he appears to have returned there, as in the year 1613 he is +mentioned as acting as lieutenant in the place of Biencourt, son of +Poutrincourt. When Port Royal was abandoned, Hébert returned to France, +where he met Champlain, who induced him to turn his steps towards Canada +once more. Soon after his second visit to New France, he commenced to +build a residence in the Upper Town of Quebec, upon the summit of +Mountain Hill. This building, which was of stone, measured thirty-eight +feet in length, and was nineteen feet broad. It was in this house that +Father Le Jeune said mass when he came to Quebec in 1632. Hébert +received some concessions of land from the companies, and at once +commenced to cultivate it, so that he was able to live from its produce. +Champlain praises him for this course. Hébert died in the year 1627, +from mortal injuries caused by a fall. He was buried in the cemetery of +the Récollets, at the foot of the great cross, according to his desire. + +The Récollet fathers lived until the year 1620 in their humble residence +near the chapel and habitation of Quebec, in the Lower Town. In the year +1619 they employed some workmen to fell trees on the shores of the River +St. Charles, near an agreeable tract of land which Hébert had cleared. +It was situated at half a league from the habitation, and the people of +Quebec hoped at that time to build the town there. During the winter +each piece of timber was prepared for the building, and the savages +assisted in the work. On June 3rd, 1620, the first stone of the convent +was solemnly laid by Father d'Olbeau. The arms of the king were engraved +upon the stone near those of the Prince de Condé. The convent was +finished and blessed on May 25th, 1621, and dedicated to Notre Dame des +Anges. It was on this date that the name of St. Charles was given to the +river Ste. Croix, or the Cabir-Coubat of the Indians, in honour of the +Reverend Charles de Ransay des Boues, syndic of the Canadian missions. + +There were six Récollet fathers at Quebec in 1621, and two brothers. +Fathers Guillaume Galleran and Irénée Piat came in 1622, the former in +the capacity of visitor and superior. A coincidence of their arrival was +the induction of the first religious novitiate. Pierre Langoissieux, of +Rouen, took the monastic habit under the name of Brother Charles, at a +special ceremony in the presence of Champlain and his wife, and some +Frenchmen and Indians. Three young men also received the small scapulary +of the Franciscan order. Father Piat left Quebec for the Montagnais +mission, while Father Huet was sent to Three Rivers, and Father Poullain +to the Nipissing mission in the west. In the year 1623, Father Nicholas +Viel and Brother Gabriel Sagard-Théodat, the historian of the Huron +mission, arrived. They were entertained at the convent of Notre Dame des +Anges. At the solemn Te Deum, which was sung in the chapel on this +occasion, there were present seven fathers and four brothers. Fathers Le +Caron and Viel, and Brother Sagard arranged for some Indian guides to +conduct them to the Huron country, where they arrived on July 23rd. The +party spent the winter among the Hurons, and during the following year +Brother Sagard was recalled to France by his superiors. The Récollets +continued to conduct services in the small chapel in the Lower Town, +which served as the parochial church of Quebec. + +In the year 1624 the French colony was placed under the patronage of +Saint Joseph, who has remained from that date the patron saint of +Canada. Champlain was at this time in France, and had met Montmorency at +St. Germain-en-Laye, after the Récollets had complained of the conduct +of the Huguenots. While the missionaries were celebrating mass, the +Huguenots annoyed them by singing psalms, and they occupied the +poop-royal on board the vessels for their services, while the Catholics +were compelled to assemble in the forecastle, without distinction of +persons. The Récollets also complained of the negligence of the +associates, who had not provided for the material requirements of the +mission. Father Piat set forth that while the missionaries were prepared +to sacrifice their health and their mother country in order to civilize +the Indians, they were not ready, under the circumstances, to die simply +for the want of food, when it was the duty of the associates to provide +for them. Father Piat also suggested the advisability of forming a +seminary for young Indians, as a means of developing their moral +character, of teaching them the rudiments of religion, and whereby the +Récollets might acquire a knowledge of the Indian language. Realizing +that they were unable to found such an institution alone, they decided +to ask assistance from the Jesuits, who had great influence at court, +and who might possibly be able to establish such a building from their +own resources. If these resolutions had been known, the Huguenots would +doubtless have prevented the Jesuits' departure, but the news was only +made public when it was too late to formulate any opposition. + +Champlain, who was at this time endeavouring to induce the merchants to +carry out their engagements, thought it advisable not to take any part +in urging the requests of the mission, for fear of compromising its +success, and he considered it the best policy to be very discreet. +Father Coton, provincial of the Jesuit order, accepted with pleasure the +proposals of the Récollets, as the order was always glad of an +opportunity of preaching the gospel in distant lands. The Jesuits had +already founded the Acadian mission, but its results had much +disappointed their hopes. Champlain was pleased to learn that the desire +of the Récollets was accomplished, although he had taken no part towards +its fulfilment. Indeed his services were fully employed elsewhere. The +old merchants were fighting with the new ones, the dispute arising from +the different methods of recruiting crews for their ships. + +These petty quarrels, which were constantly brought to the notice of +Montmorency, caused him much annoyance, and he consequently resigned his +position of viceroy in favour of his nephew, Ventadour, peer of France +and governor of Languedoc, for a sum of one hundred thousand livres. The +king gave his assent to the transaction, and Henri de Lévis, duc de +Ventadour, received his commission, dated March 25th, 1625. He is +described as a pious man, who had no other desire than the glory of God. +The duke appointed Champlain as his lieutenant, and ordered him to erect +forts in New France wherever he should deem it necessary, and empowered +him to create officers of justice to maintain peace and harmony. + +Endued with such powers, Champlain did not hesitate to continue his +work. The duke's appointment was also received with favour by the +Récollets and Jesuits. The associates were not friendly disposed towards +the Jesuits, but seeing that they did not ask any assistance from them, +they made no opposition to their departure for Canada. + +Guillaume de Caën took with him on his vessel three Jesuit fathers and +two brothers. These were Fathers Charles Lalemant, Jean de Brébeuf and +Enemond Massé. The brothers were François Charton and Gilbert Burel. +Father Lalemant, formerly director of the college of Clermont, was +appointed director of the mission. Champlain speaks of him as a very +devoted and zealous man. Father Massé had been previously in Acadia, +where he proved his devotedness to the Indians. Father de Brébeuf, the +youngest of the three, was distinguished by reason of his mature +judgment and great prudence. The number of the Récollets was increased +by the arrival of Father Joseph de la Roche d'Aillon, a man of noble and +exalted character. + +De Caën's vessel sailed from Dieppe, and although the voyage was long, +it was a pleasant one. When the Jesuits reached Quebec, they met with +strong opposition from the clerks, and there was no residence prepared +for them. The only course which appeared open to them was to return to +France, unless they could find a lodging with the Récollets. + +In the meantime the clerks circulated a pamphlet amongst the families of +the settlement, with a view to creating a prejudice against the Jesuits. +It was _L'Anticoton_,[23] a libellous communication, which had been +proven false by Father Coton. The Récollets at once extended a courteous +invitation to the Jesuits, which they gratefully accepted, and took up +their residence in the convent. The Récollets also begged them to accept +as a loan the timber work of a building which had been prepared for +their own use. + +The gratitude of the Jesuits under these circumstances, is not +sufficiently well known. Father Lalemant's letter addressed to the +Provincial of the Récollets in France, admirably sets forth their +position, and will be read with interest by every student of this +portion of our history. + + "Reverend Father: Pax Christi. It would be too ungrateful + were I not to write to your Reverence to thank you for the many + letters lately written in our favour to the Fathers who are here in + New France, and for the charity which we have received from the + Fathers, who put us under eternal obligation. I beseech our good + God to be the reward of you both. For myself, I write to our + Superiors that I feel it so deeply that I will let no occasion pass + of showing it, and I beg them, although already most affectionately + disposed, to show your whole holy order the same feelings. Father + Joseph will tell your Reverence the object of his voyage, for the + success of which we shall not cease to offer prayers and sacrifices + to God. This time we must advance in good earnest the affairs of + our Master, and omit nothing that shall be deemed necessary. I have + written to all who, I thought, could aid it, and I am sure they + will exert themselves, if affairs in France permit. Your Reverence, + I doubt not, is affectionately inclined, and so _vis unita_, our + united effort, will do much. Awaiting the result, I commend myself + to the Holy Sacrifice of your Reverence, whose most humble servant + I am. + + "Charles Lalemant." + + "Quebec, July 28th, 1625." + +The Jesuits accepted the hospitality of the Récollets until the convent +which they built on the opposite side of the river St. Charles, was +ready for their habitation. It was situated near the entrance of the +river Lairet, about two hundred paces from the shore. We shall meet them +there a little later, working hard, in common with the Récollets with +whom they were good friends, for the civilization of the Indians. + +When Guillaume de Caën returned to France, he was summoned to appear +before the tribunal of the state council, as he had not put into effect +all the articles of his contract. The chief complaint against him was +that the admiral or commodore of the fleet was not a Catholic. For this +appointment, however, he was not responsible, as it was made by the +associates, and he therefore summoned them to give their explanations +before the admiralty judge. The case was finally settled by His +Majesty's council in favour of Guillaume de Caën, on the condition that +he should at once appoint a Catholic. Raymond de la Ralde was the +officer of his choice. + +Champlain started at once for Dieppe, together with Eustache Boullé whom +he appointed his lieutenant, and Destouches, his second lieutenant. +Their departure for Canada occurred on April 24th, 1626, and there were +five vessels in the squadron: the _Catherine_, two hundred and fifty +tons, commanded by de la Ralde;[24] _La Flèque_, two hundred and sixty +tons, with Emery de Caën as vice-admiral; _L'Alouette_, eighty tons, and +two other vessels, one of two hundred tons, and the other of one hundred +and twenty tons. + +Champlain was on board the _Catherine_, and he arrived at Percé on June +20th. Before anchoring at Tadousac, Emery de Caën caused his crew to +assemble on deck, and he there informed them that the Duc de Ventadour +desired that psalms should not be sung, as they had been accustomed to +sing them on the Atlantic. Two-thirds of the crew grumbled at this +order, and Champlain advised de Caën to allow meetings for prayer only. +This ruling was judicious, although it was not accepted with pleasure. + +At Moulin Baude, near Tadousac Bay, Champlain received intelligence that +Pont-Gravé, who had wintered at Quebec, had been very ill, and that the +inhabitants had resolved to leave the country at the earliest +opportunity owing to the sufferings which they had endured from famine. + +When Champlain arrived at Quebec on July 5th, 1626, he found all the +settlers in good health, but little had been done towards the building +of the fort, or towards repairing the habitation. He, therefore, set +twenty men to work at once. Emery de Caën left Quebec in order to carry +on trade with the Indians. There were at Quebec at this time fifty-five +persons, of whom eighteen were labourers. Champlain wished to have ten +men constantly employed at the fort, but Guillaume de Caën had promised +them elsewhere, and the merchants obliged them to work at the +habitation, which they considered more useful than the fort. Champlain, +however, did not agree with them on this point. + +The oldest fortification of Quebec was commenced in the year 1620, on +the summit of Cape Diamond, and the work was continued in 1621, when +Champlain was able to establish a small garrison within the walls. +Communication was opened between the habitation and the fort during the +winter of 1623-4, by means of a small road, less abrupt than the former +one. The fort was named Fort St. Louis. + +In April 1624, a strong wind carried away the roof of the fort, and +transported it a distance of thirty feet, over the rampart. During this +storm the gable of Louis Hébert's residence was also destroyed. This +accident caused some delay to the works, and the merchants still +maintained their opposition to the construction of the fort. "If we +fortify Quebec," they said, "the garrisons will be the masters of the +ground, and our trade will be over." Guillaume de Caën supported the +opposition by saying that the Spaniards would take possession of New +France, if a boast were made of its resources. The king, finally, had to +undertake the defence of the colony alone. + +Before leaving for France in 1624, Champlain had ordered the workmen to +gather fascines for the completion of the fort, but upon his return to +Canada, two years later, he found that nothing had been done. Champlain +therefore decided to demolish the old fort, and to construct a more +spacious one with the old materials, composed of fascines, pieces of +wood and grass, after the Norman method. The fort was flanked with two +bastions of wood and grass, until such time as they could be covered +with stone. The fort was ready for habitation at the commencement of the +year 1629, and Champlain took up his residence there at this date, with +two young Indian girls whom he had adopted as his children. After the +capitulation of Quebec in 1629, Louis Kirke resided in the fort with a +part of his crew.[25] + +Although Champlain was not satisfied with the conduct of the merchants +towards the French, he was nevertheless pleased with the Indian tribes. +This noble care and management of these poor natives constitute one of +the brightest pages of his life. If we wish to form an impartial +judgment of the heroic qualities of Champlain, we must study his daily +relations with the chiefs of the various tribes. It is here that his +true character is revealed to us, and we are forced to admire both the +patience and care which he bestowed upon these people, and also his +exercise of diplomacy which rendered him from the first the most beloved +and respected of the French. His word commanded passive obedience, and +to maintain his friendship they were willing to make any sacrifice which +he desired. In this respect Champlain was more successful than the +missionaries, nor is it a matter of surprise that his memory was +cherished among the Indians longer than that of Father Le Caron or of +Father de Brébeuf. In their appreciation of character, the Indians +recognized instinctively that the calling of the missionaries rendered +their lives more perfect than that of a man of the world, but the +special characteristics and virtues of each did not escape their +penetration. Champlain took every care to preserve his friendship with +the Indians, not only on his own account, but also for the sake of the +traders, and of commerce generally, for his name acted as a +safe-conduct. Champlain had another ambition. He realized that if he +could induce the Indians to gather in the vicinity of Quebec, they would +prove a means of defence against the incursions of enemies. It seems to +have been a good policy, and the Jesuits who adopted the same means had +reason to be satisfied with their action. + +In the year 1622 Champlain tried to establish the Montagnais near +Quebec. Miristou, their chief, was willing, and they began to cultivate +the land in the vicinity of La Canardière, on the north shore of the +river St. Charles. By living in the midst of such a community, Champlain +hoped to be able to derive new information regarding the country. + +The sempiternal question of an open sea, admitting a free passage from +Europe to China, was constantly under the consideration of navigators. +Whether or not the founder of Quebec believed in this passage, we are +not prepared to assert, as he does not make any definite statement, but +from his Relations it is evident that he hoped to ascertain whether it +were possible to reach the far west by means of the river St. Lawrence +and the Great Lakes. He knew that he could serve the interest of the +mother country by obtaining new data, and his opinions were well +received in France, although the recent wars had somewhat engrossed +public attention. The travels of the Récollets in the Huron country had +not resulted in the acquisition of new territory, and the interpreters +had nothing further to do than to discover new tribes with whom trade +might be developed. Western Canada had consequently been neglected both +for the want of explorers and of resources, as Champlain was of course +unable to explore the whole American continent, and at the same time +govern the colony of New France, where his presence was necessary to +preserve harmony amongst the Indians. + +Champlain tried to effect an alliance with the Iroquois during the year +1622, and for this purpose he sent two Montagnais to their country as +delegates. In the meantime a double murder occurred in the colony. A +Frenchman named Pillet and his companion were murdered by an unknown +party. The facts were brought to the notice of the court in France, and +it was decided to pardon the murderer on the condition that he would +confess his crime, and publicly ask for pardon. Champlain appears to +have been anxious to assert his authority, on this occasion, for the +prevention of such crimes, but the merchants were inclined to condone +the offence, and one day Guillaume de Caën in the presence of Champlain +and some captains, took a sword, and caused it to be cast into the +middle of the St. Lawrence, in order that the Indians might understand +that the crime even as the sword, was buried forever. The effect of this +action was otherwise than desired. The Hurons ridiculed the affair, and +said that they had nothing to fear in the future if they murdered a +Frenchman. + +The murderer was a Montagnais, and the tribe consequently approved of +this lack of justice. Champlain, however, desired a more severe +imposition of the law. The Montagnais were perhaps the most dangerous of +Champlain's allies, especially as their treachery was marked by the +outward appearance of serious friendship. In the Montagnais were united +all the vices of the other Indian tribes as well as the bad features of +some of the Europeans, especially those of the Rochelois and Basques. +They were bold and independent, but Champlain soon showed them, by +ceasing to care for them, that he was not to be imposed upon. Fearing to +lose the friendship of Champlain, they endeavoured to regain the +position which they had in a measure lost; but instead of remaining +passive, they boasted of the ease with which they could find protectors +and advocates amongst the French. This conduct did not please Champlain, +who would have preferred to find a people more amenable to natural laws, +which are in themselves a defence against murder. + +The Montagnais who had been sent to the Iroquois returned to Quebec in +July, 1624. They had been courteously received, and as a result of their +negotiations, a general meeting of the Indians was held at Three Rivers. +There might be seen Hurons, Algonquins, Montagnais, Iroquois, and the +French with their interpreters. The meeting was conducted with perfect +order. There were many speeches, followed by the feast pantagruelic. The +war hatchet was buried, so that Champlain could leave for France without +being very anxious as to the fate of his compatriots. + +The alliance of 1624 did not last long, however, owing to the imprudence +of the Montagnais who had journeyed to the Dutch settlement on the banks +of the Hudson and promised to assist the settlers in their wars against +the Mohicans and Iroquois. Champlain interfered, and reminded the +Montagnais that they were bound to observe the treaty of 1624, and +there was no reason to break it. "The Iroquois," said Champlain, "ought +to be considered as our friends as long as the war hatchet is not +disinterred, and I will go myself to help them in their wars, if +necessary." + +This language pleased the chief of the Montagnais, and he asked +Champlain to send some one to Three Rivers, if he could not go himself, +in order to prevent the other nations from fighting against the +Iroquois. Étienne Brûlé was sent on this delicate mission, but as +opinion was divided as to the advisability of the war, it was decided to +wait until the arrival of the vessels. Emery de Caën arrived soon after, +and hastened to meet the allies, who, according to rumour, were +preparing to go to war against the Iroquois. In addition to this a party +had gone to Lake Champlain, where they had made two Iroquois prisoners, +who were, however, delivered by the murderer of Pillet. + +Champlain and Mahicanaticouche arrived in the meantime, whereupon a +general council was held. Champlain severely blamed the authors of this +escapade, the consequences of which might be terrible. It was resolved +to send a new embassy to the Five Nations at once, composed of +Cherououny called _Le Réconcilié_ by the French, Chimeourimou, chief of +the Montagnais, Pierre Magnan, and an Iroquois, adopted when young by a +Montagnais widow. The delegates left for Lake Champlain on July 24th. +One month after, an Indian came to Quebec with the news that the four +delegates had been murdered by the Tsonnontouans. Magnan had murdered +one of his compatriots in France, and by coming to Canada had evaded +justice. + +This massacre put an end to thoughts of peace. In September some +Iroquois were known to be _en route_ for Quebec, evidently with hostile +motives. It was just at this time that a number of savages were coming +from a distance of fifty or sixty leagues to fish in the river St. +Lawrence. Nothing serious happened from the visit of the Iroquois, and +Champlain was able to visit his habitation at Cape Tourmente without +danger. In his absence, however, a double murder was committed at La +Canardière. Two Frenchmen, one named Dumoulin, and the other Henri, a +servant of the widow Hébert, were found dead, having been shot with +muskets. + +The murderer's intention had been to kill the baker of the habitation, +and a servant of Robert Giffard, the surgeon. Champlain was anxious to +punish this murderer, but the difficulty was to discover him. Champlain +summoned all the captains of the Montagnais, and having set forth all +the favours which he had bestowed upon the nation, contrasted them with +the conduct which he had received at their hands since 1616. There had +already been four murders of which they were guilty. Champlain therefore +demanded that they should find and give up the guilty party. One +Montagnais who was suspected, was examined, but he denied everything. +Champlain, however, ordered him to be detained in jail until the real +criminal should be found. + +During the winter of 1628, about thirty Montagnais, miserable and +hungry, came to the habitation, asking for bread. Champlain took this +opportunity of pointing out to them the evil of their race, and of the +crimes they had committed. They declared that they knew nothing whatever +of the crime, and to show that they were not responsible they offered +three young girls to Champlain to be educated. Champlain accepted them +and treated them as his own children, naming them _Foi_, _Espérance_, +and _Charité_. + +After having kept the Montagnais in jail for fourteen months he was +released, as there was no proof against him. Champlain learned soon +after that he was not guilty, and that the real criminal was dead, being +none other than Mahicanaticouche, one of the captains of the Montagnais. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[21] For a plan of Abraham Martin's property, see, _The Story of the +Siege and the Battle of the Plains of Abraham_, by A.G. Doughty. + +[22] See _Deed of Concession_, p. 414, Trans. R.S.C., 1899, by A.G. +Doughty. + +[23] Father Mariana, a Jesuit, having published a book entitled, _De +Regi et Regis Institutione_, in which he denounced tyranny and its +fomenters, the court ordered that the work should be burnt, under the +pretext that Ravaillac, who had assassinated Henri IV, had taken +advantage of the Jesuit's authority to excuse his murder. It was certain +that the Jesuits were the best friends of the late king. Nevertheless, +they had to suffer the hostility of a certain part of the secular +clergy. Father Coton, a Jesuit, published at once a pamphlet under the +title, "Is it lawful to kill the tyrants?" in which he taught that it is +not lawful to kill a king, except he abuses his authority. An answer to +the pamphlet, published anonymously, soon appeared, which was a +satirical paper rather than a refutation of Father Coton's letter. +During the same year a new satirical paper against the Jesuits was +printed, entitled _L'Anticoton_. It was translated into Latin. + +[24] Raymond de la Ralde who was a Catholic, was the first captain of +the island of Miscou, the history of which commenced in 1620. Guillaume +de Caën appointed de la Ralde as his lieutenant to protect the trade in +the Gulf of St. Lawrence against the Basques and others, especially at +Percé, Gaspé, and Miscou. From the year 1627, de la Ralde ceased to be +of importance, as his fortunes followed the de Caëns. + +[25] Champlain died within Fort St. Louis, and the Governor Montmagny +had the building restored under the title of Château St. Louis, which +name it bore until its complete demolition. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE COMPANY OF NEW FRANCE OR HUNDRED ASSOCIATES + + +In spite of Champlain's strenuous efforts, the permanent existence of +New France seemed as yet problematical. At a time when internal peace +was imperative the domination of the mercantile companies came to +increase the distress of the struggling colony. The difficulties of +colonization likewise were immense, and Quebec at the period of which we +write, instead of being a thriving town, had scarcely the appearance of +a small village. In the year 1627 it could boast only six private +residences. The Récollets were living at their convent, but the Jesuits +had not completed their new building. The Récollets had abandoned the +Huron mission as their numbers were diminishing every year, and they +were too poor to continue their ministrations without assistance. They +still held in charge the missions at Quebec and at Tadousac. Father +d'Olbeau, who had been present at the opening of the Récollet convent at +Quebec, saw its doors closed. He remained, however, at his post, and +rendered valuable assistance to Champlain. + +The Jesuits made great personal efforts for the advancement of the +colony, and Father Noyrot had sailed for Canada with a number of +workmen and a good store of provisions, but unfortunately his vessel did +not reach Quebec. + +The negligence of Montmorency's company was the principal cause why +Quebec was abandoned to its own resources. Champlain was powerless +against the ill-will of the company, and the only redress was in the +person of the king. Cardinal Richelieu, who was superintendent of the +navigation and commerce of France, resolved to reform the remnant of a +company founded in 1626, and composed of one hundred associates, for +conducting the commerce of the East and West. As the due de Ventadour +had resigned the office of viceroy, the cardinal held a meeting of many +rich and zealous persons in his hotel at Paris, whose names would be a +guarantee of the success of the colonization of New France, and also of +its religious institutions. Among those present were Claude de +Roquemont, Sieur de Brison, Louis Hoüel, Sieur du Petit-Pré, Gabriel de +Lattaignant, formerly mayor of Calais, Simon Dablon, syndic of Dieppe, +David Duchesne, councillor and alderman of Havre de Grâce, and Jacques +Castillon, citizen of Paris. + +On April 25th, 1627, the cardinal and these personages signed the act +which founded the Company of New France. In the preamble it is mentioned +that the colonization in New France shall be Catholic only, as this was +regarded as the best means of converting the Indians. The associates +pledged themselves to send two or three hundred men to New France +during the year 1628, and to augment this number to four thousand within +fifteen years from this date, i.e., by the year 1643. They agreed to +lodge, feed and entertain the settlers for a period of three years, and +after that date to grant to each family a tract of land sufficiently +prepared for cultivation. Three priests were to be maintained at each +habitation, at the expense of the company, for a period of fifteen +years. + +The king granted to the company numerous privileges, the lands of New +France, the river St. Lawrence, islands, mines, fisheries, Florida, +together with the power of conceding lands in these countries, and the +faculty of granting titles, honours, rights and powers, according to the +condition, quality, or merit of the people. His Majesty also granted to +the company the monopoly of the fur and leather trade from January 1st, +1628, until December 31st, 1643, reserving for the French people in +general the cod and whale fisheries. In order to induce his subjects to +settle in New France the king announced that during the next fifteen +years all goods coming from the French colony should be free of duty. + +This act was signed on April 29th, 1627, and the letters patent +ratifying the articles were signed on May 6th, 1628. The letters patent +also ratified some other provisions made on May 7th, 1627, namely:--(1.) +A capital of three hundred thousand livres, by instalments of three +thousand livres each. (2.) The society to adopt the name of the +Campagnie de la Nouvelle France. (3.) The management of the company to +be conducted through twelve directors, with full powers to name +officers, to distribute lands, establish factors or clerks, to conduct +trade and dispose of the joint-stock. + +Of these twelve directors six were obliged to live in Paris. The names +of the twelve directors who were elected are here given:--Simon Alix, +councillor and king's secretary; Pierre Aubert, councillor and king's +secretary; Thomas Bonneau, Sieur du Plessis; Pierre Robineau, treasurer +of cavalry; Raoul L'Huillier, merchant of Paris; Barthélemy Quentin, +merchant of Paris; Jean Tuffet, merchant of Bordeaux; Gabriel +Lattaignant, formerly mayor of Calais; Jean Rozée, merchant of Rouen; +Simon Lemaistre, merchant of Rouen; Louis Hoüel, comptroller of +saltworks at Brouage; Bonaventure Quentin, Sieur de Richebourg. + +These directors were elected for a term of two years, and six of them +had to be replaced at each election. The first term of office expired on +December 31st, 1629. The election was held in Paris at the house of the +intendant, Jean de Lauzon, king's councillor, master of requests and +president of the Grand Council. Cardinal Richelieu and the Duke d'Effiat +headed the list of the Hundred Associates. We find also the name of +Samuel Champlain, captain of the king's marine, of Isaac de Razilly, +chevalier de St. Jean de Jérusalem, Sébastien Cramoisy, the famous +printer; François de Ré, Sieur Gand, and many important merchants of +Paris, Rouen, Calais, Dieppe, Bordeaux, Lyons, Bayonne, and Havre de +Grâce. + +This association was formed under auspicious circumstances; its members +possessed wealth and influence, and they were certainly in a position to +remove the difficulties which had hindered the growth of New France from +its foundation.[26] + +While these transactions were in progress Champlain was living at Quebec +in want of even the necessaries of life. For the past two years +Champlain had established a farm for raising cattle at the foot of Cape +Tourmente. Some farm buildings and dwellings for the men were erected +there, and Champlain visited the place every summer to see that the work +was properly carried on. The Récollets had a chapel there in which they +said mass from time to time. In 1628 this establishment was in a +flourishing condition, and Champlain believed it would ultimately prove +of great value to the inhabitants. The colony in the meantime had to +rely upon the mother country for provisions, and for flour which could +not be produced in Canada. + +The new company sent out four vessels in 1628 under the command of +Claude de Roquemont, laden with provisions, munitions, and a number of +men. This first shipment cost 164,720 livres or about $33,000 of our +currency. This large outlay was proof that the associates were +determined to maintain the new Canadian settlement. The fleet sailed +from Dieppe on May 3rd, and arrived at Percé about the middle of July. +During the voyage Roquemont was often exposed to the attacks of the +English and Dutch vessels, but he preferred to alter his course rather +than to fight. The vessels stopped at the Island of Anticosti, where the +crews landed, and planted a cross in token of their gratitude to God, +who had protected them. + +Some days afterwards they reached Percé, and a little later entered +Gaspé Bay. Roquemont was here informed by the savages that five large +English vessels were anchored in Tadousac harbour. It was the fleet of +David Kirke,[27] who was going to make an assault on Quebec, after +having devastated the Acadian coast. Roquemont at once sent +Thierry-Desdames to St. Barnabé Island, where he had intended to go +himself. Roquemont left Gaspé on July 15th, 1628, and proceeded up the +St. Lawrence, hoping that he would be able to escape his powerful +enemies, as the French vessels were not properly armed for a regular +fight. Unhappily, on the eighteenth the French came within cannon shot +of the British fleet. For a period of fourteen hours the vessels +cannonaded each other, and over twelve hundred shots were exchanged. The +French having exhausted their stock of balls used the lead of their +fishing poles instead. Finally Roquemont perceived that his vessel was +sinking, and asked for a compromise. It was decided that no penalties +should be exacted, and that the English admiral should take possession +of the ships. The French crews were taken on board the British vessels, +which continued their route for England. The British commander soon +realized that he had too many persons on board, and some of the families +and the Récollet fathers were put off on the Island of St. Peter. Among +the families were a Parisian named Le Faucheur, who with his wife and +five children were bound for Quebec, Robert Giffard, surgeon, his wife +and three girls, and fifteen or sixteen sailors. Kirke left them to the +mercy of God on this island with some provisions and a small Basque +vessel. + +The Basques who were hidden in the mountains came down upon the French +after the English were out of sight, and threatened to kill them if they +attempted to escape in their vessel. They at last agreed to allow them +to go elsewhere in consideration of a certain amount of biscuit and +cider. They all embarked in a frail shallop, and eventually arrived at +Plaisance on the coast of Newfoundland, where some French fishermen +conducted them to France. + +Some writers have blamed Roquemont for avoiding a fight. His conduct is +pardonable, however, to a certain extent, because his mission was not +one of war, but to carry provisions to the colony, and he had armed his +vessels only for any ordinary attack. Others, like Champlain, thought +that Roquemont had unnecessarily exposed himself, and blame him for the +following reasons:--(1.) The equipment was made out for helping the fort +and habitation of Quebec. In going forward Roquemont not only exposed +himself to a loss, but also the whole country, that is to say about one +hundred persons who were in distress. (2.) At Gaspé he was made aware +that the English admiral had proceeded up the St. Lawrence in command of +a fleet much more powerful than his own. He ought, therefore, to have +taken the advice of his mariners in order to ascertain whether there was +not a safe harbour along the coast which would have seemed a safe +retreat. (3.) After having put his vessels in such a harbour, Roquemont +ought to have sent a well equipped shallop to observe every movement of +the enemy, and await his departure before going higher up the river. +(4.) If Roquemont desired to fight, he ought to have laden the _Flibot_ +with flour and gunpowder, and placed on board the women and children, +and this small ship, which was sailing fast, could have escaped to +Quebec during the fight. Champlain, in setting forth these views, is +probably just, for the merit of a captain is not only in his courage, +but also in his prudence. Nothing remained of the expedition under +Roquemont, which was undertaken with so much courage, and at so much +expense. It is certain that if he had been able to reach Quebec with his +vessels, David Kirke would not have risked, in the following year, the +capture of the habitation of Quebec. + +The king of England had granted letters patent to the Company of +Adventurers which authorized them to trade, plant, seize Spanish and +French vessels, and to destroy the forts of New France. By a singular +coincidence the king of France had established the Company of the +Hundred Associates at the same time, and they were thus constituted +masters of commerce in Canada and Acadia. + +Sir William Alexander had equipped three vessels, to which he had +appointed David Kirke and his two brothers as captains. They stopped for +a time at Newfoundland, and then taking the gulf and river St. Lawrence, +they anchored at Tadousac, as we have already seen, during the first +days of July, 1628. The news of Kirke's arrival soon reached Champlain, +through an Indian named Napagabiscou, or Tregatin, who came in haste to +Cape Tourmente. Foucher, the chief of the farmers, proceeded at once to +Quebec to confirm the news, and also to inform Champlain that the +establishment had been burnt, his cattle destroyed, and all the +inhabitants taken prisoners. The prisoners were brought back to Quebec +some days after in the custody of six Basques, who delivered to +Champlain the following letter: + + "Messieurs:--I give you notice that I have received a + commission from the king of Great Britain, my honoured lord and + master, to take possession of the countries of Canada and Acadia, + and for that purpose eighteen ships have been despatched, each + taking the route ordered by His Majesty. I have already seized the + habitation of Miscou, and all boats and pinnaces on that coast, as + well as those of Tadousac, where I am presently at anchor. You are + also informed that among the vessels that I have seized, there is + one belonging to the new company, commanded by a certain Noyrot, + which was coming to you with provisions and goods for the trade. + The Sieur de la Tour was also on board, whom I have taken into my + ship. I was preparing to seek you, but thought it better to send + boats to destroy and seize your cattle at Cape Tourmente; for I + know that, when you are straightened for supplies, I shall the more + easily obtain my desire, which is, to have your settlement; and in + order that no vessels shall reach you, I have resolved to remain + here till the end of the season, in order that you may not be + re-victualled. Therefore see what you wish to do, if you intend to + deliver up the settlement or not, for, God aiding, sooner or later + I must have it. I would desire, for your sake, that it should be by + courtesy rather than by force, to avoid the blood which might be + spilt on both sides. By surrendering courteously, you may be + assured of all kinds of contentment, both for your persons and for + your property, which on the faith that I have in Paradise, I will + preserve as I would my own, without the least portion in the world + being diminished. The Basques whom I send you are men of the + vessels that I have captured, and they can tell you the state of + affairs between France and England, and even how matters are + passing in France, touching the new company of this country. Send + me word what you desire to do, and if you wish to treat with me + about this affair, send me a person to that effect, whom, I assure + you, I will treat with all kinds of attention, and I will grant all + reasonable demands that you may desire in resolving to give up the + settlement. Waiting your reply, I remain, messieurs, your + affectionate servant, + + "David Quer. + + "On board the _Vicaille_, July 18th, 1628, and addressed to + Monsieur Champlain, Commandant at Quebec." + +Champlain read that letter to Pont-Gravé and to the chief inhabitants. +After mature deliberation, it was resolved that Champlain should answer +Kirke with dignity and firmness, but should not give any idea of the +poor state of Quebec. "We concluded," says Champlain, "that if Kirke +wished to see us he had better come, and not threaten from such a +distance. That we did not in the least doubt the fact of Kirke having +the commission of his king, as great princes always select men of brave +and generous courage." + +Champlain acknowledged the intelligence of the capture of Father Noyrot +and de la Tour, and also the truth of the observation that the more +provisions there were in a fortress the better it could hold out, still +it could be maintained with but little, provided good order were kept; +therefore, being still furnished with grain, maize, beans and pease, +(besides what the country could supply) which his soldiers loved as well +as the finest corn in the world, by surrendering the fort in so good a +condition, he would be unworthy to appear before his sovereign, and +would deserve chastisement before God and men. He was sure that Kirke +would respect him much more for defending himself than for abandoning +his charge, without first making trial of the English guns and +batteries. Champlain concludes by saying that he would expect his +attack, and oppose, as well as he could, all attempts that might be made +against the place. The noble language of Champlain's letter made a deep +impression on Kirke, and he deemed it prudent to start for Europe. +Before leaving Tadousac, David Kirke destroyed all the captured French +barques, with the exception of the largest, which he took to Europe. +Since leaving England he had doubled the number of his vessels, having +taken away all that he could from the habitation of Miscou and other +seaports frequented by the French. + +The news of the departure of the English fleet took some days to reach +Quebec, where the minds of the inhabitants were divided between hope and +fear. Champlain was determined to await the arrival of the enemy, and to +defend Quebec, without considering its weakness. Every one began to +work to construct new intrenchments around the habitation, and to +barricade the road which led to the fort. Each was given a post in the +event of an attack, and a defence was determined upon. Later on +Champlain was informed of Roquemont's fate and of Kirke's departure. + +The English were, indeed, well compensated for their abandonment of +Quebec, for the seizure of the vessels and their provisions was +equivalent to the capture of the French colony, since famine threatened +them sooner or later. In attacking Quebec Kirke, indeed, would have met +with but little opposition, because every one was suffering. Those who +were unable to live from the product of their own lands were compelled +to ask assistance from the trade agents. Champlain ordered a +distribution of pease to be made to each person indiscriminately. The +Récollets refused any assistance, and they passed the whole winter +subsisting on corn and vegetables of their own cultivation. Champlain +succeeded in building a mill for grinding pease. The eel fisheries were +productive, and the Indians bought from the French six eels for a beaver +skin. In the midst of these perplexities Champlain realized that unless +assistance was forthcoming in the spring, it would be advisable for him +to accept an honourable capitulation, and to send all the French who +wished to return to their country, either to Gaspé or to Miscou. + +As soon as the snow had disappeared in the spring of the year 1629, +Champlain caused all the arable land to be sown. By the end of May his +stock of provisions was nearly exhausted, and he therefore decided to +send Desdames to Gaspé with a group of the inhabitants. Hubou, Desportes +and Pivert took passage on Desdames' barque, hoping to meet a French +vessel at Gaspé. One month later Desdames returned, and confirmed the +news that the English vessels had devastated the Acadian coast, and +burnt the habitations. Neither Desdames nor his party had seen any +French vessel in the gulf, but they had met Iuan Chou, a friend of +Champlain, who had agreed to give hospitality to twenty persons, +including Pont-Gravé, by whom he was greatly esteemed. The latter was +still suffering from gout, and it was with some reluctance that he +agreed to leave his position as first clerk, empowered by Guillaume de +Caën to take care of the merchandise. Des Marets, who was Pont-Gravé's +grandson, accepted his position in the interim. + +Before leaving Quebec Pont-Gravé desired Champlain to read publicly the +commission which he had received from Guillaume de Caën. After grand +mass on June 17th Champlain read Pont-Gravé's commission and his own in +the presence of all the people, and he added some words, by which it was +easily understood that the king's authority had to be superior to +Guillaume de Caën's commissions. Pont-Gravé replied at once: "I see that +you believe in the nullity of my commission!" "Yes," replied Champlain, +"when it comes in conflict with the king's and the viceroy's authority." +This petty dispute had no serious consequence, as it was evident that +Pont-Gravé, being only the first clerk of Guillaume de Caën, had no +other authority than to take care of the peltry and merchandise +belonging to his chief. + +Before turning their attention to Canada Guillaume and Emery de Caën had +belonged to a large company trading with the East Indies. Both were +Calvinists. Sagard writes that Guillaume was polite, liberal, and of +good understanding. This testimony seems somewhat exaggerated, as we +have many proofs of his niggardliness. His nephew Emery was frank, +liberal and open to conviction, and was always kindly disposed towards +the Jesuits. Guillaume de Caën was the commodore of the fleet equipped +by his associates. His greatest fault appears to have been that he +neglected Champlain and the colony, and for that reason he should share +the responsibility of not having prevented the capitulation of Quebec. +However, it is scarcely fair to say of him that he worked directly +against the French in New France. After the capitulation of 1629, +Cardinal Richelieu wrote of him to the French ambassador in London: +"Please examine his actions. Being a Huguenot, and having been much +displeased with the new company of Canada, I have entertained a +suspicion that he connived with the English. I have not a sure +knowledge of it, but you will please me if you inform me of his +conduct." + +This suspicion seems unfounded, because Guillaume de Caën was personally +interested in the fate of Quebec. His merchandise which was seized by +Kirke was valued at about forty thousand écus. If he had made some +agreement with Kirke he would have had no difficulty in recovering his +goods after the capitulation, but such was not the case. + +As to Emery de Caën we must say that he took an active part in the +defence of the colony, and perhaps he might have saved Quebec, had not +one of his sailors committed a grave imprudence at a critical juncture. +The facts are as follows: The Treaty of Suze, which was signed on April +24th, 1629, had established peace between France and England. Being +aware of this fact Emery de Caën equipped a vessel for the purpose of +bringing back to France all the furs and merchandise which were the +property of his uncle. When he arrived near the Escoumins a dense fog +obscured the coast, and his vessel ran aground on Red Island, opposite +Tadousac. Having succeeded in floating his ship, de Caën went to Chafaud +aux Basques, two leagues above Tadousac. Here he was informed that the +Kirke brothers were at Tadousac, and he at once made for Mal Bay, where +he was informed that Champlain had capitulated. This news lacked +confirmation, and so he sent two emissaries to Quebec, who instead of +proceeding directly there, amused themselves on the shore of the river +at Cape Tourmente. They finally arrived at their destination, and were +badly received by Guillaume Couillard. + +In the meantime Thomas Kirke was sailing down from Quebec to Tadousac, +after the capitulation of the stronghold, and meeting de Caën's vessel +approached within cannon shot. A fight began, and soon both vessels were +stopped by Kirke's order. Previous to this, Champlain and all the French +who were on board had been sent below deck, the covers of which had been +fastened with large nails, so that they were unable to render any +assistance to Emery de Caën, even if they had desired to. The battle +continued under some difficulties, and the vessels were grappled only by +their foremasts. Kirke's position was becoming untenable, but by a +singular blunder instead of being defeated he was allowed to become the +master. One of Emery de Caën's sailors having cried "_Quartier! +Quartier_!" or Surrender! Kirke hurriedly answered, "_Bon quartier_, and +I promise your life safe, and I shall treat you as I did Champlain, whom +I bring with me." Hearing these words the French hesitated, laid down +their arms, and soon perceived Champlain on the deck. Kirke had released +him from his temporary jail, threatening him with death if he did not +order Emery de Caën to cease his fire. Then Champlain said: "It would be +easy to kill me, being in your power. But you do not deserve honour for +having broken your word. You have promised to treat me with +consideration. I cannot command these people, neither prevent them from +doing their duty, in defending themselves. You must praise them instead +of blaming them." Champlain asked them to surrender willingly. They were +wise in doing so, as two English _pataches_ soon arrived which would +have settled the fight. + +Emery de Caën, and Jacques Couillard de l'Espinay, his lieutenant, took +passage on Kirke's vessel, and submitted themselves to the enemy's +conditions. De Caën was compelled to abandon his ship, which was full of +provisions intended for Quebec. In less than two hours every hope of fur +trading had disappeared. De Caën had lost not only his vessel, but also +five hundred beaver skins and some merchandise for traffic. This loss +was valued at fifty-one thousand francs. Emery de Caën returned to +France. He came back to Quebec in the year 1631, with permission from +Richelieu to treat with the Indians. But the English commander expressly +forbade the trade, and placed guardians on his vessel during the period +of trading. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[26] All that relates to the formation of the Company of New France is +contained in a series of documents entitled, _Edits, Ordonnances +royaux_. The first document is entitled, _Compagnie du Canada, establie +sous le titre de Nouvelle France, par les articles du vingt-neuf auril +et sept May, mil six cens vingt-sept_. We find it in the _Mercure +François_ (t. xiv., part ii., p. 232) and also in the _Mémoires sur les +possessions Françoises en Amérique_ (t. iii., pp. 3, 4, and 5). This +document is double, the first containing twenty articles, and the second +thirty-one, which essentially differ. The act of April 29th, 1627, +exposes the designs which had engaged the king to establish a new +company, its obligations, and the advantages which it will get from +Canada. The act of May 7th is the deed of association, which contains +the whole organization of the company, its rules, and all that concerns +the administration of its funds. The acceptation of the articles of +April 29th, 1628, was officially known by an act passed on August 5th, +1628, and the acceptation of the articles of May 7th took place on +August 6th, of the same year. These articles had been confirmed by an +order-in-council, on May 6th, 1628, at La Rochelle. On the same day +Louis XIII had issued patents confirming the order-in-council. On May +18th Richelieu had ratified the articles of April 29th and of May 7th. + +These various documents were published in 1628, one part of them in the +_Mercure François_, and the other in a pamphlet, large in quarto of +twenty-three pages. The list of the Hundred Associates was also printed +in a small pamphlet of eight pages, bearing as title: _Noms, surnoms et +Qualitez des Associez En la Compagnie de la Nouvelle France, suyvant les +jours et dates de leurs signatures_. + +[27] About the year 1596 Gervase Kirke, of Norton, county of Derby, +married Elizabeth Goudon, of Dieppe, and had issue five boys and two +girls. The eldest boy was named David, the second son was Louis; and the +third, Thomas; the fourth, John; and the fifth, James. In the year 1629 +David was thirty-two years of age, Louis was thirty, and Thomas +twenty-six years of age. These are the three heroes of the Quebec +assault. + +Gervase Kirke was a member of the Company of Adventurers, and he died on +December 17th, 1629. In 1637 David received as a concession the +New-found-land. After some difficulties which he had to suffer, David +Kirke died in the year 1656. His widow claimed the sum of £60,000 for +the part that the Kirkes had taken in bringing about the capitulation of +Quebec, but the king paid no attention to these claims, and the Kirke +family became poor. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE CAPITULATION OF QUEBEC, 1629 + + +We have somewhat anticipated events, so we now retrace our steps, and +place ourselves within Champlain's defenceless stronghold as its fatal +hour approached. On Thursday, July 19th, 1629, a savage named La Nasse +by the French, and Manitougatche by his own people, informed the Jesuits +that three English ships were in sight off the Island of Orleans, behind +Point Lévis, and that six other vessels were anchored at Tadousac. +Champlain was already aware that some ships were at Tadousac, but he was +surprised to learn that the enemy had approached Quebec, and at first he +thought that they might be French ships. There was no one in Fort St. +Louis at the time he received this news, as every one had gone out in +search of plants which were used as food; he therefore sent for Father +Le Caron and the Jesuits to consult with them as to what measures should +be taken. In the meantime the English fleet was steadily approaching, +and at length drew up at a certain distance from the city. A shallop was +then sent out from the admiral's ship, carrying at her mainmast a white +flag. Champlain caused a similar flag to be run up over the fort, and +Kirke's emissary came ashore and presented to Champlain the following +letter:-- + + "Monsieur:--In consequence of what our brother told you + last year that sooner or later he would have Quebec, if not + succoured, he has charged us to assure you of his friendship as we + do of ours; and knowing very well the extreme need of everything in + which you are, desires that you shall surrender the fort and the + settlement to us, assuring you of every kind of courtesy for you + and yours, and also of honourable and reasonable terms, such as you + may wish. Waiting your reply, we remain, monsieur, your very + affectionate servants, + + "Louis and Thomas Quer. + + "On board the _Flibot_, this July 19th, 1629." + +Champlain immediately prepared his answer, the terms of which had +previously been agreed upon by the fathers. Kirke's representative did +not understand a word of the French language, but he had a fair +knowledge of Latin. Father de la Roche d'Aillon was therefore requested +by Champlain to act as interpreter, and he asked the following +questions:--"Is war declared between France and England?" "No," replied +the English representative. "Why, then, do you come here to trouble us +if our princes live in peace?" he was asked. + +Champlain then requested Father de la Roche to go aboard the English +vessels to ascertain from the chiefs what they intended to do. The +interview between Father de la Roche and Louis Kirke was courteous, but +the answers of the latter were far from being satisfactory. "If +Champlain," said the English captain, "gives up the keys of the fortress +and of the habitation we promise to convey you all to France, and will +treat you well; if not we will oblige him by force." Father de la Roche +tried to obtain fifteen days' delay, or even eight days, but it was of +no avail. + +"Sir," said Louis Kirke, "I well know your miserable condition. Your +people have gone out to pick up roots in order to avoid starvation, for +we have captured Master Boullé and some other Frenchmen whom we have +retained as prisoners at Tadousac, and from whom we have ascertained the +condition of the inhabitants of Quebec." + +"Give us a delay of eight days," said Father de la Roche. "No," replied +Thomas Kirke, "I shall at once ruin the fort with my cannon." "I desire +to sleep to-night in the fort," added his brother Louis, "and, if not, I +shall devastate the whole country." "Proceed slowly," said Father de la +Roche, "for you are deceived if you believe you will easily gain the +fort. There are a hundred men there well armed and ready to sell their +lives dearly. Perchance you will find your death in this enterprise, for +I assure you that the inhabitants are determined to fight, and they +derive courage from the conviction that your invasion is unjust, and +that their lives and property are at stake. Once more I warn you that an +attack might prove dangerous to you." + +Captain Louis Kirke seemed a little disheartened on hearing this firm +and vigorous language. After having consulted the chief officers of his +fleet he asked Father de la Roche to attend a council of war at which an +ultimatum was presented in these words:--"Champlain must surrender at +once, but he shall have the privilege of dictating the terms of +capitulation." Three hours were granted within which his reply was to be +given. The Récollets were promised protection, but no conditions were +accorded to the Jesuits, as it was the admiral's intention to visit +their convent, which he believed to contain a quantity of beaver skins. + +Father de la Roche returned to Fort St. Louis, and gave an account of +his interview. It was plainly evident that it would be useless to rely +upon delays in the face of an enemy determined to see the end of the +affair. Food was almost exhausted, and it was calculated that there were +not more than ten pounds of flour in Quebec, and not more than fifty +pounds of gunpowder, which was of inferior quality. Opposition would +have been not only useless, but ridiculous. Champlain realized this, and +at once resolved to surrender. + +Champlain drew up the following articles of capitulation, which were +forwarded to the Kirke brothers:-- + + "That Quer (Kirke) should produce his commission from the king of + England to prove that war actually existed between England and + France; and also to show the power of his brothers, who commanded + the fleet, to act in the king's name. + + "That a vessel should be provided to convey Champlain, his + companions, the missionaries, both Jesuits and Récollets, the two + Indian girls that had been given to him two years before, and all + other persons, to France. + + "That the religious and other people should be allowed to leave + with arms and baggage, and all their furniture, and that a + sufficient supply of provisions for the passage to France should be + granted in exchange for peltry, etc. + + "That all should have the most favourable treatment possible, + without violence to any. + + "That the ship in which they were to embark for France should be + ready in three days after their arrival at Tadousac, and a vessel + provided for the transport of their goods, etc., to that place." + + These articles were signed by Champlain and Pont-Gravé. After + having read them Louis Kirke sent this answer: "That Kirke's + commission should be shown and his powers to his brothers for + trading purposes. As to providing a vessel to take Champlain and + his people direct to France, that could not be done, but they would + give them passage to England, and from there to France, whereby + they would avoid being again taken by any English cruiser on their + route. For the sauvagesses, that clause could not be granted, for + reasons which would be explained. As to leaving with arms and + baggage, the officers might take with them their arms, clothes, + and peltries belonging to them, and the soldiers might have their + clothes and a beaver robe each. As for the holy fathers, they must + be contented with their robes and books. + + "L. Kirke. + "Thomas Kirke. + + "The said articles granted to Champlain and Du Pont, I accept and + ratify them, and I promise that they shall be executed from point + to point. Done at Tadousac, August 19th (new style), 1629. + + "David Kirke." + +The clause forbidding the soldiers to take their arms, coats and peltry, +excepting a castor robe, was a severe trial to them, as many of them had +bought skins from the Hurons to the extent of seven to eight hundred +francs, and preferred to fight rather than lose their fortune. + +Champlain had agreed to capitulate without firing. Some openly +reproached Champlain, saying that it was not the fear of death that +actuated his course, but rather the loss of the thousand livres, which +the English had agreed to give him if he abandoned Quebec without +striking a blow. + +Champlain was informed of all the murmurs and discontent which were +expressed amongst his people by a young Greek, who was charged to inform +him that they did not wish to surrender, and even if they lost their +fort, they desired to prove to the English that they were full of +courage. Champlain was annoyed at these exhibitions of insubordination, +and he instructed the Greek to give the people this answer:--"You are +badly advised and unwise. How can you desire resistance when we have no +provisions, no ammunition, or any prospect of relief? Are you tired of +living, or do you expect to be victorious under such circumstances? Obey +those who desire your safety and who do nothing without prudence." + +Brother Sagard makes these remarks upon the condition of affairs:--"It +is true that there was a great scarcity of all things necessary for the +habitation, but the enemy, too, were weak, as Father Joseph perceived +after having examined the whole crew, which consisted of about two +hundred soldiers, for the most part, men who had never touched a musket, +and who could have been killed as ducks or who would have run away. +Moreover they were in a wretched condition, and of a low order. The +weather was favourable to the French, as the tide was low, and the wind +from the south-east was driving the vessels towards France, so that +there was no assurance for either the vessels or the barques. Champlain, +however, deemed it more expedient to surrender than to run the risk of +his own life or of being made a prisoner while defending a fort so badly +armed." + +If, as the veracious Brother Sagard says, the fort and the habitation +were distressed, it is not proved that the English could be easily +defeated. There were at Quebec only fifty men capable of bearing arms, +and only a small quantity of gunpowder in store, while provisions were +absolutely wanting. How was it possible to sustain a siege without +ammunition, without bread and without soldiers? + +On the enemy's side there were two vessels well equipped, and two +hundred men. If the men were desperate or wretched, they would be the +more dangerous. Even supposing that the two vessels had proved +insufficient for a protracted siege, the four vessels at the disposal of +David Kirke would have surely come to their assistance. + +It would have been a foolish act to have resisted such a powerful enemy. +Besides, Champlain had another foe to contend against, for Nicholas +Marsolet, Étienne Brûlé, Pierre Reye, and others, had betrayed him, and +were leagued with Kirke. Champlain understood the difficulties of his +position, and his responsibilities, for he had in his hands the lives of +one hundred persons. + +Of the eighty persons living in Quebec at this time, only two-thirds had +private interests to safeguard, and it was a matter of indifference to +them whether they remained in Canada or whether they returned to France. +The families who had nothing to gain by leaving Quebec were those who +deserved the governor's sympathy, and it was for their safety that +Champlain would not agree to offer resistance, as the result must have +proved disastrous to them. By the articles of capitulation these +families would be able to live quietly at home, awaiting the issue of +negotiations. + +On the day following the preliminaries, Champlain went on board Louis +Kirke's vessel, where he was to see the commission of Charles I, which +empowered the Kirke brothers to take Quebec and the whole country by +assault. Both parties then signed the articles of capitulation, and the +English troops, conducted by Champlain, came in shallops near to the +habitation. The keys were delivered to Louis Kirke, and then they all +proceeded to the fort, which was delivered to the admiral. Quebec was +definitely put under the authority of the English, who had not fired a +single shot. Louis Kirke placed Le Baillif, who had been dismissed by +Guillaume de Caën for his bad conduct, in charge of the storehouse. This +was the first reward for his treason. Champlain asked the English +commander to protect the chapel of Quebec, the convents, and the houses +of the widow of Louis Hébert and of her son-in-law, Guillaume Couillard, +and he offered him the keys of his own room within the fort. Louis Kirke +refused to accept the latter, and left Champlain in possession of his +room. This courteous action was followed by another one, when Kirke +delivered to Champlain a certificate of all that he had found within the +fort and the habitation. This document was found useful later on, when +it was necessary to settle the value of the goods. + +In the meantime the English crew robbed the convent of the Jesuits, but +they did not find the beaver skins, as they expected. Kirke and the +Lutheran minister took for their own use the nicest volumes of the +library, and three or four pictures. The Récollets had filled a leather +bag with the ornaments of their church, and had hidden it underground, +far in the woods, thinking that they might return sooner or later. + +On the Sunday following the capitulation, July 22nd, Louis Kirke hoisted +the English flag over one of the bastions of the fort, and in order to +render the official possession of Quebec more imposing, he placed his +soldiers in ranks along the ramparts, and at a precise hour a volley was +fired from English muskets. In the afternoon, Champlain, the Jesuits, +and the greater number of the French took passage on the _Flibot_ for +Tadousac, leaving behind the families of Couillard, Martin, Desportes, +Hébert, Hubou, Pivert, Duchesne the surgeon, some interpreters and +clerks, and Pont-Gravé who was too sick to leave his room. It was +understood that all those who desired to return to France should start +on the day fixed by Kirke. + +The fate of the colony was thus decided. Those who had any authority, by +reason of their character or their official mission, were compelled to +leave. The others were at liberty to remain, especially the +interpreters, who would be useful in trading with the Indians. Before +Champlain's departure, some had taken his advice. Would they remain in +Quebec under a new régime, with nothing to hope for? Who was this +victorious Kirke, so captivating in appearance? Perhaps a lion clothed +with the skin of a lamb! They knew the Kirke brothers had been guilty of +burning the habitation at Cape Tourmente. Knowing that they were +Protestants, they could not expect sympathy on the score of religion. A +danger existed from every point of view. Nevertheless, Champlain advised +many of them to remain at Quebec in order to save their property. The +only objection was that they would be obliged to observe their religion +for an indefinite time without the ministrations of their priests. + +Three years were to elapse before a French vessel again appeared at +Quebec, with authority to hoist the white flag of France. Champlain's +advice was not prejudicial to any one, at least not in temporal matters. +This small nucleus became the great tree whose branches and leaves +extend to-day over the whole American continent. If France had seen the +complete depopulation of Canada, perhaps the king would not have made +the same efforts to have his colony restored. Champlain himself, in +spite of his great zeal and his love for the country which he had +founded, had been discouraged by the difficulties. He could foresee +better than any other the obstacles which the future would present, and +it caused him much uneasiness, and offered little consolation. At his +age most men would have preferred to rest after an agitated life of +thirty years, in the pursuit of an idea which it seemed impossible to +realize on account of the manifold difficulties by which it was +constantly beset. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE LAST EVENTS OF 1629 + + +"Since the English have taken possession of Quebec," writes Champlain, +"the days have seemed to me as long as months." This dreariness is +easily explained. The unsettled state of affairs, of which he was an +eye-witness, had rendered his life at Quebec intolerable. Louis Kirke, +however, treated him with respect and courtesy, and had given him +permission to bring to Tadousac his two adopted girls, Espérance and +Charité. It was a favour wholly unexpected, especially as by one of the +clauses of the act of capitulation he renounced claim to them. +Champlain, however, was ready to buy their liberty, if necessary, as he +wished to civilize them and convert them to Christianity. Having no +desire to stay longer in a place where even the beauties of the sunset +seemed to remind him of his humiliation, Champlain only resided +temporarily at Tadousac, and was anxious to reach France. He left Quebec +on July 24th, and on the following day he perceived a vessel sailing +near Murray Bay. This was Emery de Caën's ship, which, as we have +already stated, was proceeding to Quebec to claim the peltry in the +storehouse which belonged to his uncle. This vessel, as has been +described, was captured by Kirke, and the same fate happened to Captain +Daniel, who had crossed the ocean from Dieppe with four vessels and a +barque laden with provisions and ammunition. Having heard on the passage +that a Scottish fisherman named James Stuart, had erected a fort on Cape +Breton, in a place called Port-aux-Baleines, to protect his countrymen +during the fishing season, Daniel went out of his way to destroy this +fort, and to build one at Grand Cibou to check the intruders, instead of +proceeding directly to Quebec, as was his duty. He left at this place +forty men and two Jesuits, Father Vimont and Father de Vieux-Pont, and +then having set up the arms of France, he returned to his country +without having taken any care of the Quebec habitation. This was his +first fault, but nevertheless it was a great misfortune. + +The Jesuits had prepared at a great expense a shipment for Quebec. +Father Noyrot brought with him Father Charles Lalemant, who was +returning after an absence of nearly two years, Father de Vieux-Pont, +Brother Louis Malot and twenty-four persons. Driven by a terrible storm, +their barque was wrecked near the Island of Canseau. Fourteen were +drowned, including Father Noyrot and Brother Malot. The others +miraculously escaped. + +The Chevalier de Razilly was finally ordered to assist Quebec, but it +was found that an agreement had been concluded between France and +England on April 24th. Razilly had his commission cancelled and +proceeded to Morocco. + +The failure of these three expeditions, together with that of Emery de +Caën, occurring at the same time under unfortunate circumstances, +resulted in the loss of the colony for France, and won at least +temporary prestige and importance for the Kirke family. + +Champlain relates some remarkable events during his sojourn at Tadousac. +Religious fanaticism displayed itself in its worst form. The French had +with them Father de Brébeuf, who was quite competent and willing to +champion the cause of the Catholic faith, and especially when assailed +by his own countrymen. A French Huguenot, named Jacques Michel, +apparently headed a crusade against the Jesuits. One day Michel said to +a party that the Jesuits had come to Canada to annoy the Sieurs de Caën +in their trade. "I beg your pardon," replied the father, "we had no +other design in coming here than the glory of God and the conversion of +the savages." To which Jacques Michel answered still more audaciously: +"Yes, convert the savages, say rather, convert the beavers." "It is +false," replied the priest, somewhat vexed. Michel, who was angry, +raised his arm to strike the father, at the same time saying, "If I were +not restrained by the respect due to my chief, I would slap your face +for your denial." "I ask your pardon," said the father, "it was not in +my mind to injure you, and if my answer has vexed you, I regret it." +Michel was not satisfied and began to blaspheme, so that Champlain was +scandalized, and said: "You swear much for a Reformer." "It is true," +replied the Huguenot, "but I am furious against this Jesuit for his +denial, and if I hang to-morrow I will give him the blows he deserves." +During the day, however, Michel drank heavily and was attacked by +apoplexy, from which he died thirty-five hours later, without exhibiting +any signs of repentance. + +The commander Kirke appears to have acted somewhat strangely on this +occasion, for instead of having Michel quietly buried, he ordered a +splendid funeral, accompanied with military honours. When the remains +were lowered into the grave, a salute of eighty guns was fired, as if +the deceased had been an officer of high rank. Whatever may have been +the reasons for showing these tokens of honour to the remains of Michel, +we know not, but the savages seem to have resented the proceedings, for +they unearthed his body and gave it to the dogs. Michel had been a +traitor to his country and to his God, and this was the method of his +punishment. + +We have already mentioned the names of the Frenchmen who betrayed +Champlain, particularly Étienne Brûlé, Le Baillif, Pierre Reye and +Marsolet. Let us examine their conduct. Étienne Brûlé, in his capacity +of interpreter, had rendered many good services to his compatriots. +Unfortunately, his private actions while dwelling with the Hurons were +not above reproach, and he would certainly have been compelled to +expiate his offences had he not been adopted as one of their family. +Brûlé worked for the benefit of the Hurons, and their gratitude towards +a good officer perhaps outweighed their memory of an injury. On retiring +from the Huron country in 1629, Brûlé went to Tadousac, where he entered +the service of Kirke, and some years after he was killed by a savage. + +Marsolet's case is nearly identical with that of Brûlé, although it is +not proved that he was as licentious during the time that he lived with +the Algonquins. He and Brûlé asserted that they were compelled by Kirke +to serve under the British flag. Champlain severely blamed their +conduct, saying: "Remember that God will punish you if you do not amend +your lives. You have lost your honour. Wherever you will go, men will +point at you, saying: 'These are the men who have threatened their king +and sold their country.' It would be preferable to die than to live on +in this manner, as you will suffer the remorse of a bad conscience." To +this they replied: "We well know that in France we should be hanged. We +are sorry for what has happened, but it is done and we must drain the +cup to the bottom, and resolve never to return to France." Champlain +answered them: "If you are captured anywhere, you will run the risk of +being chastised as you deserve." + +Nicholas Marsolet became a good citizen, and his family alliances were +the most honourable. Pierre Reye, a carriage maker, was a bad character, +"One of the worst traitors, and wicked." His treason did not surprise +any one, and nothing better was expected of him. Le Baillif was not only +vicious, but a thief. On the night after the seizure by Kirke of the +goods in store, he took from the room of Corneille de Vendremur, a +clerk, one hundred livres in gold and money, a silver cup and some silk +stockings. He was suspected of having stolen from the chapel of the +Lower Town, a silver chalice, the gift of Anne of Austria. Though he was +a Catholic, Le Baillif ate food on days of abstinence, in order to +please the Protestants. He treated the French as if they were dogs. "I +shall abandon him," says Champlain, "to his fate, awaiting the day of +his punishment for his swearings, cursings and impieties." + +The treachery of these four men greatly affected Champlain, who was at a +loss to understand how those to whom he had given food and shelter could +be so ungrateful; but their conduct, however reprehensible, played no +part in the loss of the colony. Kirke employed them to further his +purposes without giving them any substantial reward. + +The sojourn of the French in Tadousac lasted many weeks, and the delay +caused Champlain much annoyance. David Kirke spent ten or twelve days on +his visit to Quebec, where he wanted to see for himself how his brother +Louis had disposed of everything, and what advantage he was likely to +gain from the acquisition of the new country. Believing himself to be +the supreme ruler and master of New France, he outlined a brilliant +future for the colony, looking forward to the day when he could bring +settlers to take advantage of its natural resources. + +Returning to Tadousac, the general invited his captains to a dinner, at +which Champlain was also a guest. The dinner was served in a tent +surrounded with branches. Towards the end of the banquet David Kirke +gave Champlain a letter from Marsolet to inform him that the chief +savages, gathered at Three Rivers in council, had resolved to keep with +them the two girls, Espérance and Charité. This was a severe trial to +Champlain, who had hoped to be able to take them to France. All his +efforts, however, were useless, as there was a plot organized by the +traitor Marsolet. These children loved Champlain as a father, and were +inconsolable when they realized that their departure for France was +impossible. + +Champlain relates many things that do not redound to Kirke's credit, +amongst other things that Kirke blamed his brother Louis for giving the +Jesuits permission to say mass, and afterwards refused the permission. +Again, at the moment when the Jesuits embarked for Tadousac, Louis Kirke +ordered a trunk to be opened in which the sacred vessels were contained. +Seeing a box which contained a chalice Kirke tried to seize it, but +Father Massé interfered, and said to him: "This is a sacred object, do +not profane it, if you please." "Why," said Kirke, "we have no faith in +your superstition," and so saying he took the chalice in his hands, +braving the Jesuit's advice. The Catholics were also denied the +privilege of praying in public. This intolerant action was condemned by +Champlain. During their stay at Tadousac Champlain and the admiral went +out shooting. They killed more than two thousand larks, plovers, snipes +and curlews. In the meantime the sailors had cut trees for masts, and +some birch which they took to England. They also carried with them four +thousand five hundred and forty beaver skins, one thousand seven hundred +and thirteen others seized at Quebec, and four hundred and thirty-two +elk skins. The French had not given up all their skins; some had hidden +a good many, and others kept them with Kirke's consent. The Récollets +and the Jesuits were returning poorer than when they came. Champlain +alone was allowed to retain all his baggage. At the commencement of +September the admiral fitted out a medium sized barque with provisions +for Quebec, with instructions to bring back the Récollets who were +scattered throughout the country, and also some of the French who had +intended to remain at Quebec and other places. + +On September 14th the English fleet set out carrying Champlain, the +Jesuits, the Récollets, and two-thirds of the French, that is to say, +nearly the whole of the colony. The passage was short though difficult, +and eleven of the crew died from dysentery. On October 20th the vessels +reached Plymouth, where Kirke was much disappointed to learn that the +treaty of peace signed on April 24th had been confirmed on September +16th. All the French, except Champlain, took passage for France at +Dover. Champlain proceeded directly to London, where he met the French +ambassador, M. de Chateauneuf, and related to him the events which had +taken place in Canada, and urged him to take steps for its restoration +to France. + +The fathers disembarked at Calais at the end of October. Father Massé +returned to his former position of minister at the college of La Flèche. +Father Anne de Noüe went to Bourges. Father de Brébeuf entered the +college of Rouen, where he had laboured previously, and three other +Jesuits whom we find afterwards in Canada, Father Charles Lalemant, +Father Jogues and Father Simon Lemoyne, were at that time professors in +this college. Father Massé and Father de Brébeuf were soon to resume +their ministration in this country, which they were forced to abandon at +a time when they had hoped to see the realization of their noble +mission. L'Abbé Faillon has written that the family of Hébert alone +remained at Quebec after the surrender, but this is incorrect. The truth +is that at least five families remained in Quebec. It was God's will +that the most prominent and influential men should leave for France, +but He also ordained that a few heroic settlers or possessors of New +France should remain. If their remaining was favourable to France +Champlain deserves the credit, for he did more than any of his +countrymen to bring it about. The population of Quebec or of the whole +colony in July, 1629, was divided as follows:--Inhabitants, +twenty-three; interpreters, eleven; clerks, fourteen; missionaries, ten; +domestics, seven; French, arrived from the Huron country, twenty. This +makes a total number of eighty-five persons. + +The following persons remained at Quebec:--Guillaume Hubou and his wife, +Marie Rollet, widow of Louis Hébert; Guillaume Hébert; Guillaume +Couillard, and his wife Guillemette Hébert, and their three children; +Abraham Martin, and his wife, Marguerite Langlois, and their three +children; Pierre Desportes, and his wife, Françoise Langlois, and their +daughter Hélène; Nicholas Pivert, his wife, Marguerite Lesage, and their +niece; Adrien Duchesne and his wife; Jean Foucher, Étienne Brûlé, +Nicholas Marsolet, Le Baillif, Pierre Reye, Olivier Le Tardif. The +missionaries who returned to France were: Three Jesuits, two Récollets, +two Brothers Jesuits and three Brothers Récollets, ten in all. Their +names were: Fathers Jesuits Enemond Massé, Anne de Noüe and Jean de +Brébeuf, Fathers Récollets Joseph de la Roche d'Aillon, and Joseph Le +Caron, Brothers Jesuits François Charton and Gilbert Burel, and the +Récollet Friars Gervais Mohier, Jean Gaufestre and Pierre Langoissieux. +Among the clerks who returned home were Corneille de Vendremur, +Thierry-Desdames, Eustache Boullé, and Destouches. + +Since the year 1608 there had been only seven births, three marriages, +and forty deaths. One man had been hanged, six had been murdered, and +three drowned. A Récollet father, called Nicholas Viel, had perished in +the Sault au Récollet; and there had been sixteen victims of the scurvy. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +QUEBEC RESTORED + + +Through the exertions of Champlain negotiations were soon entered into +for the purpose of restoring the colony of New France to the French. +Champlain had visited the French ambassador, M. de Chateauneuf, when in +London, and had laid before him a statement of the events which had +recently taken place, together with the treaty of capitulation and a map +of New France, so far as it was explored. According to Champlain, the +country comprised all the lands which Linschot thus describes: "This +part of America which extends to the Arctic pole northward, is called +New France, because Jean Verazzano, a Florentine, having been sent by +King François I to these quarters, discovered nearly all the coast, +beginning from the Tropic of Cancer to the fiftieth degree, and still +more northerly, arboring arms and flags of France; for that reason the +said country is called New France." + +Champlain was not quarrelling with the English for the Virgines, +although this country had been occupied by the French eighty years +before, and they had also discovered all the American coast, from the +river St. John to the peninsula of Florida. No one can deny that +Champlain had given names to the rivers and harbours of New England as +far as Cape Cod, about the fortieth degree of latitude. + +After having spent about five weeks with the ambassador in furnishing +him with information to guide him in his negotiations with the English +authorities, Champlain resolved to visit France, as he had a reasonable +hope of seeing his designs accomplished. He left London on November +20th, and embarked at Rye, in Sussex, for Dieppe. Here he met Captain +Daniel, who had just returned from his expedition to Canada, and it was +here also that he received his commission of governor of New France, +which had been forwarded by the directors of the Company of New France. + +Champlain paid a visit to Rouen, and then went to Paris, where he had +interviews with the king, with the cardinal, and some of the associates +of the company. A prominent topic of discussion was, naturally, the loss +of New France, and the best means of recovering it. Champlain's ideas +were excellent, and he did his best to have them acknowledged and agreed +to by all those who were interested in the fate of New France. + +Events progressed favourably, and Champlain was pleased to learn that +Doctor Daniel had been sent to London with letters for King Charles I. +Louis XIII demanded the restoration of the fort and habitation of +Quebec, and the forts and harbours of the Acadian coast, for the reason +that they had been captured after peace had been concluded between the +two countries. Doctor Daniel returned to France, bearing despatches by +which Charles I answered that he was ready to restore Quebec, but no +mention was made of Acadia. The directors of the company immediately +ordered Commander de Razilly to equip a fleet, and, as we have already +stated, to take possession of Quebec by force or otherwise. + +The Hundred Associates subscribed sixteen thousand livres for the +freighting of the vessels, and the king granted the balance of the +expenses. The news of these extraordinary war-like preparations caused +alarm in London, but the French ambassador stated that these vessels +were not being sent to trouble or disturb any of the English settlers +who had taken possession of the French habitations. This explanation +relieved the public mind in England, and Charles I promised to give back +to France its ancient possessions in America, as they were on April +24th, 1629, the date of the signing of the Treaty of Suze. In justice to +England it may be said that two English vessels were seized by the +French at about the same time that Kirke had forced Champlain to +surrender. There was, therefore, illegal action on both sides, and both +countries had claims to be regulated. + +The English would have preferred to have retained possession of Canada, +at least until the following year, as the Kirke brothers and their +associates hoped to be able to realize considerable sums from their +trade with the Indians. This condition of affairs is explained in a +letter addressed by Cardinal Richelieu to Chateauneuf, on December 20th, +1629: "They assure us that they cannot restore Canada at once; this is +the reason for our delay in restoring these vessels." And he adds: "If +they agree to the restitution of Quebec without any condition, you shall +take it for granted, if not, it is better to put a delay to the +settlement." + +It is obvious that Charles I had twice promised to restore Quebec, and +when Chateauneuf retired from his position of ambassador in the month of +April, 1630, he had obtained "every assurance of restitution of all +things taken since the peace." The Marquis of Fontenay-Mareuil, who +succeeded Chateauneuf on March 13th, received special instructions from +the cardinal on this subject: "His Majesty's design is that, continuing +the negotiations of Chateauneuf, you continue to ask for the restitution +of Canada, and of all goods and vessels taken from the French since the +peace." + +The new ambassador could not urge the claims of France with greater +activity than his predecessor. During the space of two months, +Chateauneuf had prepared five documents relating to Canadian affairs, to +which the commissioners appointed to settle the matter had replied on +February 11th. These officials were Sir Humphrey May, Sir John Coke, Sir +Julius Cæsar, and Sir Henry Martin. Their conclusion regarding Canada +was that His Majesty had not changed his mind concerning the +restoration of places, vessels and goods taken from the French, +according to the first declaration he had made through a memorandum in +Latin, communicated some time since to the French ambassador. + +Louis XIII was at this time engaged in war with Austria, and Richelieu +was too busy to attend to Canadian matters, which were of less +importance than the European questions which occupied his time. Interior +dissensions were soon added to the trouble which France had to undergo. +Gaston, the king's brother, was compromised, and the Duke of +Montmorency, who took part in a plot against the king, was seized and +put to death. + +The negotiations commenced in 1629 were not resumed until 1632. In the +meantime the English authorities had not been idle. Charles I had not +forgotten his promise, and even if he had, there were men in France who +had a good memory. On June 12th, 1631, Charles I addressed a long letter +to Sir Isaac Wake, ambassador to France, respecting the restitution of +Quebec and Acadia. The terms were as follows:-- + +"That which we require, which is the payment of the remainder of the +money, the restitution of certain ships taken and kept without any +colour or pretence, and the taking of arrests and seizures which were +made in that kingdom against our subjects contrary to treaty, being of +right and due. And that which is demanded of us concerning the places +in Canada and those parts, and some few ships of that nation (French) +which remained yet unrestored, but have passed sentence of confiscation +in our high Court of Admiralty upon good grounds in justice, being +things of courtesy and good correspondence." + +According to her marriage settlement the Queen Henrietta possessed a +dowry of eight hundred thousand crowns, equivalent to eight hundred +thousand écus de trois livres, French currency. The half of that sum had +been made payable on the day before the marriage in London, and the +other half a little later. The marriage took place on June 13th, 1625, +and the first instalment was then paid. In the year 1631 the second +instalment had not been paid, and Charles I claimed it as one of the +conditions of settlement. + +Some historians have stated that the king took this opportunity to have +a money question solved. If, however, the debt was legitimate, France +was obliged to pay it, and the difficulties that had occurred in the +meantime had nothing to do with the deed of marriage upon which the +claim was based. Chateauneuf had promised to pay the claim. Unless, +therefore, there was any doubt as to the right of the king to claim the +sum, it is difficult to understand why the king should be blamed. + +In his letter to his ambassador at Paris Charles I alludes to documents +exchanged between Chateauneuf and Fontenay-Mareuil on the one side, and +the lords commissioners appointed to give a ruling. In this document it +is noticed that Guillaume de Caën had discussed with Kirke the value of +the goods and peltry that had been taken out of the stores at Quebec. +They disagreed both as to the number and value. De Caën claimed four +thousand two hundred and sixty-six beaver skins which had been captured +by Kirke, while Kirke pretended to have found only one thousand seven +hundred and thirteen, and that the balance of his cargo, four thousand +skins, was the result of trade with the Indians. + +According to the books of the English company, Kirke had bought four +thousand five hundred and forty beaver skins, four hundred and +thirty-two elk skins, and had found in the stores one thousand seven +hundred and thirteen beaver skins. The difference in the calculation is +due to the fact that the English only mentioned the beaver skins +registered in their books, and the French included all the skins which +belonged to them when the fort surrendered, making no mention of those +that they had taken out of the fort with the permission of the English. +Guillaume de Caën valued each skin at twelve pounds ten shillings, and +Burlamachi had written from Metz to representatives of the English +company, that he had been compelled to accept de Caën's estimates, as +under the terms of an Act of Private Council, he was bound to make them +good. The king had promised to reimburse de Caën for his losses by the +payment of the sum of fourteen thousand three hundred and thirty +pounds, of which eight thousand two hundred and seventy pounds were for +his peltry and goods, and six thousand and sixty pounds for the vessels +which had been captured. David Kirke strongly opposed the payment of +this sum on the ground that it was excessive, but the king through his +councillors ordered the payment to be made. + +Having determined to seize the peltry brought to London from Quebec, the +Kirke associates blew off the padlock which had been fixed to the +storehouse door by an order of justice. Some time after, when Guillaume +de Caën visited the store, accompanied by a member of the company and a +constable, he discovered that only three hundred beaver skins and four +hundred elk skins remained. Complaint was lodged with the king, who +ordered Kirke to return the skins which were missing within three days, +on pain of imprisonment or the confiscation of his property. None of the +associates of Kirke appear to have obtained the sympathy of the public +in that affair. + +The English company had suffered a great loss over the transaction, and +the king thought that it would be just to grant them some compensation. +He therefore appointed two commissioners, Sir Isaac Wake and Burlamachi, +to look after the interests of the English company. Their mission was to +make an agreement with Guillaume de Caën, who represented the French +company. After the exchange of a long correspondence, the king of +France agreed to pay to David Kirke the sum of twenty thousand pounds, +on the condition that he should restore the fort of Quebec, the contents +of the storehouse, the vessel belonging to Emery de Caën, and the peltry +seized in Canada. + +David Kirke was much dissatisfied with the agreement, which he believed +was due to the action of Sir Isaac Wake, to whom he wrote, accusing him +of not having followed the instructions of the English company. His +letter concluded with these words: "I understand that the conduct of +this affair has been absolutely irregular, as it is evident that you +have only resorted to the French testimony, having no care for the +English evidence." + +In the same memorandum the Kirke family complained of the fact that the +Company of English Adventurers had been compelled to plead in France, +while the French were not subject to the same conditions. This +accusation was not correct, as Guillaume de Caën had been obliged not +only to live in London in order to vindicate his goods, but also to +watch them and prevent damage. + +Kirke had no other claim than compensation for losses, and de Caën, who +had apparently no responsibility for the conflict of 1629, could not +reasonably be expected to pay the amount of Kirke's claim. The contents +of the storehouse at Quebec were the property of the de Caëns, and in +visiting Quebec Emery de Caën had no other object in view than to +secure his goods and take them to France. He had nothing to do with the +war, and believed that he was sailing in times of peace. Thomas Kirke, +by whom he was taken prisoner, treated him as a pirate, illegally, and +in spite of the Treaty of Suze. It is true that the Kirkes ignored the +existence of this treaty when they sailed for America, but this was only +an excuse for their attitude as belligerents. + +As soon as the provisions of the negotiations were determined upon +between the two countries, the claims had to be sent to the king, if +they considered that they had any grievance under the privileges +conferred upon them by letters of marque. The royal commission took a +correct stand in demanding from them in the name of Charles I an +indemnity for France. All these differences were at length terminated +through the energetic interference of Richelieu. These disputes had +lasted for more than two years, and constantly occupied the attention of +the ambassadors. The king of France, therefore, empowered Bullion and +Bouthillier on January 25th, 1632, to act. Charles I had already sent +Burlamachi to France with letters in favour of the restoration of Canada +and Acadia, and had also given instructions to Sir Isaac Wake, his +ambassador extraordinary. On March 5th, Louis XIII granted an audience +to the ambassadors, and the basis of a treaty was agreed upon. Sir Isaac +Wake represented Charles I, and Bullion and Bouthillier represented the +king of France. + +The commissioners took up the question of seizures, which was the most +difficult. The king of France agreed to pay the sum of sixty-four +thousand two hundred and forty-six pounds to Lumagne and Vanelly for the +goods seized on the _Jacques_, and sixty-nine thousand eight hundred and +sixty-six pounds for the goods seized on the _Bénédiction_, and to +restore these two vessels to their owners within fifteen days. This +agreement included the effects taken from the _Bride_, and sold at +Calais, the property of Lumagne and Vanelly. The king of England +promised to render and restore all the places occupied by the subjects +of His Majesty of Great Britain in New France, Canada and Acadia, and to +enjoin all those who commanded at Port Royal, at the fort of Quebec and +at Cape Breton, to put these places in the hands of those whom it shall +please His Majesty, eight days after notice given to the officers named +by the king of France. + +Under this agreement, de Caën was obliged to pay for the equipment of a +vessel of two hundred to two hundred and fifty tons, and for the +repatriation of the English subjects established in New France. The +forts and places occupied by the English were to be restored as they +were before their capture, with all arms and ammunition, according to +the detailed list which Champlain had given. Burlamachi was authorized +to pay for everything that was missing, and also to place Emery de Caën +in possession of the ship _Hélène_, which had been taken from him, +together with all goods abandoned at Quebec during his voyage of 1631. +Burlamachi was also instructed to pay to Guillaume de Caën the sum of +eighty-two thousand seven hundred pounds within two months. The sum of +sixty thousand six hundred and two pounds tournois was also to be paid +by Burlamachi to whomever it might belong, for the vessels _Gabriel_ of +St. Gilles, _Sainte-Anne_, of Havre de Grâce, _Trinité_, of Sables +d'Olonne, _St. Laurent_, of St. Malo, and _Cap du Ciel_, of Calais, +seized by the English after the signing of the Treaty of Suze. + +After this was agreed to, the commissioners embodied in eight articles +the conditions of free trade between the two countries. The whole was +signed by Wake, Bullion and Bouthillier, at St. Germain-en-Laye, on +March 29th, 1632. + +Thus terminated this quarrel between England and France, but it was only +the precursor of a far more serious conflict which was to arise. From +time to time, however, these differences were adjusted temporarily by +treaties, only to lead to further complications. The principal +difficulty arose regarding the boundaries of New France, the limits of +which were not clearly defined in the treaty. Some adjacent parts were +claimed by the English as their territory. The king of France had +granted to the Hundred Associates "in all property, justice and +seigniory, the fort and habitation of Quebec, together with the country +of New France, or Canada, along the coasts ... coasting along the sea +to the Arctic circle for latitude, and from the Island of Newfoundland +for longitude, going to the west to the great lake called Mer Douce +(Lake Huron), and farther within the lands and along the rivers which +passed through them and emptied in the river called St. Lawrence, +otherwise the great river of Canada, etc." + +Quebec was considered as the centre of these immense possessions of the +king of France, and included the islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton +and St. John (Prince Edward). + +The king of England had granted to Sir Thomas Gates and others, in 1606, +three years after the date of de Monts' letters patent, "this part of +America commonly called Virginia, and the territories between the +thirty-fourth and forty-fifth degrees of latitude, and the islands +situated within a space of one hundred miles from the coasts of the said +countries." + +In the year 1621, James I granted to Sir William Alexander, Count of +Sterling, certain territory, which under the name of Nova Scotia was +intended to comprise the present provinces of Nova Scotia, New +Brunswick, the islands of St. John and Cape Breton, and the whole of +Gaspesia. Charles I granted to Sir William Alexander in the year 1625 +another charter, which revoked the one of 1621. + +It is evident that the king of England and the king of France had each +given charters covering about the same extent of territory, and it is +therefore easy to understand that tedious correspondence of a +complicated nature thereby arose between the two countries. The treaty +of St. Germain-en-Laye did not determine the question of the boundaries +of the territory, and each power reserved its rights in this respect. + +The inhabitants of Quebec at this time were in a state of suspense, for +they had no knowledge of the progress made with the negotiations between +the two countries. They had no reason to complain of the English, +however, who treated them well, but the Huguenots, their own countrymen, +who seemed prepared to serve under the English flag, were, as usual, +troublesome and fanatical on religious questions. The settlers were so +much distressed at not having the benefit of the ministration of a +priest of their church, that they had resolved to leave the country at +the earliest opportunity. + +The Lutheran minister, who had decided to remain at Quebec with Kirke's +men, had much to suffer. His advice was not accepted by his own people, +and he was, moreover, kept in prison for a period of six months under +the pretext of inciting the soldiers of the garrison to rebellion. All +these disagreements rendered the condition of the Catholics almost +unendurable. + +On July 13th, 1632, a white flag was seen floating from a vessel which +was entering the harbour of Quebec. The inhabitants were rejoiced, and +when they were able to hear mass in the house of Madame Hébert, their +happiness was complete. It was three years since they had enjoyed this +privilege. One girl had been born in the interval, to the wife of +Guillaume Couillard. But no death had been recorded, except the murder +of an Iroquois prisoner by a Montagnais while in a state of +intoxication. + +The Jesuits who had arrived at the same time as Emery de Caën, took +charge of the Quebec mission. In the year 1627, the Récollets, seeing +that their mission had not apparently produced the results that they +desired, and that they were also reduced to great distress, resolved to +abandon New France for a country less ungrateful. We have seen that +after the capitulation, the Récollets left with the greater number of +the French for their motherland, but when they heard that Canada had +been restored to France, they made preparations to resume their labours. +Their superiors offered no objection, but the chief directors of the +Hundred Associates, thinking the establishment of two different +religious orders in the country, which as yet had no bishop, would +create jealousies, determined to refuse the services of the Récollets. + +Jean de Lauzon, intendant of the company for Canadian affairs, made a +formal protest, and thus these noble missionaries were forced to abandon +their work in Canada. The Récollets were much disappointed, but Father +Le Caron, the first apostle to the Huron tribes, was so distressed at +the news that he was taken ill and died on March 29th, 1632, some days +before the departure of Emery de Caën for Quebec. He had brought some +manuscripts from Canada, which were accidently burnt in Normandy. This +man was perhaps the purest example of all the Récollets in Canada. +Others had a more illustrious name, but none gave greater proof of +devotedness and courage in their dealings with the Indians, and +especially the Hurons. He was generally regarded as a saint. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN NEW FRANCE + + +The Jesuits, who had only been in the country about four years, had not +as yet a true idea of the magnitude of the task they had undertaken. +Father Charles Lalemant had abandoned the theatre of his first apostolic +labours on our Canadian soil, at the same time that some workmen whom +Father Noyrot had brought from France during the preceding year, left +the place. He was the last representative, together with Fathers Massé, +de Noüe and de Brébeuf of the primitive church of Canada. Mention has +been made of the temporary residence in the convent of the Récollets, +and of a building which was erected for themselves at about two hundred +feet from the shore, near the junction of the river Lairet and the river +St. Charles. The Jesuits received a concession of this land which was +bounded on the west by a stream called St. Michel, and the river St. +Mary or Beauport on the east. This was named the Seigniory of Notre Dame +des Anges. + +The Jesuits' convent was finished on April 6th, 1626. It was a poor +residence of about forty feet in length and thirty feet in width. The +building contained a small chapel dedicated to Notre Dame des Anges, on +account of a picture which decorated a wall representing the Blessed +Virgin receiving the homage of angels. This name extended beyond the +chapel, and was given to the seigniory, and after a lapse of three +centuries, it remains unchanged. + +The different mission-stations of the Jesuits in Canada and around the +gulf of the St. Lawrence were maintained at the expense of the Hundred +Associates from the year 1632, with the exception of their college at +Quebec which was founded through the liberality of the Marquis de +Gamache, who gave them a sum of sixteen thousand écus d'or for that +purpose, in 1626, on the occasion of his son taking religious vows. The +offer was accepted by Father Vitelleschi, general of the order, and the +college was founded in 1635, and opened a few years later. "This," +writes Parkman, "was the cradle of the great missions of Canada!" + +As soon as the Jesuits arrived they commenced to repair their residence, +and in the year 1632 it was in a fit state for a banquet which was given +to Emery de Caën, who had been appointed governor _ad interim_ of the +French colony. + +Champlain returned from France to Quebec in the month of June of the +following year, and again took over the government of New France. He +brought with him Fathers Massé and Jean de Brébeuf, and their arrival +was the dawn of a brighter era for the Canadian missions. The Jesuits +founded, during the same year, a mission at Three Rivers, and another at +Ihonatiria in the Huron country. The mission-stations at Miscou and at +Cape Breton were also opened at about the same time, but they were all, +practically speaking, dependent upon the liberality of the Hundred +Associates. + +The Jesuits in their Relations of 1635 regarded the establishment of the +mission of Notre Dame des Anges as destined to fulfil three designs +which they had in view for the honour and glory of God. These were: (1.) +To erect a college for the education of young Frenchmen who were +becoming more and more numerous. (2.) To found a seminary for young +Indians for the purpose of civilizing or improving their moral +condition. (3.) To extend the missions of the Jesuits among the Hurons +and other savage tribes. These three designs were in a measure +accomplished by this means. From the year 1626 Quebec was the principal +centre of Canadian missions, which extended from Tadousac to the Great +Lakes. Seeing that the French were all gathering in the vicinity of Fort +St. Louis, and that their convent was exposed to attacks of the Indians, +the Jesuits decided to build their new college upon the promontory of +Cape Diamond. In the year 1637 the Hundred Associates conceded twelve +acres of land to the Jesuits near Fort St. Louis, upon which they built +their college and a church, some years after. The seminary for young +Indians was opened in the year 1627, and Father Charles Lalemant +conducted a class for them as long as there were pupils to attend. + +The seminary of Notre Dame des Anges has an interesting though brief +history. It was Father Le Jeune's intention to have removed it near to +the fort. The question of transferring it to the Huron country, in order +to obtain a greater number of pupils had been discussed, but there were +many reasons against the change, the principal being that the proximity +to the Huron families would have caused the fathers annoyance. The +seminary was, therefore, continued at Notre Dame des Anges, where it +remained until it was closed. Father Le Jeune wrote to the Provincial in +France on August 28th, 1636:-- + +"I consider it very probable that, if we had a good building in Kébec we +would get more children through the very same means by which we +despaired of getting them. We have always thought that the excessive +love the savages bear their children would prevent our obtaining them. +It will be through this very means that they will become our pupils; +for, by having a few settled ones, who will attract and retain the +others, the parents, who do not know what it is to refuse their +children, will let them come without opposition. And, as they will be +permitted during the first few years to have a great deal of liberty, +they will become so accustomed to our food and our clothes that they +will have a horror of the savages and their filth. We have seen this +exemplified in all the children brought up among our French. They get so +well acquainted with each other in their childish plays that they do +not look at the savages, except to flee from them or make sport of them. +Our great difficulty is to get a building, and to find the means with +which to support these children. It is true we are able to maintain them +at Notre Dame des Anges; but as this place is isolated, so that there +are no French children there, we have changed the plan that we formerly +had to locate the seminary there. Experience shows us that it must be +established where the bulk of the French population is, to attract the +little savages by the French children. And, since a worthy and virtuous +person has commenced by giving something for a seminary we are going to +give up our attempts to clear some land, and shall make an effort to +build at Kébec. I say an effort, for it is with incredible expense and +labour that we build in these beginnings. What a blessing from God if we +can write next year that instruction is being given in New France in +three or four languages. I hope, if we succeed in getting a lodging, to +see three classes at Kébec--the first, of little French children, of +whom there will be perhaps twenty or thirty pupils; the second, of +Hurons; the third, of Montagnés." + +Father Daniel was the chief of the seminary, although he was generally +assisted by other fathers, who instructed the children of the families +residing near the convent. The chapel was used as a classroom, and both +the boys and girls made good progress. They were soon taught to observe +the customs of the French, such as joining their hands in prayers, +kneeling or standing during the recitation of their lessons. They were +also taught to answer with modesty, and to be respectful in their +behaviour. The girls were especially apt at learning, and they +endeavoured to imitate the French girls, for whom they appeared to have +great love. At certain intervals a public meeting was held, at which the +governor and the citizens of Quebec were present, and the pupils were +questioned on religious subjects. The most successful received a reward +at the hands of the governor, consisting of either a knife or an awl. +They were called upon to kiss the governor's hand, and to make a bow _à +la française_. + +The pupils of the seminary were chiefly Hurons, and the names of some of +the more prominent are known. These were Satouta, Tsiko, Teouatirhon, +Andehoua, Aïandacé. The three first died during their residence in +Quebec, on account of the change of air and of diet. Father Le Jeune has +written that these young Indians were the columns of the seminary. They +were, in fact, endued with many good qualities, and had given great +hopes for the future. Satouta was the son of a Huron admiral, who was +the most popular and best known Indian in the country. His authority was +considered supreme, and in nautical matters his word was law. He had +promised that at his death Satouta should inherit his name. + +Tsiko was the son of Ouanda Koka, one of the best speakers of his +tribe, and he had won the esteem and admiration of his people through +his talents. Tsiko had inherited his father's gifts, and spoke so well +that he astonished all who heard him, especially the fathers. + +Andehoua was a model of virtue. He was baptized under the name of Armand +Jean, in honour of Cardinal Richelieu. The governor stood as his +godfather. Andehoua made such good progress in his studies that he +became a sort of missionary, and he did everything in his power to +convert his countrymen. He died at the Hôtel Dieu, Quebec, in 1654, at +the early age of thirty-six. + +From the year 1639 the number of seminarists began to decrease, until +there was only one. However, in the year 1643 four young Hurons went +down to Quebec to receive instruction, and were baptized. Their +godfathers were LeSueur de St. Sauveur, a priest, Martial Piraube, M. de +Repentigny and M. de la Vallée. In the Relations of the Jesuits the +names of three are preserved: Ateiachias, Atarohiat, and Atokouchioüani. + +The seminary was then finally closed. The Jesuits opened another at +Three Rivers, and at the commencement there were six pupils, but at the +end of a year there were none. After eight years' experience, the +Jesuits realized that it was impossible successfully to make an Indian +boy adopt the manners and habits of the French, and the same result was +afterwards found by others who tried the experiment. + +In the year 1635, the Jesuits' missions in New France included those at +Cape Breton, Richibucto and Miscou Island. The mission of Miscou was the +best organized and the most populous; the Catholics of Gaspé, Miramichi +and Nipisiguit (Bathurst) went there. The island of Miscou is situated +at the northern extremity of the coast of New Brunswick, near the +entrance of the Baie des Chaleurs. It was the common residence of the +Jesuits and of the two first who came here, Father Charles Turgis and +Father Charles du Marché. On their arrival they found twenty-three +Frenchmen there, who were endeavouring to form a settlement. +Unfortunately, most of them were taken ill with scurvy, from which they +died, including the captain, the surgeon, a clerk and nine or ten +officers. Father du Marché was forced to leave the island, and finally +Father Turgis succumbed to the disease, and left behind him a single +man, who was in a dying condition. + +In the year 1637, two other Jesuits came to this inhospitable island, +Father Jacques de la Place and Father Nicholas Gondoin. They found only +nine persons there, who were in charge of the storehouse. A year later, +Father Claude Quentin, superior of the Canadian missions, came to assist +his confrère, who had undertaken to erect a chapel, but after three +years of constant labour, they both returned to Quebec in an exhausted +condition. + +Father Dollebeau and Father André Richard then took charge of the +mission on the island of Miscou, but the former was taken ill and was +obliged to return to France. During the voyage the vessel was captured +by three English frigates, and while pillaging the ship a soldier set +fire to the powder magazine, and as a result Father Dollebeau and the +whole crew perished. + +In the course of years, however, the Miscou mission increased, and the +chapel proving insufficient to accommodate the congregation, the Jesuits +built another at the entrance of the river Nipisiguit. + +Father de Lyonne was the real founder of this new mission. Nipisiguit +was a good trading and fishing-station, and a general rendezvous for the +French as well as the Indians; it was also a safe harbour. Between the +years 1650 and 1657, Father de Lyonne crossed the ocean three times in +the interest of his mission, and in the year 1657 he founded another +mission at Chedabucto, where he ended his career. + +The field of the missionaries was divided after the year 1650. Father de +Lyonne took charge of the mission at Chedabucto, while the stations at +Miscou and Nipisiguit were under the control of Father Richard, and +Father Frémin was given charge of the Richibucto mission. In the year +1661, Father Richard replaced Father de Lyonne at Chedabucto, but he +only remained there one year. + +The missions of the Jesuits in Acadia and Baie des Chaleurs closed with +the departure of Father Richard. Some historians of Acadia mention the +labours of Father Joseph Aubéri, whom Chateaubriand has immortalized in +his "Atala." Father Aubéri prepared a map of Acadia, and also a +memorandum of the boundaries of New France and New England in the year +1720. + +The mission-station at Cape Breton was commenced in 1634, and Father +Julian Perrault, a Jesuit, took up his residence there and gave +religious instruction to the Micmacs, whom he found very attentive. The +Micmacs were a hardy race, of great stature. Some of the men who were +upwards of eighty years of age had not a single white hair. + +Champlain gave to Cape Breton the name of St. Lawrence Island. The name +was originally given to the cape but it was afterwards applied to the +island. Bras d'Or was called Bibeaudock by the Indians, and Louisburg +was commonly known as Port aux Anglais. The Portuguese had formerly +occupied the island, but they were forced to leave it on account of the +temperature and other causes. Nicholas Denys, who had been obliged to +abandon Chedabucto, in Acadia, came to the island and founded Fort St. +Pierre, which was taken from him in the year 1654 by Emmanuel le Borgne +de Belle Isle, and by one Guilbault, a merchant of La Rochelle. Denys +then took up his residence, sometimes at Miscou, sometimes at Gaspé or +at Nipisiguit. His son Charles Denys, Sieur de Fronsac, had settled on +the shores of the river Miramichi. + +The first Jesuits who were invited to take charge of the Cape Breton +mission were Fathers Vimont and de Vieux-Pont, who had been brought out +by Captain Daniel, who, it will be remembered, lost a great deal of time +in attacking the fort which had been built on the river du Grand Cibou +by Stuart. The two Jesuits and forty men were left here. The Jesuits, +however, returned to France in 1630. Fathers Davost and Daniel were +missionaries at Cape Breton in 1633, and when Champlain visited the +place on May 5th of that year, he met the two Jesuits, who soon +afterwards returned with him to Quebec. + +Father Perrault resided at Cape Breton during the years 1634 and 1635, +and Fathers Richard and d'Endemare came in the following year and took +up their residence at Fort Ste. Anne in Grand Cibou Bay. This place had +many advantages, as it was naturally fortified, and three thousand small +vessels could anchor safely in the bay. The Jesuits remained at Cape +Breton until the arrival of Bishop de Laval in 1659. These various +missions which we have recorded, constitute the religious history of the +islands and coasts of the gulf of St. Lawrence during the greater part +of the seventeenth century, and they were all founded by Champlain or +under his administration, and he certainly took an active part in the +civilization of the Micmacs. + +In a memorandum addressed to the king, Champlain had set forth his +intention to erect a church at Quebec, to be dedicated to the Redeemer. +He was, however, unable to accomplish his design. He had also made a +solemn promise to the Blessed Virgin, between the years 1629 and 1632, +to erect a church in honour of Notre Dame de la Recouvrance, and on his +return to Quebec he set out to fulfil his obligation. The occasion was +favourable, as the chapel near the habitation in Lower Town had been +completely ruined. + +The chapel of Notre Dame de la Recouvrance was erected during the summer +of 1633, and in the autumn of the same year the Jesuits said mass for +the inhabitants within the building. The increase of the population and +of their religious zeal within the two following years, induced +Champlain to raise this humble chapel into a small church. The building +was therefore enlarged, and from that date the services assumed a +character of solemnity which had been unknown before. Grand mass was +celebrated every Sunday by a Jesuit, and the inhabitants each in turn +offered consecrated loaves. In the afternoon, after vespers, the +catechism was explained by the fathers. The French were very regular in +their attendance at these ceremonies, and also at the religious +instructions. + +Father Charles Lalemant was the first Jesuit who lived at the presbytery +as a parish priest. His successor was Father Jean de Quen. Father Le +Jeune wrote at that time:--"As soon as we had been lodged near the +church (Notre Dame de la Recouvrance) Father Lalemant who had just begun +to live at the residence, at the same time initiated its solemnities; +Father de Quen has succeeded him with the same inclination for ceremony. +I frankly confess that my heart melted the first time I assisted in this +divine service, at the sight of our Frenchmen so greatly rejoicing to +hear sung aloud and publicly the praises of the great God in the midst +of a barbarous people, at the sight of little children speaking the +Christian language in another world.... Monsieur Gand's zeal in +exercising all his energies to cause our French to love these solemn and +public devotions, seems to me very praiseworthy. But the regulations of +Monsieur our governor, his very remarkable example, and the piety of the +more prominent people, hold all in the line of duty." + +When Champlain was on his deathbed he was aware that his promise had +been fulfilled. Notre Dame de la Recouvrance was then a nice church, and +it was due to his labours. By his last will he bequeathed to this church +all his personal chattels, and three thousand livres in stock of the +Company of New France, and nine hundred livres which he had invested in +a private company founded by some associates, together with a sum of +four hundred livres from his private purse. It was the whole fortune of +the first governor of New France. This will was afterwards contested +and annulled, and the church was only allowed to receive the sum of nine +hundred livres, which had been realized from the sale of his personal +property. This sum was devoted to the purchase of a pyx, a silver gilt +chalice, and a basin and cruets. + +Several gifts were made for the decoration of the church of Notre Dame +de la Recouvrance. Duplessis-Bochart presented two pictures, one +representing the Blessed Virgin, and the other the Holy Family. De +Castillon, seignior of the Island of Orleans, offered four small +pictures, one of St. Ignace de Loyola, of St. François Xavier, of St. +Stanislas de Kostka, and of St. Louis de Gonzagne, and also a large +engraving of Notre Dame. Champlain had also placed on one of the walls a +painting which had been rescued from the shipwreck during Father +Noyrot's voyage. + +During the year after Champlain's death, the Jesuits consecrated the +church of Notre Dame de la Recouvrance under the name of the Immaculate +Conception, which from that date was the special patron of the parochial +church of Quebec. + +The inauguration of this patronage afforded an opportunity for public +rejoicing. On December 7th, 1636, a flag was hoisted on the fort and the +cannon were fired many times. On the 8th, the day observed by the church +in honour of the Immaculate Conception, the citizens fired a salute from +the muskets at dawn, and they all assisted at mass, and received the +Holy Communion. Devotion to the Mother of God soon became general among +the people, who were characterized as moral and honest. + +Notre Dame de la Recouvrance was burnt on June 14th, 1640. In a few +hours the residence of the Jesuits, the parochial church, and the chapel +of Champlain, where his bones had been placed, were destroyed. The +Relation of 1640 gives a short description of the catastrophe: "A rather +violent wind, the extreme drouth, the oily wood of the fir of which +these buildings were constructed, kindled a fire so quick and violent +that hardly anything could be done. All the vessels and the bells and +chalices were melted; the stuffs some virtuous persons had sent to us to +clothe a few seminarists, or poor savages, were consumed in this same +sacrifice. Those truly royal garments that His Majesty had sent to our +savages to be used in public functions, to honour the liberality of so +great a king, were engulfed in this fiery wreck, which reduced us to the +hospital, for we had to go and take lodgings in the hall of the poor, +until monsieur, our governor, loaned us a house, and after being lodged +therein, the hall of the sick had to be changed into a church." This +conflagration was a great loss. The registers were burnt, and the +Jesuits had to reproduce them from memory. The chief buildings of Quebec +had disappeared, and it was seventeen years before a new church was +built. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE GROWTH OF QUEBEC + + +A quarter of a century had elapsed since the founding of Quebec, and +still it could scarcely be regarded as other than a village, while in +some parts of New France colonization was absolutely null. Agriculture +had received some attention in the vicinity of Quebec, but it was on +such a small scale that it should be termed gardening rather than +farming. + +Charlevoix writes: "The fort of Quebec, surrounded by a few wretched +houses and some sheds, two or three cabins on the island of Montreal, as +many, perhaps, at Tadousac, and at some other points on the river St. +Lawrence, to accommodate fishers and traders, a settlement begun at +Three Rivers and the ruins of Port Royal, this was all that constituted +New France--the sole fruit of the discoveries of Verrazzani, Jacques +Cartier, de Roberval, Champlain, of the great expenses of the Marquis de +la Roche and de Monts, and of the industry of many Frenchmen, who might +have built up a great colony had they been well directed." + +The various companies, as we have seen, took no interest whatever in +settling the country, their chief design being to carry on fur trade +with the Indians. Patriotism had no meaning for them, the all-absorbing +question was money. This was not the case, however, with the company +established by Cardinal Richelieu, whose desire was to christianize the +savages, to found a powerful colony, and to secure for his king the +possession of New France. The principal associates of this company were +pious, patriotic and zealous men, who laboured to extend the power and +influence of France throughout the vast continent of America for the +honour and glory of God. There were among the associates a certain +number of gentlemen and ecclesiastics, who, realizing their incapacity +to transact the business of such an important undertaking, preferred to +hand over the administration to merchants of Dieppe, Rouen and Paris, +together with the advantages to be derived therefrom. A special +association was consequently formed, composed of merchants who undertook +the financial affairs of the settlement, such as paying the new +governor, providing ammunition and provisions, and maintaining the +forts; and if there were profits they were to be divided amongst the +Hundred Associates. This association was formed before the departure of +Champlain for Quebec in 1633. Its agents were a merchant of Rouen named +Rosée, and Cheffault, a lawyer of Paris, who had a representative at +Quebec. + +As it was necessary for the Hundred Associates to appoint a governor of +New France, they offered the position to Champlain, as he was +universally respected and known to be experienced and disinterested. +Moreover he was well acquainted with the country, and on friendly terms +with the savages. It is doubtful whether any one could have taken his +place with better prospects of success. Champlain, moreover, desired to +finish his work, and although there was much to accomplish, the future +appeared more favourable than at any other time. The company had a large +capital at its disposal, and this alone seemed to insure the success of +the colony. Three ships were equipped for Quebec in the spring of 1633, +the _St. Pierre_, one hundred and fifty tons burden, carrying twelve +cannon; the _St. Jean_, one hundred and sixty tons, with ten cannon, and +the _Don de Dieu_, eighty tons, with six cannon. The ships carried about +two hundred persons, including two Jesuits, a number of sailors and +settlers, and one woman and two girls. Provisions and ammunition were in +abundance. When the fleet arrived in the St. Lawrence, Champlain saw a +number of English trading vessels which were there contrary to the +treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye. From this moment Champlain resolved to +establish a fixed post for trading, both for the Indians as well as +strangers. The island selected for this purpose by Champlain was +situated in the river St. Lawrence, about ten leagues above Quebec, and +was named Richelieu Island. + +Champlain caused the island to be fortified as soon as possible, and +surrounded it with a platform, upon which cannon were placed pointing in +every direction. Sentinels were placed on guard, and it would have been +impossible for vessels to pass unobserved. The Indians were informed of +this new plan, and in the autumn of the same year, the Nipissings and +the Algonquins of the Iroquet came to this island for trading. The +Hurons, however, came to Quebec, as they had heard from the Algonquins +of Allumette Island that the French would take revenge for the murder of +Étienne Brûlé. Champlain did not desire to punish them for the death of +this traitor, and he therefore did his best to retain the friendship of +the Indians, and entertained them at public feasts. He knew well that +their fur trade was of great importance, and, moreover, he wanted them +as allies in the event of an attack by the Iroquois, which might be +expected at any time, as they were unreliable and always anxious for +war. A league with the Hurons, Algonquins and Montagnais, with one +hundred French, would, in the opinion of Champlain, be sufficient to +protect the colony, and he wrote to that effect to the cardinal. This +was probably his last letter to the great minister:-- + + "Monseigneur:--The honour of the commands that I have + received from your Eminence has inspired me with greater courage to + render you every possible service with all the fidelity and + affection that can be desired from a faithful servant. I shall + spare neither my blood nor my life whenever the occasion shall + demand them. + + "There are subjects enough in these regions, if your Eminence, + considering the character of the country, shall desire to extend + your authority over them. This territory is more than fifteen + hundred leagues in length, lying between the same parallels of + latitude as our own France. It is watered by one of the finest + rivers in the world, into which empty many tributaries more than + four hundred leagues in length, beautifying a country inhabited by + a vast number of tribes. Some of them are sedentary in their mode + of life, possessing, like the Muscovites, towns and villages built + of wood; others are nomadic hunters and fishermen, all longing to + welcome the French and religious fathers, that they may be + instructed in our faith. + + "The excellence of this country cannot be too highly estimated or + praised, both as to the richness of the soil, the diversity of the + timber such as we have in France, the abundance of wild animals, + game and fish, which are of extraordinary magnitude. All this + invites you, monseigneur, and makes it seem as if God had created + you above all your predecessors to do a work here more pleasing to + Him than any that has yet been accomplished. + + "For thirty years I have frequented this country, and have acquired + a thorough knowledge of it, obtained from my own observation and + the information given me by the native inhabitants. Monseigneur, I + pray you to pardon my zeal, if I say that, after your renown has + spread throughout the East, you should end by compelling its + recognition in the West. + + "Expelling the English from Quebec has been a very important + beginning, but, nevertheless, since the treaty of peace between the + two crowns, they have returned to carry on trade and annoy us in + this river, declaring that it was enjoined upon them to withdraw, + but not to remain away, and that they have their king's permission + to come for the period of thirty years. But, if your Eminence + wills, you can make them feel the power of your authority. This can + furthermore be extended at your pleasure to him who has come here + to bring about a general peace among these people, who are at war + with a nation holding more than four hundred leagues in subjection, + and who prevent the free use of the rivers and highways. If this + peace were made, we should be in complete and easy enjoyment of our + possessions. Once established in the country, we could expel our + enemies, both English and Flemings, forcing them to withdraw to the + coast, and, by depriving them of trade with the Iroquois, oblige + them to abandon the country entirely. It requires but one hundred + and twenty men, light armed for avoiding arrows, by whose aid, + together with two or three thousand savage warriors, our allies, we + should be, within a year, absolute masters of all these people; and + by establishing order among them, promote religious worship and + secure an incredible amount of traffic. + + "The country is rich in mines of copper, iron, steel, brass, + silver, and other minerals which may be found here. + + "The cost, monseigneur, of one hundred and twenty men is a trifling + one to His Majesty, the enterprise the most noble that can be + imagined. + + "All for the glory of God, whom I pray with my whole heart to grant + you ever increasing prosperity, and to make me all my life, + monseigneur, your most humble, most faithful and most obedient + servant, + + "Champlain. + + "At Quebec, in New France, August 15th, 1635." + +In order to consolidate his general scheme for the colonization of the +country, Champlain desired that the missionaries should settle +permanently among the Huron tribes. The Jesuits wished to go there, as +they believed they would find a field for their labours. They had +previously set before the people the light of the Catholic faith, but +these efforts had not been as successful as they had wished. Father de +Brébeuf, the apostle to the Hurons, having decided to return to his +former sphere of labours, left for the Huron country in 1634, prepared +to remain there as long as there was work to be done. He was destined to +live among the Hurons until they were finally dispersed by the Iroquois. + +When Champlain arrived at Quebec, he summoned Emery de Caën to deliver +to Duplessis-Bochart the keys of the fort and habitation. Champlain's +arrival caused much rejoicing among the inhabitants, for he inspired +both their love and respect, and he was, perhaps, the only man who could +impress them with a belief in their future, and thus retain them in the +country. The arrival of a certain number of settlers during the years +1633-4, was also an encouragement for all. The restoration of Canada to +France caused some excitement in the maritime provinces of France, +especially in Normandy, as most of the settlers of New France up to this +date were from there. The exceptions were, Louis Hébert, a native of +Paris, and Guillaume Couillard, of St. Malo. Emigration soon extended to +other parts of the provinces, as the result of the discrimination of the +Relations of the Jesuits, which had been distributed in Paris and +elsewhere during the years 1632 and 1633. Several pious and charitable +persons began to take an interest in the missions of New France, and +forwarded both money and goods to help them. + +Some nuns offered to go to Canada to look after the sick and to instruct +the young girls, and in the year 1633 a few families arrived in Quebec +with Champlain, who had defrayed their expenses. + +In the year 1634 an association was formed in France for the purpose of +promoting colonization, and a group of about forty persons, recruited in +different parts of the province of Perche, were sent to Canada, with +Robert Giffard at their head. Giffard, it will be remembered, had +visited Quebec in the year 1627 as surgeon of the vessels sent out by +the company, but he had no intention of settling in the country. After +having built a log hut on the Beauport shore, he devoted his leisure to +hunting and fishing, game and fish being plentiful at that time, and +returned to France during the same year. He was appointed surgeon to +Roquemont's fleet during the following year, and as the vessels were +captured by the English, he, with the others on board, was compelled to +return to his mother country. This misfortune did not discourage the +former solitary inhabitant of Beauport, and he resolved to revisit the +country, but this time with a view of settling and of farming. + +Giffard had suffered many losses, and as a compensation for his services +and misfortune, he obtained a tract of land from the Company of New +France, one league in length and a league and a half in breadth, +situated between the rivers Montmorency and Beauport, bounded in front +by the river St. Lawrence, and in the rear by the Laurentian Mountains. +He was also granted as a special favour, a tract of land of two acres in +extent, situated near the fort, for the purpose of building a residence, +surrounded with grounds. These concessions, which seem large at first +sight, were, however, not new to the colony. Louis Hébert had been +granted the fief of the Sault au Matelot, and the fief Lepinay, while +the Jesuits had received the fief of Notre Dame des Anges almost free of +conditions. + +Under these favourable conditions Giffard induced two citizens of +Mortagne, Zacharie Cloutier and Jean Guyon, to accompany him to Canada. +Cloutier was a joiner, and Guyon a mason. They promised their seignior +that they would build him a residence, thirty feet long and sixteen feet +wide. + +The other emigrants came to Canada at their own risk. The party numbered +forty-three persons, including women and children, and were within a +space of from five to eight leagues of Mortagne, the chief town of the +old province of Perche. There were two exceptions, however, Jean +Juchereau came from La Ferté Vidame in Thimerais, and Noël Langlois was +from St. Leonard, in Normandy. + +The vessels bearing the contingent of settlers arrived in Quebec in +June. They were four in number, under the command of Captains de Nesle, +de Lormel, Bontemps, and Duplessis-Bochart. Robert Giffard had preceded +the party by a few days, and he lost no time in selecting the spot where +his residence was to be built, upon which he planted a cross on July +25th. He also commenced clearing the land, and two years after he +gathered in a harvest of wheat sufficient to maintain twenty persons. +The soil in this part was very productive, and it is, even to-day, the +richest in the province of Quebec. + +Among the emigrants of the year 1634 were two remarkable men, Jean +Bourdon, and a priest named Jean LeSueur de St. Sauveur. The Abbé +LeSueur de St. Sauveur had abandoned his parish of St. Sauveur de +Thury, which is to-day known as Thury-Harcourt, in Normandy, to come to +Quebec. One of the suburbs of Quebec to-day takes its name from this +active and devoted priest. + +Jean Bourdon, an inseparable friend of the abbé, established himself on +the borders of Côteau Ste. Geneviève, which is to-day known as St. +John's suburb. He built a house and a mill, and also a chapel, which he +named Chapel St. Jean. Other pioneers soon settled near Bourdon's place, +which finally gave to Quebec a suburb. + +Bourdon was a man of great capacity, and he in turn filled the rôle of +surveyor, engineer, cartographer, delineator, farmer, diplomat and +lawyer. He saw the colony increasing, and knew eight governors of the +colony, including Champlain. He was also acquainted with Bishop Laval, +the Venerable Mother Marie Guyart de l'Incarnation, and was on good +terms with the Jesuits and the nuns of the Hôtel Dieu and Ursuline +Convent. Bourdon played an important part in the affairs of the colony. +He was present at the foundation of the Jesuits' college, of the Quebec +seminary, and of the Conseil Souverain, of which he was procureur +fiscal. Of his personal qualities, the Venerable Mother de l'Incarnation +has written that he was "the father of the poor, the comfort of orphans +and widows, a good example for everybody." + +One of the articles of the act incorporating the Company of New France, +provided that the colony was to be settled with French and Catholic +subjects only. This provision may appear at first sight to be arbitrary, +but when we consider that one of the chief objects of the colonization +of New France was to convert the savages, and that the Huguenots with +their new form of religion were, generally speaking, hostile to the king +and to the Catholics, it seems to have been a judicious provision. In +such a small community the existence of two creeds so opposed to each +other could hardly have produced harmony, and as the Catholics were +undertaking the enterprise and it originated with them, they surely had +the right to do what they considered would most effectively secure their +ends. + +For political reasons this action could also be defended, for the +loyalty of the Huguenots was, perhaps, doubtful, and their past actions +did not offer any guarantee for the future. They did not hesitate to +preach revolt against the authorities of France, and, therefore, +intimate connection with the Indians might have produced results +prejudicial to the colony. If France had the welfare of the colony at +heart, it behooved her to exclude every disturbing element. Viewed +impartially, this precaution was undoubtedly just, and those who blame +the company for their action, do not rightly understand the difficulties +which existed at that period. + +Richelieu, who had a clear insight into the affairs of the time, did not +prohibit trade between the Huguenots and the Indians, but he refused +them permission to settle in Canada, or to remain there for any length +of time without special leave. Champlain had observed the attitude of +the Huguenots, their unwillingness to erect a fort at Quebec, their +persecution of the Catholics, and their treatment of the Jesuits, and +although he was not fanatical, he was pleased with this rule. The +foundation of the new settlement was based upon religion, and religion +was essential to its progress. Peace and harmony must be maintained, and +everything that would promote trouble or quarrel must be excluded. + +During the seventeenth century, England preserved a war-like attitude +towards Catholics. A Catholic was not eligible for a public office, and +the learned professions were closed to them, neither could a Catholic +act as a tutor or as an executor to a will. Prejudice was carried still +further, and even the books treating of their faith were suppressed, +while relics or religious pictures were forbidden. These were only a few +of the persecutions to which they were subject. + +As far back as 1621 Champlain had requested the king to forbid +Protestant emigration to Canada, but his petition was not granted, +because the company was composed of mixed creeds. The company formed by +Richelieu, however, was solely Catholic, and there were no difficulties +on this score. The result of this policy was soon manifest. There were +no more dissensions on board the vessels as to places of worship, and +the Catholics were, as a consequence, enabled to observe their religious +duties without fear of annoyance. The beneficent influence of this +policy extended to the settlement, where the people lived in peace, and +were not subject to the petty quarrels which arose through a difference +in creed. + +In the Relation of 1637 we find evidence of this: "Now it seems to me +that I can say with truth that the soil of New France is watered by so +many heavenly blessings, that souls nourished in virtue find here their +true element, and are, consequently, healthier than elsewhere. As for +those whose vices have rendered them diseased, they not only do not grow +worse, but very often, coming to breathe a salubrious air, and far +removed from opportunities for sin, changing climate they change their +lives, and a thousand times bless the sweet providence of God, which has +made them find the door to felicity where others fear only misery. + +"In a word, God has been worshipped in His houses, preaching has been +well received, both at Kébec and at the Three Rivers, where Father +Buteux usually instructed our French people; each of our brethren has +been occupied in hearing many confessions, both ordinary and general; +very few holidays and Sundays during the winter have passed in which we +have not seen and received persons at the table of our Lord. And certain +ones, who for three, four and five years had not confessed in old +France, now, in the new, approach this so salutary sacrament oftener +than once a month; prayers are offered kneeling and in public, not only +at the fort, but also in families and little companies scattered here +and there. As we have taken for patroness of the Church of Kébec the +Holy Virgin under the title of her Conception, which we believe to be +immaculate, so we have celebrated this festival with solemnity and +rejoicing. + +"The festival of the glorious Patriarch Saint Joseph, father, patron and +protector of New France, is one of the great solemnities of this +country.... It is, in my opinion, through his favour and through his +merits, that the inhabitants of New France who live upon the banks of +the great river Saint Lawrence, have resolved to receive all the good +customs of the old and to refuse admission to the bad ones. + +"And to tell the truth, so long as we have a governor who is a friend of +virtue, and so long as we have free speech in the Church of God, the +monster of ambition will have no altar there. + +"All the principal personages of our colony honour religion; I say with +joy and God's blessing, that those whom His goodness has given to +command over us, and those also who are coming to establish themselves +in these countries, enjoy, cherish, and wish to follow the most sincere +maxims of Christianity.... Justice reigns here, insolence is banished, +and shamelessness would not dare to raise its head.... It is very +important to introduce good laws and pious customs in these early +beginnings, for those who shall come after us will walk in our +footsteps, and will readily conform to the example given them by us, +whether tending to virtue or vice." + +We could multiply evidence on this point. The Jesuits always recall this +good feature of the settlers, their respect for their religion, its +worship and its ministers. + +The author of the "Secret Life of Louis XV," says that New France owed +its vigour to its first settlers; their families had multiplied and +formed a people, healthy, strong, honourable, and attached to good +principles. Father Le Clercq, a Récollet, the Venerable Mother de +l'Incarnation, and many others, seem to take pleasure in praising the +virtues of our first ancestors. + +Champlain had begun his administration by establishing order everywhere, +and chiefly among the soldiers, who easily understood military +discipline, but the religious code with more difficulty. Fort St. Louis +was like a school of religion and of every virtue. They lived there as +in a monastery. There was a lecture during meals; in the morning they +read history, and at supper the lives of saints. After that they said +their prayers, and Champlain had introduced the old French custom of +ringing the church bells three times a day, during the recitation of the +Angelus. At night, every one was invited to go to Champlain's room for +the night's prayer, said by Champlain himself. + +These good examples, given by Champlain, governor of the country, were +followed, and produced good fruits of salvation among the whole +population. The blessing of God on the young colony was evident, and +when Champlain died, he had the consolation of leaving after him a +moral, honest and virtuous people. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +CONCLUSION + + +In the autumn of the year 1635, Champlain suffered from a stroke of +paralysis, which was considered very severe from the commencement. +However, hopes were entertained for his recovery. The months of October +and November passed away, and still no sign of improvement appeared. +Champlain, therefore, made his will, which he was able to sign plainly, +in the presence of some witnesses. Father Charles Lalemant, the friend +and confessor of Champlain, administered to him the last rites of the +church, and on the night of December 25th, 1635, he passed away at Fort +St. Louis. + +All the inhabitants, without exception, were deeply affected on hearing +the news of his demise, and a great number attended his funeral. The +funeral sermon was preached by Father Le Jeune. Champlain was buried in +a grave which had been specially prepared, and later on, a small chapel +was erected to protect his precious remains.[28] This chapel was +unfortunately burnt, as we have already mentioned, during the +conflagration of June 14th, 1640. + +The Jesuits' Relations of 1636 give a full account of the last days of +Champlain, which we here quote: "On December 25th, the day of the birth +of our Saviour upon earth, Monsieur de Champlain, our governor, was +reborn in Heaven; at least we can say that his death was full of +blessings. I am sure that God has shown him this favour in consideration +of the benefits he has procured for New France, where we hope some day +God will be loved and served by our French, and known and adored by our +savages. Truly he had led a life of great justice, equity and perfect +loyalty to his king and towards the gentlemen of the company. But at his +death he crowned his virtues with sentiments of piety so lofty that he +astonished us all. What tears he shed! How ardent became his zeal for +the service of God! How great was his love for the families here--saying +that they must be vigorously assisted for the good of the country, and +made comfortable in every possible way in these early stages, and that +he would do it if God gave him health. He was not taken unawares in the +account which he had to render unto God, for he had long ago prepared a +general confession of his whole life, which he made with great +contrition to Father Lalemant, whom he honoured with his friendship. The +father comforted him throughout his sickness, which lasted two months +and a half, and did not leave him until his death. He had a very +honourable burial, the funeral procession being formed of the people, +the soldiers, the captains and the churchmen. Father Lalemant officiated +at this burial, and I was charged with the funeral oration, for which I +did not lack material. Those whom he left behind have reason to be well +satisfied with him; for although he died out of France, his name will +not therefore be any less glorious to posterity." + +Champlain left no posterity. His wife spent only four years in Canada, +after which she resided continually in Paris. During her residence in +New France, she studied the Algonquin language, and instructed the young +Indians in catechism, and in this manner she won the friendship of the +native tribes. It was the fashion of the time for a lady of quality to +wear at her girdle a small mirror, and the youthful Hélène observed the +custom. The savages, who were delighted to be in her company, were oft +time astonished to see their own image reflected on the crystalline +surface of this mirror, and said, with their native simplicity: "A lady +so handsome, who cures our diseases, and loves us to so great an extent +as to bear our image near her breast, must be superior to a human +being." They, therefore, had a kind of veneration for her, and they +would have offered their homage to her instead of to the Deity of whom +they had only an imperfect knowledge. + +The Indians were Madame Champlain's special care, but she was respected +by the French as well. We do not know very much about her social +intercourse with the different families of Quebec, but it is not +probable that she ignored Madame Hébert or her family, as Faillon seems +to believe. Her own distinction and the position of her husband would, +no doubt, render her particular in the choice of friends, but we can +scarcely believe that she would completely ignore Madame Couillard, who +was of her own age. How was it that she consented to live alone in +Quebec during the long absence of her husband? + +After her return to Paris in 1624, Madame Champlain lived alone, and +became more and more detached from the world, till she asked her husband +to allow her to enter an Ursuline convent. Champlain, fearing that this +desire might arise rather from caprice than a vocation for the life of +the cloister, thought it advisable to refuse her request, and he bade +her a last adieu in 1633. After Champlain's death, Father Le Jeune +informed her that she was now free to follow the dictates of her heart. + +According to the marriage settlement, Champlain was obliged to leave to +his wife, if she were still living, all his possessions. By his last +will, however, he left all his property to the church. Champlain had no +desire to injure his wife by this act; on the contrary, he knew that her +piety was great, and that she would probably applaud the course he had +taken, which was owing to his extraordinary devotion to Notre Dame de la +Recouvrance, the church which he had built and loved. Madame Champlain, +in fact, made no opposition, and the will was confirmed on July 11th, +1637. The will, however, was contested by Marie Camaret, a first cousin +of Champlain, and wife of Jacques Hersault, comptroller of customs at La +Rochelle, and a famous trial was the result. The will was contested on +two grounds: (1.) That the will was contrary to the marriage settlement, +and therefore ought to be annulled; (2.) That the will was made by +foreign hands, as it was difficult to suppose that Champlain had chosen +the Virgin Mary as his heir. + +These were the contentions of Master Boileau. The attorney-general +Bignon easily refuted the second allegation by proving that Madame +Champlain had recognized the signature of her husband, and had stated +that the expression and style were his. The terms of this bequest to the +Virgin were quite natural to a man of Champlain's character, "When we +know," said the attorney, "that he frequently made use of Christian +expressions in his general conversation." + +Although the authenticity of the will was proved, the attorney-general +argued that it ought to be set aside in face of the deed of settlement. +The court upheld this view, and the property of Champlain, with the +exception of the sum of nine hundred livres, derived from the sale of +his chattels, returned to his natural heirs. + +This trial and other affairs prevented Madame Champlain from carrying +out her resolution, and it was not until November 7th, 1645, that she +entered the monastery of St. Ursula at Paris. She first entered the +institution as a benefactress, and soon after became a novice under the +name of Hélène de St. Augustin. There seems to have been some +difficulties with regard to her profession as a nun, and she therefore +resolved to found an Ursuline monastery at Meaux. Bishop Séguier granted +the necessary permission to found the monastery, and also for her to +take with her three nuns and a lay sister. Hélène de St. Augustin left +Paris for Meaux on March 17th, 1648, and made her profession five months +after. As a preparation for this solemn act, she made a public +confession in the presence of the community. She also recited her +faults, kneeling, and wearing a cord about her neck, and bearing a +lighted taper in her hands. Mère Hélène de St. Augustin lived only six +years in her convent at Meaux, and died on December 20th, 1654, at the +age of fifty years, leaving the memory of a saintly life. + +Eustache Boullé, the brother of Hélène de St. Augustin, became a +convert to Catholicism through the intervention of his sister, and +entered the Minim order. He was sent to Italy, where he lived for six +years. During his sojourn there his sister sent to him one thousand +livres a year, and at her death she bequeathed to him the sum of six +thousand livres, and all her chattels, together with a pension of four +hundred livres for life. + +All those who have carefully studied the life of Champlain, have been +impressed by the many brilliant qualities which he possessed. Some have +praised his energy, his courage, his loyalty, his disinterestedness, and +his probity. Others have admired the charity which he exhibited towards +his neighbours, his zeal, his practical faith, his exalted views and his +perseverance. The fact is, that in Champlain all these qualities were +united to a prominent degree. + +The contemporaries of Champlain did not perhaps appreciate his merits, +or his heroic efforts as a founder. This is not altogether singular, for +even in the physical world one cannot rightly estimate the altitude of a +mountain by remaining close to its base, but at a distance a just +appreciation of its proportions may be obtained. + +If the contemporaries of Champlain failed to render him justice, +posterity has made amends, and Time, the sole arbitrator of fame, has +placed the founder of Quebec upon a pedestal of glory which will become +more brilliant as the centuries roll on. Nearly three centuries had +elapsed since the heroic Saintongeais first set foot on the soil of +Canada, when, at the close of the nineteenth century, a spectacle was +witnessed in the city of his foundation which proved that the name of +Champlain was graven on the hearts of all Canadians. The ceremonies +attending the inauguration of the splendid monument which now adorns +Quebec, have become a matter of history, and seldom could such a scene +be repeated again. France and England, the two great nations from which +Canadians have descended, each paid homage to the illustrious founder; +nor can we forget the noble tribute which was paid by the latest English +governor, representing Her Majesty Queen Victoria, to the first French +governor, representing His Majesty the King of France and of Navarre. + +It is seldom that the deeds of the great men of past ages have been more +fittingly remembered. Champlain, as we have previously remarked, +possessed in an eminent degree all the qualities necessary for a +founder, and his character is therefore exceptional, for over and above +all the heroism he displayed, all his perseverance, his devotion to his +country, we behold the working of a Christian mind, and the desire to +propagate the faith of his fathers. + +What would have been the result of the missions without his aid? It was +Champlain who caused the standard of our faith to be planted on the +shores of Canada. It was he who brought the missionaries to the new +settlement, and maintained them at Quebec, at Tadousac, and in the Huron +country. It was Champlain, too, who founded the parochial church of +Quebec, and afterwards endowed it. + +Champlain's work rested solely upon a religious foundation, hence his +work has endured. It is true that the founder of Quebec had certain +worldly ambitions: he desired to promote commerce between the French and +the Indians, but surely this is not a matter for which he should be +reproached. Without trade the inhabitants of the settlement could not +exist, and without the development of the settlement, his work of +civilization would necessarily end. He worked for the material +prosperity of the settlement, but not to increase his own fortune. The +development of trade was also essential to Champlain in his capacity of +explorer, and it was only through this means that he could extend the +bounds of his mother country. This was surely the wisdom of a true +patriot. What nobler ambition on earth could any one have than this, to +extend the kingdom of his God and of his king? + +Champlain has been justly called _The Father of New France_, and this is +certainly a glorious title. The name of Champlain is indissolubly +associated with this country, and will live long after his +contemporaries are forgotten, for many of them now only live through +him. + +America contains a number of towns which have carefully preserved the +names of their founders, whose memories are consecrated by monuments +which will recall to future generations their noble work. But where is +the town or state that can point to a founder whose work equalled that +of Champlain? He had to spend thirty of the best years of his life in +his endeavours to found a settlement on the shores of the St. Lawrence. +Twenty times he crossed the Atlantic in the interests of the colony, and +in the meantime he had constantly to combat the influence of the +merchants who vigorously opposed the settlement of the French in Canada. + +If we study the history of the mercantile companies from the years 1608 +to 1627, we find on the one hand, a body of men absorbed by one idea, +that of growing rich, and on the other hand, a man, anxious, it is true, +to look after the material interests of the merchants and of the people, +but hand in hand with this the desire to extend the dominion of his +sovereign. Here was a vast country, capable of producing great wealth, +and struggling for its possession was a body of avaricious men, while +valiantly guarding its infancy, we find a single champion, the heroic +Champlain. Champlain watched over the new settlement with the tender +solicitude of a parent carefully protecting his offspring from danger, +and ready to sacrifice his life to save it from disaster. In small +vessels of sixty or eighty tons, Champlain had repeatedly exposed his +life to danger in crossing the ocean. His health had also been exposed +during the days and nights spent in the open forests, or when passing +on the dangerous rivers in his efforts to explore new territory. He was +also constantly at the mercy of the Indians, whose treachery was +proverbial. Under all these dangers and through all these conditions, +Champlain's conduct was exemplary. He was charitable as a missionary +towards these poor children of the woods. When threatened with hunger or +malady, he relieved their wants and took care of the young children, +some of whom he adopted. Others again he placed in French families, +hoping that sooner or later they would be baptized into the fold of +Christ's flock. In his intercourse with the chiefs, Champlain took +occasion to explain to them the rudiments of the Christian faith, hoping +thereby to pave the way for the work of the missionaries. Whenever he +found any children that seemed more intelligent than usual, he sent them +to France, where they could be instructed, and either enter a convent or +take service in some good family. And who can tell whether some of these +children did not afterwards become missionaries to their own country? + +Champlain's prudence in his dealings with the savages was not less +remarkable than his charity. This conduct gave him an influence over the +Indians that no other Frenchman was able to obtain. The Indian tribes +regarded Champlain as a father, but their love was mingled with a +reverential fear, and every word and action was of deep significance to +them. They had faith in Champlain, which after all was not unusual, for +he had never deceived them. Though they were barbarous and uncouth, and +generally untruthful, they could distinguish the false from the true +from the lips of a Frenchman. Being given to dissimulation themselves, +they could appreciate sincerity in others. + +Some writers have questioned Champlain's prudence touching the alliance +which he made with some Indians for the purpose of fighting the +aggressive Iroquois. We have already shown that if Champlain desired to +maintain his settlement at Quebec, such an alliance was not only +prudent, but essential. The Hurons and allied tribes, it is true, were +barbarous, though not to so great an extent as the Iroquois, but they +had the same vices and were as perfidious. The least discontent or whim +would have been sufficient for the whole band to have swept the fort +away. By making an alliance with them, and promising to assist them +against their inveterate foes, it became to their advantage to support +Champlain, and thus to render his people secure against attack. Moreover +the numerical strength of the settlers in the early days was not +sufficient for Champlain to have imposed terms by force of arms, and as +it was necessary for his people to trade with the Indians, he could not +have done better, under the circumstances, than to form this alliance, +which insured business relations and protection for his countrymen. + +This alliance was undoubtedly made at a sacrifice to Champlain, and he +had to suffer many humiliations and privations thereby. We cannot +imagine that he found any pleasure in going to war with a lot of +savages, or in fighting against a ferocious band, with whom neither he +nor his people had any quarrel. It is certain that Champlain did not +encourage them in their wars, and he was careful not to put any weapons +into their hands. The same amount of prudence was not exercised by those +who came after the French and endeavoured to colonize New England and +New Netherland. + +Champlain's policy was one of conciliation. He desired peace, harmony +and charity above all things. As a respectful and obedient child of his +mother, the Catholic Church, he was very anxious that her teachings and +advice should be observed by those who were placed under his authority. +Although in his early life he had followed the career of a soldier, +still he regarded the profession of arms as useful only to put into +question the ancient axiom, _Si vis pacem, para bellum_. Wars and +quarrels had no attraction for Champlain, and he always preferred a +friendly arrangement of any difficulty. He was a lover of peace, rather +than of bloodshed, and the kindly nature of his disposition prevented +him adopting vigorous measures. + +Nevertheless, in the fulfilment of his duty as a judge, he was just, and +would punish the guilty in order to restrain abuses or crimes. At this +period there was no court of justice in New France, but Champlain's +commission empowered him to name officers to settle quarrels and +disputes. There was a king's attorney, a lieutenant of the Prévôté, and +a clerk of the Quebec jurisdiction, which had been established by the +king. Champlain, however, was often called upon to decide a point of +law, and we learn from his history that he was unable on account of +death to settle a point which had arisen between two of Robert Giffard's +farmers. + +Champlain's authority was very extended, and whatever good may have +resulted from his administration is due to the fact that he exercised +his power with wisdom and prudence. Champlain's influence has expanded +throughout the country wherever the French language is spoken, from the +Huron peninsula, along the Algonquins' river, from Sault St. Louis, +Tadousac and Quebec, and every one has recognized that Champlain alone, +among the men of his day, had sufficient patriotism and confidence in +the future of the colony to maintain and hold aloft under great +difficulties, the lily banner of France on our Canadian shores. + +After having founded Quebec, Champlain, with characteristic wisdom, +chose the places where now stand the cities of Montreal and Three +Rivers. He was particularly fortunate in his selections, and any +buildings that he caused to be erected, were built from his own plans +and under his own directions. + +On the whole, Champlain's writings are very interesting, notwithstanding +the fact that he is somewhat diffuse in his style. Writing in the style +of the commencement of the seventeenth century, we see traces, +especially in his figures and descriptions, of the beauties of a +language which was then in a transitory state. However, whether his +style may be commended or condemned, it is of little consequence, since +he has given to the world such ample details of his life and +achievements as a discoverer, an explorer and a founder. His writings +are the more remarkable from the fact that they were composed during the +scanty leisure of his daily life, and we owe him a debt of gratitude for +having sacrificed this leisure to give us such precious treasures.[29] +Such was the life of this peerless man, whose incessant labours were +dedicated to the service of God and the glory of France. + +The city of Quebec is justly proud of her noble founder, and it is a +source of gratification to the inhabitants to point to the stately +monument which stands upon the spot consecrated by the life and death of +Champlain. The inscription commemorates the great work of the founder, +and of his explorations; but in the hearts of the people of Canada, +Champlain has a still more precious monument, and the flourishing +condition of our Dominion to-day is but the unconscious outcome of the +trial and labours of his heroic life. + +All historians who have written of Champlain attribute to him the +qualities which we have endeavoured to depict in these pages. +Charlevoix, a Jesuit, and the author of the first great history of +Canada, written about one hundred years after the death of the founder +of New France, thus writes: + +"Champlain died at Quebec, generally and justly regretted. M. de +Champlain was, beyond contradiction, a man of merit, and may be well +called, _The Father of New France_. He had good sense, much penetration, +very upright views, and no man was ever more skilled in adopting a +course in the most complicated affairs. What all admired most in him was +his constancy in following up his enterprises, his firmness in the +greatest dangers, a courage proof against the most unforeseen reverses +and disappointments, ardent and disinterested patriotism, a heart tender +and compassionate for the unhappy, and more attentive to the interests +of his friends than his own, a high sense of honour and great probity. +His memoirs show that he was not ignorant of anything that one of his +profession should know, and we find in him a faithful and sincere +historian, an attentively observant traveller, a judicious writer, a +good mathematician and an able mariner. + +"But what crowns all these good qualities is the fact that in his life, +as well as in his writings, he shows himself always a truly Christian +man, zealous for the service of God, full of candour and religion. He +was accustomed to say what we read in his memoirs, 'That the salvation +of a single soul was worth more than the conquest of an empire, and that +kings should seek to extend their domain in heathen countries only to +subject them to Christ.' He thus spoke especially to silence those who, +unduly prejudiced against Canada, asked what France would gain by +settling it. Our kings, it is known, always spoke like Champlain on this +point; and the conversion of the Indians was the chief motive which, +more than once, prevented their abandoning a colony, the progress of +which was so long retarded by our impatience, our inconstancy, and the +blind cupidity of a few individuals. To give it a more solid foundation, +it only required more respect for the suggestions of M. de Champlain, +and more seasonable belief on the part of those who placed him in his +position. The plan which he proposed was but too well justified by the +failure of opposite maxims and conduct." + +In 1880, the Reverend E.F. Slafter,[30] a Protestant minister, gave to +the American nation an appreciative description of the virtues of +Champlain, from which we quote the following passage: "In completing +this memoir the reader can hardly fail to be impressed, not to say +disappointed, by the fact that results apparently insignificant should +thus far have followed a life of able, honest, unselfish, heroic labour. +The colony was still small in numbers, the acres subdued and brought +into cultivation were few, and the aggregate yearly products were +meagre. But it is to be observed that the productiveness of capital and +labour and talent, two hundred and seventy years ago, cannot well be +compared with the standards of to-day. Moreover, the results of +Champlain's career are insignificant rather in appearance than in +reality. The work which he did was in laying foundations, while the +superstructure was to be reared in other years and by other hands. The +palace or temple, by its lofty and majestic proportions, attracts the +eye and gratifies the taste; but its unseen foundations, with their +nicely adjusted arches, without which the superstructure would crumble +to atoms, are not less the result of the profound knowledge and +practical wisdom of the architect. The explorations made by Champlain +early and late, the organization and planting of his colonies, the +resistance of avaricious corporations, the holding of numerous savage +tribes in friendly alliance, the daily administration of the affairs of +the colony, of the savages, and of the corporation in France, to the +eminent satisfaction of all generous and noble-minded patrons, and this +for a period of more than thirty years, are proof of an extraordinary +continuation of mental and moral qualities. Without impulsiveness, his +warm and tender sympathies imparted to him an unusual power and +influence over other men. He was wise, modest and judicious in council, +prompt, vigorous and practical in administration, simple and frugal in +his mode of life, persistent and unyielding in the execution of his +plans, brave and valiant in danger, unselfish, honest and conscientious +in the discharge of duty. These qualities, rare in combination, were +always conspicuous in Champlain, and justly entitle him to the respect +and admiration of mankind." + +These two quotations are sufficient to supplement the observations that +we have made, and there can be no doubt that posterity will forever +confirm this opinion of the life and labours of the founder of New +France, and that the name of Champlain will never be obliterated from +the memory of Canadians. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[28] The exact site of the chapel wherein Champlain was buried is +unknown, although many antiquarians have endeavoured to throw light upon +the subject. In 1866 some bones and the fragment of an inscription were +found in a kind of vault at the foot of Breakneck Stairs, and Messrs. +Laverdière and Casgrain were under the impression that Champlain's tomb +had been found. In 1875 the Abbé Casgrain discovered a document which he +considered proved that the chapel had been built in the Upper Town, in +the vicinity of the parochial church and of Fort St. Louis. This opinion +was further confirmed by other documents which have since been found. +The chapel was in existence in the year 1661, but after this date no +mention is made of it. The parochial archives contain no mention of the +place, and the only facts that we have concerning the tomb, are that +Father Raymbault and François de Ré, Sieur Gand, were buried near +Champlain's remains. + +[29] The last publication of Champlain bears the date of 1632, with the +following title: _Les Voyages de la Nouvelle France occidentale, dicte +Canada, faits par le Sr. de Champlain Xainctongeois. Capitaine pour le +Roy en la Marine du Ponant, et toutes les Descouvertures qu'il a faites +en ce pays depuis l'an 1603, jusques en l'an 1629. MDCXXXII_. This +volume is dedicated to Richelieu. According to M. Laverdière, it has +been reissued, in 1640, with a new date and title. + +[30] Edmund Farwell Slafter was born in Norwich, Vt., on May 30th, 1816. +He was graduated at Dartmouth in 1840, studied at Andover Theological +Seminary, and in 1844 was ordained a minister of the Protestant +Episcopal Church. Since 1877 he has given his leisure time to historical +studies. He has published, among other works, _Sir William Alexander and +American Colonization_, in the series of the Prince Society (Boston, +1873), _Voyages of the Northmen to America_, edited with an introduction +(1877), _Voyages of Samuel de Champlain_, translated from the French by +Charles Pomeroy Otis, with historical illustrations and a memoir (three +volumes, 1878, 1880, 1882). + + + + +CHRONOLOGICAL APPENDIX + + + + +CHRONOLOGICAL APPENDIX + + +1567 or 1570--Birth of Samuel Champlain. + +1598--Champlain makes a voyage to Spain. + +1599--Joins an expedition against the English to the West Indies. + +1601--Returns from America. + +1603--Goes to Canada as lieutenant of Aymar de Chastes, viceroy of New +France, explores the river St. Lawrence to Sault St. Louis, and returns +the same year. + +1604--Follows de Monts' fortune in Acadia as geographer and historian of +the expedition; lives on Ste. Croix Island and at Port Royal till the +year 1607. + +1608--As lieutenant of de Monts, viceroy of New France, Champlain +crosses the Atlantic and founds Quebec. + +1609--Champlain's expedition against the Iroquois. Leaves for France on +September 5th. + +1610--Champlain returns to Quebec and goes back to France the same year. +His marriage with Hélène Boullé on December 30th, 1610. + +1611--Champlain comes again to Quebec; founds Montreal; sails for France +on July 20th. De Monts' company ceases to exist. + +1612--Champlain sails for Canada and explores the country as far as +Allumette Island. Goes to France. Comte de Soissons appointed viceroy of +New France; dies soon after. The Prince de Condé takes his place, and +retains Champlain as his lieutenant. + +1613--Champlain leaves France for Canada, where he stays till 1614. + +1615--Returns to Quebec with the Récollet Fathers; he goes as far as the +Huron country; particulars of these tribes, their customs, manners, +etc.; Champlain assists them in a war against the Iroquois; follows them +and comes back to the Huron country, where he spends the winter. + +1616--Leaves for Quebec on May 20th; work of the missionaries in the +meantime; meeting of the _habitants_ and result of their deliberations; +memorandum addressed to the king; Champlain goes to France. + +1617--Champlain sails from Honfleur on April 11th for Quebec; Louis +Hébert's family accompanies him. + +1618--Champlain returns to France. Maréchal de Thémines appointed +viceroy _per interim_ after Condé's dismissal. Difficulties met by +Champlain in 1617; his projects laid before the king. Champlain gains +his point and preserves his former position. + +1619--Condé sells his commission of viceroy to the Duke of Montmorency; +Champlain's new commission of lieutenant of the viceroy. Company of +Montmorency formed by the Duke of Montmorency. + +1620--Champlain comes back to Quebec with his wife, and stays there till +the year 1624. + +1621--Champlain receives his instructions from Montmorency and from the +king; entitled to help the new company of merchants; conflict at Quebec +between the agents of the old and of the new company; Champlain's firm +attitude settles the matter. + +1622--The Company of Montmorency rules the country. + +1624--Champlain recrosses the ocean, bringing his wife. + +1625--Arrival of the Jesuits. Champlain at Tadousac and at Quebec; his +intercourse with the Montagnais; the duc de Ventadour named viceroy of +New France; Champlain reappointed lieutenant. + +1627--Ventadour resigns his office; Cardinal Richelieu organizes the +Company of the Hundred Associates; privileges granted to them; Champlain +still living at Quebec. + +1628--Roquemont sent to Quebec with provisions; his vessels taken by +Kirke; Quebec in danger; correspondence between David Kirke and +Champlain; the enemy retires; distress at Quebec for the want of food. + +1629--Kirke before Quebec; the capitulation; fate of the inhabitants; +the missionaries return to France together with Champlain; the last +events at Tadousac. + +1629-32--Champlain goes to London; negotiations between France and +England through the French ambassador; Champlain's visits to the king, +and to Cardinal Richelieu; Charles I ready to restore Canada, with +certain conditions. + +1632--The Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye terminates the dispute between +the two countries, and Quebec is restored to France. + +1632--Arrival at Quebec of the Jesuits; history of their convent since +1626. + +1633--Champlain's arrival in Quebec; history of the seminary of Notre +Dame des Anges since its foundation; the Jesuits' missions at Miscou +Island, in the Maritime Provinces, Acadia, Baie des Chaleurs and Cape +Breton. Champlain erects a church at Quebec. + +1634--Immigration of French colonists from Perche; Robert Giffard. + +1635--Champlain's sickness and death; his wife founds an Ursuline +convent at Meaux. + + + + +INDEX + + + + +INDEX + + +A + +Aïandacé, Huron seminarist, 232 + +Alexander, Sir William, his mission, 176; + his charters, 223 + +Alix, Marguerite, Champlain's mother-in-law, 66 + +Alix, Simon, Hélène Boullé's uncle, 66, 170 + +Anadabijou, chief of the Montagnais, 50, 51, 55, 139 + +Andehoua, Huron seminarist, 232, 233 + +Antons, Captain des, 31 + +Armand-Jean, christian name of Andehoua, 33 + +Arragon, notary, 66 + +Atarohiat, Huron seminarist, 233 + +Ateiachias, Huron seminarist, 233 + +Atokouchioüani, Huron seminarist, 233 + +Aubert, Pierre, 170 + +Aubéri, Father, his labours in Acadia, 236 + +Aubry, priest, 24 + +Aumont, Marshal, d', 1 + + +B + +Bancroft, quoted, 87 + +Barbier, 66 + +Batiscan, chief of the Montagnais, 68 + +Beauchesne, clerk, 115 + +Beaulieu, councillor and almoner to the king, 72 + +Bellois, Corneille de, 122, 127 + +Bentivoglio, Guido, papal nuncio, 84 + +Berkeley, Sir John, commands Porto Rico, 3 + +Bessabé, chief of the Souriquois, 28 + +Biencourt, son of Poutrincourt, 38; + bound for Port Royal, 68 + +Bignon, attorney-general, 265 + +Boileau, attorney, 265 + +Bonneau, Thomas, 170 + +Bonnerme, surgeon, accompanies Champlain when Quebec is founded, 41; + one of the jury who condemned Jean Duval to death, 43; + dies, 46 + +Bontemps, captain, 252 + +Boues, Charles de, Récollet, syndic of Canadian Missions, 117, 148 + +Boulay, his residence at Port Royal, 25 + +Boullé, Eustache, Champlain's brother-in-law, 134, 136; + arrives in 1618, 145; + goes to France in 1626, 155, 209; + enters the Minim Order, 267 + +Boullé, Hélène, marries Champlain, 66; + comes to Quebec and returns to France, 141; + her sojourn at Quebec, 263, 264, 265, 266 + +Boullé, Nicholas, Champlain's father-in-law, 66; + pays his daughter's inheritance to Champlain, 67 + +Bourdon, Jean, comes to Canada, 252; + settles at Quebec, 253 + +Bourioli at Port Royal, 25 + +Bouthillier, represents the king of France, 220; + signs the Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, 222 + +Boyer, Daniel, 122, 123 + +Brébeuf, Father Jean de, estimates the Huron population, 90; + his opinion of the tribe de l'Ours and other Hurons, 92, 93; + arrives in New France, 152; + assailed by Jacques Michel, 201, 202; + leaves for France, 207, 208; + returns to Canada, 228; + goes to the Huron country, 249 + +Brûlé, Étienne, with Champlain founding Quebec, 41; + sets out for the Ottawa River, 88, 139; + interpreter, 143, 144; + sent to Three Rivers, 163; + betrays Champlain, 194, 202; + his excuse, 203; + his murder, 246 + +Bullion, represents France, 220; + signs the Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, 222 + +Burel, Friar Gilbert, arrives in Canada, 152; + returns to France, 208 + +Burlamachi, appointed commissioner, 218; + sent to France by Charles I, 220, 222 + + +C + +Cabahis, Souriquois chief, 28 + +Caën, Emery de, nephew of Guillaume de Caën, 137; + vice-admiral of the fleet, 156; + leaves Quebec to carry on trade, 157; + his character, 182; + defends the colony, 183; + fights with Kirke, 184; + surrenders, 185; + proceeds to Quebec, 199; + failure of his expedition, 201; + tries to secure his goods, 219, 220; + comes back to Quebec, 226; + banqueted, 228; + summoned by Champlain, 249 + +Caën, Ezechiel de, member of the Company of Rouen, 132, 137 + +Caën, Guillaume de, member of de Caën's Company, 130, 132; + conflicts with Pont-Gravé, 135; + his promises, 136; + sails for France, 138; + present at Cape de la Victoire, 139; + visits Quebec and its vicinity, 140; + sails for France, 141; + returns with the Jesuits, 152; + appears before the state council, 155; + supports the conduct of the merchants, 157; + condones a murderer, 161; + his character, 182, 183; + his claims, 217, 218, 219 + +Camaret, Marie, cousin of Champlain, 265 + +Cananée, Guillaume, navigator, 141 + +Cartier, Jacques, 13, 22, 23, 28, 29, 34, 35, 45, 52 + +Casgrain, l'Abbé, his opinion on the site of Champlain's tomb, 261, 262 + +Castillon, Jacques, one of the Hundred Associates, 168; + offers pictures to Quebec church, 240 + +Caumont, underclerk, 121 + +Champdoré, carpenter, 22, 34 + +Champlain, Antoine, father of Samuel, 1 + +Champlain, Samuel, see chronological appendix, 283-6 + +Charlevoix, Father, quoted, 36, 248, 276 + +Charton, Friar François, 152, 208 + +Chastes, Aymar de, 7; + viceroy of Canada, 8, 9 + +Chateauneuf, M. de, French ambassador in England, 211; + retires from his position, 214; + exchanges documents with Fontenay-Mareuil, 216 + +Chauvin, Pierre, Sieur de la Pierre, at Tadousac, 54; + trades in peltry, 63 + +Chauvin, Pierre de, Sieur de Tontuit, viceroy of Canada, 8, 13, 17, 41, 54 + +Cheffault, lawyer of Paris, 244 + +Chenu, Marcel, merchant of Paris, 66 + +Cherououny, Montagnais chief, 163 + +Choquillot, notary, 66 + +Chou, Iuan, Indian friend of Champlain, 181 + +Clifford, Sir George, 3 + +Cloutier, Zacharie, comes with Giffard, 252 + +Cochon, Thomas, merchant, 122 + +Collier, 56 + +Condé, Prince de, viceroy of Canada, 73; + gives a passport to Captain Maisonneuve, 78; + letter from Champlain, 79; + contributes to the Récollet fund, 117; + conspires against the Queen Regent, 122; + discharged from prison, 129 + +Coton, Father, a Jesuit, 151, 152 + +Couillard, Elizabeth, a daughter of Guillaume, 225 + +Couillard, Guillaume, signs the settlers' memorandum, 136; + arrives in Canada, 145; + his family, 146, 184, 195, 196, 208; + native of St. Malo, 250 + +Couillard, Henry, captain of the _Don de Dieu_, 39 + +Couillard, Jacques, interpreter, 144; + submits to Kirke, 185 + +Cramoisy, Sébastien, one of the Hundred Associates, 171 + + +D + +Dablon, Simon, one of the Hundred Associates, 168 + +Daniel, Captain, destroys an English fort at Cape Breton, 200, 212 + +Daniel, Doctor, sent to London, 212, 213 + +Daniel, Father, director of the Seminary of Notre Dame des Anges, 231, 237 + +Darache, Captain, trades furs at Tadousac, 40 + +Darontal, chief of the tribe de la Roche, 103; + Champlain's friend, 106 + +Davost, Father, missionary at Cape Breton, 237 + +Denys, Charles, settles on the shores of Miramichi River, 237 + +Denys, Nicholas, founds Fort St. Pierre, 236 + +Deschamps, surgeon, performs an autopsy at Port Royal, 33 + +Des Marets, Claude Godet, note on his family, 47, 60; + accompanies Champlain's expedition against the Iroquois, 52; + arrives from France, 63; + present at Cape de la Victoire, 139; + Pont-Gravé's grandson, 181 + +Desportes, Hélène, 146, 208 + +Desportes, Pierre, 136, 145, 146, 181, 196, 208 + +Destouches, Eustache Boullé's lieutenant, 155, 209 + +Dollebeau, Father, perishes at sea, 235 + +Dolu, intendant of New France, 130, 131, 132, 135 + +Doughty, A.G., quoted, 168 + +Duchesne, Adrien, surgeon, 145, 146, 147, 196, 208 + +Duchesne, Captain, 139 + +Duchesne, David, one of the Hundred Associates, 168 + +Du Marché, Father, at Miscou, 234 + +Dumay, Captain, 133, 134 + +Dumoulin, shot by an Indian, 164 + +_Du Parc, Jean Godet_, his family, 47, 60; + commands at Quebec, 64, 68 + +Du Plessis, Friar Pacifique, 85, 117 + +Duplessis-Bochart, presents pictures to Quebec church, 240; + receives the keys of the fort, 249 + +_Duval, Jean_, at Quebec when founded, 41; + leads a conspiracy against Champlain, 42; + sentenced to death, 43 + +Du Vernet, interpreter, 144 + + +E + +Effiat, duke d', heads the list of the Hundred Associates, 170 + +Endemare, Father d', at Cape Breton, 237 + +Eon, Pierre, member of the Company of St. Malo and Rouen, 122 + + +F + +Faillon, quoted, 207 + +Féret, 7 + +Fontenay-Mareuil, French ambassador in England, 214; + exchanges documents with Chateauneuf, 216 + +_Foucher, Jean_, at Cape Tourmente, 176, 208 + +Franchise, Sieur de la, 14 + +Frémin, Father, at the Richibucto mission, 235 + + +G + +Gaillon, Michel, put to death, 43, 44 + +Galleran, Father G., 149 + +Gamache, Marquis de, contributes to the foundation + of the Jesuits' College, 228 + +Gand, see Ré + +Garnier de Chapouin, provincial of the Récollets, 85 + +Gates, Sir Thomas, his letters patent, 223 + +Gaufestre, Friar Jean, 209 + +Genestou, at Port Royal, 25 + +Gesvres, de, 9 + +Giffard, Robert, surgeon, 164, 174; + comes to Canada, 250; + receives lands, 251, 252 + +Godefroy, Jean-Paul, interpreter, 144 + +Godefroy, Thomas, interpreter, 144 + +Gomara, Lopez de, 6 + +Gondoin, Father N., missionary at Miscou, 234 + +Goudon, Elizabeth, Gervase Kirke's wife, 173 + +Gravé, François, grandson of Pont-Gravé, 47 + +Gravé, François, Sieur du Pont, accompanies Champlain to Tadousac, 8; + comes to Canada in 1603, 9; + proceeds to Sault St. Louis, 13; + Champlain awaits him at Port au Mouton, 19; + at Ste. Croix, 32; + returns to France, 33; + at Tadousac, 40; + one of the jury to judge Duval, 43; + sails for France in 1608, 45; + arrives at Tadousac, 1609, 47; + commands the habitation of Quebec, 48; + his promise to Anadabijou, 51; + returns to France, 54; + receives the command of a fur trading vessel, 56, 57; + trades in peltry, 63; + sails for France, 64; + returns to Canada, 106; + trades at Three Rivers, 121; + Champlain's rival, 125; + represents the old company, 133; + arrives at Quebec, 134; + his conflict with Guillaume de Caën, 135; + chief clerk at Quebec, 138; + at Cape de la Victoire, 139; + sails for France, 141; + his illness, 156; + Champlain reads publicly his commission, 181, 182; + signs articles of capitulation, 191; + leaves for Tadousac, 196 + +Gravé, Jeanne, 47 + +Gravé, Robert, son of François, accompanies Champlain + on a voyage of discovery along the American coast, 34 + +Gravé, Vincent, merchant of Rouen, 122 + +Groux, J., signs a memorandum, 136 + +Gua, Pierre du, Sieur de Monts, see Monts + +Guers, J.B., delegate of the Duke of Montmorency, 121, 133, 134, 136; + returns to France, 141 + +Guilbault, merchant of La Rochelle, 236 + +Guines, Friar Modeste, 115 + +Guyon, Jean, mason, comes from Perche, 252 + + +H + +Halard, Jacques, captain, 136 + +Hébert, Anne, 117 + +Hébert, Guillaume, 146, 208 + +Hébert, Guillemette, 146, 208 + +Hébert, Louis, comes to Quebec with family, 111, 112; + signs a memorandum, 136; + his family, 146; + at Port Royal, 147; + his death, 148, 250, 251 + +Hébert, Louise, 146 + +Hébert, Madame, see Rollet, Marie + +Hersault, Jacques, comptroller of customs at La Rochelle, 265 + +Hertel, Jacques, interpreter, 144 + +Hervé, François, merchant of Rouen, 132 + +Honabetha, Indian chief, 30 + +Hoüel, Louis, Sieur de Petit-Pré, enters into Champlain's views, 83; + one of the Hundred Associates, 168, 170 + +Hubou, Guillaume, 181, 196, 208 + +Huet, Father Paul, arrives in Canada, 87; + constructs a chapel at Tadousac, 112 + + +I + +Incarnation, Sister Marie de l', 253, 258 + +Insterlo, Mathieu d', one of the Company of Rouen, 122, 127 + +Iroquet, Indian chief, 48 + + +J + +Jacques, a Slavonian miner, 32 + +Jamet, Father Denis, arrives in Canada and celebrates + the first mass, 85, 107; + goes to France, 111, 112; + signs a memorandum, 136 + +Jeannin, President, 72 + +Jogues, Father Isaac, 207 + +Jonquest, Étienne, Hébert's son-in-law, his death, 117; + arrives in 1617, 145 + +Joubert, Captain, 141 + +Juchereau, Jean, comes with Giffard, 252 + + +K + +Kirke, David, intends to make an assault on Quebec, 173; + appointed captain of the fleet, 176; + writes to Champlain, 177, 178; + captures French barques, 179; + abandons Quebec, 180; + accepts articles of capitulation, 192; + visits Quebec, 204; + at Tadousac, 205; + his pretentions as to de Caën's claims, 217; + refuses to pay, 218; + dissatisfied with the agreement, 219 + +Kirke, Gervase, chief of the Kirke family, 173 + +Kirke, James, son of Gervase, 173 + +Kirke, John, son of Gervase, 173 + +Kirke, Louis, resides in Fort St. Louis, 158; + writes to Champlain, 188; + interviews Father de la Roche, 189, 190; + his answer to Champlain, 191, 192; + receives the keys of the fort, 195; + hoists the English flag, 196; + treats Champlain well, 199; + his conduct towards the Jesuits, 205 + +Kirke, Thomas, signs a letter to Champlain, 188; + takes part in an interview with Father de la Roche, 189; + signs the answer to Champlain, 192; + treats Emery de Caën as a pirate, 220 + + +L + +Lalemant, Father Charles, quoted, 87; + arrives at Quebec, 152; + his letter to the Provincial of the Récollets, 154; + comes back to Quebec, 200; + abandons Canada, 227; + teacher, 229; + parish priest, 238, 239 + +Lalemant, Father Jérôme, 10 + +Lamontagne, interpreter, 144 + +La Motte, at Port Royal, 25 + +L'Ange, Captain, 78 + +Langlois, Françoise, 146, 208 + +Langlois, Marguerite, 146, 208 + +Langlois, Noël, 252 + +Langoissieux, Pierre, takes the monastic habit, 149; + returns to France, 209 + +La Place, Father de, at Miscou, 234 + +La Roche d'Aillon, Father, arrives at Quebec, 152; + interviews Louis Kirke, 188, 189; + relates his interview, 190; + returns to France, 208 + +La Routte, pilot, 52 + +La Taille, at Quebec when founded, 41 + +Lattaignant, Gabriel de, one of the Hundred Associates, 168, 170 + +Lauzon, Jean de, 170, 226 + +Laval, Bishop, 237, 253 + +Lavalette, a Basque, 59, 60 + +La Vallée, godfather of young Hurons, 233 + +Laverdière, antiquarian, 261, 275 + +Le Baillif, underclerk at Tadousac, 138; + arrives in 1623, 144; + takes charge of the storehouse, 195; + betrays Champlain, 202; + his bad character, 204; + remains in Canada, 208 + +Le Baillif, Father George, his Relation of 1633, 87; + confers with Champlain, 133; + goes to Tadousac, 134; + his mission in France, 136; + returns to Quebec, 137 + +Le Borgne, E., takes Fort St. Pierre, 236 + +Le Caron, Father Joseph, appointed for Canadian missions, 85; + proceeds to the Huron country, 88; + returns from the Petuneux, 104; + receives a visit from Champlain, 106; + returns to Quebec, 107; + goes to France, 111, 115; + goes to Tadousac, 116; + his mission at Three Rivers, 117; + signs a memorandum, 136; + goes to the Huron country, 149; + consults with Champlain, 187; + leaves for France, 208 + +Le Clercq, Father C., quoted, 112, 258 + +Le Faucheur, a Parisian, 174 + +Legendre, Lucas, merchant of Rouen, 56, 57, 122, 127 + +Le Jeune, Father, his Relation of 1633, 87; + says mass in Hébert's house, 148; + writes to his Provincial, 230, 231, 239; + informs Madame Champlain that she is free to follow her own desires, 264 + +Lemaistre, Simon, one of the Hundred Associates, 170 + +Lemoyne, Father Simon, 208 + +Le Roy, Marguerite, Champlain's mother, 1 + +Lesage, Marguerite, Pivert's wife, 146, 208 + +Lesaige, François, attends when Champlain's marriage + settlements are made, 66 + +Lesaige, Geneviève, attends when Champlain's marriage + settlements are made, 66 + +Lescarbot, Marc, 20, 21, 25, 35; + composes a drama, 36; + poet and preacher, 37; + returns to France, 38 + +Le Sire, clerk, 138 + +Lesseps, Ferdinand de, 6 + +Le Tardif, Olivier, signs a memorandum, 136; + interpreter, 144, 208 + +Le Testu, Captain, arrives at Quebec, 42; + entertainment on board of his barque, 43 + +L'Huillier, Raoul, one of the Hundred Associates, 170 + +Linschot, quoted, 211 + +Loquin, clerk, 121, 139 + +Lormel, Captain de, 252 + +Lumagne, merchant, 221 + +Lyonne, Father de, at Nipisiguit, 235 + + +M + +Magnan, Pierre, joins an embassy to the Five Nations, 163; + murdered, 164 + +Mahicanaticouche, chief of the Montagnais, 139, 163; + murderer of two Frenchmen, 164, 165 + +Maisonneuve, captain, 78, 79 + +Malot, Friar Louis, drowned at sea, 200 + +Manet, Jean, interpreter, 144 + +Manitougatche, Indian chief, 187 + +Marchim, Indian chief, 34 + +Mariana, Father, 153 + +Marion, Nicholas, captain, 40 + +Marsolet, Nicholas, present at Quebec in 1608, 41, 143; + interpreter, 144; + betrays Champlain, 194, 202; + his character, 203, 204, 205; + remains at Quebec, 208 + +Martin, Abraham, 145, 146, 147, 196, 208 + +Martin, Anne, 146 + +Martin, Charles Amador, priest, 146 + +Martin, Sir Henry, commissioner, 214 + +Martin, Marguerite, 146 + +Martin, Nicholas, commands the _Jonas_, 37 + +Marye, Anthoine, 66 + +Massé, Father E., arrives in Canada, 152; + objects to the profanation of a chalice, 206; + returns to France, 207, 208, 227; + comes back, 228 + +May, Sir Humphrey, commissioner, 214 + +Membertou, _sagamo_ of the Souriquois, 36 + +Messamouet, captain of the Souriquois, 22, 34 + +Michel, Jacques, insults Father de Brébeuf, 201; + his lamented death, 202 + +Miristou, Montagnais, 159 + +Mohier, Friar Gervais, 208 + +Montmagny, Governor, 158 + +Montmorency, Charles de, admiral of France, 14; + succeeds Condé as viceroy of New France, 129; + his administration, 130; + letter to Champlain, 130, 131; + his gift to Guillaume de Caën, 140; + meets Champlain at St. Germain-en-Laye, 150; + resigns his position of viceroy, 151; + put to death, 215 + +Monts, Pierre du Gua, Sieur de, lieutenant-general in Acadia, 17; + forms a company of merchants, 18; + his expedition to America, 19, 20; + his settlement at Ste. Croix, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25; + decides to seek a more suitable place, 26; + explores the southern country, 29; + the river Gua, 30; + determines to try Port Royal as a settlement, 31; + returns to France, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36; + obtains a new commission, 39, 40; + meets Champlain at Fontainebleau, 55; + his commission expiring, requests a new one, 56; + meets Champlain, 57; + attends when Champlain's marriage settlements are made, 66; + his interviews with Champlain, 67, 70; + holds a conference with the merchants of Rouen, 71; + bound to colonize New France with Catholic settlers, 86 + +Moreau, quoted, 25 + +Morel, Captain, 112 + +Motin, his ode to Champlain, 72 + +Murad, Anthoine de, 66 + + +N + +Napagabiscou, Indian chief, 176 + +Natel, Antoine, at Quebec in 1608, 41; + acquaints Captain Le Testu with the details of Duval's plot, 43; + dies from scurvy, 46 + +Nesle, Captain de, 252 + +Nicholas, signs a memorandum, 136 + +Nicolet, Jean, interpreter, 144 + +Noël, Pierre, 66 + +Noüe, Father Anne de, 207, 208, 227 + +Nouveau, Arnould de, merchant of Rouen, 132 + +Noyrot, Father, 168, 177, 178, 200, 227 + + +O + +Ochateguin, Indian chief, 48; + his alliance with Champlain, 55; + commands the Hurons, 69; + fights against the Iroquois, is wounded, 103 + +Olbeau, Father Jean d', arrives in Quebec, 85, 88; + visits the Bersiamites, 107; + celebrates the first jubilee, 114; + lays the first stone of the Récollet convent, 148; + sees its door closed in 1629, 167 + +Olmechin, Indian chief, 34 + +Orville, d', at Ste. Croix, 25 + +Otis, Charles Pomeroy, translates the _Voyages of Champlain_, 277 + +Ouanda Koka, Huron chief, 233 + +Orani, Huron chief wounded in 1615, 103 + +Overman, finds Champlain's astrolabe, 76 + + +P + +Palma Cayet, Victor, 15 + +Parkman, quoted, 228 + +Perrault, Father, at Cape Breton, 236, 237 + +Piat, Father I., goes to France, 141; + to the Montagnais, 149, 150 + +Pillet, Charles, murdered, 161, 163 + +Piraube, Martial, godfather of young Hurons, 233 + +Pivert, Nicholas, 144, 146, 181, 196, 208 + +Pont-Gravé, see Gravé, François, Sieur du Pont + +Poullain, Father G., comes to Canada, 87, 116; + goes to the Nipissing mission, 149 + +Poutrincourt, Jean de Biencourt, Sieur de, goes to + America with de Monts, 19; + joins Champlain on a voyage of discovery, 34; + plants a cross at Port Fortuné, 35; + leaves for France, 38 + +Prévert, informs Champlain of the existence of a copper mine, 14 + +Provençal, Captain, Champlain's uncle, 2 + +Purchas, 15 + + +Q + +Quen, Father J. de, second parish priest of Quebec, 238, 239 + +Quentin, Barthélemy, one of the Hundred Associates, 170 + +Quentin, Bonaventure, 170 + +Quentin, Father Claude, superior of the Canadian missions, 234 + + +R + +Ragois, Claude le, merchant of Rouen, 132 + +Ralde, Raymond de la, 138; + goes to France, 141; + admiral of the fleet, 155; + note on his life, 156 + +Ralleau, de Monts' secretary, 33 + +Ravenel, Jehan, 66 + +Raymbault, Father, buried in Champlain's tomb, 262 + +Razilly, Isaac de, one of the Hundred Associates, 170; + ordered to assist Quebec, 200; + his commission cancelled, 201, 213 + +Ré, François de, Sieur Gand, one of the Hundred Associates, 171; + a good Catholic, 239; + buried in Champlain's tomb, 262 + +Repentigny, godfather of young Hurons, 233 + +Reye, Pierre, signs a memorandum, 136; + traitor, 194, 202, 204, 208 + +Richard, Father A., at Richibucto and Miscou, 235 + +Richer, Jean, interpreter, 144 + +Roberval, at Charlesbourg Royal, 23 + +Robin, Guillaume, merchant of Rouen, 132 + +Robineau, Pierre, one of the Hundred Associates, 170 + +Roernan, Jehan, 66 + +Rollet, Marie, widow Hébert, 112, 146, 208 + +Roquemont, Claude de, 168; + commands a fleet for Quebec, 172; + meets English vessels, 173; + surrenders to David Kirke, 174; + his conduct criticized, 175 + +Rouer, Hercule, 66 + +Rouvier, underclerk, 121, 135 + +Rozée, Jean, one of the Hundred Associates, 170; + merchant of Rouen, 244 + +Russell, A.J., 76 + + +S + +Sagard-Théodat, Friar Récollet, at Cape de la Victoire, 139; + returns to France, 141; + goes to the Huron country, 149; + quoted, 193 + +Santein, clerk, 138 + +Satouta, Huron seminarist, 232 + +Savignon, Huron boy accepted as hostage, 63; + goes to Sault St. Louis, 68; + brother of Tregouaroti, Indian chief, 69 + +Schoudon, Indian chief, 32 + +Séguier, Bishop of Meaux, agrees to the founding of + an Ursuline convent at Meaux, 266 + +Slafter, Reverend E.B., quoted, 277, 278, 279 + +Soissons, comte de, appointed viceroy of New France, 72, 73; + his death, 73 + +Soubriago, General, 2 + +Sourin, at Ste. Croix Island, 25 + +Stuart, James, Scottish fisherman, erects a fort on Cape Breton, 200 + + +T + +Teouatirhon, Huron seminarist, 232 + +Tessoüat, chief of the Algonquins, 75, 76, 77 + +Thémines, Maréchal de, appointed viceroy of New France, 122, 123 + +Thierry-Desdames, appointed captain at Miscou, 121; + note on his life, 138, 173, 181, 209 + +Tregatin, Indian chief, 176 + +Tregouaroti, Huron Chief, 69 + +Troyes, François de, merchant of the Company of Rouen, 132 + +Trublet, Pierre, merchant of St. Malo, 122 + +Tsiko, Huron seminarist, 232, 233 + +Tuffet, Jean, merchant of Bordeaux, 170 + +Turgis, Father C., at Miscou, 234 + + +V + +Vanelly, merchant, 221 + +Vendremur, Corneille de, clerk, 204, 209 + +Ventadour, duc de, receives the commission of viceroy of New France, 151; + resigns the office, 168 + +Verazzano, 211 + +Verger, Father du, Récollet, 83 + +Vermeulle, Louis, merchant, 122, 127 + +Verton, Pierre de, merchant, 132 + +Viel, Father N., at Cape de la Victoire, 139; + goes to the Huron country, 149 + +Vieux-Pont, Father de, 200, 237 + +Vignau, Nicholas du, interpreter, 74, 75, 77, 144 + +Vigne, Captain de la, 141 + +Villemenon, intendant of admiralty, 123, 130, 132, 135 + +Vimont, Father, drowned at sea, 200, 237 + +Vitelleschi, Father, general of the Jesuits, 228 + + +W + +Wake, Sir Isaac, English ambassador to France, 215; + commissioner, 218, 219, 220; + signs the Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, 222 + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Page 27--minutes and seconds are denoted with single quotes since this +is within a quotation and a double quote could be confusing. + +Page 36--changed Dno to Duo. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Makers of Canada: Champlain, by N. 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E. Dionne + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Makers of Canada: Champlain + +Author: N. E. Dionne + +Release Date: November 22, 2005 [EBook #17132] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MAKERS OF CANADA: CHAMPLAIN *** + + + + +Produced by Brendan Lane, Stacy Brown Thellend and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/illo1.jpg"><img src="images/illo1_th.jpg" width="400" height="579" alt="Champlain" title="" /></a> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii"></a></span></p> + +<h3 class="u"><i>THE MAKERS OF CANADA</i></h3> + +<h1 class="padtop">CHAMPLAIN</h1> + +<h4 class="padtop" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 1em;">BY</h4> + +<h3 style="margin-top: 1em;">N. E. DIONNE</h3> + + +<h4 class="padtop">TORONTO<br /> +MORANG & CO., LIMITED<br /> +1912 +</h4> + +<div class="padtop" style="margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;"> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii"></a></span><i>Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada in the year 1905, +by Morang & Co., Limited, in the Department of Agriculture</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix"></a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> + +<table class="center" summary="toc"> +<tbody> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="center"><i>CHAPTER I</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">CHAMPLAIN'S FIRST VOYAGE TO AMERICA</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" colspan="2"><i>CHAPTER II</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">ACADIA—STE. CROIX ISLAND—PORT ROYAL</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" colspan="2"><i>CHAPTER III</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">THE FOUNDING OF QUEBEC</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" colspan="2"><i>CHAPTER IV</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">CHAMPLAIN'S VOYAGES OF 1610, 1611, 1613</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" colspan="2"><i>CHAPTER V</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">THE RÉCOLLETS AND THEIR MISSIONS</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" colspan="2"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x"></a></span><i>CHAPTER VI</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">WAR AGAINST THE IROQUOIS, 1615</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" colspan="2"><i>CHAPTER VII</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">FUR TRADE</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" colspan="2"><i>CHAPTER VIII</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">CHAMPLAIN, THE JESUITS AND THE SAVAGES</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" colspan="2"><i>CHAPTER IX</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">THE COMPANY OF NEW FRANCE OR HUNDRED ASSOCIATES</td><td class="botright"> <a href="#Page_167">167</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" colspan="2"><i>CHAPTER X</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">THE CAPITULATION OF QUEBEC, 1629</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" colspan="2"><i>CHAPTER XI</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">THE LAST EVENTS OF 1629</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" colspan="2"><i>CHAPTER XII</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">QUEBEC RESTORED</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" colspan="2"><i>CHAPTER XIII</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN NEW FRANCE</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" colspan="2"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi"></a></span><i>CHAPTER XIV</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">THE GROWTH OF QUEBEC</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" colspan="2"><i>CHAPTER XV</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">CONCLUSION</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left" style="padding-top: 1.5em;">CHRONOLOGICAL APPENDIX</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">INDEX</td><td class="botright"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii"></a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">xiii</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>In</b></span> undertaking to write a biography of Samuel Champlain, the founder of +Quebec and the father of New France, our only design is to make somewhat +better known the dominant characteristics of the life and achievements +of a man whose memory is becoming more cherished as the years roll on.</p> + +<p>Every one will admire Champlain's disinterested actions, his courage, +his loyalty, his charity, and all those noble and magnificent qualities +which are rarely found united in one individual in so prominent a +degree. We cannot overpraise that self-abnegation which enabled him to +bear without complaint the ingratitude of many of his interpreters, and +the servants of the merchants; nor can we overlook, either, the charity +which he exercised towards the aborigines and new settlers; the +protection which he afforded them under trying circumstances, or his +zeal in promoting the honour and glory of God, and his respect for the +Récollet and Jesuit fathers who honoured him with their cordial +friendship. His wisdom is evidenced in such a practical fact as his +choice of Quebec as the capital of New France, despite the rival claims +of Montreal and Three Rivers, and his numerous writings reveal him to us +as a keen and sagacious <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">xiv</a></span>observer, a man of science and a skilful and +intrepid mariner. As a cosmographer, Champlain added yet another laurel +to his crown, for he excelled all his predecessors, both by the ample +volume of his descriptions and by the logical arrangement of the +geographical data which he supplied. The impetus which he gave to +cartographical science can scarcely be overestimated.</p> + +<p>Naturalist, mariner, geographer, such was Samuel Champlain, and to a +degree remarkable for the age in which he lived. It is, perhaps, +unnecessary to dwell upon the morality of the virtuous founder. The +testimony of the Hurons, who, twenty years after his death, still +pointed to the life of Champlain as a model of all Christian virtues, is +sufficient, and it is certain that no governor under the old régime +presented a more brilliant example of faith, piety, uprightness, or +soundness of judgment. A brief outline of the character of Champlain has +been given in order that the plan of this biography may be better +understood. Let us now glance at his career more in detail.</p> + +<p>Before becoming the founder of colonies, Champlain entered the French +army, where he devoted himself to the religion of his ancestors. This +was the first important step in his long and eventful career. A martial +life, however, does not appear to have held out the same inducements as +that of a mariner. An opportunity was presented which enabled him to +gratify his tastes, when the Spanish government <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">xv</a></span>sent out an armada to +encounter the English in the Gulf of Mexico. Champlain was given the +command of a ship in this expedition, but his experience during the war +served rather as an occasion to develop his genius as a mariner and +cosmographer, than to add to his renown as a warrior.</p> + +<p>God, who in His providence disposes of the lives of men according to His +divine wisdom, directed the steps of Champlain towards the shores of the +future New France. If the mother country had not completely forgotten +this land of ours, discovered by one of her greatest captains, she had, +at least, neglected it. The honour of bringing the king's attention to +this vast country, which was French by the right of discovery, was +reserved for the modest son of Brouage.</p> + +<p>While Pierre du Gua, Sieur de Monts, was wasting his years and expending +large sums of money in his fruitless efforts to colonize the island of +Ste. Croix and Port Royal, Champlain's voyage to Acadia and his +discovery of the New England coast were practically useful, and in +consequence Champlain endeavoured to assure de Monts that his own +efforts would be more advantageously directed to the shores of the St. +Lawrence, for here it was obvious that the development of the country +must commence.</p> + +<p>Champlain's next step was to found Quebec. With this act began our +colonial history, the foundation of a Canadian people with its long line +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">xvi</a></span>of heroic characters distinguished by their simplicity and by their +adherence to the faith of their fathers. Quebec was founded, but nothing +more was accomplished at the moment owing to the lack of means. The +trials of Champlain now commenced. Day by day he had to contend against +his own countrymen. The attractions of fur trading were too great for +the merchants to induce them to settle down and develop the country +around them, and they were unwilling to fulfil their promises or to act +in accordance with the terms of their patents.</p> + +<p>During the next twenty years Champlain crossed the ocean eighteen times. +Each voyage was made in the interest of the colony, and he sought by +every means in his power, by prayers and petitions, to obtain the +control of the commerce of the country so as to make it beneficial to +all. In spite of his extraordinary exertions and the force of his will, +he foresaw the fatal issue of his labours.</p> + +<p>The settlers were few in number, bread and provisions were scarce, and +the condition of the infant colony was truly deplorable. At this +distressing period a British fleet arrived in the harbour of Quebec. +What was to be done? The rude fortress of St. Louis could not withstand +the assault of an armed fleet, even if it were well defended. But +Champlain had no ammunition, and he, therefore, adopted the only course +open to him of capitulating and handing over the keys of the fort to the +commander, Kirke. Champlain then left Quebec and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">xvii</a></span>returned to France. +Bitter was this journey to him, for it was like passing into exile to +see the familiar heights of Quebec fade into the distance, the city of +his foundation and the country of his adoption.</p> + +<p>We have an idea of his sorrow during the three years that England +maintained supremacy in Canada, for he says that the days were as long +as months. During his enforced sojourn in France, Champlain exerted all +his energies to revive interest in the abandoned colony. His plan was to +recover the country by all means. Finally success crowned his efforts, +and the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye gave back to France the young +settlement. Champlain recrossed the sea and planted the lily banner of +France upon the heights of Cape Diamond.</p> + +<p>In the year 1635 Champlain was taken ill, and died on Christmas Day, +after having devoted forty years of his life to the promotion of the +religion and commercial interests of the land of his ancestors, but he +bequeathed to the Canadian people the priceless heritage of Quebec, and +the memory of a pure and honest heart.</p> + +<p>Before Champlain's death, however, Quebec had commenced to develop. On +the Beauport coast might be seen the residences of many of the settlers +who arrived from the province of Perche in 1634. On the shores of the +river Lairet, the Jesuits had built a convent, where the young Indians +received instruction; and agriculture had received some attention. +Robert Giffard had established a colony at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">xviii</a></span> Beauport which formed the +nucleus of a population in this section of the country. Near Fort St. +Louis the steeple of Notre Dame de la Recouvrance gave witness that +Champlain had fulfilled his promise to build a church at Quebec if the +country was restored to her ancient masters.</p> + +<p>The colony was now entering upon an era of prosperity, and that harmony +and happiness which Champlain had longed for in his life, and which +occupied his thoughts even in death, were destined to be realized.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right;">N. E. D.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">1</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>CHAMPLAIN'S FIRST VOYAGE TO AMERICA</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>Samuel Champlain</b></span>, the issue of the marriage of Antoine Champlain and +Marguerite Le Roy, was born at Brouage, now Hiers Brouage, a small +village in the province of Saintonge, France, in the year 1570, or +according to the <i>Biographie Saintongeoise</i> in 1567. His parents +belonged to the Catholic religion, as their first names would seem to +indicate.</p> + +<p>When quite young Samuel Champlain was entrusted to the care of the +parish priest, who imparted to him the elements of education and +instilled his mind with religious principles. His youth appears to have +glided quietly away, spent for the most part with his family, and in +assisting his father, who was a mariner, in his wanderings upon the sea. +The knowledge thus obtained was of great service to him, for after a +while he became not only conversant with the life of a mariner, but also +with the science of geography and of astronomy. When Samuel Champlain +was about twenty years of age, he tendered his services to Marshal +d'Aumont, one of the chief commanders of the Catholic army in its +expedition against the Huguenots.</p> + +<p>When the League had done its work and the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">2</a></span>army was disbanded in 1598, +Champlain returned to Brouage, and sought a favourable opportunity to +advance his fortune in a manner more agreeable, if possible, to his +tastes, and more compatible with his abilities. In the meantime +Champlain did not remain idle, for he resolved to find the means of +making a voyage to Spain in order "to acquire and cultivate +acquaintance, and make a true report to His Majesty (Henry IV) of the +particularities which could not be known to any Frenchmen, for the +reason that they have not free access there." He left Blavet at the +beginning of the month of August, and ten days after he arrived near +Cape Finisterre. Having remained for six days at the Isle of Bayona, in +Galicia, he proceeded towards San Lucar de Barameda, which is at the +mouth of the river Seville, where he remained for three months. During +this time he went to Seville and made surveys of the place. While +Champlain was at Seville, a <i>patache</i>, or advice boat, arrived from +Porto Rico bearing a communication addressed to the king of Spain, +informing him that a portion of the English army had put out to sea with +the intention of attacking Porto Rico.</p> + +<p>The king fitted out twenty ships to oppose the English, one of which, +the <i>Saint Julien</i>, was commanded by Provençal, Champlain's uncle. +Champlain proposed to join the expedition under his uncle, but Provençal +was ordered elsewhere, and General Soubriago offered the command of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span> +<i>Saint Julien</i> to Champlain, which he gladly accepted.</p> + +<p>The armada set sail in the beginning of January, 1599, and within six +days, favoured by a fresh breeze, the vessels sighted the Canary +Islands. Two months and six days later the armada drew near to the +island called La Désirade, which is the first island approached in this +passage to the Indies. The ships anchored for the first time at Nacou, +which is one of the finest ports of the Guadeloupe. After having passed +Marguerite Island and the Virgins, Champlain proceeded to San Juan de +Porto Rico,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> where he found that both the town and the castle or +fortress had been abandoned, and that the merchants had either made +their escape or had been taken prisoners. The English army had left the +town and had taken the Spanish governor with them, as he had surrendered +on the condition that his life should be spared.</p> + +<p>On leaving Porto Rico the general divided the galleons into three +squadrons, and retained four vessels under his own command. Three were +sent to Porto Bello, and three, including Champlain's vessel, to New +Spain. Champlain arrived at Saint Jean de <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span>Luz eight days afterwards, +although the place is fully four hundred leagues from Porto Rico. This +fortress bore the name of San Juan d'Ulloa. Fifteen days afterwards we +find Champlain setting sail for Mexico, situated at a distance of over +one hundred leagues from San Juan.</p> + +<p>Champlain was evidently very much interested in this country, and his +description is that of an enthusiast: "It is impossible to see or desire +a more beautiful country than this kingdom of New Spain, which is three +hundred leagues in length, and two hundred in breadth.... The whole of +this country is ornamented with very fine rivers and streams ... the +land is very fertile, producing corn twice in the year ... the trees are +never devoid of fruit and are always green." The voyage to Mexico +occupied a month, and Champlain gave an animated description of the city +of Mexico, of its superb palaces, temples, houses and buildings, and +well laid streets, as well as of the surrounding country.</p> + +<p>After leaving Mexico, Champlain returned to San Juan de Luz, and from +there sailed in a <i>patache</i> to Porto Bello, "the most pitiful and evil +residence in the world." The harbour, however, was good, and well +fortified. From Porto Bello to Panama, which is on the sea, the distance +is only seventeen leagues, and it is interesting to read Champlain's +description:—</p> + +<p>"One may judge that if the four leagues of land which there are from +Panama to this river were cut <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span>through, one might pass from the South +Sea to the ocean on the other side, and thus shorten the route by more +than fifteen hundred leagues; and from Panama to the Straits of Magellan +would be an island, and from Panama to the New-found-lands would be +another island, so that the whole of America would be in two islands."</p> + +<p>It is thus seen that the idea of connecting the Atlantic ocean with the +Pacific by cutting through the Isthmus of Panama is not a modern one, as +it was promulgated by Champlain over three hundred years ago.</p> + +<p>At this time Spain was in great need of a good transportation service at +the isthmus. The treasures of Peru were sent to Europe by the Panama +route to Porto Bello, from where the ships sailed to the old continent. +The route between the Pacific coast and the Gulf of Mexico was +exceedingly bad. Sometimes the merchants forwarded European goods to +Panama, having them transported to Chagres. Here they were landed in +boats and conveyed to Cruces. From Cruces to Panama mules were employed +for the remainder of the journey. It was, however, the route taken by +travellers visiting Peru, Chili, New Granada, Venezuela, and other +Spanish possessions on the Pacific coast. The most regular connection +between the two oceans was from Fort Acapulco to Vera Cruz, through +Mexico. If Spain had adopted a better line of communication with her +western territories in the New World <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span>she might have derived vast +treasure from that source. In the year 1551 Lopez de Gomara, the author +of a "History of Indies," a work written with care and displaying +considerable erudition, proposed to unite the two oceans by means of +canals at three different points, Chagres, Nicaragua and Tehuantepec. +Gomara's proposals were not acted upon, and the honour of carrying out +the project was reserved for France. Ferdinand de Lesseps, who succeeded +in connecting the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea, was the man who, +after the lapse of centuries, seriously interested his fellow-countrymen +in boring the Isthmus of Panama.</p> + +<p>Champlain returned to San Juan de Luz, where he remained for fifteen +days, and he then proceeded to Havana, the rendezvous of the army and of +the fleet. Eighteen days later he embarked in a vessel bound for +Cartagena, where there was a good port, sheltered from all winds. Upon +his return to Havana Champlain met his general and spent four months in +collecting valuable information relating to the interesting island of +Cuba. From Havana he proceeded past the Bahama channel, approached +Bermuda Island, Terceira, one of the Azores, and sighted Cape St. +Vincent, where he captured two armed English vessels, which were taken +to Seville.</p> + +<p>Champlain returned to France in March, 1601, having been absent on his +first voyage for a period of two years and two months, during which time +he collected much valuable information. He also pub<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span>lished a small +volume containing plans, maps and engravings, fairly well executed for +the time, and now exceedingly scarce. The manuscript of this volume is +still preserved; it covers one hundred and fifteen pages with sixty-two +drawings, coloured and surrounded with blue and yellow lines. It appears +to have been written between the years 1601 and 1603.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">2</a></p> + +<p>The first voyage of Champlain across the Atlantic, though important from +a military standpoint, did not suffice to satisfy the ambition of a man +whose thoughts were bent upon discovery and colonization. Champlain was +a navigator by instinct, and in his writings he gave to nautical science +the first place.</p> + +<p>"Of all the most useful and excellent arts," he writes, "that of +navigation has always seemed to me to occupy the first place. For the +more hazardous it is, the greater the perils and losses by which it is +attended, so much the more is it esteemed and exalted above all others, +being wholly unsuited to the timid and irresolute. By this art we obtain +a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span>knowledge of different countries, regions and realms. By it we +attract and bring to our own land all kinds of riches; by it the +idolatry of Paganism is overthrown and Christianity proclaimed +throughout all the regions of the earth. This is the art which won my +love in my early years and induced me to expose myself almost all my +life to the impetuous waves of the ocean, and led me to explore the +coasts of a portion of America, especially those of New France, where I +have always desired to see the lily flourish, together with the only +religion, Catholic, Apostolic and Roman."</p> + +<p>After his return to France in the year 1601, Champlain received a +pension, together with the appointment of geographer to the king. Pierre +de Chauvin, Sieur de Tontuit, who had unsuccessfully endeavoured to +establish a settlement at Tadousac, died at this time, while Champlain +was residing in Paris. Here he had the good fortune to meet Aymar de +Chastes, governor of the town and château of Dieppe, under whose orders +he had served during the latter years of the war with the League.</p> + +<p>De Chastes, who had resolved to undertake the colonization of Canada, +obtained a commission from the king, and formed a company, composed of +several gentlemen and the principal merchants of Rouen. François Gravé, +Sieur du Pont, who had already accompanied Chauvin to Tadousac, was +chosen to return there and to examine the Sault St. Louis and the +country beyond.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span>"Going from time to time to see the Sieur de Chastes," writes +Champlain, "judging that I might serve him in his design, he did me the +honour to communicate something of it to me, and asked me if it would be +agreeable to me to make the voyage, to examine the country, and to see +what those engaged in the undertaking should do. I told him that I was +very much his servant, but that I could not give myself license to +undertake the voyage without the commands of the king, to whom I was +bound, as well by birth as by the pension with which His Majesty +honoured me to enable me to maintain myself near his person, but that, +if it should please him to speak to the king about it, and give me his +commands, that it should be very agreeable to me, which he promised and +did, and received the king's orders for me to make the voyage and make a +faithful report thereof; and for that purpose M. de Gesvres, secretary +of his commandments, sent me with a letter to the said Du Pont-Gravé, +desiring him to take me in his ship and enable me to see and examine +what could be done in the country, giving me every possible assistance."</p> + +<p>"<i>Me voilà expédié</i>," says Champlain, "I leave Paris and take passage on +Pont-Gravé's ship in the year 1603, the 15th of the month of March." The +voyage was favourable for the first fifteen days, but on the 30th a +heavy storm arose, "more thunder than wind," which lasted until April +16th. On<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span> May 6th the vessel approached Newfoundland, and arrived at +Tadousac<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> on the 24th. Here they met with about one hundred Indians, +under the command of Anadabijou, who were rejoicing on account of their +recent victory over the Iroquois. The chief made a long harangue, +speaking slowly. He congratulated himself upon his friendship with the +French nation, and stated that he was happy to learn that the king was +anxious to send some of his subjects to reside in the country and to +assist them in their wars. Champlain was also informed that the +Etchemins, the Algonquins, and the Montagnais, to the number of about +one thousand, had lately been engaged in warfare with the Iroquois, whom +they had vanquished with the loss of one hundred men.</p> + +<p>On June 9th following, Champlain witnessed the spectacle of a grand +feast given by the Indians in commemoration of their victory. The +celebration consisted of dances, songs, speeches and games. Tessoüat, +the <i>sagamo</i> of the Ottawas, was the chief captain, and took a prominent +part in the demonstration.</p> + +<p>After a long description of these public festivities, Champlain gives +ample details of the manners and customs of the Indians, especially of +their superstitions. The Indians believed that a God existed who was the +creator of all things, but they had a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span>curious manner of explaining the +creation of man. "When God had made everything," they said, "He took a +quantity of arrows and fixed them in the earth, whence came men and +women, who have increased ever since." The <i>sagamo</i> said they believed +in the existence of a God, a son, a mother and a sun; that God was the +greatest of the four; that the son and the sun were both good; that the +mother was a lesser person, and so was the father, who was less bad.</p> + +<p>The Indians were convinced that their deity had held communication with +their ancestors. One day five Indians ran towards the setting sun where +they met God, who asked them, "Where are you going?" "We are going to +seek our life," they replied. Then God said, "You will find it here." +But they did not hear the divine word, and went away. Then God took a +stone and touched two of them, and they were immediately turned into +stones. Addressing the three other Indians, God asked the same question, +"Where are you going?" and He was given the same answer. "Do not go +further," said the divine voice, "you will find your life here." Seeing +nothing, however, they continued their journey. Then God took two sticks +and touched two of them, and they were at once turned into sticks. The +fifth Indian, however, paused, and God gave him some meat, which he ate, +and he afterwards returned to his countrymen.</p> + +<p>These Indian tribes had their jugglers, whom <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span>they called <i>pilotois</i>, +from the Basques, or <i>autmoins</i>, which means a magician. These jugglers +exercised great sway over the Indians, who would not hesitate to kill a +Frenchman if the jugglers decided that it was necessary.</p> + +<p>In spite of their superstitions Champlain believed that it would be an +easy task to convert the Indians to Christianity, especially if the +French resided near them. This desirable end was not to be attained +without great difficulty, as Champlain soon realized, for the +missionaries toiled for many years before their efforts were crowned +with success.</p> + +<p>Champlain now proceeded to explore the river Saguenay for a distance of +twelve to fifteen leagues, and he thus describes the scenery:—</p> + +<p>"All the land I have seen is composed of rocks, covered with fir woods, +cypress, birch, very unpleasing land, where I could not find a league of +plain land on each side." He also learned from the Indians of the +existence of Lake St. John, and of a salt sea flowing towards the north. +It was evidently Hudson Bay to which these northern tribes directed +Champlain's attention, and if they had not seen it themselves they had +probably heard of its existence from the Indians dwelling around the +southern or south-western shores of the bay, who came annually to +Nemiscau Lake to trade their furs. This lake was half way between Hudson +Bay and the river St. Lawrence. The Kilistinons and other Indians of the +north had regular communica<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span>tion with their <i>congénères</i> scattered along +the shores of the St. Maurice and the several rivers which flow into +Lake St. John.</p> + +<p>When the French arrived in Canada with Chauvin, in the year 1600, they +began to monopolize the fur trade of all the Indian nations, but some +years later the English established themselves on the shores of Hudson +Bay, and prosecuted the trade for their own benefit.</p> + +<p>Champlain could not, evidently, have been in possession of any exact +information as to the existence of this large bay, as he was searching +for a northern passage to Cathay, the great <i>desideratum</i> of all the +navigators and explorers of the time.</p> + +<p>After having promised to aid the various tribes gathered at Tadousac in +their wars, Champlain and Pont-Gravé proceeded to Sault St. Louis. This +expedition lasted fifteen days, during which they saw Hare Island, so +named by Jacques Cartier, and the Island of Orleans. The ship anchored +at Quebec where Champlain stopped to make a short description of the +country watered by the St. Lawrence, and they then proceeded to Sault +St. Louis. Here Champlain gathered much valuable information relating to +lakes Ontario and Erie, the Detroit River, Niagara Falls, and the rapids +of the St. Lawrence. Returning to Tadousac, he determined to explore +Gaspesia, and proceeded to visit Percé and Mal Bay, where he met Indians +at every turn. He also was informed by Prévert, from St. Malo, who was +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span>exploring the country, of the existence of a copper mine.</p> + +<p>Champlain carefully noted all the information he had received, and after +his return to Tadousac he sailed again for France on August 16th, 1603, +and reached Havre de Grâce, after a passage of twenty-one days. On his +arrival in France, he heard that Aymar de Chastes had died a few weeks +previously, on August 13th. This was a great loss to Canada, and +especially to Champlain, for he was convinced that the noble and +enterprising de Chastes was seriously disposed to colonize New France. +"In this enterprise," he says, "I cannot find a single fault, because it +has been well inaugurated." With the death of de Chastes, the project of +colonizing would undoubtedly have fallen through had not Champlain been +present to promote another movement in this direction. Champlain had an +interview with the king, and presented him with a map of the country +which he had visited, and placed in his hands a relation of his +voyage.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> Henry IV was so favourably impressed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span>that he promised to +assist Champlain in his patriotic designs.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> This island is only forty leagues in length and twenty in +breadth, and belonged to the Spanish from the date of its discovery by +Ponce de Léon in 1509, to 1598. When Champlain visited the island it had +been taken by George Clifford, Earl of Cumberland. During the same year +Sir John Berkeley commanded, but being unable to remain there, he +deserted the place, and joined Clifford near the Azores, when both went +to England, having lost about seven hundred men during their +expedition.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> This volume is entitled <i>Brief Discours des choses plus +remarquables que Samuel Champlain de Brouage A reconneues aux Indes +Occidentalles Au voiage qu'il en a faict en icelles en l'année</i> +V<sup>e</sup>IIIJ. XXIX, <i>et en l'année</i> VI<sup>e</sup>J, <i>comme ensuit</i>. +</p><p> +This manuscript was discovered by M. Féret, antiquarian, poet and +librarian, of Dieppe. The Hakluyt Society had it translated in 1859, and +published at London. In 1870 the Reverend Laverdière, librarian of the +Laval University, of Quebec, had it printed in French, with the designs, +coloured for the most part, with the complete works of Champlain. This +manuscript is supposed to have been preserved by a collateral descendant +of Aymar de Chastes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Tadousac means <i>breast</i>, and is derived from the Montagnais +<i>Totouchac</i>. Father Jérôme Lalemant says that the Indians called the +place <i>Sadilege</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> This volume is entitled <i>Des Sauvages ou Voyage de Samuel +Champlain de Brouage, fait en la Nouvelle France, l'an mil six cent +trois ... A Paris ... 1604</i>. +</p><p> +Extremely rare. The original of the first edition is kept at the +Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris; this is the only copy known. +</p><p> +This volume contains a dedication to Charles de Montmorency, admiral of +France, a letter in verse from the Sieur de la Franchise, and an extract +from the <i>Privilège du Roi</i>, dated November 15th, 1603, signed by +Brigard. +</p><p> +The second edition does not differ much from the preceding, and its +title bears the date 1604. Purchas's <i>Pilgrims</i> contains an English +version of this last edition. We find a synopsis of it in the <i>Mercure +François</i>, 1609, in the preface to the former called <i>Chronologie +Septennaire de l'Histoire de la paix entre les rois de France et +d'Espagne, 1598-1608</i>. This historical part has been borrowed by Victor +Palma Cayet for Champlain's Voyage, and its title is: <i>Navigation des +Français en la Nouvelle France dite Canada</i>.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>ACADIA—STE. CROIX ISLAND—PORT ROYAL</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>Soon</b></span> after the period mentioned at the close of the previous chapter, +Pierre du Gua, Sieur de Monts, Governor of Pont, a native of the ancient +province of Saintonge, who had served under Henry IV, obtained a +commission as "Lieutenant genéral au pays de Cadie, du 40° au 46°," on +the condition that his energies should be especially directed to the +propagation of the Catholic faith.</p> + +<p>De Monts was a Huguenot; nevertheless he agreed to take with him to +America a number of Catholic priests, and to see that they were +respected and obeyed. Champlain was not satisfied with the choice of a +Protestant to colonize a country which he had intended to make solely +Catholic, and he states, "that those enterprises made hastily never +succeed."</p> + +<p>De Monts was not a stranger to America. He had first visited the country +with Chauvin in 1600, but when he left Tadousac he was so discouraged +that he determined, in the event of his becoming master of the +situation, to attempt colonization only in Acadia, or on the eastern +borders of the Atlantic running towards Florida.</p> + +<p>It was well known in France that Acadia was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span>the richest and most +fertile part of the New World. Excellent harbours and good soil were +found there. Fish abounded near its coasts; its forests were numerous +and dense. An opinion existed that there were numerous mines, rich in +copper, coal and gypsum. This country was also the favourite of the +Normans, Britons and Basques, who for a hundred years had pursued their +callings as fishermen or traders without interruption.</p> + +<p>De Monts, however, was unable to bear the expense of this undertaking +alone, and he consequently formed a company, composed of merchants of +Rouen, La Rochelle and other towns. To further the enterprise Henry IV +diminished the duty on merchandises exported from Acadia and Canada, and +granted to the company the exclusive privilege of fur trading for a +period of ten years, "from Cape de Raze to the 40°, comprising all the +Acadian coast, Cape Breton, Baie des Chaleurs, Percé Island, Gaspé, +Chisedec, Miramichi, Tadousac and Canada River, from either side, and +all the bays and rivers which flow within these shores."</p> + +<p>Acadia of that day was not confined to the peninsula of our own time, +called Nova Scotia. It included that part of the continent which extends +from the river St. John to the Penobscot. These boundaries were the +cause of long quarrels and fierce and bloody wars between England and +France until they were finally settled by the Treaty of Utrecht. In the +early part of April, 1604, the king's proc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span>lamation confining the fur +trade to de Monts and his associates was published in every harbour of +France. Four ships were lying at anchor at Havre de Grâce, ready to +sail, and one hundred and twenty passages had been secured in two of the +ships. Pont-Gravé commanded one of the vessels of one hundred and twenty +tons burthen, and another vessel of one hundred and fifty tons was under +the charge of de Monts, who had taken on board Jean de Biencourt, Sieur +de Poutrincourt, a gentleman of Picardy, Samuel Champlain, some Catholic +priests and some Protestant ministers. Poutrincourt was going to America +with the intention of residing there with his family. He was a good +Catholic and a loyal subject. Champlain was attached to de Monts' +expedition as geographer and historian.</p> + +<p>The rendezvous had been fixed at Canseau, but de Monts proceeded +directly to Port au Mouton on the Acadian coast, where he decided to +await the arrival of Pont-Gravé. In the meantime Champlain explored the +country from Port au Mouton to Port Sainte Marguerite, now called St. +Mary's Bay. This occupied a whole month. He also named Cape Négré, Cape +Fourchu and Long Island. Champlain reported to de Monts that St. Mary's +Bay was a suitable place to establish a settlement, and, following this +advice, the lieutenant-general proceeded with Champlain to this bay, and +further explored the Bay of Fundy, or French Bay. They soon perceived +the entrance to another splendid port, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span>which is now known as Annapolis +Bay, or Port Royal.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the authority of Lescarbot, Champlain was the first to +give this place the name of Port Royal, for he says himself, "I have +named this harbour Port Royal." When de Monts named the place La Baie +Française, Champlain did not hesitate to give to his chief the merit +which he deserved.</p> + +<p>Three rivers flow into this splendid harbour: the Rivière de l'Equille, +so called from a little fish of the size of our <i>éperlan</i> or <i>lançon</i>, +which is found there in large quantities; the river named St. Antoine by +Champlain, and a stream called de la Roche by Champlain, and de +l'Orignac by Lescarbot.</p> + +<p>After having explored the harbour, Champlain traversed La Baie Française +to see whether he could discover the copper mine mentioned by Prévert of +St. Malo, and he soon arrived at a place which he named the Cape of Two +Bays, or Chignecto, and perceived the High Islands, where a copper mine +was found.</p> + +<p>On May 20th an expedition started from the Port of Mines, in search of a +place suitable for a permanent settlement. Proceeding towards the +south-west they stopped at the entrance of a large river, which was +named St. John, as it was on St. John's day that they arrived there. The +savages called the river Ouigoudi. "This river is danger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span>ous," writes +Champlain, "if one does not observe carefully certain points and rocks +on the two sides. It is so narrow at its entrance and then becomes +broader. A certain point being passed it becomes narrower again, and +forms a kind of fall between two large cliffs, where the water runs so +rapidly that a piece of wood thrown in is drawn under and not seen +again. But by waiting till high tide you can pass this fall very easily. +Then it expands again to the extent of about a league in some places +where there are three islands."</p> + +<p>Champlain did not explore the river further, but he ascertained a few +days later that the Indians used the river in their journeys to +Tadousac, making but a short portage on the way.</p> + +<p>As preparations had shortly to be made for winter quarters, de Monts +decided to proceed southwards, and the party at length came to a number +of islands at the entrance of the river Ste. Croix, or Des Etchemins. +One of these islands was chosen for their establishment, and named Ste. +Croix, "because," says Lescarbot, "they perceived two leagues above this +island two streams flowing into the channel of the river, presenting the +appearance of a cross." De Monts at once commenced to fortify the place +by forming a barricade on a little inlet, which served as a station on +which he set up a cannon; it was situated halfway between the mainland +and the island of Ste. Croix. Some days afterwards all the French who +were waiting in St. Mary's Bay disem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span>barked on the island. They were all +eager and willing to work, and commenced to render the place habitable. +They erected a storehouse and a residence for de Monts, and built an +oven and a hand-mill for grinding wheat. Some gardens were also laid +out, and various kinds of seeds were sown, which flourished well on the +mainland, though not on the island, which was too sandy.</p> + +<p>De Monts was anxious to ascertain the location of a mine of pure copper +which had been spoken of, and accordingly he despatched Champlain, with +a savage named Messamouet, who asserted that he could find the place. At +about eight leagues from the island, near the river St. John, they found +a mine of copper, which, however, was not pure, though fairly good. +According to the report of the miner, it would yield about eighteen per +cent. Lescarbot says that amidst the rocks, diamonds and some blue and +clear stones could be found as precious as turquoises. Champdoré, one of +the carpenters, took one of these stones to France, and had it divided +into many fragments and mounted by an artist. De Monts and Poutrincourt, +to whom they were presented, considered these gems so valuable that they +offered them to the king. A goldsmith offered Poutrincourt fifteen crown +pieces for one of them.</p> + +<p>Agriculture did not flourish on the island of Ste. Croix, which is about +half a league in circumference. The rays of the sun parched the sand so +that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span>the gardens were entirely unproductive, and there was a complete +dearth of water. At the commencement there was a fair quantity of wood, +but when the buildings were finished there was scarcely any left; the +inhabitants, consequently, nearly perished from cold in the winter. All +the liquor, wine and beer became frozen, and as there was no water the +people were compelled to drink melted snow. A malignant epidemic of +scurvy broke out, and of seventy-nine persons thirty-five died from the +disease and more than twenty were at the point of death.</p> + +<p>This disease proved one of the obstacles to rapid colonization in New +France. It was epidemic, contagious and often fatal. It is a somewhat +remarkable fact that the epidemic was prevalent amongst the French only +when they were established on the soil, being rarely discovered on +ship-board. Jacques Cartier had experienced the horrors of this disease +in the winter of 1535-6, when out of his one hundred and ten men +twenty-five died, and only three or four remained altogether free from +attack. During the year 1542-3, Roberval saw fifty persons dying of the +disease at Charlesbourg Royal. At Ste. Croix the proportion of deaths +was still greater, thirty-five out of seventy-nine. There was a +physician attached to de Monts' party, but he did not understand the +disease, and therefore could not satisfactorily prescribe for it. De +Monts also consulted many physicians in Paris, but he did not receive +answers that were of much service to him.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span>At the commencement of the seventeenth century scientific men +distinguished scurvy on land from scurvy on sea. They laboured under the +false impression that the one differed from the other. Champlain called +the disease <i>mal de terre</i>. It is certain, however, that the symptoms +did not vary in either case, as we may ascertain from the descriptions +furnished by Jacques Cartier and Champlain.</p> + +<p>The position of the settlement was soon proved to be untenable, and de +Monts was certainly to blame for this unhappy state of affairs. Why did +he abandon Port Royal, where he had found abundant water? Champlain, +however, defends the action of his chief.</p> + +<p>"It would be very difficult," he says, "to ascertain the character of +this region without spending a winter in it, for, on arriving here in +summer, everything is very agreeable in consequence of the woods, fine +country, and the many varieties of good fish which are found." We must +not forget, however, that the climate of this island differed very +little from that of Tadousac, which had greatly disappointed de Monts, +and that his sole object in settling in a more southern latitude was to +avoid the disagreeable consequences of the climate.</p> + +<p>Champlain made a plan of the island of Ste. Croix, indicating the +buildings constructed for the habitation of the settlers. We observe +many isolated <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span>tenements forming a large square. On one side was the +residence of Champlain, of Champdoré and d'Orville, with a large garden +opposite. Near d'Orville's residence was a small building set apart for +the missionaries. On the other side may be seen the storehouse, de +Monts' dwelling, a public hall where the people spent their leisure, and +a building for Boulay and the workmen. In an angle of the large square +were the residences of Genestou, Sourin, de Beaumont, La Motte, Bourioli +and Fougeray. A small fort is shown at one end of the island, approached +by a pathway. The chapel of the priest Aubry was located near the cannon +of the fort. Such was the plan of the first Acadian settlement. Much +expense had been incurred for a very poor result.</p> + +<p>De Monts was the directing spirit of the colony, and in spite of his +noble attempts, he realized that his efforts were fruitless and that he +would have to try another place for a permanent settlement. By the +direction of his chief, Champlain accordingly undertook to explore the +seacoast of Norembega.</p> + +<p>De Monts has found a defender in Moreau, who held that Ste. Croix was +only intended for winter quarters. If this had been his intention, we +can scarcely believe that he would have incurred so great an expense in +building a number of houses. Lescarbot, whose testimony is most +valuable, says: "When we go into a country to take possession of land we +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span>don't stop on islands to imprison ourselves. If that island had been +supplied with rivers or streams, if the soil had been favourable to +agriculture, it would have been half wrong." But this island lacked the +very first element essential to life, fresh water.</p> + +<p>Towards the middle of May, 1605, every one's attention was directed +towards France, as the ships which had been expected for over a month +had not yet arrived. De Monts then determined to send his party to Gaspé +in two large boats to join Pont-Gravé. At this juncture, however, +Pont-Gravé arrived at Ste. Croix with his crew, comprising forty men.</p> + +<p>De Monts and Pont-Gravé held a consultation and decided to seek a more +suitable place for a settlement, rather than to return to France. De +Monts was still under the impression that the best plan was to attempt +to settle in the vicinity of Florida, although the result of Champlain's +exploration along the coast of the Norembega<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> was considered +unsatisfactory.</p> + +<p>Let us now examine what Champlain had accomplished during the month of +September, 1604.</p> + +<p>He left Ste. Croix on September 5th, in a <i>patache</i>, with twelve sailors +and two savages as <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span>guides. On the first day he covered twenty-five +leagues and discovered many islands, reefs and rocks. To another island, +four or five leagues in length, he gave the name of Ile des Monts +Déserts<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">6</a>, which name has been preserved. On the following day +Champlain met some hunting Indians of the Etchemin tribe, proceeding +from the Pentagouet River to the Mount Desert Islands. "I think this +river," says Champlain, "is that which several pilots and historians +call Norembègue, and which most have described as large and extensive, +with very many islands, its mouth being in latitude 43°, 43′, 30″.... +It is related also that there is a large, thickly-settled town of +savages, who are adroit and skilful, and who have cotton yards. I am +confident that most of those who mention it have not seen it, and speak +of it because they have heard persons say so, who know no more about it +than they themselves.... But that any one has ever entered it there is +no evidence, for then they would have described it in another manner, in +order to relieve the minds of many of this doubt."</p> + +<p>Champlain's description is written from personal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span>knowledge, because he +had seen the Pentagouet River.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> The country which it passes through is +agreeable, but there was no town or village, and no appearance of +either, with the exception of a few deserted cabins of the Souriquois or +Micmacs.</p> + +<p>Here Champlain met two Souriquois chiefs, Bessabé and Cabahis, and +succeeded in making them understand that he had been sent by de Monts to +visit their country, and to assure them of the friendship of the French +for the Souriquois. Champlain continued his journey southwards, and two +days later he again met Cabahis, of whom he asked particulars as to the +course of the river Norembègue. The chief replied "that they had already +passed the fall, which is situated at about twenty leagues from the +mouth of the river Penobscot. Here it widens into a lake, by way of +which the Indians pass to the river Ste. Croix, by going some distance +overland and then entering the river Etchemin. Another river also enters +the lake, along which they proceed for some days until they gain another +lake and pass through it. Reaching the end of it they again make a land +journey of some distance until they reach another small river, the mouth +of which is within a league of Quebec." This little river is the +Chaudière, which the Indians follow to reach Quebec. On <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span>September 20th +Champlain observed the mountains of Bedabedec, and after having +proceeded for ten or twelve leagues further he decided to return to Ste. +Croix and wait until the following year to continue his explorations. +His opinion was that the region he had explored was quite as +unfavourable for a settlement as Ste. Croix.</p> + +<p>On June 18th, 1605, de Monts, at the head of an expedition consisting of +Champlain, some gentlemen, twelve sailors and an Indian guide named +Panonias and his wife, set out from the island of Ste. Croix to explore +the country of the Armouchiquois, and reached the Pentagouet River in +twelve days. On July 20th they made about twenty leagues between +Bedabedec Point and the Kennebec River, at the mouth of which is an +island which they named <i>La Tortue</i>.</p> + +<p>Continuing their journey towards the south they observed some large +mountains, the abode of an Indian chief named Aneda. "I was satisfied +from the name," says Champlain, "that he was one of his tribe that had +discovered the plant called <i>aneda</i>, which Jacques Cartier said was so +powerful against the malady called scurvy, which harassed his company as +well as our own when they wintered in Canada. The savages have no +knowledge at all of this plant, and are not aware of its existence, +although the above mentioned savage has the same name." This supposition +was unfounded, because if this Indian had been of the same origin as the +abo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span>rigines who acquainted Jacques Cartier with the virtue of the +<i>aneda</i> plant in cases of scurvy, he would have understood the meaning +of the word. <i>Aneda</i> is the Iroquois word for the spruce tree, but there +is no evidence to prove that Champlain was ever aware that it was a +specific. Had he known of its efficacy he would have certainly employed +it.</p> + +<p>At Chouacouet de Monts and Champlain received visits from many Indians, +differing entirely from either the Etchemins or the Armouchiquois. They +found the soil tilled and cultivated, and the corn in the gardens was +about two feet in height. Beans, pumpkins and squash were also in +flower. The place was very pleasant and agreeable at the time, but +Champlain believed the weather was very severe in the winter.</p> + +<p>The party proceeded still further south, in sight of the Cap aux Iles +(Cape Porpoise), and on July 17th, 1605, they came to anchor at Cape St. +Louis,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> where an Indian chief named Honabetha paid them a visit. To a +small river which they found in the vicinity they gave the name of Gua, +in honour of de Monts. The expedition passed the night of the 18th in a +small bay called Cape St. Louis. On the 19th they observed the cape of a +large bay, which they distinguished by the title of Ste. Suzanne du Cap +Blanc, and on July 20th they entered a spacious harbour, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span>which proved +to be very dangerous on account of shoals and banks; they therefore +named it Mallebarre.</p> + +<p>Five weeks had now elapsed since the expedition had left Ste. Croix, and +no incident of importance had occurred. They had met many tribes of +Indians, and on each occasion their intercourse was harmonious. It is +true that they had not traversed more than three degrees of latitude, +but, although their progress was slow, their time was well spent. De +Monts was satisfied that it would be easier to colonize Acadia than this +American coast, and Champlain was still convinced that Port Royal was +the most favourable spot, unless de Monts preferred Quebec.</p> + +<p>The expedition returned to Ste. Croix in nine days, arriving there on +August 3rd. Here they found a vessel from France, under the command of +Captain des Antons, laden with provisions, and many things suitable for +winter use. There was now a chance of saving the settlers, although +their position was not enviable.</p> + +<p>De Monts was determined to try the climate of Port Royal, and to +endeavour to establish a settlement there. Two barques were fitted out +and laden with the frame work of the buildings at Ste. Croix. Champlain +and Pont-Gravé had set out before to select a favourable site around the +bay, well sheltered from the north-west wind. They chose a place +opposite an island at the mouth of the river de <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span>l'Equille, as being the +most suitable. Every one was soon busily engaged in clearing the ground +and in erecting houses. The plan of the settlement, says Champlain, was +ten fathoms long and eight fathoms wide, making the distance around +thirty-six fathoms. On the eastern side was a storehouse occupying the +width of it, with a very fine cellar, from five to six feet deep. On the +northern side were the quarters of Sieur de Monts, comfortably finished. +In the backyard were the dwellings of the workmen. At the corner of the +western side was a platform, upon which four cannon were placed, and at +the eastern corner a palisade was constructed in the shape of a +platform. There was nothing pretentious or elegant about these +buildings, but they were solid and useful.</p> + +<p>The installation of the new settlement being now complete, de Monts +returned to France, leaving Pont-Gravé in command. During the absence of +de Monts, Champlain determined to pursue his discoveries along the +American coast, and in this design he was favoured by de Monts, as the +latter had not altogether abandoned his idea of settling in Florida. The +season, however, was too far advanced, and Champlain therefore stopped +at the river St. John to meet Schoudon, with whom he agreed to set out +in search of the famous copper mine. They were accompanied by a miner +named Jacques, and a Slavonian very skilful in discovering minerals. He +found some pieces of copper and what appeared to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span>be a mine, but it was +too difficult to work. Champlain accordingly returned to Port Royal, +where several of the men were suffering from scurvy. Out of forty-five, +twelve died during the winter. The surgeon from Honfleur, named +Deschamps, performed an autopsy on some of the bodies, and found them +affected in the same manner as those who had died at Ste. Croix. Snow +did not fall until December 20th, and the winter was not so severe as +the previous one.</p> + +<p>On March 16th, 1606, Champlain resumed his explorations, and travelled +eighteen leagues on that day. He anchored at an island to the south of +Manan. During the night his barque ran ashore and sustained injuries +which it required four days to repair. Champlain then proceeded to Port +aux Coquilles, seven or eight leagues distant, where he remained until +the twenty-ninth. Pont-Gravé, however, desired him to return to Port +Royal, being anxious to obtain news of his companions whom he had left +sick. Owing to indisposition, Champlain was obliged to delay his +departure until April 8th.</p> + +<p>Champlain and Pont-Gravé intended to return to France during the summer +of 1606. Seeing that the vessels promised by de Monts had not arrived, +they set out from Port Royal to Cape Breton or Gaspé, in search of a +vessel to cross the Atlantic, but when they were approaching Canseau, +they met Ralleau, the secretary of de Monts, who informed them that a +vessel had been despatched <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span>under the command of Poutrincourt, with +fifty settlers for the country. They, therefore, returned to Port Royal, +where they found Poutrincourt, who as lieutenant-general of de Monts +intended to remain at Port Royal during the year.</p> + +<p>On September 5th, Champlain left Port Royal on a voyage of discovery. +Poutrincourt joined the expedition, and they took with them a physician, +the carpenter Champdoré, and Robert Gravé, the son of François. This +last voyage, undertaken to please de Monts, did not result in anything +remarkable. They first paid a visit to Ste. Croix, where everything +remained unchanged, although the gardens were flourishing. From Ste. +Croix the expedition drifted southwards, and Champlain pointed out the +same bays, harbours, capes and mountains that he had observed before. +Schoudon, chief of the Etchemins, and Messamouet, captain of the +Micmacs, joined the party, and proceeded with them as far as Chouacouet, +where they intended to form an alliance with Olmechin and Marchim, two +Indian chiefs of this country.</p> + +<p>On October 2nd, 1606, the expedition reached Mallebarre, and for a few +days they anchored in a bay near Cape Batturier, which they named Port +Fortuné (Chatham). Five or six hundred savages were found at this place. +"It would be an excellent place," says Champlain, "to erect buildings, +and lay the foundation of a state, if the harbour was somewhat deeper +and the entrance safer." Poutrin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span>court stopped here for some days, and +in the meantime visited all the surrounding country, from which he +returned much pleased.</p> + +<p>According to a custom peculiar to the French since the days of Jacques +Cartier, de Monts had planted a large cross at the entrance of the +Kennebec River, and also at Mallebarre. Poutrincourt did the same at +Port Fortuné. The Indians seemed annoyed at this ceremony, which they +evidently considered as an encroachment upon their rights as +proprietors. They exhibited symptoms of discontent, and during the night +they killed four Frenchmen who had imprudently stayed ashore. They were +buried near the cross. This the Indians immediately threw down, but +Poutrincourt ordered it to be restored to its former position.</p> + +<p>On three different occasions the party attempted to pursue their +discoveries southwards, but they were prevented each time by a contrary +wind. They therefore resolved to return to Port Royal, which was +rendered imperative both by the approach of winter and the scarcity of +provisions. The result of the voyage was not altogether satisfactory. +Champlain had perhaps held a degree further south than on the former +occasion, but he had not discovered anything of importance.</p> + +<p>On their return to Port Royal, the voyagers were received with great +ceremony. Lescarbot, a Parisian lawyer, who had arrived some time +before, and some other Frenchmen, went to meet them and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span>conducted them +to the fort, which had been decorated with evergreens and inscriptions. +On the principal door they had placed the arms of France, surrounded +with laurel crowns, and the king's motto: <i>Duo protegit unus</i>. Beneath +the arms of de Monts was placed this inscription: <i>Dabit Deus his quoque +finem</i>. The arms of Poutrincourt were wreathed with crowns of leaves, +with his motto: <i>In via virtuti nulla est via</i>. Lescarbot had composed a +short drama for the occasion, entitled, <i>Le Théâtre de Neptune</i>.</p> + +<p>The winter of 1606-07 was not very severe. The settlers lived happily in +spite of the scurvy, from which some of them died. Hunting afforded them +the means of providing a great variety of dishes, such as geese, ducks, +bears, beavers, partridges, reindeer, bustards, etc. They also organized +a society devoted to good cheer called, <i>Ordre du Bon Temps</i>, the +by-laws of which were definite, and were fixed by Champlain himself. The +Indians of the vicinity who were friendly towards the French colony were +in need of food, so that each day loaves of bread were distributed +amongst them. Their <i>sagamo</i>, named Membertou, was admitted as a guest +to the table of Poutrincourt. This famous Souriquois, who was very old +at that time—probably a hundred years, though he had not a single white +hair—pretended to have known Jacques Cartier at the time of his first +voyage, and claimed that in 1534 he was married, and the father of a +young family.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span>Lescarbot, who was an able man and a good historian, records the +particulars above related, besides many other interesting facts +concerning Port Royal which appear to have escaped Champlain's +observation. Lescarbot was an active spirit in the life of the first +French colony in Acadia. He encouraged his companions to cultivate their +land, and he worked himself in the gardens, sowing wheat, oats, beans, +pease, and herbs, which he tended with care. He was also liked by the +Indians, and he would have rejoiced to see them converted to +Christianity. Lescarbot was a poet and a preacher, and had also a good +knowledge of the arts and of medicine. Charlevoix says: "He daily +invented something new for the public good. And there was never a +stronger proof of what a new settlement might derive from a mind +cultivated by study, and induced by patriotism to use its knowledge and +reflections. We are indebted to this advocate for the best memoirs of +what passed before his eyes, and for a history of French Florida. We +then behold an exact and judicious writer, a man with views of his own, +and who would have been as capable of founding a colony as of writing +its history."</p> + +<p>With the departure of Lescarbot and Champlain the best page of the +history of Port Royal is closed. The two men left on September 2nd, +1607, on board the <i>Jonas</i>, commanded by Nicholas Martin. They stopped +at Roscoff in Basse-Bretagne, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span>the vessel arrived at Havre de Grâce +in the early days of October.</p> + +<p>Poutrincourt, his son Biencourt, and Lescarbot made a pilgrimage to Mont +St. Michel, and Champlain went to Brouage, his native country, having +sojourned in America for three years and five months.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Norembega was the name applied at that time to a vast tract +of country whose limits were nearly unknown. There was a river and a +cape called Norembega. The river is now the Penobscot, and the cape is +the southern extremity of the Acadian peninsula.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The Indians called this island <i>Pemetig</i>, which means <i>the +island which is ahead</i>. The French settled here in 1613, and founded St. +Sauveur on the north-eastern coast, in a splendid harbour which is +to-day known as Bar Harbour. The remains of many of the French who were +killed during the contest with the English, were interred at Point +Fernald. At the point nearest the mainland there is a bridge of seven +hundred feet in length, which communicates with the town of Trenton.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Champlain called the river <i>Peimtegoüet</i>. This word means +<i>the place of a river where rapids exist</i>. The English have given their +preference to the word <i>Penobscot</i>, which comes from the Indian +<i>Penaouasket, the place where the earth is covered with stones</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The Pilgrim Fathers, the founders of New England, landed at +this place, which they named Plymouth, to preserve the name of the +English city from which they had sailed.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>THE FOUNDING OF QUEBEC</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>After</b></span> his return to France, as before described, Champlain had an +interview with de Monts, and laid before him the journal which he had +prepared of his explorations in America, together with plans of the +ports and coasts which he had minutely examined during his visits. +Champlain proposed to de Monts to continue his explorations, and +advanced some reasons for prosecuting an enterprise upon which a large +sum had been already expended, and which he was persuaded would +ultimately afford the means of repairing their fortunes. De Monts, owing +to the failure of his own efforts as a colonizer, was not at first +inclined to listen to Champlain's proposals, but he was finally +convinced of the wisdom of his suggestions, and appointed him lieutenant +of an expedition to Quebec for the purpose of trading with the Indians. +The expedition was to return to France during the same year. De Monts +obtained another commission from the king, dated at Paris, January 9th, +1608, which gave him the monopoly of the fur trade in the lands, ports +and rivers of Canada for a period of one year. Two vessels were equipped +for this expedition, the <i>Don de Dieu</i>, captain Henry Couillard, and +the<span class='pagenum' style="text-indent: 1.5em;"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span> <i>Lévrier</i>, captain Nicholas Marion. Champlain was given the command +of the former vessel, and Pont-Gravé was in command of the latter. The +<i>Lévrier</i> sailed from France on April 5th, and the <i>Don de Dieu</i> eight +days later. The two vessels proceeded directly to Tadousac, without +calling at Percé, according to the usual custom.</p> + +<p>On the arrival of the <i>Don de Dieu</i> at Tadousac, Champlain found that +Pont-Gravé had been attacked by Captain Darache, a Basque, who continued +to trade furs with the Indians in spite of the king's commands. Darache +had brought all his guns to bear upon the <i>Lévrier</i>, and Pont-Gravé +being unable to defend himself, had offered no resistance, whereupon +Darache's crew had boarded the vessel and carried off the cannon and +arms, at the same time intimating that they would continue to trade as +they pleased. The arrival of Champlain, however, altered the situation, +and Darache was compelled to sign an agreement by which he pledged +himself not to molest Pont-Gravé, or to do anything prejudicial to the +interest of the king or of de Monts. It was also agreed that all +differences should be settled by the authorities in France. After this +agreement was effected through Champlain's intervention, the carpenters +of the expedition fitted out a small barque to convey to Quebec all the +articles necessary for the use of the future settlement.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/illo2.jpg"><img src="images/illo2_th.jpg" width="400" height="589" alt="Building the Habitation, Quebec, 1608" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">Building the <i>Habitation</i>, Quebec, 1608<br /> +From the painting by C. W. Jefferys</span> +</div> + +<p>In the meantime Champlain visited the river Saguenay, where he met some +Indians from whom <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span>he gathered information concerning Lake St. John and +its tributaries. The information did not differ greatly from that which +he had obtained in the year 1603. Champlain set out from Tadousac on the +last day of June and arrived at Quebec on July 3rd, "Where I searched," +he says, "for a place suitable for our settlement, but I could find none +more convenient or better situated than the point of Quebec, so called +by the savages, which was covered with nut trees."</p> + +<p>Champlain was accompanied by thirty men, amongst whom may be named +Nicholas Marsolet, Étienne Brûlé, Bonnerme, a doctor, Jean Duval, +Antoine Natel and La Taille. These names are specially recorded. +Champlain immediately employed some workmen to fell trees in order to +commence the construction of an <i>Habitation</i>. One party was engaged in +sawing timber, another in digging a cellar and some ditches, while +another party was sent to Tadousac with a barque to obtain supplies +which had been retained in the ships. Such was the beginning of +Champlain's city. Nothing great, it will be admitted, for a settlement +which its founder hoped before long would become the great warehouse of +New France.</p> + +<p>Until this date the merchants had traded with the Indians only in those +places where they could easily be met, and even Chauvin, who was +mentioned in a previous chapter, had not gone further than Tadousac. +Neither Three Rivers, nor the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span>islands of Sorel at the entrance of the +Iroquois River, now called the Richelieu River, were known to French +navigators at this period, and although these places were easily +accessible to the aborigines, they were not so available as Quebec.</p> + +<p>Champlain well understood the advantages of founding his city on a spot +naturally fortified and where he could readily defend himself against +the attack of an enemy, whose approach he expected sooner or later. The +first foes, however, whom Champlain had to encounter were not the +Indians, but his own countrymen, members of his crew who under various +pretexts sought to kill their chief and give the command of the +settlement to the Basques. Jean Duval, the king's locksmith, was the +leader of this conspiracy against Champlain, and associated with him +were four vicious sailors to whom he promised a part of the reward which +had been offered for this treason. The conspirators agreed to preserve +secrecy, and fixed the night of the fourth day for the assassination of +their chief.</p> + +<p>On the day upon which the plot was to be put into execution, Captain Le +Testu<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> arrived from Tadousac in command of a vessel laden with +provisions, utensils, etc. After the vessel was unloaded, one of the +conspirators, a locksmith named <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span>Natel, approached the captain and +acquainted him with the details of the plot. Champlain also listened to +the man's account and promised to observe secrecy, although he took +precautions to frustrate the scheme by inviting the leader and the four +conspirators to an entertainment on board Captain Le Testu's barque.</p> + +<p>The men accepted the invitation, and as soon as they were on board they +were seized and held in custody until the following day. The deposition +of each man was then taken by Champlain in the presence of the pilot and +sailors, and set down in writing, after which the "worthies" were sent +to Tadousac, where Champlain requested Pont-Gravé to guard them for a +time. Some days after the men were returned to Quebec, where they were +placed on trial for attempted murder.</p> + +<p>The jury was composed of Champlain, Pont-Gravé, Le Testu, Bonnerme, the +mate and the second mate, and some sailors. The verdict was unanimous. +Duval was condemned to death on the spot as the instigator of the plot, +and the others were also sentenced to death, but their sentence was to +be carried out in France. Duval was strangled at Quebec, and his head +was placed on a pike which was set up in the most conspicuous part of +the fort. This was the second example of capital punishment in New +France. The first case recorded was at Charlesbourg Royal, or Cap-Rouge, +near Quebec, in the winter of 1542-3, when Michel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">44</a></span> Gaillon, one of +Roberval's companions, was put to death.</p> + +<p>Champlain was invested with executive, legislative and judiciary powers, +but the founder of Quebec never abused the authority intrusted to him. +From this time every one fulfilled his duty day by day, and Champlain +was able to continue his work in peace.</p> + +<p>The habitation was composed of three buildings of two stories, each one +of three fathoms long and two and a half wide. The storehouse was six +fathoms long and three wide, with a cellar six feet deep. There was a +gallery around the buildings, at the second story. There were also +ditches fifteen feet wide and six deep. On the outer side of the ditches +Champlain constructed several spurs, which enclosed a part of the +dwelling, at the point where he placed a cannon. Before the habitation +there was a square four fathoms wide and six or seven long, looking out +upon the river bank. Surrounding the habitation were very good gardens, +and an open space on the north side, some hundred and twenty paces long +and fifty or sixty wide.</p> + +<p>During the first weeks after his installation, Champlain made an +investigation of the vicinity. "Near Quebec," he says, "there is a +little river coming from a lake in the interior, distant six or seven +leagues from our settlement. I am of opinion that this river, which is +north a quarter north-west from our settlement, is the place where +Jacques<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span> Cartier wintered, since there are still, a league up the river, +remains of what seems to have been a chimney, the foundation of which +has been found, and indications of there having been ditches surrounding +their dwelling, which was small. We found also, large pieces of hewn, +worm-eaten timber, and some three or four cannon balls. All these things +show clearly that there was a settlement there founded by Christians; +and what leads me to say and believe that it was that of Jacques Cartier +is the fact that there is no evidence whatever that any one wintered and +built a house in these places except Jacques Cartier at the time of his +discoveries."</p> + +<p>This "little river coming from a lake in the interior," is evidently the +river St. Charles, called Ste. Croix by Cartier. Champlain's conjectures +about the place where Jacques Cartier wintered, are certainly correct. +It was near this spot also that the Jesuits erected their convent of +Notre Dame des Anges in 1626, namely, at two hundred feet from the +shore, where the river Lairet joins the St. Charles.</p> + +<p>Pont-Gravé sailed for France on September 18th, 1608, leaving Champlain +with twenty-seven men, and provisions for the approaching winter at +Quebec. The carpenters, sawyers, and other workmen were employed in +clearing up the place and in preparing gardens.</p> + +<p>Many Indians were encamped in the vicinity, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span>who proved troublesome +neighbours, as they were constantly visiting the habitation, either to +beg food for their families or to express their fear of invisible +enemies. Champlain readily understood the character of these people, but +he was too charitable to refuse them assistance in their need; besides +he believed that they might easily be taught how to live and how to +cultivate the soil. It was a difficult task, however, to induce the +Indians to settle in any particular place. For generations they had led +a wandering life, subsisting on the products of their hunting and +fishing. This wild freedom was as necessary to their existence as the +open air, and all attempts to make them follow the habits of civilized +races seemed to tend towards their deterioration.</p> + +<p>The early days of the French settlement at Quebec were distinguished by +nothing remarkable. During the first winter scurvy and dysentery claimed +many victims. Natel, the locksmith, died towards the end of November, +and some time after Bonnerme, the doctor, was attacked and succumbed. +Eighteen others also suffered from scurvy of whom ten died, and there +were five deaths from dysentery, so that by the spring there were only +eight men living, and Champlain himself was seriously indisposed. This +was the third time that the founder of Quebec had had to experience the +effects of this terrible disease, and although he was beginning to +understand its causes, he was still unaware of a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span>specific. "I am +confident," he says, "that, with good bread and fresh meat, a person +would not be liable to it."</p> + +<p>Many trials had been experienced by the settlers during their first +winter of 1608-09, and they welcomed the return of spring. Des +Marets<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> arrived at Quebec at this time, with tidings that Pont-Gravé, +his father-in-law, had arrived at Tadousac on May 28th. Champlain at +once repaired to Tadousac, where he received a letter from de Monts +requesting him to return to France to acquaint him with the progress +which he had made in the colony, and with the result of his +explorations. Champlain returned to Quebec, and immediately fitted out +an expedition to visit the country of the Iroquois, in the company of a +party of Montagnais.</p> + +<p>The Montagnais were anxious to carry on war against their ancient +enemies, and although the wars had no attraction for Champlain, he hoped +to be able to further his discoveries during the journey. Taking with +him the twenty men placed at his disposal by Pont-Gravé, Champlain +sailed from Quebec on June 18th, 1609. The command of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span>habitation +was given to Pont-Gravé in the meantime. The expedition proceeded +towards the island of St. Eloi, near the shores of which two or three +hundred savages were encamped in tents. They proved to be Hurons and +Algonquins who were on their way to Quebec to join Champlain's +expedition to the territory of the Iroquois. Their chiefs were named +Iroquet and Ochateguin, and Champlain explained to them the object of +his voyage. The next day the two chiefs paid a visit to Champlain and +remained silent for some time, meditating and smoking. After some +reflection the chiefs began to harangue their companions on the banks of +the river. They spoke for a long time in loud tones, and the substance +of their remarks has been summed up in these words:—</p> + +<p>"Ten moons ago Champlain had declared that he desired to assist them +against their enemies, with whom they had been for a long time at +warfare, on account of many cruel acts committed by them against their +tribe, under colour of friendship. Having ever since longed for +vengeance, they had solicited all the savages whom they had seen on the +banks of the river to come and make an alliance. They had no children +with them but men versed in war and full of courage, and well acquainted +with the country and the rivers of the land of the Iroquois. They wanted +to go to Quebec in order that they might see the French houses, but +after three days they would return to engage in the war. As a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span>token of +firm friendship and joy, Champlain should have muskets and arquebuses +fired."</p> + +<p>Champlain replied that he was glad to be able to fulfil his promise to +them; he had no other purpose than to assist them in their wars; he had +not come as a trader, but only with arms to fight. His word was given, +and it was his desire that it should be kept. Thus was the alliance +ratified which had been made in 1603 between the French and the Hurons, +Algonquins and Montagnais, and the alliance was never broken.</p> + +<p>Some historians have reproached Champlain for his intervention in the +wars between the Indians of Canada, and have suggested that it would +have been wiser to have preserved a strict neutrality, instead of taking +up arms against the redoubtable and valiant Iroquois. In order to +explain Champlain's actions, it is necessary to consider the relations +of the French towards the other tribes. Many years before the period of +which we are writing, certain French captains traded with the Montagnais +Indians of Tadousac. These Indians were on friendly terms with the +Hurons, the Algonquins Supérieurs of the Ottawa river, and the +Souriquois of Acadia, and were united in their desire to subdue the +terrible Iroquois. As the Iroquois did not trade, Champlain had no +relations with them of a business character, and therefore he was not +bound towards them in the same manner as he was towards the Hurons and +others.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span>The Iroquois at first resided at Montreal and Three Rivers, while their +neighbours, the Algonquins, were scattered along the shores of the +Ottawa River, Lake Nipissing and French River. The Algonquins, who were +brave and very numerous, succeeded in driving the Iroquois back to Lake +Erie, and afterwards to Lake Ontario, near Lake Champlain. Here the +Iroquois were distributed in five tribes, forming a great confederation. +(1.) The Tsonnontouans or Senecas. (2.) The Goyogouins or Cayugas. (3.) +The Onontagues or Onondagas. (4.) The Onneyouts or Oneidas. (5.) The +Agniers or Mohawks. The Tsonnontouans were the most numerous, but the +Agniers were the bravest and wildest.</p> + +<p>The Iroquois or confederate tribes had by constant warfare become the +greatest warriors of New France, nor is this fact surprising when we +consider that they had waged successful warfare, extending over a long +period, against the vast coalition of Hurons, Algonquins, Montagnais and +Micmacs scattered from Lake Huron to Acadia.</p> + +<p>Anadabijou, chief of the Montagnais, made a long speech, telling his men +that they ought to feel proud of the friendship of the king of France +and of his people, upon whom they could rely for assistance in their +wars. It was from that date that the alliance between the Indians and +the French commenced, and, as Champlain was obliged to live in the +neighbourhood of the Montagnais and Al<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span>gonquins, the only course open to +him, if he desired to live in peace, was to fulfil his promise made to +them.</p> + +<p>In this year, 1609, Anadabijou reminded Champlain of the agreement made +six years before. "Ten moons ago," he says, "the son of Iroquet had seen +you. You gave him a good reception, and promised with Pont-Gravé to +assist us against our enemies." To this Champlain replied, "My only +desire is to fulfil what I promised then." Thus was sealed this solemn +agreement.</p> + +<p>If Champlain had refused to make an alliance with these Indians, they +would have been a constant source of trouble, for although they were +less ferocious than the Iroquois, they were still barbarians. Champlain +and his few men could never have established a settlement at Quebec if +they had been forced to encounter the hostility of the neighbouring +Indians, for the whole of his work could have been overthrown by them in +a single day.</p> + +<p>The country of the Iroquois, on the contrary, was situated at a great +distance, and consequently he had not so much to fear from them. It was +Champlain's desire, however, to make a treaty with the Iroquois as well, +for they were at this time even, and long after remained, the terror of +North America. But war seemed necessary to the existence of the +Iroquois, and Champlain, notwithstanding the exercise of his diplomacy, +found it impossible to pacify these restless people.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span>It is true that the people of New Netherland had been able to maintain +a neutral stand towards the Iroquois, and Champlain has been blamed for +not following this example. It must be borne in mind, however, that the +Dutch were powerful and numerous, and it was to their interest to live +in harmony with their immediate neighbours, the Iroquois. The Dutch had +also different intentions towards the Indians. They came to America +simply to trade, and to establish themselves and live quietly along the +shores of the Hudson River, while Champlain's idea was to civilize the +Indians and bring them under the influence of the Catholic missionaries.</p> + +<p>Champlain and the allied Indians left Quebec on June 28th, 1609. Des +Marets, La Routte, a pilot, and nine men accompanied the expedition. On +their voyage they passed certain rivers to which Champlain gave the +following names, Ste. Suzanne (River du Loup), du Pont (Nicolet), de +Gênes (Yamaska), and the Three Rivers.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> The party stopped at the +entrance of the Iroquois River. Continuing their journey southwards, +they arrived at the Chambly Rapids. "No Christians had been in this +place before us," says Champlain. Seeing no prospect of being able to +cross the rapids alone, Champlain embarked with the Indians in their +canoes, taking <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span>only two men with him. Champlain's army, comprising +sixty men, then proceeded slowly towards Lake Champlain, and a few days +after the party arrived at Lake St. Sacrament (Lake George). On July +29th they encountered the Iroquois, who had come to fight, at the +extremity of Lake Champlain, on the western bank. The entire night was +spent by each army in dancing and singing, and in bandying words. At +daybreak Champlain's men stood to arms. The Iroquois were composed of +about two hundred men, stout and rugged in appearance, with their three +chiefs at their head, who could be distinguished by their large plumes. +The Indians opened their ranks and called upon Champlain to go to the +front. The arrows were beginning to fly on both sides when Champlain +discharged his musket, which was loaded with four balls, and killed two +of the chiefs and mortally wounded the third. This unexpected blow +caused great alarm among the Iroquois, who lost courage, abandoned their +camp and took to flight, seeking shelter in the woods. Fifteen or +sixteen men of Champlain's party were wounded, but the enemy had many +wounded, and ten or twelve were taken prisoners.</p> + +<p>This victory did not entail much hardship on the part of the French. +Champlain and his two companions did more to rout the Iroquois than the +sixty allies with their shower of arrows. The result of this day's +proceedings was highly satisfactory to the Indians, who gathered up the +arms and provi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">54</a></span>sions left behind by the Iroquois, and feasted +sumptuously amidst dancing and singing. "The spot where this attack took +place," says Champlain, "is in the latitude of 43° and some minutes, and +the lake is called Champlain." This place is now called Ticonderoga, or +the Cheondoroga of the Indians.</p> + +<p>Champlain returned to Quebec with the Montagnais, and a few days after +he set out for Tadousac to see whether Pont-Gravé had arrived from +Gaspé. He met Pont-Gravé on the morrow, and they both decided to sail +for France, and to leave Quebec in the meantime under the command of +Pierre de Chauvin,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> pending the decision of de Monts as to the future +of the colony. Both visited Quebec in order to invest Chauvin with +authority, and after leaving him everything necessary for the use of the +settlement, and placing fifteen men under his command, the two +commanders left Quebec on September 1st, 1609, and sailed from Tadousac +for France on the fifth day of the same month.</p> + +<p>Champlain had sojourned in New France since the beginning of July, 1608, +and during that interval he had made good use of his time. He had chosen +the most suitable place for a habitation which was destined to become +the metropolis of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span>French colony; he had constructed a fort and a +storehouse, and he had also explored a very important tract of country. +Champlain had also visited a part of the river Saguenay; he had made +himself acquainted with the vicinity of Quebec, and with the rivers, +streams and tributaries of the St. Lawrence and Ste. Croix. For the +second time he had seen the river St. Lawrence as far as the Iroquois +River over which he had sailed as far as Lake Champlain, whence it +receives its waters. Besides his achievements in exploration Champlain +had cemented friendly relations with the Montagnais, Algonquins and +Hurons; he had renewed his acquaintance with Anadabijou and formed an +alliance with Iroquet and Ochateguin, three of the most powerful chiefs +of these tribes. He was also well versed in their methods of warfare and +had studied their manners and customs and their treatment of their +prisoners, so that when he returned to France he was in a position to +give de Monts a great deal of valuable information, both as regards the +inhabitants and the best means of promoting trade with them.</p> + +<p>On his arrival in France Champlain proceeded at once to Fontainebleau, +where he met King Henry IV and de Monts. He had an audience with the +king and gave His Majesty a satisfactory account of his proceedings. He +also presented to the king a girdle made of porcupine quills, two little +birds of carnation colour, and the head of a fish caught in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span> Lake +Champlain, which had a very long snout, and two or three rows of very +sharp teeth.</p> + +<p>To de Monts the visit of Champlain was of great importance, because the +fate of Quebec was bound up with him. After hearing Champlain's +narrative of his voyages in New France, de Monts decided to visit Rouen +in order to consult Collier and Legendre, his associates. After +deliberation they resolved to continue their efforts to colonize New +France and to further explore the great river St. Lawrence. In order to +realize means for defraying the expenses of the expedition, Pont-Gravé +was authorized to engage in any traffic that would help to accomplish +this end. In the meantime Lucas Legendre was ordered to purchase +merchandise for the expedition, to see to the repairs of the vessels, +and to obtain crews. After these details had been arranged de Monts and +Champlain returned to Paris to settle the more important questions.</p> + +<p>De Monts' commission, which had been issued for one year, had expired, +but he hoped that it would be renewed. His requests, which appeared just +and reasonable, were, however, refused, owing to protests on the part of +merchants of Bretagne and Normandy, who claimed that this monopoly was +ruinous to their commerce. Finally de Monts appealed to his former +partners, who decided to furnish two vessels, at their own expense, with +supplies and stores necessary for the settlement. Pont-Gravé was given +the command of a fur-trad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">57</a></span>ing vessel, and the other was laden with +provisions and stores necessary for the use of the settlers. Champlain +was informed that his services were dispensed with, but not believing +that this news could be true, he saw de Monts and asked him frankly +whether such was the case. De Monts told him that he could accompany the +expedition, if he chose to do so. Champlain therefore set out from Paris +on the last day of February, 1610, and proceeded to Rouen, where he +remained for two days, and then left for Honfleur, to meet Pont-Gravé +and Legendre, who informed him that the vessels were ready to sail.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Le Testu's Christian name was Guillaume. His first voyage +to Newfoundland was made in 1601. He came to Quebec in 1608, 1610, 1611, +1612, 1613, 1614, and 1616. He was successively captain of the <i>Fleur de +Lys</i>, the <i>Trinité</i> and the <i>Nativité</i>. He was very circumspect in his +dealings.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Champlain often speaks of this man. His true name was +Claude Godet, Sieur des Marets. His father, Cléophas Godet, a lawyer, +had three sons, Claude, Jean and Jessé. Jean was Sieur du Parc, and +Jessé parish priest of Chambois in 1634. Both Claude and Jean came to +Canada. Claude des Marets was married, in 1615, to Jeanne Gravé, only +daughter of François Gravé, Sieur du Pont. He died about the year 1626, +leaving one child named François, who came to New France with his +grandfather, and was present at the capitulation of Quebec in 1629.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> This is the river <i>de Fouez</i> of Jacques Cartier, and the +<i>Metaberoutin</i> of the Indians, and now the river St. Maurice, to which +historians have given the name of Three Rivers, because two islands +divide it into three branches at its entrance; these branches are called +<i>Les Chenaux</i>, or the narrow channels.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Pierre de Chauvin, Sieur de la Pierre, called Captain +Pierre by Champlain, was born at Dieppe, but after the death of his +relative, Pierre de Chauvin, Sieur de Tontuit, he resided at Honfleur. +There were many families of Chauvin in Normandy during the seventeenth +century, notably the Chauvins, Sieurs de Tontuit, and the Chauvins, +Sieurs de la Pierre.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">58</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>CHAMPLAIN'S VOYAGES OF 1610, 1611, 1613</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>Champlain</b></span> embarked at Honfleur with eleven artisans for Quebec, on March +7th, 1610. The rough weather experienced during the first days of the +voyage rendered it necessary for the vessel to run into Portland, on the +English coast, and later to seek refuge in the harbour of the Isle of +Wight. At this time Champlain was taken suddenly ill, and was obliged to +return by boat to Havre de Grâce to undergo medical treatment. A month +after he rejoined his former vessel, which in the meantime had returned +to Honfleur to take in ballast. Champlain had now somewhat recovered, +although he was still weak and ill.</p> + +<p>The vessel left Honfleur on April 8th, and reached Tadousac on the 26th +of the same month; which was one of the shortest passages ever made up +to that time. "There were vessels," says Champlain, "which had arrived +on the 18th of the month, a thing which had not been seen for more than +sixty years, as the old mariners said who sail regularly to this +country." This remark proves that for more than half a century French +fishermen and navigators had been accustomed to proceed as far as +Tadousac. A Basque, named Lavalette, who had <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span>been accustomed to fish on +the Acadian coast from about the year 1565, also confirms the statement.</p> + +<p>On his arrival at Tadousac, Champlain ascertained from a young nobleman, +named du Parc,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> who had wintered with Chauvin at Quebec, that all the +settlers were in good health, and that only a few of them had been +slightly ill. They had been able to procure fresh meat during the whole +season, and consequently scurvy had not made its appearance. "By +avoiding salt food and using fresh meat, the health is as good here as +in France."</p> + +<p>The Indians had been waiting from day to day for the return of +Champlain, for they wished him to accompany them to war. He therefore +went ashore to assure them that he would fulfil his promise under the +conditions made, namely, that upon his return they would point out to +him the three rivers, and the lake which they had described as +resembling a sea, the end of which could not be seen, and by means of +which he could return by way of the Saguenay to Tadousac. The Indians +had readily promised to do all this, but only in the following year. +Champlain had also promised the Hurons and Algonquins that he would +assist them in their wars, if they would show him their country, the +great lake and the copper mines. "I had accordingly," <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span>he said, "two +strings to my bow, so that, in case one should break, the other might +hold."</p> + +<p>On April 25th, 1610, Champlain set out from Tadousac for Quebec, where +he found Captain Chauvin and his companions in good health. They had +with them a stranger named Captain Batiscan, who was so pleased at +Champlain's return that he and his comrades showed their appreciation by +singing and dancing all night. Champlain entertained them at a banquet, +with which they were delighted.</p> + +<p>Some days after a party of the Montagnais, numbering about sixty men, +made their appearance at Quebec, <i>en route</i> for the war. They presented +themselves before Champlain, and said: "Here are numerous Basques and +Mistigoches (so they named the Normans and Malouins) who say they will +go to the war with us. What do you think of it? Do they speak the +truth?" Champlain answered: "No, I know very well what they really mean; +they say this only to get possession of your commodities." The Indians +replied: "You have spoken the truth. They are women and want to make war +only upon our beavers." Confiding in Champlain's word, the Montagnais +went to Three Rivers under the agreement that a general rendezvous +should be held there with the French. The Hurons were to await them at +the entrance of the Iroquois River.</p> + +<p>Champlain started on his journey on June 14th. When he was eight leagues +from Quebec he met a canoe bearing an Algonquin and a Montagnais, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span>who +entreated him to hasten towards Three Rivers, as the Algonquins and +Hurons would be at the meeting-place within two days. The Algonquins +presented Champlain with a piece of copper a foot long and quite pure, +and stated that there were large quantities to be found on the bank of a +river, near a great lake. The Indians also stated that they collected +the copper in lumps, and after they had melted it, spread it in sheets +and smoothed it with stones. Champlain was well pleased to receive this +present, although it was of small value.</p> + +<p>The Montagnais assembled at Three Rivers, and on June 18th they all set +out together. On the following day they arrived at an island situated at +the mouth of the river Richelieu, which the Montagnais used to frequent +when they wished to avoid the Iroquois.</p> + +<p>An alarm was soon given that the Algonquins had fallen in with a band of +Iroquois, numbering one hundred, who were strongly barricaded. Each man +then took his arms and set out in a canoe towards the enemy. The firing +immediately began, and Champlain was wounded by an arrow which pierced +his ear and entered his neck. He seized the arrow and withdrew it from +the wound. The Iroquois were much astonished at the noise caused by the +discharge of the French muskets, and some of them, seeing their +companions wounded or dead, threw themselves upon the ground whenever +they, heard a musket fired. Champlain resolved after <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span>a while to force +the barricade, sword in hand, which he accomplished without much +resistance, and entered the fort. Fifteen prisoners were taken, and the +rest were killed either by musket shots, arrows, or the sword. The +savages, according to their custom, scalped the dead. The Montagnais and +Algonquins had three killed and fifty wounded. On the following day +Pont-Gravé and Chauvin did some trading in peltry.</p> + +<p>Amongst Champlain's party there was a young lad named Nicholas Marsolet, +who desired to accompany the Algonquins in order to learn their +language, and he was pleased to learn that after much deliberation the +Algonquins had decided to take him, on the condition that Champlain +accepted a young Huron as hostage. The Indian boy was named Savignon by +the French. Lescarbot writes that he met this youth many times in Paris, +and that "he was a big and stout boy."</p> + +<p>The French and the allied Indians separated with many promises of +friendship. The Indians departed for the fall of the great river of +Canada, and the French, with Champlain at their head, proceeded to +Quebec. On the return journey they met at Lake St. Peter, Pont-Gravé, +who was on his way to Tadousac, to arrange some business connected with +headquarters.</p> + +<p>Pont-Gravé contemplated passing the winter at Quebec, but in the +meantime des Marets arrived from France, much to the delight of every +one, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span>as his vessel was long overdue. The news which he brought, +however, was so serious that both Champlain and Pont-Gravé decided to +return to France. The intelligence received was to the effect that M. de +St. Luc had expelled the Catholics from Brouage, that the king had been +killed, and that the Duke of Sully and two other noblemen had shared the +same fate.</p> + +<p>Champlain was much distressed over the condition of affairs in France, +and on his departure he left du Parc in command of Quebec, and placed +under him sixteen men, "all of whom were enjoined to live soberly, and +in the fear of God, and in strict observance of the obedience due to the +authority of du Parc." The settlement was left with a plentiful supply +of kitchen vegetables, together with a sufficient quantity of Indian +corn, wheat, rye and barley. Everything was in good order when Champlain +set out from Quebec on August 8th, five days after Pont-Gravé's vessel +sailed from Tadousac for France. On September 27th they arrived at +Honfleur, the voyage having lasted one month and a half.</p> + +<p>This second voyage of Champlain did not restore de Monts' fortunes. The +withdrawal of the exclusive privilege of trading was the signal for a +large number of trading vessels to appear in the St. Lawrence. In fact +the operations were so great as to render the profits of the company +null. The disaster was so complete that Champlain says: "Many will +remem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span>ber for a long time the loss made this year." For all the labour +which Champlain had bestowed upon the settlement the result was small, +and it was evident that if any French merchant were allowed without +restrictions to trade with the Indians, commerce would be ruined, and +the development of the settlement would be impossible. During the first +years a beaver skin could be exchanged in return for two knives, and now +fifteen or twenty were required for the same exchange. Champlain +therefore desired to establish some form of rule by which commerce could +be restricted, or in other words, whereby he or de Monts, or any one +else who would undertake the direction of the affairs of New France, +might be protected.</p> + +<p>It was during this winter of 1610-11, that Champlain, who was now more +than forty years of age, entertained thoughts of marriage. His constant +voyages during the past twelve years had probably prevented him from +entering into this estate before. It is, perhaps, somewhat surprising +that he so suddenly put aside this consideration against the marriage. +Did he contemplate residing permanently at Quebec, or did he foresee +that circumstances would render his remaining in New France improbable? +There is nothing in his narrative which throws any light on this +question. Champlain does not mention the name of his wife in any of his +writings, but we find later that she accompanied him to Quebec, where +she dwelt for four years. The name of Cham<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">66</a></span>plain's wife was Hélène +Boullé, the daughter of Nicholas Boullé, secretary of the king's +chamber, and of Marguerite Alix of St. Germain l'Auxerrois, Paris. +Hélène Boullé was born in 1598, and at the time of her marriage she was +only twelve years of age. Her parents were Calvinists, and she was +brought up in the same faith, but through the lessons and influence of +her husband she became a Catholic.</p> + +<p>The marriage settlements were executed at Paris on December 27th, 1610, +and signed by Choquillot and Arragon, notaries, in the presence of the +parents and friends of both parties. Among those who attended on that +occasion were Pierre du Gua, friend; Lucas Legendre, of Rouen, friend; +Hercule Rouer, merchant of Paris; Marcel Chenu, merchant of Paris; Jehan +Roernan, secretary of de Monts, Champlain's friend; François Lesaige, +druggist of the king's stables, friend and relative; Jehan Ravenel, +Sieur de la Merrois; Pierre Noël, Sieur de Cosigné, friend; Anthoine de +Murad, king's councillor and almoner; Anthoine Marye; Barbier, surgeon, +relative and friend; Geneviève Lesaige, wife of Simon Alix, uncle of +Hélène Boullé, on the mother's side.</p> + +<p>According to the terms of the contract, Nicholas Boullé and his wife +pledged themselves, by anticipated payment of the inheritance, to pay +six thousand livres cash, the day preceding the marriage. Champlain also +agreed to give his future wife the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span>benefit of his wealth at his death. +Two days after, Nicholas Boullé sent to his son-in-law the sum of four +thousand five hundred livres, the balance was to be sent later on.</p> + +<p>The betrothal took place in the church of St. Germain l'Auxerrois, on +Wednesday, December 29th, 1610, and on the following day the marriage +was celebrated in the same church. As the young bride was not of +marriageable age, she returned to her family to live with them for two +years, as agreed by the contract.</p> + +<p>Champlain then resumed his colonization work, and had an interview with +de Monts, in order to induce him to take some action in his favour. +Although the profits to be realized from the enterprise were not +certain, it seemed probable that fur-trading, and developing the +resources of the country, might become advantageous. The expenses of the +undertaking were also small: a few barrels of biscuits, of pease and +cider would be found sufficient to sustain the fifteen or twenty men who +formed the nucleus of the colony. From year to year Champlain hoped to +be able to monopolize the fur trade, not for himself, but for the +company of de Monts.</p> + +<p>The vessels which were equipped for the expedition were ready to sail on +March 1st, 1611. The passage was very rough, and when about eight +leagues distant from the Great Banks of Newfoundland, the vessels were +in great danger through the number of icebergs which were encountered. +The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span>cold was so intense that it was found difficult to navigate the +vessel. While in the vicinity of Newfoundland, they communicated with a +French ship, on board of which was Biencourt, son of Poutrincourt, who +was bound for Port Royal to meet his father. He had left France three +months previously, and had been unable to find his way to the Acadian +coast.</p> + +<p>After having sighted Gaspé, Champlain arrived at Tadousac on May 13th, +where he found all the country covered with snow. The savages were +informed of Champlain's arrival by cannon shot, and they soon made their +appearance. They stated that three or four trading vessels had arrived +within the last eight days, but that their business had been a failure +on account of the scarcity of furs.</p> + +<p>Champlain proceeded at once to Quebec, where he found everything in good +order, and neither du Parc nor his companions had suffered from any +sickness. Game had been abundant during the whole winter. Champlain +intended to visit Three Rivers, but Batiscan said that he would not be +prepared to conduct him there until next year. As he was unable to carry +out his designs, Champlain took with him Savignon and one Frenchman, and +visited the great fall. He made a careful examination of the country, +and says:—</p> + +<p>"But in all that I saw I found no place more favourable than a little +spot to which barques and shallops can easily ascend with the help of a +strong <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span>wind, or by taking a winding course, in consequence of the +strong current. But above this place, which we named <i>La Place Royale</i>, +at the distance of a league from Mont Royal, there are a great many +little rocks and shoals which are very dangerous.... Formerly savages +tilled these lands.... There is a large number of other fine pastures, +where any number of cattle can graze.... After a careful examination, we +found this place one of the finest on this river. I accordingly gave +orders to cut down and clear up the woods in the Place Royale, so as to +level it and prepare it for building."</p> + +<p>This was the beginning of Montreal, the wealthiest city of Canada.</p> + +<p>Champlain constructed a wall four feet thick, three or four feet high, +and thirty feet long. This fort was placed on an elevation twelve feet +higher than the level of the soil, so that it was safe from inundation. +Champlain named the island Ste. Hélène, in honour of his wife, and he +found that a strong town could be built there. To-day this island is a +favourite resort for the inhabitants of Montreal, and it is an ornament +to the harbour of the large city.</p> + +<p>On June 13th two hundred Hurons arrived at Sault St. Louis, so called +from a young Frenchman named Louis, who was drowned in the rapids a few +days before. The Hurons were under the command of Ochateguin, Iroquet +and Tregouaroti. The latter was a brother of Savignon, the young Huron +whom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span> Champlain had taken with him to France. The interview, which +lasted some time, was most cordial. The Indians said that they felt +somewhat uneasy on seeing so many Frenchmen who were not specially +united, and that they had desired to see Champlain alone, towards whom +they were as kindly disposed as towards their own children.</p> + +<p>Champlain questioned them on the sources of the great river, and on +their own country. Four of them declared that they had seen a large sea +at a great distance from their village. After exchanging their peltry +with Champlain's consent, some of the Hurons left to follow the +war-path, while others returned to their own country. This interview +occurred on July 18th, 1611. On the same day Champlain set out for +Quebec, where he arrived on the nineteenth. Here he found that certain +necessary repairs had to be made. He also planted some rose bushes, and +caused some oak wood to be placed on board a vessel for shipment to +France, as a specimen of the wood of the new colony, which he considered +suitable not only for marine wainscoting, but also for windows and +doors.</p> + +<p>Champlain sailed from Quebec on July 20th, and arrived at La Rochelle on +September 16th. De Monts was at Pons, in Saintonge, at this time, and it +was here that he received a visit from Champlain. After listening to +Champlain's narrative of his proceedings, de Monts decided to proceed to +court to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span>arrange matters. He held a conference with the merchants at +Fontainebleau, but he found that they were unwilling to continue to +support the enterprise. He concluded a bargain with them for what +remained in the Quebec settlement by the payment of a certain sum of +money, and from that date de Monts' company ceased to exist. There was +only one man who had faith in the future of the colony, and who remained +staunch to its interests under all difficulties; this man was Champlain.</p> + +<p>De Monts had shown great energy in opposing the impediments to the +undertaking which were offered by the merchants of Rouen, St. Malo and +La Rochelle, and as he hoped to regain the money which he had already +expended, he considered that it was time to receive assistance from the +king. Louis XIII listened attentively to de Monts' requests, but he did +not accede to them. De Monts, therefore, informed Champlain that he was +compelled to abandon the enterprise. This was the last interview between +these two men.</p> + +<p>Champlain was now left to his own resources for continuing his work. His +personal means were small, and far too slender to enable him to support +a colony in its infancy. The thought of abandoning the settlement was +repugnant to him, not only on account of the years of labour he had +bestowed upon it, but also because he felt that there was every chance +of success with the aid of rich and powerful men.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span>At the commencement of his description of his first voyage to Canada, +Champlain enumerates the reasons which induced him to continue his work +of discovery: "The desire which I have always had of making new +discoveries in New France, for the good, profit and glory of the French +name, and at the same time to lead the poor natives to the knowledge of +God, has led me to seek more and more for the greater facility of this +undertaking, which can only be secured by means of good regulations."</p> + +<p>Then he drew up a statement,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> which he handed to President Jeannin, +whom he knew to be well disposed.</p> + +<p>The president encouraged Champlain, but in order that he might not be +deceived, he thought it better that Champlain should act under the +authority of some man whose influence would be sufficient to protect him +against the jealousy of the merchants. Champlain, therefore, addressed +himself through M. de Beaulieu, councillor and almoner in ordinary to +the king, to Charles de Bourbon, Comte de Soissons, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span>then governor of +Dauphiné and Normandy. He urged upon the count the importance of the +undertaking, and explained the best means of regulating it, claiming +that the disorders which had hitherto existed threatened to ruin the +enterprise, and to bring dishonour to the name of the French.</p> + +<p>After having examined the map of the country, and studied the details of +the scheme, Soissons promised, under the sanction of the king, to assume +the protectorate of the undertaking. Louis XIII listened favourably to +the petition of his loyal subject, and granted the direction and control +of the settlement to the count, who in due course honoured Champlain +with the lieutenancy. Soon after this event, however, the count died, +and His Majesty committed the direction of affairs to Monseigneur Le +Prince de Condé, who retained Champlain as his lieutenant.</p> + +<p>After having caused his commission to be posted in all the ports of +Normandy, Champlain sailed from France on March 6th, in the vessel of +Pont-Gravé, and arrived at Pointe aux Vaches, near Tadousac, on April +24th, 1613.</p> + +<p>The savages came on board the vessel and inquired for Champlain. Some +one replied that he had remained in France. On hearing this, an old man +approached Champlain, who was walking in a corner of the vessel, and +examined the scar on his ear, which was caused by an arrow wound while +fighting for the Indians. On seeing this, the old man recog<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span>nized +Champlain, and expressed his feelings by shouts of delight, in which he +was joined by his companions, who said, "Your people are awaiting you in +the harbour of Tadousac."</p> + +<p>On arriving at Tadousac, Champlain found that these Indians were almost +dying of hunger, and after having affixed the arms and commission of His +Majesty to a post in the port, he proceeded to Quebec, which he reached +on May 7th. The people of the settlement were all in good health, and +the winter having been less severe than usual, the river had not frozen +once. The leaves were beginning to appear on the trees, and the fields +were already decked with flowers.</p> + +<p>On the 13th of the month Champlain left for the Falls of St. Louis, +which he reached eight days afterwards. Here he met a number of the +Algonquins, who informed him that the bad treatment which they had +experienced during the previous year had discouraged them from coming to +trade, and that his long absence from the country had left the whole +tribe under the impression that he did not intend to return. On hearing +this, Champlain recognized that it would be advisable to visit the +Algonquins at once, in order to continue his discoveries, and to +preserve friendly relations with them.</p> + +<p>During his residence in France, Champlain had met a young Frenchman +named Nicholas du Vignau, who claimed to have seen the Northern Sea, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span>and said that the Algonquin River flowed from a lake which emptied into +it. He also stated that the journey from Sault St. Louis to this sea and +return could be accomplished in seventeen days, and that he had seen +there the wreck and débris of an English ship, on board of which were +eighty men. This intelligence seemed the more probable as the English +were supposed to have visited the Labrador coast in 1612, where they had +discovered a strait.</p> + +<p>Champlain requested a merchant of La Rochelle, named Georges, to give du +Vignau a passage on his ship, which he did willingly, and he also made +an affidavit before a notary concerning du Vignau's Relation. Du Vignau +came to Canada, and accompanied Champlain on his visit to the +Algonquins. The party, consisting of four Frenchmen and one savage, set +out from Ste. Helen's Island on May 27th, 1613.</p> + +<p>After having passed the falls they entered Lake St. Louis. On the last +day of May they passed Lake des Deux Montagnes, which Champlain called +Lake de Soissons. Some days after they came in sight of the river +Gatineau, the river Rideau and its fall, and the Chaudière Falls, where +they were forced to land. They also passed the rapid des Chats, Lake des +Chats, Madawaska River, Muskrat Lake, and Allumette Island, where an +Algonquin chief named Tessoüat resided. On the following day the Indians +gave a <i>tabagie</i> in honour of Cham<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span>plain, who after smoking the pipe of +peace with the party, explained to them that the object of his visit was +to assure them of his friendship, and to assist them in their wars, as +he had done before.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">15</a></p> + +<p>He told them also that he was making an excursion into their country to +observe the fertility of the soil, and study their lakes and rivers, and +to discover the sea which he was told was in their vicinity. Champlain +therefore requested them to furnish four canoes, and eight Indians as +guides, to conduct the party to the Nipissirini, in order to induce +their enemies to fight.</p> + +<p>The chief Tessoüat, speaking in behalf of the whole tribe, said that he +regarded Champlain as the most friendly of all the French, for the +others were unwilling to help them in their wars, but that they had +resolved not to go to the falls again, and that, owing to the long +absence of Champlain from the country, they had been compelled to go to +the wars alone. They therefore begged him to postpone his expedition +until the following year.</p> + +<p>They granted Champlain's request of four canoes with great reluctance, +and stated that the Nipissirini <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span>were sorcerers, and not their friends. +Champlain insisted on having the guides, and stated that he had brought +with him a young man who would find no difficulty in visiting the +country of the Nipissirini.</p> + +<p>Tessoüat thereupon addressed the young man by name, and said: "Nicholas, +is it true that you were among the Nebicerini?" "Yes," said he in +Algonquin language, "I was there." "You are a downright liar," replied +Tessoüat, "you know well that you slept at my side every night, with my +children, where you arose every morning; if you were among the people +mentioned, it was while sleeping. How could you have been as bold as to +lead your chief to believe lies, and so wicked as to be willing to +expose his life to so many dangers? You are a worthless fellow and ought +to be put to death, more cruelly than we do our enemies."</p> + +<p>Shortly after, Champlain advised the Indians that the young lad had +confessed that he had lied concerning his visits to the Nipissirini +country. By telling them the facts Champlain hoped to ensure the life of +Nicholas du Vignau, as the savages had said, "Give him to us, and we +promise that he shall not lie any more."</p> + +<p>On June 10th Champlain took leave of Tessoüat, after making him presents +and promising to return during the next year to assist in the war. +Continuing his course, Champlain again approached the Chaudière Falls, +where the savages went through a ceremony peculiar to them, which is +thus described:</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span>"After carrying their canoes to the foot of the falls, they assembled +in one spot, where one of them took up a collection in a wooden plate, +into which each one placed a piece of tobacco. The collection having +been made, the plate was placed in the middle of the troupe, as they all +danced around it, singing after their style. Then one of them made a +harangue, setting forth that for a long time they had been accustomed to +make this offering, by means of which they were insured protection +against their enemies, and that otherwise misfortune would befall them, +as they were convinced by the evil spirit; and that they lived on in +this superstition, as in many others. This done, the maker of the +harangue took the plate, and threw the tobacco into the midst of the +caldron, whereupon they all raised a loud cry."</p> + +<p>Such was the superstition of these savages that they considered a +favourable journey impossible without this uncouth ceremony. It was at +this portage that their enemies had been wont to surprise them.</p> + +<p>On June 17th they arrived at Sault St. Louis on their return journey. +Captain L'Ange, who was the confidant of Champlain, brought news that +Maisonneuve of St. Malo had arrived with a passport from the Prince de +Condé for three vessels. Champlain therefore allowed him to trade with +the savages.</p> + +<p>As the trade with the savages was now completed, Champlain resolved to +return to France <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span>by the first vessel which was ready to start. He +accepted a passage in Maisonneuve's vessel, which arrived at St. Malo on +August 26th. Champlain had an interview with the merchants, to whom he +represented that a good association could be formed in the future. The +merchants resolved to follow the example of those of Rouen and La +Rochelle.</p> + +<p>In concluding this chapter we may repeat the words of Champlain: "May +God by His grace cause this undertaking to prosper to His honour and +glory the conversion of these poor benighted ones, and to the honour and +welfare of France."<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">16</a></p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Jean Godet, Sieur du Parc, was a brother of Claude des +Marets. He came with his brother to Quebec in 1609, and wintered there. +In 1616 he commanded at Quebec. On his return to France, he remained at +St. Germain de Clairefeuille, where he died on November 16th, 1652.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> This volume is entitled: <i>Les Voyages du Sieur de +Champlain Xaintongeois, capitaine pour le Roy, en la marine....</i> A +Paris, MDCXIII. This volume contains a letter to the king, another one +to the queen, stanzas addressed to the French, an ode to Champlain on +his book and his marine maps, signed by Motin. The first book contains +the voyages of Champlain along the coasts of Acadia and New England. The +second relates to the voyages of Champlain to Quebec, in the years 1608, +1610 and 1611. This edition is the most useful and the most interesting +of all. Two large maps of New France give an excellent idea of the +country, though they are not absolutely accurate.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> In August, 1867, a farmer called Overman, found on his +land, lot 12, township of Ross, county of Renfrew, Ontario, an astrolabe +supposed to have been lost by Champlain during this expedition. From +June 6th, 1613, Champlain seems to have ceased his observations, as he +does not say after this date: "I have taken the latitude." This fact +would seem to prove that the instrument was not used after June 6th, +1613. Some pamphlets have been written on the astrolabe, and they all +agree that it had belonged to Champlain. Mr. Russell, one of the +writers, has given a full description of it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>Quatrième voyage du Sr. de Champlain, capitaine ordinaire +pour le Roy en la Marine, et Lieutenant de Monseigneur le Prince de +Condé en la Nouvelle France, fait en l'année 1613.</i> This Relation +contains a letter to Henri de Condé, and a geographical map, made in +1612, of a large size and very curious. The history of this voyage is +really a part of the so-called edition of 1613, and the printing of it +was done at the same time as the Relations of the first, second and +third voyages, which form altogether a large volume of three hundred and +twenty-five pages.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>THE RÉCOLLETS AND THEIR MISSIONS</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>Champlain's</b></span> affection for New France, the land of his adoption, made him +anxious to continue his explorations, in order that he might become +familiar with every locality. In the course of his voyages he often had +to be conveyed in Indian canoes, especially on the lakes and rivers, but +this means was sufficient only when his object was to ascertain whether +the country was well watered, whether the rivers were more or less +navigable, whether the lakes abounded with fish, and whether the water +powers were capable of being turned to account. Up till this time the +founder of Quebec had pressed forward his work of exploration with an +energy that was almost astonishing. He had rowed up the Iroquois River +as far as lake Champlain, and he had also navigated the Ottawa River in +a manner that had even surprised the Algonquins. Still many things +remained to be done and to be seen, such as to observe the fertility of +the soil in different latitudes, to study the manners and customs of the +Indians, especially of the great Huron tribe, which was the most +populous and probably better disposed to receive Christian instruction +than the other tribes. Champlain's ambition had always <span class='pagenum' style="text-indent: 1.5em;"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span>been to +introduce Christianity in order to civilize the people. Thus we find in +his writings after his return to France in 1614, the words:</p> + +<p>"Without losing courage, I have not ceased to push on and visit various +nations of the savages, and by associating familiarly with them, I have +concluded, as well from their conversation as from the knowledge +attained, that there is no better way than, disregarding all storms and +difficulties, to have patience until His Majesty shall give the +requisite attention to the matter, and in the meantime to continue the +exploration of the country, but also to learn the language, and form +relations and friendship with the leading men of the villages and +tribes, in order to lay the foundations of a permanent edifice, as well +for the glory of God as for the renown of the French."</p> + +<p>It is well to observe the significance of these words from the pen of +Champlain. Is this the language of a common fur-trader, simply seeking +to increase his fortune? What were really Champlain's designs during all +these years of labour and self-sacrifice? Was he animated by the mere +curiosity of the tourist, or the ambition of a man of science? No. +Champlain desired, it is true, to gain an intimate knowledge of the +country, and his labours are highly valued as a geographer and +cosmographer, but his intention was to utilize all his varied +information to promote the Christian religion and at the same time to +increase the renown of his native land.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span>Champlain deserves credit, not only for the idea of bringing +missionaries to Canada, but also for having realized his ideas. He +obtained the coöperation of many pious and zealous persons in France, +who willingly seconded his efforts, but it was owing to his own +steadfastness of purpose and to his great ability that his designs were +successfully carried out. After having formed a society of merchants to +take the material affairs of the colony in hand, Champlain tried to get +some religious orders to assume the direction of spiritual matters. He +had previously made known his plan to Louis Hoüel, king's councillor, +and comptroller of the salt works at Brouage, and sieur of Petit-Pré. +Hoüel was an honourable and pious man, and a friend of Champlain. He +told him that he was acquainted with some Récollets who would readily +agree to proceed to New France. Hoüel met Father du Verger, a man of +great virtue and ability, and principal of the order of the Immaculate +Conception. Father du Verger made an appeal to his confrères, all of +whom offered their services, and were ready to cross the ocean.</p> + +<p>The cardinals and bishops who were then gathered at St. Denis for their +great chapter, were in favour of the idea of sending the Récollets to +their foreign missions, and promised to raise a fund for the maintenance +of four monks, and the merchants of Rouen promised to maintain and +convey at least six Récollets gratuitously. The king issued letters for +the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span>future church of Canada. The pope's nuncio, Guido Bentivoglio, +granted the requisite permission, in conformity with the pope's wishes, +but the bull establishing the church was only forwarded on May 20th, +1615. The brief of Paul V granted to the Récollets the following +privileges:</p> + +<p>"To receive all children born of believing and unbelieving parents, and +all others of what condition soever they may be, who, after promising to +keep and observe all that should be kept and observed by the faithful, +will embrace the truth of the Christian and Catholic faith; to baptize +even outside of the churches in case of necessity; to hear confessions +of penitents, and after diligently hearing them, to impose a salutary +penance according to their faults, and enjoin what should be enjoined in +conscience, to loose and absolve them from all sentences of +excommunication and other ecclesiastical pains and censures, as also +from all sorts of crimes, excesses, and delicts; to administer the +sacraments of the eucharist, marriage and extreme unction; to bless all +kinds of vestments, vessels and ornaments when holy unction is not +necessary; to dispense gratuitously new converts who have contracted or +would contract marriage in any degree of consanguinity, or affinity +whatever, except the first or second, or between ascending and +descending, provided the women have not been carried off by force, and +the two parties who have contracted or would contract be Catholics, and +there be just cause as <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span>well for the marriages already contracted as for +those desired to be contracted; to declare and pronounce the children +born and issued of such marriages legitimate; to have an altar which +they may decently carry, and thereon to celebrate in decent and becoming +places where the convenience of a church shall be wanting."</p> + +<p>The Reverend Father Garnier de Chapouin, provincial of the province of +St. Denis, appointed four monks as the founders of the future mission. +Their names were Father Denis Jamet, Jean d'Olbeau, Joseph Le Caron, and +a brother named Pacifique du Plessis, who received orders to accompany +them. These four monks were all remarkable for their virtue and +apostolic zeal. Father Jamet was appointed commissary, and Father +d'Olbeau was appointed his successor in the event of death. The king +granted them authority to build one or more convents in Canada, and to +send for as many monks as were required. It was impossible to send more +than four of them during the first year.</p> + +<p>On April 24th, 1615, the <i>St. Étienne</i> sailed from Honfleur, and one +month later came to anchor at Tadousac. On June 25th, Father d'Olbeau +was able to say mass in a small chapel built at the foot of Mountain +Hill, Quebec.</p> + +<p>Soon after his arrival at Quebec, Champlain set out for the falls, +accompanied by Father Jamet. They reached the river des Prairies some +days after, and on June 24th, Father Jamet celebrated a solemn <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span>mass, at +which Champlain and some others assisted. This was the first mass +celebrated in Canada since the days of Jacques Cartier.</p> + +<p>In the early days of the settlement these brave missionaries had to +contend with many difficulties, which could be foreseen only by those +who were acquainted with the existing state of affairs. Many of these +difficulties arose from the fact that at least a fourth of the merchants +of the company were members of the so-called reformed, or Calvinistic +persuasion. It is easy to comprehend that the sympathies of these men +would not incline towards the Catholic religion.</p> + +<p>Champlain draws particular attention to the unfortunate results produced +by the existence of different creeds. Differences arose, and divisions +were created which sometimes resulted in quarrels between children of +the same country. These quarrels which were much to be deplored, did +not, however, occur in Quebec, because the French merchants did not deem +it advisable to send their ministers there, but replaced them by agents +who were often fanatical, and were for the Récollets a frequent source +of bitterness and annoyance. The most of the disorders occurred on board +the vessels, and were due to the fact that the crews were too hastily +engaged.</p> + +<p>The merchants, however, were bound to colonize the country with Catholic +settlers, and de Monts was also bound by similar conditions. Moreover, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span>the terms of the patents expressly stipulated that this should be +carried out. They were also forbidden to extend Calvinism among the +savages. "This policy," says Bancroft, "was full of wisdom." The +interpreters who could have greatly assisted the missionaries, proved on +the contrary an obstacle to the development of the Catholic religion, +for they refused to instruct the Récollets in the Indian languages, +which they had learnt before the arrival of the missionaries.</p> + +<p>Father Lalemant, a Jesuit, wrote in the year 1626: "This interpreter had +never wanted to communicate his knowledge of the language to any one, +not even to the Reverend Récollet Fathers, who had constantly importuned +him for ten years." So also wrote Father Le Jeune in his Relation of +1633.</p> + +<p>The difficulties that the missionaries had to overcome are therefore +readily understood. However they had the merit of preparing the way for +their successors, and the honour of planting the cross of Jesus Christ +everywhere, from Tadousac to Lake Huron.</p> + +<p>The number of missionaries was limited at the commencement, but some +others came to Canada later, particularly Fathers Guillaume Poullain, +Georges Le Baillif, and Paul Huet. These men, some of whom were of noble +birth, were remarkable for their virtues and their abilities. In the +annals of the primitive church of New France, their names are +illustrious, and around their memory gathers <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span>the aureole of sanctity. +During six years, from 1615 to 1621, the spiritual direction of the +colony was entrusted to six fathers and three friars. Father d'Olbeau +remained in charge of the habitation of Quebec, and Father Le Caron +resolved to proceed at once to the country of the Hurons.</p> + +<p>On July 9th, 1615, Champlain, Étienne Brûle, an interpreter, a servant, +and ten Indians, set out for the mouth of the Ottawa River. They rowed +up the river as far as the Mattawan, which they followed westwards, and +soon reached Lake Nipissing where they stopped for two days. This was on +July 26th. After having taken this short rest, they continued their +voyage, crossing Georgian Bay, and reached the land of the Hurons. Near +the shore they met the Attignaouantans, or people of the bear tribe, one +of the four chief branches of the great Huron family. Their village or +<i>bourgade</i> was called Otouacha. On the second day of August, Champlain's +party visited the village of Carmeron, and on the following day, they +saw the encampments of Tonaguainchain, Tequenonquiayé and Carhagouha. In +the latter encampment Father Le Caron resided.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 639px;"> +<a href="images/illo3.jpg"><img src="images/illo3_th.jpg" width="639" height="325" alt="Champlain on the shores of Georgian Bay, 1615" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">Champlain on the shores of Georgian Bay, 1615<br />From the painting by Hummé</span> +</div> + +<p>On July 12th Father Le Caron celebrated mass and sang the <i>Te Deum</i>, +after which the Indians planted a cross near the small chapel which had +been erected under Champlain's direction. The reverend father occupied a +hut within the palisade which formed the rampart of the village, and he +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span>spent the fall and winter with the Hurons of Carhagouha.</p> + +<p>The Huron country was situated between the peninsula watered by Lake +Simcoe on the eastern side, and by the Georgian Bay on the western side. +It extended from north to south between the rivers Severn and +Nottawasaga. This land is twenty-five leagues in length and seven or +eight in width. The soil, though sandy, was fertile and produced in +abundance corn, beans, pumpkins and the annual helianth or sun-flower, +from which the Hurons extracted the oil. The neighbouring tribes, such +as the Ottawas and the Algonquins, used to procure their provisions from +the Hurons, as they were permanently cultivating their lands.</p> + +<p>Champlain observed, in 1615, that there were eighteen <i>bourgades</i> or +villages, of which he mentions five, namely: Carhagouha, Toanché, +Carmeron, Tequenonquiayé and Cahiagué. Cahiagué was the most important, +and had two hundred huts; it was also the chief <i>bourgade</i> of the tribe +called de la Roche.</p> + +<p>Four tribes of a common origin and a common language were living on the +Huron peninsula. They were: (1.) The Attignaouantans, or Tribe de +l'Ours; (2.) The Attignenonghacs, or Tribe de la Corde; (3.) The +Arendarrhonons, or Tribe de la Roche; (4.) The Tohontahenrats. The +general name given to these four tribes by the French was Ouendats.</p> + +<p>The most numerous and the most respected of the tribes were the tribes +de l'Ours and de la Corde, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span>which had taken possession of the country; +the first about the year 1589, and the second twenty years after. The +oldest men of these tribes related to the missionaries, in 1638, that +their ancestors for the past two hundred years had been obliged to +change their residence every ten years. These two tribes were very +friendly, and in their councils treated each other like brothers. All +their business was conducted through the medium of a captain of war and +a captain of council.</p> + +<p>These tribes became popular and increased their numbers by adopting +members of other nations, so that in later years the Huron family became +one of the most powerful and redoubtable in North America. The identity +of language was a great factor in the accomplishment of this marvellous +result. The Andastes, of Virginia, were therefore speaking the Huron +language. The Tionnontatés became so identified with their neighbours +that they were named the Hurons of the Petun. The savages of the Neutral +Nation had also adopted the Huron idiom. This uniformity of language +formed a league between these nations which would have been broken with +the utmost difficulty.</p> + +<p>Father de Brébeuf calculated that, in his time, there were scattered +over the whole continent of North America about three hundred thousand +Indians who understood the Huron dialect. This was exaggerated, for the +aborigines covering the territory known to the Hurons from whom the +father <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span>had collected this information did not number three hundred +thousand persons. How could he rely upon these people, to whom a +thousand men represented simply an amazing number? How could the Hurons +make a census of an unsedentary people, wandering here and there +according to circumstances of war or other reasons, and recruiting +themselves with prisoners or with the remnants of conquered nations?</p> + +<p>To give only one example of these strange recruitings, let us examine +the composition of the great family of the Iroquois in Champlain's time. +It was a collection of disbanded tribes, who had belonged to the Hurons, +to the Tionnontatés, to the Neutral, to the Eries and du Feu tribes. The +Iroquois had separated themselves from the Hurons to form a branch which +acquired with time more vivacity than the tree from which it had sprung. +The Hurons were called the good Iroquois in order to distinguish them +from the wicked Iroquois who were reputed to be barbarous. They fought +against all the nations living in Canada, and their name was a subject +of general apprehension.</p> + +<p>Returning to the Hurons, we find that the Attignaouantans, or the tribe +de l'Ours, was the most populous, forming half of the whole Huron +family, namely about fifteen thousand souls. They were considered, +erroneously, as the most perfidious of all. Father de Brébeuf, who knew +them well, says that they were mild, charitable, polite and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span>courteous. +Some years later, the tribe de l'Ours occupied fourteen villages, with +thirteen missions under the charge of the Jesuits. The whole mission, +called Immaculate Conception, had its principal seat at Ossossané, which +had replaced Carhagouha, mentioned by Champlain. The French called it La +Rochelle. Ossossané was the nearest village of the Iroquois territory. +Father du Creux' map places it on the western coast of the Huron +peninsula.</p> + +<p>The Attignenonghacs, or tribe de la Corde, were the oldest and the most +numerous, after the Attignaouantans. They praised their antiquity and +their traditions which had existed for two hundred years, and which had +been collected by word of mouth by the chiefs or captains. This +evidence, more or less valuable, seems to indicate that they had +preserved a family spirit, which is very laudable. The Attignenonghacs, +however, had founded a nationality, and their language was so developed +that, in 1635, Father de Brébeuf could recall to memory twelve nations +who spoke it. This tribe had no special features except that they were +very devoted to the French. The Jesuits opened in their midst two +missions called St. Ignace and St. Joseph. Teanaustayaé was one of the +most important villages of the Attignenonghacs. When the village of +Ihonatiria ceased to exist, the Jesuits called it St. Joseph. Here +perished, in 1648, Father Daniel, together with seven hundred Hurons.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">93</a></span>Toanché was another village of the same tribe. It has often changed its +name, and we may consider it as one of these flying <i>bourgades</i> so +commonly found among the Hurons. Champlain had known the village of +Toanché under the name of Otouacha. When Father de Brébeuf came here for +the second time, in 1634, he was unable to recognize the village that he +had visited for the first time in 1626. It had been transported about +two miles from its former place. It was then situated at the western +entrance of a bay now Penetanguishene, on a point in the northern part +of Lake Huron, four leagues from Ossossané and seven from Teanaustayaé.</p> + +<p>The Arendarrhonons, or tribe de la Roche, were settled on the eastern +part of the peninsula. They were at first discovered by the French, and +they had, according to the laws of the country, the privilege of fur +trading. They were especially attached to Champlain, and twenty-two +years after his death they had not forgotten his remarkable virtues and +courage. The <i>bourgade</i> of Cahiagué, comprising two hundred and sixty +huts and two thousand souls, was the chief place of the Arendarrhonons. +It was situated near the lake Ouentaron, now lake Simcoe, at the +northern extremity, near the small town of Orillia. The Jesuits +established a mission here, and their principal residence was on the +right shore of a small river called the Wye, near Penetanguishene. The +remains of a fort built there in 1639 could be seen a few years ago.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">94</a></span>Cahiagué was distant from Carhagouha fourteen leagues. It was situated +near the village of Scanonahenrat, where the Tohontahenrats, the fourth +Huron tribe, resided. They were less numerous than the others. +Scanonahenrat was situated at about two leagues from Ihonatiria of the +Attignenonghacs, and at three leagues from the Ataronchronons, another +Huron group of small importance, where finally the Jesuits took up their +residence. When these missions were flourishing, the Jesuits could +enumerate twenty-five different places where they could pursue their +calling with zeal. The Récollets had continued their course with +vigorous activity; they had sown the divine seed, but they were not +permitted to reap the reward of their labours, as the Jesuits did in the +future.</p> + +<p>Although the Hurons appeared to be happy, their mode of living was +miserable. Their principal articles of food were Indian corn and common +beans, which they prepared in various ways. Their clothing was made of +the skins of wild animals. Deer skin was used for their trousers, which +were cut loose, and their stockings were made of another piece of the +same skin, while their boots were formed of the skin of bears, beavers +and deer. They also wore a cloak in the Egyptian style, with sleeves +which were attached by a string behind. Most of them painted their faces +black and red, and dyed their hair, which some wore long, others short, +and others again on one side only. The women and girls were <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span>dressed +like men, except that they had their robes, which extended to the knee, +girt about them. They all dressed their hair in one uniform style, +carefully combed, dyed and oiled. For ornaments they wore quantities of +porcelain, chains and necklaces, besides bracelets and ear-rings.</p> + +<p>These people were of a happy temperament generally, though some had a +sad and gloomy countenance. Physically they were well proportioned. Some +of the men and women had fine figures, strong and robust, and many of +the women were powerful and of unusual height. The greater portion of +the work fell to the lot of the women, who looked after the housework, +tilled the land, laid up a store of wood for the winter, beat the hemp +and spun it, and made fishing nets from the thread. They also gathered +in the harvest and prepared it for food. The occupation of the men was +hunting for deer, fishing, and building their cabins, varied at times by +war. When they were free from these occupations, they visited other +tribes with whom they were acquainted for the purpose of traffic or +exchange, and their return was celebrated by dances and festivities.</p> + +<p>They had a certain form of marriage which Champlain thus describes. When +a girl had reached the age of eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen or +fifteen years, she had suitors, more or less, according to her +attractions, who wooed her for some time. The consent of the parents was +then asked, to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span>whose wills the girl did not always submit, although the +most discreet of them did so. The favoured lover or suitor then +presented to the girl some necklaces, bracelets or chains of porcelain, +which she accepted if the suitor was agreeable to her. The suitor then +resided with her for three or four days, without saying anything to her +in the meantime, but if they did not agree, the girl left her suitor, +who forfeited his necklaces and the other presents which he had made, +and each was free to seek another companion if so disposed. This term of +probation was often extended to eight, or even to fifteen days.</p> + +<p>The children enjoyed great freedom. The parents indulged them too much +and never punished or corrected them. As a consequence they grew up bad +and vicious. They would often strike their mothers, and when they were +powerful enough they did not hesitate to strike their fathers.</p> + +<p>The Hurons did not recognize any divine power or worship of God. They +were without belief, and lived like brute beasts, with this exception, +that they had a sort of fear of an evil spirit. They had <i>ogni</i> or +<i>manitous</i>, who were medicine-men, and who healed the sick, bound up the +wounded, foretold future events, and practised all the abuses and +illusions of the black arts.</p> + +<p>Champlain firmly believed that the conversion of the Hurons to +Christianity would have been easier if the country had been inhabited by +persons who <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span>would devote their energies to instructing them. Father Le +Caron and himself had often conversed with them regarding the Catholic +faith, the laws and customs of the French, and they had listened +attentively, sometimes saying:</p> + +<p>"You say things that pass our knowledge, and which we cannot understand +by words, being beyond our comprehension; but if you would do us a +service, come and dwell in this country, bringing your wives and +children, and when they are here, we shall see how you serve the God you +worship, and how you live with your wives and children, how you +cultivate and plant the soil, how you obey your laws, how you take care +of animals, and how you manufacture all that we see proceeding from your +inventive skill. When we see all this we shall learn more in a year than +in twenty by simply hearing your discourse; and if we cannot understand, +you shall take our children, who shall be as your own. And thus being +convinced that our life is a miserable one in comparison with yours, it +is easy to believe that we shall adopt yours, abandoning our own."</p> + +<p>The following was their mode of government. The older and leading men +assembled in a council, in which they settled upon and proposed all that +was necessary for the affairs of the village. This was done by a +plurality of voices, or in accordance with the advice of some one among +them whose judgment they considered superior; such a one was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span>requested +by the company to give his opinion on the propositions that had been +made, and his opinion was minutely obeyed. They had no particular chief +with absolute command, but they honoured the older and more courageous +men, of which there were several in a village, whom they named captains, +as a mark of distinction and respect.</p> + +<p>They all deliberated in common, and whenever any member of the assembly +offered to do anything for the welfare of the village, or to go anywhere +for the service of the community, he was requested to present himself, +and if he was judged capable of carrying out what he proposed, they +exhorted him, by fair and favourable words, to do his duty. They +declared him to be an energetic man, fit for the undertaking, and +assured him that he would win honour in accomplishing his task. In a +word, they encouraged him by flatteries, in order that this favourable +disposition of his for the welfare of his fellow-citizens might continue +and increase. Then, according to his pleasure, he accepted or refused +the responsibility, and thereby he was held in high esteem.</p> + +<p>They had, moreover, general assemblies with representatives from remote +regions. These representatives came every year, one from each province, +and met in a town designated as the rendezvous of the assembly. Here +were celebrated great banquets and dances, for three weeks or a month, +according as they might determine. On these occasions they <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">99</a></span>renewed +their friendship, resolved upon and decreed what they thought best for +the preservation of their country against their enemies, and made each +other handsome presents, after which they retired to their own +districts.</p> + +<p>In burying the dead, the Hurons took the body of the deceased, wrapped +it in furs, and covered it very carefully with the bark of trees. Then +they placed it in a cabin, of the length of the body, made of bark and +erected upon four posts. Others they placed in the ground, propping up +the earth on all sides that it might not fall on the body, which they +covered with the bark of trees, putting earth on top. Over this trench +they also made a little cabin. The bodies remained thus buried for a +period of eight or ten years. Then they held a general council, to which +all the people of the country were invited, for the purpose of +determining upon some place for the holding of a great festival. After +this they returned each to his own village, where they took all the +bones of the deceased, stripped them and made them quite clean. These +they kept very carefully, although the odour arising therefrom was +noxious. Then all the relatives and friends of the deceased took these +bones, together with their necklaces, furs, axes, kettles, and other +things highly valued, and carried them, with a quantity of edibles, to +the place assigned. Here, when all had assembled, they put the edibles +in a place designated by the men of the village, and engaged in banquets +and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span>continual dancing. The festival lasted for the space of ten days, +during which other tribes from all quarters came to witness the +ceremonies. The latter were attended with great outlays.</p> + +<p>These details on the manners and customs of the Hurons are quoted nearly +<i>verbatim</i> from Champlain's Relations, so they must be considered as +accurate.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">17</a></p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> This volume contains the following title: <i>Voyages et +Descouvertures faites en la Nouvelle France depuis l'année 1615, jusques +à la fin de l'année 1618. Par le Sieur de Champlain, Capitaine ordinaire +pour le Roy en la Mer du Ponant. Seconde Edition, MDCXIX.</i> This original +edition bears the date of 1619, and the second edition is dated 1627.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>WAR AGAINST THE IROQUOIS, 1615</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>Champlain</b></span> had promised for some years to assist the Hurons in their wars +against the Iroquois, and he found that the present time was opportune +for him to fulfil his pledge. He had visited every Huron tribe, and he +was aware that a general rendezvous had been fixed at Cahiagué. On +August 14th, 1615, ten Frenchmen, under the command of Champlain, +started from Carhagouha. On their way they stopped at the villages of +the Tohontahenrats and Attignenonghacs, and found the country well +watered and cultivated, and the villages populous. The people, however, +were ignorant, avaricious and untruthful, and had no idea either of a +divinity or of a religion.</p> + +<p>On August 17th, Champlain came in sight of Cahiagué, where the Hurons +had gathered, and after some hesitation, they decided to go to war. The +departure was delayed until September 1st, pending the arrival of some +of their warriors and the Andastes, who had promised five hundred men. +On their journey they passed by Lake Couchiching and Lake Ouantaron or +Simcoe. From there they decided to proceed by way of Sturgeon Lake, +after travelling by land for a distance of ten leagues.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span> From Sturgeon +Lake flows the river Otonabi, which discharges into Rice Lake.</p> + +<p>They followed the river Trent to the Bay of Quinté in Lake Ontario or +Entouaronons. "Here," says Champlain, "is the entrance of the grand +river of St. Lawrence." They leisurely crossed Lake Ontario, and, having +hidden their canoes, penetrated the woods and crossed the river Chouagen +or Oswego, which flows from Lake Oneida where the Iroquois used to fish.</p> + +<p>On October 7th the Hurons had approached within four leagues of the +fortifications of their enemies, and on that day eleven Iroquois fell +into the hands of Champlain's men, and were made prisoners. Iroquet, the +chief of the Petite Nation, prepared to torture the prisoners, among +whom were four women and four children, but Champlain strongly opposed +this course. The Iroquois were engaged in reaping their corn when the +Hurons and their allies appeared before them on October 10th, or five +weeks after Champlain had started from Cahiagué. During this period +Champlain's army had undergone much fatigue, and it was desirable to +take some rest.</p> + +<p>The first day was spent in petty skirmishes. Instead of fighting in +ranks, the Hurons disbanded, and were consequently liable to be seized +by the vigilance of their enemies. Champlain recognized the danger of +this method of warfare, and persuaded his companions to preserve their +ranks. The last <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span>combat continued for about three hours, during which +Ochateguin and Orani, two of the allied chiefs, were wounded. Champlain +also received two arrow wounds, one in the leg and one in the knee. +There was great disorder in the ranks of the Hurons, and the chiefs had +no control over their men. The result, on the whole, was not in favour +of Champlain's allies, who in the absence of the Andastes were not +anxious to continue the attacks against the Iroquois, and consequently +determined to retreat as soon as possible.</p> + +<p>Champlain suffered much from his wounds. "I never found myself in such a +gehenna," he says, "as during this time, for the pain which I suffered +in consequence of the wound in my knee was nothing in comparison with +that which I endured while I was carried, bound and pinioned, on the +back of one of the savages."</p> + +<p>The retreat was very long, and on October 18th they arrived at the shore +of Lake Ontario. Here Champlain requested that he might have a canoe and +guides to conduct him to Quebec, and this was one of the conditions to +which they had agreed before he set out for the war. The Indians were +not to be trusted, however, and they refused his request. Champlain, +therefore, resolved to accept the hospitality of Darontal, chief of the +Arendarrhonons, or tribe de la Roche. The chief appeared kindly disposed +towards Champlain, and as it was the hunting season, he accompanied him +on his excur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span>sions. During one of these expeditions, Champlain lost his +way in the pursuit of a strange bird, and he was not found by the +savages until three days afterwards. The return journey to Cahiagué on +foot was painful, and during the nineteen days thus spent, much hardship +was undergone. The party arrived at Cahiagué on December 23rd, 1615.</p> + +<p>In the course of the winter, Champlain was chosen to act as judge of a +quarrel between the Algonquins of the Petite Nation, and the Hurons of +the tribe de l'Ours, which had arisen over the murder of one of the +Iroquois. The Attignaouantans had committed an Iroquois prisoner to the +custody of Iroquet, requesting him to burn him according to their +custom. Instead of carrying out this act, Iroquet had taken the young +man and treated him as a son. When the Attignaouantans were aware of +this, they sent one of their number to murder the young Iroquois. This +barbarous conduct made the Algonquins indignant, and they killed the +murderer.</p> + +<p>Champlain returned from the Petuneux in company with Father Le Caron at +the time when these crimes had just been committed. Witnesses were +summoned to meet Champlain at Cahiagué, and were each examined. The +trial lasted two days, during which the old men of both nations were +consulted, and the majority of them were favourable to a reconciliation +without conditions. Champlain exacted from them a promise that they +would ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span>cept his decision as final, and he then had a full meeting of +the two tribes assembled there. Addressing them, he said:</p> + +<p>"You Algonquins, and you Hurons, have always been friends. You have +lived like brothers; you take this name in your councils. Your conduct +now is unworthy of reasonable men. You are enough occupied in repelling +your enemies, who have pursued you, who rout you as often as possible, +pursuing you to your villages and taking you prisoners. These enemies, +seeing these divisions and wars among you, will be delighted and derive +great advantage therefrom. On account of the death of one man you will +hazard the lives of ten thousand, and run the risk of being reduced to +perpetual slavery. Although in fact one man was of great value, you +ought to consider how he has been killed; it was not with deliberate +purpose, nor for the sake of inciting a civil war. The Algonquins much +regret all that has taken place, and if they had supposed such a thing +would have happened, they would have sacrificed this Iroquois for the +satisfaction of the Hurons. Forget all, never think of it again, but +live good friends as before. In case you should not be pleased with my +advice, I request you to come in as large numbers as possible, to our +settlement, so that there, in presence of all the captains of vessels, +the friendship might be ratified anew, and measures taken to secure you +from your enemies."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span>Champlain's advice was followed, and the savages went away satisfied, +except the Algonquins, who broke up and proceeded to their villages, +saying that the death of these two men had cost them too dearly.</p> + +<p>Champlain having spent the winter with Darontal, on May 20th left for +Quebec. The journey from Cahiagué to Sault St. Louis occupied forty +days. Champlain here found that Pont-Gravé had arrived from France with +two vessels, and that the reverend fathers were very pleased to see him +again. Darontal accompanied Champlain to Quebec, and greatly admired the +habitation and the mode of living adopted by the French. Before leaving +for France, Champlain enlarged the habitation by at least one-third, the +additions consisting of buildings and fortifications, in the +construction of which he used lime and sand which were found near at +hand. Some grain was also cut, and the gardens were left in good +condition.</p> + +<p>During the winter of 1615-16, Father Le Caron had received a visit from +Champlain, who was then returning from an expedition against the +Iroquois. Being at a loss to know how to employ their time, Champlain +and the Récollets resolved to pay a visit to the Tionnontatés, or people +of the Petun. The missionary was not well received by these people, +although Champlain was able to make an alliance, not only with the +Petuneux, but also with six or seven other tribes living in the +vicinity.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span>Father Le Caron returned to his flock, the Hurons, and remained with +them until May 20th, studying their manners, trying to acquire their +language, and to improve their morals. Father Le Clercq says that he +compiled a dictionary which was seen in his own time, and which was +preserved as a relic.</p> + +<p>When the Hurons left their country to engage in fur trading with the +French at Sault St. Louis, Father Le Caron took passage in one of their +canoes, and arrived at Three Rivers on July 1st, 1616. Here he met +Father d'Olbeau, who had spent the winter with the Indians on the north +shore of the river St. Lawrence, between Tadousac and the Seven Islands.</p> + +<p>Father d'Olbeau had visited the Bersiamites, the Papinachois and others, +and he planted crosses everywhere, so that many years after, when some +Frenchmen were visiting the place, they found these evidences of his +labours. After two months of fatigue, Father d'Olbeau was compelled to +return to Quebec, as he was suffering from sore eyes, and was unable to +unclose his eyelids for several weeks. The two fathers arrived at Quebec +on July 11th, 1616, and Father Jamet was pleased to learn the result of +the missions of his confrères. The three missionaries had carefully +studied the country during the past year, and gained a fair knowledge of +the people. They realized at this time that their own resources limited +their power of doing good, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span>and they therefore requested Champlain to +convoke a meeting of six inhabitants, to discuss the best means of +furthering the interests of the mission. Champlain was chosen president +of the meeting, and although the missionaries were present they took no +part in the deliberations.</p> + +<p>The resolutions adopted at this first council meeting in the new +settlement were preserved. It was decided that the nations down the +river and those of the north were, for the present, at least, incapable +of civilization. These tribes included the Montagnais, Etchemins, +Bersiamites, Papinachois and the great and little Esquimaux. They dwelt +in an uncultivated, barren and mountainous country, whose wild game and +fur-bearing animals sufficed to support them. Their habits were nomadic, +and excessive superstition was their only form of religion. By the +report of those who had visited the southern coasts, and had even +penetrated by land to Cadie, Cape Breton and Chaleurs Bay, Ile Percé and +Gaspé, the country there was more temperate, and susceptible of +cultivation. There would be found dispositions less estranged from +Christianity, as the people had more shame, docility and humanity than +the others.</p> + +<p>With regard to the upper river and the territory of the numerous tribes +of Indians visited by Monsieur de Champlain and Father Joseph +themselves, or by others, besides possessing an abundance of game, which +might attract the French there in hopes of trade, the land was much more +fertile and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span>the climate more congenial than in the Indian country down +the river. The upper river Indians, such as the Algonquins, Iroquois, +Hurons, Nipissirini, Neuters, Fire Nation, were sedentary, generally +docile, susceptible of instruction, charitable, strong, robust, patient; +insensible, however, and indifferent to all that concerns salvation; +lascivious, and so material that when told that their soul was immortal, +they would ask what they would eat after death in the next world. In +general, none of the savages whom they had known had any idea of a +divinity, believing, nevertheless, in another world where they hoped to +enjoy the same pleasures as they took here below—a people, in short, +without subordination, law or form of government or system, gross in +religious matters, shrewd and crafty for trade and profit, but +superstitious to excess.</p> + +<p>It was the opinion of the council that none could ever succeed in +converting them, unless they made them men before they made them +Christians. To civilize them it was necessary first that the French +should mingle with them and habituate them to their presence and mode of +life, which could be done only by the increase of the colony, the +greatest obstacle to which was on the part of the gentlemen of the +company, who, to monopolize trade, did not wish the country to be +settled, and did not even wish to make the Indians sedentary, which was +the only condition favourable to the salvation of these heathen.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span>The Protestants, or Huguenots, having the best share in the trade, it +was to be feared that the contempt they showed for the Catholic +mysteries would greatly retard the establishment of that faith. Even the +bad example of the French might be prejudicial, if those who had +authority in the country did not establish order.</p> + +<p>The mission among such numerous nations would be painful and laborious, +and so could advance but little unless they obtained from the gentlemen +of the company a greater number of missionaries free of expense. Even +then it would require many years and great labour to humanize these +utterly gross and barbarous nations, and even when this end was +partially attained, the sacrament, for fear of profanation, could be +administered only to an exceptional few among the adults.</p> + +<p>It finally appears to have been decided that they could not make +progress unless the colony was increased by a greater number of +settlers, mechanics and farmers; that free trade with the Indians should +be permitted, without distinction, to all Frenchmen; that in future +Huguenots should be excluded, and that it was necessary to render the +Indians sedentary, and bring them up to a knowledge of French manners +and laws.</p> + +<p>The council further agreed that by the help of zealous persons in +France, a seminary ought to be established in order to bring to +Christianity, young Indians, who might afterwards aid the mis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span>sionaries +in converting their countrymen. It was deemed necessary to maintain the +missions which the fathers had established both up and down the river. +This could not be done unless the associated gentlemen showed all the +ardour to be expected from their zeal when informed of all things +faithfully, instead of being deluded by the reports of the clerks whom +they had sent the year before; the governor and the fathers having no +ground to be satisfied therewith.</p> + +<p>Champlain, who intended to return to France, desired the father +commissary and Father Le Caron to accompany him, in order that the +resolutions of the council might be submitted to the king for his +approval, and with a view of obtaining substantial assistance. The +voyage was a pleasant one, and Champlain and his party arrived at +Honfleur on September 10th, 1616.</p> + +<p>The merchants whom they interviewed at Paris were ready to promise to +support the mission, but nothing was realized from their promises, and +it soon became apparent that they cared more about the fur trade than +about religion. Champlain saw many people who he believed could assist +the settlement, but the winter was passed in useless negotiations. He +therefore prepared a greater shipment than usual from his own resources, +and he was fortunate in finding that his old friend, Louis Hébert, an +apothecary of Port Royal, was willing to accompany him. Hébert took his +family with <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span>him, composed of three children and his wife, named Marie +Rollet. Hébert afterwards rendered very valuable assistance to the +founder of Quebec.</p> + +<p>Father Jamet did not return to Quebec, and he was therefore replaced as +commissary by Father Le Caron, who appointed Father Huet as his +assistant. The vessel conveying the party sailed from Honfleur on April +11th, 1617, under the command of Captain Morel. The passage was very +rough, and when within sixty leagues of the Great Bank of Newfoundland, +numerous icebergs bore down on the ship like huge mountains. Father Le +Clercq says that in the general consternation Father Joseph, seeing that +all human succour could not deliver them from shipwreck, earnestly +implored the aid of heaven in the vows and prayers which he made +publicly on the vessel. He confessed all, and prepared himself to appear +before God. All were touched with compassion and deeply moved when Dame +Hébert raised her youngest child through the hatchway to let it share +with the rest the good father's blessing. They escaped only by a +miracle, as they acknowledged in their letters to France.</p> + +<p>The ship arrived at Tadousac on July 14th, and mass was said in a little +chapel which Father Huet had constructed with poles and branches, and a +sailor stood on either side of the altar with fir branches to drive away +the cloud of mosquitoes which caused great annoyance to the celebrant. +The mass was very solemn. Besides the French, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span>there were many Indians +present who assisted with devotion amid the roar of the cannon of the +ship, and the muskets of the French. After the service a dinner was +given by Champlain on board the vessel. On the arrival of the party at +Quebec some days after, they found that the inhabitants were nearly +starving, and that Father d'Olbeau was anxiously awaiting the news from +France.</p> + +<p>Both Champlain and Father Le Caron were obliged to confess that their +mission had been unsuccessful. What, therefore, was to be done? To +return to Old France would have been contrary to the intentions of the +Récollets. They had been sent to Canada by their superiors, and they had +no order to act contrary to their instructions. After having studied the +situation they resolved that Father d'Olbeau should visit France, see +the king in person, and place before him the settlers' condition and +their own. During his absence Father Huet undertook the charge of the +mission at Tadousac, and Brother Pacifique du Plessis was appointed to +teach catechism to the Indians of Three Rivers.</p> + +<p>It was at about this time that Father Le Caron performed the first +marriage ceremony in Canada, the contracting parties being Étienne +Jonquest of Normandy, and Anne Hébert, eldest daughter of Louis Hébert.</p> + +<p>The condition of the Récollets at this time was unenviable. The agents +of the merchants were not better disposed towards them than the +interpreters.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span> Some of these agents were demoralized, and the reproach +that they received from the fathers caused them to avoid their presence. +The conduct of some of these agents was so bad that even the Indians, +who were not strict in their morals, were scandalized. When we take into +consideration these circumstances, and the meagreness of the resources +of the order, and the difficulties they had in acquiring the language, +we can form a faint idea of the hardness of their lot, and it was not +without just cause that they decided to send Father d'Olbeau to France +with Champlain, in order that the true state of affairs might be urged +still further before the king.</p> + +<p>Father Le Clercq says: "Meanwhile Monsieur de Champlain employed all his +address and prudence, and the intrigues of his friends to obtain what +was necessary for the establishment of his new colony. Father d'Olbeau, +on his side, spared nothing; both spoke frequently to the members of the +company, but in vain, for these people, who always had their ears open +to flattering tales of the great profit to be made in the Indian trade, +closed them to the requests and entreaties made them. They therefore +contented themselves with what they could get."</p> + +<p>Father d'Olbeau at length received some consolation and compensation for +all his labours, when a bull was issued by the pope, granting a jubilee +to New France, which was celebrated at Quebec on July 29th, 1618, and +was the first of its kind. For the celebration of this religious +festival, the Récollets <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span>had built some huts, which were used as +stations, and French and Indians proceeded from one of those improvised +chapels to the other, singing the psalms and hymns of the church. In the +year 1618, the Récollets in New France were only three in number: +Fathers Le Caron and d'Olbeau, and Friar Modeste Guines.</p> + +<p>During the winter of 1617-18 the missionaries were called upon to decide +a difficult question. Two Frenchmen had disappeared in 1616, and the +discovery of their bones proved that they had been murdered. A diligent +search was instituted which led to the detection of the murderer, who +acknowledged his crime. The question of punishment, however, was +difficult from the fact that a clerk named Beauchesne, who had been +invested with extensive civil power by Champlain, was in the habit of +receiving gifts from the Indians. It was consequently considered +dangerous to do anything that would displease the Indians, as they were +known to be terrible in their vengeance. The Récollets had strongly +protested against this method of receiving gifts, which placed the +settlement in a false position towards the Indians. It was finally +decided to release the prisoner and to accept as hostages two young +Indians. When the matter was brought before Champlain, he approved of +the course adopted, and stated that it was not a wise policy to be too +severe.</p> + +<p>This affair, which at one time appeared likely to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span>produce disagreeable +consequences, passed over without event, and some time after a party of +Indians visited Quebec for the purpose of effecting a complete +reconciliation. Thus, when Champlain left for France in 1618, the colony +was secure.</p> + +<p>Father Huet, who accompanied Champlain, was charged with many important +missions, one of which related to the administration of baptism to the +Indians. They were quite willing to be baptized, but they had no idea of +the nature of the sacrament, and although they promised to keep their +vows before the ceremony, they soon returned to their old superstitions. +Their want of sincerity was a trial to Father Huet, and he desired to +have the opinion of the Doctors of the Sorbonne to guide him in his +future actions.</p> + +<p>During the winter Father Le Caron went to Tadousac in order to continue +the work of Father d'Olbeau, and he remained there until the middle of +July, 1619. In the interval he had built a residence upon the ground +donated by the merchants, and had the satisfaction of leaving one +hundred and forty neophytes as the result of the labours of the mission. +Father d'Olbeau had his residence at Quebec.</p> + +<p>On his return to Canada Father Huet was accompanied by Father Guillaume +Poullain, three friars and two labourers. Champlain did not return this +year. The Récollets had received authority to build a convent at Quebec, +and the Prince de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span> Condé had contributed fifteen hundred livres towards +the object. Charles de Boues, vicar-general of Pontoise, had also made a +personal subscription, and accepted the protectorate of the convent, +together with the title of syndic of Canadian missions. Other piously +disposed persons had also contributed towards the maintenance of the +religious institution.</p> + +<p>The establishment of a convent in Canada was a ray of light amid the +gloom which had hung over the settlement of New France during the past +four years, but the rejoicing on this occasion was soon turned into +mourning by the unexpected death of Friar du Plessis, who died at Three +Rivers on August 23rd, 1619. There were two other deaths during this +year which cast a shadow on the colony, that of Anne Hébert, and of her +husband, Étienne Jonquest, who survived his wife only a few weeks.</p> + +<p>The mission at Three Rivers was placed under the charge of Father Le +Caron, and from this date it was the object of the most pastoral +solicitude of the Récollets.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>FUR TRADE</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>The</b></span> earliest reference by Champlain to the fur trade in Canada, is +contained in his relation of his voyage to Tadousac in the year 1603. +During this journey he encountered a number of Indians in a canoe, near +Hare Island, among whom was an Algonquin who appeared to be well versed +in the geography of the country watered by the Great Lakes. As a proof +of his knowledge, he gave to Champlain a description of the rapids of +the St. Lawrence, of Niagara Falls and Lake Ontario. When questioned as +to the natural resources of the country, he stated that he was +acquainted with a people called the good Iroquois (Hurons) who were +accustomed to exchange their peltry for the goods which the French had +given to the Algonquins. We have in this statement proof that the French +were known to the inhabitants of New France before the year 1603.</p> + +<p>In the year 1608, trading was conducted with the Indians at Tadousac, +but in 1610 it was alternately at Tadousac, and near Cape de la Victoire +at the entrance of the Richelieu River. During the latter period, the +fur trade was a failure, although the vessels annually carried from +twelve to fifteen <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span>thousand skins to France, which were sold at one +pistole each. From the year 1610, Tadousac ceased to be the rendezvous +of traders, and the great centre was at Sault St. Louis, until the year +1618. From this time, for several consecutive years, Three Rivers was +the principal trading-post, and finally the Indians went down to Quebec, +or to Cape de la Victoire, or du Massacre, and at a still later period +the Isle of Richelieu, opposite the parish of Deschambault, some fifteen +leagues above Quebec, was chosen as a trading-place.</p> + +<p>Champlain was not opposed to the fur trade; on the contrary, he favoured +it, provided that it was conducted honestly, as it afforded him +opportunities for making new discoveries, and also for maintaining +friendly relationship with the Indians. The Récollets had no connection +with the trade, although through their efforts commercial intercourse +was often facilitated.</p> + +<p>Speaking of the trading of 1618, Champlain mentions a class of men who +eventually attained considerable influence in colonial affairs. These +men were the factors or clerks employed and paid by the merchants. Some +of them obtained notoriety on account of their treason and bad conduct, +while others were distinguished by their devotedness to Champlain and +the missionaries. The clerks or factors were engaged by the fur trading +merchants who had their principal factory at Quebec. The staff consisted +of a chief clerk, of clerks and underclerks; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span>and their functions were +to receive merchandise on its arrival, to place it in the store, and +when the trading was complete, to exchange the goods for skins, which +were then carefully packed for exportation. The clerks visited the +places chosen by the Indians for trading, and generally conducted the +exchanges themselves. Some of them employed the services of interpreters +who were readily found, and were frequently sent among the natives to +induce them to visit the clerks. The duties of the clerks were not +always easily performed. They had many difficulties to encounter, but as +successful trading might lead to future promotion, there were advantages +connected with the office. Thierry-Desdames, one of the underclerks at +Quebec in 1622, was appointed captain of the Island of Miscou, in +recognition of his faithful service. This is not the only instance of +promotion recorded by Champlain. Beauchesne and Loquin are also +mentioned in the Relations of 1618 and 1619.</p> + +<p>When Champlain returned from France in 1620, he was accompanied by Jean +Baptiste Guers, the business representative of the Duke of Montmorency, +who rendered good service to Champlain and the settlers. In the same +year Pont-Gravé traded at Three Rivers, and he was assisted by two +clerks called Loquin and Caumont, and an underclerk, Rouvier. Before +leaving for France, Pont-Gravé placed Caumont in charge of his factory. +Rouvier also left for France, under the pretext that the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span>company +refused to increase his wages. The departure of a clerk, however, was of +small importance, when we consider the trouble which had arisen among +the associates.</p> + +<p>In the year 1612, Champlain, it appears, had placed too much confidence +in the influence of Henri de Condé, viceroy of New France. This nobleman +proved to be a source of trouble rather than a friend to the new colony. +Two years after, Champlain formed an association of the merchants of St. +Malo and Rouen, who invested a large capital for the development of +trade in Quebec. The chief members of the company were François Porrée, +Lucas Legendre, Louis Vermeulle, Mathieu d'Insterlo, Pierre Eon, Thomas +Cochon, Pierre Trublet, Vincent Gravé, Daniel Boyer and Corneille de +Bellois. By its constitution the operations of the company were to +extend over a period of eleven years, and its members engaged to +maintain the habitation of Quebec, and a fort, and to build new forts if +necessary, and also to pay the expenses of missionaries, and to send +labourers and workmen to Canada. The Prince de Condé received a salary +of three thousand livres, and the payment of this large amount annually +to the viceroy, caused the merchants to neglect their obligations +towards Champlain.</p> + +<p>In the meantime Condé conspired against the Queen Regent and was +incarcerated, and the Maréchal de Thémines was temporarily appointed in +his <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span>place. The office of secretary to the viceroy would appear to have +been lucrative, for one applicant, probably Boyer, offered Thémines four +thousand five hundred livres, if he would appoint him to the position. +Condé protested against the charge which had been made against his +agreement, and asked for his salary. De Villemenon, intendant of the +admiralty, opposed the application, and claimed the amount of the salary +for the Quebec settlement.</p> + +<p>While Champlain was present in France in 1617 he received a proscription +from the court of parliament, ordering him to resign his office of +lieutenant of the viceroy, as the Company of Rouen had decided to +suppress the salary of the viceroy. Champlain did not take any notice of +this injunction, but started for Quebec. On his return to France during +the same year (1617) Champlain met the Maréchal de Thémines, in order to +induce him, in his capacity of viceroy, to take some interest in the +affairs of New France, as the situation there was becoming +insupportable. The great personages were quarrelling over money matters; +the people of St. Malo were renewing their demands for liberty of +commerce, and the merchants were refusing to invest new capital. +Champlain had a series of difficulties, which he endeavoured to remove +before his return to Quebec, and he drew up his grievances in two large +factums, one of which was presented to the king, and the other to the +Board of Trade of Paris.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span>In the factum to the king Champlain explained that France would derive +benefit from the colonization of Canada, provided workmen and labourers +were sent to the country. He also set forth the necessity of improving +the defense of the colony, as an attack might be expected at any time +from the English or Dutch. Champlain pointed out to the king, at the +same time, that by developing New France, he would be propagating the +Catholic faith amongst infidels, and that he would add to his wealth by +reason of the revenue to be derived from the vast forests of Canada. He +also made known to the king some of the projects which he had in view. +Amongst these were certain buildings and works which he proposed to +carry out. Quebec was to be named <i>Ludovica</i>, in honour of the king. A +church was to be erected and dedicated under the title of <i>Redeemer</i>, +and a fort was to be constructed on the cape of Quebec, flanked with +four bastions, which would command the river St. Lawrence. A second fort +was to be built opposite Quebec, which would complete the defense of the +face of the town, and a third fort would be constructed at Tadousac on a +promontory naturally fortified, to be manned by a garrison which would +be relieved every six months.</p> + +<p>These arrangements would provide for the defense of the country. +Champlain also intended to look after the education and the spiritual +wants of the settlement, by sending fifteen friars of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span> Récollet +order to New France, who were to found a convent near the Church of the +Redeemer. The king was also asked to send one hundred families to the +colony, each composed of a husband and wife and two children or a +servant under twenty years of age. With these provisions Champlain +believed that a settlement might be established in the name of France, +which would remain loyal to her interests, since it would rest upon the +sure foundation of strength, justice, commerce, and agriculture.</p> + +<p>In his explanations to the Board of Trade Champlain dwelt upon the +advantages which were to be derived from fishing, from the lumber +industry, agriculture and cattle raising, and from the working of the +mines and from trading. In short he endeavoured to induce the associates +to continue their operations. The members, however, were under the +impression that colonization would place obstacles in the way of +commerce, and that the inhabitants would soon monopolize the trade. Some +of the associates who were Protestants objected to colonization under +Catholic influence, and understanding that Champlain was a staunch +Catholic, they decided to have Pont-Gravé appointed as lieutenant of the +viceroy, in his place.</p> + +<p>Champlain was much affected on finding that he had a rival in Pont-Gravé +whom he had always respected as a father, neither would he accept such a +humiliating position. The king, however, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span>intervened at this time, and +wrote a letter to the associates, requesting them to aid Champlain.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center" style="font-size: 125%;">"BY THE KING.</p> + +<p>"<span class="smcap">Dear, and well-beloved</span>:—On the report made to us that +there has hitherto been bad management in the establishment of the +families and workmen sent to the settlement of Quebec, and other +places of New France, we write to you this letter, to declare to +you our desire that all things should proceed better in future; and +to tell you that it will give us pleasure that you should assist, +as much as you conveniently can, the Sieur Champlain in the things +requisite and necessary for the execution of the commands which he +has received from us, to choose experienced and trusty men to be +employed in the discovery, inhabiting, cultivating, and sowing the +lands; and do all the works which he shall judge necessary for the +establishment of the colonies which we desire to plant in the said +country, for the good of the service and the use of our subjects; +without, however, on account of the said discoveries and +settlements, your factors, clerks, and agents in the traffic of +peltry, being troubled or hindered in any way whatever during the +term which we have granted you. And fail not in this, for such is +our pleasure. Given at Paris March 12th, 1618.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right;"> +(Signed) "<span class="smcap">Louis</span>."<br /> +(And below) "<span class="smcap">Potier</span>."<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p>The merchants brought their affairs before the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span>notice of the Council of +Tours, who decided that Champlain should retain his position. The action +of the council was a victory for Champlain, but it was soon followed by +another still more agreeable. The associates promised to provide for the +organization of emigration during the following year on a scale which +would assure the success of the settlement. By this arrangement eighty +persons, including three Récollet fathers would arrive in New France +during the year 1619. In order to have the proceedings regularly +conducted, Champlain caused papers to be prepared by notaries, which +were signed on December 21st, 1618, by Pierre du Gua and Lucas Legendre +in the name of the associates, and also by Vermeulle, Corneille de +Bellois and Mathieu d'Insterlo. The document is as follows:</p> + +<p>"List of persons to be sent to, and supported at, the settlement of +Quebec for the year 1619.</p> + +<p>"There shall be eighty persons, including the chief, three Récollet +fathers, clerks, officers, workmen and labourers. Every two persons +shall have a mattress, a paillasse, two blankets, three pairs of new +sheets, two coats each, six shirts, four pairs of shoes, and one capote.</p> + +<p>"For the arms:—Forty musquets, with their bandaliers, twenty-four +pikes, four arquebuses à rouet [wheel-lock] of four to five feet, one +thousand pounds of fine powder, one thousand pounds of powder for +common, six thousand pounds of lead, and a match-stump.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span>"For the men:—A dozen scythes with their handles, hammers, and other +tools; twelve reaping-hooks, twenty-four spades, twelve picks, four +thousand pounds of iron, two barrels of steel, ten tons of lime [none +having been then found in this country], ten thousand curved, or twenty +thousand flat tiles, ten thousand bricks to build an oven and chimneys, +two mill-stones [the kind of stone fit for that purpose was not +discovered till some years afterwards.]</p> + +<p>"For the service of the table of the chief:—Thirty-six dishes, as many +bowls and plates, six saltcellars, six ewers, two basins, six pots of +six pints each, six pints, six chopines [about half a pint] six +demy-septiers, the whole of pewter, two dozen table-cloths, twenty-four +dozen napkins.</p> + +<p>"For the kitchen:—A dozen of copper boilers, six pairs andirons, six +frying-pans, six gridirons.</p> + +<p>"Shall also be taken out:—Two bulls of one year old, heifers, and as +many sheep as convenient; all kinds of seeds for sowing.</p> + +<p>"The commander of the settlement shall have charge of the arms and +ammunition which are actually there, and of those which shall afterwards +be sent, so long as he shall be in command; and the clerk or factor who +shall reside there shall take charge of all merchandise; as well as of +the furniture and utensils of the company, and shall send a regular +account of them, signed by him, by the ships.</p> + +<p>"Also shall be sent, a dozen mattresses complete, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span>like those of +families, which shall be kept in the magazine for the use of the sick +and wounded, etc., etc.</p> + +<p>"Signed at Paris December 21st, 1618, and compared with the original [on +paper] by the undersigned."</p> + +<p>Champlain submitted this document to the king, who approved it, but +nevertheless the associates were afterwards unwilling to fulfil its +conditions. The Prince de Condé having been discharged from prison on +October 20th, 1619, the king forwarded to him his commission of viceroy, +and the Company of Rouen granted him a thousand écus.</p> + +<p>The prince gave five hundred écus to the Récollets for the construction +of a seminary at Quebec, and this was his only gift to the settlement of +New France. The prince afterwards sold his commission as viceroy to the +Duke of Montmorency, Admiral of France, for the sum of thirty thousand +écus. Dolu, grand almoner of the kingdom, was appointed intendant. The +duke renewed Champlain's commission as lieutenant of the viceroy, and at +the same time advised him to return to Quebec to strengthen his +positions everywhere, in order that the country might be secure against +invasion.</p> + +<p>The patronage of Montmorency greatly encouraged Champlain, for the duke +exercised great power. He therefore resolved to take his young wife to +Quebec with him, for she had never been to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span> Canada. Champlain concluded +his private business in France, and took all his effects to the new +settlement, as he had determined to take up his residence there. Before +leaving France, all the difficulties in connection with his command were +removed, and the king wrote him a very gracious letter, in which His +Majesty expressed his esteem for his loyal and faithful subject.</p> + +<p>The new administration of the Duke of Montmorency created +dissatisfaction amongst the merchants of the society, which in fact had +only changed its name of the "Company of Rouen" to the "Company of +Montmorency or of de Caën." The associates forming the old company had +hoped that Champlain would have been placed in the shade, especially +when they learned that he intended to fortify Quebec and settle in the +country. No action, however, was taken until the new company had +commenced its administration. Champlain remained in ignorance of these +facts until the arrival of the vessels in the spring of 1621, when he +received letters from M. de Puiseux, <i>secrétaire des commandements du +roi</i>, from the intendant Dolu, from de Villemenon, intendant of the +admiralty, from Guillaume de Caën, one of the members of the new +association, and from the viceroy, which last is here given:—</p> + + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"<span class="smcap">Monsieur Champlain</span>: For many reasons I have thought fit +to exclude the former Company of Rouen and St. Malo from the trade +with New<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span> France, and to assist you and provide you with everything +necessary, I have chosen the Sieurs de Caën, uncle and nephew, and +their associates: one is a good merchant, and the other a good +naval captain, who can aid you well, and make the authority of the +king respected in my government. I recommend you to assist him and +those who shall apply to you on his part, so as to maintain them in +the enjoyment of the articles which I have granted them. I have +charged the Sieur Dolu, intendant of the affairs of the country, to +send you a copy of the treaty by the first voyage, so that you may +know to what they are bound, in order that they may execute their +engagement, as, on my part, I desire to perform what I have +promised.</p> + +<p>"I have taken care to preserve your appointments, as I believe you +will continue to serve the king well.</p> + +<p>"Your most affectionate and perfect friend,</p> + +<p style="text-align: right;"> +"<span class="smcap">Montmorency</span>.<br /> +</p> + +<p>"From Paris, February 2nd, 1621."</p></div> + +<p>The letter of Louis XIII was also satisfactory:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"<span class="smcap">Champlain</span>: I have perceived by your letters of August +15th, with what affection you work at your establishment, and for +all that regards the good of my service: for which, as I am +thankful to you, so I shall have pleasure in recognizing it to your +advantage whenever the occasion shall offer: and I have willingly +granted some munitions of war, which were required to give you +better means <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span>to subsist and to continue in that good duty, which I +promise myself from your care and fidelity."</p> + +<p>"Paris, February 24th, 1621.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right;"> +"<span class="smcap">Louis</span>."<br /> +</p> +</div> + + +<p>It was in this manner that the sentence of death was given to the old +company.</p> + +<p>Several members of the old Company of Rouen and St. Malo were +incorporated in the Company of Montmorency, which was composed of +Guillaume de Caën, Ezechiel de Caën, Guillaume Robin, three merchants of +Rouen; François de Troyes, president of the treasury of France at +Orleans; Jacques de Troyes, merchant; Claude Le Ragois, general receiver +of finance at Limoges; Arnould de Nouveau, Pierre de Verton, councillor +and secretary of the king, and François Hervé, merchant of Paris. The +two brothers de Caën belonged to the reformed religion.</p> + +<p>Dolu advised Champlain to restrain the hands of the clerks of the old +company, and to seize all the merchandise in the magazine. He claimed +that although this measure was rigorous, it was justified by the fact +that the company had not fulfilled its obligations towards the +settlement of New France. De Villemenon's letter was dictated in much +the same terms. Guillaume de Caën gave notice that he would soon arrive +in Quebec with arms and stores for the settlement. Dolu's letter +regarding the seizure of merchandise was couched in terms that might be +considered imperative, nevertheless Champlain deemed it prudent to act +with caution, and he <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span>therefore had conferred with Father George Le +Baillif and Captain Dumay<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> on the subject.</p> + +<p>The elder clerk had some clerks under him at Quebec, who after hearing +of the contents of Dolu's letter, were prepared to resist any +curtailment of their rights. Champlain appeased them, and assured them +that they would be allowed freedom of trading at least until the arrival +of Guillaume de Caën, the extent of whose authority was not yet known.</p> + +<p>Caumont, the chief clerk, declared that he was satisfied with this +arrangement, but nevertheless the situation was difficult. If the king +had given the order to confiscate the merchandise, then Dumay, whose +visit to Canada was for the purpose of fur trading, would become the +king of commerce in New France, and therefore he had nothing to lose in +awaiting de Caën's arrival. He proceeded at once to Tadousac, but +instead of meeting de Caën, he found that Pont-Gravé had arrived as the +representative of the old company, and that he had with him seventy-five +men and some clerks.</p> + +<p>Champlain was much distressed on receiving these tidings, for he foresaw +a conflict which would possibly entail bloodshed. The clerks also were +despondent. In order to avoid a quarrel, Champlain deemed it advisable +to protect his men, and he therefore <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span>installed his brother-in-law, +Eustache Boullé, and Captain Dumay with sixteen men, in the small fort +which he had erected at Cape Diamond during the preceding year. +Champlain defended himself within the habitation, where he quartered all +the men he could dispose of. If the clerks were inclined to fight he +would defend his position, but he hoped that these precautionary +measures would prove the means of preventing bloodshed.</p> + +<p>On May 7th, 1621, three of the clerks of Guillaume de Caën left Tadousac +and took up their quarters near the habitation. Father Le Baillif and +Jean Baptiste Guers asked them to produce their papers. They declared +that they had authority to trade from the old Company of Rouen, which +still existed through articles agreed to by the Duke of Montmorency, and +that a trial was at present pending between the two societies. On +receiving this information from Father Le Baillif, Champlain decided to +allow five clerks the necessary merchandise for trading; they were, +however, told that the old company had been dissolved, and that the new +company only was invested with authority to trade. The clerks were +satisfied with Champlain's decision, but they objected to the presence +of armed soldiers in the fort, which they claimed was not in accordance +with the king's commands. The clerks finally went to Three Rivers to +carry on their trade.</p> + +<p>On June 13th, Pont-Gravé arrived at Quebec.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span> Here he was questioned as +to his authority, although he was treated with the respect and courtesy +due to his age and character. Pont-Gravé assured Champlain that the +disputes between the two companies would be resolved in a friendly way, +and that he had received news to this effect before he sailed from +Honfleur. He then started for Three Rivers to join his clerks.</p> + +<p>Some days after these events, a clerk named Rouvier, in the employ of de +Caën, arrived with letters from Dolu, de Villemenon, and Guillaume de +Caën, and left a copy of an order-in-council in favour of the old +company. Champlain also received a letter from the king. The +order-in-council granted permission to both companies to trade during +the year 1621, provided that both should contribute equally towards the +maintenance of the captains, soldiers, and the inhabitants of Quebec.</p> + +<p>Foreseeing a conflict between de Caën and Pont-Gravé, Champlain went to +Tadousac, and advised de Caën to respect Pont-Gravé's authority. De Caën +replied that he could not do so, as he had received authority privately +from the king. Champlain therefore assured the commandment to +Pont-Gravé's vessel, in order to protect his old friend, and thus it +happened that this affair which threatened to produce serious +consequences, was smoothed over through Champlain's intervention. +Pont-Gravé then took possession of his vessel in the presence of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span>de +Caën, who offered no opposition, and a few days after they both returned +to France.</p> + +<p>De Caën had promised to send twenty-five men to Quebec, but he sent only +eighteen. A certain quantity of stores was also brought to Quebec at +this time by Jacques Halard, and a number of halberds, arquebuses, +lances, and many barrels of powder, which were delivered in the presence +of Jean Baptiste Varin, who had been sent by Guillaume de Caën, and +Guers.</p> + +<p>Father Georges Le Baillif also left for France during the autumn, as a +delegate from the inhabitants of the settlement, who had prepared a +memorandum of their grievances. This document was signed by Champlain, +Father Jamet, Father Le Caron, Louis Hébert, Guillaume Couillard, +Eustache Boullé, Pierre Reye, Olivier Le Tardif, J. Groux, Pierre +Desportes, Nicholas and J. B. Guers. On his arrival in France, Father Le +Baillif had an interview with the king, and placed the memorandum in +question in His Majesty's hands. The king admitted that the complaints +were well founded, but at the same time he stated that it was impossible +to grant all that was requested. The Huguenots were to retain their +commercial liberty, and Champlain obtained some supplies, and his +salary, which was formerly six hundred livres, was increased to twelve +hundred.</p> + +<p>Father Le Baillif's mission was unfruitful, for he brought word of the +amalgamation of the two <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span>companies, whose chiefs were Guillaume de Caën, +Ezechiel de Caën, and their nephew, Emery de Caën. The order-in-council +establishing this large company granted to them the liberty of trading +in New France, and all French subjects were eligible for admission to +the society. By this arrangement the de Caëns were obliged to pay the +sum of ten thousand livres to the members of the old Rouen association, +and a sum equal to the value of their goods, barques and canoes. The old +company received five-twelfths of the Company of Montmorency, +one-twelfth of which was reserved by de Monts, who was at that time +living at his residence in Saintonge. By this latter arrangement, +however, the de Caëns were relieved from the payment of the ten thousand +livres imposed upon them by the order-in-council. When Father Le Baillif +returned to Quebec in the spring of 1622, all the old rivalry had +disappeared. The Company of Rouen had adopted the name of the Company of +Montmorency with the de Caëns as chiefs.</p> + +<p>The principal articles stipulated in the agreement were:—</p> + +<p>1. Champlain to be lieutenant of the viceroy, with precedence on land, +and to command the habitation of Quebec, and to have command of all the +French residents in New France. Ten men were also to be placed at his +disposal, who were to be maintained at the expense of de Caën, who was +also to pay to each an annual sum of twenty livres.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span>2. The company was also to maintain six Récollet fathers, two of whom +were to be engaged in missions to the savages.</p> + +<p>3. The company was to support and maintain six families of labourers, +carpenters and masons, during the period of the agreement, the families +to be changed every two years.</p> + +<p>4. The company was to pay the sum of twelve hundred francs as a salary +to Champlain.</p> + +<p>5. Champlain was to enjoy the privilege of trading for eleven years, and +to this term the king added another eleven years.</p> + +<p>The first man to bring the news of a change of authority was a clerk +named Santein, but it was confirmed some days after by the arrival of +Pont-Gravé and Guillaume de Caën, who were accompanied by a clerk named +Le Sire, an underclerk named Thierry-Desdames,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> and Raymond de la +Ralde. De Caën handed to Champlain a letter from the king, who advised +him to recognize the authority of the new company, and also to endeavour +to maintain peace and harmony. When de Caën had completed his trading at +Three Rivers he sailed again for France, leaving Pont-Gravé as chief +clerk at Quebec, and Le Baillif as underclerk at Tadousac.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span>In order to establish good order throughout the country, Champlain +published certain ordinances, which should be regarded as the first code +of Canadian laws. Although it was desirable to maintain peace, it was +also necessary to prepare to resist the attacks of the Iroquois, who +were becoming more and more active. A party of the Iroquois had +approached Quebec, and were observed to be rambling in the vicinity of +the Récollets' convent, on the north shore of the River St. Charles. +They finally made an attack, but they were repulsed with loss by the +French and the Montagnais, whose chief was Mahicanaticouche, Champlain's +friend. This chief was the son of the famous Anadabijou, who had +contracted the first alliance with the French at Tadousac in 1603.</p> + +<p>In the year 1623, the vessels arrived from France later than usual, and +the rendezvous took place at Cape de la Victoire on July 23rd. On this +occasion the following persons were present: Champlain, Pont-Gravé, +Guillaume de Caën, Captain Duchesne, des Marets, De Vernet, Étienne +Brûlé, an interpreter, Loquin, a clerk, Father Nicholas Viel, and +Brother Sagard-Théodat.</p> + +<p>On his return to Quebec, Champlain declared that certain sailors had +appropriated a number of beaver skins, and he therefore confiscated them +and had them placed in the store, pending the decision of the company. +This infraction of the rules of commerce was trifling when compared with +the contra<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span>band which was carried on freely in the lower St. Lawrence. +The merchants of La Rochelle and the Basques were the most notorious in +this respect. Their vessels were constantly sailing from one shore to +another, trading furs, although they had no authority to do so. They +were found at Tadousac, at Bic, and at Green Island. The Spanish, +English and Dutch vessels also carried on an illegitimate trade in the +same waters. Champlain mentions the fact that a Spanish captain, whose +vessel was anchored at Green Island, had sent his sailors at night to +Tadousac, in order that they might watch what was being done, and hear +what was being said on board the <i>Admiral</i>.</p> + +<p>At the commencement of the spring of 1624, a dark cloud hung over New +France. The winter had been severe, and provisions were scarce. +Champlain had only four barrels of flour in the store, so that he was +anxiously awaiting assistance. On June 2nd he received good news. A +vessel of sixty tons was anchored at Tadousac, laden with pease, +biscuits and cider. To the starving settlement this was most welcome, +and some days after Guillaume de Caën arrived with still more +provisions.</p> + +<p>After having traded at Three Rivers, de Caën visited Quebec, the Island +of Orleans, and the vicinity of Cape Tourmente and the neighbouring +islands. He was now the proprietor of these lands, having received them +as a gift from the Duke of Montmorency.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span>Champlain now resolved to recross the ocean, and to take with him his +young wife, who had spent four years in Quebec. Emery de Caën was given +the command of the settlement in the absence of Champlain. On August +18th two ships sailed from Tadousac, having on board Champlain, Hélène +Boullé, Font-Gravé, Guillaume de Caën, Father Piat, Brother Sagard, J. B. +Guers, Joubert, and Captain de la Vigne. At Gaspé, Raymond de la Ralde +and a pilot named Cananée joined the party. The voyage was brief and +pleasant to Champlain's party, but Cananée's ship was captured by the +Turks, and its commander was put to a cruel death.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">20</a></p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> His correct name was Dumé dit Leroy. He made a single +voyage to Quebec, and he had on board Jean Baptiste Guers, delegate of +the Duke of Montmorency. Dumé was born at St. Gomer de Fly, Beauvais. A +member of his family who resided at Havre de Grâce was one of the chief +consignees of the company of St. Christophe in the West Indies.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Thierry-Desdames arrived at Quebec in 1622, as underclerk +of the company, which position he occupied until 1628. We lose trace of +him after that date, but we find him again in 1639 at Miscou Island, +where he served as captain. He was a good Catholic, charitable, and a +friend of the Jesuits.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Cananée was one of the most famous French navigators of +his time. From 1608 to 1624 he used to fish on the banks of Miscou and +in the gulf. He was at first captain and co-proprietor of the <i>Mouton</i>, +a vessel of one hundred and twenty tons, but some years later, he +commanded the <i>Ste. Madeleine</i>, a ship of fifty tons. It was this vessel +that the Turks captured on the coast of Bretagne. Cananée was a fervent +Catholic.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>CHAMPLAIN, THE JESUITS AND THE SAVAGES</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>The</b></span> first inhabitants of the settlement of New France were the +interpreters, clerks, and workmen, employed by the merchants. They were +termed the winterers, in opposition to the captains and sailors who +visited the colony for the purpose of trading only. The interpreters +present an interesting feature in the life of the new colony. Their +functions rendered it necessary for them to reside for an indefinite +period with an Indian tribe, in order to qualify themselves to act as +interpreters for their countrymen during trade, or for the missionaries +while catechising or providing other religious exercises. A daily +intercourse with the Indians was absolutely essential in order to induce +them to keep their appointments with the traders at the established +rendezvous. The interpreters had seldom any other occupation, although +some of them acted as clerks, and thereby received a larger salary, in +addition to a certain number of beaver skins which they could exchange +for goods.</p> + +<p>Étienne Brûlé and Nicholas Marsolet, who arrived at Quebec with +Champlain in the year 1608, acted as interpreters, but at first they did +not meet with much success. They were, however, both young <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span>and +intelligent, and Brûlé soon acquired a knowledge of the Huron language, +while Marsolet mastered the idiom of the Algonquin tongue. Brûlé spent +nearly all his life among the Hurons, who adopted him as a member of +their family, while Marsolet accompanied the Algonquins to Allumette +Island, and became one of their best friends. Historians of Canada +mention the names of many other interpreters of this period, some of +whom founded families, while others afterwards returned to France. In +the year 1613 three interpreters arrived, Nicholas du Vignau, Jacques +Hertel, and Thomas Godefroy. In the year 1618 there was only one +arrival, Jean Manet, who took up his residence among the people residing +on the shores of Lake Nipissing.</p> + +<p>In the year 1619 Jean Nicolet came to Canada, and won great esteem in +the country of his choice. He was the father of a large family, the +descendants of whom are very numerous. Three more interpreters came in +1621, Du Vernet, Le Baillif, and Olivier Le Tardif, and two in 1623, +namely, Jean-Paul Godefroy and Jacques Couillard, and finally in 1624 +Jean Richer and Lamontagne, thus making twelve interpreters between the +years 1608 and 1625. Of this number the two Godefroys, Marsolet, +Nicolet, Hertel, and Le Tardif were distinguished on account of the part +which they took in Canadian affairs; and the knowledge which they had +obtained of the native languages rendered them competent to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span>discuss +delicate questions relating to the welfare of the colony. Their services +to the authorities, both civil and religious, were therefore at certain +periods exceedingly valuable. It is among these men that we may +fittingly seek for the founders of the Canadian race.</p> + +<p>The second class of settlers, or winterers, as they were termed, will be +spoken of later. From the year 1608 to 1613 not a single settler or head +of a family came to Canada, but at this latter date we find the names of +Abraham Martin, Nicholas Pivert and Pierre Desportes. They were married +and brought their wives and families with them. Abraham Martin and +Pierre Desportes had each a daughter, and Pivert had a niece. Guillaume +Couillard arrived during the same year, but he was a bachelor. We have +already spoken in a previous chapter of the return of Champlain from +France in the year 1617, on which occasion he was accompanied by Louis +Hébert and his family. There also arrived in 1617, Étienne Jonquest, to +whom we have likewise referred. In 1618 another family took up its +residence in New France, namely Adrien Duchesne, surgeon, and his wife. +Eustache Boullé, brother-in-law to Champlain, came over in 1618, and two +families arrived in 1619, but they were immediately sent back, as the +occupation of the head of one of the families was that of a butcher, and +the other was a needle manufacturer, and there was no opening for either +in a new settlement. In the year 1620, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span>the settlers gave a cordial +welcome to Hélène Boullé, who was attended by three female servants. +From the year 1620 to 1625, history is silent as to new arrivals. +Champlain had made every effort to induce settlers to take up their +residence in Quebec, but the population was still very scanty.</p> + +<p>There were really only seven settled families at this time, composed of +twenty persons, seven men and seven women, and six children. Their names +were as follows:—Abraham Martin and his wife Marguerite Langlois, and +his two daughters, Anne and Marguerite; Pierre Desportes and his wife +Françoise Langlois, and a girl named Hélène; Nicholas Pivert and his +wife Marguerite Lesage, and their niece; Louis Hébert and his wife Marie +Rollet, and a son named Guillaume; Adrien Duchesne and his wife; +Guillaume Couillard, his wife, Guillemette Hébert, and a girl named +Louise; Champlain and his wife Hélène Boullé.</p> + +<p>When Abraham Martin came to Quebec, he was twenty-four years of age. The +official documents refer to him as king's pilot, and the Jesuits named +him Maître Abraham, while to the people he was Martin l'Ecossais. His +family gave to the Catholic Church of Canada her second priest in +chronological order. This priest, who was born at Quebec, was named +Charles Amador. After having served as a mariner for the Company of +Rouen, Abraham Martin became a farmer, and was the proprietor of two +portions of land, consisting of thirty-two <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span>acres.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> He received +twenty acres of land from Adrien Duchesne, and twelve acres from the +Company of New France, on December 4th, 1635.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> This property was +named the Plains of Abraham, and all the ground in the immediate +vicinity gradually assumed the same title. A part of the famous conflict +fought on September 13th, 1759, and known as the Battle of the Plains of +Abraham, actually occurred on the ground owned by Abraham Martin, and +thus it is that the name of this first settler has been perpetuated in +prose and verse.</p> + +<p>Louis Hébert, the son of a Parisian apothecary, followed the profession +of his father in Canada. He first tried to establish himself at Port +Royal, where we find him in the year 1606. He left Port Royal in 1607, +but he appears to have returned there, as in the year 1613 he is +mentioned as acting as lieutenant in the place of Biencourt, son of +Poutrincourt. When Port Royal was abandoned, Hébert returned to France, +where he met Champlain, who induced him to turn his steps towards Canada +once more. Soon after his second visit to New France, he commenced to +build a residence in the Upper Town of Quebec, upon the summit of +Mountain Hill. This building, which was of stone, measured thirty-eight +feet in length, and was nineteen feet broad. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span>It was in this house that +Father Le Jeune said mass when he came to Quebec in 1632. Hébert +received some concessions of land from the companies, and at once +commenced to cultivate it, so that he was able to live from its produce. +Champlain praises him for this course. Hébert died in the year 1627, +from mortal injuries caused by a fall. He was buried in the cemetery of +the Récollets, at the foot of the great cross, according to his desire.</p> + +<p>The Récollet fathers lived until the year 1620 in their humble residence +near the chapel and habitation of Quebec, in the Lower Town. In the year +1619 they employed some workmen to fell trees on the shores of the River +St. Charles, near an agreeable tract of land which Hébert had cleared. +It was situated at half a league from the habitation, and the people of +Quebec hoped at that time to build the town there. During the winter +each piece of timber was prepared for the building, and the savages +assisted in the work. On June 3rd, 1620, the first stone of the convent +was solemnly laid by Father d'Olbeau. The arms of the king were engraved +upon the stone near those of the Prince de Condé. The convent was +finished and blessed on May 25th, 1621, and dedicated to Notre Dame des +Anges. It was on this date that the name of St. Charles was given to the +river Ste. Croix, or the Cabir-Coubat of the Indians, in honour of the +Reverend Charles de Ransay des Boues, syndic of the Canadian missions.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span>There were six Récollet fathers at Quebec in 1621, and two brothers. +Fathers Guillaume Galleran and Irénée Piat came in 1622, the former in +the capacity of visitor and superior. A coincidence of their arrival was +the induction of the first religious novitiate. Pierre Langoissieux, of +Rouen, took the monastic habit under the name of Brother Charles, at a +special ceremony in the presence of Champlain and his wife, and some +Frenchmen and Indians. Three young men also received the small scapulary +of the Franciscan order. Father Piat left Quebec for the Montagnais +mission, while Father Huet was sent to Three Rivers, and Father Poullain +to the Nipissing mission in the west. In the year 1623, Father Nicholas +Viel and Brother Gabriel Sagard-Théodat, the historian of the Huron +mission, arrived. They were entertained at the convent of Notre Dame des +Anges. At the solemn Te Deum, which was sung in the chapel on this +occasion, there were present seven fathers and four brothers. Fathers Le +Caron and Viel, and Brother Sagard arranged for some Indian guides to +conduct them to the Huron country, where they arrived on July 23rd. The +party spent the winter among the Hurons, and during the following year +Brother Sagard was recalled to France by his superiors. The Récollets +continued to conduct services in the small chapel in the Lower Town, +which served as the parochial church of Quebec.</p> + +<p>In the year 1624 the French colony was placed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span>under the patronage of +Saint Joseph, who has remained from that date the patron saint of +Canada. Champlain was at this time in France, and had met Montmorency at +St. Germain-en-Laye, after the Récollets had complained of the conduct +of the Huguenots. While the missionaries were celebrating mass, the +Huguenots annoyed them by singing psalms, and they occupied the +poop-royal on board the vessels for their services, while the Catholics +were compelled to assemble in the forecastle, without distinction of +persons. The Récollets also complained of the negligence of the +associates, who had not provided for the material requirements of the +mission. Father Piat set forth that while the missionaries were prepared +to sacrifice their health and their mother country in order to civilize +the Indians, they were not ready, under the circumstances, to die simply +for the want of food, when it was the duty of the associates to provide +for them. Father Piat also suggested the advisability of forming a +seminary for young Indians, as a means of developing their moral +character, of teaching them the rudiments of religion, and whereby the +Récollets might acquire a knowledge of the Indian language. Realizing +that they were unable to found such an institution alone, they decided +to ask assistance from the Jesuits, who had great influence at court, +and who might possibly be able to establish such a building from their +own resources. If these resolutions had been known, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span> Huguenots would +doubtless have prevented the Jesuits' departure, but the news was only +made public when it was too late to formulate any opposition.</p> + +<p>Champlain, who was at this time endeavouring to induce the merchants to +carry out their engagements, thought it advisable not to take any part +in urging the requests of the mission, for fear of compromising its +success, and he considered it the best policy to be very discreet. +Father Coton, provincial of the Jesuit order, accepted with pleasure the +proposals of the Récollets, as the order was always glad of an +opportunity of preaching the gospel in distant lands. The Jesuits had +already founded the Acadian mission, but its results had much +disappointed their hopes. Champlain was pleased to learn that the desire +of the Récollets was accomplished, although he had taken no part towards +its fulfilment. Indeed his services were fully employed elsewhere. The +old merchants were fighting with the new ones, the dispute arising from +the different methods of recruiting crews for their ships.</p> + +<p>These petty quarrels, which were constantly brought to the notice of +Montmorency, caused him much annoyance, and he consequently resigned his +position of viceroy in favour of his nephew, Ventadour, peer of France +and governor of Languedoc, for a sum of one hundred thousand livres. The +king gave his assent to the transaction, and Henri de Lévis, duc de +Ventadour, received his commission, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span>dated March 25th, 1625. He is +described as a pious man, who had no other desire than the glory of God. +The duke appointed Champlain as his lieutenant, and ordered him to erect +forts in New France wherever he should deem it necessary, and empowered +him to create officers of justice to maintain peace and harmony.</p> + +<p>Endued with such powers, Champlain did not hesitate to continue his +work. The duke's appointment was also received with favour by the +Récollets and Jesuits. The associates were not friendly disposed towards +the Jesuits, but seeing that they did not ask any assistance from them, +they made no opposition to their departure for Canada.</p> + +<p>Guillaume de Caën took with him on his vessel three Jesuit fathers and +two brothers. These were Fathers Charles Lalemant, Jean de Brébeuf and +Enemond Massé. The brothers were François Charton and Gilbert Burel. +Father Lalemant, formerly director of the college of Clermont, was +appointed director of the mission. Champlain speaks of him as a very +devoted and zealous man. Father Massé had been previously in Acadia, +where he proved his devotedness to the Indians. Father de Brébeuf, the +youngest of the three, was distinguished by reason of his mature +judgment and great prudence. The number of the Récollets was increased +by the arrival of Father Joseph de la Roche d'Aillon, a man of noble and +exalted character.</p> + +<p>De Caën's vessel sailed from Dieppe, and although <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span>the voyage was long, +it was a pleasant one. When the Jesuits reached Quebec, they met with +strong opposition from the clerks, and there was no residence prepared +for them. The only course which appeared open to them was to return to +France, unless they could find a lodging with the Récollets.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the clerks circulated a pamphlet amongst the families of +the settlement, with a view to creating a prejudice against the Jesuits. +It was <i>L'Anticoton</i>,<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> a libellous communication, which had been +proven false by Father Coton. The Récollets at once extended a courteous +invitation to the Jesuits, which they gratefully accepted, and took up +their residence in the convent. The Récollets also begged them to accept +as a loan the timber work of a building which had been prepared for +their own use.</p> + +<p>The gratitude of the Jesuits under these circumstances, is not +sufficiently well known. Father Lalemant's <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span>letter addressed to the +Provincial of the Récollets in France, admirably sets forth their +position, and will be read with interest by every student of this +portion of our history.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"<span class="smcap">Reverend Father</span>: Pax Christi. It would be too ungrateful +were I not to write to your Reverence to thank you for the many +letters lately written in our favour to the Fathers who are here in +New France, and for the charity which we have received from the +Fathers, who put us under eternal obligation. I beseech our good +God to be the reward of you both. For myself, I write to our +Superiors that I feel it so deeply that I will let no occasion pass +of showing it, and I beg them, although already most affectionately +disposed, to show your whole holy order the same feelings. Father +Joseph will tell your Reverence the object of his voyage, for the +success of which we shall not cease to offer prayers and sacrifices +to God. This time we must advance in good earnest the affairs of +our Master, and omit nothing that shall be deemed necessary. I have +written to all who, I thought, could aid it, and I am sure they +will exert themselves, if affairs in France permit. Your Reverence, +I doubt not, is affectionately inclined, and so <i>vis unita</i>, our +united effort, will do much. Awaiting the result, I commend myself +to the Holy Sacrifice of your Reverence, whose most humble servant +I am.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right;"> +"<span class="smcap">Charles Lalemant</span>."<br /> +</p> + +<p>"Quebec, July 28th, 1625."</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span>The Jesuits accepted the hospitality of the Récollets until the convent +which they built on the opposite side of the river St. Charles, was +ready for their habitation. It was situated near the entrance of the +river Lairet, about two hundred paces from the shore. We shall meet them +there a little later, working hard, in common with the Récollets with +whom they were good friends, for the civilization of the Indians.</p> + +<p>When Guillaume de Caën returned to France, he was summoned to appear +before the tribunal of the state council, as he had not put into effect +all the articles of his contract. The chief complaint against him was +that the admiral or commodore of the fleet was not a Catholic. For this +appointment, however, he was not responsible, as it was made by the +associates, and he therefore summoned them to give their explanations +before the admiralty judge. The case was finally settled by His +Majesty's council in favour of Guillaume de Caën, on the condition that +he should at once appoint a Catholic. Raymond de la Ralde was the +officer of his choice.</p> + +<p>Champlain started at once for Dieppe, together with Eustache Boullé whom +he appointed his lieutenant, and Destouches, his second lieutenant. +Their departure for Canada occurred on April 24th, 1626, and there were +five vessels in the squadron: the <i>Catherine</i>, two hundred and fifty +tons, commanded <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span>by de la Ralde;<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> <i>La Flèque</i>, two hundred and sixty +tons, with Emery de Caën as vice-admiral; <i>L'Alouette</i>, eighty tons, and +two other vessels, one of two hundred tons, and the other of one hundred +and twenty tons.</p> + +<p>Champlain was on board the <i>Catherine</i>, and he arrived at Percé on June +20th. Before anchoring at Tadousac, Emery de Caën caused his crew to +assemble on deck, and he there informed them that the Duc de Ventadour +desired that psalms should not be sung, as they had been accustomed to +sing them on the Atlantic. Two-thirds of the crew grumbled at this +order, and Champlain advised de Caën to allow meetings for prayer only. +This ruling was judicious, although it was not accepted with pleasure.</p> + +<p>At Moulin Baude, near Tadousac Bay, Champlain received intelligence that +Pont-Gravé, who had wintered at Quebec, had been very ill, and that the +inhabitants had resolved to leave the country at the earliest +opportunity owing to the sufferings which they had endured from famine.</p> + +<p>When Champlain arrived at Quebec on July 5th, 1626, he found all the +settlers in good health, but <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span>little had been done towards the building +of the fort, or towards repairing the habitation. He, therefore, set +twenty men to work at once. Emery de Caën left Quebec in order to carry +on trade with the Indians. There were at Quebec at this time fifty-five +persons, of whom eighteen were labourers. Champlain wished to have ten +men constantly employed at the fort, but Guillaume de Caën had promised +them elsewhere, and the merchants obliged them to work at the +habitation, which they considered more useful than the fort. Champlain, +however, did not agree with them on this point.</p> + +<p>The oldest fortification of Quebec was commenced in the year 1620, on +the summit of Cape Diamond, and the work was continued in 1621, when +Champlain was able to establish a small garrison within the walls. +Communication was opened between the habitation and the fort during the +winter of 1623-4, by means of a small road, less abrupt than the former +one. The fort was named Fort St. Louis.</p> + +<p>In April 1624, a strong wind carried away the roof of the fort, and +transported it a distance of thirty feet, over the rampart. During this +storm the gable of Louis Hébert's residence was also destroyed. This +accident caused some delay to the works, and the merchants still +maintained their opposition to the construction of the fort. "If we +fortify Quebec," they said, "the garrisons will be the masters of the +ground, and our trade will be over." Guillaume de Caën supported the +opposition by saying that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span> Spaniards would take possession of New +France, if a boast were made of its resources. The king, finally, had to +undertake the defence of the colony alone.</p> + +<p>Before leaving for France in 1624, Champlain had ordered the workmen to +gather fascines for the completion of the fort, but upon his return to +Canada, two years later, he found that nothing had been done. Champlain +therefore decided to demolish the old fort, and to construct a more +spacious one with the old materials, composed of fascines, pieces of +wood and grass, after the Norman method. The fort was flanked with two +bastions of wood and grass, until such time as they could be covered +with stone. The fort was ready for habitation at the commencement of the +year 1629, and Champlain took up his residence there at this date, with +two young Indian girls whom he had adopted as his children. After the +capitulation of Quebec in 1629, Louis Kirke resided in the fort with a +part of his crew.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">25</a></p> + +<p>Although Champlain was not satisfied with the conduct of the merchants +towards the French, he was nevertheless pleased with the Indian tribes. +This noble care and management of these poor natives constitute one of +the brightest pages of his life. If we wish to form an impartial +judgment of the heroic qualities of Champlain, we must study his daily +relations with the chiefs of the various <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span>tribes. It is here that his +true character is revealed to us, and we are forced to admire both the +patience and care which he bestowed upon these people, and also his +exercise of diplomacy which rendered him from the first the most beloved +and respected of the French. His word commanded passive obedience, and +to maintain his friendship they were willing to make any sacrifice which +he desired. In this respect Champlain was more successful than the +missionaries, nor is it a matter of surprise that his memory was +cherished among the Indians longer than that of Father Le Caron or of +Father de Brébeuf. In their appreciation of character, the Indians +recognized instinctively that the calling of the missionaries rendered +their lives more perfect than that of a man of the world, but the +special characteristics and virtues of each did not escape their +penetration. Champlain took every care to preserve his friendship with +the Indians, not only on his own account, but also for the sake of the +traders, and of commerce generally, for his name acted as a +safe-conduct. Champlain had another ambition. He realized that if he +could induce the Indians to gather in the vicinity of Quebec, they would +prove a means of defence against the incursions of enemies. It seems to +have been a good policy, and the Jesuits who adopted the same means had +reason to be satisfied with their action.</p> + +<p>In the year 1622 Champlain tried to establish the Montagnais near +Quebec. Miristou, their chief, was willing, and they began to cultivate +the land in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span>vicinity of La Canardière, on the north shore of the +river St. Charles. By living in the midst of such a community, Champlain +hoped to be able to derive new information regarding the country.</p> + +<p>The sempiternal question of an open sea, admitting a free passage from +Europe to China, was constantly under the consideration of navigators. +Whether or not the founder of Quebec believed in this passage, we are +not prepared to assert, as he does not make any definite statement, but +from his Relations it is evident that he hoped to ascertain whether it +were possible to reach the far west by means of the river St. Lawrence +and the Great Lakes. He knew that he could serve the interest of the +mother country by obtaining new data, and his opinions were well +received in France, although the recent wars had somewhat engrossed +public attention. The travels of the Récollets in the Huron country had +not resulted in the acquisition of new territory, and the interpreters +had nothing further to do than to discover new tribes with whom trade +might be developed. Western Canada had consequently been neglected both +for the want of explorers and of resources, as Champlain was of course +unable to explore the whole American continent, and at the same time +govern the colony of New France, where his presence was necessary to +preserve harmony amongst the Indians.</p> + +<p>Champlain tried to effect an alliance with the Iroquois during the year +1622, and for this purpose <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span>he sent two Montagnais to their country as +delegates. In the meantime a double murder occurred in the colony. A +Frenchman named Pillet and his companion were murdered by an unknown +party. The facts were brought to the notice of the court in France, and +it was decided to pardon the murderer on the condition that he would +confess his crime, and publicly ask for pardon. Champlain appears to +have been anxious to assert his authority, on this occasion, for the +prevention of such crimes, but the merchants were inclined to condone +the offence, and one day Guillaume de Caën in the presence of Champlain +and some captains, took a sword, and caused it to be cast into the +middle of the St. Lawrence, in order that the Indians might understand +that the crime even as the sword, was buried forever. The effect of this +action was otherwise than desired. The Hurons ridiculed the affair, and +said that they had nothing to fear in the future if they murdered a +Frenchman.</p> + +<p>The murderer was a Montagnais, and the tribe consequently approved of +this lack of justice. Champlain, however, desired a more severe +imposition of the law. The Montagnais were perhaps the most dangerous of +Champlain's allies, especially as their treachery was marked by the +outward appearance of serious friendship. In the Montagnais were united +all the vices of the other Indian tribes as well as the bad features of +some of the Europeans, especially those of the Rochelois and Basques. +They <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span>were bold and independent, but Champlain soon showed them, by +ceasing to care for them, that he was not to be imposed upon. Fearing to +lose the friendship of Champlain, they endeavoured to regain the +position which they had in a measure lost; but instead of remaining +passive, they boasted of the ease with which they could find protectors +and advocates amongst the French. This conduct did not please Champlain, +who would have preferred to find a people more amenable to natural laws, +which are in themselves a defence against murder.</p> + +<p>The Montagnais who had been sent to the Iroquois returned to Quebec in +July, 1624. They had been courteously received, and as a result of their +negotiations, a general meeting of the Indians was held at Three Rivers. +There might be seen Hurons, Algonquins, Montagnais, Iroquois, and the +French with their interpreters. The meeting was conducted with perfect +order. There were many speeches, followed by the feast pantagruelic. The +war hatchet was buried, so that Champlain could leave for France without +being very anxious as to the fate of his compatriots.</p> + +<p>The alliance of 1624 did not last long, however, owing to the imprudence +of the Montagnais who had journeyed to the Dutch settlement on the banks +of the Hudson and promised to assist the settlers in their wars against +the Mohicans and Iroquois. Champlain interfered, and reminded the +Montagnais that they were bound to observe the treaty of 1624, and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span>there was no reason to break it. "The Iroquois," said Champlain, "ought +to be considered as our friends as long as the war hatchet is not +disinterred, and I will go myself to help them in their wars, if +necessary."</p> + +<p>This language pleased the chief of the Montagnais, and he asked +Champlain to send some one to Three Rivers, if he could not go himself, +in order to prevent the other nations from fighting against the +Iroquois. Étienne Brûlé was sent on this delicate mission, but as +opinion was divided as to the advisability of the war, it was decided to +wait until the arrival of the vessels. Emery de Caën arrived soon after, +and hastened to meet the allies, who, according to rumour, were +preparing to go to war against the Iroquois. In addition to this a party +had gone to Lake Champlain, where they had made two Iroquois prisoners, +who were, however, delivered by the murderer of Pillet.</p> + +<p>Champlain and Mahicanaticouche arrived in the meantime, whereupon a +general council was held. Champlain severely blamed the authors of this +escapade, the consequences of which might be terrible. It was resolved +to send a new embassy to the Five Nations at once, composed of +Cherououny called <i>Le Réconcilié</i> by the French, Chimeourimou, chief of +the Montagnais, Pierre Magnan, and an Iroquois, adopted when young by a +Montagnais widow. The delegates left for Lake Champlain on July 24th. +One month after, an Indian came to Quebec with <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span>the news that the four +delegates had been murdered by the Tsonnontouans. Magnan had murdered +one of his compatriots in France, and by coming to Canada had evaded +justice.</p> + +<p>This massacre put an end to thoughts of peace. In September some +Iroquois were known to be <i>en route</i> for Quebec, evidently with hostile +motives. It was just at this time that a number of savages were coming +from a distance of fifty or sixty leagues to fish in the river St. +Lawrence. Nothing serious happened from the visit of the Iroquois, and +Champlain was able to visit his habitation at Cape Tourmente without +danger. In his absence, however, a double murder was committed at La +Canardière. Two Frenchmen, one named Dumoulin, and the other Henri, a +servant of the widow Hébert, were found dead, having been shot with +muskets.</p> + +<p>The murderer's intention had been to kill the baker of the habitation, +and a servant of Robert Giffard, the surgeon. Champlain was anxious to +punish this murderer, but the difficulty was to discover him. Champlain +summoned all the captains of the Montagnais, and having set forth all +the favours which he had bestowed upon the nation, contrasted them with +the conduct which he had received at their hands since 1616. There had +already been four murders of which they were guilty. Champlain therefore +demanded that they should find and give up the guilty party. One +Montagnais who was suspected, was examined, but he denied everything.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span> +Champlain, however, ordered him to be detained in jail until the real +criminal should be found.</p> + +<p>During the winter of 1628, about thirty Montagnais, miserable and +hungry, came to the habitation, asking for bread. Champlain took this +opportunity of pointing out to them the evil of their race, and of the +crimes they had committed. They declared that they knew nothing whatever +of the crime, and to show that they were not responsible they offered +three young girls to Champlain to be educated. Champlain accepted them +and treated them as his own children, naming them <i>Foi</i>, <i>Espérance</i>, +and <i>Charité</i>.</p> + +<p>After having kept the Montagnais in jail for fourteen months he was +released, as there was no proof against him. Champlain learned soon +after that he was not guilty, and that the real criminal was dead, being +none other than Mahicanaticouche, one of the captains of the Montagnais.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> For a plan of Abraham Martin's property, see, <i>The Story +of the Siege and the Battle of the Plains of Abraham</i>, by A. G. Doughty.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> See <i>Deed of Concession</i>, p. 414, Trans. R.S.C., 1899, by +A. G. Doughty.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Father Mariana, a Jesuit, having published a book +entitled, <i>De Regi et Regis Institutione</i>, in which he denounced tyranny +and its fomenters, the court ordered that the work should be burnt, +under the pretext that Ravaillac, who had assassinated Henri IV, had +taken advantage of the Jesuit's authority to excuse his murder. It was +certain that the Jesuits were the best friends of the late king. +Nevertheless, they had to suffer the hostility of a certain part of the +secular clergy. Father Coton, a Jesuit, published at once a pamphlet +under the title, "Is it lawful to kill the tyrants?" in which he taught +that it is not lawful to kill a king, except he abuses his authority. An +answer to the pamphlet, published anonymously, soon appeared, which was +a satirical paper rather than a refutation of Father Coton's letter. +During the same year a new satirical paper against the Jesuits was +printed, entitled <i>L'Anticoton</i>. It was translated into Latin.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Raymond de la Ralde who was a Catholic, was the first +captain of the island of Miscou, the history of which commenced in 1620. +Guillaume de Caën appointed de la Ralde as his lieutenant to protect the +trade in the Gulf of St. Lawrence against the Basques and others, +especially at Percé, Gaspé, and Miscou. From the year 1627, de la Ralde +ceased to be of importance, as his fortunes followed the de Caëns.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Champlain died within Fort St. Louis, and the Governor +Montmagny had the building restored under the title of Château St. +Louis, which name it bore until its complete demolition.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3>THE COMPANY OF NEW FRANCE OR HUNDRED ASSOCIATES</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>In</b></span> spite of Champlain's strenuous efforts, the permanent existence of +New France seemed as yet problematical. At a time when internal peace +was imperative the domination of the mercantile companies came to +increase the distress of the struggling colony. The difficulties of +colonization likewise were immense, and Quebec at the period of which we +write, instead of being a thriving town, had scarcely the appearance of +a small village. In the year 1627 it could boast only six private +residences. The Récollets were living at their convent, but the Jesuits +had not completed their new building. The Récollets had abandoned the +Huron mission as their numbers were diminishing every year, and they +were too poor to continue their ministrations without assistance. They +still held in charge the missions at Quebec and at Tadousac. Father +d'Olbeau, who had been present at the opening of the Récollet convent at +Quebec, saw its doors closed. He remained, however, at his post, and +rendered valuable assistance to Champlain.</p> + +<p>The Jesuits made great personal efforts for the advancement of the +colony, and Father Noyrot had <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span>sailed for Canada with a number of +workmen and a good store of provisions, but unfortunately his vessel did +not reach Quebec.</p> + +<p>The negligence of Montmorency's company was the principal cause why +Quebec was abandoned to its own resources. Champlain was powerless +against the ill-will of the company, and the only redress was in the +person of the king. Cardinal Richelieu, who was superintendent of the +navigation and commerce of France, resolved to reform the remnant of a +company founded in 1626, and composed of one hundred associates, for +conducting the commerce of the East and West. As the due de Ventadour +had resigned the office of viceroy, the cardinal held a meeting of many +rich and zealous persons in his hotel at Paris, whose names would be a +guarantee of the success of the colonization of New France, and also of +its religious institutions. Among those present were Claude de +Roquemont, Sieur de Brison, Louis Hoüel, Sieur du Petit-Pré, Gabriel de +Lattaignant, formerly mayor of Calais, Simon Dablon, syndic of Dieppe, +David Duchesne, councillor and alderman of Havre de Grâce, and Jacques +Castillon, citizen of Paris.</p> + +<p>On April 25th, 1627, the cardinal and these personages signed the act +which founded the Company of New France. In the preamble it is mentioned +that the colonization in New France shall be Catholic only, as this was +regarded as the best means of converting the Indians. The associates +pledged <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span>themselves to send two or three hundred men to New France +during the year 1628, and to augment this number to four thousand within +fifteen years from this date, i.e., by the year 1643. They agreed to +lodge, feed and entertain the settlers for a period of three years, and +after that date to grant to each family a tract of land sufficiently +prepared for cultivation. Three priests were to be maintained at each +habitation, at the expense of the company, for a period of fifteen +years.</p> + +<p>The king granted to the company numerous privileges, the lands of New +France, the river St. Lawrence, islands, mines, fisheries, Florida, +together with the power of conceding lands in these countries, and the +faculty of granting titles, honours, rights and powers, according to the +condition, quality, or merit of the people. His Majesty also granted to +the company the monopoly of the fur and leather trade from January 1st, +1628, until December 31st, 1643, reserving for the French people in +general the cod and whale fisheries. In order to induce his subjects to +settle in New France the king announced that during the next fifteen +years all goods coming from the French colony should be free of duty.</p> + +<p>This act was signed on April 29th, 1627, and the letters patent +ratifying the articles were signed on May 6th, 1628. The letters patent +also ratified some other provisions made on May 7th, 1627, namely:—(1.) +A capital of three hundred thousand livres, by instalments of three +thousand livres each.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span> (2.) The society to adopt the name of the +Campagnie de la Nouvelle France. (3.) The management of the company to +be conducted through twelve directors, with full powers to name +officers, to distribute lands, establish factors or clerks, to conduct +trade and dispose of the joint-stock.</p> + +<p>Of these twelve directors six were obliged to live in Paris. The names +of the twelve directors who were elected are here given:—Simon Alix, +councillor and king's secretary; Pierre Aubert, councillor and king's +secretary; Thomas Bonneau, Sieur du Plessis; Pierre Robineau, treasurer +of cavalry; Raoul L'Huillier, merchant of Paris; Barthélemy Quentin, +merchant of Paris; Jean Tuffet, merchant of Bordeaux; Gabriel +Lattaignant, formerly mayor of Calais; Jean Rozée, merchant of Rouen; +Simon Lemaistre, merchant of Rouen; Louis Hoüel, comptroller of +saltworks at Brouage; Bonaventure Quentin, Sieur de Richebourg.</p> + +<p>These directors were elected for a term of two years, and six of them +had to be replaced at each election. The first term of office expired on +December 31st, 1629. The election was held in Paris at the house of the +intendant, Jean de Lauzon, king's councillor, master of requests and +president of the Grand Council. Cardinal Richelieu and the Duke d'Effiat +headed the list of the Hundred Associates. We find also the name of +Samuel Champlain, captain of the king's marine, of Isaac de Razilly, +chevalier de St. Jean de Jérusalem,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span> Sébastien Cramoisy, the famous +printer; François de Ré, Sieur Gand, and many important merchants of +Paris, Rouen, Calais, Dieppe, Bordeaux, Lyons, Bayonne, and Havre de +Grâce.</p> + +<p>This association was formed under auspicious circumstances; its members +possessed wealth and influence, and they were certainly in a position to +remove the difficulties which had hindered the growth of New France from +its foundation.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">26</a></p> + +<p>While these transactions were in progress Champlain was living at Quebec +in want of even the necessaries of life. For the past two years +Champlain had established a farm for raising cattle at the foot of Cape +Tourmente. Some farm buildings and dwellings for the men were erected +there, and Champlain visited the place every summer to see that the work +was properly carried on. The Récollets had a chapel there in which they +said mass from time to time. In 1628 this establishment was in a +flourishing condition, and Champlain believed it <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span>would ultimately prove +of great value to the inhabitants. The colony in the meantime had to +rely upon the mother country for provisions, and for flour which could +not be produced in Canada.</p> + +<p>The new company sent out four vessels in 1628 under the command of +Claude de Roquemont, laden with provisions, munitions, and a number of +men. This first shipment cost 164,720 livres or about $33,000 of our +currency. This large outlay was proof that the associates were +determined to maintain the new Canadian settlement. The fleet sailed +from Dieppe on May 3rd, and arrived at Percé about the middle of July. +During the voyage Roquemont was often exposed to the attacks of the +English and Dutch vessels, but he preferred to alter his course rather +than to fight. The vessels stopped at the Island of Anticosti, where the +crews landed, and planted a cross in token of their gratitude to God, +who had protected them.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span>Some days afterwards they reached Percé, and a little later entered +Gaspé Bay. Roquemont was here informed by the savages that five large +English vessels were anchored in Tadousac harbour. It was the fleet of +David Kirke,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> who was going to make an assault on Quebec, after +having devastated the Acadian coast. Roquemont at once sent +Thierry-Desdames to St. Barnabé Island, where he had intended to go +himself. Roquemont left Gaspé on July 15th, 1628, and proceeded up the +St. Lawrence, hoping that he would be able to escape his powerful +enemies, as the French vessels were not properly armed for a regular +fight. Unhappily, on the eighteenth the French came within cannon shot +of the British fleet. For a period of fourteen hours the vessels +cannonaded each other, and over twelve hundred shots were exchanged. The +French having exhausted their stock of balls used the lead of their +fishing poles instead. Finally Roquemont perceived <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span>that his vessel was +sinking, and asked for a compromise. It was decided that no penalties +should be exacted, and that the English admiral should take possession +of the ships. The French crews were taken on board the British vessels, +which continued their route for England. The British commander soon +realized that he had too many persons on board, and some of the families +and the Récollet fathers were put off on the Island of St. Peter. Among +the families were a Parisian named Le Faucheur, who with his wife and +five children were bound for Quebec, Robert Giffard, surgeon, his wife +and three girls, and fifteen or sixteen sailors. Kirke left them to the +mercy of God on this island with some provisions and a small Basque +vessel.</p> + +<p>The Basques who were hidden in the mountains came down upon the French +after the English were out of sight, and threatened to kill them if they +attempted to escape in their vessel. They at last agreed to allow them +to go elsewhere in consideration of a certain amount of biscuit and +cider. They all embarked in a frail shallop, and eventually arrived at +Plaisance on the coast of Newfoundland, where some French fishermen +conducted them to France.</p> + +<p>Some writers have blamed Roquemont for avoiding a fight. His conduct is +pardonable, however, to a certain extent, because his mission was not +one of war, but to carry provisions to the colony, and he had armed his +vessels only for any ordinary attack.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span> Others, like Champlain, thought +that Roquemont had unnecessarily exposed himself, and blame him for the +following reasons:—(1.) The equipment was made out for helping the fort +and habitation of Quebec. In going forward Roquemont not only exposed +himself to a loss, but also the whole country, that is to say about one +hundred persons who were in distress. (2.) At Gaspé he was made aware +that the English admiral had proceeded up the St. Lawrence in command of +a fleet much more powerful than his own. He ought, therefore, to have +taken the advice of his mariners in order to ascertain whether there was +not a safe harbour along the coast which would have seemed a safe +retreat. (3.) After having put his vessels in such a harbour, Roquemont +ought to have sent a well equipped shallop to observe every movement of +the enemy, and await his departure before going higher up the river. +(4.) If Roquemont desired to fight, he ought to have laden the <i>Flibot</i> +with flour and gunpowder, and placed on board the women and children, +and this small ship, which was sailing fast, could have escaped to +Quebec during the fight. Champlain, in setting forth these views, is +probably just, for the merit of a captain is not only in his courage, +but also in his prudence. Nothing remained of the expedition under +Roquemont, which was undertaken with so much courage, and at so much +expense. It is certain that if he had been able to reach Quebec with his +vessels, David Kirke would not have risked, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span>in the following year, the +capture of the habitation of Quebec.</p> + +<p>The king of England had granted letters patent to the Company of +Adventurers which authorized them to trade, plant, seize Spanish and +French vessels, and to destroy the forts of New France. By a singular +coincidence the king of France had established the Company of the +Hundred Associates at the same time, and they were thus constituted +masters of commerce in Canada and Acadia.</p> + +<p>Sir William Alexander had equipped three vessels, to which he had +appointed David Kirke and his two brothers as captains. They stopped for +a time at Newfoundland, and then taking the gulf and river St. Lawrence, +they anchored at Tadousac, as we have already seen, during the first +days of July, 1628. The news of Kirke's arrival soon reached Champlain, +through an Indian named Napagabiscou, or Tregatin, who came in haste to +Cape Tourmente. Foucher, the chief of the farmers, proceeded at once to +Quebec to confirm the news, and also to inform Champlain that the +establishment had been burnt, his cattle destroyed, and all the +inhabitants taken prisoners. The prisoners were brought back to Quebec +some days after in the custody of six Basques, who delivered to +Champlain the following letter:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"<span class="smcap">Messieurs</span>:—I give you notice that I have received a +commission from the king of Great Britain, my honoured lord and +master, to take possession of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span>the countries of Canada and Acadia, +and for that purpose eighteen ships have been despatched, each +taking the route ordered by His Majesty. I have already seized the +habitation of Miscou, and all boats and pinnaces on that coast, as +well as those of Tadousac, where I am presently at anchor. You are +also informed that among the vessels that I have seized, there is +one belonging to the new company, commanded by a certain Noyrot, +which was coming to you with provisions and goods for the trade. +The Sieur de la Tour was also on board, whom I have taken into my +ship. I was preparing to seek you, but thought it better to send +boats to destroy and seize your cattle at Cape Tourmente; for I +know that, when you are straightened for supplies, I shall the more +easily obtain my desire, which is, to have your settlement; and in +order that no vessels shall reach you, I have resolved to remain +here till the end of the season, in order that you may not be +re-victualled. Therefore see what you wish to do, if you intend to +deliver up the settlement or not, for, God aiding, sooner or later +I must have it. I would desire, for your sake, that it should be by +courtesy rather than by force, to avoid the blood which might be +spilt on both sides. By surrendering courteously, you may be +assured of all kinds of contentment, both for your persons and for +your property, which on the faith that I have in Paradise, I will +preserve as I would my own, without the least portion in the world +being diminished.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span> The Basques whom I send you are men of the +vessels that I have captured, and they can tell you the state of +affairs between France and England, and even how matters are +passing in France, touching the new company of this country. Send +me word what you desire to do, and if you wish to treat with me +about this affair, send me a person to that effect, whom, I assure +you, I will treat with all kinds of attention, and I will grant all +reasonable demands that you may desire in resolving to give up the +settlement. Waiting your reply, I remain, messieurs, your +affectionate servant,</p> + +<p style="text-align: right;"> +"<span class="smcap">David Quer</span>.<br /> +</p> + +<p>"On board the <i>Vicaille</i>, July 18th, 1628, and addressed to +Monsieur Champlain, Commandant at Quebec."</p></div> + + +<p>Champlain read that letter to Pont-Gravé and to the chief inhabitants. +After mature deliberation, it was resolved that Champlain should answer +Kirke with dignity and firmness, but should not give any idea of the +poor state of Quebec. "We concluded," says Champlain, "that if Kirke +wished to see us he had better come, and not threaten from such a +distance. That we did not in the least doubt the fact of Kirke having +the commission of his king, as great princes always select men of brave +and generous courage."</p> + +<p>Champlain acknowledged the intelligence of the capture of Father Noyrot +and de la Tour, and also the truth of the observation that the more +pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span>visions there were in a fortress the better it could hold out, still +it could be maintained with but little, provided good order were kept; +therefore, being still furnished with grain, maize, beans and pease, +(besides what the country could supply) which his soldiers loved as well +as the finest corn in the world, by surrendering the fort in so good a +condition, he would be unworthy to appear before his sovereign, and +would deserve chastisement before God and men. He was sure that Kirke +would respect him much more for defending himself than for abandoning +his charge, without first making trial of the English guns and +batteries. Champlain concludes by saying that he would expect his +attack, and oppose, as well as he could, all attempts that might be made +against the place. The noble language of Champlain's letter made a deep +impression on Kirke, and he deemed it prudent to start for Europe. +Before leaving Tadousac, David Kirke destroyed all the captured French +barques, with the exception of the largest, which he took to Europe. +Since leaving England he had doubled the number of his vessels, having +taken away all that he could from the habitation of Miscou and other +seaports frequented by the French.</p> + +<p>The news of the departure of the English fleet took some days to reach +Quebec, where the minds of the inhabitants were divided between hope and +fear. Champlain was determined to await the arrival of the enemy, and to +defend Quebec, without con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span>sidering its weakness. Every one began to +work to construct new intrenchments around the habitation, and to +barricade the road which led to the fort. Each was given a post in the +event of an attack, and a defence was determined upon. Later on +Champlain was informed of Roquemont's fate and of Kirke's departure.</p> + +<p>The English were, indeed, well compensated for their abandonment of +Quebec, for the seizure of the vessels and their provisions was +equivalent to the capture of the French colony, since famine threatened +them sooner or later. In attacking Quebec Kirke, indeed, would have met +with but little opposition, because every one was suffering. Those who +were unable to live from the product of their own lands were compelled +to ask assistance from the trade agents. Champlain ordered a +distribution of pease to be made to each person indiscriminately. The +Récollets refused any assistance, and they passed the whole winter +subsisting on corn and vegetables of their own cultivation. Champlain +succeeded in building a mill for grinding pease. The eel fisheries were +productive, and the Indians bought from the French six eels for a beaver +skin. In the midst of these perplexities Champlain realized that unless +assistance was forthcoming in the spring, it would be advisable for him +to accept an honourable capitulation, and to send all the French who +wished to return to their country, either to Gaspé or to Miscou.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span>As soon as the snow had disappeared in the spring of the year 1629, +Champlain caused all the arable land to be sown. By the end of May his +stock of provisions was nearly exhausted, and he therefore decided to +send Desdames to Gaspé with a group of the inhabitants. Hubou, Desportes +and Pivert took passage on Desdames' barque, hoping to meet a French +vessel at Gaspé. One month later Desdames returned, and confirmed the +news that the English vessels had devastated the Acadian coast, and +burnt the habitations. Neither Desdames nor his party had seen any +French vessel in the gulf, but they had met Iuan Chou, a friend of +Champlain, who had agreed to give hospitality to twenty persons, +including Pont-Gravé, by whom he was greatly esteemed. The latter was +still suffering from gout, and it was with some reluctance that he +agreed to leave his position as first clerk, empowered by Guillaume de +Caën to take care of the merchandise. Des Marets, who was Pont-Gravé's +grandson, accepted his position in the interim.</p> + +<p>Before leaving Quebec Pont-Gravé desired Champlain to read publicly the +commission which he had received from Guillaume de Caën. After grand +mass on June 17th Champlain read Pont-Gravé's commission and his own in +the presence of all the people, and he added some words, by which it was +easily understood that the king's authority had to be superior to +Guillaume de Caën's commissions. Pont-Gravé replied at once: "I see that +you believe <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span>in the nullity of my commission!" "Yes," replied Champlain, +"when it comes in conflict with the king's and the viceroy's authority." +This petty dispute had no serious consequence, as it was evident that +Pont-Gravé, being only the first clerk of Guillaume de Caën, had no +other authority than to take care of the peltry and merchandise +belonging to his chief.</p> + +<p>Before turning their attention to Canada Guillaume and Emery de Caën had +belonged to a large company trading with the East Indies. Both were +Calvinists. Sagard writes that Guillaume was polite, liberal, and of +good understanding. This testimony seems somewhat exaggerated, as we +have many proofs of his niggardliness. His nephew Emery was frank, +liberal and open to conviction, and was always kindly disposed towards +the Jesuits. Guillaume de Caën was the commodore of the fleet equipped +by his associates. His greatest fault appears to have been that he +neglected Champlain and the colony, and for that reason he should share +the responsibility of not having prevented the capitulation of Quebec. +However, it is scarcely fair to say of him that he worked directly +against the French in New France. After the capitulation of 1629, +Cardinal Richelieu wrote of him to the French ambassador in London: +"Please examine his actions. Being a Huguenot, and having been much +displeased with the new company of Canada, I have entertained a +suspicion that he connived with the English. I have <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span>not a sure +knowledge of it, but you will please me if you inform me of his +conduct."</p> + +<p>This suspicion seems unfounded, because Guillaume de Caën was personally +interested in the fate of Quebec. His merchandise which was seized by +Kirke was valued at about forty thousand écus. If he had made some +agreement with Kirke he would have had no difficulty in recovering his +goods after the capitulation, but such was not the case.</p> + +<p>As to Emery de Caën we must say that he took an active part in the +defence of the colony, and perhaps he might have saved Quebec, had not +one of his sailors committed a grave imprudence at a critical juncture. +The facts are as follows: The Treaty of Suze, which was signed on April +24th, 1629, had established peace between France and England. Being +aware of this fact Emery de Caën equipped a vessel for the purpose of +bringing back to France all the furs and merchandise which were the +property of his uncle. When he arrived near the Escoumins a dense fog +obscured the coast, and his vessel ran aground on Red Island, opposite +Tadousac. Having succeeded in floating his ship, de Caën went to Chafaud +aux Basques, two leagues above Tadousac. Here he was informed that the +Kirke brothers were at Tadousac, and he at once made for Mal Bay, where +he was informed that Champlain had capitulated. This news lacked +confirmation, and so he sent two emissaries to Quebec, who instead of +proceeding directly there, amused <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span>themselves on the shore of the river +at Cape Tourmente. They finally arrived at their destination, and were +badly received by Guillaume Couillard.</p> + +<p>In the meantime Thomas Kirke was sailing down from Quebec to Tadousac, +after the capitulation of the stronghold, and meeting de Caën's vessel +approached within cannon shot. A fight began, and soon both vessels were +stopped by Kirke's order. Previous to this, Champlain and all the French +who were on board had been sent below deck, the covers of which had been +fastened with large nails, so that they were unable to render any +assistance to Emery de Caën, even if they had desired to. The battle +continued under some difficulties, and the vessels were grappled only by +their foremasts. Kirke's position was becoming untenable, but by a +singular blunder instead of being defeated he was allowed to become the +master. One of Emery de Caën's sailors having cried "<i>Quartier! +Quartier</i>!" or Surrender! Kirke hurriedly answered, "<i>Bon quartier</i>, and +I promise your life safe, and I shall treat you as I did Champlain, whom +I bring with me." Hearing these words the French hesitated, laid down +their arms, and soon perceived Champlain on the deck. Kirke had released +him from his temporary jail, threatening him with death if he did not +order Emery de Caën to cease his fire. Then Champlain said: "It would be +easy to kill me, being in your power. But you do not deserve honour for +having broken your word. You have promised to treat me <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span>with +consideration. I cannot command these people, neither prevent them from +doing their duty, in defending themselves. You must praise them instead +of blaming them." Champlain asked them to surrender willingly. They were +wise in doing so, as two English <i>pataches</i> soon arrived which would +have settled the fight.</p> + +<p>Emery de Caën, and Jacques Couillard de l'Espinay, his lieutenant, took +passage on Kirke's vessel, and submitted themselves to the enemy's +conditions. De Caën was compelled to abandon his ship, which was full of +provisions intended for Quebec. In less than two hours every hope of fur +trading had disappeared. De Caën had lost not only his vessel, but also +five hundred beaver skins and some merchandise for traffic. This loss +was valued at fifty-one thousand francs. Emery de Caën returned to +France. He came back to Quebec in the year 1631, with permission from +Richelieu to treat with the Indians. But the English commander expressly +forbade the trade, and placed guardians on his vessel during the period +of trading.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> All that relates to the formation of the Company of New +France is contained in a series of documents entitled, <i>Edits, +Ordonnances royaux</i>. The first document is entitled, <i>Compagnie du +Canada, establie sous le titre de Nouvelle France, par les articles du +vingt-neuf auril et sept May, mil six cens vingt-sept</i>. We find it in +the <i>Mercure François</i> (t. xiv., part ii., p. 232) and also in the +<i>Mémoires sur les possessions Françoises en Amérique</i> (t. iii., pp. 3, +4, and 5). This document is double, the first containing twenty +articles, and the second thirty-one, which essentially differ. The act +of April 29th, 1627, exposes the designs which had engaged the king to +establish a new company, its obligations, and the advantages which it +will get from Canada. The act of May 7th is the deed of association, +which contains the whole organization of the company, its rules, and all +that concerns the administration of its funds. The acceptation of the +articles of April 29th, 1628, was officially known by an act passed on +August 5th, 1628, and the acceptation of the articles of May 7th took +place on August 6th, of the same year. These articles had been confirmed +by an order-in-council, on May 6th, 1628, at La Rochelle. On the same +day Louis XIII had issued patents confirming the order-in-council. On +May 18th Richelieu had ratified the articles of April 29th and of May +7th. +</p><p> +These various documents were published in 1628, one part of them in the +<i>Mercure François</i>, and the other in a pamphlet, large in quarto of +twenty-three pages. The list of the Hundred Associates was also printed +in a small pamphlet of eight pages, bearing as title: <i>Noms, surnoms et +Qualitez des Associez En la Compagnie de la Nouvelle France, suyvant les +jours et dates de leurs signatures</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> About the year 1596 Gervase Kirke, of Norton, county of +Derby, married Elizabeth Goudon, of Dieppe, and had issue five boys and +two girls. The eldest boy was named David, the second son was Louis; and +the third, Thomas; the fourth, John; and the fifth, James. In the year +1629 David was thirty-two years of age, Louis was thirty, and Thomas +twenty-six years of age. These are the three heroes of the Quebec +assault. +</p><p> +Gervase Kirke was a member of the Company of Adventurers, and he died on +December 17th, 1629. In 1637 David received as a concession the +New-found-land. After some difficulties which he had to suffer, David +Kirke died in the year 1656. His widow claimed the sum of £60,000 for +the part that the Kirkes had taken in bringing about the capitulation of +Quebec, but the king paid no attention to these claims, and the Kirke +family became poor.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h3>THE CAPITULATION OF QUEBEC, 1629</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>We</b></span> have somewhat anticipated events, so we now retrace our steps, and +place ourselves within Champlain's defenceless stronghold as its fatal +hour approached. On Thursday, July 19th, 1629, a savage named La Nasse +by the French, and Manitougatche by his own people, informed the Jesuits +that three English ships were in sight off the Island of Orleans, behind +Point Lévis, and that six other vessels were anchored at Tadousac. +Champlain was already aware that some ships were at Tadousac, but he was +surprised to learn that the enemy had approached Quebec, and at first he +thought that they might be French ships. There was no one in Fort St. +Louis at the time he received this news, as every one had gone out in +search of plants which were used as food; he therefore sent for Father +Le Caron and the Jesuits to consult with them as to what measures should +be taken. In the meantime the English fleet was steadily approaching, +and at length drew up at a certain distance from the city. A shallop was +then sent out from the admiral's ship, carrying at her mainmast a white +flag. Champlain caused a similar flag to be run up over the fort, and +Kirke's emis<span class='pagenum' style="text-indent: 1.5em;"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span>sary came ashore and presented to Champlain the following +letter:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"<span class="smcap">Monsieur</span>:—In consequence of what our brother told you +last year that sooner or later he would have Quebec, if not +succoured, he has charged us to assure you of his friendship as we +do of ours; and knowing very well the extreme need of everything in +which you are, desires that you shall surrender the fort and the +settlement to us, assuring you of every kind of courtesy for you +and yours, and also of honourable and reasonable terms, such as you +may wish. Waiting your reply, we remain, monsieur, your very +affectionate servants,</p> + +<p style="text-align: right;"> +"<span class="smcap">Louis and Thomas Quer</span>.<br /> +</p> + +<p>"On board the <i>Flibot</i>, this July 19th, 1629."</p></div> + +<p>Champlain immediately prepared his answer, the terms of which had +previously been agreed upon by the fathers. Kirke's representative did +not understand a word of the French language, but he had a fair +knowledge of Latin. Father de la Roche d'Aillon was therefore requested +by Champlain to act as interpreter, and he asked the following +questions:—"Is war declared between France and England?" "No," replied +the English representative. "Why, then, do you come here to trouble us +if our princes live in peace?" he was asked.</p> + +<p>Champlain then requested Father de la Roche to go aboard the English +vessels to ascertain from the chiefs what they intended to do. The +interview between Father de la Roche and Louis Kirke was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span>courteous, but +the answers of the latter were far from being satisfactory. "If +Champlain," said the English captain, "gives up the keys of the fortress +and of the habitation we promise to convey you all to France, and will +treat you well; if not we will oblige him by force." Father de la Roche +tried to obtain fifteen days' delay, or even eight days, but it was of +no avail.</p> + +<p>"Sir," said Louis Kirke, "I well know your miserable condition. Your +people have gone out to pick up roots in order to avoid starvation, for +we have captured Master Boullé and some other Frenchmen whom we have +retained as prisoners at Tadousac, and from whom we have ascertained the +condition of the inhabitants of Quebec."</p> + +<p>"Give us a delay of eight days," said Father de la Roche. "No," replied +Thomas Kirke, "I shall at once ruin the fort with my cannon." "I desire +to sleep to-night in the fort," added his brother Louis, "and, if not, I +shall devastate the whole country." "Proceed slowly," said Father de la +Roche, "for you are deceived if you believe you will easily gain the +fort. There are a hundred men there well armed and ready to sell their +lives dearly. Perchance you will find your death in this enterprise, for +I assure you that the inhabitants are determined to fight, and they +derive courage from the conviction that your invasion is unjust, and +that their lives and property are at stake. Once more I warn you that an +attack might prove dangerous to you."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span>Captain Louis Kirke seemed a little disheartened on hearing this firm +and vigorous language. After having consulted the chief officers of his +fleet he asked Father de la Roche to attend a council of war at which an +ultimatum was presented in these words:—"Champlain must surrender at +once, but he shall have the privilege of dictating the terms of +capitulation." Three hours were granted within which his reply was to be +given. The Récollets were promised protection, but no conditions were +accorded to the Jesuits, as it was the admiral's intention to visit +their convent, which he believed to contain a quantity of beaver skins.</p> + +<p>Father de la Roche returned to Fort St. Louis, and gave an account of +his interview. It was plainly evident that it would be useless to rely +upon delays in the face of an enemy determined to see the end of the +affair. Food was almost exhausted, and it was calculated that there were +not more than ten pounds of flour in Quebec, and not more than fifty +pounds of gunpowder, which was of inferior quality. Opposition would +have been not only useless, but ridiculous. Champlain realized this, and +at once resolved to surrender.</p> + +<p>Champlain drew up the following articles of capitulation, which were +forwarded to the Kirke brothers:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"That Quer (Kirke) should produce his commission from the king of +England to prove that war actually existed between England and +France; and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span>also to show the power of his brothers, who commanded +the fleet, to act in the king's name.</p> + +<p>"That a vessel should be provided to convey Champlain, his +companions, the missionaries, both Jesuits and Récollets, the two +Indian girls that had been given to him two years before, and all +other persons, to France.</p> + +<p>"That the religious and other people should be allowed to leave +with arms and baggage, and all their furniture, and that a +sufficient supply of provisions for the passage to France should be +granted in exchange for peltry, etc.</p> + +<p>"That all should have the most favourable treatment possible, +without violence to any.</p> + +<p>"That the ship in which they were to embark for France should be +ready in three days after their arrival at Tadousac, and a vessel +provided for the transport of their goods, etc., to that place."</p> + +<p>These articles were signed by Champlain and Pont-Gravé. After +having read them Louis Kirke sent this answer: "That Kirke's +commission should be shown and his powers to his brothers for +trading purposes. As to providing a vessel to take Champlain and +his people direct to France, that could not be done, but they would +give them passage to England, and from there to France, whereby +they would avoid being again taken by any English cruiser on their +route. For the sauvagesses, that clause could not be granted, for +reasons which would be explained. As to leaving with arms and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span>baggage, the officers might take with them their arms, clothes, +and peltries belonging to them, and the soldiers might have their +clothes and a beaver robe each. As for the holy fathers, they must +be contented with their robes and books.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right;"> +<span class="smcap">"L. Kirke.<br /> +"Thomas Kirke.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>"The said articles granted to Champlain and Du Pont, I accept and +ratify them, and I promise that they shall be executed from point +to point. Done at Tadousac, August 19th (new style), 1629.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right;"> +"<span class="smcap">David Kirke</span>."<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p>The clause forbidding the soldiers to take their arms, coats and peltry, +excepting a castor robe, was a severe trial to them, as many of them had +bought skins from the Hurons to the extent of seven to eight hundred +francs, and preferred to fight rather than lose their fortune.</p> + +<p>Champlain had agreed to capitulate without firing. Some openly +reproached Champlain, saying that it was not the fear of death that +actuated his course, but rather the loss of the thousand livres, which +the English had agreed to give him if he abandoned Quebec without +striking a blow.</p> + +<p>Champlain was informed of all the murmurs and discontent which were +expressed amongst his people by a young Greek, who was charged to inform +him that they did not wish to surrender, and even if they lost their +fort, they desired to prove to the English that they were full of +courage. Champlain <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span>was annoyed at these exhibitions of insubordination, +and he instructed the Greek to give the people this answer:—"You are +badly advised and unwise. How can you desire resistance when we have no +provisions, no ammunition, or any prospect of relief? Are you tired of +living, or do you expect to be victorious under such circumstances? Obey +those who desire your safety and who do nothing without prudence."</p> + +<p>Brother Sagard makes these remarks upon the condition of affairs:—"It +is true that there was a great scarcity of all things necessary for the +habitation, but the enemy, too, were weak, as Father Joseph perceived +after having examined the whole crew, which consisted of about two +hundred soldiers, for the most part, men who had never touched a musket, +and who could have been killed as ducks or who would have run away. +Moreover they were in a wretched condition, and of a low order. The +weather was favourable to the French, as the tide was low, and the wind +from the south-east was driving the vessels towards France, so that +there was no assurance for either the vessels or the barques. Champlain, +however, deemed it more expedient to surrender than to run the risk of +his own life or of being made a prisoner while defending a fort so badly +armed."</p> + +<p>If, as the veracious Brother Sagard says, the fort and the habitation +were distressed, it is not proved that the English could be easily +defeated. There <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span>were at Quebec only fifty men capable of bearing arms, +and only a small quantity of gunpowder in store, while provisions were +absolutely wanting. How was it possible to sustain a siege without +ammunition, without bread and without soldiers?</p> + +<p>On the enemy's side there were two vessels well equipped, and two +hundred men. If the men were desperate or wretched, they would be the +more dangerous. Even supposing that the two vessels had proved +insufficient for a protracted siege, the four vessels at the disposal of +David Kirke would have surely come to their assistance.</p> + +<p>It would have been a foolish act to have resisted such a powerful enemy. +Besides, Champlain had another foe to contend against, for Nicholas +Marsolet, Étienne Brûlé, Pierre Reye, and others, had betrayed him, and +were leagued with Kirke. Champlain understood the difficulties of his +position, and his responsibilities, for he had in his hands the lives of +one hundred persons.</p> + +<p>Of the eighty persons living in Quebec at this time, only two-thirds had +private interests to safeguard, and it was a matter of indifference to +them whether they remained in Canada or whether they returned to France. +The families who had nothing to gain by leaving Quebec were those who +deserved the governor's sympathy, and it was for their safety that +Champlain would not agree to offer resistance, as the result must have +proved disastrous to them. By the articles of capitulation these +families would <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span>be able to live quietly at home, awaiting the issue of +negotiations.</p> + +<p>On the day following the preliminaries, Champlain went on board Louis +Kirke's vessel, where he was to see the commission of Charles I, which +empowered the Kirke brothers to take Quebec and the whole country by +assault. Both parties then signed the articles of capitulation, and the +English troops, conducted by Champlain, came in shallops near to the +habitation. The keys were delivered to Louis Kirke, and then they all +proceeded to the fort, which was delivered to the admiral. Quebec was +definitely put under the authority of the English, who had not fired a +single shot. Louis Kirke placed Le Baillif, who had been dismissed by +Guillaume de Caën for his bad conduct, in charge of the storehouse. This +was the first reward for his treason. Champlain asked the English +commander to protect the chapel of Quebec, the convents, and the houses +of the widow of Louis Hébert and of her son-in-law, Guillaume Couillard, +and he offered him the keys of his own room within the fort. Louis Kirke +refused to accept the latter, and left Champlain in possession of his +room. This courteous action was followed by another one, when Kirke +delivered to Champlain a certificate of all that he had found within the +fort and the habitation. This document was found useful later on, when +it was necessary to settle the value of the goods.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span>In the meantime the English crew robbed the convent of the Jesuits, but +they did not find the beaver skins, as they expected. Kirke and the +Lutheran minister took for their own use the nicest volumes of the +library, and three or four pictures. The Récollets had filled a leather +bag with the ornaments of their church, and had hidden it underground, +far in the woods, thinking that they might return sooner or later.</p> + +<p>On the Sunday following the capitulation, July 22nd, Louis Kirke hoisted +the English flag over one of the bastions of the fort, and in order to +render the official possession of Quebec more imposing, he placed his +soldiers in ranks along the ramparts, and at a precise hour a volley was +fired from English muskets. In the afternoon, Champlain, the Jesuits, +and the greater number of the French took passage on the <i>Flibot</i> for +Tadousac, leaving behind the families of Couillard, Martin, Desportes, +Hébert, Hubou, Pivert, Duchesne the surgeon, some interpreters and +clerks, and Pont-Gravé who was too sick to leave his room. It was +understood that all those who desired to return to France should start +on the day fixed by Kirke.</p> + +<p>The fate of the colony was thus decided. Those who had any authority, by +reason of their character or their official mission, were compelled to +leave. The others were at liberty to remain, especially the +interpreters, who would be useful in trading with <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span>the Indians. Before +Champlain's departure, some had taken his advice. Would they remain in +Quebec under a new régime, with nothing to hope for? Who was this +victorious Kirke, so captivating in appearance? Perhaps a lion clothed +with the skin of a lamb! They knew the Kirke brothers had been guilty of +burning the habitation at Cape Tourmente. Knowing that they were +Protestants, they could not expect sympathy on the score of religion. A +danger existed from every point of view. Nevertheless, Champlain advised +many of them to remain at Quebec in order to save their property. The +only objection was that they would be obliged to observe their religion +for an indefinite time without the ministrations of their priests.</p> + +<p>Three years were to elapse before a French vessel again appeared at +Quebec, with authority to hoist the white flag of France. Champlain's +advice was not prejudicial to any one, at least not in temporal matters. +This small nucleus became the great tree whose branches and leaves +extend to-day over the whole American continent. If France had seen the +complete depopulation of Canada, perhaps the king would not have made +the same efforts to have his colony restored. Champlain himself, in +spite of his great zeal and his love for the country which he had +founded, had been discouraged by the difficulties. He could foresee +better than any other the obstacles which the future would present, and +it caused him much uneasiness, and offered little consolation. At <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span>his +age most men would have preferred to rest after an agitated life of +thirty years, in the pursuit of an idea which it seemed impossible to +realize on account of the manifold difficulties by which it was +constantly beset.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h3>THE LAST EVENTS OF 1629</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>"Since</b></span> the English have taken possession of Quebec," writes Champlain, +"the days have seemed to me as long as months." This dreariness is +easily explained. The unsettled state of affairs, of which he was an +eye-witness, had rendered his life at Quebec intolerable. Louis Kirke, +however, treated him with respect and courtesy, and had given him +permission to bring to Tadousac his two adopted girls, Espérance and +Charité. It was a favour wholly unexpected, especially as by one of the +clauses of the act of capitulation he renounced claim to them. +Champlain, however, was ready to buy their liberty, if necessary, as he +wished to civilize them and convert them to Christianity. Having no +desire to stay longer in a place where even the beauties of the sunset +seemed to remind him of his humiliation, Champlain only resided +temporarily at Tadousac, and was anxious to reach France. He left Quebec +on July 24th, and on the following day he perceived a vessel sailing +near Murray Bay. This was Emery de Caën's ship, which, as we have +already stated, was proceeding to Quebec to claim the peltry in the +storehouse which belonged to his uncle. This vessel, as has <span class='pagenum' style="text-indent: 1.5em;"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span>been +described, was captured by Kirke, and the same fate happened to Captain +Daniel, who had crossed the ocean from Dieppe with four vessels and a +barque laden with provisions and ammunition. Having heard on the passage +that a Scottish fisherman named James Stuart, had erected a fort on Cape +Breton, in a place called Port-aux-Baleines, to protect his countrymen +during the fishing season, Daniel went out of his way to destroy this +fort, and to build one at Grand Cibou to check the intruders, instead of +proceeding directly to Quebec, as was his duty. He left at this place +forty men and two Jesuits, Father Vimont and Father de Vieux-Pont, and +then having set up the arms of France, he returned to his country +without having taken any care of the Quebec habitation. This was his +first fault, but nevertheless it was a great misfortune.</p> + +<p>The Jesuits had prepared at a great expense a shipment for Quebec. +Father Noyrot brought with him Father Charles Lalemant, who was +returning after an absence of nearly two years, Father de Vieux-Pont, +Brother Louis Malot and twenty-four persons. Driven by a terrible storm, +their barque was wrecked near the Island of Canseau. Fourteen were +drowned, including Father Noyrot and Brother Malot. The others +miraculously escaped.</p> + +<p>The Chevalier de Razilly was finally ordered to assist Quebec, but it +was found that an agreement had been concluded between France and +England <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span>on April 24th. Razilly had his commission cancelled and +proceeded to Morocco.</p> + +<p>The failure of these three expeditions, together with that of Emery de +Caën, occurring at the same time under unfortunate circumstances, +resulted in the loss of the colony for France, and won at least +temporary prestige and importance for the Kirke family.</p> + +<p>Champlain relates some remarkable events during his sojourn at Tadousac. +Religious fanaticism displayed itself in its worst form. The French had +with them Father de Brébeuf, who was quite competent and willing to +champion the cause of the Catholic faith, and especially when assailed +by his own countrymen. A French Huguenot, named Jacques Michel, +apparently headed a crusade against the Jesuits. One day Michel said to +a party that the Jesuits had come to Canada to annoy the Sieurs de Caën +in their trade. "I beg your pardon," replied the father, "we had no +other design in coming here than the glory of God and the conversion of +the savages." To which Jacques Michel answered still more audaciously: +"Yes, convert the savages, say rather, convert the beavers." "It is +false," replied the priest, somewhat vexed. Michel, who was angry, +raised his arm to strike the father, at the same time saying, "If I were +not restrained by the respect due to my chief, I would slap your face +for your denial." "I ask your pardon," said the father, "it was not in +my mind to injure you, and if my answer has <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span>vexed you, I regret it." +Michel was not satisfied and began to blaspheme, so that Champlain was +scandalized, and said: "You swear much for a Reformer." "It is true," +replied the Huguenot, "but I am furious against this Jesuit for his +denial, and if I hang to-morrow I will give him the blows he deserves." +During the day, however, Michel drank heavily and was attacked by +apoplexy, from which he died thirty-five hours later, without exhibiting +any signs of repentance.</p> + +<p>The commander Kirke appears to have acted somewhat strangely on this +occasion, for instead of having Michel quietly buried, he ordered a +splendid funeral, accompanied with military honours. When the remains +were lowered into the grave, a salute of eighty guns was fired, as if +the deceased had been an officer of high rank. Whatever may have been +the reasons for showing these tokens of honour to the remains of Michel, +we know not, but the savages seem to have resented the proceedings, for +they unearthed his body and gave it to the dogs. Michel had been a +traitor to his country and to his God, and this was the method of his +punishment.</p> + +<p>We have already mentioned the names of the Frenchmen who betrayed +Champlain, particularly Étienne Brûlé, Le Baillif, Pierre Reye and +Marsolet. Let us examine their conduct. Étienne Brûlé, in his capacity +of interpreter, had rendered many good services to his compatriots. +Unfortunately, his private actions while dwelling with the Hurons <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span>were +not above reproach, and he would certainly have been compelled to +expiate his offences had he not been adopted as one of their family. +Brûlé worked for the benefit of the Hurons, and their gratitude towards +a good officer perhaps outweighed their memory of an injury. On retiring +from the Huron country in 1629, Brûlé went to Tadousac, where he entered +the service of Kirke, and some years after he was killed by a savage.</p> + +<p>Marsolet's case is nearly identical with that of Brûlé, although it is +not proved that he was as licentious during the time that he lived with +the Algonquins. He and Brûlé asserted that they were compelled by Kirke +to serve under the British flag. Champlain severely blamed their +conduct, saying: "Remember that God will punish you if you do not amend +your lives. You have lost your honour. Wherever you will go, men will +point at you, saying: 'These are the men who have threatened their king +and sold their country.' It would be preferable to die than to live on +in this manner, as you will suffer the remorse of a bad conscience." To +this they replied: "We well know that in France we should be hanged. We +are sorry for what has happened, but it is done and we must drain the +cup to the bottom, and resolve never to return to France." Champlain +answered them: "If you are captured anywhere, you will run the risk of +being chastised as you deserve."</p> + +<p>Nicholas Marsolet became a good citizen, and his <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span>family alliances were +the most honourable. Pierre Reye, a carriage maker, was a bad character, +"One of the worst traitors, and wicked." His treason did not surprise +any one, and nothing better was expected of him. Le Baillif was not only +vicious, but a thief. On the night after the seizure by Kirke of the +goods in store, he took from the room of Corneille de Vendremur, a +clerk, one hundred livres in gold and money, a silver cup and some silk +stockings. He was suspected of having stolen from the chapel of the +Lower Town, a silver chalice, the gift of Anne of Austria. Though he was +a Catholic, Le Baillif ate food on days of abstinence, in order to +please the Protestants. He treated the French as if they were dogs. "I +shall abandon him," says Champlain, "to his fate, awaiting the day of +his punishment for his swearings, cursings and impieties."</p> + +<p>The treachery of these four men greatly affected Champlain, who was at a +loss to understand how those to whom he had given food and shelter could +be so ungrateful; but their conduct, however reprehensible, played no +part in the loss of the colony. Kirke employed them to further his +purposes without giving them any substantial reward.</p> + +<p>The sojourn of the French in Tadousac lasted many weeks, and the delay +caused Champlain much annoyance. David Kirke spent ten or twelve days on +his visit to Quebec, where he wanted to see for himself how his brother +Louis had disposed of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span>everything, and what advantage he was likely to +gain from the acquisition of the new country. Believing himself to be +the supreme ruler and master of New France, he outlined a brilliant +future for the colony, looking forward to the day when he could bring +settlers to take advantage of its natural resources.</p> + +<p>Returning to Tadousac, the general invited his captains to a dinner, at +which Champlain was also a guest. The dinner was served in a tent +surrounded with branches. Towards the end of the banquet David Kirke +gave Champlain a letter from Marsolet to inform him that the chief +savages, gathered at Three Rivers in council, had resolved to keep with +them the two girls, Espérance and Charité. This was a severe trial to +Champlain, who had hoped to be able to take them to France. All his +efforts, however, were useless, as there was a plot organized by the +traitor Marsolet. These children loved Champlain as a father, and were +inconsolable when they realized that their departure for France was +impossible.</p> + +<p>Champlain relates many things that do not redound to Kirke's credit, +amongst other things that Kirke blamed his brother Louis for giving the +Jesuits permission to say mass, and afterwards refused the permission. +Again, at the moment when the Jesuits embarked for Tadousac, Louis Kirke +ordered a trunk to be opened in which the sacred vessels were contained. +Seeing a box which contained a chalice Kirke <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span>tried to seize it, but +Father Massé interfered, and said to him: "This is a sacred object, do +not profane it, if you please." "Why," said Kirke, "we have no faith in +your superstition," and so saying he took the chalice in his hands, +braving the Jesuit's advice. The Catholics were also denied the +privilege of praying in public. This intolerant action was condemned by +Champlain. During their stay at Tadousac Champlain and the admiral went +out shooting. They killed more than two thousand larks, plovers, snipes +and curlews. In the meantime the sailors had cut trees for masts, and +some birch which they took to England. They also carried with them four +thousand five hundred and forty beaver skins, one thousand seven hundred +and thirteen others seized at Quebec, and four hundred and thirty-two +elk skins. The French had not given up all their skins; some had hidden +a good many, and others kept them with Kirke's consent. The Récollets +and the Jesuits were returning poorer than when they came. Champlain +alone was allowed to retain all his baggage. At the commencement of +September the admiral fitted out a medium sized barque with provisions +for Quebec, with instructions to bring back the Récollets who were +scattered throughout the country, and also some of the French who had +intended to remain at Quebec and other places.</p> + +<p>On September 14th the English fleet set out carrying Champlain, the +Jesuits, the Récollets, and two-thirds of the French, that is to say, +nearly the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span>whole of the colony. The passage was short though difficult, +and eleven of the crew died from dysentery. On October 20th the vessels +reached Plymouth, where Kirke was much disappointed to learn that the +treaty of peace signed on April 24th had been confirmed on September +16th. All the French, except Champlain, took passage for France at +Dover. Champlain proceeded directly to London, where he met the French +ambassador, M. de Chateauneuf, and related to him the events which had +taken place in Canada, and urged him to take steps for its restoration +to France.</p> + +<p>The fathers disembarked at Calais at the end of October. Father Massé +returned to his former position of minister at the college of La Flèche. +Father Anne de Noüe went to Bourges. Father de Brébeuf entered the +college of Rouen, where he had laboured previously, and three other +Jesuits whom we find afterwards in Canada, Father Charles Lalemant, +Father Jogues and Father Simon Lemoyne, were at that time professors in +this college. Father Massé and Father de Brébeuf were soon to resume +their ministration in this country, which they were forced to abandon at +a time when they had hoped to see the realization of their noble +mission. L'Abbé Faillon has written that the family of Hébert alone +remained at Quebec after the surrender, but this is incorrect. The truth +is that at least five families remained in Quebec. It was God's will +that the most prominent and influential men <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span>should leave for France, +but He also ordained that a few heroic settlers or possessors of New +France should remain. If their remaining was favourable to France +Champlain deserves the credit, for he did more than any of his +countrymen to bring it about. The population of Quebec or of the whole +colony in July, 1629, was divided as follows:—Inhabitants, +twenty-three; interpreters, eleven; clerks, fourteen; missionaries, ten; +domestics, seven; French, arrived from the Huron country, twenty. This +makes a total number of eighty-five persons.</p> + +<p>The following persons remained at Quebec:—Guillaume Hubou and his wife, +Marie Rollet, widow of Louis Hébert; Guillaume Hébert; Guillaume +Couillard, and his wife Guillemette Hébert, and their three children; +Abraham Martin, and his wife, Marguerite Langlois, and their three +children; Pierre Desportes, and his wife, Françoise Langlois, and their +daughter Hélène; Nicholas Pivert, his wife, Marguerite Lesage, and their +niece; Adrien Duchesne and his wife; Jean Foucher, Étienne Brûlé, +Nicholas Marsolet, Le Baillif, Pierre Reye, Olivier Le Tardif. The +missionaries who returned to France were: Three Jesuits, two Récollets, +two Brothers Jesuits and three Brothers Récollets, ten in all. Their +names were: Fathers Jesuits Enemond Massé, Anne de Noüe and Jean de +Brébeuf, Fathers Récollets Joseph de la Roche d'Aillon, and Joseph Le +Caron, Brothers Jesuits François Charton and Gilbert Burel, and the +Récollet Friars Gervais Mohier,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span> Jean Gaufestre and Pierre Langoissieux. +Among the clerks who returned home were Corneille de Vendremur, +Thierry-Desdames, Eustache Boullé, and Destouches.</p> + +<p>Since the year 1608 there had been only seven births, three marriages, +and forty deaths. One man had been hanged, six had been murdered, and +three drowned. A Récollet father, called Nicholas Viel, had perished in +the Sault au Récollet; and there had been sixteen victims of the scurvy.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<h3>QUEBEC RESTORED</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>Through</b></span> the exertions of Champlain negotiations were soon entered into +for the purpose of restoring the colony of New France to the French. +Champlain had visited the French ambassador, M. de Chateauneuf, when in +London, and had laid before him a statement of the events which had +recently taken place, together with the treaty of capitulation and a map +of New France, so far as it was explored. According to Champlain, the +country comprised all the lands which Linschot thus describes: "This +part of America which extends to the Arctic pole northward, is called +New France, because Jean Verazzano, a Florentine, having been sent by +King François I to these quarters, discovered nearly all the coast, +beginning from the Tropic of Cancer to the fiftieth degree, and still +more northerly, arboring arms and flags of France; for that reason the +said country is called New France."</p> + +<p>Champlain was not quarrelling with the English for the Virgines, +although this country had been occupied by the French eighty years +before, and they had also discovered all the American coast, from the +river St. John to the peninsula of Florida.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span> No one can deny that +Champlain had given names to the rivers and harbours of New England as +far as Cape Cod, about the fortieth degree of latitude.</p> + +<p>After having spent about five weeks with the ambassador in furnishing +him with information to guide him in his negotiations with the English +authorities, Champlain resolved to visit France, as he had a reasonable +hope of seeing his designs accomplished. He left London on November +20th, and embarked at Rye, in Sussex, for Dieppe. Here he met Captain +Daniel, who had just returned from his expedition to Canada, and it was +here also that he received his commission of governor of New France, +which had been forwarded by the directors of the Company of New France.</p> + +<p>Champlain paid a visit to Rouen, and then went to Paris, where he had +interviews with the king, with the cardinal, and some of the associates +of the company. A prominent topic of discussion was, naturally, the loss +of New France, and the best means of recovering it. Champlain's ideas +were excellent, and he did his best to have them acknowledged and agreed +to by all those who were interested in the fate of New France.</p> + +<p>Events progressed favourably, and Champlain was pleased to learn that +Doctor Daniel had been sent to London with letters for King Charles I. +Louis XIII demanded the restoration of the fort and habitation of +Quebec, and the forts and harbours of the Acadian coast, for the reason +that they had been <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span>captured after peace had been concluded between the +two countries. Doctor Daniel returned to France, bearing despatches by +which Charles I answered that he was ready to restore Quebec, but no +mention was made of Acadia. The directors of the company immediately +ordered Commander de Razilly to equip a fleet, and, as we have already +stated, to take possession of Quebec by force or otherwise.</p> + +<p>The Hundred Associates subscribed sixteen thousand livres for the +freighting of the vessels, and the king granted the balance of the +expenses. The news of these extraordinary war-like preparations caused +alarm in London, but the French ambassador stated that these vessels +were not being sent to trouble or disturb any of the English settlers +who had taken possession of the French habitations. This explanation +relieved the public mind in England, and Charles I promised to give back +to France its ancient possessions in America, as they were on April +24th, 1629, the date of the signing of the Treaty of Suze. In justice to +England it may be said that two English vessels were seized by the +French at about the same time that Kirke had forced Champlain to +surrender. There was, therefore, illegal action on both sides, and both +countries had claims to be regulated.</p> + +<p>The English would have preferred to have retained possession of Canada, +at least until the following year, as the Kirke brothers and their +associates hoped to be able to realize considerable sums from their +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span>trade with the Indians. This condition of affairs is explained in a +letter addressed by Cardinal Richelieu to Chateauneuf, on December 20th, +1629: "They assure us that they cannot restore Canada at once; this is +the reason for our delay in restoring these vessels." And he adds: "If +they agree to the restitution of Quebec without any condition, you shall +take it for granted, if not, it is better to put a delay to the +settlement."</p> + +<p>It is obvious that Charles I had twice promised to restore Quebec, and +when Chateauneuf retired from his position of ambassador in the month of +April, 1630, he had obtained "every assurance of restitution of all +things taken since the peace." The Marquis of Fontenay-Mareuil, who +succeeded Chateauneuf on March 13th, received special instructions from +the cardinal on this subject: "His Majesty's design is that, continuing +the negotiations of Chateauneuf, you continue to ask for the restitution +of Canada, and of all goods and vessels taken from the French since the +peace."</p> + +<p>The new ambassador could not urge the claims of France with greater +activity than his predecessor. During the space of two months, +Chateauneuf had prepared five documents relating to Canadian affairs, to +which the commissioners appointed to settle the matter had replied on +February 11th. These officials were Sir Humphrey May, Sir John Coke, Sir +Julius Cæsar, and Sir Henry Martin. Their conclusion regarding Canada +was that His Majesty had not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span>changed his mind concerning the +restoration of places, vessels and goods taken from the French, +according to the first declaration he had made through a memorandum in +Latin, communicated some time since to the French ambassador.</p> + +<p>Louis XIII was at this time engaged in war with Austria, and Richelieu +was too busy to attend to Canadian matters, which were of less +importance than the European questions which occupied his time. Interior +dissensions were soon added to the trouble which France had to undergo. +Gaston, the king's brother, was compromised, and the Duke of +Montmorency, who took part in a plot against the king, was seized and +put to death.</p> + +<p>The negotiations commenced in 1629 were not resumed until 1632. In the +meantime the English authorities had not been idle. Charles I had not +forgotten his promise, and even if he had, there were men in France who +had a good memory. On June 12th, 1631, Charles I addressed a long letter +to Sir Isaac Wake, ambassador to France, respecting the restitution of +Quebec and Acadia. The terms were as follows:—</p> + +<p>"That which we require, which is the payment of the remainder of the +money, the restitution of certain ships taken and kept without any +colour or pretence, and the taking of arrests and seizures which were +made in that kingdom against our subjects contrary to treaty, being of +right and due. And that which is demanded of us concerning the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span>places +in Canada and those parts, and some few ships of that nation (French) +which remained yet unrestored, but have passed sentence of confiscation +in our high Court of Admiralty upon good grounds in justice, being +things of courtesy and good correspondence."</p> + +<p>According to her marriage settlement the Queen Henrietta possessed a +dowry of eight hundred thousand crowns, equivalent to eight hundred +thousand écus de trois livres, French currency. The half of that sum had +been made payable on the day before the marriage in London, and the +other half a little later. The marriage took place on June 13th, 1625, +and the first instalment was then paid. In the year 1631 the second +instalment had not been paid, and Charles I claimed it as one of the +conditions of settlement.</p> + +<p>Some historians have stated that the king took this opportunity to have +a money question solved. If, however, the debt was legitimate, France +was obliged to pay it, and the difficulties that had occurred in the +meantime had nothing to do with the deed of marriage upon which the +claim was based. Chateauneuf had promised to pay the claim. Unless, +therefore, there was any doubt as to the right of the king to claim the +sum, it is difficult to understand why the king should be blamed.</p> + +<p>In his letter to his ambassador at Paris Charles I alludes to documents +exchanged between Chateauneuf and Fontenay-Mareuil on the one side, and +the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span>lords commissioners appointed to give a ruling. In this document it +is noticed that Guillaume de Caën had discussed with Kirke the value of +the goods and peltry that had been taken out of the stores at Quebec. +They disagreed both as to the number and value. De Caën claimed four +thousand two hundred and sixty-six beaver skins which had been captured +by Kirke, while Kirke pretended to have found only one thousand seven +hundred and thirteen, and that the balance of his cargo, four thousand +skins, was the result of trade with the Indians.</p> + +<p>According to the books of the English company, Kirke had bought four +thousand five hundred and forty beaver skins, four hundred and +thirty-two elk skins, and had found in the stores one thousand seven +hundred and thirteen beaver skins. The difference in the calculation is +due to the fact that the English only mentioned the beaver skins +registered in their books, and the French included all the skins which +belonged to them when the fort surrendered, making no mention of those +that they had taken out of the fort with the permission of the English. +Guillaume de Caën valued each skin at twelve pounds ten shillings, and +Burlamachi had written from Metz to representatives of the English +company, that he had been compelled to accept de Caën's estimates, as +under the terms of an Act of Private Council, he was bound to make them +good. The king had promised to reimburse de Caën for his losses by the +payment of the sum of fourteen <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span>thousand three hundred and thirty +pounds, of which eight thousand two hundred and seventy pounds were for +his peltry and goods, and six thousand and sixty pounds for the vessels +which had been captured. David Kirke strongly opposed the payment of +this sum on the ground that it was excessive, but the king through his +councillors ordered the payment to be made.</p> + +<p>Having determined to seize the peltry brought to London from Quebec, the +Kirke associates blew off the padlock which had been fixed to the +storehouse door by an order of justice. Some time after, when Guillaume +de Caën visited the store, accompanied by a member of the company and a +constable, he discovered that only three hundred beaver skins and four +hundred elk skins remained. Complaint was lodged with the king, who +ordered Kirke to return the skins which were missing within three days, +on pain of imprisonment or the confiscation of his property. None of the +associates of Kirke appear to have obtained the sympathy of the public +in that affair.</p> + +<p>The English company had suffered a great loss over the transaction, and +the king thought that it would be just to grant them some compensation. +He therefore appointed two commissioners, Sir Isaac Wake and Burlamachi, +to look after the interests of the English company. Their mission was to +make an agreement with Guillaume de Caën, who represented the French +company. After the exchange of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span>a long correspondence, the king of +France agreed to pay to David Kirke the sum of twenty thousand pounds, +on the condition that he should restore the fort of Quebec, the contents +of the storehouse, the vessel belonging to Emery de Caën, and the peltry +seized in Canada.</p> + +<p>David Kirke was much dissatisfied with the agreement, which he believed +was due to the action of Sir Isaac Wake, to whom he wrote, accusing him +of not having followed the instructions of the English company. His +letter concluded with these words: "I understand that the conduct of +this affair has been absolutely irregular, as it is evident that you +have only resorted to the French testimony, having no care for the +English evidence."</p> + +<p>In the same memorandum the Kirke family complained of the fact that the +Company of English Adventurers had been compelled to plead in France, +while the French were not subject to the same conditions. This +accusation was not correct, as Guillaume de Caën had been obliged not +only to live in London in order to vindicate his goods, but also to +watch them and prevent damage.</p> + +<p>Kirke had no other claim than compensation for losses, and de Caën, who +had apparently no responsibility for the conflict of 1629, could not +reasonably be expected to pay the amount of Kirke's claim. The contents +of the storehouse at Quebec were the property of the de Caëns, and in +visiting Quebec Emery de Caën had no other object in view than to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span>secure his goods and take them to France. He had nothing to do with the +war, and believed that he was sailing in times of peace. Thomas Kirke, +by whom he was taken prisoner, treated him as a pirate, illegally, and +in spite of the Treaty of Suze. It is true that the Kirkes ignored the +existence of this treaty when they sailed for America, but this was only +an excuse for their attitude as belligerents.</p> + +<p>As soon as the provisions of the negotiations were determined upon +between the two countries, the claims had to be sent to the king, if +they considered that they had any grievance under the privileges +conferred upon them by letters of marque. The royal commission took a +correct stand in demanding from them in the name of Charles I an +indemnity for France. All these differences were at length terminated +through the energetic interference of Richelieu. These disputes had +lasted for more than two years, and constantly occupied the attention of +the ambassadors. The king of France, therefore, empowered Bullion and +Bouthillier on January 25th, 1632, to act. Charles I had already sent +Burlamachi to France with letters in favour of the restoration of Canada +and Acadia, and had also given instructions to Sir Isaac Wake, his +ambassador extraordinary. On March 5th, Louis XIII granted an audience +to the ambassadors, and the basis of a treaty was agreed upon. Sir Isaac +Wake represented Charles I, and Bullion and Bouthillier represented the +king of France.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span>The commissioners took up the question of seizures, which was the most +difficult. The king of France agreed to pay the sum of sixty-four +thousand two hundred and forty-six pounds to Lumagne and Vanelly for the +goods seized on the <i>Jacques</i>, and sixty-nine thousand eight hundred and +sixty-six pounds for the goods seized on the <i>Bénédiction</i>, and to +restore these two vessels to their owners within fifteen days. This +agreement included the effects taken from the <i>Bride</i>, and sold at +Calais, the property of Lumagne and Vanelly. The king of England +promised to render and restore all the places occupied by the subjects +of His Majesty of Great Britain in New France, Canada and Acadia, and to +enjoin all those who commanded at Port Royal, at the fort of Quebec and +at Cape Breton, to put these places in the hands of those whom it shall +please His Majesty, eight days after notice given to the officers named +by the king of France.</p> + +<p>Under this agreement, de Caën was obliged to pay for the equipment of a +vessel of two hundred to two hundred and fifty tons, and for the +repatriation of the English subjects established in New France. The +forts and places occupied by the English were to be restored as they +were before their capture, with all arms and ammunition, according to +the detailed list which Champlain had given. Burlamachi was authorized +to pay for everything that was missing, and also to place Emery de Caën +in possession of the ship <i>Hélène</i>, which had been <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span>taken from him, +together with all goods abandoned at Quebec during his voyage of 1631. +Burlamachi was also instructed to pay to Guillaume de Caën the sum of +eighty-two thousand seven hundred pounds within two months. The sum of +sixty thousand six hundred and two pounds tournois was also to be paid +by Burlamachi to whomever it might belong, for the vessels <i>Gabriel</i> of +St. Gilles, <i>Sainte-Anne</i>, of Havre de Grâce, <i>Trinité</i>, of Sables +d'Olonne, <i>St. Laurent</i>, of St. Malo, and <i>Cap du Ciel</i>, of Calais, +seized by the English after the signing of the Treaty of Suze.</p> + +<p>After this was agreed to, the commissioners embodied in eight articles +the conditions of free trade between the two countries. The whole was +signed by Wake, Bullion and Bouthillier, at St. Germain-en-Laye, on +March 29th, 1632.</p> + +<p>Thus terminated this quarrel between England and France, but it was only +the precursor of a far more serious conflict which was to arise. From +time to time, however, these differences were adjusted temporarily by +treaties, only to lead to further complications. The principal +difficulty arose regarding the boundaries of New France, the limits of +which were not clearly defined in the treaty. Some adjacent parts were +claimed by the English as their territory. The king of France had +granted to the Hundred Associates "in all property, justice and +seigniory, the fort and habitation of Quebec, together with the country +of New France, or Canada, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span>along the coasts ... coasting along the sea +to the Arctic circle for latitude, and from the Island of Newfoundland +for longitude, going to the west to the great lake called Mer Douce +(Lake Huron), and farther within the lands and along the rivers which +passed through them and emptied in the river called St. Lawrence, +otherwise the great river of Canada, etc."</p> + +<p>Quebec was considered as the centre of these immense possessions of the +king of France, and included the islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton +and St. John (Prince Edward).</p> + +<p>The king of England had granted to Sir Thomas Gates and others, in 1606, +three years after the date of de Monts' letters patent, "this part of +America commonly called Virginia, and the territories between the +thirty-fourth and forty-fifth degrees of latitude, and the islands +situated within a space of one hundred miles from the coasts of the said +countries."</p> + +<p>In the year 1621, James I granted to Sir William Alexander, Count of +Sterling, certain territory, which under the name of Nova Scotia was +intended to comprise the present provinces of Nova Scotia, New +Brunswick, the islands of St. John and Cape Breton, and the whole of +Gaspesia. Charles I granted to Sir William Alexander in the year 1625 +another charter, which revoked the one of 1621.</p> + +<p>It is evident that the king of England and the king of France had each +given charters covering <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span>about the same extent of territory, and it is +therefore easy to understand that tedious correspondence of a +complicated nature thereby arose between the two countries. The treaty +of St. Germain-en-Laye did not determine the question of the boundaries +of the territory, and each power reserved its rights in this respect.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of Quebec at this time were in a state of suspense, for +they had no knowledge of the progress made with the negotiations between +the two countries. They had no reason to complain of the English, +however, who treated them well, but the Huguenots, their own countrymen, +who seemed prepared to serve under the English flag, were, as usual, +troublesome and fanatical on religious questions. The settlers were so +much distressed at not having the benefit of the ministration of a +priest of their church, that they had resolved to leave the country at +the earliest opportunity.</p> + +<p>The Lutheran minister, who had decided to remain at Quebec with Kirke's +men, had much to suffer. His advice was not accepted by his own people, +and he was, moreover, kept in prison for a period of six months under +the pretext of inciting the soldiers of the garrison to rebellion. All +these disagreements rendered the condition of the Catholics almost +unendurable.</p> + +<p>On July 13th, 1632, a white flag was seen floating from a vessel which +was entering the harbour of Quebec. The inhabitants were rejoiced, and +when <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span>they were able to hear mass in the house of Madame Hébert, their +happiness was complete. It was three years since they had enjoyed this +privilege. One girl had been born in the interval, to the wife of +Guillaume Couillard. But no death had been recorded, except the murder +of an Iroquois prisoner by a Montagnais while in a state of +intoxication.</p> + +<p>The Jesuits who had arrived at the same time as Emery de Caën, took +charge of the Quebec mission. In the year 1627, the Récollets, seeing +that their mission had not apparently produced the results that they +desired, and that they were also reduced to great distress, resolved to +abandon New France for a country less ungrateful. We have seen that +after the capitulation, the Récollets left with the greater number of +the French for their motherland, but when they heard that Canada had +been restored to France, they made preparations to resume their labours. +Their superiors offered no objection, but the chief directors of the +Hundred Associates, thinking the establishment of two different +religious orders in the country, which as yet had no bishop, would +create jealousies, determined to refuse the services of the Récollets.</p> + +<p>Jean de Lauzon, intendant of the company for Canadian affairs, made a +formal protest, and thus these noble missionaries were forced to abandon +their work in Canada. The Récollets were much disappointed, but Father +Le Caron, the first apostle to the Huron tribes, was so distressed at +the news <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span>that he was taken ill and died on March 29th, 1632, some days +before the departure of Emery de Caën for Quebec. He had brought some +manuscripts from Canada, which were accidently burnt in Normandy. This +man was perhaps the purest example of all the Récollets in Canada. +Others had a more illustrious name, but none gave greater proof of +devotedness and courage in their dealings with the Indians, and +especially the Hurons. He was generally regarded as a saint.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<h3>THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN NEW FRANCE</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>The</b></span> Jesuits, who had only been in the country about four years, had not +as yet a true idea of the magnitude of the task they had undertaken. +Father Charles Lalemant had abandoned the theatre of his first apostolic +labours on our Canadian soil, at the same time that some workmen whom +Father Noyrot had brought from France during the preceding year, left +the place. He was the last representative, together with Fathers Massé, +de Noüe and de Brébeuf of the primitive church of Canada. Mention has +been made of the temporary residence in the convent of the Récollets, +and of a building which was erected for themselves at about two hundred +feet from the shore, near the junction of the river Lairet and the river +St. Charles. The Jesuits received a concession of this land which was +bounded on the west by a stream called St. Michel, and the river St. +Mary or Beauport on the east. This was named the Seigniory of Notre Dame +des Anges.</p> + +<p>The Jesuits' convent was finished on April 6th, 1626. It was a poor +residence of about forty feet in length and thirty feet in width. The +building contained a small chapel dedicated to Notre Dame des Anges, on +account of a picture which decorated <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span>a wall representing the Blessed +Virgin receiving the homage of angels. This name extended beyond the +chapel, and was given to the seigniory, and after a lapse of three +centuries, it remains unchanged.</p> + +<p>The different mission-stations of the Jesuits in Canada and around the +gulf of the St. Lawrence were maintained at the expense of the Hundred +Associates from the year 1632, with the exception of their college at +Quebec which was founded through the liberality of the Marquis de +Gamache, who gave them a sum of sixteen thousand écus d'or for that +purpose, in 1626, on the occasion of his son taking religious vows. The +offer was accepted by Father Vitelleschi, general of the order, and the +college was founded in 1635, and opened a few years later. "This," +writes Parkman, "was the cradle of the great missions of Canada!"</p> + +<p>As soon as the Jesuits arrived they commenced to repair their residence, +and in the year 1632 it was in a fit state for a banquet which was given +to Emery de Caën, who had been appointed governor <i>ad interim</i> of the +French colony.</p> + +<p>Champlain returned from France to Quebec in the month of June of the +following year, and again took over the government of New France. He +brought with him Fathers Massé and Jean de Brébeuf, and their arrival +was the dawn of a brighter era for the Canadian missions. The Jesuits +founded, during the same year, a mission at Three Rivers, and another at +Ihonatiria in the Huron country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span> The mission-stations at Miscou and at +Cape Breton were also opened at about the same time, but they were all, +practically speaking, dependent upon the liberality of the Hundred +Associates.</p> + +<p>The Jesuits in their Relations of 1635 regarded the establishment of the +mission of Notre Dame des Anges as destined to fulfil three designs +which they had in view for the honour and glory of God. These were: (1.) +To erect a college for the education of young Frenchmen who were +becoming more and more numerous. (2.) To found a seminary for young +Indians for the purpose of civilizing or improving their moral +condition. (3.) To extend the missions of the Jesuits among the Hurons +and other savage tribes. These three designs were in a measure +accomplished by this means. From the year 1626 Quebec was the principal +centre of Canadian missions, which extended from Tadousac to the Great +Lakes. Seeing that the French were all gathering in the vicinity of Fort +St. Louis, and that their convent was exposed to attacks of the Indians, +the Jesuits decided to build their new college upon the promontory of +Cape Diamond. In the year 1637 the Hundred Associates conceded twelve +acres of land to the Jesuits near Fort St. Louis, upon which they built +their college and a church, some years after. The seminary for young +Indians was opened in the year 1627, and Father Charles Lalemant +conducted a class for them as long as there were pupils to attend.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span>The seminary of Notre Dame des Anges has an interesting though brief +history. It was Father Le Jeune's intention to have removed it near to +the fort. The question of transferring it to the Huron country, in order +to obtain a greater number of pupils had been discussed, but there were +many reasons against the change, the principal being that the proximity +to the Huron families would have caused the fathers annoyance. The +seminary was, therefore, continued at Notre Dame des Anges, where it +remained until it was closed. Father Le Jeune wrote to the Provincial in +France on August 28th, 1636:—</p> + +<p>"I consider it very probable that, if we had a good building in Kébec we +would get more children through the very same means by which we +despaired of getting them. We have always thought that the excessive +love the savages bear their children would prevent our obtaining them. +It will be through this very means that they will become our pupils; +for, by having a few settled ones, who will attract and retain the +others, the parents, who do not know what it is to refuse their +children, will let them come without opposition. And, as they will be +permitted during the first few years to have a great deal of liberty, +they will become so accustomed to our food and our clothes that they +will have a horror of the savages and their filth. We have seen this +exemplified in all the children brought up among our French. They get so +well <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span>acquainted with each other in their childish plays that they do +not look at the savages, except to flee from them or make sport of them. +Our great difficulty is to get a building, and to find the means with +which to support these children. It is true we are able to maintain them +at Notre Dame des Anges; but as this place is isolated, so that there +are no French children there, we have changed the plan that we formerly +had to locate the seminary there. Experience shows us that it must be +established where the bulk of the French population is, to attract the +little savages by the French children. And, since a worthy and virtuous +person has commenced by giving something for a seminary we are going to +give up our attempts to clear some land, and shall make an effort to +build at Kébec. I say an effort, for it is with incredible expense and +labour that we build in these beginnings. What a blessing from God if we +can write next year that instruction is being given in New France in +three or four languages. I hope, if we succeed in getting a lodging, to +see three classes at Kébec—the first, of little French children, of +whom there will be perhaps twenty or thirty pupils; the second, of +Hurons; the third, of Montagnés."</p> + +<p>Father Daniel was the chief of the seminary, although he was generally +assisted by other fathers, who instructed the children of the families +residing near the convent. The chapel was used as a classroom, and both +the boys and girls made good pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span>gress. They were soon taught to observe +the customs of the French, such as joining their hands in prayers, +kneeling or standing during the recitation of their lessons. They were +also taught to answer with modesty, and to be respectful in their +behaviour. The girls were especially apt at learning, and they +endeavoured to imitate the French girls, for whom they appeared to have +great love. At certain intervals a public meeting was held, at which the +governor and the citizens of Quebec were present, and the pupils were +questioned on religious subjects. The most successful received a reward +at the hands of the governor, consisting of either a knife or an awl. +They were called upon to kiss the governor's hand, and to make a bow <i>à +la française</i>.</p> + +<p>The pupils of the seminary were chiefly Hurons, and the names of some of +the more prominent are known. These were Satouta, Tsiko, Teouatirhon, +Andehoua, Aïandacé. The three first died during their residence in +Quebec, on account of the change of air and of diet. Father Le Jeune has +written that these young Indians were the columns of the seminary. They +were, in fact, endued with many good qualities, and had given great +hopes for the future. Satouta was the son of a Huron admiral, who was +the most popular and best known Indian in the country. His authority was +considered supreme, and in nautical matters his word was law. He had +promised that at his death Satouta should inherit his name.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span>Tsiko was the son of Ouanda Koka, one of the best speakers of his +tribe, and he had won the esteem and admiration of his people through +his talents. Tsiko had inherited his father's gifts, and spoke so well +that he astonished all who heard him, especially the fathers.</p> + +<p>Andehoua was a model of virtue. He was baptized under the name of Armand +Jean, in honour of Cardinal Richelieu. The governor stood as his +godfather. Andehoua made such good progress in his studies that he +became a sort of missionary, and he did everything in his power to +convert his countrymen. He died at the Hôtel Dieu, Quebec, in 1654, at +the early age of thirty-six.</p> + +<p>From the year 1639 the number of seminarists began to decrease, until +there was only one. However, in the year 1643 four young Hurons went +down to Quebec to receive instruction, and were baptized. Their +godfathers were LeSueur de St. Sauveur, a priest, Martial Piraube, M. de +Repentigny and M. de la Vallée. In the Relations of the Jesuits the +names of three are preserved: Ateiachias, Atarohiat, and Atokouchioüani.</p> + +<p>The seminary was then finally closed. The Jesuits opened another at +Three Rivers, and at the commencement there were six pupils, but at the +end of a year there were none. After eight years' experience, the +Jesuits realized that it was impossible successfully to make an Indian +boy adopt the manners and habits of the French, and the same result <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span>was +afterwards found by others who tried the experiment.</p> + +<p>In the year 1635, the Jesuits' missions in New France included those at +Cape Breton, Richibucto and Miscou Island. The mission of Miscou was the +best organized and the most populous; the Catholics of Gaspé, Miramichi +and Nipisiguit (Bathurst) went there. The island of Miscou is situated +at the northern extremity of the coast of New Brunswick, near the +entrance of the Baie des Chaleurs. It was the common residence of the +Jesuits and of the two first who came here, Father Charles Turgis and +Father Charles du Marché. On their arrival they found twenty-three +Frenchmen there, who were endeavouring to form a settlement. +Unfortunately, most of them were taken ill with scurvy, from which they +died, including the captain, the surgeon, a clerk and nine or ten +officers. Father du Marché was forced to leave the island, and finally +Father Turgis succumbed to the disease, and left behind him a single +man, who was in a dying condition.</p> + +<p>In the year 1637, two other Jesuits came to this inhospitable island, +Father Jacques de la Place and Father Nicholas Gondoin. They found only +nine persons there, who were in charge of the storehouse. A year later, +Father Claude Quentin, superior of the Canadian missions, came to assist +his confrère, who had undertaken to erect a chapel, but after three +years of constant labour, they both returned to Quebec in an exhausted +condition.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span>Father Dollebeau and Father André Richard then took charge of the +mission on the island of Miscou, but the former was taken ill and was +obliged to return to France. During the voyage the vessel was captured +by three English frigates, and while pillaging the ship a soldier set +fire to the powder magazine, and as a result Father Dollebeau and the +whole crew perished.</p> + +<p>In the course of years, however, the Miscou mission increased, and the +chapel proving insufficient to accommodate the congregation, the Jesuits +built another at the entrance of the river Nipisiguit.</p> + +<p>Father de Lyonne was the real founder of this new mission. Nipisiguit +was a good trading and fishing-station, and a general rendezvous for the +French as well as the Indians; it was also a safe harbour. Between the +years 1650 and 1657, Father de Lyonne crossed the ocean three times in +the interest of his mission, and in the year 1657 he founded another +mission at Chedabucto, where he ended his career.</p> + +<p>The field of the missionaries was divided after the year 1650. Father de +Lyonne took charge of the mission at Chedabucto, while the stations at +Miscou and Nipisiguit were under the control of Father Richard, and +Father Frémin was given charge of the Richibucto mission. In the year +1661, Father Richard replaced Father de Lyonne at Chedabucto, but he +only remained there one year.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span>The missions of the Jesuits in Acadia and Baie des Chaleurs closed with +the departure of Father Richard. Some historians of Acadia mention the +labours of Father Joseph Aubéri, whom Chateaubriand has immortalized in +his "Atala." Father Aubéri prepared a map of Acadia, and also a +memorandum of the boundaries of New France and New England in the year +1720.</p> + +<p>The mission-station at Cape Breton was commenced in 1634, and Father +Julian Perrault, a Jesuit, took up his residence there and gave +religious instruction to the Micmacs, whom he found very attentive. The +Micmacs were a hardy race, of great stature. Some of the men who were +upwards of eighty years of age had not a single white hair.</p> + +<p>Champlain gave to Cape Breton the name of St. Lawrence Island. The name +was originally given to the cape but it was afterwards applied to the +island. Bras d'Or was called Bibeaudock by the Indians, and Louisburg +was commonly known as Port aux Anglais. The Portuguese had formerly +occupied the island, but they were forced to leave it on account of the +temperature and other causes. Nicholas Denys, who had been obliged to +abandon Chedabucto, in Acadia, came to the island and founded Fort St. +Pierre, which was taken from him in the year 1654 by Emmanuel le Borgne +de Belle Isle, and by one Guilbault, a merchant of La Rochelle. Denys +then took up his residence, sometimes at Miscou, sometimes at Gaspé or +at Nipisiguit. His <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span>son Charles Denys, Sieur de Fronsac, had settled on +the shores of the river Miramichi.</p> + +<p>The first Jesuits who were invited to take charge of the Cape Breton +mission were Fathers Vimont and de Vieux-Pont, who had been brought out +by Captain Daniel, who, it will be remembered, lost a great deal of time +in attacking the fort which had been built on the river du Grand Cibou +by Stuart. The two Jesuits and forty men were left here. The Jesuits, +however, returned to France in 1630. Fathers Davost and Daniel were +missionaries at Cape Breton in 1633, and when Champlain visited the +place on May 5th of that year, he met the two Jesuits, who soon +afterwards returned with him to Quebec.</p> + +<p>Father Perrault resided at Cape Breton during the years 1634 and 1635, +and Fathers Richard and d'Endemare came in the following year and took +up their residence at Fort Ste. Anne in Grand Cibou Bay. This place had +many advantages, as it was naturally fortified, and three thousand small +vessels could anchor safely in the bay. The Jesuits remained at Cape +Breton until the arrival of Bishop de Laval in 1659. These various +missions which we have recorded, constitute the religious history of the +islands and coasts of the gulf of St. Lawrence during the greater part +of the seventeenth century, and they were all founded by Champlain or +under his administration, and he certainly took an active part in the +civilization of the Micmacs.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span>In a memorandum addressed to the king, Champlain had set forth his +intention to erect a church at Quebec, to be dedicated to the Redeemer. +He was, however, unable to accomplish his design. He had also made a +solemn promise to the Blessed Virgin, between the years 1629 and 1632, +to erect a church in honour of Notre Dame de la Recouvrance, and on his +return to Quebec he set out to fulfil his obligation. The occasion was +favourable, as the chapel near the habitation in Lower Town had been +completely ruined.</p> + +<p>The chapel of Notre Dame de la Recouvrance was erected during the summer +of 1633, and in the autumn of the same year the Jesuits said mass for +the inhabitants within the building. The increase of the population and +of their religious zeal within the two following years, induced +Champlain to raise this humble chapel into a small church. The building +was therefore enlarged, and from that date the services assumed a +character of solemnity which had been unknown before. Grand mass was +celebrated every Sunday by a Jesuit, and the inhabitants each in turn +offered consecrated loaves. In the afternoon, after vespers, the +catechism was explained by the fathers. The French were very regular in +their attendance at these ceremonies, and also at the religious +instructions.</p> + +<p>Father Charles Lalemant was the first Jesuit who lived at the presbytery +as a parish priest. His successor was Father Jean de Quen. Father Le<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span> +Jeune wrote at that time:—"As soon as we had been lodged near the +church (Notre Dame de la Recouvrance) Father Lalemant who had just begun +to live at the residence, at the same time initiated its solemnities; +Father de Quen has succeeded him with the same inclination for ceremony. +I frankly confess that my heart melted the first time I assisted in this +divine service, at the sight of our Frenchmen so greatly rejoicing to +hear sung aloud and publicly the praises of the great God in the midst +of a barbarous people, at the sight of little children speaking the +Christian language in another world.... Monsieur Gand's zeal in +exercising all his energies to cause our French to love these solemn and +public devotions, seems to me very praiseworthy. But the regulations of +Monsieur our governor, his very remarkable example, and the piety of the +more prominent people, hold all in the line of duty."</p> + +<p>When Champlain was on his deathbed he was aware that his promise had +been fulfilled. Notre Dame de la Recouvrance was then a nice church, and +it was due to his labours. By his last will he bequeathed to this church +all his personal chattels, and three thousand livres in stock of the +Company of New France, and nine hundred livres which he had invested in +a private company founded by some associates, together with a sum of +four hundred livres from his private purse. It was the whole fortune of +the first governor of New France. This <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span>will was afterwards contested +and annulled, and the church was only allowed to receive the sum of nine +hundred livres, which had been realized from the sale of his personal +property. This sum was devoted to the purchase of a pyx, a silver gilt +chalice, and a basin and cruets.</p> + +<p>Several gifts were made for the decoration of the church of Notre Dame +de la Recouvrance. Duplessis-Bochart presented two pictures, one +representing the Blessed Virgin, and the other the Holy Family. De +Castillon, seignior of the Island of Orleans, offered four small +pictures, one of St. Ignace de Loyola, of St. François Xavier, of St. +Stanislas de Kostka, and of St. Louis de Gonzagne, and also a large +engraving of Notre Dame. Champlain had also placed on one of the walls a +painting which had been rescued from the shipwreck during Father +Noyrot's voyage.</p> + +<p>During the year after Champlain's death, the Jesuits consecrated the +church of Notre Dame de la Recouvrance under the name of the Immaculate +Conception, which from that date was the special patron of the parochial +church of Quebec.</p> + +<p>The inauguration of this patronage afforded an opportunity for public +rejoicing. On December 7th, 1636, a flag was hoisted on the fort and the +cannon were fired many times. On the 8th, the day observed by the church +in honour of the Immaculate Conception, the citizens fired a salute from +the muskets at dawn, and they all assisted at mass, and received the +Holy Communion. Devotion to the Mother of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span> God soon became general among +the people, who were characterized as moral and honest.</p> + +<p>Notre Dame de la Recouvrance was burnt on June 14th, 1640. In a few +hours the residence of the Jesuits, the parochial church, and the chapel +of Champlain, where his bones had been placed, were destroyed. The +Relation of 1640 gives a short description of the catastrophe: "A rather +violent wind, the extreme drouth, the oily wood of the fir of which +these buildings were constructed, kindled a fire so quick and violent +that hardly anything could be done. All the vessels and the bells and +chalices were melted; the stuffs some virtuous persons had sent to us to +clothe a few seminarists, or poor savages, were consumed in this same +sacrifice. Those truly royal garments that His Majesty had sent to our +savages to be used in public functions, to honour the liberality of so +great a king, were engulfed in this fiery wreck, which reduced us to the +hospital, for we had to go and take lodgings in the hall of the poor, +until monsieur, our governor, loaned us a house, and after being lodged +therein, the hall of the sick had to be changed into a church." This +conflagration was a great loss. The registers were burnt, and the +Jesuits had to reproduce them from memory. The chief buildings of Quebec +had disappeared, and it was seventeen years before a new church was +built.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<h3>THE GROWTH OF QUEBEC</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>A quarter</b></span> of a century had elapsed since the founding of Quebec, and +still it could scarcely be regarded as other than a village, while in +some parts of New France colonization was absolutely null. Agriculture +had received some attention in the vicinity of Quebec, but it was on +such a small scale that it should be termed gardening rather than +farming.</p> + +<p>Charlevoix writes: "The fort of Quebec, surrounded by a few wretched +houses and some sheds, two or three cabins on the island of Montreal, as +many, perhaps, at Tadousac, and at some other points on the river St. +Lawrence, to accommodate fishers and traders, a settlement begun at +Three Rivers and the ruins of Port Royal, this was all that constituted +New France—the sole fruit of the discoveries of Verrazzani, Jacques +Cartier, de Roberval, Champlain, of the great expenses of the Marquis de +la Roche and de Monts, and of the industry of many Frenchmen, who might +have built up a great colony had they been well directed."</p> + +<p>The various companies, as we have seen, took no interest whatever in +settling the country, their chief design being to carry on fur trade +with the Indians.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span> Patriotism had no meaning for them, the all-absorbing +question was money. This was not the case, however, with the company +established by Cardinal Richelieu, whose desire was to christianize the +savages, to found a powerful colony, and to secure for his king the +possession of New France. The principal associates of this company were +pious, patriotic and zealous men, who laboured to extend the power and +influence of France throughout the vast continent of America for the +honour and glory of God. There were among the associates a certain +number of gentlemen and ecclesiastics, who, realizing their incapacity +to transact the business of such an important undertaking, preferred to +hand over the administration to merchants of Dieppe, Rouen and Paris, +together with the advantages to be derived therefrom. A special +association was consequently formed, composed of merchants who undertook +the financial affairs of the settlement, such as paying the new +governor, providing ammunition and provisions, and maintaining the +forts; and if there were profits they were to be divided amongst the +Hundred Associates. This association was formed before the departure of +Champlain for Quebec in 1633. Its agents were a merchant of Rouen named +Rosée, and Cheffault, a lawyer of Paris, who had a representative at +Quebec.</p> + +<p>As it was necessary for the Hundred Associates to appoint a governor of +New France, they offered the position to Champlain, as he was +universally <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span>respected and known to be experienced and disinterested. +Moreover he was well acquainted with the country, and on friendly terms +with the savages. It is doubtful whether any one could have taken his +place with better prospects of success. Champlain, moreover, desired to +finish his work, and although there was much to accomplish, the future +appeared more favourable than at any other time. The company had a large +capital at its disposal, and this alone seemed to insure the success of +the colony. Three ships were equipped for Quebec in the spring of 1633, +the <i>St. Pierre</i>, one hundred and fifty tons burden, carrying twelve +cannon; the <i>St. Jean</i>, one hundred and sixty tons, with ten cannon, and +the <i>Don de Dieu</i>, eighty tons, with six cannon. The ships carried about +two hundred persons, including two Jesuits, a number of sailors and +settlers, and one woman and two girls. Provisions and ammunition were in +abundance. When the fleet arrived in the St. Lawrence, Champlain saw a +number of English trading vessels which were there contrary to the +treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye. From this moment Champlain resolved to +establish a fixed post for trading, both for the Indians as well as +strangers. The island selected for this purpose by Champlain was +situated in the river St. Lawrence, about ten leagues above Quebec, and +was named Richelieu Island.</p> + +<p>Champlain caused the island to be fortified as soon as possible, and +surrounded it with a platform, upon which cannon were placed pointing in +every <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span>direction. Sentinels were placed on guard, and it would have been +impossible for vessels to pass unobserved. The Indians were informed of +this new plan, and in the autumn of the same year, the Nipissings and +the Algonquins of the Iroquet came to this island for trading. The +Hurons, however, came to Quebec, as they had heard from the Algonquins +of Allumette Island that the French would take revenge for the murder of +Étienne Brûlé. Champlain did not desire to punish them for the death of +this traitor, and he therefore did his best to retain the friendship of +the Indians, and entertained them at public feasts. He knew well that +their fur trade was of great importance, and, moreover, he wanted them +as allies in the event of an attack by the Iroquois, which might be +expected at any time, as they were unreliable and always anxious for +war. A league with the Hurons, Algonquins and Montagnais, with one +hundred French, would, in the opinion of Champlain, be sufficient to +protect the colony, and he wrote to that effect to the cardinal. This +was probably his last letter to the great minister:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"<span class="smcap">Monseigneur</span>:—The honour of the commands that I have +received from your Eminence has inspired me with greater courage to +render you every possible service with all the fidelity and +affection that can be desired from a faithful servant. I shall +spare neither my blood nor my life whenever the occasion shall +demand them.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span>"There are subjects enough in these regions, if your Eminence, +considering the character of the country, shall desire to extend +your authority over them. This territory is more than fifteen +hundred leagues in length, lying between the same parallels of +latitude as our own France. It is watered by one of the finest +rivers in the world, into which empty many tributaries more than +four hundred leagues in length, beautifying a country inhabited by +a vast number of tribes. Some of them are sedentary in their mode +of life, possessing, like the Muscovites, towns and villages built +of wood; others are nomadic hunters and fishermen, all longing to +welcome the French and religious fathers, that they may be +instructed in our faith.</p> + +<p>"The excellence of this country cannot be too highly estimated or +praised, both as to the richness of the soil, the diversity of the +timber such as we have in France, the abundance of wild animals, +game and fish, which are of extraordinary magnitude. All this +invites you, monseigneur, and makes it seem as if God had created +you above all your predecessors to do a work here more pleasing to +Him than any that has yet been accomplished.</p> + +<p>"For thirty years I have frequented this country, and have acquired +a thorough knowledge of it, obtained from my own observation and +the information given me by the native inhabitants. Monseigneur, I +pray you to pardon my zeal, if I say that, after your renown has +spread throughout the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span> East, you should end by compelling its +recognition in the West.</p> + +<p>"Expelling the English from Quebec has been a very important +beginning, but, nevertheless, since the treaty of peace between the +two crowns, they have returned to carry on trade and annoy us in +this river, declaring that it was enjoined upon them to withdraw, +but not to remain away, and that they have their king's permission +to come for the period of thirty years. But, if your Eminence +wills, you can make them feel the power of your authority. This can +furthermore be extended at your pleasure to him who has come here +to bring about a general peace among these people, who are at war +with a nation holding more than four hundred leagues in subjection, +and who prevent the free use of the rivers and highways. If this +peace were made, we should be in complete and easy enjoyment of our +possessions. Once established in the country, we could expel our +enemies, both English and Flemings, forcing them to withdraw to the +coast, and, by depriving them of trade with the Iroquois, oblige +them to abandon the country entirely. It requires but one hundred +and twenty men, light armed for avoiding arrows, by whose aid, +together with two or three thousand savage warriors, our allies, we +should be, within a year, absolute masters of all these people; and +by establishing order among them, promote religious worship and +secure an incredible amount of traffic.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span>"The country is rich in mines of copper, iron, steel, brass, +silver, and other minerals which may be found here.</p> + +<p>"The cost, monseigneur, of one hundred and twenty men is a trifling +one to His Majesty, the enterprise the most noble that can be +imagined.</p> + +<p>"All for the glory of God, whom I pray with my whole heart to grant +you ever increasing prosperity, and to make me all my life, +monseigneur, your most humble, most faithful and most obedient +servant,</p> + +<p style="text-align: right;"> +"<span class="smcap">Champlain.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>"At Quebec, in New France, August 15th, 1635."</p></div> + +<p>In order to consolidate his general scheme for the colonization of the +country, Champlain desired that the missionaries should settle +permanently among the Huron tribes. The Jesuits wished to go there, as +they believed they would find a field for their labours. They had +previously set before the people the light of the Catholic faith, but +these efforts had not been as successful as they had wished. Father de +Brébeuf, the apostle to the Hurons, having decided to return to his +former sphere of labours, left for the Huron country in 1634, prepared +to remain there as long as there was work to be done. He was destined to +live among the Hurons until they were finally dispersed by the Iroquois.</p> + +<p>When Champlain arrived at Quebec, he summoned Emery de Caën to deliver +to Duplessis-Bochart the keys of the fort and habitation. Champlain's +arrival caused much rejoicing among the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span>inhabitants, for he inspired +both their love and respect, and he was, perhaps, the only man who could +impress them with a belief in their future, and thus retain them in the +country. The arrival of a certain number of settlers during the years +1633-4, was also an encouragement for all. The restoration of Canada to +France caused some excitement in the maritime provinces of France, +especially in Normandy, as most of the settlers of New France up to this +date were from there. The exceptions were, Louis Hébert, a native of +Paris, and Guillaume Couillard, of St. Malo. Emigration soon extended to +other parts of the provinces, as the result of the discrimination of the +Relations of the Jesuits, which had been distributed in Paris and +elsewhere during the years 1632 and 1633. Several pious and charitable +persons began to take an interest in the missions of New France, and +forwarded both money and goods to help them.</p> + +<p>Some nuns offered to go to Canada to look after the sick and to instruct +the young girls, and in the year 1633 a few families arrived in Quebec +with Champlain, who had defrayed their expenses.</p> + +<p>In the year 1634 an association was formed in France for the purpose of +promoting colonization, and a group of about forty persons, recruited in +different parts of the province of Perche, were sent to Canada, with +Robert Giffard at their head. Giffard, it will be remembered, had +visited Quebec in the year 1627 as surgeon of the vessels sent out by +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span>the company, but he had no intention of settling in the country. After +having built a log hut on the Beauport shore, he devoted his leisure to +hunting and fishing, game and fish being plentiful at that time, and +returned to France during the same year. He was appointed surgeon to +Roquemont's fleet during the following year, and as the vessels were +captured by the English, he, with the others on board, was compelled to +return to his mother country. This misfortune did not discourage the +former solitary inhabitant of Beauport, and he resolved to revisit the +country, but this time with a view of settling and of farming.</p> + +<p>Giffard had suffered many losses, and as a compensation for his services +and misfortune, he obtained a tract of land from the Company of New +France, one league in length and a league and a half in breadth, +situated between the rivers Montmorency and Beauport, bounded in front +by the river St. Lawrence, and in the rear by the Laurentian Mountains. +He was also granted as a special favour, a tract of land of two acres in +extent, situated near the fort, for the purpose of building a residence, +surrounded with grounds. These concessions, which seem large at first +sight, were, however, not new to the colony. Louis Hébert had been +granted the fief of the Sault au Matelot, and the fief Lepinay, while +the Jesuits had received the fief of Notre Dame des Anges almost free of +conditions.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span>Under these favourable conditions Giffard induced two citizens of +Mortagne, Zacharie Cloutier and Jean Guyon, to accompany him to Canada. +Cloutier was a joiner, and Guyon a mason. They promised their seignior +that they would build him a residence, thirty feet long and sixteen feet +wide.</p> + +<p>The other emigrants came to Canada at their own risk. The party numbered +forty-three persons, including women and children, and were within a +space of from five to eight leagues of Mortagne, the chief town of the +old province of Perche. There were two exceptions, however, Jean +Juchereau came from La Ferté Vidame in Thimerais, and Noël Langlois was +from St. Leonard, in Normandy.</p> + +<p>The vessels bearing the contingent of settlers arrived in Quebec in +June. They were four in number, under the command of Captains de Nesle, +de Lormel, Bontemps, and Duplessis-Bochart. Robert Giffard had preceded +the party by a few days, and he lost no time in selecting the spot where +his residence was to be built, upon which he planted a cross on July +25th. He also commenced clearing the land, and two years after he +gathered in a harvest of wheat sufficient to maintain twenty persons. +The soil in this part was very productive, and it is, even to-day, the +richest in the province of Quebec.</p> + +<p>Among the emigrants of the year 1634 were two remarkable men, Jean +Bourdon, and a priest named Jean LeSueur de St. Sauveur. The Abbé +LeSueur de St. Sauveur had abandoned his parish of St.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span> Sauveur de +Thury, which is to-day known as Thury-Harcourt, in Normandy, to come to +Quebec. One of the suburbs of Quebec to-day takes its name from this +active and devoted priest.</p> + +<p>Jean Bourdon, an inseparable friend of the abbé, established himself on +the borders of Côteau Ste. Geneviève, which is to-day known as St. +John's suburb. He built a house and a mill, and also a chapel, which he +named Chapel St. Jean. Other pioneers soon settled near Bourdon's place, +which finally gave to Quebec a suburb.</p> + +<p>Bourdon was a man of great capacity, and he in turn filled the rôle of +surveyor, engineer, cartographer, delineator, farmer, diplomat and +lawyer. He saw the colony increasing, and knew eight governors of the +colony, including Champlain. He was also acquainted with Bishop Laval, +the Venerable Mother Marie Guyart de l'Incarnation, and was on good +terms with the Jesuits and the nuns of the Hôtel Dieu and Ursuline +Convent. Bourdon played an important part in the affairs of the colony. +He was present at the foundation of the Jesuits' college, of the Quebec +seminary, and of the Conseil Souverain, of which he was procureur +fiscal. Of his personal qualities, the Venerable Mother de l'Incarnation +has written that he was "the father of the poor, the comfort of orphans +and widows, a good example for everybody."</p> + +<p>One of the articles of the act incorporating the Company of New France, +provided that the colony <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span>was to be settled with French and Catholic +subjects only. This provision may appear at first sight to be arbitrary, +but when we consider that one of the chief objects of the colonization +of New France was to convert the savages, and that the Huguenots with +their new form of religion were, generally speaking, hostile to the king +and to the Catholics, it seems to have been a judicious provision. In +such a small community the existence of two creeds so opposed to each +other could hardly have produced harmony, and as the Catholics were +undertaking the enterprise and it originated with them, they surely had +the right to do what they considered would most effectively secure their +ends.</p> + +<p>For political reasons this action could also be defended, for the +loyalty of the Huguenots was, perhaps, doubtful, and their past actions +did not offer any guarantee for the future. They did not hesitate to +preach revolt against the authorities of France, and, therefore, +intimate connection with the Indians might have produced results +prejudicial to the colony. If France had the welfare of the colony at +heart, it behooved her to exclude every disturbing element. Viewed +impartially, this precaution was undoubtedly just, and those who blame +the company for their action, do not rightly understand the difficulties +which existed at that period.</p> + +<p>Richelieu, who had a clear insight into the affairs of the time, did not +prohibit trade between the Huguenots and the Indians, but he refused +them <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span>permission to settle in Canada, or to remain there for any length +of time without special leave. Champlain had observed the attitude of +the Huguenots, their unwillingness to erect a fort at Quebec, their +persecution of the Catholics, and their treatment of the Jesuits, and +although he was not fanatical, he was pleased with this rule. The +foundation of the new settlement was based upon religion, and religion +was essential to its progress. Peace and harmony must be maintained, and +everything that would promote trouble or quarrel must be excluded.</p> + +<p>During the seventeenth century, England preserved a war-like attitude +towards Catholics. A Catholic was not eligible for a public office, and +the learned professions were closed to them, neither could a Catholic +act as a tutor or as an executor to a will. Prejudice was carried still +further, and even the books treating of their faith were suppressed, +while relics or religious pictures were forbidden. These were only a few +of the persecutions to which they were subject.</p> + +<p>As far back as 1621 Champlain had requested the king to forbid +Protestant emigration to Canada, but his petition was not granted, +because the company was composed of mixed creeds. The company formed by +Richelieu, however, was solely Catholic, and there were no difficulties +on this score. The result of this policy was soon manifest. There were +no more dissensions on board the vessels as to places <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span>of worship, and +the Catholics were, as a consequence, enabled to observe their religious +duties without fear of annoyance. The beneficent influence of this +policy extended to the settlement, where the people lived in peace, and +were not subject to the petty quarrels which arose through a difference +in creed.</p> + +<p>In the Relation of 1637 we find evidence of this: "Now it seems to me +that I can say with truth that the soil of New France is watered by so +many heavenly blessings, that souls nourished in virtue find here their +true element, and are, consequently, healthier than elsewhere. As for +those whose vices have rendered them diseased, they not only do not grow +worse, but very often, coming to breathe a salubrious air, and far +removed from opportunities for sin, changing climate they change their +lives, and a thousand times bless the sweet providence of God, which has +made them find the door to felicity where others fear only misery.</p> + +<p>"In a word, God has been worshipped in His houses, preaching has been +well received, both at Kébec and at the Three Rivers, where Father +Buteux usually instructed our French people; each of our brethren has +been occupied in hearing many confessions, both ordinary and general; +very few holidays and Sundays during the winter have passed in which we +have not seen and received persons at the table of our Lord. And certain +ones, who for three, four and five years had not confessed in old +France, now, in the new, approach this so salutary <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span>sacrament oftener +than once a month; prayers are offered kneeling and in public, not only +at the fort, but also in families and little companies scattered here +and there. As we have taken for patroness of the Church of Kébec the +Holy Virgin under the title of her Conception, which we believe to be +immaculate, so we have celebrated this festival with solemnity and +rejoicing.</p> + +<p>"The festival of the glorious Patriarch Saint Joseph, father, patron and +protector of New France, is one of the great solemnities of this +country.... It is, in my opinion, through his favour and through his +merits, that the inhabitants of New France who live upon the banks of +the great river Saint Lawrence, have resolved to receive all the good +customs of the old and to refuse admission to the bad ones.</p> + +<p>"And to tell the truth, so long as we have a governor who is a friend of +virtue, and so long as we have free speech in the Church of God, the +monster of ambition will have no altar there.</p> + +<p>"All the principal personages of our colony honour religion; I say with +joy and God's blessing, that those whom His goodness has given to +command over us, and those also who are coming to establish themselves +in these countries, enjoy, cherish, and wish to follow the most sincere +maxims of Christianity.... Justice reigns here, insolence is banished, +and shamelessness would not dare to raise its head.... It is very +important to introduce good laws and pious customs in these early +beginnings, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span>for those who shall come after us will walk in our +footsteps, and will readily conform to the example given them by us, +whether tending to virtue or vice."</p> + +<p>We could multiply evidence on this point. The Jesuits always recall this +good feature of the settlers, their respect for their religion, its +worship and its ministers.</p> + +<p>The author of the "Secret Life of Louis XV," says that New France owed +its vigour to its first settlers; their families had multiplied and +formed a people, healthy, strong, honourable, and attached to good +principles. Father Le Clercq, a Récollet, the Venerable Mother de +l'Incarnation, and many others, seem to take pleasure in praising the +virtues of our first ancestors.</p> + +<p>Champlain had begun his administration by establishing order everywhere, +and chiefly among the soldiers, who easily understood military +discipline, but the religious code with more difficulty. Fort St. Louis +was like a school of religion and of every virtue. They lived there as +in a monastery. There was a lecture during meals; in the morning they +read history, and at supper the lives of saints. After that they said +their prayers, and Champlain had introduced the old French custom of +ringing the church bells three times a day, during the recitation of the +Angelus. At night, every one was invited to go to Champlain's room for +the night's prayer, said by Champlain himself.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span>These good examples, given by Champlain, governor of the country, were +followed, and produced good fruits of salvation among the whole +population. The blessing of God on the young colony was evident, and +when Champlain died, he had the consolation of leaving after him a +moral, honest and virtuous people.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<h3>CONCLUSION</h3> + + +<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap"><b>In</b></span> the autumn of the year 1635, Champlain suffered from a stroke of +paralysis, which was considered very severe from the commencement. +However, hopes were entertained for his recovery. The months of October +and November passed away, and still no sign of improvement appeared. +Champlain, therefore, made his will, which he was able to sign plainly, +in the presence of some witnesses. Father Charles Lalemant, the friend +and confessor of Champlain, administered to him the last rites of the +church, and on the night of December 25th, 1635, he passed away at Fort +St. Louis.</p> + +<p>All the inhabitants, without exception, were deeply affected on hearing +the news of his demise, and a great number attended his funeral. The +funeral sermon was preached by Father Le Jeune. Champlain was buried in +a grave which had been specially prepared, and later on, a small chapel +was erected to protect his precious remains.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> This chapel was +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span>unfortunately burnt, as we have already mentioned, during the +conflagration of June 14th, 1640.</p> + +<p>The Jesuits' Relations of 1636 give a full account of the last days of +Champlain, which we here quote: "On December 25th, the day of the birth +of our Saviour upon earth, Monsieur de Champlain, our governor, was +reborn in Heaven; at least we can say that his death was full of +blessings. I am sure that God has shown him this favour in consideration +of the benefits he has procured for New France, where we hope some day +God will be loved and served by our French, and known and adored by our +savages. Truly he had led a life of great justice, equity and perfect +loyalty to his king and towards the gentlemen of the company. But at his +death he crowned his virtues with sentiments of piety so lofty that he +astonished us all. What tears he shed! How ardent became his zeal for +the service of God! How great was his love for the families here—saying +that they must be vigorously assisted for the good of the country, and +made comfortable in every possible way in these early stages, and that +he would do it if God gave him health. He was not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span>taken unawares in the +account which he had to render unto God, for he had long ago prepared a +general confession of his whole life, which he made with great +contrition to Father Lalemant, whom he honoured with his friendship. The +father comforted him throughout his sickness, which lasted two months +and a half, and did not leave him until his death. He had a very +honourable burial, the funeral procession being formed of the people, +the soldiers, the captains and the churchmen. Father Lalemant officiated +at this burial, and I was charged with the funeral oration, for which I +did not lack material. Those whom he left behind have reason to be well +satisfied with him; for although he died out of France, his name will +not therefore be any less glorious to posterity."</p> + +<p>Champlain left no posterity. His wife spent only four years in Canada, +after which she resided continually in Paris. During her residence in +New France, she studied the Algonquin language, and instructed the young +Indians in catechism, and in this manner she won the friendship of the +native tribes. It was the fashion of the time for a lady of quality to +wear at her girdle a small mirror, and the youthful Hélène observed the +custom. The savages, who were delighted to be in her company, were oft +time astonished to see their own image reflected on the crystalline +surface of this mirror, and said, with their native simplicity: "A lady +so handsome, who cures our diseases, and loves us to so great an extent +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span>as to bear our image near her breast, must be superior to a human +being." They, therefore, had a kind of veneration for her, and they +would have offered their homage to her instead of to the Deity of whom +they had only an imperfect knowledge.</p> + +<p>The Indians were Madame Champlain's special care, but she was respected +by the French as well. We do not know very much about her social +intercourse with the different families of Quebec, but it is not +probable that she ignored Madame Hébert or her family, as Faillon seems +to believe. Her own distinction and the position of her husband would, +no doubt, render her particular in the choice of friends, but we can +scarcely believe that she would completely ignore Madame Couillard, who +was of her own age. How was it that she consented to live alone in +Quebec during the long absence of her husband?</p> + +<p>After her return to Paris in 1624, Madame Champlain lived alone, and +became more and more detached from the world, till she asked her husband +to allow her to enter an Ursuline convent. Champlain, fearing that this +desire might arise rather from caprice than a vocation for the life of +the cloister, thought it advisable to refuse her request, and he bade +her a last adieu in 1633. After Champlain's death, Father Le Jeune +informed her that she was now free to follow the dictates of her heart.</p> + +<p>According to the marriage settlement, Champlain <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span>was obliged to leave to +his wife, if she were still living, all his possessions. By his last +will, however, he left all his property to the church. Champlain had no +desire to injure his wife by this act; on the contrary, he knew that her +piety was great, and that she would probably applaud the course he had +taken, which was owing to his extraordinary devotion to Notre Dame de la +Recouvrance, the church which he had built and loved. Madame Champlain, +in fact, made no opposition, and the will was confirmed on July 11th, +1637. The will, however, was contested by Marie Camaret, a first cousin +of Champlain, and wife of Jacques Hersault, comptroller of customs at La +Rochelle, and a famous trial was the result. The will was contested on +two grounds: (1.) That the will was contrary to the marriage settlement, +and therefore ought to be annulled; (2.) That the will was made by +foreign hands, as it was difficult to suppose that Champlain had chosen +the Virgin Mary as his heir.</p> + +<p>These were the contentions of Master Boileau. The attorney-general +Bignon easily refuted the second allegation by proving that Madame +Champlain had recognized the signature of her husband, and had stated +that the expression and style were his. The terms of this bequest to the +Virgin were quite natural to a man of Champlain's character, "When we +know," said the attorney, "that he frequently made use of Christian +expressions in his general conversation."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span>Although the authenticity of the will was proved, the attorney-general +argued that it ought to be set aside in face of the deed of settlement. +The court upheld this view, and the property of Champlain, with the +exception of the sum of nine hundred livres, derived from the sale of +his chattels, returned to his natural heirs.</p> + +<p>This trial and other affairs prevented Madame Champlain from carrying +out her resolution, and it was not until November 7th, 1645, that she +entered the monastery of St. Ursula at Paris. She first entered the +institution as a benefactress, and soon after became a novice under the +name of Hélène de St. Augustin. There seems to have been some +difficulties with regard to her profession as a nun, and she therefore +resolved to found an Ursuline monastery at Meaux. Bishop Séguier granted +the necessary permission to found the monastery, and also for her to +take with her three nuns and a lay sister. Hélène de St. Augustin left +Paris for Meaux on March 17th, 1648, and made her profession five months +after. As a preparation for this solemn act, she made a public +confession in the presence of the community. She also recited her +faults, kneeling, and wearing a cord about her neck, and bearing a +lighted taper in her hands. Mère Hélène de St. Augustin lived only six +years in her convent at Meaux, and died on December 20th, 1654, at the +age of fifty years, leaving the memory of a saintly life.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span>Eustache Boullé, the brother of Hélène de St. Augustin, became a +convert to Catholicism through the intervention of his sister, and +entered the Minim order. He was sent to Italy, where he lived for six +years. During his sojourn there his sister sent to him one thousand +livres a year, and at her death she bequeathed to him the sum of six +thousand livres, and all her chattels, together with a pension of four +hundred livres for life.</p> + +<p>All those who have carefully studied the life of Champlain, have been +impressed by the many brilliant qualities which he possessed. Some have +praised his energy, his courage, his loyalty, his disinterestedness, and +his probity. Others have admired the charity which he exhibited towards +his neighbours, his zeal, his practical faith, his exalted views and his +perseverance. The fact is, that in Champlain all these qualities were +united to a prominent degree.</p> + +<p>The contemporaries of Champlain did not perhaps appreciate his merits, +or his heroic efforts as a founder. This is not altogether singular, for +even in the physical world one cannot rightly estimate the altitude of a +mountain by remaining close to its base, but at a distance a just +appreciation of its proportions may be obtained.</p> + +<p>If the contemporaries of Champlain failed to render him justice, +posterity has made amends, and Time, the sole arbitrator of fame, has +placed the founder of Quebec upon a pedestal of glory which will become +more brilliant as the centuries roll on.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span> Nearly three centuries had +elapsed since the heroic Saintongeais first set foot on the soil of +Canada, when, at the close of the nineteenth century, a spectacle was +witnessed in the city of his foundation which proved that the name of +Champlain was graven on the hearts of all Canadians. The ceremonies +attending the inauguration of the splendid monument which now adorns +Quebec, have become a matter of history, and seldom could such a scene +be repeated again. France and England, the two great nations from which +Canadians have descended, each paid homage to the illustrious founder; +nor can we forget the noble tribute which was paid by the latest English +governor, representing Her Majesty Queen Victoria, to the first French +governor, representing His Majesty the King of France and of Navarre.</p> + +<p>It is seldom that the deeds of the great men of past ages have been more +fittingly remembered. Champlain, as we have previously remarked, +possessed in an eminent degree all the qualities necessary for a +founder, and his character is therefore exceptional, for over and above +all the heroism he displayed, all his perseverance, his devotion to his +country, we behold the working of a Christian mind, and the desire to +propagate the faith of his fathers.</p> + +<p>What would have been the result of the missions without his aid? It was +Champlain who caused the standard of our faith to be planted on the +shores of Canada. It was he who brought the missionaries to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span>the new +settlement, and maintained them at Quebec, at Tadousac, and in the Huron +country. It was Champlain, too, who founded the parochial church of +Quebec, and afterwards endowed it.</p> + +<p>Champlain's work rested solely upon a religious foundation, hence his +work has endured. It is true that the founder of Quebec had certain +worldly ambitions: he desired to promote commerce between the French and +the Indians, but surely this is not a matter for which he should be +reproached. Without trade the inhabitants of the settlement could not +exist, and without the development of the settlement, his work of +civilization would necessarily end. He worked for the material +prosperity of the settlement, but not to increase his own fortune. The +development of trade was also essential to Champlain in his capacity of +explorer, and it was only through this means that he could extend the +bounds of his mother country. This was surely the wisdom of a true +patriot. What nobler ambition on earth could any one have than this, to +extend the kingdom of his God and of his king?</p> + +<p>Champlain has been justly called <i>The Father of New France</i>, and this is +certainly a glorious title. The name of Champlain is indissolubly +associated with this country, and will live long after his +contemporaries are forgotten, for many of them now only live through +him.</p> + +<p>America contains a number of towns which have carefully preserved the +names of their founders, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span>whose memories are consecrated by monuments +which will recall to future generations their noble work. But where is +the town or state that can point to a founder whose work equalled that +of Champlain? He had to spend thirty of the best years of his life in +his endeavours to found a settlement on the shores of the St. Lawrence. +Twenty times he crossed the Atlantic in the interests of the colony, and +in the meantime he had constantly to combat the influence of the +merchants who vigorously opposed the settlement of the French in Canada.</p> + +<p>If we study the history of the mercantile companies from the years 1608 +to 1627, we find on the one hand, a body of men absorbed by one idea, +that of growing rich, and on the other hand, a man, anxious, it is true, +to look after the material interests of the merchants and of the people, +but hand in hand with this the desire to extend the dominion of his +sovereign. Here was a vast country, capable of producing great wealth, +and struggling for its possession was a body of avaricious men, while +valiantly guarding its infancy, we find a single champion, the heroic +Champlain. Champlain watched over the new settlement with the tender +solicitude of a parent carefully protecting his offspring from danger, +and ready to sacrifice his life to save it from disaster. In small +vessels of sixty or eighty tons, Champlain had repeatedly exposed his +life to danger in crossing the ocean. His health had also been exposed +during the days and nights spent in the open forests, or when <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span>passing +on the dangerous rivers in his efforts to explore new territory. He was +also constantly at the mercy of the Indians, whose treachery was +proverbial. Under all these dangers and through all these conditions, +Champlain's conduct was exemplary. He was charitable as a missionary +towards these poor children of the woods. When threatened with hunger or +malady, he relieved their wants and took care of the young children, +some of whom he adopted. Others again he placed in French families, +hoping that sooner or later they would be baptized into the fold of +Christ's flock. In his intercourse with the chiefs, Champlain took +occasion to explain to them the rudiments of the Christian faith, hoping +thereby to pave the way for the work of the missionaries. Whenever he +found any children that seemed more intelligent than usual, he sent them +to France, where they could be instructed, and either enter a convent or +take service in some good family. And who can tell whether some of these +children did not afterwards become missionaries to their own country?</p> + +<p>Champlain's prudence in his dealings with the savages was not less +remarkable than his charity. This conduct gave him an influence over the +Indians that no other Frenchman was able to obtain. The Indian tribes +regarded Champlain as a father, but their love was mingled with a +reverential fear, and every word and action was of deep significance to +them. They had faith in Champlain, which after all <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span>was not unusual, for +he had never deceived them. Though they were barbarous and uncouth, and +generally untruthful, they could distinguish the false from the true +from the lips of a Frenchman. Being given to dissimulation themselves, +they could appreciate sincerity in others.</p> + +<p>Some writers have questioned Champlain's prudence touching the alliance +which he made with some Indians for the purpose of fighting the +aggressive Iroquois. We have already shown that if Champlain desired to +maintain his settlement at Quebec, such an alliance was not only +prudent, but essential. The Hurons and allied tribes, it is true, were +barbarous, though not to so great an extent as the Iroquois, but they +had the same vices and were as perfidious. The least discontent or whim +would have been sufficient for the whole band to have swept the fort +away. By making an alliance with them, and promising to assist them +against their inveterate foes, it became to their advantage to support +Champlain, and thus to render his people secure against attack. Moreover +the numerical strength of the settlers in the early days was not +sufficient for Champlain to have imposed terms by force of arms, and as +it was necessary for his people to trade with the Indians, he could not +have done better, under the circumstances, than to form this alliance, +which insured business relations and protection for his countrymen.</p> + +<p>This alliance was undoubtedly made at a sacrifice <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span>to Champlain, and he +had to suffer many humiliations and privations thereby. We cannot +imagine that he found any pleasure in going to war with a lot of +savages, or in fighting against a ferocious band, with whom neither he +nor his people had any quarrel. It is certain that Champlain did not +encourage them in their wars, and he was careful not to put any weapons +into their hands. The same amount of prudence was not exercised by those +who came after the French and endeavoured to colonize New England and +New Netherland.</p> + +<p>Champlain's policy was one of conciliation. He desired peace, harmony +and charity above all things. As a respectful and obedient child of his +mother, the Catholic Church, he was very anxious that her teachings and +advice should be observed by those who were placed under his authority. +Although in his early life he had followed the career of a soldier, +still he regarded the profession of arms as useful only to put into +question the ancient axiom, <i>Si vis pacem, para bellum</i>. Wars and +quarrels had no attraction for Champlain, and he always preferred a +friendly arrangement of any difficulty. He was a lover of peace, rather +than of bloodshed, and the kindly nature of his disposition prevented +him adopting vigorous measures.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, in the fulfilment of his duty as a judge, he was just, and +would punish the guilty in order to restrain abuses or crimes. At this +period there was no court of justice in New France, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span> Champlain's +commission empowered him to name officers to settle quarrels and +disputes. There was a king's attorney, a lieutenant of the Prévôté, and +a clerk of the Quebec jurisdiction, which had been established by the +king. Champlain, however, was often called upon to decide a point of +law, and we learn from his history that he was unable on account of +death to settle a point which had arisen between two of Robert Giffard's +farmers.</p> + +<p>Champlain's authority was very extended, and whatever good may have +resulted from his administration is due to the fact that he exercised +his power with wisdom and prudence. Champlain's influence has expanded +throughout the country wherever the French language is spoken, from the +Huron peninsula, along the Algonquins' river, from Sault St. Louis, +Tadousac and Quebec, and every one has recognized that Champlain alone, +among the men of his day, had sufficient patriotism and confidence in +the future of the colony to maintain and hold aloft under great +difficulties, the lily banner of France on our Canadian shores.</p> + +<p>After having founded Quebec, Champlain, with characteristic wisdom, +chose the places where now stand the cities of Montreal and Three +Rivers. He was particularly fortunate in his selections, and any +buildings that he caused to be erected, were built from his own plans +and under his own directions.</p> + +<p>On the whole, Champlain's writings are very interesting, notwithstanding +the fact that he is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span>somewhat diffuse in his style. Writing in the style +of the commencement of the seventeenth century, we see traces, +especially in his figures and descriptions, of the beauties of a +language which was then in a transitory state. However, whether his +style may be commended or condemned, it is of little consequence, since +he has given to the world such ample details of his life and +achievements as a discoverer, an explorer and a founder. His writings +are the more remarkable from the fact that they were composed during the +scanty leisure of his daily life, and we owe him a debt of gratitude for +having sacrificed this leisure to give us such precious treasures.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> +Such was the life of this peerless man, whose incessant labours were +dedicated to the service of God and the glory of France.</p> + +<p>The city of Quebec is justly proud of her noble founder, and it is a +source of gratification to the inhabitants to point to the stately +monument which stands upon the spot consecrated by the life and death of +Champlain. The inscription commemorates the great work of the founder, +and of his explorations; but in the hearts of the people of Canada, +Champlain has a still more precious monument, and the flourishing +condition of our Dominion to-day is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">276</a></span>but the unconscious outcome of the +trial and labours of his heroic life.</p> + +<p>All historians who have written of Champlain attribute to him the +qualities which we have endeavoured to depict in these pages. +Charlevoix, a Jesuit, and the author of the first great history of +Canada, written about one hundred years after the death of the founder +of New France, thus writes:</p> + +<p>"Champlain died at Quebec, generally and justly regretted. M. de +Champlain was, beyond contradiction, a man of merit, and may be well +called, <i>The Father of New France</i>. He had good sense, much penetration, +very upright views, and no man was ever more skilled in adopting a +course in the most complicated affairs. What all admired most in him was +his constancy in following up his enterprises, his firmness in the +greatest dangers, a courage proof against the most unforeseen reverses +and disappointments, ardent and disinterested patriotism, a heart tender +and compassionate for the unhappy, and more attentive to the interests +of his friends than his own, a high sense of honour and great probity. +His memoirs show that he was not ignorant of anything that one of his +profession should know, and we find in him a faithful and sincere +historian, an attentively observant traveller, a judicious writer, a +good mathematician and an able mariner.</p> + +<p>"But what crowns all these good qualities is the fact that in his life, +as well as in his writings, he shows himself always a truly Christian +man, zealous <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span>for the service of God, full of candour and religion. He +was accustomed to say what we read in his memoirs, 'That the salvation +of a single soul was worth more than the conquest of an empire, and that +kings should seek to extend their domain in heathen countries only to +subject them to Christ.' He thus spoke especially to silence those who, +unduly prejudiced against Canada, asked what France would gain by +settling it. Our kings, it is known, always spoke like Champlain on this +point; and the conversion of the Indians was the chief motive which, +more than once, prevented their abandoning a colony, the progress of +which was so long retarded by our impatience, our inconstancy, and the +blind cupidity of a few individuals. To give it a more solid foundation, +it only required more respect for the suggestions of M. de Champlain, +and more seasonable belief on the part of those who placed him in his +position. The plan which he proposed was but too well justified by the +failure of opposite maxims and conduct."</p> + +<p>In 1880, the Reverend E. F. Slafter,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> a Protestant <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span>minister, gave to +the American nation an appreciative description of the virtues of +Champlain, from which we quote the following passage: "In completing +this memoir the reader can hardly fail to be impressed, not to say +disappointed, by the fact that results apparently insignificant should +thus far have followed a life of able, honest, unselfish, heroic labour. +The colony was still small in numbers, the acres subdued and brought +into cultivation were few, and the aggregate yearly products were +meagre. But it is to be observed that the productiveness of capital and +labour and talent, two hundred and seventy years ago, cannot well be +compared with the standards of to-day. Moreover, the results of +Champlain's career are insignificant rather in appearance than in +reality. The work which he did was in laying foundations, while the +superstructure was to be reared in other years and by other hands. The +palace or temple, by its lofty and majestic proportions, attracts the +eye and gratifies the taste; but its unseen foundations, with their +nicely adjusted arches, without which the superstructure would crumble +to atoms, are not less the result of the profound knowledge and +practical wisdom of the architect. The explorations made by Champlain +early and late, the organization and planting of his colonies, the +resistance of avaricious corporations, the holding of numerous savage +tribes in friendly alliance, the daily administration of the affairs of +the colony, of the savages, and of the corporation in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">279</a></span> France, to the +eminent satisfaction of all generous and noble-minded patrons, and this +for a period of more than thirty years, are proof of an extraordinary +continuation of mental and moral qualities. Without impulsiveness, his +warm and tender sympathies imparted to him an unusual power and +influence over other men. He was wise, modest and judicious in council, +prompt, vigorous and practical in administration, simple and frugal in +his mode of life, persistent and unyielding in the execution of his +plans, brave and valiant in danger, unselfish, honest and conscientious +in the discharge of duty. These qualities, rare in combination, were +always conspicuous in Champlain, and justly entitle him to the respect +and admiration of mankind."</p> + +<p>These two quotations are sufficient to supplement the observations that +we have made, and there can be no doubt that posterity will forever +confirm this opinion of the life and labours of the founder of New +France, and that the name of Champlain will never be obliterated from +the memory of Canadians.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The exact site of the chapel wherein Champlain was buried +is unknown, although many antiquarians have endeavoured to throw light +upon the subject. In 1866 some bones and the fragment of an inscription +were found in a kind of vault at the foot of Breakneck Stairs, and +Messrs. Laverdière and Casgrain were under the impression that +Champlain's tomb had been found. In 1875 the Abbé Casgrain discovered a +document which he considered proved that the chapel had been built in +the Upper Town, in the vicinity of the parochial church and of Fort St. +Louis. This opinion was further confirmed by other documents which have +since been found. The chapel was in existence in the year 1661, but +after this date no mention is made of it. The parochial archives contain +no mention of the place, and the only facts that we have concerning the +tomb, are that Father Raymbault and François de Ré, Sieur Gand, were +buried near Champlain's remains.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> The last publication of Champlain bears the date of 1632, +with the following title: <i>Les Voyages de la Nouvelle France +occidentale, dicte Canada, faits par le Sr. de Champlain Xainctongeois. +Capitaine pour le Roy en la Marine du Ponant, et toutes les +Descouvertures qu'il a faites en ce pays depuis l'an 1603, jusques en +l'an 1629. MDCXXXII</i>. This volume is dedicated to Richelieu. According +to M. Laverdière, it has been reissued, in 1640, with a new date and +title.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Edmund Farwell Slafter was born in Norwich, Vt., on May +30th, 1816. He was graduated at Dartmouth in 1840, studied at Andover +Theological Seminary, and in 1844 was ordained a minister of the +Protestant Episcopal Church. Since 1877 he has given his leisure time to +historical studies. He has published, among other works, <i>Sir William +Alexander and American Colonization</i>, in the series of the Prince +Society (Boston, 1873), <i>Voyages of the Northmen to America</i>, edited +with an introduction (1877), <i>Voyages of Samuel de Champlain</i>, +translated from the French by Charles Pomeroy Otis, with historical +illustrations and a memoir (three volumes, 1878, 1880, 1882).</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">280</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHRONOLOGICAL_APPENDIX" id="CHRONOLOGICAL_APPENDIX"></a>CHRONOLOGICAL APPENDIX</h2> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">282</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span></p> +<h2>CHRONOLOGICAL APPENDIX</h2> + + +<p class="hang">1567 or 1570—Birth of Samuel Champlain.</p> + +<p class="hang">1598—Champlain makes a voyage to Spain.</p> + +<p class="hang">1599—Joins an expedition against the English to the West Indies.</p> + +<p class="hang">1601—Returns from America.</p> + +<p class="hang">1603—Goes to Canada as lieutenant of Aymar de Chastes, viceroy of New +France, explores the river St. Lawrence to Sault St. Louis, and returns +the same year.</p> + +<p class="hang">1604—Follows de Monts' fortune in Acadia as geographer and historian of +the expedition; lives on Ste. Croix Island and at Port Royal till the +year 1607.</p> + +<p class="hang">1608—As lieutenant of de Monts, viceroy of New France, Champlain +crosses the Atlantic and founds Quebec.</p> + +<p class="hang">1609—Champlain's expedition against the Iroquois. Leaves for France on +September 5th.</p> + +<p class="hang">1610—Champlain returns to Quebec and goes back to France the same year. +His marriage with Hélène Boullé on December 30th, 1610.</p> + +<p class="hang">1611—Champlain comes again to Quebec; founds Montreal; sails for France +on July 20th. De Monts' company ceases to exist.</p> + +<p class="hang">1612—Champlain sails for Canada and explores the country as far as +Allumette Island. Goes to France. Comte de Soissons appointed viceroy of +New France; dies soon after. The Prince de Condé takes his place, and +retains Champlain as his lieutenant.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang">1613—Champlain leaves France for Canada, where he stays till 1614.</p> + +<p class="hang">1615—Returns to Quebec with the Récollet Fathers; he goes as far as the +Huron country; particulars of these tribes, their customs, manners, +etc.; Champlain assists them in a war against the Iroquois; follows them +and comes back to the Huron country, where he spends the winter.</p> + +<p class="hang">1616—Leaves for Quebec on May 20th; work of the missionaries in the +meantime; meeting of the <i>habitants</i> and result of their deliberations; +memorandum addressed to the king; Champlain goes to France.</p> + +<p class="hang">1617—Champlain sails from Honfleur on April 11th for Quebec; Louis +Hébert's family accompanies him.</p> + +<p class="hang">1618—Champlain returns to France. Maréchal de Thémines appointed +viceroy <i>per interim</i> after Condé's dismissal. Difficulties met by +Champlain in 1617; his projects laid before the king. Champlain gains +his point and preserves his former position.</p> + +<p class="hang">1619—Condé sells his commission of viceroy to the Duke of Montmorency; +Champlain's new commission of lieutenant of the viceroy. Company of +Montmorency formed by the Duke of Montmorency.</p> + +<p class="hang">1620—Champlain comes back to Quebec with his wife, and stays there till +the year 1624.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang">1621—Champlain receives his instructions from Montmorency and from the +king; entitled to help the new company of merchants; conflict at Quebec +between the agents of the old and of the new company; Champlain's firm +attitude settles the matter.</p> + +<p class="hang">1622—The Company of Montmorency rules the country.</p> + +<p class="hang">1624—Champlain recrosses the ocean, bringing his wife.</p> + +<p class="hang">1625—Arrival of the Jesuits. Champlain at Tadousac and at Quebec; his +intercourse with the Montagnais; the duc de Ventadour named viceroy of +New France; Champlain reappointed lieutenant.</p> + +<p class="hang">1627—Ventadour resigns his office; Cardinal Richelieu organizes the +Company of the Hundred Associates; privileges granted to them; Champlain +still living at Quebec.</p> + +<p class="hang">1628—Roquemont sent to Quebec with provisions; his vessels taken by +Kirke; Quebec in danger; correspondence between David Kirke and +Champlain; the enemy retires; distress at Quebec for the want of food.</p> + +<p class="hang">1629—Kirke before Quebec; the capitulation; fate of the inhabitants; +the missionaries return to France together with Champlain; the last +events at Tadousac.</p> + +<p class="hang">1629-32—Champlain goes to London; negotiations between France and +England through the French ambassador; Champlain's visits to the king, +and to Cardinal Richelieu; Charles I ready to restore Canada, with +certain conditions.</p> + +<p class="hang">1632—The Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye terminates the dispute between +the two countries, and Quebec is restored to France.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang">1632—Arrival at Quebec of the Jesuits; history of their convent since +1626.</p> + +<p class="hang">1633—Champlain's arrival in Quebec; history of the seminary of Notre +Dame des Anges since its foundation; the Jesuits' missions at Miscou +Island, in the Maritime Provinces, Acadia, Baie des Chaleurs and Cape +Breton. Champlain erects a church at Quebec.</p> + +<p class="hang">1634—Immigration of French colonists from Perche; Robert Giffard.</p> + +<p class="hang">1635—Champlain's sickness and death; his wife founds an Ursuline +convent at Meaux.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX</h2> + +<p class="noindent"><b>A</b></p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<span class="smcap">Aïandacé</span>, Huron seminarist, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> +<br /> +Alexander, Sir William, his mission, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his charters, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Alix, Marguerite, Champlain's mother-in-law, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Alix, Simon, Hélène Boullé's uncle, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Anadabijou, chief of the Montagnais, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br /> +<br /> +Andehoua, Huron seminarist, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> +<br /> +Antons, Captain des, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<br /> +Armand-Jean, christian name of Andehoua, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> +<br /> +Arragon, notary, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Atarohiat, Huron seminarist, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> +<br /> +Ateiachias, Huron seminarist, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> +<br /> +Atokouchioüani, Huron seminarist, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> +<br /> +Aubert, Pierre, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Aubéri, Father, his labours in Acadia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +<br /> +Aubry, priest, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br /> +<br /> +Aumont, Marshal, d', <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>B</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Bancroft</span>, quoted, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> +<br /> +Barbier, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Batiscan, chief of the Montagnais, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> +<br /> +Beauchesne, clerk, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> +<br /> +Beaulieu, councillor and almoner to the king, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +<br /> +Bellois, Corneille de, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> +<br /> +Bentivoglio, Guido, papal nuncio, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br /> +<br /> +Berkeley, Sir John, commands Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +<br /> +Bessabé, chief of the Souriquois, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> +<br /> +Biencourt, son of Poutrincourt, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bound for Port Royal, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bignon, attorney-general, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> +<br /> +Boileau, attorney, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> +<br /> +Bonneau, Thomas, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Bonnerme, surgeon, accompanies Champlain when Quebec is founded, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">one of the jury who condemned Jean Duval to death, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dies, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bontemps, captain, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> +<br /> +Boues, Charles de, Récollet, syndic of Canadian Missions, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> +<br /> +Boulay, his residence at Port Royal, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +Boullé, Eustache, Champlain's brother-in-law, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrives in 1618, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to France in 1626, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">enters the Minim Order, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Boullé, Hélène, marries Champlain, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comes to Quebec and returns to France, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">her sojourn at Quebec, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Boullé, Nicholas, Champlain's father-in-law, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pays his daughter's inheritance to Champlain, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bourdon, Jean, comes to Canada, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;<br /><span class='pagenum indent'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settles at Quebec, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bourioli at Port Royal, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +Bouthillier, represents the king of France, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">signs the Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Boyer, Daniel, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> +<br /> +Brébeuf, Father Jean de, estimates the Huron population, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his opinion of the tribe de l'Ours and other Hurons, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrives in New France, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">assailed by Jacques Michel, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaves for France, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns to Canada, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to the Huron country, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Brûlé, Étienne, with Champlain founding Quebec, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sets out for the Ottawa River, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interpreter, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sent to Three Rivers, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">betrays Champlain, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his excuse, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his murder, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bullion, represents France, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">signs the Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Burel, Friar Gilbert, arrives in Canada, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns to France, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Burlamachi, appointed commissioner, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sent to France by Charles I, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<b>C</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Cabahis</span>, Souriquois chief, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> +<br /> +Caën, Emery de, nephew of Guillaume de Caën, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vice-admiral of the fleet, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaves Quebec to carry on trade, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his character, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defends the colony, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fights with Kirke, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrenders, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proceeds to Quebec, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">failure of his expedition, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tries to secure his goods, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comes back to Quebec, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">banqueted, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">summoned by Champlain, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Caën, Ezechiel de, member of the Company of Rouen, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br /> +<br /> +Caën, Guillaume de, member of de Caën's Company, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflicts with Pont-Gravé, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his promises, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sails for France, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">present at Cape de la Victoire, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visits Quebec and its vicinity, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sails for France, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns with the Jesuits, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appears before the state council, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">supports the conduct of the merchants, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">condones a murderer, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his character, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his claims, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Camaret, Marie, cousin of Champlain, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> +<br /> +Cananée, Guillaume, navigator, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br /> +<br /> +Cartier, Jacques, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> +<br /> +Casgrain, l'Abbé, his opinion on the site of Champlain's tomb, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> +<br /> +Castillon, Jacques, one of the Hundred Associates, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">offers pictures to Quebec church, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Caumont, underclerk, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br /> +<br /> +Champdoré, carpenter, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<br /> +Champlain, Antoine, father of Samuel, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br /> +<br /> +Champlain, Samuel, see chronological appendix, <a href="#Page_283">283-6</a><br /> +<br /> +Charlevoix, Father, quoted, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /><span class='pagenum indent'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span> +<br /> +Charton, Friar François, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Chastes, Aymar de, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">viceroy of Canada, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Chateauneuf, M. de, French ambassador in England, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">retires from his position, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exchanges documents with Fontenay-Mareuil, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Chauvin, Pierre, Sieur de la Pierre, at Tadousac, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trades in peltry, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Chauvin, Pierre de, Sieur de Tontuit, viceroy of Canada, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<br /> +Cheffault, lawyer of Paris, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> +<br /> +Chenu, Marcel, merchant of Paris, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Cherououny, Montagnais chief, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> +<br /> +Choquillot, notary, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Chou, Iuan, Indian friend of Champlain, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Clifford, Sir George, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +<br /> +Cloutier, Zacharie, comes with Giffard, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> +<br /> +Cochon, Thomas, merchant, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +Collier, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<br /> +Condé, Prince de, viceroy of Canada, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gives a passport to Captain Maisonneuve, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letter from Champlain, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contributes to the Récollet fund, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conspires against the Queen Regent, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discharged from prison, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Coton, Father, a Jesuit, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> +<br /> +Couillard, Elizabeth, a daughter of Guillaume, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> +<br /> +Couillard, Guillaume, signs the settlers' memorandum, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrives in Canada, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his family, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">native of St. Malo, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Couillard, Henry, captain of the <i>Don de Dieu</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> +<br /> +Couillard, Jacques, interpreter, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">submits to Kirke, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cramoisy, Sébastien, one of the Hundred Associates, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>D</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Dablon, Simon</span>, one of the Hundred Associates, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br /> +<br /> +Daniel, Captain, destroys an English fort at Cape Breton, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br /> +<br /> +Daniel, Doctor, sent to London, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br /> +<br /> +Daniel, Father, director of the Seminary of Notre Dame des Anges, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +<br /> +Darache, Captain, trades furs at Tadousac, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> +<br /> +Darontal, chief of the tribe de la Roche, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Champlain's friend, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Davost, Father, missionary at Cape Breton, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +<br /> +Denys, Charles, settles on the shores of Miramichi River, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +<br /> +Denys, Nicholas, founds Fort St. Pierre, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +<br /> +Deschamps, surgeon, performs an autopsy at Port Royal, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> +<br /> +Des Marets, Claude Godet, note on his family, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">accompanies Champlain's expedition against the Iroquois, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrives from France, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">present at Cape de la Victoire, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pont-Gravé's grandson, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Desportes, Hélène, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /><span class='pagenum indent'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span> +<br /> +Desportes, Pierre, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Destouches, Eustache Boullé's lieutenant, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> +<br /> +Dollebeau, Father, perishes at sea, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> +<br /> +Dolu, intendant of New France, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> +<br /> +Doughty, A. G., quoted, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br /> +<br /> +Duchesne, Adrien, surgeon, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Duchesne, Captain, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br /> +<br /> +Duchesne, David, one of the Hundred Associates, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br /> +<br /> +Du Marché, Father, at Miscou, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> +<br /> +Dumay, Captain, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br /> +<br /> +Dumoulin, shot by an Indian, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Du Parc, Jean Godet</i>, his family, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commands at Quebec, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Du Plessis, Friar Pacifique, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> +<br /> +Duplessis-Bochart, presents pictures to Quebec church, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">receives the keys of the fort, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Duval, Jean</i>, at Quebec when founded, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">leads a conspiracy against Champlain, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sentenced to death, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Du Vernet, interpreter, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>E</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Effiat, duke d'</span>, heads the list of the Hundred Associates, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Endemare, Father d', at Cape Breton, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +<br /> +Eon, Pierre, member of the Company of St. Malo and Rouen, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>F</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Faillon</span>, quoted, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br /> +<br /> +Féret, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> +<br /> +Fontenay-Mareuil, French ambassador in England, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exchanges documents with Chateauneuf, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Foucher, Jean</i>, at Cape Tourmente, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Franchise, Sieur de la, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> +<br /> +Frémin, Father, at the Richibucto mission, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>G</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Gaillon, Michel</span>, put to death, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> +<br /> +Galleran, Father G., <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br /> +<br /> +Gamache, Marquis de, contributes to the foundation of the Jesuits' College, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> +<br /> +Gand, see Ré<br /> +<br /> +Garnier de Chapouin, provincial of the Récollets, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +<br /> +Gates, Sir Thomas, his letters patent, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br /> +<br /> +Gaufestre, Friar Jean, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> +<br /> +Genestou, at Port Royal, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +Gesvres, de, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +Giffard, Robert, surgeon, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comes to Canada, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">receives lands, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Godefroy, Jean-Paul, interpreter, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +Godefroy, Thomas, interpreter, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +Gomara, Lopez de, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +<br /> +Gondoin, Father N., missionary at Miscou, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> +<br /> +Goudon, Elizabeth, Gervase Kirke's wife, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br /> +<br /> +Gravé, François, grandson of Pont-Gravé, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> +<br /> +Gravé, François, Sieur du Pont, accompanies Champlain to Tadousac, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;<br /><span class='pagenum indent'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comes to Canada in 1603, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proceeds to Sault St. Louis, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Champlain awaits him at Port au Mouton, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Ste. Croix, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns to France, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Tadousac, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">one of the jury to judge Duval, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sails for France in 1608, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrives at Tadousac, 1609, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commands the habitation of Quebec, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his promise to Anadabijou, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns to France, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">receives the command of a fur trading vessel, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trades in peltry, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sails for France, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns to Canada, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trades at Three Rivers, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Champlain's rival, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represents the old company, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrives at Quebec, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his conflict with Guillaume de Caën, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chief clerk at Quebec, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Cape de la Victoire, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sails for France, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his illness, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Champlain reads publicly his commission, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">signs articles of capitulation, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaves for Tadousac, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Gravé, Jeanne, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> +<br /> +Gravé, Robert, son of François, accompanies Champlain on a voyage of discovery along the American coast, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<br /> +Gravé, Vincent, merchant of Rouen, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +Groux, J., signs a memorandum, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> +<br /> +Gua, Pierre du, Sieur de Monts, see Monts<br /> +<br /> +Guers, J. B., delegate of the Duke of Montmorency, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns to France, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Guilbault, merchant of La Rochelle, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +<br /> +Guines, Friar Modeste, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> +<br /> +Guyon, Jean, mason, comes from Perche, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>H</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Halard, Jacques</span>, captain, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> +<br /> +Hébert, Anne, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> +<br /> +Hébert, Guillaume, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Hébert, Guillemette, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Hébert, Louis, comes to Quebec with family, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">signs a memorandum, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his family, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Port Royal, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his death, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Hébert, Louise, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Hébert, Madame, see Rollet, Marie<br /> +<br /> +Hersault, Jacques, comptroller of customs at La Rochelle, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> +<br /> +Hertel, Jacques, interpreter, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +Hervé, François, merchant of Rouen, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> +<br /> +Honabetha, Indian chief, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> +<br /> +Hoüel, Louis, Sieur de Petit-Pré, enters into Champlain's views, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">one of the Hundred Associates, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Hubou, Guillaume, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Huet, Father Paul, arrives in Canada, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constructs a chapel at Tadousac, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<b>I</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Incarnation, Sister Marie de l'</span>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +Insterlo, Mathieu d', one of the Company of Rouen, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /><span class='pagenum indent'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span> +<br /> +Iroquet, Indian chief, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>J</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Jacques</span>, a Slavonian miner, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> +<br /> +Jamet, Father Denis, arrives in Canada and celebrates the first mass, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to France, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">signs a memorandum, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Jeannin, President, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +<br /> +Jogues, Father Isaac, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br /> +<br /> +Jonquest, Étienne, Hébert's son-in-law, his death, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrives in 1617, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Joubert, Captain, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br /> +<br /> +Juchereau, Jean, comes with Giffard, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>K</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Kirke, David</span>, intends to make an assault on Quebec, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appointed captain of the fleet, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">writes to Champlain, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captures French barques, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abandons Quebec, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">accepts articles of capitulation, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visits Quebec, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Tadousac, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his pretentions as to de Caën's claims, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">refuses to pay, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dissatisfied with the agreement, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Kirke, Gervase, chief of the Kirke family, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br /> +<br /> +Kirke, James, son of Gervase, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br /> +<br /> +Kirke, John, son of Gervase, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br /> +<br /> +Kirke, Louis, resides in Fort St. Louis, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">writes to Champlain, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interviews Father de la Roche, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his answer to Champlain, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">receives the keys of the fort, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hoists the English flag, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treats Champlain well, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his conduct towards the Jesuits, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Kirke, Thomas, signs a letter to Champlain, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">takes part in an interview with Father de la Roche, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">signs the answer to Champlain, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treats Emery de Caën as a pirate, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<b>L</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Lalemant, Father Charles</span>, quoted, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrives at Quebec, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his letter to the Provincial of the Récollets, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comes back to Quebec, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abandons Canada, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">teacher, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">parish priest, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Lalemant, Father Jérôme, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> +<br /> +Lamontagne, interpreter, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +La Motte, at Port Royal, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +L'Ange, Captain, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<br /> +Langlois, Françoise, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Langlois, Marguerite, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Langlois, Noël, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> +<br /> +Langoissieux, Pierre, takes the monastic habit, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns to France, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></span><br /> +<br /> +La Place, Father de, at Miscou, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> +<br /> +La Roche d'Aillon, Father, arrives at Quebec, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interviews Louis Kirke, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relates his interview, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns to France, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<br /> +La Routte, pilot, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> +<br /> +La Taille, at Quebec when founded, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Lattaignant, Gabriel de, one of the Hundred Associates, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Lauzon, Jean de, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br /><span class='pagenum indent'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span> +<br /> +Laval, Bishop, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br /> +<br /> +Lavalette, a Basque, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +<br /> +La Vallée, godfather of young Hurons, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> +<br /> +Laverdière, antiquarian, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> +<br /> +Le Baillif, underclerk at Tadousac, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrives in 1623, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">takes charge of the storehouse, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">betrays Champlain, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his bad character, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">remains in Canada, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Le Baillif, Father George, his Relation of 1633, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">confers with Champlain, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to Tadousac, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his mission in France, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns to Quebec, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Le Borgne, E., takes Fort St. Pierre, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +<br /> +Le Caron, Father Joseph, appointed for Canadian missions, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proceeds to the Huron country, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns from the Petuneux, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">receives a visit from Champlain, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns to Quebec, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to France, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to Tadousac, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his mission at Three Rivers, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">signs a memorandum, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to the Huron country, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">consults with Champlain, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaves for France, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Le Clercq, Father C., quoted, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +Le Faucheur, a Parisian, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br /> +<br /> +Legendre, Lucas, merchant of Rouen, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> +<br /> +Le Jeune, Father, his Relation of 1633, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">says mass in Hébert's house, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">writes to his Provincial, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">informs Madame Champlain that she is free to follow her own desires, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Lemaistre, Simon, one of the Hundred Associates, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Lemoyne, Father Simon, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Le Roy, Marguerite, Champlain's mother, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br /> +<br /> +Lesage, Marguerite, Pivert's wife, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Lesaige, François, attends when Champlain's marriage settlements are made, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Lesaige, Geneviève, attends when Champlain's marriage settlements are made, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Lescarbot, Marc, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">composes a drama, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">poet and preacher, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns to France, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Le Sire, clerk, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +<br /> +Lesseps, Ferdinand de, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +<br /> +Le Tardif, Olivier, signs a memorandum, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interpreter, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Le Testu, Captain, arrives at Quebec, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">entertainment on board of his barque, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> +<br /> +L'Huillier, Raoul, one of the Hundred Associates, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Linschot, quoted, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br /> +<br /> +Loquin, clerk, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br /> +<br /> +Lormel, Captain de, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> +<br /> +Lumagne, merchant, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /> +<br /> +Lyonne, Father de, at Nipisiguit, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>M</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Magnan, Pierre</span>, joins an embassy to the Five Nations, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">murdered, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Mahicanaticouche, chief of the Montagnais, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;<br /><span class='pagenum indent'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">murderer of two Frenchmen, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Maisonneuve, captain, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br /> +<br /> +Malot, Friar Louis, drowned at sea, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> +<br /> +Manet, Jean, interpreter, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +Manitougatche, Indian chief, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br /> +<br /> +Marchim, Indian chief, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<br /> +Mariana, Father, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> +<br /> +Marion, Nicholas, captain, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> +<br /> +Marsolet, Nicholas, present at Quebec in 1608, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interpreter, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">betrays Champlain, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his character, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">remains at Quebec, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Martin, Abraham, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Martin, Anne, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Martin, Charles Amador, priest, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Martin, Sir Henry, commissioner, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> +<br /> +Martin, Marguerite, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Martin, Nicholas, commands the <i>Jonas</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> +<br /> +Marye, Anthoine, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Massé, Father E., arrives in Canada, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objects to the profanation of a chalice, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns to France, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comes back, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></span><br /> +<br /> +May, Sir Humphrey, commissioner, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> +<br /> +Membertou, <i>sagamo</i> of the Souriquois, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> +<br /> +Messamouet, captain of the Souriquois, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<br /> +Michel, Jacques, insults Father de Brébeuf, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his lamented death, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Miristou, Montagnais, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +<br /> +Mohier, Friar Gervais, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Montmagny, Governor, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> +<br /> +Montmorency, Charles de, admiral of France, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">succeeds Condé as viceroy of New France, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his administration, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letter to Champlain, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his gift to Guillaume de Caën, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meets Champlain at St. Germain-en-Laye, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns his position of viceroy, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">put to death, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Monts, Pierre du Gua, Sieur de, lieutenant-general in Acadia, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forms a company of merchants, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his expedition to America, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his settlement at Ste. Croix, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decides to seek a more suitable place, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">explores the southern country, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the river Gua, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">determines to try Port Royal as a settlement, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns to France, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">obtains a new commission, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meets Champlain at Fontainebleau, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his commission expiring, requests a new one, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meets Champlain, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attends when Champlain's marriage settlements are made, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his interviews with Champlain, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">holds a conference with the merchants of Rouen, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bound to colonize New France with Catholic settlers, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Moreau, quoted, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +Morel, Captain, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<br /> +Motin, his ode to Champlain, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +<br /> +Murad, Anthoine de, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>N</b><br /><span class='pagenum indent'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Napagabiscou</span>, Indian chief, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Natel, Antoine, at Quebec in 1608, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">acquaints Captain Le Testu with the details of Duval's plot, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dies from scurvy, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Nesle, Captain de, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> +<br /> +Nicholas, signs a memorandum, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> +<br /> +Nicolet, Jean, interpreter, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +Noël, Pierre, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Noüe, Father Anne de, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a><br /> +<br /> +Nouveau, Arnould de, merchant of Rouen, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> +<br /> +Noyrot, Father, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>O</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ochateguin</span>, Indian chief, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his alliance with Champlain, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commands the Hurons, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fights against the Iroquois, is wounded, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Olbeau, Father Jean d', arrives in Quebec, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visits the Bersiamites, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">celebrates the first jubilee, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lays the first stone of the Récollet convent, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sees its door closed in 1629, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Olmechin, Indian chief, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<br /> +Orville, d', at Ste. Croix, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +Otis, Charles Pomeroy, translates the <i>Voyages of Champlain</i>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> +<br /> +Ouanda Koka, Huron chief, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> +<br /> +Orani, Huron chief wounded in 1615, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<br /> +Overman, finds Champlain's astrolabe, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>P</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Palma Cayet, Victor</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +<br /> +Parkman, quoted, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> +<br /> +Perrault, Father, at Cape Breton, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +<br /> +Piat, Father I., goes to France, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to the Montagnais, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pillet, Charles, murdered, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> +<br /> +Piraube, Martial, godfather of young Hurons, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> +<br /> +Pivert, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Pont-Gravé, see Gravé, François, Sieur du Pont<br /> +<br /> +Poullain, Father G., comes to Canada, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to the Nipissing mission, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Poutrincourt, Jean de Biencourt, Sieur de, goes to America with de Monts, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joins Champlain on a voyage of discovery, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plants a cross at Port Fortuné, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaves for France, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Prévert, informs Champlain of the existence of a copper mine, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> +<br /> +Provençal, Captain, Champlain's uncle, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Purchas, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>Q</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Quen, Father J. de</span>, second parish priest of Quebec, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> +<br /> +Quentin, Barthélemy, one of the Hundred Associates, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Quentin, Bonaventure, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Quentin, Father Claude, superior of the Canadian missions, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>R</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ragois, Claude le</span>, merchant of Rouen, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> +<br /> +Ralde, Raymond de la, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;<br /><span class='pagenum indent'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to France, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">admiral of the fleet, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">note on his life, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ralleau, de Monts' secretary, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> +<br /> +Ravenel, Jehan, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Raymbault, Father, buried in Champlain's tomb, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> +<br /> +Razilly, Isaac de, one of the Hundred Associates, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ordered to assist Quebec, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his commission cancelled, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ré, François de, Sieur Gand, one of the Hundred Associates, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a good Catholic, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">buried in Champlain's tomb, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Repentigny, godfather of young Hurons, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> +<br /> +Reye, Pierre, signs a memorandum, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">traitor, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Richard, Father A., at Richibucto and Miscou, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> +<br /> +Richer, Jean, interpreter, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +Roberval, at Charlesbourg Royal, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> +<br /> +Robin, Guillaume, merchant of Rouen, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> +<br /> +Robineau, Pierre, one of the Hundred Associates, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Roernan, Jehan, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Rollet, Marie, widow Hébert, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Roquemont, Claude de, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commands a fleet for Quebec, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meets English vessels, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrenders to David Kirke, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his conduct criticized, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rouer, Hercule, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Rouvier, underclerk, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> +<br /> +Rozée, Jean, one of the Hundred Associates, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">merchant of Rouen, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Russell, A. J., <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>S</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sagard-Théodat</span>, Friar Récollet, at Cape de la Victoire, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns to France, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to the Huron country, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Santein, clerk, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +<br /> +Satouta, Huron seminarist, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> +<br /> +Savignon, Huron boy accepted as hostage, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to Sault St. Louis, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">brother of Tregouaroti, Indian chief, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Schoudon, Indian chief, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> +<br /> +Séguier, Bishop of Meaux, agrees to the founding of an Ursuline convent at Meaux, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> +<br /> +Slafter, Reverend E. B., quoted, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> +<br /> +Soissons, comte de, appointed viceroy of New France, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his death, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Soubriago, General, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Sourin, at Ste. Croix Island, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +Stuart, James, Scottish fisherman, erects a fort on Cape Breton, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>T</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Teouatirhon</span>, Huron seminarist, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> +<br /> +Tessoüat, chief of the Algonquins, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +<br /> +Thémines, Maréchal de, appointed viceroy of New France, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> +<br /> +Thierry-Desdames, appointed captain at Miscou, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">note on his life, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tregatin, Indian chief, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /><span class='pagenum indent'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span> +<br /> +Tregouaroti, Huron Chief, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> +<br /> +Troyes, François de, merchant of the Company of Rouen, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> +<br /> +Trublet, Pierre, merchant of St. Malo, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +Tsiko, Huron seminarist, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> +<br /> +Tuffet, Jean, merchant of Bordeaux, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Turgis, Father C., at Miscou, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>V</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Vanelly</span>, merchant, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /> +<br /> +Vendremur, Corneille de, clerk, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> +<br /> +Ventadour, duc de, receives the commission of viceroy of New France, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns the office, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Verazzano, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br /> +<br /> +Verger, Father du, Récollet, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> +<br /> +Vermeulle, Louis, merchant, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> +<br /> +Verton, Pierre de, merchant, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> +<br /> +Viel, Father N., at Cape de la Victoire, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to the Huron country, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Vieux-Pont, Father de, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +<br /> +Vignau, Nicholas du, interpreter, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +Vigne, Captain de la, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br /> +<br /> +Villemenon, intendant of admiralty, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> +<br /> +Vimont, Father, drowned at sea, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +<br /> +Vitelleschi, Father, general of the Jesuits, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> +<br /> +<b>W</b><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wake, Sir Isaac</span>, English ambassador to France, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commissioner, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">signs the Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></span><br /> +</p> +<hr /> +<h4 class="left">Transcriber's Note</h4> + +<p class="noindent"> +Page 36—changed Dno to Duo. +</p> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Makers of Canada: Champlain, by N. 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E. Dionne + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Makers of Canada: Champlain + +Author: N. E. Dionne + +Release Date: November 22, 2005 [EBook #17132] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MAKERS OF CANADA: CHAMPLAIN *** + + + + +Produced by Brendan Lane, Stacy Brown Thellend and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +_THE MAKERS OF CANADA_ + +CHAMPLAIN + +BY + +N.E. DIONNE + + +TORONTO +MORANG & CO., LIMITED +1912 + +_Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada in the year 1905, +by Morang & Co., Limited, in the Department of Agriculture._ + + + + +CONTENTS + + +_CHAPTER I_ Page +CHAMPLAIN'S FIRST VOYAGE TO AMERICA 1 + +_CHAPTER II_ +ACADIA--STE. CROIX ISLAND--PORT ROYAL 17 + +_CHAPTER III_ +THE FOUNDING OF QUEBEC 39 + +_CHAPTER IV_ +CHAMPLAIN'S VOYAGES OF 1610, 1611, 1613 59 + +_CHAPTER V_ +THE RECOLLETS AND THEIR MISSIONS 81 + +_CHAPTER VI_ +WAR AGAINST THE IROQUOIS, 1615 101 + +_CHAPTER VII_ +FUR TRADE 119 + +_CHAPTER VIII_ +CHAMPLAIN, THE JESUITS AND THE SAVAGES 143 + +_CHAPTER IX_ +THE COMPANY OF NEW FRANCE OR HUNDRED ASSOCIATES 167 + +_CHAPTER X_ +THE CAPITULATION OF QUEBEC, 1629 187 + +_CHAPTER XI_ +THE LAST EVENTS OF 1629 199 + +_CHAPTER XII_ +QUEBEC RESTORED 211 + +_CHAPTER XIII_ +THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN NEW FRANCE 227 + +_CHAPTER XIV_ +THE GROWTH OF QUEBEC 243 + +_CHAPTER XV_ +CONCLUSION 261 + +CHRONOLOGICAL APPENDIX 283 + +INDEX 289 + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +In undertaking to write a biography of Samuel Champlain, the founder of +Quebec and the father of New France, our only design is to make somewhat +better known the dominant characteristics of the life and achievements +of a man whose memory is becoming more cherished as the years roll on. + +Every one will admire Champlain's disinterested actions, his courage, +his loyalty, his charity, and all those noble and magnificent qualities +which are rarely found united in one individual in so prominent a +degree. We cannot overpraise that self-abnegation which enabled him to +bear without complaint the ingratitude of many of his interpreters, and +the servants of the merchants; nor can we overlook, either, the charity +which he exercised towards the aborigines and new settlers; the +protection which he afforded them under trying circumstances, or his +zeal in promoting the honour and glory of God, and his respect for the +Recollet and Jesuit fathers who honoured him with their cordial +friendship. His wisdom is evidenced in such a practical fact as his +choice of Quebec as the capital of New France, despite the rival claims +of Montreal and Three Rivers, and his numerous writings reveal him to us +as a keen and sagacious observer, a man of science and a skilful and +intrepid mariner. As a cosmographer, Champlain added yet another laurel +to his crown, for he excelled all his predecessors, both by the ample +volume of his descriptions and by the logical arrangement of the +geographical data which he supplied. The impetus which he gave to +cartographical science can scarcely be overestimated. + +Naturalist, mariner, geographer, such was Samuel Champlain, and to a +degree remarkable for the age in which he lived. It is, perhaps, +unnecessary to dwell upon the morality of the virtuous founder. The +testimony of the Hurons, who, twenty years after his death, still +pointed to the life of Champlain as a model of all Christian virtues, is +sufficient, and it is certain that no governor under the old regime +presented a more brilliant example of faith, piety, uprightness, or +soundness of judgment. A brief outline of the character of Champlain has +been given in order that the plan of this biography may be better +understood. Let us now glance at his career more in detail. + +Before becoming the founder of colonies, Champlain entered the French +army, where he devoted himself to the religion of his ancestors. This +was the first important step in his long and eventful career. A martial +life, however, does not appear to have held out the same inducements as +that of a mariner. An opportunity was presented which enabled him to +gratify his tastes, when the Spanish government sent out an armada to +encounter the English in the Gulf of Mexico. Champlain was given the +command of a ship in this expedition, but his experience during the war +served rather as an occasion to develop his genius as a mariner and +cosmographer, than to add to his renown as a warrior. + +God, who in His providence disposes of the lives of men according to His +divine wisdom, directed the steps of Champlain towards the shores of the +future New France. If the mother country had not completely forgotten +this land of ours, discovered by one of her greatest captains, she had, +at least, neglected it. The honour of bringing the king's attention to +this vast country, which was French by the right of discovery, was +reserved for the modest son of Brouage. + +While Pierre du Gua, Sieur de Monts, was wasting his years and expending +large sums of money in his fruitless efforts to colonize the island of +Ste. Croix and Port Royal, Champlain's voyage to Acadia and his +discovery of the New England coast were practically useful, and in +consequence Champlain endeavoured to assure de Monts that his own +efforts would be more advantageously directed to the shores of the St. +Lawrence, for here it was obvious that the development of the country +must commence. + +Champlain's next step was to found Quebec. With this act began our +colonial history, the foundation of a Canadian people with its long line +of heroic characters distinguished by their simplicity and by their +adherence to the faith of their fathers. Quebec was founded, but nothing +more was accomplished at the moment owing to the lack of means. The +trials of Champlain now commenced. Day by day he had to contend against +his own countrymen. The attractions of fur trading were too great for +the merchants to induce them to settle down and develop the country +around them, and they were unwilling to fulfil their promises or to act +in accordance with the terms of their patents. + +During the next twenty years Champlain crossed the ocean eighteen times. +Each voyage was made in the interest of the colony, and he sought by +every means in his power, by prayers and petitions, to obtain the +control of the commerce of the country so as to make it beneficial to +all. In spite of his extraordinary exertions and the force of his will, +he foresaw the fatal issue of his labours. + +The settlers were few in number, bread and provisions were scarce, and +the condition of the infant colony was truly deplorable. At this +distressing period a British fleet arrived in the harbour of Quebec. +What was to be done? The rude fortress of St. Louis could not withstand +the assault of an armed fleet, even if it were well defended. But +Champlain had no ammunition, and he, therefore, adopted the only course +open to him of capitulating and handing over the keys of the fort to the +commander, Kirke. Champlain then left Quebec and returned to France. +Bitter was this journey to him, for it was like passing into exile to +see the familiar heights of Quebec fade into the distance, the city of +his foundation and the country of his adoption. + +We have an idea of his sorrow during the three years that England +maintained supremacy in Canada, for he says that the days were as long +as months. During his enforced sojourn in France, Champlain exerted all +his energies to revive interest in the abandoned colony. His plan was to +recover the country by all means. Finally success crowned his efforts, +and the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye gave back to France the young +settlement. Champlain recrossed the sea and planted the lily banner of +France upon the heights of Cape Diamond. + +In the year 1635 Champlain was taken ill, and died on Christmas Day, +after having devoted forty years of his life to the promotion of the +religion and commercial interests of the land of his ancestors, but he +bequeathed to the Canadian people the priceless heritage of Quebec, and +the memory of a pure and honest heart. + +Before Champlain's death, however, Quebec had commenced to develop. On +the Beauport coast might be seen the residences of many of the settlers +who arrived from the province of Perche in 1634. On the shores of the +river Lairet, the Jesuits had built a convent, where the young Indians +received instruction; and agriculture had received some attention. +Robert Giffard had established a colony at Beauport which formed the +nucleus of a population in this section of the country. Near Fort St. +Louis the steeple of Notre Dame de la Recouvrance gave witness that +Champlain had fulfilled his promise to build a church at Quebec if the +country was restored to her ancient masters. + +The colony was now entering upon an era of prosperity, and that harmony +and happiness which Champlain had longed for in his life, and which +occupied his thoughts even in death, were destined to be realized. + + N.E.D. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +CHAMPLAIN'S FIRST VOYAGE TO AMERICA + + +Samuel Champlain, the issue of the marriage of Antoine Champlain and +Marguerite Le Roy, was born at Brouage, now Hiers Brouage, a small +village in the province of Saintonge, France, in the year 1570, or +according to the _Biographie Saintongeoise_ in 1567. His parents +belonged to the Catholic religion, as their first names would seem to +indicate. + +When quite young Samuel Champlain was entrusted to the care of the +parish priest, who imparted to him the elements of education and +instilled his mind with religious principles. His youth appears to have +glided quietly away, spent for the most part with his family, and in +assisting his father, who was a mariner, in his wanderings upon the sea. +The knowledge thus obtained was of great service to him, for after a +while he became not only conversant with the life of a mariner, but also +with the science of geography and of astronomy. When Samuel Champlain +was about twenty years of age, he tendered his services to Marshal +d'Aumont, one of the chief commanders of the Catholic army in its +expedition against the Huguenots. + +When the League had done its work and the army was disbanded in 1598, +Champlain returned to Brouage, and sought a favourable opportunity to +advance his fortune in a manner more agreeable, if possible, to his +tastes, and more compatible with his abilities. In the meantime +Champlain did not remain idle, for he resolved to find the means of +making a voyage to Spain in order "to acquire and cultivate +acquaintance, and make a true report to His Majesty (Henry IV) of the +particularities which could not be known to any Frenchmen, for the +reason that they have not free access there." He left Blavet at the +beginning of the month of August, and ten days after he arrived near +Cape Finisterre. Having remained for six days at the Isle of Bayona, in +Galicia, he proceeded towards San Lucar de Barameda, which is at the +mouth of the river Seville, where he remained for three months. During +this time he went to Seville and made surveys of the place. While +Champlain was at Seville, a _patache_, or advice boat, arrived from +Porto Rico bearing a communication addressed to the king of Spain, +informing him that a portion of the English army had put out to sea with +the intention of attacking Porto Rico. + +The king fitted out twenty ships to oppose the English, one of which, +the _Saint Julien_, was commanded by Provencal, Champlain's uncle. +Champlain proposed to join the expedition under his uncle, but Provencal +was ordered elsewhere, and General Soubriago offered the command of the +_Saint Julien_ to Champlain, which he gladly accepted. + +The armada set sail in the beginning of January, 1599, and within six +days, favoured by a fresh breeze, the vessels sighted the Canary +Islands. Two months and six days later the armada drew near to the +island called La Desirade, which is the first island approached in this +passage to the Indies. The ships anchored for the first time at Nacou, +which is one of the finest ports of the Guadeloupe. After having passed +Marguerite Island and the Virgins, Champlain proceeded to San Juan de +Porto Rico,[1] where he found that both the town and the castle or +fortress had been abandoned, and that the merchants had either made +their escape or had been taken prisoners. The English army had left the +town and had taken the Spanish governor with them, as he had surrendered +on the condition that his life should be spared. + +On leaving Porto Rico the general divided the galleons into three +squadrons, and retained four vessels under his own command. Three were +sent to Porto Bello, and three, including Champlain's vessel, to New +Spain. Champlain arrived at Saint Jean de Luz eight days afterwards, +although the place is fully four hundred leagues from Porto Rico. This +fortress bore the name of San Juan d'Ulloa. Fifteen days afterwards we +find Champlain setting sail for Mexico, situated at a distance of over +one hundred leagues from San Juan. + +Champlain was evidently very much interested in this country, and his +description is that of an enthusiast: "It is impossible to see or desire +a more beautiful country than this kingdom of New Spain, which is three +hundred leagues in length, and two hundred in breadth.... The whole of +this country is ornamented with very fine rivers and streams ... the +land is very fertile, producing corn twice in the year ... the trees are +never devoid of fruit and are always green." The voyage to Mexico +occupied a month, and Champlain gave an animated description of the city +of Mexico, of its superb palaces, temples, houses and buildings, and +well laid streets, as well as of the surrounding country. + +After leaving Mexico, Champlain returned to San Juan de Luz, and from +there sailed in a _patache_ to Porto Bello, "the most pitiful and evil +residence in the world." The harbour, however, was good, and well +fortified. From Porto Bello to Panama, which is on the sea, the distance +is only seventeen leagues, and it is interesting to read Champlain's +description:-- + +"One may judge that if the four leagues of land which there are from +Panama to this river were cut through, one might pass from the South +Sea to the ocean on the other side, and thus shorten the route by more +than fifteen hundred leagues; and from Panama to the Straits of Magellan +would be an island, and from Panama to the New-found-lands would be +another island, so that the whole of America would be in two islands." + +It is thus seen that the idea of connecting the Atlantic ocean with the +Pacific by cutting through the Isthmus of Panama is not a modern one, as +it was promulgated by Champlain over three hundred years ago. + +At this time Spain was in great need of a good transportation service at +the isthmus. The treasures of Peru were sent to Europe by the Panama +route to Porto Bello, from where the ships sailed to the old continent. +The route between the Pacific coast and the Gulf of Mexico was +exceedingly bad. Sometimes the merchants forwarded European goods to +Panama, having them transported to Chagres. Here they were landed in +boats and conveyed to Cruces. From Cruces to Panama mules were employed +for the remainder of the journey. It was, however, the route taken by +travellers visiting Peru, Chili, New Granada, Venezuela, and other +Spanish possessions on the Pacific coast. The most regular connection +between the two oceans was from Fort Acapulco to Vera Cruz, through +Mexico. If Spain had adopted a better line of communication with her +western territories in the New World she might have derived vast +treasure from that source. In the year 1551 Lopez de Gomara, the author +of a "History of Indies," a work written with care and displaying +considerable erudition, proposed to unite the two oceans by means of +canals at three different points, Chagres, Nicaragua and Tehuantepec. +Gomara's proposals were not acted upon, and the honour of carrying out +the project was reserved for France. Ferdinand de Lesseps, who succeeded +in connecting the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea, was the man who, +after the lapse of centuries, seriously interested his fellow-countrymen +in boring the Isthmus of Panama. + +Champlain returned to San Juan de Luz, where he remained for fifteen +days, and he then proceeded to Havana, the rendezvous of the army and of +the fleet. Eighteen days later he embarked in a vessel bound for +Cartagena, where there was a good port, sheltered from all winds. Upon +his return to Havana Champlain met his general and spent four months in +collecting valuable information relating to the interesting island of +Cuba. From Havana he proceeded past the Bahama channel, approached +Bermuda Island, Terceira, one of the Azores, and sighted Cape St. +Vincent, where he captured two armed English vessels, which were taken +to Seville. + +Champlain returned to France in March, 1601, having been absent on his +first voyage for a period of two years and two months, during which time +he collected much valuable information. He also published a small +volume containing plans, maps and engravings, fairly well executed for +the time, and now exceedingly scarce. The manuscript of this volume is +still preserved; it covers one hundred and fifteen pages with sixty-two +drawings, coloured and surrounded with blue and yellow lines. It appears +to have been written between the years 1601 and 1603.[2] + +The first voyage of Champlain across the Atlantic, though important from +a military standpoint, did not suffice to satisfy the ambition of a man +whose thoughts were bent upon discovery and colonization. Champlain was +a navigator by instinct, and in his writings he gave to nautical science +the first place. + +"Of all the most useful and excellent arts," he writes, "that of +navigation has always seemed to me to occupy the first place. For the +more hazardous it is, the greater the perils and losses by which it is +attended, so much the more is it esteemed and exalted above all others, +being wholly unsuited to the timid and irresolute. By this art we obtain +a knowledge of different countries, regions and realms. By it we +attract and bring to our own land all kinds of riches; by it the +idolatry of Paganism is overthrown and Christianity proclaimed +throughout all the regions of the earth. This is the art which won my +love in my early years and induced me to expose myself almost all my +life to the impetuous waves of the ocean, and led me to explore the +coasts of a portion of America, especially those of New France, where I +have always desired to see the lily flourish, together with the only +religion, Catholic, Apostolic and Roman." + +After his return to France in the year 1601, Champlain received a +pension, together with the appointment of geographer to the king. Pierre +de Chauvin, Sieur de Tontuit, who had unsuccessfully endeavoured to +establish a settlement at Tadousac, died at this time, while Champlain +was residing in Paris. Here he had the good fortune to meet Aymar de +Chastes, governor of the town and chateau of Dieppe, under whose orders +he had served during the latter years of the war with the League. + +De Chastes, who had resolved to undertake the colonization of Canada, +obtained a commission from the king, and formed a company, composed of +several gentlemen and the principal merchants of Rouen. Francois Grave, +Sieur du Pont, who had already accompanied Chauvin to Tadousac, was +chosen to return there and to examine the Sault St. Louis and the +country beyond. + +"Going from time to time to see the Sieur de Chastes," writes +Champlain, "judging that I might serve him in his design, he did me the +honour to communicate something of it to me, and asked me if it would be +agreeable to me to make the voyage, to examine the country, and to see +what those engaged in the undertaking should do. I told him that I was +very much his servant, but that I could not give myself license to +undertake the voyage without the commands of the king, to whom I was +bound, as well by birth as by the pension with which His Majesty +honoured me to enable me to maintain myself near his person, but that, +if it should please him to speak to the king about it, and give me his +commands, that it should be very agreeable to me, which he promised and +did, and received the king's orders for me to make the voyage and make a +faithful report thereof; and for that purpose M. de Gesvres, secretary +of his commandments, sent me with a letter to the said Du Pont-Grave, +desiring him to take me in his ship and enable me to see and examine +what could be done in the country, giving me every possible assistance." + +"_Me voila expedie_," says Champlain, "I leave Paris and take passage on +Pont-Grave's ship in the year 1603, the 15th of the month of March." The +voyage was favourable for the first fifteen days, but on the 30th a +heavy storm arose, "more thunder than wind," which lasted until April +16th. On May 6th the vessel approached Newfoundland, and arrived at +Tadousac[3] on the 24th. Here they met with about one hundred Indians, +under the command of Anadabijou, who were rejoicing on account of their +recent victory over the Iroquois. The chief made a long harangue, +speaking slowly. He congratulated himself upon his friendship with the +French nation, and stated that he was happy to learn that the king was +anxious to send some of his subjects to reside in the country and to +assist them in their wars. Champlain was also informed that the +Etchemins, the Algonquins, and the Montagnais, to the number of about +one thousand, had lately been engaged in warfare with the Iroquois, whom +they had vanquished with the loss of one hundred men. + +On June 9th following, Champlain witnessed the spectacle of a grand +feast given by the Indians in commemoration of their victory. The +celebration consisted of dances, songs, speeches and games. Tessoueat, +the _sagamo_ of the Ottawas, was the chief captain, and took a prominent +part in the demonstration. + +After a long description of these public festivities, Champlain gives +ample details of the manners and customs of the Indians, especially of +their superstitions. The Indians believed that a God existed who was the +creator of all things, but they had a curious manner of explaining the +creation of man. "When God had made everything," they said, "He took a +quantity of arrows and fixed them in the earth, whence came men and +women, who have increased ever since." The _sagamo_ said they believed +in the existence of a God, a son, a mother and a sun; that God was the +greatest of the four; that the son and the sun were both good; that the +mother was a lesser person, and so was the father, who was less bad. + +The Indians were convinced that their deity had held communication with +their ancestors. One day five Indians ran towards the setting sun where +they met God, who asked them, "Where are you going?" "We are going to +seek our life," they replied. Then God said, "You will find it here." +But they did not hear the divine word, and went away. Then God took a +stone and touched two of them, and they were immediately turned into +stones. Addressing the three other Indians, God asked the same question, +"Where are you going?" and He was given the same answer. "Do not go +further," said the divine voice, "you will find your life here." Seeing +nothing, however, they continued their journey. Then God took two sticks +and touched two of them, and they were at once turned into sticks. The +fifth Indian, however, paused, and God gave him some meat, which he ate, +and he afterwards returned to his countrymen. + +These Indian tribes had their jugglers, whom they called _pilotois_, +from the Basques, or _autmoins_, which means a magician. These jugglers +exercised great sway over the Indians, who would not hesitate to kill a +Frenchman if the jugglers decided that it was necessary. + +In spite of their superstitions Champlain believed that it would be an +easy task to convert the Indians to Christianity, especially if the +French resided near them. This desirable end was not to be attained +without great difficulty, as Champlain soon realized, for the +missionaries toiled for many years before their efforts were crowned +with success. + +Champlain now proceeded to explore the river Saguenay for a distance of +twelve to fifteen leagues, and he thus describes the scenery:-- + +"All the land I have seen is composed of rocks, covered with fir woods, +cypress, birch, very unpleasing land, where I could not find a league of +plain land on each side." He also learned from the Indians of the +existence of Lake St. John, and of a salt sea flowing towards the north. +It was evidently Hudson Bay to which these northern tribes directed +Champlain's attention, and if they had not seen it themselves they had +probably heard of its existence from the Indians dwelling around the +southern or south-western shores of the bay, who came annually to +Nemiscau Lake to trade their furs. This lake was half way between Hudson +Bay and the river St. Lawrence. The Kilistinons and other Indians of the +north had regular communication with their _congeneres_ scattered along +the shores of the St. Maurice and the several rivers which flow into +Lake St. John. + +When the French arrived in Canada with Chauvin, in the year 1600, they +began to monopolize the fur trade of all the Indian nations, but some +years later the English established themselves on the shores of Hudson +Bay, and prosecuted the trade for their own benefit. + +Champlain could not, evidently, have been in possession of any exact +information as to the existence of this large bay, as he was searching +for a northern passage to Cathay, the great _desideratum_ of all the +navigators and explorers of the time. + +After having promised to aid the various tribes gathered at Tadousac in +their wars, Champlain and Pont-Grave proceeded to Sault St. Louis. This +expedition lasted fifteen days, during which they saw Hare Island, so +named by Jacques Cartier, and the Island of Orleans. The ship anchored +at Quebec where Champlain stopped to make a short description of the +country watered by the St. Lawrence, and they then proceeded to Sault +St. Louis. Here Champlain gathered much valuable information relating to +lakes Ontario and Erie, the Detroit River, Niagara Falls, and the rapids +of the St. Lawrence. Returning to Tadousac, he determined to explore +Gaspesia, and proceeded to visit Perce and Mal Bay, where he met Indians +at every turn. He also was informed by Prevert, from St. Malo, who was +exploring the country, of the existence of a copper mine. + +Champlain carefully noted all the information he had received, and after +his return to Tadousac he sailed again for France on August 16th, 1603, +and reached Havre de Grace, after a passage of twenty-one days. On his +arrival in France, he heard that Aymar de Chastes had died a few weeks +previously, on August 13th. This was a great loss to Canada, and +especially to Champlain, for he was convinced that the noble and +enterprising de Chastes was seriously disposed to colonize New France. +"In this enterprise," he says, "I cannot find a single fault, because it +has been well inaugurated." With the death of de Chastes, the project of +colonizing would undoubtedly have fallen through had not Champlain been +present to promote another movement in this direction. Champlain had an +interview with the king, and presented him with a map of the country +which he had visited, and placed in his hands a relation of his +voyage.[4] Henry IV was so favourably impressed that he promised to +assist Champlain in his patriotic designs. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] This island is only forty leagues in length and twenty in breadth, +and belonged to the Spanish from the date of its discovery by Ponce de +Leon in 1509, to 1598. When Champlain visited the island it had been +taken by George Clifford, Earl of Cumberland. During the same year Sir +John Berkeley commanded, but being unable to remain there, he deserted +the place, and joined Clifford near the Azores, when both went to +England, having lost about seven hundred men during their expedition. + +[2] This volume is entitled _Brief Discours des choses plus remarquables +que Samuel Champlain de Brouage A reconneues aux Indes Occidentalles Au +voiage qu'il en a faict en icelles en l'annee_ VeIIIJ. XXIX, _et en +l'annee_ VIeJ, _comme ensuit_. + +This manuscript was discovered by M. Feret, antiquarian, poet and +librarian, of Dieppe. The Hakluyt Society had it translated in 1859, and +published at London. In 1870 the Reverend Laverdiere, librarian of the +Laval University, of Quebec, had it printed in French, with the designs, +coloured for the most part, with the complete works of Champlain. This +manuscript is supposed to have been preserved by a collateral descendant +of Aymar de Chastes. + +[3] Tadousac means _breast_, and is derived from the Montagnais +_Totouchac_. Father Jerome Lalemant says that the Indians called the +place _Sadilege_. + +[4] This volume is entitled _Des Sauvages ou Voyage de Samuel Champlain +de Brouage, fait en la Nouvelle France, l'an mil six cent trois ... A +Paris ... 1604_. + +Extremely rare. The original of the first edition is kept at the +Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris; this is the only copy known. + +This volume contains a dedication to Charles de Montmorency, admiral of +France, a letter in verse from the Sieur de la Franchise, and an extract +from the _Privilege du Roi_, dated November 15th, 1603, signed by +Brigard. + +The second edition does not differ much from the preceding, and its +title bears the date 1604. Purchas's _Pilgrims_ contains an English +version of this last edition. We find a synopsis of it in the _Mercure +Francois_, 1609, in the preface to the former called _Chronologie +Septennaire de l'Histoire de la paix entre les rois de France et +d'Espagne, 1598-1608_. This historical part has been borrowed by Victor +Palma Cayet for Champlain's Voyage, and its title is: _Navigation des +Francais en la Nouvelle France dite Canada_. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +ACADIA--STE. CROIX ISLAND--PORT ROYAL + + +Soon after the period mentioned at the close of the previous chapter, +Pierre du Gua, Sieur de Monts, Governor of Pont, a native of the ancient +province of Saintonge, who had served under Henry IV, obtained a +commission as "Lieutenant general au pays de Cadie, du 40 deg. au 46 deg.," on +the condition that his energies should be especially directed to the +propagation of the Catholic faith. + +De Monts was a Huguenot; nevertheless he agreed to take with him to +America a number of Catholic priests, and to see that they were +respected and obeyed. Champlain was not satisfied with the choice of a +Protestant to colonize a country which he had intended to make solely +Catholic, and he states, "that those enterprises made hastily never +succeed." + +De Monts was not a stranger to America. He had first visited the country +with Chauvin in 1600, but when he left Tadousac he was so discouraged +that he determined, in the event of his becoming master of the +situation, to attempt colonization only in Acadia, or on the eastern +borders of the Atlantic running towards Florida. + +It was well known in France that Acadia was the richest and most +fertile part of the New World. Excellent harbours and good soil were +found there. Fish abounded near its coasts; its forests were numerous +and dense. An opinion existed that there were numerous mines, rich in +copper, coal and gypsum. This country was also the favourite of the +Normans, Britons and Basques, who for a hundred years had pursued their +callings as fishermen or traders without interruption. + +De Monts, however, was unable to bear the expense of this undertaking +alone, and he consequently formed a company, composed of merchants of +Rouen, La Rochelle and other towns. To further the enterprise Henry IV +diminished the duty on merchandises exported from Acadia and Canada, and +granted to the company the exclusive privilege of fur trading for a +period of ten years, "from Cape de Raze to the 40 deg., comprising all the +Acadian coast, Cape Breton, Baie des Chaleurs, Perce Island, Gaspe, +Chisedec, Miramichi, Tadousac and Canada River, from either side, and +all the bays and rivers which flow within these shores." + +Acadia of that day was not confined to the peninsula of our own time, +called Nova Scotia. It included that part of the continent which extends +from the river St. John to the Penobscot. These boundaries were the +cause of long quarrels and fierce and bloody wars between England and +France until they were finally settled by the Treaty of Utrecht. In the +early part of April, 1604, the king's proclamation confining the fur +trade to de Monts and his associates was published in every harbour of +France. Four ships were lying at anchor at Havre de Grace, ready to +sail, and one hundred and twenty passages had been secured in two of the +ships. Pont-Grave commanded one of the vessels of one hundred and twenty +tons burthen, and another vessel of one hundred and fifty tons was under +the charge of de Monts, who had taken on board Jean de Biencourt, Sieur +de Poutrincourt, a gentleman of Picardy, Samuel Champlain, some Catholic +priests and some Protestant ministers. Poutrincourt was going to America +with the intention of residing there with his family. He was a good +Catholic and a loyal subject. Champlain was attached to de Monts' +expedition as geographer and historian. + +The rendezvous had been fixed at Canseau, but de Monts proceeded +directly to Port au Mouton on the Acadian coast, where he decided to +await the arrival of Pont-Grave. In the meantime Champlain explored the +country from Port au Mouton to Port Sainte Marguerite, now called St. +Mary's Bay. This occupied a whole month. He also named Cape Negre, Cape +Fourchu and Long Island. Champlain reported to de Monts that St. Mary's +Bay was a suitable place to establish a settlement, and, following this +advice, the lieutenant-general proceeded with Champlain to this bay, and +further explored the Bay of Fundy, or French Bay. They soon perceived +the entrance to another splendid port, which is now known as Annapolis +Bay, or Port Royal. + +Notwithstanding the authority of Lescarbot, Champlain was the first to +give this place the name of Port Royal, for he says himself, "I have +named this harbour Port Royal." When de Monts named the place La Baie +Francaise, Champlain did not hesitate to give to his chief the merit +which he deserved. + +Three rivers flow into this splendid harbour: the Riviere de l'Equille, +so called from a little fish of the size of our _eperlan_ or _lancon_, +which is found there in large quantities; the river named St. Antoine by +Champlain, and a stream called de la Roche by Champlain, and de +l'Orignac by Lescarbot. + +After having explored the harbour, Champlain traversed La Baie Francaise +to see whether he could discover the copper mine mentioned by Prevert of +St. Malo, and he soon arrived at a place which he named the Cape of Two +Bays, or Chignecto, and perceived the High Islands, where a copper mine +was found. + +On May 20th an expedition started from the Port of Mines, in search of a +place suitable for a permanent settlement. Proceeding towards the +south-west they stopped at the entrance of a large river, which was +named St. John, as it was on St. John's day that they arrived there. The +savages called the river Ouigoudi. "This river is dangerous," writes +Champlain, "if one does not observe carefully certain points and rocks +on the two sides. It is so narrow at its entrance and then becomes +broader. A certain point being passed it becomes narrower again, and +forms a kind of fall between two large cliffs, where the water runs so +rapidly that a piece of wood thrown in is drawn under and not seen +again. But by waiting till high tide you can pass this fall very easily. +Then it expands again to the extent of about a league in some places +where there are three islands." + +Champlain did not explore the river further, but he ascertained a few +days later that the Indians used the river in their journeys to +Tadousac, making but a short portage on the way. + +As preparations had shortly to be made for winter quarters, de Monts +decided to proceed southwards, and the party at length came to a number +of islands at the entrance of the river Ste. Croix, or Des Etchemins. +One of these islands was chosen for their establishment, and named Ste. +Croix, "because," says Lescarbot, "they perceived two leagues above this +island two streams flowing into the channel of the river, presenting the +appearance of a cross." De Monts at once commenced to fortify the place +by forming a barricade on a little inlet, which served as a station on +which he set up a cannon; it was situated halfway between the mainland +and the island of Ste. Croix. Some days afterwards all the French who +were waiting in St. Mary's Bay disembarked on the island. They were all +eager and willing to work, and commenced to render the place habitable. +They erected a storehouse and a residence for de Monts, and built an +oven and a hand-mill for grinding wheat. Some gardens were also laid +out, and various kinds of seeds were sown, which flourished well on the +mainland, though not on the island, which was too sandy. + +De Monts was anxious to ascertain the location of a mine of pure copper +which had been spoken of, and accordingly he despatched Champlain, with +a savage named Messamouet, who asserted that he could find the place. At +about eight leagues from the island, near the river St. John, they found +a mine of copper, which, however, was not pure, though fairly good. +According to the report of the miner, it would yield about eighteen per +cent. Lescarbot says that amidst the rocks, diamonds and some blue and +clear stones could be found as precious as turquoises. Champdore, one of +the carpenters, took one of these stones to France, and had it divided +into many fragments and mounted by an artist. De Monts and Poutrincourt, +to whom they were presented, considered these gems so valuable that they +offered them to the king. A goldsmith offered Poutrincourt fifteen crown +pieces for one of them. + +Agriculture did not flourish on the island of Ste. Croix, which is about +half a league in circumference. The rays of the sun parched the sand so +that the gardens were entirely unproductive, and there was a complete +dearth of water. At the commencement there was a fair quantity of wood, +but when the buildings were finished there was scarcely any left; the +inhabitants, consequently, nearly perished from cold in the winter. All +the liquor, wine and beer became frozen, and as there was no water the +people were compelled to drink melted snow. A malignant epidemic of +scurvy broke out, and of seventy-nine persons thirty-five died from the +disease and more than twenty were at the point of death. + +This disease proved one of the obstacles to rapid colonization in New +France. It was epidemic, contagious and often fatal. It is a somewhat +remarkable fact that the epidemic was prevalent amongst the French only +when they were established on the soil, being rarely discovered on +ship-board. Jacques Cartier had experienced the horrors of this disease +in the winter of 1535-6, when out of his one hundred and ten men +twenty-five died, and only three or four remained altogether free from +attack. During the year 1542-3, Roberval saw fifty persons dying of the +disease at Charlesbourg Royal. At Ste. Croix the proportion of deaths +was still greater, thirty-five out of seventy-nine. There was a +physician attached to de Monts' party, but he did not understand the +disease, and therefore could not satisfactorily prescribe for it. De +Monts also consulted many physicians in Paris, but he did not receive +answers that were of much service to him. + +At the commencement of the seventeenth century scientific men +distinguished scurvy on land from scurvy on sea. They laboured under the +false impression that the one differed from the other. Champlain called +the disease _mal de terre_. It is certain, however, that the symptoms +did not vary in either case, as we may ascertain from the descriptions +furnished by Jacques Cartier and Champlain. + +The position of the settlement was soon proved to be untenable, and de +Monts was certainly to blame for this unhappy state of affairs. Why did +he abandon Port Royal, where he had found abundant water? Champlain, +however, defends the action of his chief. + +"It would be very difficult," he says, "to ascertain the character of +this region without spending a winter in it, for, on arriving here in +summer, everything is very agreeable in consequence of the woods, fine +country, and the many varieties of good fish which are found." We must +not forget, however, that the climate of this island differed very +little from that of Tadousac, which had greatly disappointed de Monts, +and that his sole object in settling in a more southern latitude was to +avoid the disagreeable consequences of the climate. + +Champlain made a plan of the island of Ste. Croix, indicating the +buildings constructed for the habitation of the settlers. We observe +many isolated tenements forming a large square. On one side was the +residence of Champlain, of Champdore and d'Orville, with a large garden +opposite. Near d'Orville's residence was a small building set apart for +the missionaries. On the other side may be seen the storehouse, de +Monts' dwelling, a public hall where the people spent their leisure, and +a building for Boulay and the workmen. In an angle of the large square +were the residences of Genestou, Sourin, de Beaumont, La Motte, Bourioli +and Fougeray. A small fort is shown at one end of the island, approached +by a pathway. The chapel of the priest Aubry was located near the cannon +of the fort. Such was the plan of the first Acadian settlement. Much +expense had been incurred for a very poor result. + +De Monts was the directing spirit of the colony, and in spite of his +noble attempts, he realized that his efforts were fruitless and that he +would have to try another place for a permanent settlement. By the +direction of his chief, Champlain accordingly undertook to explore the +seacoast of Norembega. + +De Monts has found a defender in Moreau, who held that Ste. Croix was +only intended for winter quarters. If this had been his intention, we +can scarcely believe that he would have incurred so great an expense in +building a number of houses. Lescarbot, whose testimony is most +valuable, says: "When we go into a country to take possession of land we +don't stop on islands to imprison ourselves. If that island had been +supplied with rivers or streams, if the soil had been favourable to +agriculture, it would have been half wrong." But this island lacked the +very first element essential to life, fresh water. + +Towards the middle of May, 1605, every one's attention was directed +towards France, as the ships which had been expected for over a month +had not yet arrived. De Monts then determined to send his party to Gaspe +in two large boats to join Pont-Grave. At this juncture, however, +Pont-Grave arrived at Ste. Croix with his crew, comprising forty men. + +De Monts and Pont-Grave held a consultation and decided to seek a more +suitable place for a settlement, rather than to return to France. De +Monts was still under the impression that the best plan was to attempt +to settle in the vicinity of Florida, although the result of Champlain's +exploration along the coast of the Norembega[5] was considered +unsatisfactory. + +Let us now examine what Champlain had accomplished during the month of +September, 1604. + +He left Ste. Croix on September 5th, in a _patache_, with twelve sailors +and two savages as guides. On the first day he covered twenty-five +leagues and discovered many islands, reefs and rocks. To another island, +four or five leagues in length, he gave the name of Ile des Monts +Deserts[6], which name has been preserved. On the following day +Champlain met some hunting Indians of the Etchemin tribe, proceeding +from the Pentagouet River to the Mount Desert Islands. "I think this +river," says Champlain, "is that which several pilots and historians +call Norembegue, and which most have described as large and extensive, +with very many islands, its mouth being in latitude 43 deg., 43', 30''.... +It is related also that there is a large, thickly-settled town of +savages, who are adroit and skilful, and who have cotton yards. I am +confident that most of those who mention it have not seen it, and speak +of it because they have heard persons say so, who know no more about it +than they themselves.... But that any one has ever entered it there is +no evidence, for then they would have described it in another manner, in +order to relieve the minds of many of this doubt." + +Champlain's description is written from personal knowledge, because he +had seen the Pentagouet River.[7] The country which it passes through is +agreeable, but there was no town or village, and no appearance of +either, with the exception of a few deserted cabins of the Souriquois or +Micmacs. + +Here Champlain met two Souriquois chiefs, Bessabe and Cabahis, and +succeeded in making them understand that he had been sent by de Monts to +visit their country, and to assure them of the friendship of the French +for the Souriquois. Champlain continued his journey southwards, and two +days later he again met Cabahis, of whom he asked particulars as to the +course of the river Norembegue. The chief replied "that they had already +passed the fall, which is situated at about twenty leagues from the +mouth of the river Penobscot. Here it widens into a lake, by way of +which the Indians pass to the river Ste. Croix, by going some distance +overland and then entering the river Etchemin. Another river also enters +the lake, along which they proceed for some days until they gain another +lake and pass through it. Reaching the end of it they again make a land +journey of some distance until they reach another small river, the mouth +of which is within a league of Quebec." This little river is the +Chaudiere, which the Indians follow to reach Quebec. On September 20th +Champlain observed the mountains of Bedabedec, and after having +proceeded for ten or twelve leagues further he decided to return to Ste. +Croix and wait until the following year to continue his explorations. +His opinion was that the region he had explored was quite as +unfavourable for a settlement as Ste. Croix. + +On June 18th, 1605, de Monts, at the head of an expedition consisting of +Champlain, some gentlemen, twelve sailors and an Indian guide named +Panonias and his wife, set out from the island of Ste. Croix to explore +the country of the Armouchiquois, and reached the Pentagouet River in +twelve days. On July 20th they made about twenty leagues between +Bedabedec Point and the Kennebec River, at the mouth of which is an +island which they named _La Tortue_. + +Continuing their journey towards the south they observed some large +mountains, the abode of an Indian chief named Aneda. "I was satisfied +from the name," says Champlain, "that he was one of his tribe that had +discovered the plant called _aneda_, which Jacques Cartier said was so +powerful against the malady called scurvy, which harassed his company as +well as our own when they wintered in Canada. The savages have no +knowledge at all of this plant, and are not aware of its existence, +although the above mentioned savage has the same name." This supposition +was unfounded, because if this Indian had been of the same origin as the +aborigines who acquainted Jacques Cartier with the virtue of the +_aneda_ plant in cases of scurvy, he would have understood the meaning +of the word. _Aneda_ is the Iroquois word for the spruce tree, but there +is no evidence to prove that Champlain was ever aware that it was a +specific. Had he known of its efficacy he would have certainly employed +it. + +At Chouacouet de Monts and Champlain received visits from many Indians, +differing entirely from either the Etchemins or the Armouchiquois. They +found the soil tilled and cultivated, and the corn in the gardens was +about two feet in height. Beans, pumpkins and squash were also in +flower. The place was very pleasant and agreeable at the time, but +Champlain believed the weather was very severe in the winter. + +The party proceeded still further south, in sight of the Cap aux Iles +(Cape Porpoise), and on July 17th, 1605, they came to anchor at Cape St. +Louis,[8] where an Indian chief named Honabetha paid them a visit. To a +small river which they found in the vicinity they gave the name of Gua, +in honour of de Monts. The expedition passed the night of the 18th in a +small bay called Cape St. Louis. On the 19th they observed the cape of a +large bay, which they distinguished by the title of Ste. Suzanne du Cap +Blanc, and on July 20th they entered a spacious harbour, which proved +to be very dangerous on account of shoals and banks; they therefore +named it Mallebarre. + +Five weeks had now elapsed since the expedition had left Ste. Croix, and +no incident of importance had occurred. They had met many tribes of +Indians, and on each occasion their intercourse was harmonious. It is +true that they had not traversed more than three degrees of latitude, +but, although their progress was slow, their time was well spent. De +Monts was satisfied that it would be easier to colonize Acadia than this +American coast, and Champlain was still convinced that Port Royal was +the most favourable spot, unless de Monts preferred Quebec. + +The expedition returned to Ste. Croix in nine days, arriving there on +August 3rd. Here they found a vessel from France, under the command of +Captain des Antons, laden with provisions, and many things suitable for +winter use. There was now a chance of saving the settlers, although +their position was not enviable. + +De Monts was determined to try the climate of Port Royal, and to +endeavour to establish a settlement there. Two barques were fitted out +and laden with the frame work of the buildings at Ste. Croix. Champlain +and Pont-Grave had set out before to select a favourable site around the +bay, well sheltered from the north-west wind. They chose a place +opposite an island at the mouth of the river de l'Equille, as being the +most suitable. Every one was soon busily engaged in clearing the ground +and in erecting houses. The plan of the settlement, says Champlain, was +ten fathoms long and eight fathoms wide, making the distance around +thirty-six fathoms. On the eastern side was a storehouse occupying the +width of it, with a very fine cellar, from five to six feet deep. On the +northern side were the quarters of Sieur de Monts, comfortably finished. +In the backyard were the dwellings of the workmen. At the corner of the +western side was a platform, upon which four cannon were placed, and at +the eastern corner a palisade was constructed in the shape of a +platform. There was nothing pretentious or elegant about these +buildings, but they were solid and useful. + +The installation of the new settlement being now complete, de Monts +returned to France, leaving Pont-Grave in command. During the absence of +de Monts, Champlain determined to pursue his discoveries along the +American coast, and in this design he was favoured by de Monts, as the +latter had not altogether abandoned his idea of settling in Florida. The +season, however, was too far advanced, and Champlain therefore stopped +at the river St. John to meet Schoudon, with whom he agreed to set out +in search of the famous copper mine. They were accompanied by a miner +named Jacques, and a Slavonian very skilful in discovering minerals. He +found some pieces of copper and what appeared to be a mine, but it was +too difficult to work. Champlain accordingly returned to Port Royal, +where several of the men were suffering from scurvy. Out of forty-five, +twelve died during the winter. The surgeon from Honfleur, named +Deschamps, performed an autopsy on some of the bodies, and found them +affected in the same manner as those who had died at Ste. Croix. Snow +did not fall until December 20th, and the winter was not so severe as +the previous one. + +On March 16th, 1606, Champlain resumed his explorations, and travelled +eighteen leagues on that day. He anchored at an island to the south of +Manan. During the night his barque ran ashore and sustained injuries +which it required four days to repair. Champlain then proceeded to Port +aux Coquilles, seven or eight leagues distant, where he remained until +the twenty-ninth. Pont-Grave, however, desired him to return to Port +Royal, being anxious to obtain news of his companions whom he had left +sick. Owing to indisposition, Champlain was obliged to delay his +departure until April 8th. + +Champlain and Pont-Grave intended to return to France during the summer +of 1606. Seeing that the vessels promised by de Monts had not arrived, +they set out from Port Royal to Cape Breton or Gaspe, in search of a +vessel to cross the Atlantic, but when they were approaching Canseau, +they met Ralleau, the secretary of de Monts, who informed them that a +vessel had been despatched under the command of Poutrincourt, with +fifty settlers for the country. They, therefore, returned to Port Royal, +where they found Poutrincourt, who as lieutenant-general of de Monts +intended to remain at Port Royal during the year. + +On September 5th, Champlain left Port Royal on a voyage of discovery. +Poutrincourt joined the expedition, and they took with them a physician, +the carpenter Champdore, and Robert Grave, the son of Francois. This +last voyage, undertaken to please de Monts, did not result in anything +remarkable. They first paid a visit to Ste. Croix, where everything +remained unchanged, although the gardens were flourishing. From Ste. +Croix the expedition drifted southwards, and Champlain pointed out the +same bays, harbours, capes and mountains that he had observed before. +Schoudon, chief of the Etchemins, and Messamouet, captain of the +Micmacs, joined the party, and proceeded with them as far as Chouacouet, +where they intended to form an alliance with Olmechin and Marchim, two +Indian chiefs of this country. + +On October 2nd, 1606, the expedition reached Mallebarre, and for a few +days they anchored in a bay near Cape Batturier, which they named Port +Fortune (Chatham). Five or six hundred savages were found at this place. +"It would be an excellent place," says Champlain, "to erect buildings, +and lay the foundation of a state, if the harbour was somewhat deeper +and the entrance safer." Poutrincourt stopped here for some days, and +in the meantime visited all the surrounding country, from which he +returned much pleased. + +According to a custom peculiar to the French since the days of Jacques +Cartier, de Monts had planted a large cross at the entrance of the +Kennebec River, and also at Mallebarre. Poutrincourt did the same at +Port Fortune. The Indians seemed annoyed at this ceremony, which they +evidently considered as an encroachment upon their rights as +proprietors. They exhibited symptoms of discontent, and during the night +they killed four Frenchmen who had imprudently stayed ashore. They were +buried near the cross. This the Indians immediately threw down, but +Poutrincourt ordered it to be restored to its former position. + +On three different occasions the party attempted to pursue their +discoveries southwards, but they were prevented each time by a contrary +wind. They therefore resolved to return to Port Royal, which was +rendered imperative both by the approach of winter and the scarcity of +provisions. The result of the voyage was not altogether satisfactory. +Champlain had perhaps held a degree further south than on the former +occasion, but he had not discovered anything of importance. + +On their return to Port Royal, the voyagers were received with great +ceremony. Lescarbot, a Parisian lawyer, who had arrived some time +before, and some other Frenchmen, went to meet them and conducted them +to the fort, which had been decorated with evergreens and inscriptions. +On the principal door they had placed the arms of France, surrounded +with laurel crowns, and the king's motto: _Duo protegit unus_. Beneath +the arms of de Monts was placed this inscription: _Dabit Deus his quoque +finem_. The arms of Poutrincourt were wreathed with crowns of leaves, +with his motto: _In via virtuti nulla est via_. Lescarbot had composed a +short drama for the occasion, entitled, _Le Theatre de Neptune_. + +The winter of 1606-07 was not very severe. The settlers lived happily in +spite of the scurvy, from which some of them died. Hunting afforded them +the means of providing a great variety of dishes, such as geese, ducks, +bears, beavers, partridges, reindeer, bustards, etc. They also organized +a society devoted to good cheer called, _Ordre du Bon Temps_, the +by-laws of which were definite, and were fixed by Champlain himself. The +Indians of the vicinity who were friendly towards the French colony were +in need of food, so that each day loaves of bread were distributed +amongst them. Their _sagamo_, named Membertou, was admitted as a guest +to the table of Poutrincourt. This famous Souriquois, who was very old +at that time--probably a hundred years, though he had not a single white +hair--pretended to have known Jacques Cartier at the time of his first +voyage, and claimed that in 1534 he was married, and the father of a +young family. + +Lescarbot, who was an able man and a good historian, records the +particulars above related, besides many other interesting facts +concerning Port Royal which appear to have escaped Champlain's +observation. Lescarbot was an active spirit in the life of the first +French colony in Acadia. He encouraged his companions to cultivate their +land, and he worked himself in the gardens, sowing wheat, oats, beans, +pease, and herbs, which he tended with care. He was also liked by the +Indians, and he would have rejoiced to see them converted to +Christianity. Lescarbot was a poet and a preacher, and had also a good +knowledge of the arts and of medicine. Charlevoix says: "He daily +invented something new for the public good. And there was never a +stronger proof of what a new settlement might derive from a mind +cultivated by study, and induced by patriotism to use its knowledge and +reflections. We are indebted to this advocate for the best memoirs of +what passed before his eyes, and for a history of French Florida. We +then behold an exact and judicious writer, a man with views of his own, +and who would have been as capable of founding a colony as of writing +its history." + +With the departure of Lescarbot and Champlain the best page of the +history of Port Royal is closed. The two men left on September 2nd, +1607, on board the _Jonas_, commanded by Nicholas Martin. They stopped +at Roscoff in Basse-Bretagne, and the vessel arrived at Havre de Grace +in the early days of October. + +Poutrincourt, his son Biencourt, and Lescarbot made a pilgrimage to Mont +St. Michel, and Champlain went to Brouage, his native country, having +sojourned in America for three years and five months. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[5] Norembega was the name applied at that time to a vast tract of +country whose limits were nearly unknown. There was a river and a cape +called Norembega. The river is now the Penobscot, and the cape is the +southern extremity of the Acadian peninsula. + +[6] The Indians called this island _Pemetig_, which means _the island +which is ahead_. The French settled here in 1613, and founded St. +Sauveur on the north-eastern coast, in a splendid harbour which is +to-day known as Bar Harbour. The remains of many of the French who were +killed during the contest with the English, were interred at Point +Fernald. At the point nearest the mainland there is a bridge of seven +hundred feet in length, which communicates with the town of Trenton. + +[7] Champlain called the river _Peimtegoueet_. This word means _the place +of a river where rapids exist_. The English have given their preference +to the word _Penobscot_, which comes from the Indian _Penaouasket, the +place where the earth is covered with stones_. + +[8] The Pilgrim Fathers, the founders of New England, landed at this +place, which they named Plymouth, to preserve the name of the English +city from which they had sailed. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE FOUNDING OF QUEBEC + + +After his return to France, as before described, Champlain had an +interview with de Monts, and laid before him the journal which he had +prepared of his explorations in America, together with plans of the +ports and coasts which he had minutely examined during his visits. +Champlain proposed to de Monts to continue his explorations, and +advanced some reasons for prosecuting an enterprise upon which a large +sum had been already expended, and which he was persuaded would +ultimately afford the means of repairing their fortunes. De Monts, owing +to the failure of his own efforts as a colonizer, was not at first +inclined to listen to Champlain's proposals, but he was finally +convinced of the wisdom of his suggestions, and appointed him lieutenant +of an expedition to Quebec for the purpose of trading with the Indians. +The expedition was to return to France during the same year. De Monts +obtained another commission from the king, dated at Paris, January 9th, +1608, which gave him the monopoly of the fur trade in the lands, ports +and rivers of Canada for a period of one year. Two vessels were equipped +for this expedition, the _Don de Dieu_, captain Henry Couillard, and +the _Levrier_, captain Nicholas Marion. Champlain was given the command +of the former vessel, and Pont-Grave was in command of the latter. The +_Levrier_ sailed from France on April 5th, and the _Don de Dieu_ eight +days later. The two vessels proceeded directly to Tadousac, without +calling at Perce, according to the usual custom. + +On the arrival of the _Don de Dieu_ at Tadousac, Champlain found that +Pont-Grave had been attacked by Captain Darache, a Basque, who continued +to trade furs with the Indians in spite of the king's commands. Darache +had brought all his guns to bear upon the _Levrier_, and Pont-Grave +being unable to defend himself, had offered no resistance, whereupon +Darache's crew had boarded the vessel and carried off the cannon and +arms, at the same time intimating that they would continue to trade as +they pleased. The arrival of Champlain, however, altered the situation, +and Darache was compelled to sign an agreement by which he pledged +himself not to molest Pont-Grave, or to do anything prejudicial to the +interest of the king or of de Monts. It was also agreed that all +differences should be settled by the authorities in France. After this +agreement was effected through Champlain's intervention, the carpenters +of the expedition fitted out a small barque to convey to Quebec all the +articles necessary for the use of the future settlement. + +[Illustration: Building the _Habitation_, Quebec, 1608 + +From the painting by C.W. Jefferys] + +In the meantime Champlain visited the river Saguenay, where he met some +Indians from whom he gathered information concerning Lake St. John and +its tributaries. The information did not differ greatly from that which +he had obtained in the year 1603. Champlain set out from Tadousac on the +last day of June and arrived at Quebec on July 3rd, "Where I searched," +he says, "for a place suitable for our settlement, but I could find none +more convenient or better situated than the point of Quebec, so called +by the savages, which was covered with nut trees." + +Champlain was accompanied by thirty men, amongst whom may be named +Nicholas Marsolet, Etienne Brule, Bonnerme, a doctor, Jean Duval, +Antoine Natel and La Taille. These names are specially recorded. +Champlain immediately employed some workmen to fell trees in order to +commence the construction of an _Habitation_. One party was engaged in +sawing timber, another in digging a cellar and some ditches, while +another party was sent to Tadousac with a barque to obtain supplies +which had been retained in the ships. Such was the beginning of +Champlain's city. Nothing great, it will be admitted, for a settlement +which its founder hoped before long would become the great warehouse of +New France. + +Until this date the merchants had traded with the Indians only in those +places where they could easily be met, and even Chauvin, who was +mentioned in a previous chapter, had not gone further than Tadousac. +Neither Three Rivers, nor the islands of Sorel at the entrance of the +Iroquois River, now called the Richelieu River, were known to French +navigators at this period, and although these places were easily +accessible to the aborigines, they were not so available as Quebec. + +Champlain well understood the advantages of founding his city on a spot +naturally fortified and where he could readily defend himself against +the attack of an enemy, whose approach he expected sooner or later. The +first foes, however, whom Champlain had to encounter were not the +Indians, but his own countrymen, members of his crew who under various +pretexts sought to kill their chief and give the command of the +settlement to the Basques. Jean Duval, the king's locksmith, was the +leader of this conspiracy against Champlain, and associated with him +were four vicious sailors to whom he promised a part of the reward which +had been offered for this treason. The conspirators agreed to preserve +secrecy, and fixed the night of the fourth day for the assassination of +their chief. + +On the day upon which the plot was to be put into execution, Captain Le +Testu[9] arrived from Tadousac in command of a vessel laden with +provisions, utensils, etc. After the vessel was unloaded, one of the +conspirators, a locksmith named Natel, approached the captain and +acquainted him with the details of the plot. Champlain also listened to +the man's account and promised to observe secrecy, although he took +precautions to frustrate the scheme by inviting the leader and the four +conspirators to an entertainment on board Captain Le Testu's barque. + +The men accepted the invitation, and as soon as they were on board they +were seized and held in custody until the following day. The deposition +of each man was then taken by Champlain in the presence of the pilot and +sailors, and set down in writing, after which the "worthies" were sent +to Tadousac, where Champlain requested Pont-Grave to guard them for a +time. Some days after the men were returned to Quebec, where they were +placed on trial for attempted murder. + +The jury was composed of Champlain, Pont-Grave, Le Testu, Bonnerme, the +mate and the second mate, and some sailors. The verdict was unanimous. +Duval was condemned to death on the spot as the instigator of the plot, +and the others were also sentenced to death, but their sentence was to +be carried out in France. Duval was strangled at Quebec, and his head +was placed on a pike which was set up in the most conspicuous part of +the fort. This was the second example of capital punishment in New +France. The first case recorded was at Charlesbourg Royal, or Cap-Rouge, +near Quebec, in the winter of 1542-3, when Michel Gaillon, one of +Roberval's companions, was put to death. + +Champlain was invested with executive, legislative and judiciary powers, +but the founder of Quebec never abused the authority intrusted to him. +From this time every one fulfilled his duty day by day, and Champlain +was able to continue his work in peace. + +The habitation was composed of three buildings of two stories, each one +of three fathoms long and two and a half wide. The storehouse was six +fathoms long and three wide, with a cellar six feet deep. There was a +gallery around the buildings, at the second story. There were also +ditches fifteen feet wide and six deep. On the outer side of the ditches +Champlain constructed several spurs, which enclosed a part of the +dwelling, at the point where he placed a cannon. Before the habitation +there was a square four fathoms wide and six or seven long, looking out +upon the river bank. Surrounding the habitation were very good gardens, +and an open space on the north side, some hundred and twenty paces long +and fifty or sixty wide. + +During the first weeks after his installation, Champlain made an +investigation of the vicinity. "Near Quebec," he says, "there is a +little river coming from a lake in the interior, distant six or seven +leagues from our settlement. I am of opinion that this river, which is +north a quarter north-west from our settlement, is the place where +Jacques Cartier wintered, since there are still, a league up the river, +remains of what seems to have been a chimney, the foundation of which +has been found, and indications of there having been ditches surrounding +their dwelling, which was small. We found also, large pieces of hewn, +worm-eaten timber, and some three or four cannon balls. All these things +show clearly that there was a settlement there founded by Christians; +and what leads me to say and believe that it was that of Jacques Cartier +is the fact that there is no evidence whatever that any one wintered and +built a house in these places except Jacques Cartier at the time of his +discoveries." + +This "little river coming from a lake in the interior," is evidently the +river St. Charles, called Ste. Croix by Cartier. Champlain's conjectures +about the place where Jacques Cartier wintered, are certainly correct. +It was near this spot also that the Jesuits erected their convent of +Notre Dame des Anges in 1626, namely, at two hundred feet from the +shore, where the river Lairet joins the St. Charles. + +Pont-Grave sailed for France on September 18th, 1608, leaving Champlain +with twenty-seven men, and provisions for the approaching winter at +Quebec. The carpenters, sawyers, and other workmen were employed in +clearing up the place and in preparing gardens. + +Many Indians were encamped in the vicinity, who proved troublesome +neighbours, as they were constantly visiting the habitation, either to +beg food for their families or to express their fear of invisible +enemies. Champlain readily understood the character of these people, but +he was too charitable to refuse them assistance in their need; besides +he believed that they might easily be taught how to live and how to +cultivate the soil. It was a difficult task, however, to induce the +Indians to settle in any particular place. For generations they had led +a wandering life, subsisting on the products of their hunting and +fishing. This wild freedom was as necessary to their existence as the +open air, and all attempts to make them follow the habits of civilized +races seemed to tend towards their deterioration. + +The early days of the French settlement at Quebec were distinguished by +nothing remarkable. During the first winter scurvy and dysentery claimed +many victims. Natel, the locksmith, died towards the end of November, +and some time after Bonnerme, the doctor, was attacked and succumbed. +Eighteen others also suffered from scurvy of whom ten died, and there +were five deaths from dysentery, so that by the spring there were only +eight men living, and Champlain himself was seriously indisposed. This +was the third time that the founder of Quebec had had to experience the +effects of this terrible disease, and although he was beginning to +understand its causes, he was still unaware of a specific. "I am +confident," he says, "that, with good bread and fresh meat, a person +would not be liable to it." + +Many trials had been experienced by the settlers during their first +winter of 1608-09, and they welcomed the return of spring. Des +Marets[10] arrived at Quebec at this time, with tidings that Pont-Grave, +his father-in-law, had arrived at Tadousac on May 28th. Champlain at +once repaired to Tadousac, where he received a letter from de Monts +requesting him to return to France to acquaint him with the progress +which he had made in the colony, and with the result of his +explorations. Champlain returned to Quebec, and immediately fitted out +an expedition to visit the country of the Iroquois, in the company of a +party of Montagnais. + +The Montagnais were anxious to carry on war against their ancient +enemies, and although the wars had no attraction for Champlain, he hoped +to be able to further his discoveries during the journey. Taking with +him the twenty men placed at his disposal by Pont-Grave, Champlain +sailed from Quebec on June 18th, 1609. The command of the habitation +was given to Pont-Grave in the meantime. The expedition proceeded +towards the island of St. Eloi, near the shores of which two or three +hundred savages were encamped in tents. They proved to be Hurons and +Algonquins who were on their way to Quebec to join Champlain's +expedition to the territory of the Iroquois. Their chiefs were named +Iroquet and Ochateguin, and Champlain explained to them the object of +his voyage. The next day the two chiefs paid a visit to Champlain and +remained silent for some time, meditating and smoking. After some +reflection the chiefs began to harangue their companions on the banks of +the river. They spoke for a long time in loud tones, and the substance +of their remarks has been summed up in these words:-- + +"Ten moons ago Champlain had declared that he desired to assist them +against their enemies, with whom they had been for a long time at +warfare, on account of many cruel acts committed by them against their +tribe, under colour of friendship. Having ever since longed for +vengeance, they had solicited all the savages whom they had seen on the +banks of the river to come and make an alliance. They had no children +with them but men versed in war and full of courage, and well acquainted +with the country and the rivers of the land of the Iroquois. They wanted +to go to Quebec in order that they might see the French houses, but +after three days they would return to engage in the war. As a token of +firm friendship and joy, Champlain should have muskets and arquebuses +fired." + +Champlain replied that he was glad to be able to fulfil his promise to +them; he had no other purpose than to assist them in their wars; he had +not come as a trader, but only with arms to fight. His word was given, +and it was his desire that it should be kept. Thus was the alliance +ratified which had been made in 1603 between the French and the Hurons, +Algonquins and Montagnais, and the alliance was never broken. + +Some historians have reproached Champlain for his intervention in the +wars between the Indians of Canada, and have suggested that it would +have been wiser to have preserved a strict neutrality, instead of taking +up arms against the redoubtable and valiant Iroquois. In order to +explain Champlain's actions, it is necessary to consider the relations +of the French towards the other tribes. Many years before the period of +which we are writing, certain French captains traded with the Montagnais +Indians of Tadousac. These Indians were on friendly terms with the +Hurons, the Algonquins Superieurs of the Ottawa river, and the +Souriquois of Acadia, and were united in their desire to subdue the +terrible Iroquois. As the Iroquois did not trade, Champlain had no +relations with them of a business character, and therefore he was not +bound towards them in the same manner as he was towards the Hurons and +others. + +The Iroquois at first resided at Montreal and Three Rivers, while their +neighbours, the Algonquins, were scattered along the shores of the +Ottawa River, Lake Nipissing and French River. The Algonquins, who were +brave and very numerous, succeeded in driving the Iroquois back to Lake +Erie, and afterwards to Lake Ontario, near Lake Champlain. Here the +Iroquois were distributed in five tribes, forming a great confederation. +(1.) The Tsonnontouans or Senecas. (2.) The Goyogouins or Cayugas. (3.) +The Onontagues or Onondagas. (4.) The Onneyouts or Oneidas. (5.) The +Agniers or Mohawks. The Tsonnontouans were the most numerous, but the +Agniers were the bravest and wildest. + +The Iroquois or confederate tribes had by constant warfare become the +greatest warriors of New France, nor is this fact surprising when we +consider that they had waged successful warfare, extending over a long +period, against the vast coalition of Hurons, Algonquins, Montagnais and +Micmacs scattered from Lake Huron to Acadia. + +Anadabijou, chief of the Montagnais, made a long speech, telling his men +that they ought to feel proud of the friendship of the king of France +and of his people, upon whom they could rely for assistance in their +wars. It was from that date that the alliance between the Indians and +the French commenced, and, as Champlain was obliged to live in the +neighbourhood of the Montagnais and Algonquins, the only course open to +him, if he desired to live in peace, was to fulfil his promise made to +them. + +In this year, 1609, Anadabijou reminded Champlain of the agreement made +six years before. "Ten moons ago," he says, "the son of Iroquet had seen +you. You gave him a good reception, and promised with Pont-Grave to +assist us against our enemies." To this Champlain replied, "My only +desire is to fulfil what I promised then." Thus was sealed this solemn +agreement. + +If Champlain had refused to make an alliance with these Indians, they +would have been a constant source of trouble, for although they were +less ferocious than the Iroquois, they were still barbarians. Champlain +and his few men could never have established a settlement at Quebec if +they had been forced to encounter the hostility of the neighbouring +Indians, for the whole of his work could have been overthrown by them in +a single day. + +The country of the Iroquois, on the contrary, was situated at a great +distance, and consequently he had not so much to fear from them. It was +Champlain's desire, however, to make a treaty with the Iroquois as well, +for they were at this time even, and long after remained, the terror of +North America. But war seemed necessary to the existence of the +Iroquois, and Champlain, notwithstanding the exercise of his diplomacy, +found it impossible to pacify these restless people. + +It is true that the people of New Netherland had been able to maintain +a neutral stand towards the Iroquois, and Champlain has been blamed for +not following this example. It must be borne in mind, however, that the +Dutch were powerful and numerous, and it was to their interest to live +in harmony with their immediate neighbours, the Iroquois. The Dutch had +also different intentions towards the Indians. They came to America +simply to trade, and to establish themselves and live quietly along the +shores of the Hudson River, while Champlain's idea was to civilize the +Indians and bring them under the influence of the Catholic missionaries. + +Champlain and the allied Indians left Quebec on June 28th, 1609. Des +Marets, La Routte, a pilot, and nine men accompanied the expedition. On +their voyage they passed certain rivers to which Champlain gave the +following names, Ste. Suzanne (River du Loup), du Pont (Nicolet), de +Genes (Yamaska), and the Three Rivers.[11] The party stopped at the +entrance of the Iroquois River. Continuing their journey southwards, +they arrived at the Chambly Rapids. "No Christians had been in this +place before us," says Champlain. Seeing no prospect of being able to +cross the rapids alone, Champlain embarked with the Indians in their +canoes, taking only two men with him. Champlain's army, comprising +sixty men, then proceeded slowly towards Lake Champlain, and a few days +after the party arrived at Lake St. Sacrament (Lake George). On July +29th they encountered the Iroquois, who had come to fight, at the +extremity of Lake Champlain, on the western bank. The entire night was +spent by each army in dancing and singing, and in bandying words. At +daybreak Champlain's men stood to arms. The Iroquois were composed of +about two hundred men, stout and rugged in appearance, with their three +chiefs at their head, who could be distinguished by their large plumes. +The Indians opened their ranks and called upon Champlain to go to the +front. The arrows were beginning to fly on both sides when Champlain +discharged his musket, which was loaded with four balls, and killed two +of the chiefs and mortally wounded the third. This unexpected blow +caused great alarm among the Iroquois, who lost courage, abandoned their +camp and took to flight, seeking shelter in the woods. Fifteen or +sixteen men of Champlain's party were wounded, but the enemy had many +wounded, and ten or twelve were taken prisoners. + +This victory did not entail much hardship on the part of the French. +Champlain and his two companions did more to rout the Iroquois than the +sixty allies with their shower of arrows. The result of this day's +proceedings was highly satisfactory to the Indians, who gathered up the +arms and provisions left behind by the Iroquois, and feasted +sumptuously amidst dancing and singing. "The spot where this attack took +place," says Champlain, "is in the latitude of 43 deg. and some minutes, and +the lake is called Champlain." This place is now called Ticonderoga, or +the Cheondoroga of the Indians. + +Champlain returned to Quebec with the Montagnais, and a few days after +he set out for Tadousac to see whether Pont-Grave had arrived from +Gaspe. He met Pont-Grave on the morrow, and they both decided to sail +for France, and to leave Quebec in the meantime under the command of +Pierre de Chauvin,[12] pending the decision of de Monts as to the future +of the colony. Both visited Quebec in order to invest Chauvin with +authority, and after leaving him everything necessary for the use of the +settlement, and placing fifteen men under his command, the two +commanders left Quebec on September 1st, 1609, and sailed from Tadousac +for France on the fifth day of the same month. + +Champlain had sojourned in New France since the beginning of July, 1608, +and during that interval he had made good use of his time. He had chosen +the most suitable place for a habitation which was destined to become +the metropolis of the French colony; he had constructed a fort and a +storehouse, and he had also explored a very important tract of country. +Champlain had also visited a part of the river Saguenay; he had made +himself acquainted with the vicinity of Quebec, and with the rivers, +streams and tributaries of the St. Lawrence and Ste. Croix. For the +second time he had seen the river St. Lawrence as far as the Iroquois +River over which he had sailed as far as Lake Champlain, whence it +receives its waters. Besides his achievements in exploration Champlain +had cemented friendly relations with the Montagnais, Algonquins and +Hurons; he had renewed his acquaintance with Anadabijou and formed an +alliance with Iroquet and Ochateguin, three of the most powerful chiefs +of these tribes. He was also well versed in their methods of warfare and +had studied their manners and customs and their treatment of their +prisoners, so that when he returned to France he was in a position to +give de Monts a great deal of valuable information, both as regards the +inhabitants and the best means of promoting trade with them. + +On his arrival in France Champlain proceeded at once to Fontainebleau, +where he met King Henry IV and de Monts. He had an audience with the +king and gave His Majesty a satisfactory account of his proceedings. He +also presented to the king a girdle made of porcupine quills, two little +birds of carnation colour, and the head of a fish caught in Lake +Champlain, which had a very long snout, and two or three rows of very +sharp teeth. + +To de Monts the visit of Champlain was of great importance, because the +fate of Quebec was bound up with him. After hearing Champlain's +narrative of his voyages in New France, de Monts decided to visit Rouen +in order to consult Collier and Legendre, his associates. After +deliberation they resolved to continue their efforts to colonize New +France and to further explore the great river St. Lawrence. In order to +realize means for defraying the expenses of the expedition, Pont-Grave +was authorized to engage in any traffic that would help to accomplish +this end. In the meantime Lucas Legendre was ordered to purchase +merchandise for the expedition, to see to the repairs of the vessels, +and to obtain crews. After these details had been arranged de Monts and +Champlain returned to Paris to settle the more important questions. + +De Monts' commission, which had been issued for one year, had expired, +but he hoped that it would be renewed. His requests, which appeared just +and reasonable, were, however, refused, owing to protests on the part of +merchants of Bretagne and Normandy, who claimed that this monopoly was +ruinous to their commerce. Finally de Monts appealed to his former +partners, who decided to furnish two vessels, at their own expense, with +supplies and stores necessary for the settlement. Pont-Grave was given +the command of a fur-trading vessel, and the other was laden with +provisions and stores necessary for the use of the settlers. Champlain +was informed that his services were dispensed with, but not believing +that this news could be true, he saw de Monts and asked him frankly +whether such was the case. De Monts told him that he could accompany the +expedition, if he chose to do so. Champlain therefore set out from Paris +on the last day of February, 1610, and proceeded to Rouen, where he +remained for two days, and then left for Honfleur, to meet Pont-Grave +and Legendre, who informed him that the vessels were ready to sail. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[9] Le Testu's Christian name was Guillaume. His first voyage to +Newfoundland was made in 1601. He came to Quebec in 1608, 1610, 1611, +1612, 1613, 1614, and 1616. He was successively captain of the _Fleur de +Lys_, the _Trinite_ and the _Nativite_. He was very circumspect in his +dealings. + +[10] Champlain often speaks of this man. His true name was Claude Godet, +Sieur des Marets. His father, Cleophas Godet, a lawyer, had three sons, +Claude, Jean and Jesse. Jean was Sieur du Parc, and Jesse parish priest +of Chambois in 1634. Both Claude and Jean came to Canada. Claude des +Marets was married, in 1615, to Jeanne Grave, only daughter of Francois +Grave, Sieur du Pont. He died about the year 1626, leaving one child +named Francois, who came to New France with his grandfather, and was +present at the capitulation of Quebec in 1629. + +[11] This is the river _de Fouez_ of Jacques Cartier, and the +_Metaberoutin_ of the Indians, and now the river St. Maurice, to which +historians have given the name of Three Rivers, because two islands +divide it into three branches at its entrance; these branches are called +_Les Chenaux_, or the narrow channels. + +[12] Pierre de Chauvin, Sieur de la Pierre, called Captain Pierre by +Champlain, was born at Dieppe, but after the death of his relative, +Pierre de Chauvin, Sieur de Tontuit, he resided at Honfleur. There were +many families of Chauvin in Normandy during the seventeenth century, +notably the Chauvins, Sieurs de Tontuit, and the Chauvins, Sieurs de la +Pierre. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +CHAMPLAIN'S VOYAGES OF 1610, 1611, 1613 + + +Champlain embarked at Honfleur with eleven artisans for Quebec, on March +7th, 1610. The rough weather experienced during the first days of the +voyage rendered it necessary for the vessel to run into Portland, on the +English coast, and later to seek refuge in the harbour of the Isle of +Wight. At this time Champlain was taken suddenly ill, and was obliged to +return by boat to Havre de Grace to undergo medical treatment. A month +after he rejoined his former vessel, which in the meantime had returned +to Honfleur to take in ballast. Champlain had now somewhat recovered, +although he was still weak and ill. + +The vessel left Honfleur on April 8th, and reached Tadousac on the 26th +of the same month; which was one of the shortest passages ever made up +to that time. "There were vessels," says Champlain, "which had arrived +on the 18th of the month, a thing which had not been seen for more than +sixty years, as the old mariners said who sail regularly to this +country." This remark proves that for more than half a century French +fishermen and navigators had been accustomed to proceed as far as +Tadousac. A Basque, named Lavalette, who had been accustomed to fish on +the Acadian coast from about the year 1565, also confirms the statement. + +On his arrival at Tadousac, Champlain ascertained from a young nobleman, +named du Parc,[13] who had wintered with Chauvin at Quebec, that all the +settlers were in good health, and that only a few of them had been +slightly ill. They had been able to procure fresh meat during the whole +season, and consequently scurvy had not made its appearance. "By +avoiding salt food and using fresh meat, the health is as good here as +in France." + +The Indians had been waiting from day to day for the return of +Champlain, for they wished him to accompany them to war. He therefore +went ashore to assure them that he would fulfil his promise under the +conditions made, namely, that upon his return they would point out to +him the three rivers, and the lake which they had described as +resembling a sea, the end of which could not be seen, and by means of +which he could return by way of the Saguenay to Tadousac. The Indians +had readily promised to do all this, but only in the following year. +Champlain had also promised the Hurons and Algonquins that he would +assist them in their wars, if they would show him their country, the +great lake and the copper mines. "I had accordingly," he said, "two +strings to my bow, so that, in case one should break, the other might +hold." + +On April 25th, 1610, Champlain set out from Tadousac for Quebec, where +he found Captain Chauvin and his companions in good health. They had +with them a stranger named Captain Batiscan, who was so pleased at +Champlain's return that he and his comrades showed their appreciation by +singing and dancing all night. Champlain entertained them at a banquet, +with which they were delighted. + +Some days after a party of the Montagnais, numbering about sixty men, +made their appearance at Quebec, _en route_ for the war. They presented +themselves before Champlain, and said: "Here are numerous Basques and +Mistigoches (so they named the Normans and Malouins) who say they will +go to the war with us. What do you think of it? Do they speak the +truth?" Champlain answered: "No, I know very well what they really mean; +they say this only to get possession of your commodities." The Indians +replied: "You have spoken the truth. They are women and want to make war +only upon our beavers." Confiding in Champlain's word, the Montagnais +went to Three Rivers under the agreement that a general rendezvous +should be held there with the French. The Hurons were to await them at +the entrance of the Iroquois River. + +Champlain started on his journey on June 14th. When he was eight leagues +from Quebec he met a canoe bearing an Algonquin and a Montagnais, who +entreated him to hasten towards Three Rivers, as the Algonquins and +Hurons would be at the meeting-place within two days. The Algonquins +presented Champlain with a piece of copper a foot long and quite pure, +and stated that there were large quantities to be found on the bank of a +river, near a great lake. The Indians also stated that they collected +the copper in lumps, and after they had melted it, spread it in sheets +and smoothed it with stones. Champlain was well pleased to receive this +present, although it was of small value. + +The Montagnais assembled at Three Rivers, and on June 18th they all set +out together. On the following day they arrived at an island situated at +the mouth of the river Richelieu, which the Montagnais used to frequent +when they wished to avoid the Iroquois. + +An alarm was soon given that the Algonquins had fallen in with a band of +Iroquois, numbering one hundred, who were strongly barricaded. Each man +then took his arms and set out in a canoe towards the enemy. The firing +immediately began, and Champlain was wounded by an arrow which pierced +his ear and entered his neck. He seized the arrow and withdrew it from +the wound. The Iroquois were much astonished at the noise caused by the +discharge of the French muskets, and some of them, seeing their +companions wounded or dead, threw themselves upon the ground whenever +they, heard a musket fired. Champlain resolved after a while to force +the barricade, sword in hand, which he accomplished without much +resistance, and entered the fort. Fifteen prisoners were taken, and the +rest were killed either by musket shots, arrows, or the sword. The +savages, according to their custom, scalped the dead. The Montagnais and +Algonquins had three killed and fifty wounded. On the following day +Pont-Grave and Chauvin did some trading in peltry. + +Amongst Champlain's party there was a young lad named Nicholas Marsolet, +who desired to accompany the Algonquins in order to learn their +language, and he was pleased to learn that after much deliberation the +Algonquins had decided to take him, on the condition that Champlain +accepted a young Huron as hostage. The Indian boy was named Savignon by +the French. Lescarbot writes that he met this youth many times in Paris, +and that "he was a big and stout boy." + +The French and the allied Indians separated with many promises of +friendship. The Indians departed for the fall of the great river of +Canada, and the French, with Champlain at their head, proceeded to +Quebec. On the return journey they met at Lake St. Peter, Pont-Grave, +who was on his way to Tadousac, to arrange some business connected with +headquarters. + +Pont-Grave contemplated passing the winter at Quebec, but in the +meantime des Marets arrived from France, much to the delight of every +one, as his vessel was long overdue. The news which he brought, +however, was so serious that both Champlain and Pont-Grave decided to +return to France. The intelligence received was to the effect that M. de +St. Luc had expelled the Catholics from Brouage, that the king had been +killed, and that the Duke of Sully and two other noblemen had shared the +same fate. + +Champlain was much distressed over the condition of affairs in France, +and on his departure he left du Parc in command of Quebec, and placed +under him sixteen men, "all of whom were enjoined to live soberly, and +in the fear of God, and in strict observance of the obedience due to the +authority of du Parc." The settlement was left with a plentiful supply +of kitchen vegetables, together with a sufficient quantity of Indian +corn, wheat, rye and barley. Everything was in good order when Champlain +set out from Quebec on August 8th, five days after Pont-Grave's vessel +sailed from Tadousac for France. On September 27th they arrived at +Honfleur, the voyage having lasted one month and a half. + +This second voyage of Champlain did not restore de Monts' fortunes. The +withdrawal of the exclusive privilege of trading was the signal for a +large number of trading vessels to appear in the St. Lawrence. In fact +the operations were so great as to render the profits of the company +null. The disaster was so complete that Champlain says: "Many will +remember for a long time the loss made this year." For all the labour +which Champlain had bestowed upon the settlement the result was small, +and it was evident that if any French merchant were allowed without +restrictions to trade with the Indians, commerce would be ruined, and +the development of the settlement would be impossible. During the first +years a beaver skin could be exchanged in return for two knives, and now +fifteen or twenty were required for the same exchange. Champlain +therefore desired to establish some form of rule by which commerce could +be restricted, or in other words, whereby he or de Monts, or any one +else who would undertake the direction of the affairs of New France, +might be protected. + +It was during this winter of 1610-11, that Champlain, who was now more +than forty years of age, entertained thoughts of marriage. His constant +voyages during the past twelve years had probably prevented him from +entering into this estate before. It is, perhaps, somewhat surprising +that he so suddenly put aside this consideration against the marriage. +Did he contemplate residing permanently at Quebec, or did he foresee +that circumstances would render his remaining in New France improbable? +There is nothing in his narrative which throws any light on this +question. Champlain does not mention the name of his wife in any of his +writings, but we find later that she accompanied him to Quebec, where +she dwelt for four years. The name of Champlain's wife was Helene +Boulle, the daughter of Nicholas Boulle, secretary of the king's +chamber, and of Marguerite Alix of St. Germain l'Auxerrois, Paris. +Helene Boulle was born in 1598, and at the time of her marriage she was +only twelve years of age. Her parents were Calvinists, and she was +brought up in the same faith, but through the lessons and influence of +her husband she became a Catholic. + +The marriage settlements were executed at Paris on December 27th, 1610, +and signed by Choquillot and Arragon, notaries, in the presence of the +parents and friends of both parties. Among those who attended on that +occasion were Pierre du Gua, friend; Lucas Legendre, of Rouen, friend; +Hercule Rouer, merchant of Paris; Marcel Chenu, merchant of Paris; Jehan +Roernan, secretary of de Monts, Champlain's friend; Francois Lesaige, +druggist of the king's stables, friend and relative; Jehan Ravenel, +Sieur de la Merrois; Pierre Noel, Sieur de Cosigne, friend; Anthoine de +Murad, king's councillor and almoner; Anthoine Marye; Barbier, surgeon, +relative and friend; Genevieve Lesaige, wife of Simon Alix, uncle of +Helene Boulle, on the mother's side. + +According to the terms of the contract, Nicholas Boulle and his wife +pledged themselves, by anticipated payment of the inheritance, to pay +six thousand livres cash, the day preceding the marriage. Champlain also +agreed to give his future wife the benefit of his wealth at his death. +Two days after, Nicholas Boulle sent to his son-in-law the sum of four +thousand five hundred livres, the balance was to be sent later on. + +The betrothal took place in the church of St. Germain l'Auxerrois, on +Wednesday, December 29th, 1610, and on the following day the marriage +was celebrated in the same church. As the young bride was not of +marriageable age, she returned to her family to live with them for two +years, as agreed by the contract. + +Champlain then resumed his colonization work, and had an interview with +de Monts, in order to induce him to take some action in his favour. +Although the profits to be realized from the enterprise were not +certain, it seemed probable that fur-trading, and developing the +resources of the country, might become advantageous. The expenses of the +undertaking were also small: a few barrels of biscuits, of pease and +cider would be found sufficient to sustain the fifteen or twenty men who +formed the nucleus of the colony. From year to year Champlain hoped to +be able to monopolize the fur trade, not for himself, but for the +company of de Monts. + +The vessels which were equipped for the expedition were ready to sail on +March 1st, 1611. The passage was very rough, and when about eight +leagues distant from the Great Banks of Newfoundland, the vessels were +in great danger through the number of icebergs which were encountered. +The cold was so intense that it was found difficult to navigate the +vessel. While in the vicinity of Newfoundland, they communicated with a +French ship, on board of which was Biencourt, son of Poutrincourt, who +was bound for Port Royal to meet his father. He had left France three +months previously, and had been unable to find his way to the Acadian +coast. + +After having sighted Gaspe, Champlain arrived at Tadousac on May 13th, +where he found all the country covered with snow. The savages were +informed of Champlain's arrival by cannon shot, and they soon made their +appearance. They stated that three or four trading vessels had arrived +within the last eight days, but that their business had been a failure +on account of the scarcity of furs. + +Champlain proceeded at once to Quebec, where he found everything in good +order, and neither du Parc nor his companions had suffered from any +sickness. Game had been abundant during the whole winter. Champlain +intended to visit Three Rivers, but Batiscan said that he would not be +prepared to conduct him there until next year. As he was unable to carry +out his designs, Champlain took with him Savignon and one Frenchman, and +visited the great fall. He made a careful examination of the country, +and says:-- + +"But in all that I saw I found no place more favourable than a little +spot to which barques and shallops can easily ascend with the help of a +strong wind, or by taking a winding course, in consequence of the +strong current. But above this place, which we named _La Place Royale_, +at the distance of a league from Mont Royal, there are a great many +little rocks and shoals which are very dangerous.... Formerly savages +tilled these lands.... There is a large number of other fine pastures, +where any number of cattle can graze.... After a careful examination, we +found this place one of the finest on this river. I accordingly gave +orders to cut down and clear up the woods in the Place Royale, so as to +level it and prepare it for building." + +This was the beginning of Montreal, the wealthiest city of Canada. + +Champlain constructed a wall four feet thick, three or four feet high, +and thirty feet long. This fort was placed on an elevation twelve feet +higher than the level of the soil, so that it was safe from inundation. +Champlain named the island Ste. Helene, in honour of his wife, and he +found that a strong town could be built there. To-day this island is a +favourite resort for the inhabitants of Montreal, and it is an ornament +to the harbour of the large city. + +On June 13th two hundred Hurons arrived at Sault St. Louis, so called +from a young Frenchman named Louis, who was drowned in the rapids a few +days before. The Hurons were under the command of Ochateguin, Iroquet +and Tregouaroti. The latter was a brother of Savignon, the young Huron +whom Champlain had taken with him to France. The interview, which +lasted some time, was most cordial. The Indians said that they felt +somewhat uneasy on seeing so many Frenchmen who were not specially +united, and that they had desired to see Champlain alone, towards whom +they were as kindly disposed as towards their own children. + +Champlain questioned them on the sources of the great river, and on +their own country. Four of them declared that they had seen a large sea +at a great distance from their village. After exchanging their peltry +with Champlain's consent, some of the Hurons left to follow the +war-path, while others returned to their own country. This interview +occurred on July 18th, 1611. On the same day Champlain set out for +Quebec, where he arrived on the nineteenth. Here he found that certain +necessary repairs had to be made. He also planted some rose bushes, and +caused some oak wood to be placed on board a vessel for shipment to +France, as a specimen of the wood of the new colony, which he considered +suitable not only for marine wainscoting, but also for windows and +doors. + +Champlain sailed from Quebec on July 20th, and arrived at La Rochelle on +September 16th. De Monts was at Pons, in Saintonge, at this time, and it +was here that he received a visit from Champlain. After listening to +Champlain's narrative of his proceedings, de Monts decided to proceed to +court to arrange matters. He held a conference with the merchants at +Fontainebleau, but he found that they were unwilling to continue to +support the enterprise. He concluded a bargain with them for what +remained in the Quebec settlement by the payment of a certain sum of +money, and from that date de Monts' company ceased to exist. There was +only one man who had faith in the future of the colony, and who remained +staunch to its interests under all difficulties; this man was Champlain. + +De Monts had shown great energy in opposing the impediments to the +undertaking which were offered by the merchants of Rouen, St. Malo and +La Rochelle, and as he hoped to regain the money which he had already +expended, he considered that it was time to receive assistance from the +king. Louis XIII listened attentively to de Monts' requests, but he did +not accede to them. De Monts, therefore, informed Champlain that he was +compelled to abandon the enterprise. This was the last interview between +these two men. + +Champlain was now left to his own resources for continuing his work. His +personal means were small, and far too slender to enable him to support +a colony in its infancy. The thought of abandoning the settlement was +repugnant to him, not only on account of the years of labour he had +bestowed upon it, but also because he felt that there was every chance +of success with the aid of rich and powerful men. + +At the commencement of his description of his first voyage to Canada, +Champlain enumerates the reasons which induced him to continue his work +of discovery: "The desire which I have always had of making new +discoveries in New France, for the good, profit and glory of the French +name, and at the same time to lead the poor natives to the knowledge of +God, has led me to seek more and more for the greater facility of this +undertaking, which can only be secured by means of good regulations." + +Then he drew up a statement,[14] which he handed to President Jeannin, +whom he knew to be well disposed. + +The president encouraged Champlain, but in order that he might not be +deceived, he thought it better that Champlain should act under the +authority of some man whose influence would be sufficient to protect him +against the jealousy of the merchants. Champlain, therefore, addressed +himself through M. de Beaulieu, councillor and almoner in ordinary to +the king, to Charles de Bourbon, Comte de Soissons, then governor of +Dauphine and Normandy. He urged upon the count the importance of the +undertaking, and explained the best means of regulating it, claiming +that the disorders which had hitherto existed threatened to ruin the +enterprise, and to bring dishonour to the name of the French. + +After having examined the map of the country, and studied the details of +the scheme, Soissons promised, under the sanction of the king, to assume +the protectorate of the undertaking. Louis XIII listened favourably to +the petition of his loyal subject, and granted the direction and control +of the settlement to the count, who in due course honoured Champlain +with the lieutenancy. Soon after this event, however, the count died, +and His Majesty committed the direction of affairs to Monseigneur Le +Prince de Conde, who retained Champlain as his lieutenant. + +After having caused his commission to be posted in all the ports of +Normandy, Champlain sailed from France on March 6th, in the vessel of +Pont-Grave, and arrived at Pointe aux Vaches, near Tadousac, on April +24th, 1613. + +The savages came on board the vessel and inquired for Champlain. Some +one replied that he had remained in France. On hearing this, an old man +approached Champlain, who was walking in a corner of the vessel, and +examined the scar on his ear, which was caused by an arrow wound while +fighting for the Indians. On seeing this, the old man recognized +Champlain, and expressed his feelings by shouts of delight, in which he +was joined by his companions, who said, "Your people are awaiting you in +the harbour of Tadousac." + +On arriving at Tadousac, Champlain found that these Indians were almost +dying of hunger, and after having affixed the arms and commission of His +Majesty to a post in the port, he proceeded to Quebec, which he reached +on May 7th. The people of the settlement were all in good health, and +the winter having been less severe than usual, the river had not frozen +once. The leaves were beginning to appear on the trees, and the fields +were already decked with flowers. + +On the 13th of the month Champlain left for the Falls of St. Louis, +which he reached eight days afterwards. Here he met a number of the +Algonquins, who informed him that the bad treatment which they had +experienced during the previous year had discouraged them from coming to +trade, and that his long absence from the country had left the whole +tribe under the impression that he did not intend to return. On hearing +this, Champlain recognized that it would be advisable to visit the +Algonquins at once, in order to continue his discoveries, and to +preserve friendly relations with them. + +During his residence in France, Champlain had met a young Frenchman +named Nicholas du Vignau, who claimed to have seen the Northern Sea, +and said that the Algonquin River flowed from a lake which emptied into +it. He also stated that the journey from Sault St. Louis to this sea and +return could be accomplished in seventeen days, and that he had seen +there the wreck and debris of an English ship, on board of which were +eighty men. This intelligence seemed the more probable as the English +were supposed to have visited the Labrador coast in 1612, where they had +discovered a strait. + +Champlain requested a merchant of La Rochelle, named Georges, to give du +Vignau a passage on his ship, which he did willingly, and he also made +an affidavit before a notary concerning du Vignau's Relation. Du Vignau +came to Canada, and accompanied Champlain on his visit to the +Algonquins. The party, consisting of four Frenchmen and one savage, set +out from Ste. Helen's Island on May 27th, 1613. + +After having passed the falls they entered Lake St. Louis. On the last +day of May they passed Lake des Deux Montagnes, which Champlain called +Lake de Soissons. Some days after they came in sight of the river +Gatineau, the river Rideau and its fall, and the Chaudiere Falls, where +they were forced to land. They also passed the rapid des Chats, Lake des +Chats, Madawaska River, Muskrat Lake, and Allumette Island, where an +Algonquin chief named Tessoueat resided. On the following day the Indians +gave a _tabagie_ in honour of Champlain, who after smoking the pipe of +peace with the party, explained to them that the object of his visit was +to assure them of his friendship, and to assist them in their wars, as +he had done before.[15] + +He told them also that he was making an excursion into their country to +observe the fertility of the soil, and study their lakes and rivers, and +to discover the sea which he was told was in their vicinity. Champlain +therefore requested them to furnish four canoes, and eight Indians as +guides, to conduct the party to the Nipissirini, in order to induce +their enemies to fight. + +The chief Tessoueat, speaking in behalf of the whole tribe, said that he +regarded Champlain as the most friendly of all the French, for the +others were unwilling to help them in their wars, but that they had +resolved not to go to the falls again, and that, owing to the long +absence of Champlain from the country, they had been compelled to go to +the wars alone. They therefore begged him to postpone his expedition +until the following year. + +They granted Champlain's request of four canoes with great reluctance, +and stated that the Nipissirini were sorcerers, and not their friends. +Champlain insisted on having the guides, and stated that he had brought +with him a young man who would find no difficulty in visiting the +country of the Nipissirini. + +Tessoueat thereupon addressed the young man by name, and said: "Nicholas, +is it true that you were among the Nebicerini?" "Yes," said he in +Algonquin language, "I was there." "You are a downright liar," replied +Tessoueat, "you know well that you slept at my side every night, with my +children, where you arose every morning; if you were among the people +mentioned, it was while sleeping. How could you have been as bold as to +lead your chief to believe lies, and so wicked as to be willing to +expose his life to so many dangers? You are a worthless fellow and ought +to be put to death, more cruelly than we do our enemies." + +Shortly after, Champlain advised the Indians that the young lad had +confessed that he had lied concerning his visits to the Nipissirini +country. By telling them the facts Champlain hoped to ensure the life of +Nicholas du Vignau, as the savages had said, "Give him to us, and we +promise that he shall not lie any more." + +On June 10th Champlain took leave of Tessoueat, after making him presents +and promising to return during the next year to assist in the war. +Continuing his course, Champlain again approached the Chaudiere Falls, +where the savages went through a ceremony peculiar to them, which is +thus described: + +"After carrying their canoes to the foot of the falls, they assembled +in one spot, where one of them took up a collection in a wooden plate, +into which each one placed a piece of tobacco. The collection having +been made, the plate was placed in the middle of the troupe, as they all +danced around it, singing after their style. Then one of them made a +harangue, setting forth that for a long time they had been accustomed to +make this offering, by means of which they were insured protection +against their enemies, and that otherwise misfortune would befall them, +as they were convinced by the evil spirit; and that they lived on in +this superstition, as in many others. This done, the maker of the +harangue took the plate, and threw the tobacco into the midst of the +caldron, whereupon they all raised a loud cry." + +Such was the superstition of these savages that they considered a +favourable journey impossible without this uncouth ceremony. It was at +this portage that their enemies had been wont to surprise them. + +On June 17th they arrived at Sault St. Louis on their return journey. +Captain L'Ange, who was the confidant of Champlain, brought news that +Maisonneuve of St. Malo had arrived with a passport from the Prince de +Conde for three vessels. Champlain therefore allowed him to trade with +the savages. + +As the trade with the savages was now completed, Champlain resolved to +return to France by the first vessel which was ready to start. He +accepted a passage in Maisonneuve's vessel, which arrived at St. Malo on +August 26th. Champlain had an interview with the merchants, to whom he +represented that a good association could be formed in the future. The +merchants resolved to follow the example of those of Rouen and La +Rochelle. + +In concluding this chapter we may repeat the words of Champlain: "May +God by His grace cause this undertaking to prosper to His honour and +glory the conversion of these poor benighted ones, and to the honour and +welfare of France."[16] + +FOOTNOTES: + +[13] Jean Godet, Sieur du Parc, was a brother of Claude des Marets. He +came with his brother to Quebec in 1609, and wintered there. In 1616 he +commanded at Quebec. On his return to France, he remained at St. Germain +de Clairefeuille, where he died on November 16th, 1652. + +[14] This volume is entitled: _Les Voyages du Sieur de Champlain +Xaintongeois, capitaine pour le Roy, en la marine...._ A Paris, MDCXIII. +This volume contains a letter to the king, another one to the queen, +stanzas addressed to the French, an ode to Champlain on his book and his +marine maps, signed by Motin. The first book contains the voyages of +Champlain along the coasts of Acadia and New England. The second relates +to the voyages of Champlain to Quebec, in the years 1608, 1610 and 1611. +This edition is the most useful and the most interesting of all. Two +large maps of New France give an excellent idea of the country, though +they are not absolutely accurate. + +[15] In August, 1867, a farmer called Overman, found on his land, lot +12, township of Ross, county of Renfrew, Ontario, an astrolabe supposed +to have been lost by Champlain during this expedition. From June 6th, +1613, Champlain seems to have ceased his observations, as he does not +say after this date: "I have taken the latitude." This fact would seem +to prove that the instrument was not used after June 6th, 1613. Some +pamphlets have been written on the astrolabe, and they all agree that it +had belonged to Champlain. Mr. Russell, one of the writers, has given a +full description of it. + +[16] _Quatrieme voyage du Sr. de Champlain, capitaine ordinaire pour le +Roy en la Marine, et Lieutenant de Monseigneur le Prince de Conde en la +Nouvelle France, fait en l'annee 1613._ This Relation contains a letter +to Henri de Conde, and a geographical map, made in 1612, of a large size +and very curious. The history of this voyage is really a part of the +so-called edition of 1613, and the printing of it was done at the same +time as the Relations of the first, second and third voyages, which form +altogether a large volume of three hundred and twenty-five pages. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE RECOLLETS AND THEIR MISSIONS + + +Champlain's affection for New France, the land of his adoption, made him +anxious to continue his explorations, in order that he might become +familiar with every locality. In the course of his voyages he often had +to be conveyed in Indian canoes, especially on the lakes and rivers, but +this means was sufficient only when his object was to ascertain whether +the country was well watered, whether the rivers were more or less +navigable, whether the lakes abounded with fish, and whether the water +powers were capable of being turned to account. Up till this time the +founder of Quebec had pressed forward his work of exploration with an +energy that was almost astonishing. He had rowed up the Iroquois River +as far as lake Champlain, and he had also navigated the Ottawa River in +a manner that had even surprised the Algonquins. Still many things +remained to be done and to be seen, such as to observe the fertility of +the soil in different latitudes, to study the manners and customs of the +Indians, especially of the great Huron tribe, which was the most +populous and probably better disposed to receive Christian instruction +than the other tribes. Champlain's ambition had always been to +introduce Christianity in order to civilize the people. Thus we find in +his writings after his return to France in 1614, the words: + +"Without losing courage, I have not ceased to push on and visit various +nations of the savages, and by associating familiarly with them, I have +concluded, as well from their conversation as from the knowledge +attained, that there is no better way than, disregarding all storms and +difficulties, to have patience until His Majesty shall give the +requisite attention to the matter, and in the meantime to continue the +exploration of the country, but also to learn the language, and form +relations and friendship with the leading men of the villages and +tribes, in order to lay the foundations of a permanent edifice, as well +for the glory of God as for the renown of the French." + +It is well to observe the significance of these words from the pen of +Champlain. Is this the language of a common fur-trader, simply seeking +to increase his fortune? What were really Champlain's designs during all +these years of labour and self-sacrifice? Was he animated by the mere +curiosity of the tourist, or the ambition of a man of science? No. +Champlain desired, it is true, to gain an intimate knowledge of the +country, and his labours are highly valued as a geographer and +cosmographer, but his intention was to utilize all his varied +information to promote the Christian religion and at the same time to +increase the renown of his native land. + +Champlain deserves credit, not only for the idea of bringing +missionaries to Canada, but also for having realized his ideas. He +obtained the cooeperation of many pious and zealous persons in France, +who willingly seconded his efforts, but it was owing to his own +steadfastness of purpose and to his great ability that his designs were +successfully carried out. After having formed a society of merchants to +take the material affairs of the colony in hand, Champlain tried to get +some religious orders to assume the direction of spiritual matters. He +had previously made known his plan to Louis Houeel, king's councillor, +and comptroller of the salt works at Brouage, and sieur of Petit-Pre. +Houeel was an honourable and pious man, and a friend of Champlain. He +told him that he was acquainted with some Recollets who would readily +agree to proceed to New France. Houeel met Father du Verger, a man of +great virtue and ability, and principal of the order of the Immaculate +Conception. Father du Verger made an appeal to his confreres, all of +whom offered their services, and were ready to cross the ocean. + +The cardinals and bishops who were then gathered at St. Denis for their +great chapter, were in favour of the idea of sending the Recollets to +their foreign missions, and promised to raise a fund for the maintenance +of four monks, and the merchants of Rouen promised to maintain and +convey at least six Recollets gratuitously. The king issued letters for +the future church of Canada. The pope's nuncio, Guido Bentivoglio, +granted the requisite permission, in conformity with the pope's wishes, +but the bull establishing the church was only forwarded on May 20th, +1615. The brief of Paul V granted to the Recollets the following +privileges: + +"To receive all children born of believing and unbelieving parents, and +all others of what condition soever they may be, who, after promising to +keep and observe all that should be kept and observed by the faithful, +will embrace the truth of the Christian and Catholic faith; to baptize +even outside of the churches in case of necessity; to hear confessions +of penitents, and after diligently hearing them, to impose a salutary +penance according to their faults, and enjoin what should be enjoined in +conscience, to loose and absolve them from all sentences of +excommunication and other ecclesiastical pains and censures, as also +from all sorts of crimes, excesses, and delicts; to administer the +sacraments of the eucharist, marriage and extreme unction; to bless all +kinds of vestments, vessels and ornaments when holy unction is not +necessary; to dispense gratuitously new converts who have contracted or +would contract marriage in any degree of consanguinity, or affinity +whatever, except the first or second, or between ascending and +descending, provided the women have not been carried off by force, and +the two parties who have contracted or would contract be Catholics, and +there be just cause as well for the marriages already contracted as for +those desired to be contracted; to declare and pronounce the children +born and issued of such marriages legitimate; to have an altar which +they may decently carry, and thereon to celebrate in decent and becoming +places where the convenience of a church shall be wanting." + +The Reverend Father Garnier de Chapouin, provincial of the province of +St. Denis, appointed four monks as the founders of the future mission. +Their names were Father Denis Jamet, Jean d'Olbeau, Joseph Le Caron, and +a brother named Pacifique du Plessis, who received orders to accompany +them. These four monks were all remarkable for their virtue and +apostolic zeal. Father Jamet was appointed commissary, and Father +d'Olbeau was appointed his successor in the event of death. The king +granted them authority to build one or more convents in Canada, and to +send for as many monks as were required. It was impossible to send more +than four of them during the first year. + +On April 24th, 1615, the _St. Etienne_ sailed from Honfleur, and one +month later came to anchor at Tadousac. On June 25th, Father d'Olbeau +was able to say mass in a small chapel built at the foot of Mountain +Hill, Quebec. + +Soon after his arrival at Quebec, Champlain set out for the falls, +accompanied by Father Jamet. They reached the river des Prairies some +days after, and on June 24th, Father Jamet celebrated a solemn mass, at +which Champlain and some others assisted. This was the first mass +celebrated in Canada since the days of Jacques Cartier. + +In the early days of the settlement these brave missionaries had to +contend with many difficulties, which could be foreseen only by those +who were acquainted with the existing state of affairs. Many of these +difficulties arose from the fact that at least a fourth of the merchants +of the company were members of the so-called reformed, or Calvinistic +persuasion. It is easy to comprehend that the sympathies of these men +would not incline towards the Catholic religion. + +Champlain draws particular attention to the unfortunate results produced +by the existence of different creeds. Differences arose, and divisions +were created which sometimes resulted in quarrels between children of +the same country. These quarrels which were much to be deplored, did +not, however, occur in Quebec, because the French merchants did not deem +it advisable to send their ministers there, but replaced them by agents +who were often fanatical, and were for the Recollets a frequent source +of bitterness and annoyance. The most of the disorders occurred on board +the vessels, and were due to the fact that the crews were too hastily +engaged. + +The merchants, however, were bound to colonize the country with Catholic +settlers, and de Monts was also bound by similar conditions. Moreover, +the terms of the patents expressly stipulated that this should be +carried out. They were also forbidden to extend Calvinism among the +savages. "This policy," says Bancroft, "was full of wisdom." The +interpreters who could have greatly assisted the missionaries, proved on +the contrary an obstacle to the development of the Catholic religion, +for they refused to instruct the Recollets in the Indian languages, +which they had learnt before the arrival of the missionaries. + +Father Lalemant, a Jesuit, wrote in the year 1626: "This interpreter had +never wanted to communicate his knowledge of the language to any one, +not even to the Reverend Recollet Fathers, who had constantly importuned +him for ten years." So also wrote Father Le Jeune in his Relation of +1633. + +The difficulties that the missionaries had to overcome are therefore +readily understood. However they had the merit of preparing the way for +their successors, and the honour of planting the cross of Jesus Christ +everywhere, from Tadousac to Lake Huron. + +The number of missionaries was limited at the commencement, but some +others came to Canada later, particularly Fathers Guillaume Poullain, +Georges Le Baillif, and Paul Huet. These men, some of whom were of noble +birth, were remarkable for their virtues and their abilities. In the +annals of the primitive church of New France, their names are +illustrious, and around their memory gathers the aureole of sanctity. +During six years, from 1615 to 1621, the spiritual direction of the +colony was entrusted to six fathers and three friars. Father d'Olbeau +remained in charge of the habitation of Quebec, and Father Le Caron +resolved to proceed at once to the country of the Hurons. + +On July 9th, 1615, Champlain, Etienne Brule, an interpreter, a servant, +and ten Indians, set out for the mouth of the Ottawa River. They rowed +up the river as far as the Mattawan, which they followed westwards, and +soon reached Lake Nipissing where they stopped for two days. This was on +July 26th. After having taken this short rest, they continued their +voyage, crossing Georgian Bay, and reached the land of the Hurons. Near +the shore they met the Attignaouantans, or people of the bear tribe, one +of the four chief branches of the great Huron family. Their village or +_bourgade_ was called Otouacha. On the second day of August, Champlain's +party visited the village of Carmeron, and on the following day, they +saw the encampments of Tonaguainchain, Tequenonquiaye and Carhagouha. In +the latter encampment Father Le Caron resided. + +[Illustration: Champlain on the shores of Georgian Bay, 1615 + +From the painting by Humme] + +On July 12th Father Le Caron celebrated mass and sang the _Te Deum_, +after which the Indians planted a cross near the small chapel which had +been erected under Champlain's direction. The reverend father occupied a +hut within the palisade which formed the rampart of the village, and he +spent the fall and winter with the Hurons of Carhagouha. + +The Huron country was situated between the peninsula watered by Lake +Simcoe on the eastern side, and by the Georgian Bay on the western side. +It extended from north to south between the rivers Severn and +Nottawasaga. This land is twenty-five leagues in length and seven or +eight in width. The soil, though sandy, was fertile and produced in +abundance corn, beans, pumpkins and the annual helianth or sun-flower, +from which the Hurons extracted the oil. The neighbouring tribes, such +as the Ottawas and the Algonquins, used to procure their provisions from +the Hurons, as they were permanently cultivating their lands. + +Champlain observed, in 1615, that there were eighteen _bourgades_ or +villages, of which he mentions five, namely: Carhagouha, Toanche, +Carmeron, Tequenonquiaye and Cahiague. Cahiague was the most important, +and had two hundred huts; it was also the chief _bourgade_ of the tribe +called de la Roche. + +Four tribes of a common origin and a common language were living on the +Huron peninsula. They were: (1.) The Attignaouantans, or Tribe de +l'Ours; (2.) The Attignenonghacs, or Tribe de la Corde; (3.) The +Arendarrhonons, or Tribe de la Roche; (4.) The Tohontahenrats. The +general name given to these four tribes by the French was Ouendats. + +The most numerous and the most respected of the tribes were the tribes +de l'Ours and de la Corde, which had taken possession of the country; +the first about the year 1589, and the second twenty years after. The +oldest men of these tribes related to the missionaries, in 1638, that +their ancestors for the past two hundred years had been obliged to +change their residence every ten years. These two tribes were very +friendly, and in their councils treated each other like brothers. All +their business was conducted through the medium of a captain of war and +a captain of council. + +These tribes became popular and increased their numbers by adopting +members of other nations, so that in later years the Huron family became +one of the most powerful and redoubtable in North America. The identity +of language was a great factor in the accomplishment of this marvellous +result. The Andastes, of Virginia, were therefore speaking the Huron +language. The Tionnontates became so identified with their neighbours +that they were named the Hurons of the Petun. The savages of the Neutral +Nation had also adopted the Huron idiom. This uniformity of language +formed a league between these nations which would have been broken with +the utmost difficulty. + +Father de Brebeuf calculated that, in his time, there were scattered +over the whole continent of North America about three hundred thousand +Indians who understood the Huron dialect. This was exaggerated, for the +aborigines covering the territory known to the Hurons from whom the +father had collected this information did not number three hundred +thousand persons. How could he rely upon these people, to whom a +thousand men represented simply an amazing number? How could the Hurons +make a census of an unsedentary people, wandering here and there +according to circumstances of war or other reasons, and recruiting +themselves with prisoners or with the remnants of conquered nations? + +To give only one example of these strange recruitings, let us examine +the composition of the great family of the Iroquois in Champlain's time. +It was a collection of disbanded tribes, who had belonged to the Hurons, +to the Tionnontates, to the Neutral, to the Eries and du Feu tribes. The +Iroquois had separated themselves from the Hurons to form a branch which +acquired with time more vivacity than the tree from which it had sprung. +The Hurons were called the good Iroquois in order to distinguish them +from the wicked Iroquois who were reputed to be barbarous. They fought +against all the nations living in Canada, and their name was a subject +of general apprehension. + +Returning to the Hurons, we find that the Attignaouantans, or the tribe +de l'Ours, was the most populous, forming half of the whole Huron +family, namely about fifteen thousand souls. They were considered, +erroneously, as the most perfidious of all. Father de Brebeuf, who knew +them well, says that they were mild, charitable, polite and courteous. +Some years later, the tribe de l'Ours occupied fourteen villages, with +thirteen missions under the charge of the Jesuits. The whole mission, +called Immaculate Conception, had its principal seat at Ossossane, which +had replaced Carhagouha, mentioned by Champlain. The French called it La +Rochelle. Ossossane was the nearest village of the Iroquois territory. +Father du Creux' map places it on the western coast of the Huron +peninsula. + +The Attignenonghacs, or tribe de la Corde, were the oldest and the most +numerous, after the Attignaouantans. They praised their antiquity and +their traditions which had existed for two hundred years, and which had +been collected by word of mouth by the chiefs or captains. This +evidence, more or less valuable, seems to indicate that they had +preserved a family spirit, which is very laudable. The Attignenonghacs, +however, had founded a nationality, and their language was so developed +that, in 1635, Father de Brebeuf could recall to memory twelve nations +who spoke it. This tribe had no special features except that they were +very devoted to the French. The Jesuits opened in their midst two +missions called St. Ignace and St. Joseph. Teanaustayae was one of the +most important villages of the Attignenonghacs. When the village of +Ihonatiria ceased to exist, the Jesuits called it St. Joseph. Here +perished, in 1648, Father Daniel, together with seven hundred Hurons. + +Toanche was another village of the same tribe. It has often changed its +name, and we may consider it as one of these flying _bourgades_ so +commonly found among the Hurons. Champlain had known the village of +Toanche under the name of Otouacha. When Father de Brebeuf came here for +the second time, in 1634, he was unable to recognize the village that he +had visited for the first time in 1626. It had been transported about +two miles from its former place. It was then situated at the western +entrance of a bay now Penetanguishene, on a point in the northern part +of Lake Huron, four leagues from Ossossane and seven from Teanaustayae. + +The Arendarrhonons, or tribe de la Roche, were settled on the eastern +part of the peninsula. They were at first discovered by the French, and +they had, according to the laws of the country, the privilege of fur +trading. They were especially attached to Champlain, and twenty-two +years after his death they had not forgotten his remarkable virtues and +courage. The _bourgade_ of Cahiague, comprising two hundred and sixty +huts and two thousand souls, was the chief place of the Arendarrhonons. +It was situated near the lake Ouentaron, now lake Simcoe, at the +northern extremity, near the small town of Orillia. The Jesuits +established a mission here, and their principal residence was on the +right shore of a small river called the Wye, near Penetanguishene. The +remains of a fort built there in 1639 could be seen a few years ago. + +Cahiague was distant from Carhagouha fourteen leagues. It was situated +near the village of Scanonahenrat, where the Tohontahenrats, the fourth +Huron tribe, resided. They were less numerous than the others. +Scanonahenrat was situated at about two leagues from Ihonatiria of the +Attignenonghacs, and at three leagues from the Ataronchronons, another +Huron group of small importance, where finally the Jesuits took up their +residence. When these missions were flourishing, the Jesuits could +enumerate twenty-five different places where they could pursue their +calling with zeal. The Recollets had continued their course with +vigorous activity; they had sown the divine seed, but they were not +permitted to reap the reward of their labours, as the Jesuits did in the +future. + +Although the Hurons appeared to be happy, their mode of living was +miserable. Their principal articles of food were Indian corn and common +beans, which they prepared in various ways. Their clothing was made of +the skins of wild animals. Deer skin was used for their trousers, which +were cut loose, and their stockings were made of another piece of the +same skin, while their boots were formed of the skin of bears, beavers +and deer. They also wore a cloak in the Egyptian style, with sleeves +which were attached by a string behind. Most of them painted their faces +black and red, and dyed their hair, which some wore long, others short, +and others again on one side only. The women and girls were dressed +like men, except that they had their robes, which extended to the knee, +girt about them. They all dressed their hair in one uniform style, +carefully combed, dyed and oiled. For ornaments they wore quantities of +porcelain, chains and necklaces, besides bracelets and ear-rings. + +These people were of a happy temperament generally, though some had a +sad and gloomy countenance. Physically they were well proportioned. Some +of the men and women had fine figures, strong and robust, and many of +the women were powerful and of unusual height. The greater portion of +the work fell to the lot of the women, who looked after the housework, +tilled the land, laid up a store of wood for the winter, beat the hemp +and spun it, and made fishing nets from the thread. They also gathered +in the harvest and prepared it for food. The occupation of the men was +hunting for deer, fishing, and building their cabins, varied at times by +war. When they were free from these occupations, they visited other +tribes with whom they were acquainted for the purpose of traffic or +exchange, and their return was celebrated by dances and festivities. + +They had a certain form of marriage which Champlain thus describes. When +a girl had reached the age of eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen or +fifteen years, she had suitors, more or less, according to her +attractions, who wooed her for some time. The consent of the parents was +then asked, to whose wills the girl did not always submit, although the +most discreet of them did so. The favoured lover or suitor then +presented to the girl some necklaces, bracelets or chains of porcelain, +which she accepted if the suitor was agreeable to her. The suitor then +resided with her for three or four days, without saying anything to her +in the meantime, but if they did not agree, the girl left her suitor, +who forfeited his necklaces and the other presents which he had made, +and each was free to seek another companion if so disposed. This term of +probation was often extended to eight, or even to fifteen days. + +The children enjoyed great freedom. The parents indulged them too much +and never punished or corrected them. As a consequence they grew up bad +and vicious. They would often strike their mothers, and when they were +powerful enough they did not hesitate to strike their fathers. + +The Hurons did not recognize any divine power or worship of God. They +were without belief, and lived like brute beasts, with this exception, +that they had a sort of fear of an evil spirit. They had _ogni_ or +_manitous_, who were medicine-men, and who healed the sick, bound up the +wounded, foretold future events, and practised all the abuses and +illusions of the black arts. + +Champlain firmly believed that the conversion of the Hurons to +Christianity would have been easier if the country had been inhabited by +persons who would devote their energies to instructing them. Father Le +Caron and himself had often conversed with them regarding the Catholic +faith, the laws and customs of the French, and they had listened +attentively, sometimes saying: + +"You say things that pass our knowledge, and which we cannot understand +by words, being beyond our comprehension; but if you would do us a +service, come and dwell in this country, bringing your wives and +children, and when they are here, we shall see how you serve the God you +worship, and how you live with your wives and children, how you +cultivate and plant the soil, how you obey your laws, how you take care +of animals, and how you manufacture all that we see proceeding from your +inventive skill. When we see all this we shall learn more in a year than +in twenty by simply hearing your discourse; and if we cannot understand, +you shall take our children, who shall be as your own. And thus being +convinced that our life is a miserable one in comparison with yours, it +is easy to believe that we shall adopt yours, abandoning our own." + +The following was their mode of government. The older and leading men +assembled in a council, in which they settled upon and proposed all that +was necessary for the affairs of the village. This was done by a +plurality of voices, or in accordance with the advice of some one among +them whose judgment they considered superior; such a one was requested +by the company to give his opinion on the propositions that had been +made, and his opinion was minutely obeyed. They had no particular chief +with absolute command, but they honoured the older and more courageous +men, of which there were several in a village, whom they named captains, +as a mark of distinction and respect. + +They all deliberated in common, and whenever any member of the assembly +offered to do anything for the welfare of the village, or to go anywhere +for the service of the community, he was requested to present himself, +and if he was judged capable of carrying out what he proposed, they +exhorted him, by fair and favourable words, to do his duty. They +declared him to be an energetic man, fit for the undertaking, and +assured him that he would win honour in accomplishing his task. In a +word, they encouraged him by flatteries, in order that this favourable +disposition of his for the welfare of his fellow-citizens might continue +and increase. Then, according to his pleasure, he accepted or refused +the responsibility, and thereby he was held in high esteem. + +They had, moreover, general assemblies with representatives from remote +regions. These representatives came every year, one from each province, +and met in a town designated as the rendezvous of the assembly. Here +were celebrated great banquets and dances, for three weeks or a month, +according as they might determine. On these occasions they renewed +their friendship, resolved upon and decreed what they thought best for +the preservation of their country against their enemies, and made each +other handsome presents, after which they retired to their own +districts. + +In burying the dead, the Hurons took the body of the deceased, wrapped +it in furs, and covered it very carefully with the bark of trees. Then +they placed it in a cabin, of the length of the body, made of bark and +erected upon four posts. Others they placed in the ground, propping up +the earth on all sides that it might not fall on the body, which they +covered with the bark of trees, putting earth on top. Over this trench +they also made a little cabin. The bodies remained thus buried for a +period of eight or ten years. Then they held a general council, to which +all the people of the country were invited, for the purpose of +determining upon some place for the holding of a great festival. After +this they returned each to his own village, where they took all the +bones of the deceased, stripped them and made them quite clean. These +they kept very carefully, although the odour arising therefrom was +noxious. Then all the relatives and friends of the deceased took these +bones, together with their necklaces, furs, axes, kettles, and other +things highly valued, and carried them, with a quantity of edibles, to +the place assigned. Here, when all had assembled, they put the edibles +in a place designated by the men of the village, and engaged in banquets +and continual dancing. The festival lasted for the space of ten days, +during which other tribes from all quarters came to witness the +ceremonies. The latter were attended with great outlays. + +These details on the manners and customs of the Hurons are quoted nearly +_verbatim_ from Champlain's Relations, so they must be considered as +accurate.[17] + +FOOTNOTES: + +[17] This volume contains the following title: _Voyages et +Descouvertures faites en la Nouvelle France depuis l'annee 1615, jusques +a la fin de l'annee 1618. Par le Sieur de Champlain, Capitaine ordinaire +pour le Roy en la Mer du Ponant. Seconde Edition, MDCXIX_. This original +edition bears the date of 1619, and the second edition is dated 1627. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +WAR AGAINST THE IROQUOIS, 1615 + + +Champlain had promised for some years to assist the Hurons in their wars +against the Iroquois, and he found that the present time was opportune +for him to fulfil his pledge. He had visited every Huron tribe, and he +was aware that a general rendezvous had been fixed at Cahiague. On +August 14th, 1615, ten Frenchmen, under the command of Champlain, +started from Carhagouha. On their way they stopped at the villages of +the Tohontahenrats and Attignenonghacs, and found the country well +watered and cultivated, and the villages populous. The people, however, +were ignorant, avaricious and untruthful, and had no idea either of a +divinity or of a religion. + +On August 17th, Champlain came in sight of Cahiague, where the Hurons +had gathered, and after some hesitation, they decided to go to war. The +departure was delayed until September 1st, pending the arrival of some +of their warriors and the Andastes, who had promised five hundred men. +On their journey they passed by Lake Couchiching and Lake Ouantaron or +Simcoe. From there they decided to proceed by way of Sturgeon Lake, +after travelling by land for a distance of ten leagues. From Sturgeon +Lake flows the river Otonabi, which discharges into Rice Lake. + +They followed the river Trent to the Bay of Quinte in Lake Ontario or +Entouaronons. "Here," says Champlain, "is the entrance of the grand +river of St. Lawrence." They leisurely crossed Lake Ontario, and, having +hidden their canoes, penetrated the woods and crossed the river Chouagen +or Oswego, which flows from Lake Oneida where the Iroquois used to fish. + +On October 7th the Hurons had approached within four leagues of the +fortifications of their enemies, and on that day eleven Iroquois fell +into the hands of Champlain's men, and were made prisoners. Iroquet, the +chief of the Petite Nation, prepared to torture the prisoners, among +whom were four women and four children, but Champlain strongly opposed +this course. The Iroquois were engaged in reaping their corn when the +Hurons and their allies appeared before them on October 10th, or five +weeks after Champlain had started from Cahiague. During this period +Champlain's army had undergone much fatigue, and it was desirable to +take some rest. + +The first day was spent in petty skirmishes. Instead of fighting in +ranks, the Hurons disbanded, and were consequently liable to be seized +by the vigilance of their enemies. Champlain recognized the danger of +this method of warfare, and persuaded his companions to preserve their +ranks. The last combat continued for about three hours, during which +Ochateguin and Orani, two of the allied chiefs, were wounded. Champlain +also received two arrow wounds, one in the leg and one in the knee. +There was great disorder in the ranks of the Hurons, and the chiefs had +no control over their men. The result, on the whole, was not in favour +of Champlain's allies, who in the absence of the Andastes were not +anxious to continue the attacks against the Iroquois, and consequently +determined to retreat as soon as possible. + +Champlain suffered much from his wounds. "I never found myself in such a +gehenna," he says, "as during this time, for the pain which I suffered +in consequence of the wound in my knee was nothing in comparison with +that which I endured while I was carried, bound and pinioned, on the +back of one of the savages." + +The retreat was very long, and on October 18th they arrived at the shore +of Lake Ontario. Here Champlain requested that he might have a canoe and +guides to conduct him to Quebec, and this was one of the conditions to +which they had agreed before he set out for the war. The Indians were +not to be trusted, however, and they refused his request. Champlain, +therefore, resolved to accept the hospitality of Darontal, chief of the +Arendarrhonons, or tribe de la Roche. The chief appeared kindly disposed +towards Champlain, and as it was the hunting season, he accompanied him +on his excursions. During one of these expeditions, Champlain lost his +way in the pursuit of a strange bird, and he was not found by the +savages until three days afterwards. The return journey to Cahiague on +foot was painful, and during the nineteen days thus spent, much hardship +was undergone. The party arrived at Cahiague on December 23rd, 1615. + +In the course of the winter, Champlain was chosen to act as judge of a +quarrel between the Algonquins of the Petite Nation, and the Hurons of +the tribe de l'Ours, which had arisen over the murder of one of the +Iroquois. The Attignaouantans had committed an Iroquois prisoner to the +custody of Iroquet, requesting him to burn him according to their +custom. Instead of carrying out this act, Iroquet had taken the young +man and treated him as a son. When the Attignaouantans were aware of +this, they sent one of their number to murder the young Iroquois. This +barbarous conduct made the Algonquins indignant, and they killed the +murderer. + +Champlain returned from the Petuneux in company with Father Le Caron at +the time when these crimes had just been committed. Witnesses were +summoned to meet Champlain at Cahiague, and were each examined. The +trial lasted two days, during which the old men of both nations were +consulted, and the majority of them were favourable to a reconciliation +without conditions. Champlain exacted from them a promise that they +would accept his decision as final, and he then had a full meeting of +the two tribes assembled there. Addressing them, he said: + +"You Algonquins, and you Hurons, have always been friends. You have +lived like brothers; you take this name in your councils. Your conduct +now is unworthy of reasonable men. You are enough occupied in repelling +your enemies, who have pursued you, who rout you as often as possible, +pursuing you to your villages and taking you prisoners. These enemies, +seeing these divisions and wars among you, will be delighted and derive +great advantage therefrom. On account of the death of one man you will +hazard the lives of ten thousand, and run the risk of being reduced to +perpetual slavery. Although in fact one man was of great value, you +ought to consider how he has been killed; it was not with deliberate +purpose, nor for the sake of inciting a civil war. The Algonquins much +regret all that has taken place, and if they had supposed such a thing +would have happened, they would have sacrificed this Iroquois for the +satisfaction of the Hurons. Forget all, never think of it again, but +live good friends as before. In case you should not be pleased with my +advice, I request you to come in as large numbers as possible, to our +settlement, so that there, in presence of all the captains of vessels, +the friendship might be ratified anew, and measures taken to secure you +from your enemies." + +Champlain's advice was followed, and the savages went away satisfied, +except the Algonquins, who broke up and proceeded to their villages, +saying that the death of these two men had cost them too dearly. + +Champlain having spent the winter with Darontal, on May 20th left for +Quebec. The journey from Cahiague to Sault St. Louis occupied forty +days. Champlain here found that Pont-Grave had arrived from France with +two vessels, and that the reverend fathers were very pleased to see him +again. Darontal accompanied Champlain to Quebec, and greatly admired the +habitation and the mode of living adopted by the French. Before leaving +for France, Champlain enlarged the habitation by at least one-third, the +additions consisting of buildings and fortifications, in the +construction of which he used lime and sand which were found near at +hand. Some grain was also cut, and the gardens were left in good +condition. + +During the winter of 1615-16, Father Le Caron had received a visit from +Champlain, who was then returning from an expedition against the +Iroquois. Being at a loss to know how to employ their time, Champlain +and the Recollets resolved to pay a visit to the Tionnontates, or people +of the Petun. The missionary was not well received by these people, +although Champlain was able to make an alliance, not only with the +Petuneux, but also with six or seven other tribes living in the +vicinity. + +Father Le Caron returned to his flock, the Hurons, and remained with +them until May 20th, studying their manners, trying to acquire their +language, and to improve their morals. Father Le Clercq says that he +compiled a dictionary which was seen in his own time, and which was +preserved as a relic. + +When the Hurons left their country to engage in fur trading with the +French at Sault St. Louis, Father Le Caron took passage in one of their +canoes, and arrived at Three Rivers on July 1st, 1616. Here he met +Father d'Olbeau, who had spent the winter with the Indians on the north +shore of the river St. Lawrence, between Tadousac and the Seven Islands. + +Father d'Olbeau had visited the Bersiamites, the Papinachois and others, +and he planted crosses everywhere, so that many years after, when some +Frenchmen were visiting the place, they found these evidences of his +labours. After two months of fatigue, Father d'Olbeau was compelled to +return to Quebec, as he was suffering from sore eyes, and was unable to +unclose his eyelids for several weeks. The two fathers arrived at Quebec +on July 11th, 1616, and Father Jamet was pleased to learn the result of +the missions of his confreres. The three missionaries had carefully +studied the country during the past year, and gained a fair knowledge of +the people. They realized at this time that their own resources limited +their power of doing good, and they therefore requested Champlain to +convoke a meeting of six inhabitants, to discuss the best means of +furthering the interests of the mission. Champlain was chosen president +of the meeting, and although the missionaries were present they took no +part in the deliberations. + +The resolutions adopted at this first council meeting in the new +settlement were preserved. It was decided that the nations down the +river and those of the north were, for the present, at least, incapable +of civilization. These tribes included the Montagnais, Etchemins, +Bersiamites, Papinachois and the great and little Esquimaux. They dwelt +in an uncultivated, barren and mountainous country, whose wild game and +fur-bearing animals sufficed to support them. Their habits were nomadic, +and excessive superstition was their only form of religion. By the +report of those who had visited the southern coasts, and had even +penetrated by land to Cadie, Cape Breton and Chaleurs Bay, Ile Perce and +Gaspe, the country there was more temperate, and susceptible of +cultivation. There would be found dispositions less estranged from +Christianity, as the people had more shame, docility and humanity than +the others. + +With regard to the upper river and the territory of the numerous tribes +of Indians visited by Monsieur de Champlain and Father Joseph +themselves, or by others, besides possessing an abundance of game, which +might attract the French there in hopes of trade, the land was much more +fertile and the climate more congenial than in the Indian country down +the river. The upper river Indians, such as the Algonquins, Iroquois, +Hurons, Nipissirini, Neuters, Fire Nation, were sedentary, generally +docile, susceptible of instruction, charitable, strong, robust, patient; +insensible, however, and indifferent to all that concerns salvation; +lascivious, and so material that when told that their soul was immortal, +they would ask what they would eat after death in the next world. In +general, none of the savages whom they had known had any idea of a +divinity, believing, nevertheless, in another world where they hoped to +enjoy the same pleasures as they took here below--a people, in short, +without subordination, law or form of government or system, gross in +religious matters, shrewd and crafty for trade and profit, but +superstitious to excess. + +It was the opinion of the council that none could ever succeed in +converting them, unless they made them men before they made them +Christians. To civilize them it was necessary first that the French +should mingle with them and habituate them to their presence and mode of +life, which could be done only by the increase of the colony, the +greatest obstacle to which was on the part of the gentlemen of the +company, who, to monopolize trade, did not wish the country to be +settled, and did not even wish to make the Indians sedentary, which was +the only condition favourable to the salvation of these heathen. + +The Protestants, or Huguenots, having the best share in the trade, it +was to be feared that the contempt they showed for the Catholic +mysteries would greatly retard the establishment of that faith. Even the +bad example of the French might be prejudicial, if those who had +authority in the country did not establish order. + +The mission among such numerous nations would be painful and laborious, +and so could advance but little unless they obtained from the gentlemen +of the company a greater number of missionaries free of expense. Even +then it would require many years and great labour to humanize these +utterly gross and barbarous nations, and even when this end was +partially attained, the sacrament, for fear of profanation, could be +administered only to an exceptional few among the adults. + +It finally appears to have been decided that they could not make +progress unless the colony was increased by a greater number of +settlers, mechanics and farmers; that free trade with the Indians should +be permitted, without distinction, to all Frenchmen; that in future +Huguenots should be excluded, and that it was necessary to render the +Indians sedentary, and bring them up to a knowledge of French manners +and laws. + +The council further agreed that by the help of zealous persons in +France, a seminary ought to be established in order to bring to +Christianity, young Indians, who might afterwards aid the missionaries +in converting their countrymen. It was deemed necessary to maintain the +missions which the fathers had established both up and down the river. +This could not be done unless the associated gentlemen showed all the +ardour to be expected from their zeal when informed of all things +faithfully, instead of being deluded by the reports of the clerks whom +they had sent the year before; the governor and the fathers having no +ground to be satisfied therewith. + +Champlain, who intended to return to France, desired the father +commissary and Father Le Caron to accompany him, in order that the +resolutions of the council might be submitted to the king for his +approval, and with a view of obtaining substantial assistance. The +voyage was a pleasant one, and Champlain and his party arrived at +Honfleur on September 10th, 1616. + +The merchants whom they interviewed at Paris were ready to promise to +support the mission, but nothing was realized from their promises, and +it soon became apparent that they cared more about the fur trade than +about religion. Champlain saw many people who he believed could assist +the settlement, but the winter was passed in useless negotiations. He +therefore prepared a greater shipment than usual from his own resources, +and he was fortunate in finding that his old friend, Louis Hebert, an +apothecary of Port Royal, was willing to accompany him. Hebert took his +family with him, composed of three children and his wife, named Marie +Rollet. Hebert afterwards rendered very valuable assistance to the +founder of Quebec. + +Father Jamet did not return to Quebec, and he was therefore replaced as +commissary by Father Le Caron, who appointed Father Huet as his +assistant. The vessel conveying the party sailed from Honfleur on April +11th, 1617, under the command of Captain Morel. The passage was very +rough, and when within sixty leagues of the Great Bank of Newfoundland, +numerous icebergs bore down on the ship like huge mountains. Father Le +Clercq says that in the general consternation Father Joseph, seeing that +all human succour could not deliver them from shipwreck, earnestly +implored the aid of heaven in the vows and prayers which he made +publicly on the vessel. He confessed all, and prepared himself to appear +before God. All were touched with compassion and deeply moved when Dame +Hebert raised her youngest child through the hatchway to let it share +with the rest the good father's blessing. They escaped only by a +miracle, as they acknowledged in their letters to France. + +The ship arrived at Tadousac on July 14th, and mass was said in a little +chapel which Father Huet had constructed with poles and branches, and a +sailor stood on either side of the altar with fir branches to drive away +the cloud of mosquitoes which caused great annoyance to the celebrant. +The mass was very solemn. Besides the French, there were many Indians +present who assisted with devotion amid the roar of the cannon of the +ship, and the muskets of the French. After the service a dinner was +given by Champlain on board the vessel. On the arrival of the party at +Quebec some days after, they found that the inhabitants were nearly +starving, and that Father d'Olbeau was anxiously awaiting the news from +France. + +Both Champlain and Father Le Caron were obliged to confess that their +mission had been unsuccessful. What, therefore, was to be done? To +return to Old France would have been contrary to the intentions of the +Recollets. They had been sent to Canada by their superiors, and they had +no order to act contrary to their instructions. After having studied the +situation they resolved that Father d'Olbeau should visit France, see +the king in person, and place before him the settlers' condition and +their own. During his absence Father Huet undertook the charge of the +mission at Tadousac, and Brother Pacifique du Plessis was appointed to +teach catechism to the Indians of Three Rivers. + +It was at about this time that Father Le Caron performed the first +marriage ceremony in Canada, the contracting parties being Etienne +Jonquest of Normandy, and Anne Hebert, eldest daughter of Louis Hebert. + +The condition of the Recollets at this time was unenviable. The agents +of the merchants were not better disposed towards them than the +interpreters. Some of these agents were demoralized, and the reproach +that they received from the fathers caused them to avoid their presence. +The conduct of some of these agents was so bad that even the Indians, +who were not strict in their morals, were scandalized. When we take into +consideration these circumstances, and the meagreness of the resources +of the order, and the difficulties they had in acquiring the language, +we can form a faint idea of the hardness of their lot, and it was not +without just cause that they decided to send Father d'Olbeau to France +with Champlain, in order that the true state of affairs might be urged +still further before the king. + +Father Le Clercq says: "Meanwhile Monsieur de Champlain employed all his +address and prudence, and the intrigues of his friends to obtain what +was necessary for the establishment of his new colony. Father d'Olbeau, +on his side, spared nothing; both spoke frequently to the members of the +company, but in vain, for these people, who always had their ears open +to flattering tales of the great profit to be made in the Indian trade, +closed them to the requests and entreaties made them. They therefore +contented themselves with what they could get." + +Father d'Olbeau at length received some consolation and compensation for +all his labours, when a bull was issued by the pope, granting a jubilee +to New France, which was celebrated at Quebec on July 29th, 1618, and +was the first of its kind. For the celebration of this religious +festival, the Recollets had built some huts, which were used as +stations, and French and Indians proceeded from one of those improvised +chapels to the other, singing the psalms and hymns of the church. In the +year 1618, the Recollets in New France were only three in number: +Fathers Le Caron and d'Olbeau, and Friar Modeste Guines. + +During the winter of 1617-18 the missionaries were called upon to decide +a difficult question. Two Frenchmen had disappeared in 1616, and the +discovery of their bones proved that they had been murdered. A diligent +search was instituted which led to the detection of the murderer, who +acknowledged his crime. The question of punishment, however, was +difficult from the fact that a clerk named Beauchesne, who had been +invested with extensive civil power by Champlain, was in the habit of +receiving gifts from the Indians. It was consequently considered +dangerous to do anything that would displease the Indians, as they were +known to be terrible in their vengeance. The Recollets had strongly +protested against this method of receiving gifts, which placed the +settlement in a false position towards the Indians. It was finally +decided to release the prisoner and to accept as hostages two young +Indians. When the matter was brought before Champlain, he approved of +the course adopted, and stated that it was not a wise policy to be too +severe. + +This affair, which at one time appeared likely to produce disagreeable +consequences, passed over without event, and some time after a party of +Indians visited Quebec for the purpose of effecting a complete +reconciliation. Thus, when Champlain left for France in 1618, the colony +was secure. + +Father Huet, who accompanied Champlain, was charged with many important +missions, one of which related to the administration of baptism to the +Indians. They were quite willing to be baptized, but they had no idea of +the nature of the sacrament, and although they promised to keep their +vows before the ceremony, they soon returned to their old superstitions. +Their want of sincerity was a trial to Father Huet, and he desired to +have the opinion of the Doctors of the Sorbonne to guide him in his +future actions. + +During the winter Father Le Caron went to Tadousac in order to continue +the work of Father d'Olbeau, and he remained there until the middle of +July, 1619. In the interval he had built a residence upon the ground +donated by the merchants, and had the satisfaction of leaving one +hundred and forty neophytes as the result of the labours of the mission. +Father d'Olbeau had his residence at Quebec. + +On his return to Canada Father Huet was accompanied by Father Guillaume +Poullain, three friars and two labourers. Champlain did not return this +year. The Recollets had received authority to build a convent at Quebec, +and the Prince de Conde had contributed fifteen hundred livres towards +the object. Charles de Boues, vicar-general of Pontoise, had also made a +personal subscription, and accepted the protectorate of the convent, +together with the title of syndic of Canadian missions. Other piously +disposed persons had also contributed towards the maintenance of the +religious institution. + +The establishment of a convent in Canada was a ray of light amid the +gloom which had hung over the settlement of New France during the past +four years, but the rejoicing on this occasion was soon turned into +mourning by the unexpected death of Friar du Plessis, who died at Three +Rivers on August 23rd, 1619. There were two other deaths during this +year which cast a shadow on the colony, that of Anne Hebert, and of her +husband, Etienne Jonquest, who survived his wife only a few weeks. + +The mission at Three Rivers was placed under the charge of Father Le +Caron, and from this date it was the object of the most pastoral +solicitude of the Recollets. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +FUR TRADE + + +The earliest reference by Champlain to the fur trade in Canada, is +contained in his relation of his voyage to Tadousac in the year 1603. +During this journey he encountered a number of Indians in a canoe, near +Hare Island, among whom was an Algonquin who appeared to be well versed +in the geography of the country watered by the Great Lakes. As a proof +of his knowledge, he gave to Champlain a description of the rapids of +the St. Lawrence, of Niagara Falls and Lake Ontario. When questioned as +to the natural resources of the country, he stated that he was +acquainted with a people called the good Iroquois (Hurons) who were +accustomed to exchange their peltry for the goods which the French had +given to the Algonquins. We have in this statement proof that the French +were known to the inhabitants of New France before the year 1603. + +In the year 1608, trading was conducted with the Indians at Tadousac, +but in 1610 it was alternately at Tadousac, and near Cape de la Victoire +at the entrance of the Richelieu River. During the latter period, the +fur trade was a failure, although the vessels annually carried from +twelve to fifteen thousand skins to France, which were sold at one +pistole each. From the year 1610, Tadousac ceased to be the rendezvous +of traders, and the great centre was at Sault St. Louis, until the year +1618. From this time, for several consecutive years, Three Rivers was +the principal trading-post, and finally the Indians went down to Quebec, +or to Cape de la Victoire, or du Massacre, and at a still later period +the Isle of Richelieu, opposite the parish of Deschambault, some fifteen +leagues above Quebec, was chosen as a trading-place. + +Champlain was not opposed to the fur trade; on the contrary, he favoured +it, provided that it was conducted honestly, as it afforded him +opportunities for making new discoveries, and also for maintaining +friendly relationship with the Indians. The Recollets had no connection +with the trade, although through their efforts commercial intercourse +was often facilitated. + +Speaking of the trading of 1618, Champlain mentions a class of men who +eventually attained considerable influence in colonial affairs. These +men were the factors or clerks employed and paid by the merchants. Some +of them obtained notoriety on account of their treason and bad conduct, +while others were distinguished by their devotedness to Champlain and +the missionaries. The clerks or factors were engaged by the fur trading +merchants who had their principal factory at Quebec. The staff consisted +of a chief clerk, of clerks and underclerks; and their functions were +to receive merchandise on its arrival, to place it in the store, and +when the trading was complete, to exchange the goods for skins, which +were then carefully packed for exportation. The clerks visited the +places chosen by the Indians for trading, and generally conducted the +exchanges themselves. Some of them employed the services of interpreters +who were readily found, and were frequently sent among the natives to +induce them to visit the clerks. The duties of the clerks were not +always easily performed. They had many difficulties to encounter, but as +successful trading might lead to future promotion, there were advantages +connected with the office. Thierry-Desdames, one of the underclerks at +Quebec in 1622, was appointed captain of the Island of Miscou, in +recognition of his faithful service. This is not the only instance of +promotion recorded by Champlain. Beauchesne and Loquin are also +mentioned in the Relations of 1618 and 1619. + +When Champlain returned from France in 1620, he was accompanied by Jean +Baptiste Guers, the business representative of the Duke of Montmorency, +who rendered good service to Champlain and the settlers. In the same +year Pont-Grave traded at Three Rivers, and he was assisted by two +clerks called Loquin and Caumont, and an underclerk, Rouvier. Before +leaving for France, Pont-Grave placed Caumont in charge of his factory. +Rouvier also left for France, under the pretext that the company +refused to increase his wages. The departure of a clerk, however, was of +small importance, when we consider the trouble which had arisen among +the associates. + +In the year 1612, Champlain, it appears, had placed too much confidence +in the influence of Henri de Conde, viceroy of New France. This nobleman +proved to be a source of trouble rather than a friend to the new colony. +Two years after, Champlain formed an association of the merchants of St. +Malo and Rouen, who invested a large capital for the development of +trade in Quebec. The chief members of the company were Francois Porree, +Lucas Legendre, Louis Vermeulle, Mathieu d'Insterlo, Pierre Eon, Thomas +Cochon, Pierre Trublet, Vincent Grave, Daniel Boyer and Corneille de +Bellois. By its constitution the operations of the company were to +extend over a period of eleven years, and its members engaged to +maintain the habitation of Quebec, and a fort, and to build new forts if +necessary, and also to pay the expenses of missionaries, and to send +labourers and workmen to Canada. The Prince de Conde received a salary +of three thousand livres, and the payment of this large amount annually +to the viceroy, caused the merchants to neglect their obligations +towards Champlain. + +In the meantime Conde conspired against the Queen Regent and was +incarcerated, and the Marechal de Themines was temporarily appointed in +his place. The office of secretary to the viceroy would appear to have +been lucrative, for one applicant, probably Boyer, offered Themines four +thousand five hundred livres, if he would appoint him to the position. +Conde protested against the charge which had been made against his +agreement, and asked for his salary. De Villemenon, intendant of the +admiralty, opposed the application, and claimed the amount of the salary +for the Quebec settlement. + +While Champlain was present in France in 1617 he received a proscription +from the court of parliament, ordering him to resign his office of +lieutenant of the viceroy, as the Company of Rouen had decided to +suppress the salary of the viceroy. Champlain did not take any notice of +this injunction, but started for Quebec. On his return to France during +the same year (1617) Champlain met the Marechal de Themines, in order to +induce him, in his capacity of viceroy, to take some interest in the +affairs of New France, as the situation there was becoming +insupportable. The great personages were quarrelling over money matters; +the people of St. Malo were renewing their demands for liberty of +commerce, and the merchants were refusing to invest new capital. +Champlain had a series of difficulties, which he endeavoured to remove +before his return to Quebec, and he drew up his grievances in two large +factums, one of which was presented to the king, and the other to the +Board of Trade of Paris. + +In the factum to the king Champlain explained that France would derive +benefit from the colonization of Canada, provided workmen and labourers +were sent to the country. He also set forth the necessity of improving +the defense of the colony, as an attack might be expected at any time +from the English or Dutch. Champlain pointed out to the king, at the +same time, that by developing New France, he would be propagating the +Catholic faith amongst infidels, and that he would add to his wealth by +reason of the revenue to be derived from the vast forests of Canada. He +also made known to the king some of the projects which he had in view. +Amongst these were certain buildings and works which he proposed to +carry out. Quebec was to be named _Ludovica_, in honour of the king. A +church was to be erected and dedicated under the title of _Redeemer_, +and a fort was to be constructed on the cape of Quebec, flanked with +four bastions, which would command the river St. Lawrence. A second fort +was to be built opposite Quebec, which would complete the defense of the +face of the town, and a third fort would be constructed at Tadousac on a +promontory naturally fortified, to be manned by a garrison which would +be relieved every six months. + +These arrangements would provide for the defense of the country. +Champlain also intended to look after the education and the spiritual +wants of the settlement, by sending fifteen friars of the Recollet +order to New France, who were to found a convent near the Church of the +Redeemer. The king was also asked to send one hundred families to the +colony, each composed of a husband and wife and two children or a +servant under twenty years of age. With these provisions Champlain +believed that a settlement might be established in the name of France, +which would remain loyal to her interests, since it would rest upon the +sure foundation of strength, justice, commerce, and agriculture. + +In his explanations to the Board of Trade Champlain dwelt upon the +advantages which were to be derived from fishing, from the lumber +industry, agriculture and cattle raising, and from the working of the +mines and from trading. In short he endeavoured to induce the associates +to continue their operations. The members, however, were under the +impression that colonization would place obstacles in the way of +commerce, and that the inhabitants would soon monopolize the trade. Some +of the associates who were Protestants objected to colonization under +Catholic influence, and understanding that Champlain was a staunch +Catholic, they decided to have Pont-Grave appointed as lieutenant of the +viceroy, in his place. + +Champlain was much affected on finding that he had a rival in Pont-Grave +whom he had always respected as a father, neither would he accept such a +humiliating position. The king, however, intervened at this time, and +wrote a letter to the associates, requesting them to aid Champlain. + + "BY THE KING. + + "Dear, and well-beloved:--On the report made to us that + there has hitherto been bad management in the establishment of the + families and workmen sent to the settlement of Quebec, and other + places of New France, we write to you this letter, to declare to + you our desire that all things should proceed better in future; and + to tell you that it will give us pleasure that you should assist, + as much as you conveniently can, the Sieur Champlain in the things + requisite and necessary for the execution of the commands which he + has received from us, to choose experienced and trusty men to be + employed in the discovery, inhabiting, cultivating, and sowing the + lands; and do all the works which he shall judge necessary for the + establishment of the colonies which we desire to plant in the said + country, for the good of the service and the use of our subjects; + without, however, on account of the said discoveries and + settlements, your factors, clerks, and agents in the traffic of + peltry, being troubled or hindered in any way whatever during the + term which we have granted you. And fail not in this, for such is + our pleasure. Given at Paris March 12th, 1618. + + (Signed) "Louis." + (And below) "Potier." + +The merchants brought their affairs before the notice of the Council of +Tours, who decided that Champlain should retain his position. The action +of the council was a victory for Champlain, but it was soon followed by +another still more agreeable. The associates promised to provide for the +organization of emigration during the following year on a scale which +would assure the success of the settlement. By this arrangement eighty +persons, including three Recollet fathers would arrive in New France +during the year 1619. In order to have the proceedings regularly +conducted, Champlain caused papers to be prepared by notaries, which +were signed on December 21st, 1618, by Pierre du Gua and Lucas Legendre +in the name of the associates, and also by Vermeulle, Corneille de +Bellois and Mathieu d'Insterlo. The document is as follows: + +"List of persons to be sent to, and supported at, the settlement of +Quebec for the year 1619. + +"There shall be eighty persons, including the chief, three Recollet +fathers, clerks, officers, workmen and labourers. Every two persons +shall have a mattress, a paillasse, two blankets, three pairs of new +sheets, two coats each, six shirts, four pairs of shoes, and one capote. + +"For the arms:--Forty musquets, with their bandaliers, twenty-four +pikes, four arquebuses a rouet [wheel-lock] of four to five feet, one +thousand pounds of fine powder, one thousand pounds of powder for +common, six thousand pounds of lead, and a match-stump. + +"For the men:--A dozen scythes with their handles, hammers, and other +tools; twelve reaping-hooks, twenty-four spades, twelve picks, four +thousand pounds of iron, two barrels of steel, ten tons of lime [none +having been then found in this country], ten thousand curved, or twenty +thousand flat tiles, ten thousand bricks to build an oven and chimneys, +two mill-stones [the kind of stone fit for that purpose was not +discovered till some years afterwards.] + +"For the service of the table of the chief:--Thirty-six dishes, as many +bowls and plates, six saltcellars, six ewers, two basins, six pots of +six pints each, six pints, six chopines [about half a pint] six +demy-septiers, the whole of pewter, two dozen table-cloths, twenty-four +dozen napkins. + +"For the kitchen:--A dozen of copper boilers, six pairs andirons, six +frying-pans, six gridirons. + +"Shall also be taken out:--Two bulls of one year old, heifers, and as +many sheep as convenient; all kinds of seeds for sowing. + +"The commander of the settlement shall have charge of the arms and +ammunition which are actually there, and of those which shall afterwards +be sent, so long as he shall be in command; and the clerk or factor who +shall reside there shall take charge of all merchandise; as well as of +the furniture and utensils of the company, and shall send a regular +account of them, signed by him, by the ships. + +"Also shall be sent, a dozen mattresses complete, like those of +families, which shall be kept in the magazine for the use of the sick +and wounded, etc., etc. + +"Signed at Paris December 21st, 1618, and compared with the original [on +paper] by the undersigned." + +Champlain submitted this document to the king, who approved it, but +nevertheless the associates were afterwards unwilling to fulfil its +conditions. The Prince de Conde having been discharged from prison on +October 20th, 1619, the king forwarded to him his commission of viceroy, +and the Company of Rouen granted him a thousand ecus. + +The prince gave five hundred ecus to the Recollets for the construction +of a seminary at Quebec, and this was his only gift to the settlement of +New France. The prince afterwards sold his commission as viceroy to the +Duke of Montmorency, Admiral of France, for the sum of thirty thousand +ecus. Dolu, grand almoner of the kingdom, was appointed intendant. The +duke renewed Champlain's commission as lieutenant of the viceroy, and at +the same time advised him to return to Quebec to strengthen his +positions everywhere, in order that the country might be secure against +invasion. + +The patronage of Montmorency greatly encouraged Champlain, for the duke +exercised great power. He therefore resolved to take his young wife to +Quebec with him, for she had never been to Canada. Champlain concluded +his private business in France, and took all his effects to the new +settlement, as he had determined to take up his residence there. Before +leaving France, all the difficulties in connection with his command were +removed, and the king wrote him a very gracious letter, in which His +Majesty expressed his esteem for his loyal and faithful subject. + +The new administration of the Duke of Montmorency created +dissatisfaction amongst the merchants of the society, which in fact had +only changed its name of the "Company of Rouen" to the "Company of +Montmorency or of de Caen." The associates forming the old company had +hoped that Champlain would have been placed in the shade, especially +when they learned that he intended to fortify Quebec and settle in the +country. No action, however, was taken until the new company had +commenced its administration. Champlain remained in ignorance of these +facts until the arrival of the vessels in the spring of 1621, when he +received letters from M. de Puiseux, _secretaire des commandements du +roi_, from the intendant Dolu, from de Villemenon, intendant of the +admiralty, from Guillaume de Caen, one of the members of the new +association, and from the viceroy, which last is here given:-- + + "Monsieur Champlain: For many reasons I have thought fit + to exclude the former Company of Rouen and St. Malo from the trade + with New France, and to assist you and provide you with everything + necessary, I have chosen the Sieurs de Caen, uncle and nephew, and + their associates: one is a good merchant, and the other a good + naval captain, who can aid you well, and make the authority of the + king respected in my government. I recommend you to assist him and + those who shall apply to you on his part, so as to maintain them in + the enjoyment of the articles which I have granted them. I have + charged the Sieur Dolu, intendant of the affairs of the country, to + send you a copy of the treaty by the first voyage, so that you may + know to what they are bound, in order that they may execute their + engagement, as, on my part, I desire to perform what I have + promised. + + "I have taken care to preserve your appointments, as I believe you + will continue to serve the king well. + + "Your most affectionate and perfect friend, + + "Montmorency. + + "From Paris, February 2nd, 1621." + +The letter of Louis XIII was also satisfactory: + + "Champlain: I have perceived by your letters of August + 15th, with what affection you work at your establishment, and for + all that regards the good of my service: for which, as I am + thankful to you, so I shall have pleasure in recognizing it to your + advantage whenever the occasion shall offer: and I have willingly + granted some munitions of war, which were required to give you + better means to subsist and to continue in that good duty, which I + promise myself from your care and fidelity." + + "Paris, February 24th, 1621. + + "Louis." + +It was in this manner that the sentence of death was given to the old +company. + +Several members of the old Company of Rouen and St. Malo were +incorporated in the Company of Montmorency, which was composed of +Guillaume de Caen, Ezechiel de Caen, Guillaume Robin, three merchants of +Rouen; Francois de Troyes, president of the treasury of France at +Orleans; Jacques de Troyes, merchant; Claude Le Ragois, general receiver +of finance at Limoges; Arnould de Nouveau, Pierre de Verton, councillor +and secretary of the king, and Francois Herve, merchant of Paris. The +two brothers de Caen belonged to the reformed religion. + +Dolu advised Champlain to restrain the hands of the clerks of the old +company, and to seize all the merchandise in the magazine. He claimed +that although this measure was rigorous, it was justified by the fact +that the company had not fulfilled its obligations towards the +settlement of New France. De Villemenon's letter was dictated in much +the same terms. Guillaume de Caen gave notice that he would soon arrive +in Quebec with arms and stores for the settlement. Dolu's letter +regarding the seizure of merchandise was couched in terms that might be +considered imperative, nevertheless Champlain deemed it prudent to act +with caution, and he therefore had conferred with Father George Le +Baillif and Captain Dumay[18] on the subject. + +The elder clerk had some clerks under him at Quebec, who after hearing +of the contents of Dolu's letter, were prepared to resist any +curtailment of their rights. Champlain appeased them, and assured them +that they would be allowed freedom of trading at least until the arrival +of Guillaume de Caen, the extent of whose authority was not yet known. + +Caumont, the chief clerk, declared that he was satisfied with this +arrangement, but nevertheless the situation was difficult. If the king +had given the order to confiscate the merchandise, then Dumay, whose +visit to Canada was for the purpose of fur trading, would become the +king of commerce in New France, and therefore he had nothing to lose in +awaiting de Caen's arrival. He proceeded at once to Tadousac, but +instead of meeting de Caen, he found that Pont-Grave had arrived as the +representative of the old company, and that he had with him seventy-five +men and some clerks. + +Champlain was much distressed on receiving these tidings, for he foresaw +a conflict which would possibly entail bloodshed. The clerks also were +despondent. In order to avoid a quarrel, Champlain deemed it advisable +to protect his men, and he therefore installed his brother-in-law, +Eustache Boulle, and Captain Dumay with sixteen men, in the small fort +which he had erected at Cape Diamond during the preceding year. +Champlain defended himself within the habitation, where he quartered all +the men he could dispose of. If the clerks were inclined to fight he +would defend his position, but he hoped that these precautionary +measures would prove the means of preventing bloodshed. + +On May 7th, 1621, three of the clerks of Guillaume de Caen left Tadousac +and took up their quarters near the habitation. Father Le Baillif and +Jean Baptiste Guers asked them to produce their papers. They declared +that they had authority to trade from the old Company of Rouen, which +still existed through articles agreed to by the Duke of Montmorency, and +that a trial was at present pending between the two societies. On +receiving this information from Father Le Baillif, Champlain decided to +allow five clerks the necessary merchandise for trading; they were, +however, told that the old company had been dissolved, and that the new +company only was invested with authority to trade. The clerks were +satisfied with Champlain's decision, but they objected to the presence +of armed soldiers in the fort, which they claimed was not in accordance +with the king's commands. The clerks finally went to Three Rivers to +carry on their trade. + +On June 13th, Pont-Grave arrived at Quebec. Here he was questioned as +to his authority, although he was treated with the respect and courtesy +due to his age and character. Pont-Grave assured Champlain that the +disputes between the two companies would be resolved in a friendly way, +and that he had received news to this effect before he sailed from +Honfleur. He then started for Three Rivers to join his clerks. + +Some days after these events, a clerk named Rouvier, in the employ of de +Caen, arrived with letters from Dolu, de Villemenon, and Guillaume de +Caen, and left a copy of an order-in-council in favour of the old +company. Champlain also received a letter from the king. The +order-in-council granted permission to both companies to trade during +the year 1621, provided that both should contribute equally towards the +maintenance of the captains, soldiers, and the inhabitants of Quebec. + +Foreseeing a conflict between de Caen and Pont-Grave, Champlain went to +Tadousac, and advised de Caen to respect Pont-Grave's authority. De Caen +replied that he could not do so, as he had received authority privately +from the king. Champlain therefore assured the commandment to +Pont-Grave's vessel, in order to protect his old friend, and thus it +happened that this affair which threatened to produce serious +consequences, was smoothed over through Champlain's intervention. +Pont-Grave then took possession of his vessel in the presence of de +Caen, who offered no opposition, and a few days after they both returned +to France. + +De Caen had promised to send twenty-five men to Quebec, but he sent only +eighteen. A certain quantity of stores was also brought to Quebec at +this time by Jacques Halard, and a number of halberds, arquebuses, +lances, and many barrels of powder, which were delivered in the presence +of Jean Baptiste Varin, who had been sent by Guillaume de Caen, and +Guers. + +Father Georges Le Baillif also left for France during the autumn, as a +delegate from the inhabitants of the settlement, who had prepared a +memorandum of their grievances. This document was signed by Champlain, +Father Jamet, Father Le Caron, Louis Hebert, Guillaume Couillard, +Eustache Boulle, Pierre Reye, Olivier Le Tardif, J. Groux, Pierre +Desportes, Nicholas and J.B. Guers. On his arrival in France, Father Le +Baillif had an interview with the king, and placed the memorandum in +question in His Majesty's hands. The king admitted that the complaints +were well founded, but at the same time he stated that it was impossible +to grant all that was requested. The Huguenots were to retain their +commercial liberty, and Champlain obtained some supplies, and his +salary, which was formerly six hundred livres, was increased to twelve +hundred. + +Father Le Baillif's mission was unfruitful, for he brought word of the +amalgamation of the two companies, whose chiefs were Guillaume de Caen, +Ezechiel de Caen, and their nephew, Emery de Caen. The order-in-council +establishing this large company granted to them the liberty of trading +in New France, and all French subjects were eligible for admission to +the society. By this arrangement the de Caens were obliged to pay the +sum of ten thousand livres to the members of the old Rouen association, +and a sum equal to the value of their goods, barques and canoes. The old +company received five-twelfths of the Company of Montmorency, +one-twelfth of which was reserved by de Monts, who was at that time +living at his residence in Saintonge. By this latter arrangement, +however, the de Caens were relieved from the payment of the ten thousand +livres imposed upon them by the order-in-council. When Father Le Baillif +returned to Quebec in the spring of 1622, all the old rivalry had +disappeared. The Company of Rouen had adopted the name of the Company of +Montmorency with the de Caens as chiefs. + +The principal articles stipulated in the agreement were:-- + +1. Champlain to be lieutenant of the viceroy, with precedence on land, +and to command the habitation of Quebec, and to have command of all the +French residents in New France. Ten men were also to be placed at his +disposal, who were to be maintained at the expense of de Caen, who was +also to pay to each an annual sum of twenty livres. + +2. The company was also to maintain six Recollet fathers, two of whom +were to be engaged in missions to the savages. + +3. The company was to support and maintain six families of labourers, +carpenters and masons, during the period of the agreement, the families +to be changed every two years. + +4. The company was to pay the sum of twelve hundred francs as a salary +to Champlain. + +5. Champlain was to enjoy the privilege of trading for eleven years, and +to this term the king added another eleven years. + +The first man to bring the news of a change of authority was a clerk +named Santein, but it was confirmed some days after by the arrival of +Pont-Grave and Guillaume de Caen, who were accompanied by a clerk named +Le Sire, an underclerk named Thierry-Desdames,[19] and Raymond de la +Ralde. De Caen handed to Champlain a letter from the king, who advised +him to recognize the authority of the new company, and also to endeavour +to maintain peace and harmony. When de Caen had completed his trading at +Three Rivers he sailed again for France, leaving Pont-Grave as chief +clerk at Quebec, and Le Baillif as underclerk at Tadousac. + +In order to establish good order throughout the country, Champlain +published certain ordinances, which should be regarded as the first code +of Canadian laws. Although it was desirable to maintain peace, it was +also necessary to prepare to resist the attacks of the Iroquois, who +were becoming more and more active. A party of the Iroquois had +approached Quebec, and were observed to be rambling in the vicinity of +the Recollets' convent, on the north shore of the River St. Charles. +They finally made an attack, but they were repulsed with loss by the +French and the Montagnais, whose chief was Mahicanaticouche, Champlain's +friend. This chief was the son of the famous Anadabijou, who had +contracted the first alliance with the French at Tadousac in 1603. + +In the year 1623, the vessels arrived from France later than usual, and +the rendezvous took place at Cape de la Victoire on July 23rd. On this +occasion the following persons were present: Champlain, Pont-Grave, +Guillaume de Caen, Captain Duchesne, des Marets, De Vernet, Etienne +Brule, an interpreter, Loquin, a clerk, Father Nicholas Viel, and +Brother Sagard-Theodat. + +On his return to Quebec, Champlain declared that certain sailors had +appropriated a number of beaver skins, and he therefore confiscated them +and had them placed in the store, pending the decision of the company. +This infraction of the rules of commerce was trifling when compared with +the contraband which was carried on freely in the lower St. Lawrence. +The merchants of La Rochelle and the Basques were the most notorious in +this respect. Their vessels were constantly sailing from one shore to +another, trading furs, although they had no authority to do so. They +were found at Tadousac, at Bic, and at Green Island. The Spanish, +English and Dutch vessels also carried on an illegitimate trade in the +same waters. Champlain mentions the fact that a Spanish captain, whose +vessel was anchored at Green Island, had sent his sailors at night to +Tadousac, in order that they might watch what was being done, and hear +what was being said on board the _Admiral_. + +At the commencement of the spring of 1624, a dark cloud hung over New +France. The winter had been severe, and provisions were scarce. +Champlain had only four barrels of flour in the store, so that he was +anxiously awaiting assistance. On June 2nd he received good news. A +vessel of sixty tons was anchored at Tadousac, laden with pease, +biscuits and cider. To the starving settlement this was most welcome, +and some days after Guillaume de Caen arrived with still more +provisions. + +After having traded at Three Rivers, de Caen visited Quebec, the Island +of Orleans, and the vicinity of Cape Tourmente and the neighbouring +islands. He was now the proprietor of these lands, having received them +as a gift from the Duke of Montmorency. + +Champlain now resolved to recross the ocean, and to take with him his +young wife, who had spent four years in Quebec. Emery de Caen was given +the command of the settlement in the absence of Champlain. On August +18th two ships sailed from Tadousac, having on board Champlain, Helene +Boulle, Font-Grave, Guillaume de Caen, Father Piat, Brother Sagard, J.B. +Guers, Joubert, and Captain de la Vigne. At Gaspe, Raymond de la Ralde +and a pilot named Cananee joined the party. The voyage was brief and +pleasant to Champlain's party, but Cananee's ship was captured by the +Turks, and its commander was put to a cruel death.[20] + +FOOTNOTES: + +[18] His correct name was Dume dit Leroy. He made a single voyage to +Quebec, and he had on board Jean Baptiste Guers, delegate of the Duke of +Montmorency. Dume was born at St. Gomer de Fly, Beauvais. A member of +his family who resided at Havre de Grace was one of the chief consignees +of the company of St. Christophe in the West Indies. + +[19] Thierry-Desdames arrived at Quebec in 1622, as underclerk of the +company, which position he occupied until 1628. We lose trace of him +after that date, but we find him again in 1639 at Miscou Island, where +he served as captain. He was a good Catholic, charitable, and a friend +of the Jesuits. + +[20] Cananee was one of the most famous French navigators of his time. +From 1608 to 1624 he used to fish on the banks of Miscou and in the +gulf. He was at first captain and co-proprietor of the _Mouton_, a +vessel of one hundred and twenty tons, but some years later, he +commanded the _Ste. Madeleine_, a ship of fifty tons. It was this vessel +that the Turks captured on the coast of Bretagne. Cananee was a fervent +Catholic. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +CHAMPLAIN, THE JESUITS AND THE SAVAGES + + +The first inhabitants of the settlement of New France were the +interpreters, clerks, and workmen, employed by the merchants. They were +termed the winterers, in opposition to the captains and sailors who +visited the colony for the purpose of trading only. The interpreters +present an interesting feature in the life of the new colony. Their +functions rendered it necessary for them to reside for an indefinite +period with an Indian tribe, in order to qualify themselves to act as +interpreters for their countrymen during trade, or for the missionaries +while catechising or providing other religious exercises. A daily +intercourse with the Indians was absolutely essential in order to induce +them to keep their appointments with the traders at the established +rendezvous. The interpreters had seldom any other occupation, although +some of them acted as clerks, and thereby received a larger salary, in +addition to a certain number of beaver skins which they could exchange +for goods. + +Etienne Brule and Nicholas Marsolet, who arrived at Quebec with +Champlain in the year 1608, acted as interpreters, but at first they did +not meet with much success. They were, however, both young and +intelligent, and Brule soon acquired a knowledge of the Huron language, +while Marsolet mastered the idiom of the Algonquin tongue. Brule spent +nearly all his life among the Hurons, who adopted him as a member of +their family, while Marsolet accompanied the Algonquins to Allumette +Island, and became one of their best friends. Historians of Canada +mention the names of many other interpreters of this period, some of +whom founded families, while others afterwards returned to France. In +the year 1613 three interpreters arrived, Nicholas du Vignau, Jacques +Hertel, and Thomas Godefroy. In the year 1618 there was only one +arrival, Jean Manet, who took up his residence among the people residing +on the shores of Lake Nipissing. + +In the year 1619 Jean Nicolet came to Canada, and won great esteem in +the country of his choice. He was the father of a large family, the +descendants of whom are very numerous. Three more interpreters came in +1621, Du Vernet, Le Baillif, and Olivier Le Tardif, and two in 1623, +namely, Jean-Paul Godefroy and Jacques Couillard, and finally in 1624 +Jean Richer and Lamontagne, thus making twelve interpreters between the +years 1608 and 1625. Of this number the two Godefroys, Marsolet, +Nicolet, Hertel, and Le Tardif were distinguished on account of the part +which they took in Canadian affairs; and the knowledge which they had +obtained of the native languages rendered them competent to discuss +delicate questions relating to the welfare of the colony. Their services +to the authorities, both civil and religious, were therefore at certain +periods exceedingly valuable. It is among these men that we may +fittingly seek for the founders of the Canadian race. + +The second class of settlers, or winterers, as they were termed, will be +spoken of later. From the year 1608 to 1613 not a single settler or head +of a family came to Canada, but at this latter date we find the names of +Abraham Martin, Nicholas Pivert and Pierre Desportes. They were married +and brought their wives and families with them. Abraham Martin and +Pierre Desportes had each a daughter, and Pivert had a niece. Guillaume +Couillard arrived during the same year, but he was a bachelor. We have +already spoken in a previous chapter of the return of Champlain from +France in the year 1617, on which occasion he was accompanied by Louis +Hebert and his family. There also arrived in 1617, Etienne Jonquest, to +whom we have likewise referred. In 1618 another family took up its +residence in New France, namely Adrien Duchesne, surgeon, and his wife. +Eustache Boulle, brother-in-law to Champlain, came over in 1618, and two +families arrived in 1619, but they were immediately sent back, as the +occupation of the head of one of the families was that of a butcher, and +the other was a needle manufacturer, and there was no opening for either +in a new settlement. In the year 1620, the settlers gave a cordial +welcome to Helene Boulle, who was attended by three female servants. +From the year 1620 to 1625, history is silent as to new arrivals. +Champlain had made every effort to induce settlers to take up their +residence in Quebec, but the population was still very scanty. + +There were really only seven settled families at this time, composed of +twenty persons, seven men and seven women, and six children. Their names +were as follows:--Abraham Martin and his wife Marguerite Langlois, and +his two daughters, Anne and Marguerite; Pierre Desportes and his wife +Francoise Langlois, and a girl named Helene; Nicholas Pivert and his +wife Marguerite Lesage, and their niece; Louis Hebert and his wife Marie +Rollet, and a son named Guillaume; Adrien Duchesne and his wife; +Guillaume Couillard, his wife, Guillemette Hebert, and a girl named +Louise; Champlain and his wife Helene Boulle. + +When Abraham Martin came to Quebec, he was twenty-four years of age. The +official documents refer to him as king's pilot, and the Jesuits named +him Maitre Abraham, while to the people he was Martin l'Ecossais. His +family gave to the Catholic Church of Canada her second priest in +chronological order. This priest, who was born at Quebec, was named +Charles Amador. After having served as a mariner for the Company of +Rouen, Abraham Martin became a farmer, and was the proprietor of two +portions of land, consisting of thirty-two acres.[21] He received +twenty acres of land from Adrien Duchesne, and twelve acres from the +Company of New France, on December 4th, 1635.[22] This property was +named the Plains of Abraham, and all the ground in the immediate +vicinity gradually assumed the same title. A part of the famous conflict +fought on September 13th, 1759, and known as the Battle of the Plains of +Abraham, actually occurred on the ground owned by Abraham Martin, and +thus it is that the name of this first settler has been perpetuated in +prose and verse. + +Louis Hebert, the son of a Parisian apothecary, followed the profession +of his father in Canada. He first tried to establish himself at Port +Royal, where we find him in the year 1606. He left Port Royal in 1607, +but he appears to have returned there, as in the year 1613 he is +mentioned as acting as lieutenant in the place of Biencourt, son of +Poutrincourt. When Port Royal was abandoned, Hebert returned to France, +where he met Champlain, who induced him to turn his steps towards Canada +once more. Soon after his second visit to New France, he commenced to +build a residence in the Upper Town of Quebec, upon the summit of +Mountain Hill. This building, which was of stone, measured thirty-eight +feet in length, and was nineteen feet broad. It was in this house that +Father Le Jeune said mass when he came to Quebec in 1632. Hebert +received some concessions of land from the companies, and at once +commenced to cultivate it, so that he was able to live from its produce. +Champlain praises him for this course. Hebert died in the year 1627, +from mortal injuries caused by a fall. He was buried in the cemetery of +the Recollets, at the foot of the great cross, according to his desire. + +The Recollet fathers lived until the year 1620 in their humble residence +near the chapel and habitation of Quebec, in the Lower Town. In the year +1619 they employed some workmen to fell trees on the shores of the River +St. Charles, near an agreeable tract of land which Hebert had cleared. +It was situated at half a league from the habitation, and the people of +Quebec hoped at that time to build the town there. During the winter +each piece of timber was prepared for the building, and the savages +assisted in the work. On June 3rd, 1620, the first stone of the convent +was solemnly laid by Father d'Olbeau. The arms of the king were engraved +upon the stone near those of the Prince de Conde. The convent was +finished and blessed on May 25th, 1621, and dedicated to Notre Dame des +Anges. It was on this date that the name of St. Charles was given to the +river Ste. Croix, or the Cabir-Coubat of the Indians, in honour of the +Reverend Charles de Ransay des Boues, syndic of the Canadian missions. + +There were six Recollet fathers at Quebec in 1621, and two brothers. +Fathers Guillaume Galleran and Irenee Piat came in 1622, the former in +the capacity of visitor and superior. A coincidence of their arrival was +the induction of the first religious novitiate. Pierre Langoissieux, of +Rouen, took the monastic habit under the name of Brother Charles, at a +special ceremony in the presence of Champlain and his wife, and some +Frenchmen and Indians. Three young men also received the small scapulary +of the Franciscan order. Father Piat left Quebec for the Montagnais +mission, while Father Huet was sent to Three Rivers, and Father Poullain +to the Nipissing mission in the west. In the year 1623, Father Nicholas +Viel and Brother Gabriel Sagard-Theodat, the historian of the Huron +mission, arrived. They were entertained at the convent of Notre Dame des +Anges. At the solemn Te Deum, which was sung in the chapel on this +occasion, there were present seven fathers and four brothers. Fathers Le +Caron and Viel, and Brother Sagard arranged for some Indian guides to +conduct them to the Huron country, where they arrived on July 23rd. The +party spent the winter among the Hurons, and during the following year +Brother Sagard was recalled to France by his superiors. The Recollets +continued to conduct services in the small chapel in the Lower Town, +which served as the parochial church of Quebec. + +In the year 1624 the French colony was placed under the patronage of +Saint Joseph, who has remained from that date the patron saint of +Canada. Champlain was at this time in France, and had met Montmorency at +St. Germain-en-Laye, after the Recollets had complained of the conduct +of the Huguenots. While the missionaries were celebrating mass, the +Huguenots annoyed them by singing psalms, and they occupied the +poop-royal on board the vessels for their services, while the Catholics +were compelled to assemble in the forecastle, without distinction of +persons. The Recollets also complained of the negligence of the +associates, who had not provided for the material requirements of the +mission. Father Piat set forth that while the missionaries were prepared +to sacrifice their health and their mother country in order to civilize +the Indians, they were not ready, under the circumstances, to die simply +for the want of food, when it was the duty of the associates to provide +for them. Father Piat also suggested the advisability of forming a +seminary for young Indians, as a means of developing their moral +character, of teaching them the rudiments of religion, and whereby the +Recollets might acquire a knowledge of the Indian language. Realizing +that they were unable to found such an institution alone, they decided +to ask assistance from the Jesuits, who had great influence at court, +and who might possibly be able to establish such a building from their +own resources. If these resolutions had been known, the Huguenots would +doubtless have prevented the Jesuits' departure, but the news was only +made public when it was too late to formulate any opposition. + +Champlain, who was at this time endeavouring to induce the merchants to +carry out their engagements, thought it advisable not to take any part +in urging the requests of the mission, for fear of compromising its +success, and he considered it the best policy to be very discreet. +Father Coton, provincial of the Jesuit order, accepted with pleasure the +proposals of the Recollets, as the order was always glad of an +opportunity of preaching the gospel in distant lands. The Jesuits had +already founded the Acadian mission, but its results had much +disappointed their hopes. Champlain was pleased to learn that the desire +of the Recollets was accomplished, although he had taken no part towards +its fulfilment. Indeed his services were fully employed elsewhere. The +old merchants were fighting with the new ones, the dispute arising from +the different methods of recruiting crews for their ships. + +These petty quarrels, which were constantly brought to the notice of +Montmorency, caused him much annoyance, and he consequently resigned his +position of viceroy in favour of his nephew, Ventadour, peer of France +and governor of Languedoc, for a sum of one hundred thousand livres. The +king gave his assent to the transaction, and Henri de Levis, duc de +Ventadour, received his commission, dated March 25th, 1625. He is +described as a pious man, who had no other desire than the glory of God. +The duke appointed Champlain as his lieutenant, and ordered him to erect +forts in New France wherever he should deem it necessary, and empowered +him to create officers of justice to maintain peace and harmony. + +Endued with such powers, Champlain did not hesitate to continue his +work. The duke's appointment was also received with favour by the +Recollets and Jesuits. The associates were not friendly disposed towards +the Jesuits, but seeing that they did not ask any assistance from them, +they made no opposition to their departure for Canada. + +Guillaume de Caen took with him on his vessel three Jesuit fathers and +two brothers. These were Fathers Charles Lalemant, Jean de Brebeuf and +Enemond Masse. The brothers were Francois Charton and Gilbert Burel. +Father Lalemant, formerly director of the college of Clermont, was +appointed director of the mission. Champlain speaks of him as a very +devoted and zealous man. Father Masse had been previously in Acadia, +where he proved his devotedness to the Indians. Father de Brebeuf, the +youngest of the three, was distinguished by reason of his mature +judgment and great prudence. The number of the Recollets was increased +by the arrival of Father Joseph de la Roche d'Aillon, a man of noble and +exalted character. + +De Caen's vessel sailed from Dieppe, and although the voyage was long, +it was a pleasant one. When the Jesuits reached Quebec, they met with +strong opposition from the clerks, and there was no residence prepared +for them. The only course which appeared open to them was to return to +France, unless they could find a lodging with the Recollets. + +In the meantime the clerks circulated a pamphlet amongst the families of +the settlement, with a view to creating a prejudice against the Jesuits. +It was _L'Anticoton_,[23] a libellous communication, which had been +proven false by Father Coton. The Recollets at once extended a courteous +invitation to the Jesuits, which they gratefully accepted, and took up +their residence in the convent. The Recollets also begged them to accept +as a loan the timber work of a building which had been prepared for +their own use. + +The gratitude of the Jesuits under these circumstances, is not +sufficiently well known. Father Lalemant's letter addressed to the +Provincial of the Recollets in France, admirably sets forth their +position, and will be read with interest by every student of this +portion of our history. + + "Reverend Father: Pax Christi. It would be too ungrateful + were I not to write to your Reverence to thank you for the many + letters lately written in our favour to the Fathers who are here in + New France, and for the charity which we have received from the + Fathers, who put us under eternal obligation. I beseech our good + God to be the reward of you both. For myself, I write to our + Superiors that I feel it so deeply that I will let no occasion pass + of showing it, and I beg them, although already most affectionately + disposed, to show your whole holy order the same feelings. Father + Joseph will tell your Reverence the object of his voyage, for the + success of which we shall not cease to offer prayers and sacrifices + to God. This time we must advance in good earnest the affairs of + our Master, and omit nothing that shall be deemed necessary. I have + written to all who, I thought, could aid it, and I am sure they + will exert themselves, if affairs in France permit. Your Reverence, + I doubt not, is affectionately inclined, and so _vis unita_, our + united effort, will do much. Awaiting the result, I commend myself + to the Holy Sacrifice of your Reverence, whose most humble servant + I am. + + "Charles Lalemant." + + "Quebec, July 28th, 1625." + +The Jesuits accepted the hospitality of the Recollets until the convent +which they built on the opposite side of the river St. Charles, was +ready for their habitation. It was situated near the entrance of the +river Lairet, about two hundred paces from the shore. We shall meet them +there a little later, working hard, in common with the Recollets with +whom they were good friends, for the civilization of the Indians. + +When Guillaume de Caen returned to France, he was summoned to appear +before the tribunal of the state council, as he had not put into effect +all the articles of his contract. The chief complaint against him was +that the admiral or commodore of the fleet was not a Catholic. For this +appointment, however, he was not responsible, as it was made by the +associates, and he therefore summoned them to give their explanations +before the admiralty judge. The case was finally settled by His +Majesty's council in favour of Guillaume de Caen, on the condition that +he should at once appoint a Catholic. Raymond de la Ralde was the +officer of his choice. + +Champlain started at once for Dieppe, together with Eustache Boulle whom +he appointed his lieutenant, and Destouches, his second lieutenant. +Their departure for Canada occurred on April 24th, 1626, and there were +five vessels in the squadron: the _Catherine_, two hundred and fifty +tons, commanded by de la Ralde;[24] _La Fleque_, two hundred and sixty +tons, with Emery de Caen as vice-admiral; _L'Alouette_, eighty tons, and +two other vessels, one of two hundred tons, and the other of one hundred +and twenty tons. + +Champlain was on board the _Catherine_, and he arrived at Perce on June +20th. Before anchoring at Tadousac, Emery de Caen caused his crew to +assemble on deck, and he there informed them that the Duc de Ventadour +desired that psalms should not be sung, as they had been accustomed to +sing them on the Atlantic. Two-thirds of the crew grumbled at this +order, and Champlain advised de Caen to allow meetings for prayer only. +This ruling was judicious, although it was not accepted with pleasure. + +At Moulin Baude, near Tadousac Bay, Champlain received intelligence that +Pont-Grave, who had wintered at Quebec, had been very ill, and that the +inhabitants had resolved to leave the country at the earliest +opportunity owing to the sufferings which they had endured from famine. + +When Champlain arrived at Quebec on July 5th, 1626, he found all the +settlers in good health, but little had been done towards the building +of the fort, or towards repairing the habitation. He, therefore, set +twenty men to work at once. Emery de Caen left Quebec in order to carry +on trade with the Indians. There were at Quebec at this time fifty-five +persons, of whom eighteen were labourers. Champlain wished to have ten +men constantly employed at the fort, but Guillaume de Caen had promised +them elsewhere, and the merchants obliged them to work at the +habitation, which they considered more useful than the fort. Champlain, +however, did not agree with them on this point. + +The oldest fortification of Quebec was commenced in the year 1620, on +the summit of Cape Diamond, and the work was continued in 1621, when +Champlain was able to establish a small garrison within the walls. +Communication was opened between the habitation and the fort during the +winter of 1623-4, by means of a small road, less abrupt than the former +one. The fort was named Fort St. Louis. + +In April 1624, a strong wind carried away the roof of the fort, and +transported it a distance of thirty feet, over the rampart. During this +storm the gable of Louis Hebert's residence was also destroyed. This +accident caused some delay to the works, and the merchants still +maintained their opposition to the construction of the fort. "If we +fortify Quebec," they said, "the garrisons will be the masters of the +ground, and our trade will be over." Guillaume de Caen supported the +opposition by saying that the Spaniards would take possession of New +France, if a boast were made of its resources. The king, finally, had to +undertake the defence of the colony alone. + +Before leaving for France in 1624, Champlain had ordered the workmen to +gather fascines for the completion of the fort, but upon his return to +Canada, two years later, he found that nothing had been done. Champlain +therefore decided to demolish the old fort, and to construct a more +spacious one with the old materials, composed of fascines, pieces of +wood and grass, after the Norman method. The fort was flanked with two +bastions of wood and grass, until such time as they could be covered +with stone. The fort was ready for habitation at the commencement of the +year 1629, and Champlain took up his residence there at this date, with +two young Indian girls whom he had adopted as his children. After the +capitulation of Quebec in 1629, Louis Kirke resided in the fort with a +part of his crew.[25] + +Although Champlain was not satisfied with the conduct of the merchants +towards the French, he was nevertheless pleased with the Indian tribes. +This noble care and management of these poor natives constitute one of +the brightest pages of his life. If we wish to form an impartial +judgment of the heroic qualities of Champlain, we must study his daily +relations with the chiefs of the various tribes. It is here that his +true character is revealed to us, and we are forced to admire both the +patience and care which he bestowed upon these people, and also his +exercise of diplomacy which rendered him from the first the most beloved +and respected of the French. His word commanded passive obedience, and +to maintain his friendship they were willing to make any sacrifice which +he desired. In this respect Champlain was more successful than the +missionaries, nor is it a matter of surprise that his memory was +cherished among the Indians longer than that of Father Le Caron or of +Father de Brebeuf. In their appreciation of character, the Indians +recognized instinctively that the calling of the missionaries rendered +their lives more perfect than that of a man of the world, but the +special characteristics and virtues of each did not escape their +penetration. Champlain took every care to preserve his friendship with +the Indians, not only on his own account, but also for the sake of the +traders, and of commerce generally, for his name acted as a +safe-conduct. Champlain had another ambition. He realized that if he +could induce the Indians to gather in the vicinity of Quebec, they would +prove a means of defence against the incursions of enemies. It seems to +have been a good policy, and the Jesuits who adopted the same means had +reason to be satisfied with their action. + +In the year 1622 Champlain tried to establish the Montagnais near +Quebec. Miristou, their chief, was willing, and they began to cultivate +the land in the vicinity of La Canardiere, on the north shore of the +river St. Charles. By living in the midst of such a community, Champlain +hoped to be able to derive new information regarding the country. + +The sempiternal question of an open sea, admitting a free passage from +Europe to China, was constantly under the consideration of navigators. +Whether or not the founder of Quebec believed in this passage, we are +not prepared to assert, as he does not make any definite statement, but +from his Relations it is evident that he hoped to ascertain whether it +were possible to reach the far west by means of the river St. Lawrence +and the Great Lakes. He knew that he could serve the interest of the +mother country by obtaining new data, and his opinions were well +received in France, although the recent wars had somewhat engrossed +public attention. The travels of the Recollets in the Huron country had +not resulted in the acquisition of new territory, and the interpreters +had nothing further to do than to discover new tribes with whom trade +might be developed. Western Canada had consequently been neglected both +for the want of explorers and of resources, as Champlain was of course +unable to explore the whole American continent, and at the same time +govern the colony of New France, where his presence was necessary to +preserve harmony amongst the Indians. + +Champlain tried to effect an alliance with the Iroquois during the year +1622, and for this purpose he sent two Montagnais to their country as +delegates. In the meantime a double murder occurred in the colony. A +Frenchman named Pillet and his companion were murdered by an unknown +party. The facts were brought to the notice of the court in France, and +it was decided to pardon the murderer on the condition that he would +confess his crime, and publicly ask for pardon. Champlain appears to +have been anxious to assert his authority, on this occasion, for the +prevention of such crimes, but the merchants were inclined to condone +the offence, and one day Guillaume de Caen in the presence of Champlain +and some captains, took a sword, and caused it to be cast into the +middle of the St. Lawrence, in order that the Indians might understand +that the crime even as the sword, was buried forever. The effect of this +action was otherwise than desired. The Hurons ridiculed the affair, and +said that they had nothing to fear in the future if they murdered a +Frenchman. + +The murderer was a Montagnais, and the tribe consequently approved of +this lack of justice. Champlain, however, desired a more severe +imposition of the law. The Montagnais were perhaps the most dangerous of +Champlain's allies, especially as their treachery was marked by the +outward appearance of serious friendship. In the Montagnais were united +all the vices of the other Indian tribes as well as the bad features of +some of the Europeans, especially those of the Rochelois and Basques. +They were bold and independent, but Champlain soon showed them, by +ceasing to care for them, that he was not to be imposed upon. Fearing to +lose the friendship of Champlain, they endeavoured to regain the +position which they had in a measure lost; but instead of remaining +passive, they boasted of the ease with which they could find protectors +and advocates amongst the French. This conduct did not please Champlain, +who would have preferred to find a people more amenable to natural laws, +which are in themselves a defence against murder. + +The Montagnais who had been sent to the Iroquois returned to Quebec in +July, 1624. They had been courteously received, and as a result of their +negotiations, a general meeting of the Indians was held at Three Rivers. +There might be seen Hurons, Algonquins, Montagnais, Iroquois, and the +French with their interpreters. The meeting was conducted with perfect +order. There were many speeches, followed by the feast pantagruelic. The +war hatchet was buried, so that Champlain could leave for France without +being very anxious as to the fate of his compatriots. + +The alliance of 1624 did not last long, however, owing to the imprudence +of the Montagnais who had journeyed to the Dutch settlement on the banks +of the Hudson and promised to assist the settlers in their wars against +the Mohicans and Iroquois. Champlain interfered, and reminded the +Montagnais that they were bound to observe the treaty of 1624, and +there was no reason to break it. "The Iroquois," said Champlain, "ought +to be considered as our friends as long as the war hatchet is not +disinterred, and I will go myself to help them in their wars, if +necessary." + +This language pleased the chief of the Montagnais, and he asked +Champlain to send some one to Three Rivers, if he could not go himself, +in order to prevent the other nations from fighting against the +Iroquois. Etienne Brule was sent on this delicate mission, but as +opinion was divided as to the advisability of the war, it was decided to +wait until the arrival of the vessels. Emery de Caen arrived soon after, +and hastened to meet the allies, who, according to rumour, were +preparing to go to war against the Iroquois. In addition to this a party +had gone to Lake Champlain, where they had made two Iroquois prisoners, +who were, however, delivered by the murderer of Pillet. + +Champlain and Mahicanaticouche arrived in the meantime, whereupon a +general council was held. Champlain severely blamed the authors of this +escapade, the consequences of which might be terrible. It was resolved +to send a new embassy to the Five Nations at once, composed of +Cherououny called _Le Reconcilie_ by the French, Chimeourimou, chief of +the Montagnais, Pierre Magnan, and an Iroquois, adopted when young by a +Montagnais widow. The delegates left for Lake Champlain on July 24th. +One month after, an Indian came to Quebec with the news that the four +delegates had been murdered by the Tsonnontouans. Magnan had murdered +one of his compatriots in France, and by coming to Canada had evaded +justice. + +This massacre put an end to thoughts of peace. In September some +Iroquois were known to be _en route_ for Quebec, evidently with hostile +motives. It was just at this time that a number of savages were coming +from a distance of fifty or sixty leagues to fish in the river St. +Lawrence. Nothing serious happened from the visit of the Iroquois, and +Champlain was able to visit his habitation at Cape Tourmente without +danger. In his absence, however, a double murder was committed at La +Canardiere. Two Frenchmen, one named Dumoulin, and the other Henri, a +servant of the widow Hebert, were found dead, having been shot with +muskets. + +The murderer's intention had been to kill the baker of the habitation, +and a servant of Robert Giffard, the surgeon. Champlain was anxious to +punish this murderer, but the difficulty was to discover him. Champlain +summoned all the captains of the Montagnais, and having set forth all +the favours which he had bestowed upon the nation, contrasted them with +the conduct which he had received at their hands since 1616. There had +already been four murders of which they were guilty. Champlain therefore +demanded that they should find and give up the guilty party. One +Montagnais who was suspected, was examined, but he denied everything. +Champlain, however, ordered him to be detained in jail until the real +criminal should be found. + +During the winter of 1628, about thirty Montagnais, miserable and +hungry, came to the habitation, asking for bread. Champlain took this +opportunity of pointing out to them the evil of their race, and of the +crimes they had committed. They declared that they knew nothing whatever +of the crime, and to show that they were not responsible they offered +three young girls to Champlain to be educated. Champlain accepted them +and treated them as his own children, naming them _Foi_, _Esperance_, +and _Charite_. + +After having kept the Montagnais in jail for fourteen months he was +released, as there was no proof against him. Champlain learned soon +after that he was not guilty, and that the real criminal was dead, being +none other than Mahicanaticouche, one of the captains of the Montagnais. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[21] For a plan of Abraham Martin's property, see, _The Story of the +Siege and the Battle of the Plains of Abraham_, by A.G. Doughty. + +[22] See _Deed of Concession_, p. 414, Trans. R.S.C., 1899, by A.G. +Doughty. + +[23] Father Mariana, a Jesuit, having published a book entitled, _De +Regi et Regis Institutione_, in which he denounced tyranny and its +fomenters, the court ordered that the work should be burnt, under the +pretext that Ravaillac, who had assassinated Henri IV, had taken +advantage of the Jesuit's authority to excuse his murder. It was certain +that the Jesuits were the best friends of the late king. Nevertheless, +they had to suffer the hostility of a certain part of the secular +clergy. Father Coton, a Jesuit, published at once a pamphlet under the +title, "Is it lawful to kill the tyrants?" in which he taught that it is +not lawful to kill a king, except he abuses his authority. An answer to +the pamphlet, published anonymously, soon appeared, which was a +satirical paper rather than a refutation of Father Coton's letter. +During the same year a new satirical paper against the Jesuits was +printed, entitled _L'Anticoton_. It was translated into Latin. + +[24] Raymond de la Ralde who was a Catholic, was the first captain of +the island of Miscou, the history of which commenced in 1620. Guillaume +de Caen appointed de la Ralde as his lieutenant to protect the trade in +the Gulf of St. Lawrence against the Basques and others, especially at +Perce, Gaspe, and Miscou. From the year 1627, de la Ralde ceased to be +of importance, as his fortunes followed the de Caens. + +[25] Champlain died within Fort St. Louis, and the Governor Montmagny +had the building restored under the title of Chateau St. Louis, which +name it bore until its complete demolition. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE COMPANY OF NEW FRANCE OR HUNDRED ASSOCIATES + + +In spite of Champlain's strenuous efforts, the permanent existence of +New France seemed as yet problematical. At a time when internal peace +was imperative the domination of the mercantile companies came to +increase the distress of the struggling colony. The difficulties of +colonization likewise were immense, and Quebec at the period of which we +write, instead of being a thriving town, had scarcely the appearance of +a small village. In the year 1627 it could boast only six private +residences. The Recollets were living at their convent, but the Jesuits +had not completed their new building. The Recollets had abandoned the +Huron mission as their numbers were diminishing every year, and they +were too poor to continue their ministrations without assistance. They +still held in charge the missions at Quebec and at Tadousac. Father +d'Olbeau, who had been present at the opening of the Recollet convent at +Quebec, saw its doors closed. He remained, however, at his post, and +rendered valuable assistance to Champlain. + +The Jesuits made great personal efforts for the advancement of the +colony, and Father Noyrot had sailed for Canada with a number of +workmen and a good store of provisions, but unfortunately his vessel did +not reach Quebec. + +The negligence of Montmorency's company was the principal cause why +Quebec was abandoned to its own resources. Champlain was powerless +against the ill-will of the company, and the only redress was in the +person of the king. Cardinal Richelieu, who was superintendent of the +navigation and commerce of France, resolved to reform the remnant of a +company founded in 1626, and composed of one hundred associates, for +conducting the commerce of the East and West. As the due de Ventadour +had resigned the office of viceroy, the cardinal held a meeting of many +rich and zealous persons in his hotel at Paris, whose names would be a +guarantee of the success of the colonization of New France, and also of +its religious institutions. Among those present were Claude de +Roquemont, Sieur de Brison, Louis Houeel, Sieur du Petit-Pre, Gabriel de +Lattaignant, formerly mayor of Calais, Simon Dablon, syndic of Dieppe, +David Duchesne, councillor and alderman of Havre de Grace, and Jacques +Castillon, citizen of Paris. + +On April 25th, 1627, the cardinal and these personages signed the act +which founded the Company of New France. In the preamble it is mentioned +that the colonization in New France shall be Catholic only, as this was +regarded as the best means of converting the Indians. The associates +pledged themselves to send two or three hundred men to New France +during the year 1628, and to augment this number to four thousand within +fifteen years from this date, i.e., by the year 1643. They agreed to +lodge, feed and entertain the settlers for a period of three years, and +after that date to grant to each family a tract of land sufficiently +prepared for cultivation. Three priests were to be maintained at each +habitation, at the expense of the company, for a period of fifteen +years. + +The king granted to the company numerous privileges, the lands of New +France, the river St. Lawrence, islands, mines, fisheries, Florida, +together with the power of conceding lands in these countries, and the +faculty of granting titles, honours, rights and powers, according to the +condition, quality, or merit of the people. His Majesty also granted to +the company the monopoly of the fur and leather trade from January 1st, +1628, until December 31st, 1643, reserving for the French people in +general the cod and whale fisheries. In order to induce his subjects to +settle in New France the king announced that during the next fifteen +years all goods coming from the French colony should be free of duty. + +This act was signed on April 29th, 1627, and the letters patent +ratifying the articles were signed on May 6th, 1628. The letters patent +also ratified some other provisions made on May 7th, 1627, namely:--(1.) +A capital of three hundred thousand livres, by instalments of three +thousand livres each. (2.) The society to adopt the name of the +Campagnie de la Nouvelle France. (3.) The management of the company to +be conducted through twelve directors, with full powers to name +officers, to distribute lands, establish factors or clerks, to conduct +trade and dispose of the joint-stock. + +Of these twelve directors six were obliged to live in Paris. The names +of the twelve directors who were elected are here given:--Simon Alix, +councillor and king's secretary; Pierre Aubert, councillor and king's +secretary; Thomas Bonneau, Sieur du Plessis; Pierre Robineau, treasurer +of cavalry; Raoul L'Huillier, merchant of Paris; Barthelemy Quentin, +merchant of Paris; Jean Tuffet, merchant of Bordeaux; Gabriel +Lattaignant, formerly mayor of Calais; Jean Rozee, merchant of Rouen; +Simon Lemaistre, merchant of Rouen; Louis Houeel, comptroller of +saltworks at Brouage; Bonaventure Quentin, Sieur de Richebourg. + +These directors were elected for a term of two years, and six of them +had to be replaced at each election. The first term of office expired on +December 31st, 1629. The election was held in Paris at the house of the +intendant, Jean de Lauzon, king's councillor, master of requests and +president of the Grand Council. Cardinal Richelieu and the Duke d'Effiat +headed the list of the Hundred Associates. We find also the name of +Samuel Champlain, captain of the king's marine, of Isaac de Razilly, +chevalier de St. Jean de Jerusalem, Sebastien Cramoisy, the famous +printer; Francois de Re, Sieur Gand, and many important merchants of +Paris, Rouen, Calais, Dieppe, Bordeaux, Lyons, Bayonne, and Havre de +Grace. + +This association was formed under auspicious circumstances; its members +possessed wealth and influence, and they were certainly in a position to +remove the difficulties which had hindered the growth of New France from +its foundation.[26] + +While these transactions were in progress Champlain was living at Quebec +in want of even the necessaries of life. For the past two years +Champlain had established a farm for raising cattle at the foot of Cape +Tourmente. Some farm buildings and dwellings for the men were erected +there, and Champlain visited the place every summer to see that the work +was properly carried on. The Recollets had a chapel there in which they +said mass from time to time. In 1628 this establishment was in a +flourishing condition, and Champlain believed it would ultimately prove +of great value to the inhabitants. The colony in the meantime had to +rely upon the mother country for provisions, and for flour which could +not be produced in Canada. + +The new company sent out four vessels in 1628 under the command of +Claude de Roquemont, laden with provisions, munitions, and a number of +men. This first shipment cost 164,720 livres or about $33,000 of our +currency. This large outlay was proof that the associates were +determined to maintain the new Canadian settlement. The fleet sailed +from Dieppe on May 3rd, and arrived at Perce about the middle of July. +During the voyage Roquemont was often exposed to the attacks of the +English and Dutch vessels, but he preferred to alter his course rather +than to fight. The vessels stopped at the Island of Anticosti, where the +crews landed, and planted a cross in token of their gratitude to God, +who had protected them. + +Some days afterwards they reached Perce, and a little later entered +Gaspe Bay. Roquemont was here informed by the savages that five large +English vessels were anchored in Tadousac harbour. It was the fleet of +David Kirke,[27] who was going to make an assault on Quebec, after +having devastated the Acadian coast. Roquemont at once sent +Thierry-Desdames to St. Barnabe Island, where he had intended to go +himself. Roquemont left Gaspe on July 15th, 1628, and proceeded up the +St. Lawrence, hoping that he would be able to escape his powerful +enemies, as the French vessels were not properly armed for a regular +fight. Unhappily, on the eighteenth the French came within cannon shot +of the British fleet. For a period of fourteen hours the vessels +cannonaded each other, and over twelve hundred shots were exchanged. The +French having exhausted their stock of balls used the lead of their +fishing poles instead. Finally Roquemont perceived that his vessel was +sinking, and asked for a compromise. It was decided that no penalties +should be exacted, and that the English admiral should take possession +of the ships. The French crews were taken on board the British vessels, +which continued their route for England. The British commander soon +realized that he had too many persons on board, and some of the families +and the Recollet fathers were put off on the Island of St. Peter. Among +the families were a Parisian named Le Faucheur, who with his wife and +five children were bound for Quebec, Robert Giffard, surgeon, his wife +and three girls, and fifteen or sixteen sailors. Kirke left them to the +mercy of God on this island with some provisions and a small Basque +vessel. + +The Basques who were hidden in the mountains came down upon the French +after the English were out of sight, and threatened to kill them if they +attempted to escape in their vessel. They at last agreed to allow them +to go elsewhere in consideration of a certain amount of biscuit and +cider. They all embarked in a frail shallop, and eventually arrived at +Plaisance on the coast of Newfoundland, where some French fishermen +conducted them to France. + +Some writers have blamed Roquemont for avoiding a fight. His conduct is +pardonable, however, to a certain extent, because his mission was not +one of war, but to carry provisions to the colony, and he had armed his +vessels only for any ordinary attack. Others, like Champlain, thought +that Roquemont had unnecessarily exposed himself, and blame him for the +following reasons:--(1.) The equipment was made out for helping the fort +and habitation of Quebec. In going forward Roquemont not only exposed +himself to a loss, but also the whole country, that is to say about one +hundred persons who were in distress. (2.) At Gaspe he was made aware +that the English admiral had proceeded up the St. Lawrence in command of +a fleet much more powerful than his own. He ought, therefore, to have +taken the advice of his mariners in order to ascertain whether there was +not a safe harbour along the coast which would have seemed a safe +retreat. (3.) After having put his vessels in such a harbour, Roquemont +ought to have sent a well equipped shallop to observe every movement of +the enemy, and await his departure before going higher up the river. +(4.) If Roquemont desired to fight, he ought to have laden the _Flibot_ +with flour and gunpowder, and placed on board the women and children, +and this small ship, which was sailing fast, could have escaped to +Quebec during the fight. Champlain, in setting forth these views, is +probably just, for the merit of a captain is not only in his courage, +but also in his prudence. Nothing remained of the expedition under +Roquemont, which was undertaken with so much courage, and at so much +expense. It is certain that if he had been able to reach Quebec with his +vessels, David Kirke would not have risked, in the following year, the +capture of the habitation of Quebec. + +The king of England had granted letters patent to the Company of +Adventurers which authorized them to trade, plant, seize Spanish and +French vessels, and to destroy the forts of New France. By a singular +coincidence the king of France had established the Company of the +Hundred Associates at the same time, and they were thus constituted +masters of commerce in Canada and Acadia. + +Sir William Alexander had equipped three vessels, to which he had +appointed David Kirke and his two brothers as captains. They stopped for +a time at Newfoundland, and then taking the gulf and river St. Lawrence, +they anchored at Tadousac, as we have already seen, during the first +days of July, 1628. The news of Kirke's arrival soon reached Champlain, +through an Indian named Napagabiscou, or Tregatin, who came in haste to +Cape Tourmente. Foucher, the chief of the farmers, proceeded at once to +Quebec to confirm the news, and also to inform Champlain that the +establishment had been burnt, his cattle destroyed, and all the +inhabitants taken prisoners. The prisoners were brought back to Quebec +some days after in the custody of six Basques, who delivered to +Champlain the following letter: + + "Messieurs:--I give you notice that I have received a + commission from the king of Great Britain, my honoured lord and + master, to take possession of the countries of Canada and Acadia, + and for that purpose eighteen ships have been despatched, each + taking the route ordered by His Majesty. I have already seized the + habitation of Miscou, and all boats and pinnaces on that coast, as + well as those of Tadousac, where I am presently at anchor. You are + also informed that among the vessels that I have seized, there is + one belonging to the new company, commanded by a certain Noyrot, + which was coming to you with provisions and goods for the trade. + The Sieur de la Tour was also on board, whom I have taken into my + ship. I was preparing to seek you, but thought it better to send + boats to destroy and seize your cattle at Cape Tourmente; for I + know that, when you are straightened for supplies, I shall the more + easily obtain my desire, which is, to have your settlement; and in + order that no vessels shall reach you, I have resolved to remain + here till the end of the season, in order that you may not be + re-victualled. Therefore see what you wish to do, if you intend to + deliver up the settlement or not, for, God aiding, sooner or later + I must have it. I would desire, for your sake, that it should be by + courtesy rather than by force, to avoid the blood which might be + spilt on both sides. By surrendering courteously, you may be + assured of all kinds of contentment, both for your persons and for + your property, which on the faith that I have in Paradise, I will + preserve as I would my own, without the least portion in the world + being diminished. The Basques whom I send you are men of the + vessels that I have captured, and they can tell you the state of + affairs between France and England, and even how matters are + passing in France, touching the new company of this country. Send + me word what you desire to do, and if you wish to treat with me + about this affair, send me a person to that effect, whom, I assure + you, I will treat with all kinds of attention, and I will grant all + reasonable demands that you may desire in resolving to give up the + settlement. Waiting your reply, I remain, messieurs, your + affectionate servant, + + "David Quer. + + "On board the _Vicaille_, July 18th, 1628, and addressed to + Monsieur Champlain, Commandant at Quebec." + +Champlain read that letter to Pont-Grave and to the chief inhabitants. +After mature deliberation, it was resolved that Champlain should answer +Kirke with dignity and firmness, but should not give any idea of the +poor state of Quebec. "We concluded," says Champlain, "that if Kirke +wished to see us he had better come, and not threaten from such a +distance. That we did not in the least doubt the fact of Kirke having +the commission of his king, as great princes always select men of brave +and generous courage." + +Champlain acknowledged the intelligence of the capture of Father Noyrot +and de la Tour, and also the truth of the observation that the more +provisions there were in a fortress the better it could hold out, still +it could be maintained with but little, provided good order were kept; +therefore, being still furnished with grain, maize, beans and pease, +(besides what the country could supply) which his soldiers loved as well +as the finest corn in the world, by surrendering the fort in so good a +condition, he would be unworthy to appear before his sovereign, and +would deserve chastisement before God and men. He was sure that Kirke +would respect him much more for defending himself than for abandoning +his charge, without first making trial of the English guns and +batteries. Champlain concludes by saying that he would expect his +attack, and oppose, as well as he could, all attempts that might be made +against the place. The noble language of Champlain's letter made a deep +impression on Kirke, and he deemed it prudent to start for Europe. +Before leaving Tadousac, David Kirke destroyed all the captured French +barques, with the exception of the largest, which he took to Europe. +Since leaving England he had doubled the number of his vessels, having +taken away all that he could from the habitation of Miscou and other +seaports frequented by the French. + +The news of the departure of the English fleet took some days to reach +Quebec, where the minds of the inhabitants were divided between hope and +fear. Champlain was determined to await the arrival of the enemy, and to +defend Quebec, without considering its weakness. Every one began to +work to construct new intrenchments around the habitation, and to +barricade the road which led to the fort. Each was given a post in the +event of an attack, and a defence was determined upon. Later on +Champlain was informed of Roquemont's fate and of Kirke's departure. + +The English were, indeed, well compensated for their abandonment of +Quebec, for the seizure of the vessels and their provisions was +equivalent to the capture of the French colony, since famine threatened +them sooner or later. In attacking Quebec Kirke, indeed, would have met +with but little opposition, because every one was suffering. Those who +were unable to live from the product of their own lands were compelled +to ask assistance from the trade agents. Champlain ordered a +distribution of pease to be made to each person indiscriminately. The +Recollets refused any assistance, and they passed the whole winter +subsisting on corn and vegetables of their own cultivation. Champlain +succeeded in building a mill for grinding pease. The eel fisheries were +productive, and the Indians bought from the French six eels for a beaver +skin. In the midst of these perplexities Champlain realized that unless +assistance was forthcoming in the spring, it would be advisable for him +to accept an honourable capitulation, and to send all the French who +wished to return to their country, either to Gaspe or to Miscou. + +As soon as the snow had disappeared in the spring of the year 1629, +Champlain caused all the arable land to be sown. By the end of May his +stock of provisions was nearly exhausted, and he therefore decided to +send Desdames to Gaspe with a group of the inhabitants. Hubou, Desportes +and Pivert took passage on Desdames' barque, hoping to meet a French +vessel at Gaspe. One month later Desdames returned, and confirmed the +news that the English vessels had devastated the Acadian coast, and +burnt the habitations. Neither Desdames nor his party had seen any +French vessel in the gulf, but they had met Iuan Chou, a friend of +Champlain, who had agreed to give hospitality to twenty persons, +including Pont-Grave, by whom he was greatly esteemed. The latter was +still suffering from gout, and it was with some reluctance that he +agreed to leave his position as first clerk, empowered by Guillaume de +Caen to take care of the merchandise. Des Marets, who was Pont-Grave's +grandson, accepted his position in the interim. + +Before leaving Quebec Pont-Grave desired Champlain to read publicly the +commission which he had received from Guillaume de Caen. After grand +mass on June 17th Champlain read Pont-Grave's commission and his own in +the presence of all the people, and he added some words, by which it was +easily understood that the king's authority had to be superior to +Guillaume de Caen's commissions. Pont-Grave replied at once: "I see that +you believe in the nullity of my commission!" "Yes," replied Champlain, +"when it comes in conflict with the king's and the viceroy's authority." +This petty dispute had no serious consequence, as it was evident that +Pont-Grave, being only the first clerk of Guillaume de Caen, had no +other authority than to take care of the peltry and merchandise +belonging to his chief. + +Before turning their attention to Canada Guillaume and Emery de Caen had +belonged to a large company trading with the East Indies. Both were +Calvinists. Sagard writes that Guillaume was polite, liberal, and of +good understanding. This testimony seems somewhat exaggerated, as we +have many proofs of his niggardliness. His nephew Emery was frank, +liberal and open to conviction, and was always kindly disposed towards +the Jesuits. Guillaume de Caen was the commodore of the fleet equipped +by his associates. His greatest fault appears to have been that he +neglected Champlain and the colony, and for that reason he should share +the responsibility of not having prevented the capitulation of Quebec. +However, it is scarcely fair to say of him that he worked directly +against the French in New France. After the capitulation of 1629, +Cardinal Richelieu wrote of him to the French ambassador in London: +"Please examine his actions. Being a Huguenot, and having been much +displeased with the new company of Canada, I have entertained a +suspicion that he connived with the English. I have not a sure +knowledge of it, but you will please me if you inform me of his +conduct." + +This suspicion seems unfounded, because Guillaume de Caen was personally +interested in the fate of Quebec. His merchandise which was seized by +Kirke was valued at about forty thousand ecus. If he had made some +agreement with Kirke he would have had no difficulty in recovering his +goods after the capitulation, but such was not the case. + +As to Emery de Caen we must say that he took an active part in the +defence of the colony, and perhaps he might have saved Quebec, had not +one of his sailors committed a grave imprudence at a critical juncture. +The facts are as follows: The Treaty of Suze, which was signed on April +24th, 1629, had established peace between France and England. Being +aware of this fact Emery de Caen equipped a vessel for the purpose of +bringing back to France all the furs and merchandise which were the +property of his uncle. When he arrived near the Escoumins a dense fog +obscured the coast, and his vessel ran aground on Red Island, opposite +Tadousac. Having succeeded in floating his ship, de Caen went to Chafaud +aux Basques, two leagues above Tadousac. Here he was informed that the +Kirke brothers were at Tadousac, and he at once made for Mal Bay, where +he was informed that Champlain had capitulated. This news lacked +confirmation, and so he sent two emissaries to Quebec, who instead of +proceeding directly there, amused themselves on the shore of the river +at Cape Tourmente. They finally arrived at their destination, and were +badly received by Guillaume Couillard. + +In the meantime Thomas Kirke was sailing down from Quebec to Tadousac, +after the capitulation of the stronghold, and meeting de Caen's vessel +approached within cannon shot. A fight began, and soon both vessels were +stopped by Kirke's order. Previous to this, Champlain and all the French +who were on board had been sent below deck, the covers of which had been +fastened with large nails, so that they were unable to render any +assistance to Emery de Caen, even if they had desired to. The battle +continued under some difficulties, and the vessels were grappled only by +their foremasts. Kirke's position was becoming untenable, but by a +singular blunder instead of being defeated he was allowed to become the +master. One of Emery de Caen's sailors having cried "_Quartier! +Quartier_!" or Surrender! Kirke hurriedly answered, "_Bon quartier_, and +I promise your life safe, and I shall treat you as I did Champlain, whom +I bring with me." Hearing these words the French hesitated, laid down +their arms, and soon perceived Champlain on the deck. Kirke had released +him from his temporary jail, threatening him with death if he did not +order Emery de Caen to cease his fire. Then Champlain said: "It would be +easy to kill me, being in your power. But you do not deserve honour for +having broken your word. You have promised to treat me with +consideration. I cannot command these people, neither prevent them from +doing their duty, in defending themselves. You must praise them instead +of blaming them." Champlain asked them to surrender willingly. They were +wise in doing so, as two English _pataches_ soon arrived which would +have settled the fight. + +Emery de Caen, and Jacques Couillard de l'Espinay, his lieutenant, took +passage on Kirke's vessel, and submitted themselves to the enemy's +conditions. De Caen was compelled to abandon his ship, which was full of +provisions intended for Quebec. In less than two hours every hope of fur +trading had disappeared. De Caen had lost not only his vessel, but also +five hundred beaver skins and some merchandise for traffic. This loss +was valued at fifty-one thousand francs. Emery de Caen returned to +France. He came back to Quebec in the year 1631, with permission from +Richelieu to treat with the Indians. But the English commander expressly +forbade the trade, and placed guardians on his vessel during the period +of trading. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[26] All that relates to the formation of the Company of New France is +contained in a series of documents entitled, _Edits, Ordonnances +royaux_. The first document is entitled, _Compagnie du Canada, establie +sous le titre de Nouvelle France, par les articles du vingt-neuf auril +et sept May, mil six cens vingt-sept_. We find it in the _Mercure +Francois_ (t. xiv., part ii., p. 232) and also in the _Memoires sur les +possessions Francoises en Amerique_ (t. iii., pp. 3, 4, and 5). This +document is double, the first containing twenty articles, and the second +thirty-one, which essentially differ. The act of April 29th, 1627, +exposes the designs which had engaged the king to establish a new +company, its obligations, and the advantages which it will get from +Canada. The act of May 7th is the deed of association, which contains +the whole organization of the company, its rules, and all that concerns +the administration of its funds. The acceptation of the articles of +April 29th, 1628, was officially known by an act passed on August 5th, +1628, and the acceptation of the articles of May 7th took place on +August 6th, of the same year. These articles had been confirmed by an +order-in-council, on May 6th, 1628, at La Rochelle. On the same day +Louis XIII had issued patents confirming the order-in-council. On May +18th Richelieu had ratified the articles of April 29th and of May 7th. + +These various documents were published in 1628, one part of them in the +_Mercure Francois_, and the other in a pamphlet, large in quarto of +twenty-three pages. The list of the Hundred Associates was also printed +in a small pamphlet of eight pages, bearing as title: _Noms, surnoms et +Qualitez des Associez En la Compagnie de la Nouvelle France, suyvant les +jours et dates de leurs signatures_. + +[27] About the year 1596 Gervase Kirke, of Norton, county of Derby, +married Elizabeth Goudon, of Dieppe, and had issue five boys and two +girls. The eldest boy was named David, the second son was Louis; and the +third, Thomas; the fourth, John; and the fifth, James. In the year 1629 +David was thirty-two years of age, Louis was thirty, and Thomas +twenty-six years of age. These are the three heroes of the Quebec +assault. + +Gervase Kirke was a member of the Company of Adventurers, and he died on +December 17th, 1629. In 1637 David received as a concession the +New-found-land. After some difficulties which he had to suffer, David +Kirke died in the year 1656. His widow claimed the sum of L60,000 for +the part that the Kirkes had taken in bringing about the capitulation of +Quebec, but the king paid no attention to these claims, and the Kirke +family became poor. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE CAPITULATION OF QUEBEC, 1629 + + +We have somewhat anticipated events, so we now retrace our steps, and +place ourselves within Champlain's defenceless stronghold as its fatal +hour approached. On Thursday, July 19th, 1629, a savage named La Nasse +by the French, and Manitougatche by his own people, informed the Jesuits +that three English ships were in sight off the Island of Orleans, behind +Point Levis, and that six other vessels were anchored at Tadousac. +Champlain was already aware that some ships were at Tadousac, but he was +surprised to learn that the enemy had approached Quebec, and at first he +thought that they might be French ships. There was no one in Fort St. +Louis at the time he received this news, as every one had gone out in +search of plants which were used as food; he therefore sent for Father +Le Caron and the Jesuits to consult with them as to what measures should +be taken. In the meantime the English fleet was steadily approaching, +and at length drew up at a certain distance from the city. A shallop was +then sent out from the admiral's ship, carrying at her mainmast a white +flag. Champlain caused a similar flag to be run up over the fort, and +Kirke's emissary came ashore and presented to Champlain the following +letter:-- + + "Monsieur:--In consequence of what our brother told you + last year that sooner or later he would have Quebec, if not + succoured, he has charged us to assure you of his friendship as we + do of ours; and knowing very well the extreme need of everything in + which you are, desires that you shall surrender the fort and the + settlement to us, assuring you of every kind of courtesy for you + and yours, and also of honourable and reasonable terms, such as you + may wish. Waiting your reply, we remain, monsieur, your very + affectionate servants, + + "Louis and Thomas Quer. + + "On board the _Flibot_, this July 19th, 1629." + +Champlain immediately prepared his answer, the terms of which had +previously been agreed upon by the fathers. Kirke's representative did +not understand a word of the French language, but he had a fair +knowledge of Latin. Father de la Roche d'Aillon was therefore requested +by Champlain to act as interpreter, and he asked the following +questions:--"Is war declared between France and England?" "No," replied +the English representative. "Why, then, do you come here to trouble us +if our princes live in peace?" he was asked. + +Champlain then requested Father de la Roche to go aboard the English +vessels to ascertain from the chiefs what they intended to do. The +interview between Father de la Roche and Louis Kirke was courteous, but +the answers of the latter were far from being satisfactory. "If +Champlain," said the English captain, "gives up the keys of the fortress +and of the habitation we promise to convey you all to France, and will +treat you well; if not we will oblige him by force." Father de la Roche +tried to obtain fifteen days' delay, or even eight days, but it was of +no avail. + +"Sir," said Louis Kirke, "I well know your miserable condition. Your +people have gone out to pick up roots in order to avoid starvation, for +we have captured Master Boulle and some other Frenchmen whom we have +retained as prisoners at Tadousac, and from whom we have ascertained the +condition of the inhabitants of Quebec." + +"Give us a delay of eight days," said Father de la Roche. "No," replied +Thomas Kirke, "I shall at once ruin the fort with my cannon." "I desire +to sleep to-night in the fort," added his brother Louis, "and, if not, I +shall devastate the whole country." "Proceed slowly," said Father de la +Roche, "for you are deceived if you believe you will easily gain the +fort. There are a hundred men there well armed and ready to sell their +lives dearly. Perchance you will find your death in this enterprise, for +I assure you that the inhabitants are determined to fight, and they +derive courage from the conviction that your invasion is unjust, and +that their lives and property are at stake. Once more I warn you that an +attack might prove dangerous to you." + +Captain Louis Kirke seemed a little disheartened on hearing this firm +and vigorous language. After having consulted the chief officers of his +fleet he asked Father de la Roche to attend a council of war at which an +ultimatum was presented in these words:--"Champlain must surrender at +once, but he shall have the privilege of dictating the terms of +capitulation." Three hours were granted within which his reply was to be +given. The Recollets were promised protection, but no conditions were +accorded to the Jesuits, as it was the admiral's intention to visit +their convent, which he believed to contain a quantity of beaver skins. + +Father de la Roche returned to Fort St. Louis, and gave an account of +his interview. It was plainly evident that it would be useless to rely +upon delays in the face of an enemy determined to see the end of the +affair. Food was almost exhausted, and it was calculated that there were +not more than ten pounds of flour in Quebec, and not more than fifty +pounds of gunpowder, which was of inferior quality. Opposition would +have been not only useless, but ridiculous. Champlain realized this, and +at once resolved to surrender. + +Champlain drew up the following articles of capitulation, which were +forwarded to the Kirke brothers:-- + + "That Quer (Kirke) should produce his commission from the king of + England to prove that war actually existed between England and + France; and also to show the power of his brothers, who commanded + the fleet, to act in the king's name. + + "That a vessel should be provided to convey Champlain, his + companions, the missionaries, both Jesuits and Recollets, the two + Indian girls that had been given to him two years before, and all + other persons, to France. + + "That the religious and other people should be allowed to leave + with arms and baggage, and all their furniture, and that a + sufficient supply of provisions for the passage to France should be + granted in exchange for peltry, etc. + + "That all should have the most favourable treatment possible, + without violence to any. + + "That the ship in which they were to embark for France should be + ready in three days after their arrival at Tadousac, and a vessel + provided for the transport of their goods, etc., to that place." + + These articles were signed by Champlain and Pont-Grave. After + having read them Louis Kirke sent this answer: "That Kirke's + commission should be shown and his powers to his brothers for + trading purposes. As to providing a vessel to take Champlain and + his people direct to France, that could not be done, but they would + give them passage to England, and from there to France, whereby + they would avoid being again taken by any English cruiser on their + route. For the sauvagesses, that clause could not be granted, for + reasons which would be explained. As to leaving with arms and + baggage, the officers might take with them their arms, clothes, + and peltries belonging to them, and the soldiers might have their + clothes and a beaver robe each. As for the holy fathers, they must + be contented with their robes and books. + + "L. Kirke. + "Thomas Kirke. + + "The said articles granted to Champlain and Du Pont, I accept and + ratify them, and I promise that they shall be executed from point + to point. Done at Tadousac, August 19th (new style), 1629. + + "David Kirke." + +The clause forbidding the soldiers to take their arms, coats and peltry, +excepting a castor robe, was a severe trial to them, as many of them had +bought skins from the Hurons to the extent of seven to eight hundred +francs, and preferred to fight rather than lose their fortune. + +Champlain had agreed to capitulate without firing. Some openly +reproached Champlain, saying that it was not the fear of death that +actuated his course, but rather the loss of the thousand livres, which +the English had agreed to give him if he abandoned Quebec without +striking a blow. + +Champlain was informed of all the murmurs and discontent which were +expressed amongst his people by a young Greek, who was charged to inform +him that they did not wish to surrender, and even if they lost their +fort, they desired to prove to the English that they were full of +courage. Champlain was annoyed at these exhibitions of insubordination, +and he instructed the Greek to give the people this answer:--"You are +badly advised and unwise. How can you desire resistance when we have no +provisions, no ammunition, or any prospect of relief? Are you tired of +living, or do you expect to be victorious under such circumstances? Obey +those who desire your safety and who do nothing without prudence." + +Brother Sagard makes these remarks upon the condition of affairs:--"It +is true that there was a great scarcity of all things necessary for the +habitation, but the enemy, too, were weak, as Father Joseph perceived +after having examined the whole crew, which consisted of about two +hundred soldiers, for the most part, men who had never touched a musket, +and who could have been killed as ducks or who would have run away. +Moreover they were in a wretched condition, and of a low order. The +weather was favourable to the French, as the tide was low, and the wind +from the south-east was driving the vessels towards France, so that +there was no assurance for either the vessels or the barques. Champlain, +however, deemed it more expedient to surrender than to run the risk of +his own life or of being made a prisoner while defending a fort so badly +armed." + +If, as the veracious Brother Sagard says, the fort and the habitation +were distressed, it is not proved that the English could be easily +defeated. There were at Quebec only fifty men capable of bearing arms, +and only a small quantity of gunpowder in store, while provisions were +absolutely wanting. How was it possible to sustain a siege without +ammunition, without bread and without soldiers? + +On the enemy's side there were two vessels well equipped, and two +hundred men. If the men were desperate or wretched, they would be the +more dangerous. Even supposing that the two vessels had proved +insufficient for a protracted siege, the four vessels at the disposal of +David Kirke would have surely come to their assistance. + +It would have been a foolish act to have resisted such a powerful enemy. +Besides, Champlain had another foe to contend against, for Nicholas +Marsolet, Etienne Brule, Pierre Reye, and others, had betrayed him, and +were leagued with Kirke. Champlain understood the difficulties of his +position, and his responsibilities, for he had in his hands the lives of +one hundred persons. + +Of the eighty persons living in Quebec at this time, only two-thirds had +private interests to safeguard, and it was a matter of indifference to +them whether they remained in Canada or whether they returned to France. +The families who had nothing to gain by leaving Quebec were those who +deserved the governor's sympathy, and it was for their safety that +Champlain would not agree to offer resistance, as the result must have +proved disastrous to them. By the articles of capitulation these +families would be able to live quietly at home, awaiting the issue of +negotiations. + +On the day following the preliminaries, Champlain went on board Louis +Kirke's vessel, where he was to see the commission of Charles I, which +empowered the Kirke brothers to take Quebec and the whole country by +assault. Both parties then signed the articles of capitulation, and the +English troops, conducted by Champlain, came in shallops near to the +habitation. The keys were delivered to Louis Kirke, and then they all +proceeded to the fort, which was delivered to the admiral. Quebec was +definitely put under the authority of the English, who had not fired a +single shot. Louis Kirke placed Le Baillif, who had been dismissed by +Guillaume de Caen for his bad conduct, in charge of the storehouse. This +was the first reward for his treason. Champlain asked the English +commander to protect the chapel of Quebec, the convents, and the houses +of the widow of Louis Hebert and of her son-in-law, Guillaume Couillard, +and he offered him the keys of his own room within the fort. Louis Kirke +refused to accept the latter, and left Champlain in possession of his +room. This courteous action was followed by another one, when Kirke +delivered to Champlain a certificate of all that he had found within the +fort and the habitation. This document was found useful later on, when +it was necessary to settle the value of the goods. + +In the meantime the English crew robbed the convent of the Jesuits, but +they did not find the beaver skins, as they expected. Kirke and the +Lutheran minister took for their own use the nicest volumes of the +library, and three or four pictures. The Recollets had filled a leather +bag with the ornaments of their church, and had hidden it underground, +far in the woods, thinking that they might return sooner or later. + +On the Sunday following the capitulation, July 22nd, Louis Kirke hoisted +the English flag over one of the bastions of the fort, and in order to +render the official possession of Quebec more imposing, he placed his +soldiers in ranks along the ramparts, and at a precise hour a volley was +fired from English muskets. In the afternoon, Champlain, the Jesuits, +and the greater number of the French took passage on the _Flibot_ for +Tadousac, leaving behind the families of Couillard, Martin, Desportes, +Hebert, Hubou, Pivert, Duchesne the surgeon, some interpreters and +clerks, and Pont-Grave who was too sick to leave his room. It was +understood that all those who desired to return to France should start +on the day fixed by Kirke. + +The fate of the colony was thus decided. Those who had any authority, by +reason of their character or their official mission, were compelled to +leave. The others were at liberty to remain, especially the +interpreters, who would be useful in trading with the Indians. Before +Champlain's departure, some had taken his advice. Would they remain in +Quebec under a new regime, with nothing to hope for? Who was this +victorious Kirke, so captivating in appearance? Perhaps a lion clothed +with the skin of a lamb! They knew the Kirke brothers had been guilty of +burning the habitation at Cape Tourmente. Knowing that they were +Protestants, they could not expect sympathy on the score of religion. A +danger existed from every point of view. Nevertheless, Champlain advised +many of them to remain at Quebec in order to save their property. The +only objection was that they would be obliged to observe their religion +for an indefinite time without the ministrations of their priests. + +Three years were to elapse before a French vessel again appeared at +Quebec, with authority to hoist the white flag of France. Champlain's +advice was not prejudicial to any one, at least not in temporal matters. +This small nucleus became the great tree whose branches and leaves +extend to-day over the whole American continent. If France had seen the +complete depopulation of Canada, perhaps the king would not have made +the same efforts to have his colony restored. Champlain himself, in +spite of his great zeal and his love for the country which he had +founded, had been discouraged by the difficulties. He could foresee +better than any other the obstacles which the future would present, and +it caused him much uneasiness, and offered little consolation. At his +age most men would have preferred to rest after an agitated life of +thirty years, in the pursuit of an idea which it seemed impossible to +realize on account of the manifold difficulties by which it was +constantly beset. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE LAST EVENTS OF 1629 + + +"Since the English have taken possession of Quebec," writes Champlain, +"the days have seemed to me as long as months." This dreariness is +easily explained. The unsettled state of affairs, of which he was an +eye-witness, had rendered his life at Quebec intolerable. Louis Kirke, +however, treated him with respect and courtesy, and had given him +permission to bring to Tadousac his two adopted girls, Esperance and +Charite. It was a favour wholly unexpected, especially as by one of the +clauses of the act of capitulation he renounced claim to them. +Champlain, however, was ready to buy their liberty, if necessary, as he +wished to civilize them and convert them to Christianity. Having no +desire to stay longer in a place where even the beauties of the sunset +seemed to remind him of his humiliation, Champlain only resided +temporarily at Tadousac, and was anxious to reach France. He left Quebec +on July 24th, and on the following day he perceived a vessel sailing +near Murray Bay. This was Emery de Caen's ship, which, as we have +already stated, was proceeding to Quebec to claim the peltry in the +storehouse which belonged to his uncle. This vessel, as has been +described, was captured by Kirke, and the same fate happened to Captain +Daniel, who had crossed the ocean from Dieppe with four vessels and a +barque laden with provisions and ammunition. Having heard on the passage +that a Scottish fisherman named James Stuart, had erected a fort on Cape +Breton, in a place called Port-aux-Baleines, to protect his countrymen +during the fishing season, Daniel went out of his way to destroy this +fort, and to build one at Grand Cibou to check the intruders, instead of +proceeding directly to Quebec, as was his duty. He left at this place +forty men and two Jesuits, Father Vimont and Father de Vieux-Pont, and +then having set up the arms of France, he returned to his country +without having taken any care of the Quebec habitation. This was his +first fault, but nevertheless it was a great misfortune. + +The Jesuits had prepared at a great expense a shipment for Quebec. +Father Noyrot brought with him Father Charles Lalemant, who was +returning after an absence of nearly two years, Father de Vieux-Pont, +Brother Louis Malot and twenty-four persons. Driven by a terrible storm, +their barque was wrecked near the Island of Canseau. Fourteen were +drowned, including Father Noyrot and Brother Malot. The others +miraculously escaped. + +The Chevalier de Razilly was finally ordered to assist Quebec, but it +was found that an agreement had been concluded between France and +England on April 24th. Razilly had his commission cancelled and +proceeded to Morocco. + +The failure of these three expeditions, together with that of Emery de +Caen, occurring at the same time under unfortunate circumstances, +resulted in the loss of the colony for France, and won at least +temporary prestige and importance for the Kirke family. + +Champlain relates some remarkable events during his sojourn at Tadousac. +Religious fanaticism displayed itself in its worst form. The French had +with them Father de Brebeuf, who was quite competent and willing to +champion the cause of the Catholic faith, and especially when assailed +by his own countrymen. A French Huguenot, named Jacques Michel, +apparently headed a crusade against the Jesuits. One day Michel said to +a party that the Jesuits had come to Canada to annoy the Sieurs de Caen +in their trade. "I beg your pardon," replied the father, "we had no +other design in coming here than the glory of God and the conversion of +the savages." To which Jacques Michel answered still more audaciously: +"Yes, convert the savages, say rather, convert the beavers." "It is +false," replied the priest, somewhat vexed. Michel, who was angry, +raised his arm to strike the father, at the same time saying, "If I were +not restrained by the respect due to my chief, I would slap your face +for your denial." "I ask your pardon," said the father, "it was not in +my mind to injure you, and if my answer has vexed you, I regret it." +Michel was not satisfied and began to blaspheme, so that Champlain was +scandalized, and said: "You swear much for a Reformer." "It is true," +replied the Huguenot, "but I am furious against this Jesuit for his +denial, and if I hang to-morrow I will give him the blows he deserves." +During the day, however, Michel drank heavily and was attacked by +apoplexy, from which he died thirty-five hours later, without exhibiting +any signs of repentance. + +The commander Kirke appears to have acted somewhat strangely on this +occasion, for instead of having Michel quietly buried, he ordered a +splendid funeral, accompanied with military honours. When the remains +were lowered into the grave, a salute of eighty guns was fired, as if +the deceased had been an officer of high rank. Whatever may have been +the reasons for showing these tokens of honour to the remains of Michel, +we know not, but the savages seem to have resented the proceedings, for +they unearthed his body and gave it to the dogs. Michel had been a +traitor to his country and to his God, and this was the method of his +punishment. + +We have already mentioned the names of the Frenchmen who betrayed +Champlain, particularly Etienne Brule, Le Baillif, Pierre Reye and +Marsolet. Let us examine their conduct. Etienne Brule, in his capacity +of interpreter, had rendered many good services to his compatriots. +Unfortunately, his private actions while dwelling with the Hurons were +not above reproach, and he would certainly have been compelled to +expiate his offences had he not been adopted as one of their family. +Brule worked for the benefit of the Hurons, and their gratitude towards +a good officer perhaps outweighed their memory of an injury. On retiring +from the Huron country in 1629, Brule went to Tadousac, where he entered +the service of Kirke, and some years after he was killed by a savage. + +Marsolet's case is nearly identical with that of Brule, although it is +not proved that he was as licentious during the time that he lived with +the Algonquins. He and Brule asserted that they were compelled by Kirke +to serve under the British flag. Champlain severely blamed their +conduct, saying: "Remember that God will punish you if you do not amend +your lives. You have lost your honour. Wherever you will go, men will +point at you, saying: 'These are the men who have threatened their king +and sold their country.' It would be preferable to die than to live on +in this manner, as you will suffer the remorse of a bad conscience." To +this they replied: "We well know that in France we should be hanged. We +are sorry for what has happened, but it is done and we must drain the +cup to the bottom, and resolve never to return to France." Champlain +answered them: "If you are captured anywhere, you will run the risk of +being chastised as you deserve." + +Nicholas Marsolet became a good citizen, and his family alliances were +the most honourable. Pierre Reye, a carriage maker, was a bad character, +"One of the worst traitors, and wicked." His treason did not surprise +any one, and nothing better was expected of him. Le Baillif was not only +vicious, but a thief. On the night after the seizure by Kirke of the +goods in store, he took from the room of Corneille de Vendremur, a +clerk, one hundred livres in gold and money, a silver cup and some silk +stockings. He was suspected of having stolen from the chapel of the +Lower Town, a silver chalice, the gift of Anne of Austria. Though he was +a Catholic, Le Baillif ate food on days of abstinence, in order to +please the Protestants. He treated the French as if they were dogs. "I +shall abandon him," says Champlain, "to his fate, awaiting the day of +his punishment for his swearings, cursings and impieties." + +The treachery of these four men greatly affected Champlain, who was at a +loss to understand how those to whom he had given food and shelter could +be so ungrateful; but their conduct, however reprehensible, played no +part in the loss of the colony. Kirke employed them to further his +purposes without giving them any substantial reward. + +The sojourn of the French in Tadousac lasted many weeks, and the delay +caused Champlain much annoyance. David Kirke spent ten or twelve days on +his visit to Quebec, where he wanted to see for himself how his brother +Louis had disposed of everything, and what advantage he was likely to +gain from the acquisition of the new country. Believing himself to be +the supreme ruler and master of New France, he outlined a brilliant +future for the colony, looking forward to the day when he could bring +settlers to take advantage of its natural resources. + +Returning to Tadousac, the general invited his captains to a dinner, at +which Champlain was also a guest. The dinner was served in a tent +surrounded with branches. Towards the end of the banquet David Kirke +gave Champlain a letter from Marsolet to inform him that the chief +savages, gathered at Three Rivers in council, had resolved to keep with +them the two girls, Esperance and Charite. This was a severe trial to +Champlain, who had hoped to be able to take them to France. All his +efforts, however, were useless, as there was a plot organized by the +traitor Marsolet. These children loved Champlain as a father, and were +inconsolable when they realized that their departure for France was +impossible. + +Champlain relates many things that do not redound to Kirke's credit, +amongst other things that Kirke blamed his brother Louis for giving the +Jesuits permission to say mass, and afterwards refused the permission. +Again, at the moment when the Jesuits embarked for Tadousac, Louis Kirke +ordered a trunk to be opened in which the sacred vessels were contained. +Seeing a box which contained a chalice Kirke tried to seize it, but +Father Masse interfered, and said to him: "This is a sacred object, do +not profane it, if you please." "Why," said Kirke, "we have no faith in +your superstition," and so saying he took the chalice in his hands, +braving the Jesuit's advice. The Catholics were also denied the +privilege of praying in public. This intolerant action was condemned by +Champlain. During their stay at Tadousac Champlain and the admiral went +out shooting. They killed more than two thousand larks, plovers, snipes +and curlews. In the meantime the sailors had cut trees for masts, and +some birch which they took to England. They also carried with them four +thousand five hundred and forty beaver skins, one thousand seven hundred +and thirteen others seized at Quebec, and four hundred and thirty-two +elk skins. The French had not given up all their skins; some had hidden +a good many, and others kept them with Kirke's consent. The Recollets +and the Jesuits were returning poorer than when they came. Champlain +alone was allowed to retain all his baggage. At the commencement of +September the admiral fitted out a medium sized barque with provisions +for Quebec, with instructions to bring back the Recollets who were +scattered throughout the country, and also some of the French who had +intended to remain at Quebec and other places. + +On September 14th the English fleet set out carrying Champlain, the +Jesuits, the Recollets, and two-thirds of the French, that is to say, +nearly the whole of the colony. The passage was short though difficult, +and eleven of the crew died from dysentery. On October 20th the vessels +reached Plymouth, where Kirke was much disappointed to learn that the +treaty of peace signed on April 24th had been confirmed on September +16th. All the French, except Champlain, took passage for France at +Dover. Champlain proceeded directly to London, where he met the French +ambassador, M. de Chateauneuf, and related to him the events which had +taken place in Canada, and urged him to take steps for its restoration +to France. + +The fathers disembarked at Calais at the end of October. Father Masse +returned to his former position of minister at the college of La Fleche. +Father Anne de Nouee went to Bourges. Father de Brebeuf entered the +college of Rouen, where he had laboured previously, and three other +Jesuits whom we find afterwards in Canada, Father Charles Lalemant, +Father Jogues and Father Simon Lemoyne, were at that time professors in +this college. Father Masse and Father de Brebeuf were soon to resume +their ministration in this country, which they were forced to abandon at +a time when they had hoped to see the realization of their noble +mission. L'Abbe Faillon has written that the family of Hebert alone +remained at Quebec after the surrender, but this is incorrect. The truth +is that at least five families remained in Quebec. It was God's will +that the most prominent and influential men should leave for France, +but He also ordained that a few heroic settlers or possessors of New +France should remain. If their remaining was favourable to France +Champlain deserves the credit, for he did more than any of his +countrymen to bring it about. The population of Quebec or of the whole +colony in July, 1629, was divided as follows:--Inhabitants, +twenty-three; interpreters, eleven; clerks, fourteen; missionaries, ten; +domestics, seven; French, arrived from the Huron country, twenty. This +makes a total number of eighty-five persons. + +The following persons remained at Quebec:--Guillaume Hubou and his wife, +Marie Rollet, widow of Louis Hebert; Guillaume Hebert; Guillaume +Couillard, and his wife Guillemette Hebert, and their three children; +Abraham Martin, and his wife, Marguerite Langlois, and their three +children; Pierre Desportes, and his wife, Francoise Langlois, and their +daughter Helene; Nicholas Pivert, his wife, Marguerite Lesage, and their +niece; Adrien Duchesne and his wife; Jean Foucher, Etienne Brule, +Nicholas Marsolet, Le Baillif, Pierre Reye, Olivier Le Tardif. The +missionaries who returned to France were: Three Jesuits, two Recollets, +two Brothers Jesuits and three Brothers Recollets, ten in all. Their +names were: Fathers Jesuits Enemond Masse, Anne de Nouee and Jean de +Brebeuf, Fathers Recollets Joseph de la Roche d'Aillon, and Joseph Le +Caron, Brothers Jesuits Francois Charton and Gilbert Burel, and the +Recollet Friars Gervais Mohier, Jean Gaufestre and Pierre Langoissieux. +Among the clerks who returned home were Corneille de Vendremur, +Thierry-Desdames, Eustache Boulle, and Destouches. + +Since the year 1608 there had been only seven births, three marriages, +and forty deaths. One man had been hanged, six had been murdered, and +three drowned. A Recollet father, called Nicholas Viel, had perished in +the Sault au Recollet; and there had been sixteen victims of the scurvy. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +QUEBEC RESTORED + + +Through the exertions of Champlain negotiations were soon entered into +for the purpose of restoring the colony of New France to the French. +Champlain had visited the French ambassador, M. de Chateauneuf, when in +London, and had laid before him a statement of the events which had +recently taken place, together with the treaty of capitulation and a map +of New France, so far as it was explored. According to Champlain, the +country comprised all the lands which Linschot thus describes: "This +part of America which extends to the Arctic pole northward, is called +New France, because Jean Verazzano, a Florentine, having been sent by +King Francois I to these quarters, discovered nearly all the coast, +beginning from the Tropic of Cancer to the fiftieth degree, and still +more northerly, arboring arms and flags of France; for that reason the +said country is called New France." + +Champlain was not quarrelling with the English for the Virgines, +although this country had been occupied by the French eighty years +before, and they had also discovered all the American coast, from the +river St. John to the peninsula of Florida. No one can deny that +Champlain had given names to the rivers and harbours of New England as +far as Cape Cod, about the fortieth degree of latitude. + +After having spent about five weeks with the ambassador in furnishing +him with information to guide him in his negotiations with the English +authorities, Champlain resolved to visit France, as he had a reasonable +hope of seeing his designs accomplished. He left London on November +20th, and embarked at Rye, in Sussex, for Dieppe. Here he met Captain +Daniel, who had just returned from his expedition to Canada, and it was +here also that he received his commission of governor of New France, +which had been forwarded by the directors of the Company of New France. + +Champlain paid a visit to Rouen, and then went to Paris, where he had +interviews with the king, with the cardinal, and some of the associates +of the company. A prominent topic of discussion was, naturally, the loss +of New France, and the best means of recovering it. Champlain's ideas +were excellent, and he did his best to have them acknowledged and agreed +to by all those who were interested in the fate of New France. + +Events progressed favourably, and Champlain was pleased to learn that +Doctor Daniel had been sent to London with letters for King Charles I. +Louis XIII demanded the restoration of the fort and habitation of +Quebec, and the forts and harbours of the Acadian coast, for the reason +that they had been captured after peace had been concluded between the +two countries. Doctor Daniel returned to France, bearing despatches by +which Charles I answered that he was ready to restore Quebec, but no +mention was made of Acadia. The directors of the company immediately +ordered Commander de Razilly to equip a fleet, and, as we have already +stated, to take possession of Quebec by force or otherwise. + +The Hundred Associates subscribed sixteen thousand livres for the +freighting of the vessels, and the king granted the balance of the +expenses. The news of these extraordinary war-like preparations caused +alarm in London, but the French ambassador stated that these vessels +were not being sent to trouble or disturb any of the English settlers +who had taken possession of the French habitations. This explanation +relieved the public mind in England, and Charles I promised to give back +to France its ancient possessions in America, as they were on April +24th, 1629, the date of the signing of the Treaty of Suze. In justice to +England it may be said that two English vessels were seized by the +French at about the same time that Kirke had forced Champlain to +surrender. There was, therefore, illegal action on both sides, and both +countries had claims to be regulated. + +The English would have preferred to have retained possession of Canada, +at least until the following year, as the Kirke brothers and their +associates hoped to be able to realize considerable sums from their +trade with the Indians. This condition of affairs is explained in a +letter addressed by Cardinal Richelieu to Chateauneuf, on December 20th, +1629: "They assure us that they cannot restore Canada at once; this is +the reason for our delay in restoring these vessels." And he adds: "If +they agree to the restitution of Quebec without any condition, you shall +take it for granted, if not, it is better to put a delay to the +settlement." + +It is obvious that Charles I had twice promised to restore Quebec, and +when Chateauneuf retired from his position of ambassador in the month of +April, 1630, he had obtained "every assurance of restitution of all +things taken since the peace." The Marquis of Fontenay-Mareuil, who +succeeded Chateauneuf on March 13th, received special instructions from +the cardinal on this subject: "His Majesty's design is that, continuing +the negotiations of Chateauneuf, you continue to ask for the restitution +of Canada, and of all goods and vessels taken from the French since the +peace." + +The new ambassador could not urge the claims of France with greater +activity than his predecessor. During the space of two months, +Chateauneuf had prepared five documents relating to Canadian affairs, to +which the commissioners appointed to settle the matter had replied on +February 11th. These officials were Sir Humphrey May, Sir John Coke, Sir +Julius Caesar, and Sir Henry Martin. Their conclusion regarding Canada +was that His Majesty had not changed his mind concerning the +restoration of places, vessels and goods taken from the French, +according to the first declaration he had made through a memorandum in +Latin, communicated some time since to the French ambassador. + +Louis XIII was at this time engaged in war with Austria, and Richelieu +was too busy to attend to Canadian matters, which were of less +importance than the European questions which occupied his time. Interior +dissensions were soon added to the trouble which France had to undergo. +Gaston, the king's brother, was compromised, and the Duke of +Montmorency, who took part in a plot against the king, was seized and +put to death. + +The negotiations commenced in 1629 were not resumed until 1632. In the +meantime the English authorities had not been idle. Charles I had not +forgotten his promise, and even if he had, there were men in France who +had a good memory. On June 12th, 1631, Charles I addressed a long letter +to Sir Isaac Wake, ambassador to France, respecting the restitution of +Quebec and Acadia. The terms were as follows:-- + +"That which we require, which is the payment of the remainder of the +money, the restitution of certain ships taken and kept without any +colour or pretence, and the taking of arrests and seizures which were +made in that kingdom against our subjects contrary to treaty, being of +right and due. And that which is demanded of us concerning the places +in Canada and those parts, and some few ships of that nation (French) +which remained yet unrestored, but have passed sentence of confiscation +in our high Court of Admiralty upon good grounds in justice, being +things of courtesy and good correspondence." + +According to her marriage settlement the Queen Henrietta possessed a +dowry of eight hundred thousand crowns, equivalent to eight hundred +thousand ecus de trois livres, French currency. The half of that sum had +been made payable on the day before the marriage in London, and the +other half a little later. The marriage took place on June 13th, 1625, +and the first instalment was then paid. In the year 1631 the second +instalment had not been paid, and Charles I claimed it as one of the +conditions of settlement. + +Some historians have stated that the king took this opportunity to have +a money question solved. If, however, the debt was legitimate, France +was obliged to pay it, and the difficulties that had occurred in the +meantime had nothing to do with the deed of marriage upon which the +claim was based. Chateauneuf had promised to pay the claim. Unless, +therefore, there was any doubt as to the right of the king to claim the +sum, it is difficult to understand why the king should be blamed. + +In his letter to his ambassador at Paris Charles I alludes to documents +exchanged between Chateauneuf and Fontenay-Mareuil on the one side, and +the lords commissioners appointed to give a ruling. In this document it +is noticed that Guillaume de Caen had discussed with Kirke the value of +the goods and peltry that had been taken out of the stores at Quebec. +They disagreed both as to the number and value. De Caen claimed four +thousand two hundred and sixty-six beaver skins which had been captured +by Kirke, while Kirke pretended to have found only one thousand seven +hundred and thirteen, and that the balance of his cargo, four thousand +skins, was the result of trade with the Indians. + +According to the books of the English company, Kirke had bought four +thousand five hundred and forty beaver skins, four hundred and +thirty-two elk skins, and had found in the stores one thousand seven +hundred and thirteen beaver skins. The difference in the calculation is +due to the fact that the English only mentioned the beaver skins +registered in their books, and the French included all the skins which +belonged to them when the fort surrendered, making no mention of those +that they had taken out of the fort with the permission of the English. +Guillaume de Caen valued each skin at twelve pounds ten shillings, and +Burlamachi had written from Metz to representatives of the English +company, that he had been compelled to accept de Caen's estimates, as +under the terms of an Act of Private Council, he was bound to make them +good. The king had promised to reimburse de Caen for his losses by the +payment of the sum of fourteen thousand three hundred and thirty +pounds, of which eight thousand two hundred and seventy pounds were for +his peltry and goods, and six thousand and sixty pounds for the vessels +which had been captured. David Kirke strongly opposed the payment of +this sum on the ground that it was excessive, but the king through his +councillors ordered the payment to be made. + +Having determined to seize the peltry brought to London from Quebec, the +Kirke associates blew off the padlock which had been fixed to the +storehouse door by an order of justice. Some time after, when Guillaume +de Caen visited the store, accompanied by a member of the company and a +constable, he discovered that only three hundred beaver skins and four +hundred elk skins remained. Complaint was lodged with the king, who +ordered Kirke to return the skins which were missing within three days, +on pain of imprisonment or the confiscation of his property. None of the +associates of Kirke appear to have obtained the sympathy of the public +in that affair. + +The English company had suffered a great loss over the transaction, and +the king thought that it would be just to grant them some compensation. +He therefore appointed two commissioners, Sir Isaac Wake and Burlamachi, +to look after the interests of the English company. Their mission was to +make an agreement with Guillaume de Caen, who represented the French +company. After the exchange of a long correspondence, the king of +France agreed to pay to David Kirke the sum of twenty thousand pounds, +on the condition that he should restore the fort of Quebec, the contents +of the storehouse, the vessel belonging to Emery de Caen, and the peltry +seized in Canada. + +David Kirke was much dissatisfied with the agreement, which he believed +was due to the action of Sir Isaac Wake, to whom he wrote, accusing him +of not having followed the instructions of the English company. His +letter concluded with these words: "I understand that the conduct of +this affair has been absolutely irregular, as it is evident that you +have only resorted to the French testimony, having no care for the +English evidence." + +In the same memorandum the Kirke family complained of the fact that the +Company of English Adventurers had been compelled to plead in France, +while the French were not subject to the same conditions. This +accusation was not correct, as Guillaume de Caen had been obliged not +only to live in London in order to vindicate his goods, but also to +watch them and prevent damage. + +Kirke had no other claim than compensation for losses, and de Caen, who +had apparently no responsibility for the conflict of 1629, could not +reasonably be expected to pay the amount of Kirke's claim. The contents +of the storehouse at Quebec were the property of the de Caens, and in +visiting Quebec Emery de Caen had no other object in view than to +secure his goods and take them to France. He had nothing to do with the +war, and believed that he was sailing in times of peace. Thomas Kirke, +by whom he was taken prisoner, treated him as a pirate, illegally, and +in spite of the Treaty of Suze. It is true that the Kirkes ignored the +existence of this treaty when they sailed for America, but this was only +an excuse for their attitude as belligerents. + +As soon as the provisions of the negotiations were determined upon +between the two countries, the claims had to be sent to the king, if +they considered that they had any grievance under the privileges +conferred upon them by letters of marque. The royal commission took a +correct stand in demanding from them in the name of Charles I an +indemnity for France. All these differences were at length terminated +through the energetic interference of Richelieu. These disputes had +lasted for more than two years, and constantly occupied the attention of +the ambassadors. The king of France, therefore, empowered Bullion and +Bouthillier on January 25th, 1632, to act. Charles I had already sent +Burlamachi to France with letters in favour of the restoration of Canada +and Acadia, and had also given instructions to Sir Isaac Wake, his +ambassador extraordinary. On March 5th, Louis XIII granted an audience +to the ambassadors, and the basis of a treaty was agreed upon. Sir Isaac +Wake represented Charles I, and Bullion and Bouthillier represented the +king of France. + +The commissioners took up the question of seizures, which was the most +difficult. The king of France agreed to pay the sum of sixty-four +thousand two hundred and forty-six pounds to Lumagne and Vanelly for the +goods seized on the _Jacques_, and sixty-nine thousand eight hundred and +sixty-six pounds for the goods seized on the _Benediction_, and to +restore these two vessels to their owners within fifteen days. This +agreement included the effects taken from the _Bride_, and sold at +Calais, the property of Lumagne and Vanelly. The king of England +promised to render and restore all the places occupied by the subjects +of His Majesty of Great Britain in New France, Canada and Acadia, and to +enjoin all those who commanded at Port Royal, at the fort of Quebec and +at Cape Breton, to put these places in the hands of those whom it shall +please His Majesty, eight days after notice given to the officers named +by the king of France. + +Under this agreement, de Caen was obliged to pay for the equipment of a +vessel of two hundred to two hundred and fifty tons, and for the +repatriation of the English subjects established in New France. The +forts and places occupied by the English were to be restored as they +were before their capture, with all arms and ammunition, according to +the detailed list which Champlain had given. Burlamachi was authorized +to pay for everything that was missing, and also to place Emery de Caen +in possession of the ship _Helene_, which had been taken from him, +together with all goods abandoned at Quebec during his voyage of 1631. +Burlamachi was also instructed to pay to Guillaume de Caen the sum of +eighty-two thousand seven hundred pounds within two months. The sum of +sixty thousand six hundred and two pounds tournois was also to be paid +by Burlamachi to whomever it might belong, for the vessels _Gabriel_ of +St. Gilles, _Sainte-Anne_, of Havre de Grace, _Trinite_, of Sables +d'Olonne, _St. Laurent_, of St. Malo, and _Cap du Ciel_, of Calais, +seized by the English after the signing of the Treaty of Suze. + +After this was agreed to, the commissioners embodied in eight articles +the conditions of free trade between the two countries. The whole was +signed by Wake, Bullion and Bouthillier, at St. Germain-en-Laye, on +March 29th, 1632. + +Thus terminated this quarrel between England and France, but it was only +the precursor of a far more serious conflict which was to arise. From +time to time, however, these differences were adjusted temporarily by +treaties, only to lead to further complications. The principal +difficulty arose regarding the boundaries of New France, the limits of +which were not clearly defined in the treaty. Some adjacent parts were +claimed by the English as their territory. The king of France had +granted to the Hundred Associates "in all property, justice and +seigniory, the fort and habitation of Quebec, together with the country +of New France, or Canada, along the coasts ... coasting along the sea +to the Arctic circle for latitude, and from the Island of Newfoundland +for longitude, going to the west to the great lake called Mer Douce +(Lake Huron), and farther within the lands and along the rivers which +passed through them and emptied in the river called St. Lawrence, +otherwise the great river of Canada, etc." + +Quebec was considered as the centre of these immense possessions of the +king of France, and included the islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton +and St. John (Prince Edward). + +The king of England had granted to Sir Thomas Gates and others, in 1606, +three years after the date of de Monts' letters patent, "this part of +America commonly called Virginia, and the territories between the +thirty-fourth and forty-fifth degrees of latitude, and the islands +situated within a space of one hundred miles from the coasts of the said +countries." + +In the year 1621, James I granted to Sir William Alexander, Count of +Sterling, certain territory, which under the name of Nova Scotia was +intended to comprise the present provinces of Nova Scotia, New +Brunswick, the islands of St. John and Cape Breton, and the whole of +Gaspesia. Charles I granted to Sir William Alexander in the year 1625 +another charter, which revoked the one of 1621. + +It is evident that the king of England and the king of France had each +given charters covering about the same extent of territory, and it is +therefore easy to understand that tedious correspondence of a +complicated nature thereby arose between the two countries. The treaty +of St. Germain-en-Laye did not determine the question of the boundaries +of the territory, and each power reserved its rights in this respect. + +The inhabitants of Quebec at this time were in a state of suspense, for +they had no knowledge of the progress made with the negotiations between +the two countries. They had no reason to complain of the English, +however, who treated them well, but the Huguenots, their own countrymen, +who seemed prepared to serve under the English flag, were, as usual, +troublesome and fanatical on religious questions. The settlers were so +much distressed at not having the benefit of the ministration of a +priest of their church, that they had resolved to leave the country at +the earliest opportunity. + +The Lutheran minister, who had decided to remain at Quebec with Kirke's +men, had much to suffer. His advice was not accepted by his own people, +and he was, moreover, kept in prison for a period of six months under +the pretext of inciting the soldiers of the garrison to rebellion. All +these disagreements rendered the condition of the Catholics almost +unendurable. + +On July 13th, 1632, a white flag was seen floating from a vessel which +was entering the harbour of Quebec. The inhabitants were rejoiced, and +when they were able to hear mass in the house of Madame Hebert, their +happiness was complete. It was three years since they had enjoyed this +privilege. One girl had been born in the interval, to the wife of +Guillaume Couillard. But no death had been recorded, except the murder +of an Iroquois prisoner by a Montagnais while in a state of +intoxication. + +The Jesuits who had arrived at the same time as Emery de Caen, took +charge of the Quebec mission. In the year 1627, the Recollets, seeing +that their mission had not apparently produced the results that they +desired, and that they were also reduced to great distress, resolved to +abandon New France for a country less ungrateful. We have seen that +after the capitulation, the Recollets left with the greater number of +the French for their motherland, but when they heard that Canada had +been restored to France, they made preparations to resume their labours. +Their superiors offered no objection, but the chief directors of the +Hundred Associates, thinking the establishment of two different +religious orders in the country, which as yet had no bishop, would +create jealousies, determined to refuse the services of the Recollets. + +Jean de Lauzon, intendant of the company for Canadian affairs, made a +formal protest, and thus these noble missionaries were forced to abandon +their work in Canada. The Recollets were much disappointed, but Father +Le Caron, the first apostle to the Huron tribes, was so distressed at +the news that he was taken ill and died on March 29th, 1632, some days +before the departure of Emery de Caen for Quebec. He had brought some +manuscripts from Canada, which were accidently burnt in Normandy. This +man was perhaps the purest example of all the Recollets in Canada. +Others had a more illustrious name, but none gave greater proof of +devotedness and courage in their dealings with the Indians, and +especially the Hurons. He was generally regarded as a saint. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN NEW FRANCE + + +The Jesuits, who had only been in the country about four years, had not +as yet a true idea of the magnitude of the task they had undertaken. +Father Charles Lalemant had abandoned the theatre of his first apostolic +labours on our Canadian soil, at the same time that some workmen whom +Father Noyrot had brought from France during the preceding year, left +the place. He was the last representative, together with Fathers Masse, +de Nouee and de Brebeuf of the primitive church of Canada. Mention has +been made of the temporary residence in the convent of the Recollets, +and of a building which was erected for themselves at about two hundred +feet from the shore, near the junction of the river Lairet and the river +St. Charles. The Jesuits received a concession of this land which was +bounded on the west by a stream called St. Michel, and the river St. +Mary or Beauport on the east. This was named the Seigniory of Notre Dame +des Anges. + +The Jesuits' convent was finished on April 6th, 1626. It was a poor +residence of about forty feet in length and thirty feet in width. The +building contained a small chapel dedicated to Notre Dame des Anges, on +account of a picture which decorated a wall representing the Blessed +Virgin receiving the homage of angels. This name extended beyond the +chapel, and was given to the seigniory, and after a lapse of three +centuries, it remains unchanged. + +The different mission-stations of the Jesuits in Canada and around the +gulf of the St. Lawrence were maintained at the expense of the Hundred +Associates from the year 1632, with the exception of their college at +Quebec which was founded through the liberality of the Marquis de +Gamache, who gave them a sum of sixteen thousand ecus d'or for that +purpose, in 1626, on the occasion of his son taking religious vows. The +offer was accepted by Father Vitelleschi, general of the order, and the +college was founded in 1635, and opened a few years later. "This," +writes Parkman, "was the cradle of the great missions of Canada!" + +As soon as the Jesuits arrived they commenced to repair their residence, +and in the year 1632 it was in a fit state for a banquet which was given +to Emery de Caen, who had been appointed governor _ad interim_ of the +French colony. + +Champlain returned from France to Quebec in the month of June of the +following year, and again took over the government of New France. He +brought with him Fathers Masse and Jean de Brebeuf, and their arrival +was the dawn of a brighter era for the Canadian missions. The Jesuits +founded, during the same year, a mission at Three Rivers, and another at +Ihonatiria in the Huron country. The mission-stations at Miscou and at +Cape Breton were also opened at about the same time, but they were all, +practically speaking, dependent upon the liberality of the Hundred +Associates. + +The Jesuits in their Relations of 1635 regarded the establishment of the +mission of Notre Dame des Anges as destined to fulfil three designs +which they had in view for the honour and glory of God. These were: (1.) +To erect a college for the education of young Frenchmen who were +becoming more and more numerous. (2.) To found a seminary for young +Indians for the purpose of civilizing or improving their moral +condition. (3.) To extend the missions of the Jesuits among the Hurons +and other savage tribes. These three designs were in a measure +accomplished by this means. From the year 1626 Quebec was the principal +centre of Canadian missions, which extended from Tadousac to the Great +Lakes. Seeing that the French were all gathering in the vicinity of Fort +St. Louis, and that their convent was exposed to attacks of the Indians, +the Jesuits decided to build their new college upon the promontory of +Cape Diamond. In the year 1637 the Hundred Associates conceded twelve +acres of land to the Jesuits near Fort St. Louis, upon which they built +their college and a church, some years after. The seminary for young +Indians was opened in the year 1627, and Father Charles Lalemant +conducted a class for them as long as there were pupils to attend. + +The seminary of Notre Dame des Anges has an interesting though brief +history. It was Father Le Jeune's intention to have removed it near to +the fort. The question of transferring it to the Huron country, in order +to obtain a greater number of pupils had been discussed, but there were +many reasons against the change, the principal being that the proximity +to the Huron families would have caused the fathers annoyance. The +seminary was, therefore, continued at Notre Dame des Anges, where it +remained until it was closed. Father Le Jeune wrote to the Provincial in +France on August 28th, 1636:-- + +"I consider it very probable that, if we had a good building in Kebec we +would get more children through the very same means by which we +despaired of getting them. We have always thought that the excessive +love the savages bear their children would prevent our obtaining them. +It will be through this very means that they will become our pupils; +for, by having a few settled ones, who will attract and retain the +others, the parents, who do not know what it is to refuse their +children, will let them come without opposition. And, as they will be +permitted during the first few years to have a great deal of liberty, +they will become so accustomed to our food and our clothes that they +will have a horror of the savages and their filth. We have seen this +exemplified in all the children brought up among our French. They get so +well acquainted with each other in their childish plays that they do +not look at the savages, except to flee from them or make sport of them. +Our great difficulty is to get a building, and to find the means with +which to support these children. It is true we are able to maintain them +at Notre Dame des Anges; but as this place is isolated, so that there +are no French children there, we have changed the plan that we formerly +had to locate the seminary there. Experience shows us that it must be +established where the bulk of the French population is, to attract the +little savages by the French children. And, since a worthy and virtuous +person has commenced by giving something for a seminary we are going to +give up our attempts to clear some land, and shall make an effort to +build at Kebec. I say an effort, for it is with incredible expense and +labour that we build in these beginnings. What a blessing from God if we +can write next year that instruction is being given in New France in +three or four languages. I hope, if we succeed in getting a lodging, to +see three classes at Kebec--the first, of little French children, of +whom there will be perhaps twenty or thirty pupils; the second, of +Hurons; the third, of Montagnes." + +Father Daniel was the chief of the seminary, although he was generally +assisted by other fathers, who instructed the children of the families +residing near the convent. The chapel was used as a classroom, and both +the boys and girls made good progress. They were soon taught to observe +the customs of the French, such as joining their hands in prayers, +kneeling or standing during the recitation of their lessons. They were +also taught to answer with modesty, and to be respectful in their +behaviour. The girls were especially apt at learning, and they +endeavoured to imitate the French girls, for whom they appeared to have +great love. At certain intervals a public meeting was held, at which the +governor and the citizens of Quebec were present, and the pupils were +questioned on religious subjects. The most successful received a reward +at the hands of the governor, consisting of either a knife or an awl. +They were called upon to kiss the governor's hand, and to make a bow _a +la francaise_. + +The pupils of the seminary were chiefly Hurons, and the names of some of +the more prominent are known. These were Satouta, Tsiko, Teouatirhon, +Andehoua, Aiandace. The three first died during their residence in +Quebec, on account of the change of air and of diet. Father Le Jeune has +written that these young Indians were the columns of the seminary. They +were, in fact, endued with many good qualities, and had given great +hopes for the future. Satouta was the son of a Huron admiral, who was +the most popular and best known Indian in the country. His authority was +considered supreme, and in nautical matters his word was law. He had +promised that at his death Satouta should inherit his name. + +Tsiko was the son of Ouanda Koka, one of the best speakers of his +tribe, and he had won the esteem and admiration of his people through +his talents. Tsiko had inherited his father's gifts, and spoke so well +that he astonished all who heard him, especially the fathers. + +Andehoua was a model of virtue. He was baptized under the name of Armand +Jean, in honour of Cardinal Richelieu. The governor stood as his +godfather. Andehoua made such good progress in his studies that he +became a sort of missionary, and he did everything in his power to +convert his countrymen. He died at the Hotel Dieu, Quebec, in 1654, at +the early age of thirty-six. + +From the year 1639 the number of seminarists began to decrease, until +there was only one. However, in the year 1643 four young Hurons went +down to Quebec to receive instruction, and were baptized. Their +godfathers were LeSueur de St. Sauveur, a priest, Martial Piraube, M. de +Repentigny and M. de la Vallee. In the Relations of the Jesuits the +names of three are preserved: Ateiachias, Atarohiat, and Atokouchioueani. + +The seminary was then finally closed. The Jesuits opened another at +Three Rivers, and at the commencement there were six pupils, but at the +end of a year there were none. After eight years' experience, the +Jesuits realized that it was impossible successfully to make an Indian +boy adopt the manners and habits of the French, and the same result was +afterwards found by others who tried the experiment. + +In the year 1635, the Jesuits' missions in New France included those at +Cape Breton, Richibucto and Miscou Island. The mission of Miscou was the +best organized and the most populous; the Catholics of Gaspe, Miramichi +and Nipisiguit (Bathurst) went there. The island of Miscou is situated +at the northern extremity of the coast of New Brunswick, near the +entrance of the Baie des Chaleurs. It was the common residence of the +Jesuits and of the two first who came here, Father Charles Turgis and +Father Charles du Marche. On their arrival they found twenty-three +Frenchmen there, who were endeavouring to form a settlement. +Unfortunately, most of them were taken ill with scurvy, from which they +died, including the captain, the surgeon, a clerk and nine or ten +officers. Father du Marche was forced to leave the island, and finally +Father Turgis succumbed to the disease, and left behind him a single +man, who was in a dying condition. + +In the year 1637, two other Jesuits came to this inhospitable island, +Father Jacques de la Place and Father Nicholas Gondoin. They found only +nine persons there, who were in charge of the storehouse. A year later, +Father Claude Quentin, superior of the Canadian missions, came to assist +his confrere, who had undertaken to erect a chapel, but after three +years of constant labour, they both returned to Quebec in an exhausted +condition. + +Father Dollebeau and Father Andre Richard then took charge of the +mission on the island of Miscou, but the former was taken ill and was +obliged to return to France. During the voyage the vessel was captured +by three English frigates, and while pillaging the ship a soldier set +fire to the powder magazine, and as a result Father Dollebeau and the +whole crew perished. + +In the course of years, however, the Miscou mission increased, and the +chapel proving insufficient to accommodate the congregation, the Jesuits +built another at the entrance of the river Nipisiguit. + +Father de Lyonne was the real founder of this new mission. Nipisiguit +was a good trading and fishing-station, and a general rendezvous for the +French as well as the Indians; it was also a safe harbour. Between the +years 1650 and 1657, Father de Lyonne crossed the ocean three times in +the interest of his mission, and in the year 1657 he founded another +mission at Chedabucto, where he ended his career. + +The field of the missionaries was divided after the year 1650. Father de +Lyonne took charge of the mission at Chedabucto, while the stations at +Miscou and Nipisiguit were under the control of Father Richard, and +Father Fremin was given charge of the Richibucto mission. In the year +1661, Father Richard replaced Father de Lyonne at Chedabucto, but he +only remained there one year. + +The missions of the Jesuits in Acadia and Baie des Chaleurs closed with +the departure of Father Richard. Some historians of Acadia mention the +labours of Father Joseph Auberi, whom Chateaubriand has immortalized in +his "Atala." Father Auberi prepared a map of Acadia, and also a +memorandum of the boundaries of New France and New England in the year +1720. + +The mission-station at Cape Breton was commenced in 1634, and Father +Julian Perrault, a Jesuit, took up his residence there and gave +religious instruction to the Micmacs, whom he found very attentive. The +Micmacs were a hardy race, of great stature. Some of the men who were +upwards of eighty years of age had not a single white hair. + +Champlain gave to Cape Breton the name of St. Lawrence Island. The name +was originally given to the cape but it was afterwards applied to the +island. Bras d'Or was called Bibeaudock by the Indians, and Louisburg +was commonly known as Port aux Anglais. The Portuguese had formerly +occupied the island, but they were forced to leave it on account of the +temperature and other causes. Nicholas Denys, who had been obliged to +abandon Chedabucto, in Acadia, came to the island and founded Fort St. +Pierre, which was taken from him in the year 1654 by Emmanuel le Borgne +de Belle Isle, and by one Guilbault, a merchant of La Rochelle. Denys +then took up his residence, sometimes at Miscou, sometimes at Gaspe or +at Nipisiguit. His son Charles Denys, Sieur de Fronsac, had settled on +the shores of the river Miramichi. + +The first Jesuits who were invited to take charge of the Cape Breton +mission were Fathers Vimont and de Vieux-Pont, who had been brought out +by Captain Daniel, who, it will be remembered, lost a great deal of time +in attacking the fort which had been built on the river du Grand Cibou +by Stuart. The two Jesuits and forty men were left here. The Jesuits, +however, returned to France in 1630. Fathers Davost and Daniel were +missionaries at Cape Breton in 1633, and when Champlain visited the +place on May 5th of that year, he met the two Jesuits, who soon +afterwards returned with him to Quebec. + +Father Perrault resided at Cape Breton during the years 1634 and 1635, +and Fathers Richard and d'Endemare came in the following year and took +up their residence at Fort Ste. Anne in Grand Cibou Bay. This place had +many advantages, as it was naturally fortified, and three thousand small +vessels could anchor safely in the bay. The Jesuits remained at Cape +Breton until the arrival of Bishop de Laval in 1659. These various +missions which we have recorded, constitute the religious history of the +islands and coasts of the gulf of St. Lawrence during the greater part +of the seventeenth century, and they were all founded by Champlain or +under his administration, and he certainly took an active part in the +civilization of the Micmacs. + +In a memorandum addressed to the king, Champlain had set forth his +intention to erect a church at Quebec, to be dedicated to the Redeemer. +He was, however, unable to accomplish his design. He had also made a +solemn promise to the Blessed Virgin, between the years 1629 and 1632, +to erect a church in honour of Notre Dame de la Recouvrance, and on his +return to Quebec he set out to fulfil his obligation. The occasion was +favourable, as the chapel near the habitation in Lower Town had been +completely ruined. + +The chapel of Notre Dame de la Recouvrance was erected during the summer +of 1633, and in the autumn of the same year the Jesuits said mass for +the inhabitants within the building. The increase of the population and +of their religious zeal within the two following years, induced +Champlain to raise this humble chapel into a small church. The building +was therefore enlarged, and from that date the services assumed a +character of solemnity which had been unknown before. Grand mass was +celebrated every Sunday by a Jesuit, and the inhabitants each in turn +offered consecrated loaves. In the afternoon, after vespers, the +catechism was explained by the fathers. The French were very regular in +their attendance at these ceremonies, and also at the religious +instructions. + +Father Charles Lalemant was the first Jesuit who lived at the presbytery +as a parish priest. His successor was Father Jean de Quen. Father Le +Jeune wrote at that time:--"As soon as we had been lodged near the +church (Notre Dame de la Recouvrance) Father Lalemant who had just begun +to live at the residence, at the same time initiated its solemnities; +Father de Quen has succeeded him with the same inclination for ceremony. +I frankly confess that my heart melted the first time I assisted in this +divine service, at the sight of our Frenchmen so greatly rejoicing to +hear sung aloud and publicly the praises of the great God in the midst +of a barbarous people, at the sight of little children speaking the +Christian language in another world.... Monsieur Gand's zeal in +exercising all his energies to cause our French to love these solemn and +public devotions, seems to me very praiseworthy. But the regulations of +Monsieur our governor, his very remarkable example, and the piety of the +more prominent people, hold all in the line of duty." + +When Champlain was on his deathbed he was aware that his promise had +been fulfilled. Notre Dame de la Recouvrance was then a nice church, and +it was due to his labours. By his last will he bequeathed to this church +all his personal chattels, and three thousand livres in stock of the +Company of New France, and nine hundred livres which he had invested in +a private company founded by some associates, together with a sum of +four hundred livres from his private purse. It was the whole fortune of +the first governor of New France. This will was afterwards contested +and annulled, and the church was only allowed to receive the sum of nine +hundred livres, which had been realized from the sale of his personal +property. This sum was devoted to the purchase of a pyx, a silver gilt +chalice, and a basin and cruets. + +Several gifts were made for the decoration of the church of Notre Dame +de la Recouvrance. Duplessis-Bochart presented two pictures, one +representing the Blessed Virgin, and the other the Holy Family. De +Castillon, seignior of the Island of Orleans, offered four small +pictures, one of St. Ignace de Loyola, of St. Francois Xavier, of St. +Stanislas de Kostka, and of St. Louis de Gonzagne, and also a large +engraving of Notre Dame. Champlain had also placed on one of the walls a +painting which had been rescued from the shipwreck during Father +Noyrot's voyage. + +During the year after Champlain's death, the Jesuits consecrated the +church of Notre Dame de la Recouvrance under the name of the Immaculate +Conception, which from that date was the special patron of the parochial +church of Quebec. + +The inauguration of this patronage afforded an opportunity for public +rejoicing. On December 7th, 1636, a flag was hoisted on the fort and the +cannon were fired many times. On the 8th, the day observed by the church +in honour of the Immaculate Conception, the citizens fired a salute from +the muskets at dawn, and they all assisted at mass, and received the +Holy Communion. Devotion to the Mother of God soon became general among +the people, who were characterized as moral and honest. + +Notre Dame de la Recouvrance was burnt on June 14th, 1640. In a few +hours the residence of the Jesuits, the parochial church, and the chapel +of Champlain, where his bones had been placed, were destroyed. The +Relation of 1640 gives a short description of the catastrophe: "A rather +violent wind, the extreme drouth, the oily wood of the fir of which +these buildings were constructed, kindled a fire so quick and violent +that hardly anything could be done. All the vessels and the bells and +chalices were melted; the stuffs some virtuous persons had sent to us to +clothe a few seminarists, or poor savages, were consumed in this same +sacrifice. Those truly royal garments that His Majesty had sent to our +savages to be used in public functions, to honour the liberality of so +great a king, were engulfed in this fiery wreck, which reduced us to the +hospital, for we had to go and take lodgings in the hall of the poor, +until monsieur, our governor, loaned us a house, and after being lodged +therein, the hall of the sick had to be changed into a church." This +conflagration was a great loss. The registers were burnt, and the +Jesuits had to reproduce them from memory. The chief buildings of Quebec +had disappeared, and it was seventeen years before a new church was +built. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE GROWTH OF QUEBEC + + +A quarter of a century had elapsed since the founding of Quebec, and +still it could scarcely be regarded as other than a village, while in +some parts of New France colonization was absolutely null. Agriculture +had received some attention in the vicinity of Quebec, but it was on +such a small scale that it should be termed gardening rather than +farming. + +Charlevoix writes: "The fort of Quebec, surrounded by a few wretched +houses and some sheds, two or three cabins on the island of Montreal, as +many, perhaps, at Tadousac, and at some other points on the river St. +Lawrence, to accommodate fishers and traders, a settlement begun at +Three Rivers and the ruins of Port Royal, this was all that constituted +New France--the sole fruit of the discoveries of Verrazzani, Jacques +Cartier, de Roberval, Champlain, of the great expenses of the Marquis de +la Roche and de Monts, and of the industry of many Frenchmen, who might +have built up a great colony had they been well directed." + +The various companies, as we have seen, took no interest whatever in +settling the country, their chief design being to carry on fur trade +with the Indians. Patriotism had no meaning for them, the all-absorbing +question was money. This was not the case, however, with the company +established by Cardinal Richelieu, whose desire was to christianize the +savages, to found a powerful colony, and to secure for his king the +possession of New France. The principal associates of this company were +pious, patriotic and zealous men, who laboured to extend the power and +influence of France throughout the vast continent of America for the +honour and glory of God. There were among the associates a certain +number of gentlemen and ecclesiastics, who, realizing their incapacity +to transact the business of such an important undertaking, preferred to +hand over the administration to merchants of Dieppe, Rouen and Paris, +together with the advantages to be derived therefrom. A special +association was consequently formed, composed of merchants who undertook +the financial affairs of the settlement, such as paying the new +governor, providing ammunition and provisions, and maintaining the +forts; and if there were profits they were to be divided amongst the +Hundred Associates. This association was formed before the departure of +Champlain for Quebec in 1633. Its agents were a merchant of Rouen named +Rosee, and Cheffault, a lawyer of Paris, who had a representative at +Quebec. + +As it was necessary for the Hundred Associates to appoint a governor of +New France, they offered the position to Champlain, as he was +universally respected and known to be experienced and disinterested. +Moreover he was well acquainted with the country, and on friendly terms +with the savages. It is doubtful whether any one could have taken his +place with better prospects of success. Champlain, moreover, desired to +finish his work, and although there was much to accomplish, the future +appeared more favourable than at any other time. The company had a large +capital at its disposal, and this alone seemed to insure the success of +the colony. Three ships were equipped for Quebec in the spring of 1633, +the _St. Pierre_, one hundred and fifty tons burden, carrying twelve +cannon; the _St. Jean_, one hundred and sixty tons, with ten cannon, and +the _Don de Dieu_, eighty tons, with six cannon. The ships carried about +two hundred persons, including two Jesuits, a number of sailors and +settlers, and one woman and two girls. Provisions and ammunition were in +abundance. When the fleet arrived in the St. Lawrence, Champlain saw a +number of English trading vessels which were there contrary to the +treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye. From this moment Champlain resolved to +establish a fixed post for trading, both for the Indians as well as +strangers. The island selected for this purpose by Champlain was +situated in the river St. Lawrence, about ten leagues above Quebec, and +was named Richelieu Island. + +Champlain caused the island to be fortified as soon as possible, and +surrounded it with a platform, upon which cannon were placed pointing in +every direction. Sentinels were placed on guard, and it would have been +impossible for vessels to pass unobserved. The Indians were informed of +this new plan, and in the autumn of the same year, the Nipissings and +the Algonquins of the Iroquet came to this island for trading. The +Hurons, however, came to Quebec, as they had heard from the Algonquins +of Allumette Island that the French would take revenge for the murder of +Etienne Brule. Champlain did not desire to punish them for the death of +this traitor, and he therefore did his best to retain the friendship of +the Indians, and entertained them at public feasts. He knew well that +their fur trade was of great importance, and, moreover, he wanted them +as allies in the event of an attack by the Iroquois, which might be +expected at any time, as they were unreliable and always anxious for +war. A league with the Hurons, Algonquins and Montagnais, with one +hundred French, would, in the opinion of Champlain, be sufficient to +protect the colony, and he wrote to that effect to the cardinal. This +was probably his last letter to the great minister:-- + + "Monseigneur:--The honour of the commands that I have + received from your Eminence has inspired me with greater courage to + render you every possible service with all the fidelity and + affection that can be desired from a faithful servant. I shall + spare neither my blood nor my life whenever the occasion shall + demand them. + + "There are subjects enough in these regions, if your Eminence, + considering the character of the country, shall desire to extend + your authority over them. This territory is more than fifteen + hundred leagues in length, lying between the same parallels of + latitude as our own France. It is watered by one of the finest + rivers in the world, into which empty many tributaries more than + four hundred leagues in length, beautifying a country inhabited by + a vast number of tribes. Some of them are sedentary in their mode + of life, possessing, like the Muscovites, towns and villages built + of wood; others are nomadic hunters and fishermen, all longing to + welcome the French and religious fathers, that they may be + instructed in our faith. + + "The excellence of this country cannot be too highly estimated or + praised, both as to the richness of the soil, the diversity of the + timber such as we have in France, the abundance of wild animals, + game and fish, which are of extraordinary magnitude. All this + invites you, monseigneur, and makes it seem as if God had created + you above all your predecessors to do a work here more pleasing to + Him than any that has yet been accomplished. + + "For thirty years I have frequented this country, and have acquired + a thorough knowledge of it, obtained from my own observation and + the information given me by the native inhabitants. Monseigneur, I + pray you to pardon my zeal, if I say that, after your renown has + spread throughout the East, you should end by compelling its + recognition in the West. + + "Expelling the English from Quebec has been a very important + beginning, but, nevertheless, since the treaty of peace between the + two crowns, they have returned to carry on trade and annoy us in + this river, declaring that it was enjoined upon them to withdraw, + but not to remain away, and that they have their king's permission + to come for the period of thirty years. But, if your Eminence + wills, you can make them feel the power of your authority. This can + furthermore be extended at your pleasure to him who has come here + to bring about a general peace among these people, who are at war + with a nation holding more than four hundred leagues in subjection, + and who prevent the free use of the rivers and highways. If this + peace were made, we should be in complete and easy enjoyment of our + possessions. Once established in the country, we could expel our + enemies, both English and Flemings, forcing them to withdraw to the + coast, and, by depriving them of trade with the Iroquois, oblige + them to abandon the country entirely. It requires but one hundred + and twenty men, light armed for avoiding arrows, by whose aid, + together with two or three thousand savage warriors, our allies, we + should be, within a year, absolute masters of all these people; and + by establishing order among them, promote religious worship and + secure an incredible amount of traffic. + + "The country is rich in mines of copper, iron, steel, brass, + silver, and other minerals which may be found here. + + "The cost, monseigneur, of one hundred and twenty men is a trifling + one to His Majesty, the enterprise the most noble that can be + imagined. + + "All for the glory of God, whom I pray with my whole heart to grant + you ever increasing prosperity, and to make me all my life, + monseigneur, your most humble, most faithful and most obedient + servant, + + "Champlain. + + "At Quebec, in New France, August 15th, 1635." + +In order to consolidate his general scheme for the colonization of the +country, Champlain desired that the missionaries should settle +permanently among the Huron tribes. The Jesuits wished to go there, as +they believed they would find a field for their labours. They had +previously set before the people the light of the Catholic faith, but +these efforts had not been as successful as they had wished. Father de +Brebeuf, the apostle to the Hurons, having decided to return to his +former sphere of labours, left for the Huron country in 1634, prepared +to remain there as long as there was work to be done. He was destined to +live among the Hurons until they were finally dispersed by the Iroquois. + +When Champlain arrived at Quebec, he summoned Emery de Caen to deliver +to Duplessis-Bochart the keys of the fort and habitation. Champlain's +arrival caused much rejoicing among the inhabitants, for he inspired +both their love and respect, and he was, perhaps, the only man who could +impress them with a belief in their future, and thus retain them in the +country. The arrival of a certain number of settlers during the years +1633-4, was also an encouragement for all. The restoration of Canada to +France caused some excitement in the maritime provinces of France, +especially in Normandy, as most of the settlers of New France up to this +date were from there. The exceptions were, Louis Hebert, a native of +Paris, and Guillaume Couillard, of St. Malo. Emigration soon extended to +other parts of the provinces, as the result of the discrimination of the +Relations of the Jesuits, which had been distributed in Paris and +elsewhere during the years 1632 and 1633. Several pious and charitable +persons began to take an interest in the missions of New France, and +forwarded both money and goods to help them. + +Some nuns offered to go to Canada to look after the sick and to instruct +the young girls, and in the year 1633 a few families arrived in Quebec +with Champlain, who had defrayed their expenses. + +In the year 1634 an association was formed in France for the purpose of +promoting colonization, and a group of about forty persons, recruited in +different parts of the province of Perche, were sent to Canada, with +Robert Giffard at their head. Giffard, it will be remembered, had +visited Quebec in the year 1627 as surgeon of the vessels sent out by +the company, but he had no intention of settling in the country. After +having built a log hut on the Beauport shore, he devoted his leisure to +hunting and fishing, game and fish being plentiful at that time, and +returned to France during the same year. He was appointed surgeon to +Roquemont's fleet during the following year, and as the vessels were +captured by the English, he, with the others on board, was compelled to +return to his mother country. This misfortune did not discourage the +former solitary inhabitant of Beauport, and he resolved to revisit the +country, but this time with a view of settling and of farming. + +Giffard had suffered many losses, and as a compensation for his services +and misfortune, he obtained a tract of land from the Company of New +France, one league in length and a league and a half in breadth, +situated between the rivers Montmorency and Beauport, bounded in front +by the river St. Lawrence, and in the rear by the Laurentian Mountains. +He was also granted as a special favour, a tract of land of two acres in +extent, situated near the fort, for the purpose of building a residence, +surrounded with grounds. These concessions, which seem large at first +sight, were, however, not new to the colony. Louis Hebert had been +granted the fief of the Sault au Matelot, and the fief Lepinay, while +the Jesuits had received the fief of Notre Dame des Anges almost free of +conditions. + +Under these favourable conditions Giffard induced two citizens of +Mortagne, Zacharie Cloutier and Jean Guyon, to accompany him to Canada. +Cloutier was a joiner, and Guyon a mason. They promised their seignior +that they would build him a residence, thirty feet long and sixteen feet +wide. + +The other emigrants came to Canada at their own risk. The party numbered +forty-three persons, including women and children, and were within a +space of from five to eight leagues of Mortagne, the chief town of the +old province of Perche. There were two exceptions, however, Jean +Juchereau came from La Ferte Vidame in Thimerais, and Noel Langlois was +from St. Leonard, in Normandy. + +The vessels bearing the contingent of settlers arrived in Quebec in +June. They were four in number, under the command of Captains de Nesle, +de Lormel, Bontemps, and Duplessis-Bochart. Robert Giffard had preceded +the party by a few days, and he lost no time in selecting the spot where +his residence was to be built, upon which he planted a cross on July +25th. He also commenced clearing the land, and two years after he +gathered in a harvest of wheat sufficient to maintain twenty persons. +The soil in this part was very productive, and it is, even to-day, the +richest in the province of Quebec. + +Among the emigrants of the year 1634 were two remarkable men, Jean +Bourdon, and a priest named Jean LeSueur de St. Sauveur. The Abbe +LeSueur de St. Sauveur had abandoned his parish of St. Sauveur de +Thury, which is to-day known as Thury-Harcourt, in Normandy, to come to +Quebec. One of the suburbs of Quebec to-day takes its name from this +active and devoted priest. + +Jean Bourdon, an inseparable friend of the abbe, established himself on +the borders of Coteau Ste. Genevieve, which is to-day known as St. +John's suburb. He built a house and a mill, and also a chapel, which he +named Chapel St. Jean. Other pioneers soon settled near Bourdon's place, +which finally gave to Quebec a suburb. + +Bourdon was a man of great capacity, and he in turn filled the role of +surveyor, engineer, cartographer, delineator, farmer, diplomat and +lawyer. He saw the colony increasing, and knew eight governors of the +colony, including Champlain. He was also acquainted with Bishop Laval, +the Venerable Mother Marie Guyart de l'Incarnation, and was on good +terms with the Jesuits and the nuns of the Hotel Dieu and Ursuline +Convent. Bourdon played an important part in the affairs of the colony. +He was present at the foundation of the Jesuits' college, of the Quebec +seminary, and of the Conseil Souverain, of which he was procureur +fiscal. Of his personal qualities, the Venerable Mother de l'Incarnation +has written that he was "the father of the poor, the comfort of orphans +and widows, a good example for everybody." + +One of the articles of the act incorporating the Company of New France, +provided that the colony was to be settled with French and Catholic +subjects only. This provision may appear at first sight to be arbitrary, +but when we consider that one of the chief objects of the colonization +of New France was to convert the savages, and that the Huguenots with +their new form of religion were, generally speaking, hostile to the king +and to the Catholics, it seems to have been a judicious provision. In +such a small community the existence of two creeds so opposed to each +other could hardly have produced harmony, and as the Catholics were +undertaking the enterprise and it originated with them, they surely had +the right to do what they considered would most effectively secure their +ends. + +For political reasons this action could also be defended, for the +loyalty of the Huguenots was, perhaps, doubtful, and their past actions +did not offer any guarantee for the future. They did not hesitate to +preach revolt against the authorities of France, and, therefore, +intimate connection with the Indians might have produced results +prejudicial to the colony. If France had the welfare of the colony at +heart, it behooved her to exclude every disturbing element. Viewed +impartially, this precaution was undoubtedly just, and those who blame +the company for their action, do not rightly understand the difficulties +which existed at that period. + +Richelieu, who had a clear insight into the affairs of the time, did not +prohibit trade between the Huguenots and the Indians, but he refused +them permission to settle in Canada, or to remain there for any length +of time without special leave. Champlain had observed the attitude of +the Huguenots, their unwillingness to erect a fort at Quebec, their +persecution of the Catholics, and their treatment of the Jesuits, and +although he was not fanatical, he was pleased with this rule. The +foundation of the new settlement was based upon religion, and religion +was essential to its progress. Peace and harmony must be maintained, and +everything that would promote trouble or quarrel must be excluded. + +During the seventeenth century, England preserved a war-like attitude +towards Catholics. A Catholic was not eligible for a public office, and +the learned professions were closed to them, neither could a Catholic +act as a tutor or as an executor to a will. Prejudice was carried still +further, and even the books treating of their faith were suppressed, +while relics or religious pictures were forbidden. These were only a few +of the persecutions to which they were subject. + +As far back as 1621 Champlain had requested the king to forbid +Protestant emigration to Canada, but his petition was not granted, +because the company was composed of mixed creeds. The company formed by +Richelieu, however, was solely Catholic, and there were no difficulties +on this score. The result of this policy was soon manifest. There were +no more dissensions on board the vessels as to places of worship, and +the Catholics were, as a consequence, enabled to observe their religious +duties without fear of annoyance. The beneficent influence of this +policy extended to the settlement, where the people lived in peace, and +were not subject to the petty quarrels which arose through a difference +in creed. + +In the Relation of 1637 we find evidence of this: "Now it seems to me +that I can say with truth that the soil of New France is watered by so +many heavenly blessings, that souls nourished in virtue find here their +true element, and are, consequently, healthier than elsewhere. As for +those whose vices have rendered them diseased, they not only do not grow +worse, but very often, coming to breathe a salubrious air, and far +removed from opportunities for sin, changing climate they change their +lives, and a thousand times bless the sweet providence of God, which has +made them find the door to felicity where others fear only misery. + +"In a word, God has been worshipped in His houses, preaching has been +well received, both at Kebec and at the Three Rivers, where Father +Buteux usually instructed our French people; each of our brethren has +been occupied in hearing many confessions, both ordinary and general; +very few holidays and Sundays during the winter have passed in which we +have not seen and received persons at the table of our Lord. And certain +ones, who for three, four and five years had not confessed in old +France, now, in the new, approach this so salutary sacrament oftener +than once a month; prayers are offered kneeling and in public, not only +at the fort, but also in families and little companies scattered here +and there. As we have taken for patroness of the Church of Kebec the +Holy Virgin under the title of her Conception, which we believe to be +immaculate, so we have celebrated this festival with solemnity and +rejoicing. + +"The festival of the glorious Patriarch Saint Joseph, father, patron and +protector of New France, is one of the great solemnities of this +country.... It is, in my opinion, through his favour and through his +merits, that the inhabitants of New France who live upon the banks of +the great river Saint Lawrence, have resolved to receive all the good +customs of the old and to refuse admission to the bad ones. + +"And to tell the truth, so long as we have a governor who is a friend of +virtue, and so long as we have free speech in the Church of God, the +monster of ambition will have no altar there. + +"All the principal personages of our colony honour religion; I say with +joy and God's blessing, that those whom His goodness has given to +command over us, and those also who are coming to establish themselves +in these countries, enjoy, cherish, and wish to follow the most sincere +maxims of Christianity.... Justice reigns here, insolence is banished, +and shamelessness would not dare to raise its head.... It is very +important to introduce good laws and pious customs in these early +beginnings, for those who shall come after us will walk in our +footsteps, and will readily conform to the example given them by us, +whether tending to virtue or vice." + +We could multiply evidence on this point. The Jesuits always recall this +good feature of the settlers, their respect for their religion, its +worship and its ministers. + +The author of the "Secret Life of Louis XV," says that New France owed +its vigour to its first settlers; their families had multiplied and +formed a people, healthy, strong, honourable, and attached to good +principles. Father Le Clercq, a Recollet, the Venerable Mother de +l'Incarnation, and many others, seem to take pleasure in praising the +virtues of our first ancestors. + +Champlain had begun his administration by establishing order everywhere, +and chiefly among the soldiers, who easily understood military +discipline, but the religious code with more difficulty. Fort St. Louis +was like a school of religion and of every virtue. They lived there as +in a monastery. There was a lecture during meals; in the morning they +read history, and at supper the lives of saints. After that they said +their prayers, and Champlain had introduced the old French custom of +ringing the church bells three times a day, during the recitation of the +Angelus. At night, every one was invited to go to Champlain's room for +the night's prayer, said by Champlain himself. + +These good examples, given by Champlain, governor of the country, were +followed, and produced good fruits of salvation among the whole +population. The blessing of God on the young colony was evident, and +when Champlain died, he had the consolation of leaving after him a +moral, honest and virtuous people. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +CONCLUSION + + +In the autumn of the year 1635, Champlain suffered from a stroke of +paralysis, which was considered very severe from the commencement. +However, hopes were entertained for his recovery. The months of October +and November passed away, and still no sign of improvement appeared. +Champlain, therefore, made his will, which he was able to sign plainly, +in the presence of some witnesses. Father Charles Lalemant, the friend +and confessor of Champlain, administered to him the last rites of the +church, and on the night of December 25th, 1635, he passed away at Fort +St. Louis. + +All the inhabitants, without exception, were deeply affected on hearing +the news of his demise, and a great number attended his funeral. The +funeral sermon was preached by Father Le Jeune. Champlain was buried in +a grave which had been specially prepared, and later on, a small chapel +was erected to protect his precious remains.[28] This chapel was +unfortunately burnt, as we have already mentioned, during the +conflagration of June 14th, 1640. + +The Jesuits' Relations of 1636 give a full account of the last days of +Champlain, which we here quote: "On December 25th, the day of the birth +of our Saviour upon earth, Monsieur de Champlain, our governor, was +reborn in Heaven; at least we can say that his death was full of +blessings. I am sure that God has shown him this favour in consideration +of the benefits he has procured for New France, where we hope some day +God will be loved and served by our French, and known and adored by our +savages. Truly he had led a life of great justice, equity and perfect +loyalty to his king and towards the gentlemen of the company. But at his +death he crowned his virtues with sentiments of piety so lofty that he +astonished us all. What tears he shed! How ardent became his zeal for +the service of God! How great was his love for the families here--saying +that they must be vigorously assisted for the good of the country, and +made comfortable in every possible way in these early stages, and that +he would do it if God gave him health. He was not taken unawares in the +account which he had to render unto God, for he had long ago prepared a +general confession of his whole life, which he made with great +contrition to Father Lalemant, whom he honoured with his friendship. The +father comforted him throughout his sickness, which lasted two months +and a half, and did not leave him until his death. He had a very +honourable burial, the funeral procession being formed of the people, +the soldiers, the captains and the churchmen. Father Lalemant officiated +at this burial, and I was charged with the funeral oration, for which I +did not lack material. Those whom he left behind have reason to be well +satisfied with him; for although he died out of France, his name will +not therefore be any less glorious to posterity." + +Champlain left no posterity. His wife spent only four years in Canada, +after which she resided continually in Paris. During her residence in +New France, she studied the Algonquin language, and instructed the young +Indians in catechism, and in this manner she won the friendship of the +native tribes. It was the fashion of the time for a lady of quality to +wear at her girdle a small mirror, and the youthful Helene observed the +custom. The savages, who were delighted to be in her company, were oft +time astonished to see their own image reflected on the crystalline +surface of this mirror, and said, with their native simplicity: "A lady +so handsome, who cures our diseases, and loves us to so great an extent +as to bear our image near her breast, must be superior to a human +being." They, therefore, had a kind of veneration for her, and they +would have offered their homage to her instead of to the Deity of whom +they had only an imperfect knowledge. + +The Indians were Madame Champlain's special care, but she was respected +by the French as well. We do not know very much about her social +intercourse with the different families of Quebec, but it is not +probable that she ignored Madame Hebert or her family, as Faillon seems +to believe. Her own distinction and the position of her husband would, +no doubt, render her particular in the choice of friends, but we can +scarcely believe that she would completely ignore Madame Couillard, who +was of her own age. How was it that she consented to live alone in +Quebec during the long absence of her husband? + +After her return to Paris in 1624, Madame Champlain lived alone, and +became more and more detached from the world, till she asked her husband +to allow her to enter an Ursuline convent. Champlain, fearing that this +desire might arise rather from caprice than a vocation for the life of +the cloister, thought it advisable to refuse her request, and he bade +her a last adieu in 1633. After Champlain's death, Father Le Jeune +informed her that she was now free to follow the dictates of her heart. + +According to the marriage settlement, Champlain was obliged to leave to +his wife, if she were still living, all his possessions. By his last +will, however, he left all his property to the church. Champlain had no +desire to injure his wife by this act; on the contrary, he knew that her +piety was great, and that she would probably applaud the course he had +taken, which was owing to his extraordinary devotion to Notre Dame de la +Recouvrance, the church which he had built and loved. Madame Champlain, +in fact, made no opposition, and the will was confirmed on July 11th, +1637. The will, however, was contested by Marie Camaret, a first cousin +of Champlain, and wife of Jacques Hersault, comptroller of customs at La +Rochelle, and a famous trial was the result. The will was contested on +two grounds: (1.) That the will was contrary to the marriage settlement, +and therefore ought to be annulled; (2.) That the will was made by +foreign hands, as it was difficult to suppose that Champlain had chosen +the Virgin Mary as his heir. + +These were the contentions of Master Boileau. The attorney-general +Bignon easily refuted the second allegation by proving that Madame +Champlain had recognized the signature of her husband, and had stated +that the expression and style were his. The terms of this bequest to the +Virgin were quite natural to a man of Champlain's character, "When we +know," said the attorney, "that he frequently made use of Christian +expressions in his general conversation." + +Although the authenticity of the will was proved, the attorney-general +argued that it ought to be set aside in face of the deed of settlement. +The court upheld this view, and the property of Champlain, with the +exception of the sum of nine hundred livres, derived from the sale of +his chattels, returned to his natural heirs. + +This trial and other affairs prevented Madame Champlain from carrying +out her resolution, and it was not until November 7th, 1645, that she +entered the monastery of St. Ursula at Paris. She first entered the +institution as a benefactress, and soon after became a novice under the +name of Helene de St. Augustin. There seems to have been some +difficulties with regard to her profession as a nun, and she therefore +resolved to found an Ursuline monastery at Meaux. Bishop Seguier granted +the necessary permission to found the monastery, and also for her to +take with her three nuns and a lay sister. Helene de St. Augustin left +Paris for Meaux on March 17th, 1648, and made her profession five months +after. As a preparation for this solemn act, she made a public +confession in the presence of the community. She also recited her +faults, kneeling, and wearing a cord about her neck, and bearing a +lighted taper in her hands. Mere Helene de St. Augustin lived only six +years in her convent at Meaux, and died on December 20th, 1654, at the +age of fifty years, leaving the memory of a saintly life. + +Eustache Boulle, the brother of Helene de St. Augustin, became a +convert to Catholicism through the intervention of his sister, and +entered the Minim order. He was sent to Italy, where he lived for six +years. During his sojourn there his sister sent to him one thousand +livres a year, and at her death she bequeathed to him the sum of six +thousand livres, and all her chattels, together with a pension of four +hundred livres for life. + +All those who have carefully studied the life of Champlain, have been +impressed by the many brilliant qualities which he possessed. Some have +praised his energy, his courage, his loyalty, his disinterestedness, and +his probity. Others have admired the charity which he exhibited towards +his neighbours, his zeal, his practical faith, his exalted views and his +perseverance. The fact is, that in Champlain all these qualities were +united to a prominent degree. + +The contemporaries of Champlain did not perhaps appreciate his merits, +or his heroic efforts as a founder. This is not altogether singular, for +even in the physical world one cannot rightly estimate the altitude of a +mountain by remaining close to its base, but at a distance a just +appreciation of its proportions may be obtained. + +If the contemporaries of Champlain failed to render him justice, +posterity has made amends, and Time, the sole arbitrator of fame, has +placed the founder of Quebec upon a pedestal of glory which will become +more brilliant as the centuries roll on. Nearly three centuries had +elapsed since the heroic Saintongeais first set foot on the soil of +Canada, when, at the close of the nineteenth century, a spectacle was +witnessed in the city of his foundation which proved that the name of +Champlain was graven on the hearts of all Canadians. The ceremonies +attending the inauguration of the splendid monument which now adorns +Quebec, have become a matter of history, and seldom could such a scene +be repeated again. France and England, the two great nations from which +Canadians have descended, each paid homage to the illustrious founder; +nor can we forget the noble tribute which was paid by the latest English +governor, representing Her Majesty Queen Victoria, to the first French +governor, representing His Majesty the King of France and of Navarre. + +It is seldom that the deeds of the great men of past ages have been more +fittingly remembered. Champlain, as we have previously remarked, +possessed in an eminent degree all the qualities necessary for a +founder, and his character is therefore exceptional, for over and above +all the heroism he displayed, all his perseverance, his devotion to his +country, we behold the working of a Christian mind, and the desire to +propagate the faith of his fathers. + +What would have been the result of the missions without his aid? It was +Champlain who caused the standard of our faith to be planted on the +shores of Canada. It was he who brought the missionaries to the new +settlement, and maintained them at Quebec, at Tadousac, and in the Huron +country. It was Champlain, too, who founded the parochial church of +Quebec, and afterwards endowed it. + +Champlain's work rested solely upon a religious foundation, hence his +work has endured. It is true that the founder of Quebec had certain +worldly ambitions: he desired to promote commerce between the French and +the Indians, but surely this is not a matter for which he should be +reproached. Without trade the inhabitants of the settlement could not +exist, and without the development of the settlement, his work of +civilization would necessarily end. He worked for the material +prosperity of the settlement, but not to increase his own fortune. The +development of trade was also essential to Champlain in his capacity of +explorer, and it was only through this means that he could extend the +bounds of his mother country. This was surely the wisdom of a true +patriot. What nobler ambition on earth could any one have than this, to +extend the kingdom of his God and of his king? + +Champlain has been justly called _The Father of New France_, and this is +certainly a glorious title. The name of Champlain is indissolubly +associated with this country, and will live long after his +contemporaries are forgotten, for many of them now only live through +him. + +America contains a number of towns which have carefully preserved the +names of their founders, whose memories are consecrated by monuments +which will recall to future generations their noble work. But where is +the town or state that can point to a founder whose work equalled that +of Champlain? He had to spend thirty of the best years of his life in +his endeavours to found a settlement on the shores of the St. Lawrence. +Twenty times he crossed the Atlantic in the interests of the colony, and +in the meantime he had constantly to combat the influence of the +merchants who vigorously opposed the settlement of the French in Canada. + +If we study the history of the mercantile companies from the years 1608 +to 1627, we find on the one hand, a body of men absorbed by one idea, +that of growing rich, and on the other hand, a man, anxious, it is true, +to look after the material interests of the merchants and of the people, +but hand in hand with this the desire to extend the dominion of his +sovereign. Here was a vast country, capable of producing great wealth, +and struggling for its possession was a body of avaricious men, while +valiantly guarding its infancy, we find a single champion, the heroic +Champlain. Champlain watched over the new settlement with the tender +solicitude of a parent carefully protecting his offspring from danger, +and ready to sacrifice his life to save it from disaster. In small +vessels of sixty or eighty tons, Champlain had repeatedly exposed his +life to danger in crossing the ocean. His health had also been exposed +during the days and nights spent in the open forests, or when passing +on the dangerous rivers in his efforts to explore new territory. He was +also constantly at the mercy of the Indians, whose treachery was +proverbial. Under all these dangers and through all these conditions, +Champlain's conduct was exemplary. He was charitable as a missionary +towards these poor children of the woods. When threatened with hunger or +malady, he relieved their wants and took care of the young children, +some of whom he adopted. Others again he placed in French families, +hoping that sooner or later they would be baptized into the fold of +Christ's flock. In his intercourse with the chiefs, Champlain took +occasion to explain to them the rudiments of the Christian faith, hoping +thereby to pave the way for the work of the missionaries. Whenever he +found any children that seemed more intelligent than usual, he sent them +to France, where they could be instructed, and either enter a convent or +take service in some good family. And who can tell whether some of these +children did not afterwards become missionaries to their own country? + +Champlain's prudence in his dealings with the savages was not less +remarkable than his charity. This conduct gave him an influence over the +Indians that no other Frenchman was able to obtain. The Indian tribes +regarded Champlain as a father, but their love was mingled with a +reverential fear, and every word and action was of deep significance to +them. They had faith in Champlain, which after all was not unusual, for +he had never deceived them. Though they were barbarous and uncouth, and +generally untruthful, they could distinguish the false from the true +from the lips of a Frenchman. Being given to dissimulation themselves, +they could appreciate sincerity in others. + +Some writers have questioned Champlain's prudence touching the alliance +which he made with some Indians for the purpose of fighting the +aggressive Iroquois. We have already shown that if Champlain desired to +maintain his settlement at Quebec, such an alliance was not only +prudent, but essential. The Hurons and allied tribes, it is true, were +barbarous, though not to so great an extent as the Iroquois, but they +had the same vices and were as perfidious. The least discontent or whim +would have been sufficient for the whole band to have swept the fort +away. By making an alliance with them, and promising to assist them +against their inveterate foes, it became to their advantage to support +Champlain, and thus to render his people secure against attack. Moreover +the numerical strength of the settlers in the early days was not +sufficient for Champlain to have imposed terms by force of arms, and as +it was necessary for his people to trade with the Indians, he could not +have done better, under the circumstances, than to form this alliance, +which insured business relations and protection for his countrymen. + +This alliance was undoubtedly made at a sacrifice to Champlain, and he +had to suffer many humiliations and privations thereby. We cannot +imagine that he found any pleasure in going to war with a lot of +savages, or in fighting against a ferocious band, with whom neither he +nor his people had any quarrel. It is certain that Champlain did not +encourage them in their wars, and he was careful not to put any weapons +into their hands. The same amount of prudence was not exercised by those +who came after the French and endeavoured to colonize New England and +New Netherland. + +Champlain's policy was one of conciliation. He desired peace, harmony +and charity above all things. As a respectful and obedient child of his +mother, the Catholic Church, he was very anxious that her teachings and +advice should be observed by those who were placed under his authority. +Although in his early life he had followed the career of a soldier, +still he regarded the profession of arms as useful only to put into +question the ancient axiom, _Si vis pacem, para bellum_. Wars and +quarrels had no attraction for Champlain, and he always preferred a +friendly arrangement of any difficulty. He was a lover of peace, rather +than of bloodshed, and the kindly nature of his disposition prevented +him adopting vigorous measures. + +Nevertheless, in the fulfilment of his duty as a judge, he was just, and +would punish the guilty in order to restrain abuses or crimes. At this +period there was no court of justice in New France, but Champlain's +commission empowered him to name officers to settle quarrels and +disputes. There was a king's attorney, a lieutenant of the Prevote, and +a clerk of the Quebec jurisdiction, which had been established by the +king. Champlain, however, was often called upon to decide a point of +law, and we learn from his history that he was unable on account of +death to settle a point which had arisen between two of Robert Giffard's +farmers. + +Champlain's authority was very extended, and whatever good may have +resulted from his administration is due to the fact that he exercised +his power with wisdom and prudence. Champlain's influence has expanded +throughout the country wherever the French language is spoken, from the +Huron peninsula, along the Algonquins' river, from Sault St. Louis, +Tadousac and Quebec, and every one has recognized that Champlain alone, +among the men of his day, had sufficient patriotism and confidence in +the future of the colony to maintain and hold aloft under great +difficulties, the lily banner of France on our Canadian shores. + +After having founded Quebec, Champlain, with characteristic wisdom, +chose the places where now stand the cities of Montreal and Three +Rivers. He was particularly fortunate in his selections, and any +buildings that he caused to be erected, were built from his own plans +and under his own directions. + +On the whole, Champlain's writings are very interesting, notwithstanding +the fact that he is somewhat diffuse in his style. Writing in the style +of the commencement of the seventeenth century, we see traces, +especially in his figures and descriptions, of the beauties of a +language which was then in a transitory state. However, whether his +style may be commended or condemned, it is of little consequence, since +he has given to the world such ample details of his life and +achievements as a discoverer, an explorer and a founder. His writings +are the more remarkable from the fact that they were composed during the +scanty leisure of his daily life, and we owe him a debt of gratitude for +having sacrificed this leisure to give us such precious treasures.[29] +Such was the life of this peerless man, whose incessant labours were +dedicated to the service of God and the glory of France. + +The city of Quebec is justly proud of her noble founder, and it is a +source of gratification to the inhabitants to point to the stately +monument which stands upon the spot consecrated by the life and death of +Champlain. The inscription commemorates the great work of the founder, +and of his explorations; but in the hearts of the people of Canada, +Champlain has a still more precious monument, and the flourishing +condition of our Dominion to-day is but the unconscious outcome of the +trial and labours of his heroic life. + +All historians who have written of Champlain attribute to him the +qualities which we have endeavoured to depict in these pages. +Charlevoix, a Jesuit, and the author of the first great history of +Canada, written about one hundred years after the death of the founder +of New France, thus writes: + +"Champlain died at Quebec, generally and justly regretted. M. de +Champlain was, beyond contradiction, a man of merit, and may be well +called, _The Father of New France_. He had good sense, much penetration, +very upright views, and no man was ever more skilled in adopting a +course in the most complicated affairs. What all admired most in him was +his constancy in following up his enterprises, his firmness in the +greatest dangers, a courage proof against the most unforeseen reverses +and disappointments, ardent and disinterested patriotism, a heart tender +and compassionate for the unhappy, and more attentive to the interests +of his friends than his own, a high sense of honour and great probity. +His memoirs show that he was not ignorant of anything that one of his +profession should know, and we find in him a faithful and sincere +historian, an attentively observant traveller, a judicious writer, a +good mathematician and an able mariner. + +"But what crowns all these good qualities is the fact that in his life, +as well as in his writings, he shows himself always a truly Christian +man, zealous for the service of God, full of candour and religion. He +was accustomed to say what we read in his memoirs, 'That the salvation +of a single soul was worth more than the conquest of an empire, and that +kings should seek to extend their domain in heathen countries only to +subject them to Christ.' He thus spoke especially to silence those who, +unduly prejudiced against Canada, asked what France would gain by +settling it. Our kings, it is known, always spoke like Champlain on this +point; and the conversion of the Indians was the chief motive which, +more than once, prevented their abandoning a colony, the progress of +which was so long retarded by our impatience, our inconstancy, and the +blind cupidity of a few individuals. To give it a more solid foundation, +it only required more respect for the suggestions of M. de Champlain, +and more seasonable belief on the part of those who placed him in his +position. The plan which he proposed was but too well justified by the +failure of opposite maxims and conduct." + +In 1880, the Reverend E.F. Slafter,[30] a Protestant minister, gave to +the American nation an appreciative description of the virtues of +Champlain, from which we quote the following passage: "In completing +this memoir the reader can hardly fail to be impressed, not to say +disappointed, by the fact that results apparently insignificant should +thus far have followed a life of able, honest, unselfish, heroic labour. +The colony was still small in numbers, the acres subdued and brought +into cultivation were few, and the aggregate yearly products were +meagre. But it is to be observed that the productiveness of capital and +labour and talent, two hundred and seventy years ago, cannot well be +compared with the standards of to-day. Moreover, the results of +Champlain's career are insignificant rather in appearance than in +reality. The work which he did was in laying foundations, while the +superstructure was to be reared in other years and by other hands. The +palace or temple, by its lofty and majestic proportions, attracts the +eye and gratifies the taste; but its unseen foundations, with their +nicely adjusted arches, without which the superstructure would crumble +to atoms, are not less the result of the profound knowledge and +practical wisdom of the architect. The explorations made by Champlain +early and late, the organization and planting of his colonies, the +resistance of avaricious corporations, the holding of numerous savage +tribes in friendly alliance, the daily administration of the affairs of +the colony, of the savages, and of the corporation in France, to the +eminent satisfaction of all generous and noble-minded patrons, and this +for a period of more than thirty years, are proof of an extraordinary +continuation of mental and moral qualities. Without impulsiveness, his +warm and tender sympathies imparted to him an unusual power and +influence over other men. He was wise, modest and judicious in council, +prompt, vigorous and practical in administration, simple and frugal in +his mode of life, persistent and unyielding in the execution of his +plans, brave and valiant in danger, unselfish, honest and conscientious +in the discharge of duty. These qualities, rare in combination, were +always conspicuous in Champlain, and justly entitle him to the respect +and admiration of mankind." + +These two quotations are sufficient to supplement the observations that +we have made, and there can be no doubt that posterity will forever +confirm this opinion of the life and labours of the founder of New +France, and that the name of Champlain will never be obliterated from +the memory of Canadians. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[28] The exact site of the chapel wherein Champlain was buried is +unknown, although many antiquarians have endeavoured to throw light upon +the subject. In 1866 some bones and the fragment of an inscription were +found in a kind of vault at the foot of Breakneck Stairs, and Messrs. +Laverdiere and Casgrain were under the impression that Champlain's tomb +had been found. In 1875 the Abbe Casgrain discovered a document which he +considered proved that the chapel had been built in the Upper Town, in +the vicinity of the parochial church and of Fort St. Louis. This opinion +was further confirmed by other documents which have since been found. +The chapel was in existence in the year 1661, but after this date no +mention is made of it. The parochial archives contain no mention of the +place, and the only facts that we have concerning the tomb, are that +Father Raymbault and Francois de Re, Sieur Gand, were buried near +Champlain's remains. + +[29] The last publication of Champlain bears the date of 1632, with the +following title: _Les Voyages de la Nouvelle France occidentale, dicte +Canada, faits par le Sr. de Champlain Xainctongeois. Capitaine pour le +Roy en la Marine du Ponant, et toutes les Descouvertures qu'il a faites +en ce pays depuis l'an 1603, jusques en l'an 1629. MDCXXXII_. This +volume is dedicated to Richelieu. According to M. Laverdiere, it has +been reissued, in 1640, with a new date and title. + +[30] Edmund Farwell Slafter was born in Norwich, Vt., on May 30th, 1816. +He was graduated at Dartmouth in 1840, studied at Andover Theological +Seminary, and in 1844 was ordained a minister of the Protestant +Episcopal Church. Since 1877 he has given his leisure time to historical +studies. He has published, among other works, _Sir William Alexander and +American Colonization_, in the series of the Prince Society (Boston, +1873), _Voyages of the Northmen to America_, edited with an introduction +(1877), _Voyages of Samuel de Champlain_, translated from the French by +Charles Pomeroy Otis, with historical illustrations and a memoir (three +volumes, 1878, 1880, 1882). + + + + +CHRONOLOGICAL APPENDIX + + + + +CHRONOLOGICAL APPENDIX + + +1567 or 1570--Birth of Samuel Champlain. + +1598--Champlain makes a voyage to Spain. + +1599--Joins an expedition against the English to the West Indies. + +1601--Returns from America. + +1603--Goes to Canada as lieutenant of Aymar de Chastes, viceroy of New +France, explores the river St. Lawrence to Sault St. Louis, and returns +the same year. + +1604--Follows de Monts' fortune in Acadia as geographer and historian of +the expedition; lives on Ste. Croix Island and at Port Royal till the +year 1607. + +1608--As lieutenant of de Monts, viceroy of New France, Champlain +crosses the Atlantic and founds Quebec. + +1609--Champlain's expedition against the Iroquois. Leaves for France on +September 5th. + +1610--Champlain returns to Quebec and goes back to France the same year. +His marriage with Helene Boulle on December 30th, 1610. + +1611--Champlain comes again to Quebec; founds Montreal; sails for France +on July 20th. De Monts' company ceases to exist. + +1612--Champlain sails for Canada and explores the country as far as +Allumette Island. Goes to France. Comte de Soissons appointed viceroy of +New France; dies soon after. The Prince de Conde takes his place, and +retains Champlain as his lieutenant. + +1613--Champlain leaves France for Canada, where he stays till 1614. + +1615--Returns to Quebec with the Recollet Fathers; he goes as far as the +Huron country; particulars of these tribes, their customs, manners, +etc.; Champlain assists them in a war against the Iroquois; follows them +and comes back to the Huron country, where he spends the winter. + +1616--Leaves for Quebec on May 20th; work of the missionaries in the +meantime; meeting of the _habitants_ and result of their deliberations; +memorandum addressed to the king; Champlain goes to France. + +1617--Champlain sails from Honfleur on April 11th for Quebec; Louis +Hebert's family accompanies him. + +1618--Champlain returns to France. Marechal de Themines appointed +viceroy _per interim_ after Conde's dismissal. Difficulties met by +Champlain in 1617; his projects laid before the king. Champlain gains +his point and preserves his former position. + +1619--Conde sells his commission of viceroy to the Duke of Montmorency; +Champlain's new commission of lieutenant of the viceroy. Company of +Montmorency formed by the Duke of Montmorency. + +1620--Champlain comes back to Quebec with his wife, and stays there till +the year 1624. + +1621--Champlain receives his instructions from Montmorency and from the +king; entitled to help the new company of merchants; conflict at Quebec +between the agents of the old and of the new company; Champlain's firm +attitude settles the matter. + +1622--The Company of Montmorency rules the country. + +1624--Champlain recrosses the ocean, bringing his wife. + +1625--Arrival of the Jesuits. Champlain at Tadousac and at Quebec; his +intercourse with the Montagnais; the duc de Ventadour named viceroy of +New France; Champlain reappointed lieutenant. + +1627--Ventadour resigns his office; Cardinal Richelieu organizes the +Company of the Hundred Associates; privileges granted to them; Champlain +still living at Quebec. + +1628--Roquemont sent to Quebec with provisions; his vessels taken by +Kirke; Quebec in danger; correspondence between David Kirke and +Champlain; the enemy retires; distress at Quebec for the want of food. + +1629--Kirke before Quebec; the capitulation; fate of the inhabitants; +the missionaries return to France together with Champlain; the last +events at Tadousac. + +1629-32--Champlain goes to London; negotiations between France and +England through the French ambassador; Champlain's visits to the king, +and to Cardinal Richelieu; Charles I ready to restore Canada, with +certain conditions. + +1632--The Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye terminates the dispute between +the two countries, and Quebec is restored to France. + +1632--Arrival at Quebec of the Jesuits; history of their convent since +1626. + +1633--Champlain's arrival in Quebec; history of the seminary of Notre +Dame des Anges since its foundation; the Jesuits' missions at Miscou +Island, in the Maritime Provinces, Acadia, Baie des Chaleurs and Cape +Breton. Champlain erects a church at Quebec. + +1634--Immigration of French colonists from Perche; Robert Giffard. + +1635--Champlain's sickness and death; his wife founds an Ursuline +convent at Meaux. + + + + +INDEX + + + + +INDEX + + +A + +Aiandace, Huron seminarist, 232 + +Alexander, Sir William, his mission, 176; + his charters, 223 + +Alix, Marguerite, Champlain's mother-in-law, 66 + +Alix, Simon, Helene Boulle's uncle, 66, 170 + +Anadabijou, chief of the Montagnais, 50, 51, 55, 139 + +Andehoua, Huron seminarist, 232, 233 + +Antons, Captain des, 31 + +Armand-Jean, christian name of Andehoua, 33 + +Arragon, notary, 66 + +Atarohiat, Huron seminarist, 233 + +Ateiachias, Huron seminarist, 233 + +Atokouchioueani, Huron seminarist, 233 + +Aubert, Pierre, 170 + +Auberi, Father, his labours in Acadia, 236 + +Aubry, priest, 24 + +Aumont, Marshal, d', 1 + + +B + +Bancroft, quoted, 87 + +Barbier, 66 + +Batiscan, chief of the Montagnais, 68 + +Beauchesne, clerk, 115 + +Beaulieu, councillor and almoner to the king, 72 + +Bellois, Corneille de, 122, 127 + +Bentivoglio, Guido, papal nuncio, 84 + +Berkeley, Sir John, commands Porto Rico, 3 + +Bessabe, chief of the Souriquois, 28 + +Biencourt, son of Poutrincourt, 38; + bound for Port Royal, 68 + +Bignon, attorney-general, 265 + +Boileau, attorney, 265 + +Bonneau, Thomas, 170 + +Bonnerme, surgeon, accompanies Champlain when Quebec is founded, 41; + one of the jury who condemned Jean Duval to death, 43; + dies, 46 + +Bontemps, captain, 252 + +Boues, Charles de, Recollet, syndic of Canadian Missions, 117, 148 + +Boulay, his residence at Port Royal, 25 + +Boulle, Eustache, Champlain's brother-in-law, 134, 136; + arrives in 1618, 145; + goes to France in 1626, 155, 209; + enters the Minim Order, 267 + +Boulle, Helene, marries Champlain, 66; + comes to Quebec and returns to France, 141; + her sojourn at Quebec, 263, 264, 265, 266 + +Boulle, Nicholas, Champlain's father-in-law, 66; + pays his daughter's inheritance to Champlain, 67 + +Bourdon, Jean, comes to Canada, 252; + settles at Quebec, 253 + +Bourioli at Port Royal, 25 + +Bouthillier, represents the king of France, 220; + signs the Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, 222 + +Boyer, Daniel, 122, 123 + +Brebeuf, Father Jean de, estimates the Huron population, 90; + his opinion of the tribe de l'Ours and other Hurons, 92, 93; + arrives in New France, 152; + assailed by Jacques Michel, 201, 202; + leaves for France, 207, 208; + returns to Canada, 228; + goes to the Huron country, 249 + +Brule, Etienne, with Champlain founding Quebec, 41; + sets out for the Ottawa River, 88, 139; + interpreter, 143, 144; + sent to Three Rivers, 163; + betrays Champlain, 194, 202; + his excuse, 203; + his murder, 246 + +Bullion, represents France, 220; + signs the Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, 222 + +Burel, Friar Gilbert, arrives in Canada, 152; + returns to France, 208 + +Burlamachi, appointed commissioner, 218; + sent to France by Charles I, 220, 222 + + +C + +Cabahis, Souriquois chief, 28 + +Caen, Emery de, nephew of Guillaume de Caen, 137; + vice-admiral of the fleet, 156; + leaves Quebec to carry on trade, 157; + his character, 182; + defends the colony, 183; + fights with Kirke, 184; + surrenders, 185; + proceeds to Quebec, 199; + failure of his expedition, 201; + tries to secure his goods, 219, 220; + comes back to Quebec, 226; + banqueted, 228; + summoned by Champlain, 249 + +Caen, Ezechiel de, member of the Company of Rouen, 132, 137 + +Caen, Guillaume de, member of de Caen's Company, 130, 132; + conflicts with Pont-Grave, 135; + his promises, 136; + sails for France, 138; + present at Cape de la Victoire, 139; + visits Quebec and its vicinity, 140; + sails for France, 141; + returns with the Jesuits, 152; + appears before the state council, 155; + supports the conduct of the merchants, 157; + condones a murderer, 161; + his character, 182, 183; + his claims, 217, 218, 219 + +Camaret, Marie, cousin of Champlain, 265 + +Cananee, Guillaume, navigator, 141 + +Cartier, Jacques, 13, 22, 23, 28, 29, 34, 35, 45, 52 + +Casgrain, l'Abbe, his opinion on the site of Champlain's tomb, 261, 262 + +Castillon, Jacques, one of the Hundred Associates, 168; + offers pictures to Quebec church, 240 + +Caumont, underclerk, 121 + +Champdore, carpenter, 22, 34 + +Champlain, Antoine, father of Samuel, 1 + +Champlain, Samuel, see chronological appendix, 283-6 + +Charlevoix, Father, quoted, 36, 248, 276 + +Charton, Friar Francois, 152, 208 + +Chastes, Aymar de, 7; + viceroy of Canada, 8, 9 + +Chateauneuf, M. de, French ambassador in England, 211; + retires from his position, 214; + exchanges documents with Fontenay-Mareuil, 216 + +Chauvin, Pierre, Sieur de la Pierre, at Tadousac, 54; + trades in peltry, 63 + +Chauvin, Pierre de, Sieur de Tontuit, viceroy of Canada, 8, 13, 17, 41, 54 + +Cheffault, lawyer of Paris, 244 + +Chenu, Marcel, merchant of Paris, 66 + +Cherououny, Montagnais chief, 163 + +Choquillot, notary, 66 + +Chou, Iuan, Indian friend of Champlain, 181 + +Clifford, Sir George, 3 + +Cloutier, Zacharie, comes with Giffard, 252 + +Cochon, Thomas, merchant, 122 + +Collier, 56 + +Conde, Prince de, viceroy of Canada, 73; + gives a passport to Captain Maisonneuve, 78; + letter from Champlain, 79; + contributes to the Recollet fund, 117; + conspires against the Queen Regent, 122; + discharged from prison, 129 + +Coton, Father, a Jesuit, 151, 152 + +Couillard, Elizabeth, a daughter of Guillaume, 225 + +Couillard, Guillaume, signs the settlers' memorandum, 136; + arrives in Canada, 145; + his family, 146, 184, 195, 196, 208; + native of St. Malo, 250 + +Couillard, Henry, captain of the _Don de Dieu_, 39 + +Couillard, Jacques, interpreter, 144; + submits to Kirke, 185 + +Cramoisy, Sebastien, one of the Hundred Associates, 171 + + +D + +Dablon, Simon, one of the Hundred Associates, 168 + +Daniel, Captain, destroys an English fort at Cape Breton, 200, 212 + +Daniel, Doctor, sent to London, 212, 213 + +Daniel, Father, director of the Seminary of Notre Dame des Anges, 231, 237 + +Darache, Captain, trades furs at Tadousac, 40 + +Darontal, chief of the tribe de la Roche, 103; + Champlain's friend, 106 + +Davost, Father, missionary at Cape Breton, 237 + +Denys, Charles, settles on the shores of Miramichi River, 237 + +Denys, Nicholas, founds Fort St. Pierre, 236 + +Deschamps, surgeon, performs an autopsy at Port Royal, 33 + +Des Marets, Claude Godet, note on his family, 47, 60; + accompanies Champlain's expedition against the Iroquois, 52; + arrives from France, 63; + present at Cape de la Victoire, 139; + Pont-Grave's grandson, 181 + +Desportes, Helene, 146, 208 + +Desportes, Pierre, 136, 145, 146, 181, 196, 208 + +Destouches, Eustache Boulle's lieutenant, 155, 209 + +Dollebeau, Father, perishes at sea, 235 + +Dolu, intendant of New France, 130, 131, 132, 135 + +Doughty, A.G., quoted, 168 + +Duchesne, Adrien, surgeon, 145, 146, 147, 196, 208 + +Duchesne, Captain, 139 + +Duchesne, David, one of the Hundred Associates, 168 + +Du Marche, Father, at Miscou, 234 + +Dumay, Captain, 133, 134 + +Dumoulin, shot by an Indian, 164 + +_Du Parc, Jean Godet_, his family, 47, 60; + commands at Quebec, 64, 68 + +Du Plessis, Friar Pacifique, 85, 117 + +Duplessis-Bochart, presents pictures to Quebec church, 240; + receives the keys of the fort, 249 + +_Duval, Jean_, at Quebec when founded, 41; + leads a conspiracy against Champlain, 42; + sentenced to death, 43 + +Du Vernet, interpreter, 144 + + +E + +Effiat, duke d', heads the list of the Hundred Associates, 170 + +Endemare, Father d', at Cape Breton, 237 + +Eon, Pierre, member of the Company of St. Malo and Rouen, 122 + + +F + +Faillon, quoted, 207 + +Feret, 7 + +Fontenay-Mareuil, French ambassador in England, 214; + exchanges documents with Chateauneuf, 216 + +_Foucher, Jean_, at Cape Tourmente, 176, 208 + +Franchise, Sieur de la, 14 + +Fremin, Father, at the Richibucto mission, 235 + + +G + +Gaillon, Michel, put to death, 43, 44 + +Galleran, Father G., 149 + +Gamache, Marquis de, contributes to the foundation + of the Jesuits' College, 228 + +Gand, see Re + +Garnier de Chapouin, provincial of the Recollets, 85 + +Gates, Sir Thomas, his letters patent, 223 + +Gaufestre, Friar Jean, 209 + +Genestou, at Port Royal, 25 + +Gesvres, de, 9 + +Giffard, Robert, surgeon, 164, 174; + comes to Canada, 250; + receives lands, 251, 252 + +Godefroy, Jean-Paul, interpreter, 144 + +Godefroy, Thomas, interpreter, 144 + +Gomara, Lopez de, 6 + +Gondoin, Father N., missionary at Miscou, 234 + +Goudon, Elizabeth, Gervase Kirke's wife, 173 + +Grave, Francois, grandson of Pont-Grave, 47 + +Grave, Francois, Sieur du Pont, accompanies Champlain to Tadousac, 8; + comes to Canada in 1603, 9; + proceeds to Sault St. Louis, 13; + Champlain awaits him at Port au Mouton, 19; + at Ste. Croix, 32; + returns to France, 33; + at Tadousac, 40; + one of the jury to judge Duval, 43; + sails for France in 1608, 45; + arrives at Tadousac, 1609, 47; + commands the habitation of Quebec, 48; + his promise to Anadabijou, 51; + returns to France, 54; + receives the command of a fur trading vessel, 56, 57; + trades in peltry, 63; + sails for France, 64; + returns to Canada, 106; + trades at Three Rivers, 121; + Champlain's rival, 125; + represents the old company, 133; + arrives at Quebec, 134; + his conflict with Guillaume de Caen, 135; + chief clerk at Quebec, 138; + at Cape de la Victoire, 139; + sails for France, 141; + his illness, 156; + Champlain reads publicly his commission, 181, 182; + signs articles of capitulation, 191; + leaves for Tadousac, 196 + +Grave, Jeanne, 47 + +Grave, Robert, son of Francois, accompanies Champlain + on a voyage of discovery along the American coast, 34 + +Grave, Vincent, merchant of Rouen, 122 + +Groux, J., signs a memorandum, 136 + +Gua, Pierre du, Sieur de Monts, see Monts + +Guers, J.B., delegate of the Duke of Montmorency, 121, 133, 134, 136; + returns to France, 141 + +Guilbault, merchant of La Rochelle, 236 + +Guines, Friar Modeste, 115 + +Guyon, Jean, mason, comes from Perche, 252 + + +H + +Halard, Jacques, captain, 136 + +Hebert, Anne, 117 + +Hebert, Guillaume, 146, 208 + +Hebert, Guillemette, 146, 208 + +Hebert, Louis, comes to Quebec with family, 111, 112; + signs a memorandum, 136; + his family, 146; + at Port Royal, 147; + his death, 148, 250, 251 + +Hebert, Louise, 146 + +Hebert, Madame, see Rollet, Marie + +Hersault, Jacques, comptroller of customs at La Rochelle, 265 + +Hertel, Jacques, interpreter, 144 + +Herve, Francois, merchant of Rouen, 132 + +Honabetha, Indian chief, 30 + +Houeel, Louis, Sieur de Petit-Pre, enters into Champlain's views, 83; + one of the Hundred Associates, 168, 170 + +Hubou, Guillaume, 181, 196, 208 + +Huet, Father Paul, arrives in Canada, 87; + constructs a chapel at Tadousac, 112 + + +I + +Incarnation, Sister Marie de l', 253, 258 + +Insterlo, Mathieu d', one of the Company of Rouen, 122, 127 + +Iroquet, Indian chief, 48 + + +J + +Jacques, a Slavonian miner, 32 + +Jamet, Father Denis, arrives in Canada and celebrates + the first mass, 85, 107; + goes to France, 111, 112; + signs a memorandum, 136 + +Jeannin, President, 72 + +Jogues, Father Isaac, 207 + +Jonquest, Etienne, Hebert's son-in-law, his death, 117; + arrives in 1617, 145 + +Joubert, Captain, 141 + +Juchereau, Jean, comes with Giffard, 252 + + +K + +Kirke, David, intends to make an assault on Quebec, 173; + appointed captain of the fleet, 176; + writes to Champlain, 177, 178; + captures French barques, 179; + abandons Quebec, 180; + accepts articles of capitulation, 192; + visits Quebec, 204; + at Tadousac, 205; + his pretentions as to de Caen's claims, 217; + refuses to pay, 218; + dissatisfied with the agreement, 219 + +Kirke, Gervase, chief of the Kirke family, 173 + +Kirke, James, son of Gervase, 173 + +Kirke, John, son of Gervase, 173 + +Kirke, Louis, resides in Fort St. Louis, 158; + writes to Champlain, 188; + interviews Father de la Roche, 189, 190; + his answer to Champlain, 191, 192; + receives the keys of the fort, 195; + hoists the English flag, 196; + treats Champlain well, 199; + his conduct towards the Jesuits, 205 + +Kirke, Thomas, signs a letter to Champlain, 188; + takes part in an interview with Father de la Roche, 189; + signs the answer to Champlain, 192; + treats Emery de Caen as a pirate, 220 + + +L + +Lalemant, Father Charles, quoted, 87; + arrives at Quebec, 152; + his letter to the Provincial of the Recollets, 154; + comes back to Quebec, 200; + abandons Canada, 227; + teacher, 229; + parish priest, 238, 239 + +Lalemant, Father Jerome, 10 + +Lamontagne, interpreter, 144 + +La Motte, at Port Royal, 25 + +L'Ange, Captain, 78 + +Langlois, Francoise, 146, 208 + +Langlois, Marguerite, 146, 208 + +Langlois, Noel, 252 + +Langoissieux, Pierre, takes the monastic habit, 149; + returns to France, 209 + +La Place, Father de, at Miscou, 234 + +La Roche d'Aillon, Father, arrives at Quebec, 152; + interviews Louis Kirke, 188, 189; + relates his interview, 190; + returns to France, 208 + +La Routte, pilot, 52 + +La Taille, at Quebec when founded, 41 + +Lattaignant, Gabriel de, one of the Hundred Associates, 168, 170 + +Lauzon, Jean de, 170, 226 + +Laval, Bishop, 237, 253 + +Lavalette, a Basque, 59, 60 + +La Vallee, godfather of young Hurons, 233 + +Laverdiere, antiquarian, 261, 275 + +Le Baillif, underclerk at Tadousac, 138; + arrives in 1623, 144; + takes charge of the storehouse, 195; + betrays Champlain, 202; + his bad character, 204; + remains in Canada, 208 + +Le Baillif, Father George, his Relation of 1633, 87; + confers with Champlain, 133; + goes to Tadousac, 134; + his mission in France, 136; + returns to Quebec, 137 + +Le Borgne, E., takes Fort St. Pierre, 236 + +Le Caron, Father Joseph, appointed for Canadian missions, 85; + proceeds to the Huron country, 88; + returns from the Petuneux, 104; + receives a visit from Champlain, 106; + returns to Quebec, 107; + goes to France, 111, 115; + goes to Tadousac, 116; + his mission at Three Rivers, 117; + signs a memorandum, 136; + goes to the Huron country, 149; + consults with Champlain, 187; + leaves for France, 208 + +Le Clercq, Father C., quoted, 112, 258 + +Le Faucheur, a Parisian, 174 + +Legendre, Lucas, merchant of Rouen, 56, 57, 122, 127 + +Le Jeune, Father, his Relation of 1633, 87; + says mass in Hebert's house, 148; + writes to his Provincial, 230, 231, 239; + informs Madame Champlain that she is free to follow her own desires, 264 + +Lemaistre, Simon, one of the Hundred Associates, 170 + +Lemoyne, Father Simon, 208 + +Le Roy, Marguerite, Champlain's mother, 1 + +Lesage, Marguerite, Pivert's wife, 146, 208 + +Lesaige, Francois, attends when Champlain's marriage + settlements are made, 66 + +Lesaige, Genevieve, attends when Champlain's marriage + settlements are made, 66 + +Lescarbot, Marc, 20, 21, 25, 35; + composes a drama, 36; + poet and preacher, 37; + returns to France, 38 + +Le Sire, clerk, 138 + +Lesseps, Ferdinand de, 6 + +Le Tardif, Olivier, signs a memorandum, 136; + interpreter, 144, 208 + +Le Testu, Captain, arrives at Quebec, 42; + entertainment on board of his barque, 43 + +L'Huillier, Raoul, one of the Hundred Associates, 170 + +Linschot, quoted, 211 + +Loquin, clerk, 121, 139 + +Lormel, Captain de, 252 + +Lumagne, merchant, 221 + +Lyonne, Father de, at Nipisiguit, 235 + + +M + +Magnan, Pierre, joins an embassy to the Five Nations, 163; + murdered, 164 + +Mahicanaticouche, chief of the Montagnais, 139, 163; + murderer of two Frenchmen, 164, 165 + +Maisonneuve, captain, 78, 79 + +Malot, Friar Louis, drowned at sea, 200 + +Manet, Jean, interpreter, 144 + +Manitougatche, Indian chief, 187 + +Marchim, Indian chief, 34 + +Mariana, Father, 153 + +Marion, Nicholas, captain, 40 + +Marsolet, Nicholas, present at Quebec in 1608, 41, 143; + interpreter, 144; + betrays Champlain, 194, 202; + his character, 203, 204, 205; + remains at Quebec, 208 + +Martin, Abraham, 145, 146, 147, 196, 208 + +Martin, Anne, 146 + +Martin, Charles Amador, priest, 146 + +Martin, Sir Henry, commissioner, 214 + +Martin, Marguerite, 146 + +Martin, Nicholas, commands the _Jonas_, 37 + +Marye, Anthoine, 66 + +Masse, Father E., arrives in Canada, 152; + objects to the profanation of a chalice, 206; + returns to France, 207, 208, 227; + comes back, 228 + +May, Sir Humphrey, commissioner, 214 + +Membertou, _sagamo_ of the Souriquois, 36 + +Messamouet, captain of the Souriquois, 22, 34 + +Michel, Jacques, insults Father de Brebeuf, 201; + his lamented death, 202 + +Miristou, Montagnais, 159 + +Mohier, Friar Gervais, 208 + +Montmagny, Governor, 158 + +Montmorency, Charles de, admiral of France, 14; + succeeds Conde as viceroy of New France, 129; + his administration, 130; + letter to Champlain, 130, 131; + his gift to Guillaume de Caen, 140; + meets Champlain at St. Germain-en-Laye, 150; + resigns his position of viceroy, 151; + put to death, 215 + +Monts, Pierre du Gua, Sieur de, lieutenant-general in Acadia, 17; + forms a company of merchants, 18; + his expedition to America, 19, 20; + his settlement at Ste. Croix, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25; + decides to seek a more suitable place, 26; + explores the southern country, 29; + the river Gua, 30; + determines to try Port Royal as a settlement, 31; + returns to France, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36; + obtains a new commission, 39, 40; + meets Champlain at Fontainebleau, 55; + his commission expiring, requests a new one, 56; + meets Champlain, 57; + attends when Champlain's marriage settlements are made, 66; + his interviews with Champlain, 67, 70; + holds a conference with the merchants of Rouen, 71; + bound to colonize New France with Catholic settlers, 86 + +Moreau, quoted, 25 + +Morel, Captain, 112 + +Motin, his ode to Champlain, 72 + +Murad, Anthoine de, 66 + + +N + +Napagabiscou, Indian chief, 176 + +Natel, Antoine, at Quebec in 1608, 41; + acquaints Captain Le Testu with the details of Duval's plot, 43; + dies from scurvy, 46 + +Nesle, Captain de, 252 + +Nicholas, signs a memorandum, 136 + +Nicolet, Jean, interpreter, 144 + +Noel, Pierre, 66 + +Nouee, Father Anne de, 207, 208, 227 + +Nouveau, Arnould de, merchant of Rouen, 132 + +Noyrot, Father, 168, 177, 178, 200, 227 + + +O + +Ochateguin, Indian chief, 48; + his alliance with Champlain, 55; + commands the Hurons, 69; + fights against the Iroquois, is wounded, 103 + +Olbeau, Father Jean d', arrives in Quebec, 85, 88; + visits the Bersiamites, 107; + celebrates the first jubilee, 114; + lays the first stone of the Recollet convent, 148; + sees its door closed in 1629, 167 + +Olmechin, Indian chief, 34 + +Orville, d', at Ste. Croix, 25 + +Otis, Charles Pomeroy, translates the _Voyages of Champlain_, 277 + +Ouanda Koka, Huron chief, 233 + +Orani, Huron chief wounded in 1615, 103 + +Overman, finds Champlain's astrolabe, 76 + + +P + +Palma Cayet, Victor, 15 + +Parkman, quoted, 228 + +Perrault, Father, at Cape Breton, 236, 237 + +Piat, Father I., goes to France, 141; + to the Montagnais, 149, 150 + +Pillet, Charles, murdered, 161, 163 + +Piraube, Martial, godfather of young Hurons, 233 + +Pivert, Nicholas, 144, 146, 181, 196, 208 + +Pont-Grave, see Grave, Francois, Sieur du Pont + +Poullain, Father G., comes to Canada, 87, 116; + goes to the Nipissing mission, 149 + +Poutrincourt, Jean de Biencourt, Sieur de, goes to + America with de Monts, 19; + joins Champlain on a voyage of discovery, 34; + plants a cross at Port Fortune, 35; + leaves for France, 38 + +Prevert, informs Champlain of the existence of a copper mine, 14 + +Provencal, Captain, Champlain's uncle, 2 + +Purchas, 15 + + +Q + +Quen, Father J. de, second parish priest of Quebec, 238, 239 + +Quentin, Barthelemy, one of the Hundred Associates, 170 + +Quentin, Bonaventure, 170 + +Quentin, Father Claude, superior of the Canadian missions, 234 + + +R + +Ragois, Claude le, merchant of Rouen, 132 + +Ralde, Raymond de la, 138; + goes to France, 141; + admiral of the fleet, 155; + note on his life, 156 + +Ralleau, de Monts' secretary, 33 + +Ravenel, Jehan, 66 + +Raymbault, Father, buried in Champlain's tomb, 262 + +Razilly, Isaac de, one of the Hundred Associates, 170; + ordered to assist Quebec, 200; + his commission cancelled, 201, 213 + +Re, Francois de, Sieur Gand, one of the Hundred Associates, 171; + a good Catholic, 239; + buried in Champlain's tomb, 262 + +Repentigny, godfather of young Hurons, 233 + +Reye, Pierre, signs a memorandum, 136; + traitor, 194, 202, 204, 208 + +Richard, Father A., at Richibucto and Miscou, 235 + +Richer, Jean, interpreter, 144 + +Roberval, at Charlesbourg Royal, 23 + +Robin, Guillaume, merchant of Rouen, 132 + +Robineau, Pierre, one of the Hundred Associates, 170 + +Roernan, Jehan, 66 + +Rollet, Marie, widow Hebert, 112, 146, 208 + +Roquemont, Claude de, 168; + commands a fleet for Quebec, 172; + meets English vessels, 173; + surrenders to David Kirke, 174; + his conduct criticized, 175 + +Rouer, Hercule, 66 + +Rouvier, underclerk, 121, 135 + +Rozee, Jean, one of the Hundred Associates, 170; + merchant of Rouen, 244 + +Russell, A.J., 76 + + +S + +Sagard-Theodat, Friar Recollet, at Cape de la Victoire, 139; + returns to France, 141; + goes to the Huron country, 149; + quoted, 193 + +Santein, clerk, 138 + +Satouta, Huron seminarist, 232 + +Savignon, Huron boy accepted as hostage, 63; + goes to Sault St. Louis, 68; + brother of Tregouaroti, Indian chief, 69 + +Schoudon, Indian chief, 32 + +Seguier, Bishop of Meaux, agrees to the founding of + an Ursuline convent at Meaux, 266 + +Slafter, Reverend E.B., quoted, 277, 278, 279 + +Soissons, comte de, appointed viceroy of New France, 72, 73; + his death, 73 + +Soubriago, General, 2 + +Sourin, at Ste. Croix Island, 25 + +Stuart, James, Scottish fisherman, erects a fort on Cape Breton, 200 + + +T + +Teouatirhon, Huron seminarist, 232 + +Tessoueat, chief of the Algonquins, 75, 76, 77 + +Themines, Marechal de, appointed viceroy of New France, 122, 123 + +Thierry-Desdames, appointed captain at Miscou, 121; + note on his life, 138, 173, 181, 209 + +Tregatin, Indian chief, 176 + +Tregouaroti, Huron Chief, 69 + +Troyes, Francois de, merchant of the Company of Rouen, 132 + +Trublet, Pierre, merchant of St. Malo, 122 + +Tsiko, Huron seminarist, 232, 233 + +Tuffet, Jean, merchant of Bordeaux, 170 + +Turgis, Father C., at Miscou, 234 + + +V + +Vanelly, merchant, 221 + +Vendremur, Corneille de, clerk, 204, 209 + +Ventadour, duc de, receives the commission of viceroy of New France, 151; + resigns the office, 168 + +Verazzano, 211 + +Verger, Father du, Recollet, 83 + +Vermeulle, Louis, merchant, 122, 127 + +Verton, Pierre de, merchant, 132 + +Viel, Father N., at Cape de la Victoire, 139; + goes to the Huron country, 149 + +Vieux-Pont, Father de, 200, 237 + +Vignau, Nicholas du, interpreter, 74, 75, 77, 144 + +Vigne, Captain de la, 141 + +Villemenon, intendant of admiralty, 123, 130, 132, 135 + +Vimont, Father, drowned at sea, 200, 237 + +Vitelleschi, Father, general of the Jesuits, 228 + + +W + +Wake, Sir Isaac, English ambassador to France, 215; + commissioner, 218, 219, 220; + signs the Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, 222 + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Page 27--minutes and seconds are denoted with single quotes since this +is within a quotation and a double quote could be confusing. + +Page 36--changed Dno to Duo. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Makers of Canada: Champlain, by N. 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