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diff --git a/16948-h/16948-h.htm b/16948-h/16948-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..91762e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/16948-h/16948-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4957 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> + +<title> +The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American Supplement, September 17, 1887 +</title> + +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- + body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} + img {border: 0;} + p { text-align: justify;} + h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} + ul {list-style-type: none;} + + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + hr.short {width: 25%;} + hr.long {width: 75%;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + .wider { margin-left: -10%; + margin-right: -10%; } + + .caption { + font-variant: small-caps; } + .longcaption {margin-left: 2em; + margin-right: 2em; + text-align: left; } + + .center {text-align: center; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; } + .center table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; } + + .right { text-align: right;} + .signature {font-variant: small-caps; + text-align: right;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .over {text-decoration: overline;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + .lsmall {text-align: left; + font-size: smaller;} + .emph {font-weight: bolder; + font-style: italic;} + .tdtl1 { text-align: right; + vertical-align: top;} + .tdtl2 {text-align: left } +--> +</style> +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 611, +September 17, 1887, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 611, September 17, 1887 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 26, 2005 [EBook #16948] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="wider"><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title_th.png" alt="Issue Title" /></a></p> +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 611</h1> +<h2>NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 17, 1887</h2> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIV., No. 611.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> +<hr /> + +<div class="center"> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2" align="center">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td>PAGE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdtl1">I.</td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art01">BIOGRAPHY.—The New Statue of Philip Lebon.—Biography of + the French pioneer inventor of gas lighting, with notes on + the recent inauguration of his statue.—1 illustration.</a></td><td>9757</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdtl1">II.</td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art02">CHEMISTRY.—The Analysis of Urine.—An elaborate investigation + of the method of analyzing chemically and microscopically + this fluid, with illustrations of the apparatus employed.—4 + illustrations</a></td><td>9758</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdtl1">III.</td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art03">ELECTRICITY.—Electrical Alarm for Pharmacists.—An apparatus + for indicating to the pharmacist when he removes from the + shelf a bottle containing poison.—2 illustrations.</a></td><td>9753</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art04"> Electric Steel Railways.—By <span class="smcap">George W. Mansfield.</span>—A full + discussion of the problem of electric railways; comparison with + horse and cable traction.</a></td><td>9752</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdtl1">IV.</td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art05">ENGINEERING.—Improved Oscillating Hydraulic Motor.—A + small motor for household use, as for driving sewing machines and + other domestic machinery.—8 illustrations.</a></td><td>9751</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art06"> The Ceara Harbor Works.—A remarkable engineering work now + in progress in Brazil; the formation of an artificial + harbor.—4 illustrations.</a></td><td>9752</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdtl1">V.</td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art07">GEOLOGY.—Notes of a Recent Visit to Some of the Petroleum-Producing + Territories of the United States and Canada.—By + <span class="smcap">Boverton Redwood</span>, F.I.C., F.C.S.—The second portion of this + valuable paper, treating more particularly of Canadian + petroleum.</a></td><td>9765</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdtl1">VI.</td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art08">METEOROLOGY.—The "Meteorologiske Institut" at Upsala, + and Cloud Measurements.—The methods used and results attained + in the famous Upsala observatory under Profs. Ekholm and + Hagström; the measurement of clouds.—1 illustration.</a></td><td>9764</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdtl1">VII.</td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art09">MISCELLANEOUS.—Drawing Instrument for Accurate Work.—By + <span class="smcap">J. Lehrke.</span>—A magnifying instrument for fine work and + measurements.—2 illustrations.</a></td><td>9754</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art10"> Liquid and Gaseous Rings.—Notes on the production of vortex + rings.—The different aspects and breaking up of smoke rings.—6 + illustrations.</a></td><td>9760</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art11"> Scenes among the Extinct Volcanoes of Rhineland.—The picturesque + features of the geological formations of this region described.—10 + illustrations.</a></td><td>9762</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art12"> Shall We Have a National Horse?—An eloquent plea by <span class="smcap">Randolph + Huntington</span> for the production of a good type of animal.—Use + of the Arabian horse as an improver of the breed.</a></td><td>9760</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdtl1">VIII.</td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art13">NAVAL ENGINEERING.—Trial Trip of the Ohio.—The remarkable + results attained by the introduction of new boilers and + machinery in an American steamship.</a></td><td>9751</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdtl1">IX.</td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art14">PHYSIOLOGY.—Apparatus for Determining Mechanically the + Reaction Period of Hearing.—An interesting study of the time of + transmission of an impulse through the sensor and motor nerves.—1 + illustration.</a></td><td>9753</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdtl1">X.</td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art15">SANITATION.—A New Disinfector.—Description of a new apparatus + for disinfecting by superheated steam and air, with tabular + statement of elaborate tests made with it.—2 + illustrations.</a></td><td>9754</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art16"> Trees from a Sanitary Aspect.—By <span class="smcap">Charles Roberts</span>, F.R.C.S., + etc.—The sanitary value of trees considered by this eminent + sanitarian.—The uses and abuses of shade near houses.</a></td><td>9765</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdtl1">XI.</td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art17">TECHNOLOGY.—A New Alkali Process.—The Parnell & Simpson + process of making carbonate of soda, combining the features of + the Leblanc and ammonia methods.</a></td><td>9755</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art18"> A New Process for the Distillation and Concentration of Chemical + Liquids.—By <span class="smcap">George Anderson</span>, of London.—An apparatus + and process especially adapted to the manufacture of sulphate of + ammonia.—The invention of Alex. Angus Croll described.—1 + illustration.</a></td><td>9757</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art19"> Barlow's Machine for Moulding Candles.—A new apparatus for + candle manufacture, fully described and illustrated.—5 + illustrations.</a></td><td>9754</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art20"> Temperature of Gas Distillation.—The mooted question discussed + by Mr. <span class="smcap">Wm. Foulis</span>, the eminent gas engineer.</a></td><td>9756</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="tdtl2"><a href="#art21"> The Largest Black Ash Furnace in the World.—Note of a recent + furnace for use in the Leblanc process of soda manufacture.</a></td><td>9756</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<hr /> + + +<h2><a name="art05" id="art05"></a><a name="Page_9751" id="Page_9751"></a>IMPROVED OSCILLATING HYDRAULIC MOTOR.</h2> + +<p>The motor of MM. Schaltenbrand & Moller is adapted for use for +household purposes, where small power is required, as in driving +sewing machines.</p> + +<p>Fig. 1 shows the motor with all its parts in side elevation, the +flywheel and head rest being in section. Fig. 2 is a side view, with +the air reservoir and distribution valve in section through the line +1-2. Figs. 3 and 4 represent the same apparatus, but without support, +as where it is to be used on the table of a sewing machine, with the +crank of the motor directly fastened to the flywheel of the sewing +machine. Fig. 5 is a plan or horizontal section at the level of the +line 3-4, and Fig. 6 is a section passing through the same line, but +only including the cylinder and axis of the distributing valve. Fig. 7 +is a horizontal section of the button of the cock through the line 5-6 +of Fig. 3. Finally, Fig. 8 shows in detail, plan, and elevation the +arrangement of the starting valve.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/1.png"><img src="./images/1_th.png" width="362" height="450" alt="Figs. 1 through 8 IMPROVED OSCILLATING HYDRAULIC MOTOR." title="Figs 1 -8" /></a> +<span class="caption"><br />Figs. 1 through 8<br />IMPROVED OSCILLATING HYDRAULIC MOTOR.</span> +</div> + +<p>This little motor does not show any new principle. It uses the old +oscillating cylinder, but it embraces in its construction ingenious +details which render its application very simple and very easy, +especially, as we have already said, to sewing machines.</p> + +<p>In the first place, the oscillating bronze cylinder, A, is cast in one +piece with the distribution cock, <i>a</i>, Fig. 3, and its seat, <i>b</i>, also +of bronze, is adjusted and fastened by means of the screw, <i>b</i>, to the +air reservoir, C', cast with its cistern, C, acting as foundation or +bed plate for the motor. This cistern is held either on the base of +the cast iron bearing frame, D, of the main shaft, <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>, Figs. 1 +and 2, or directly on the sewing machine table, Figs. 3 and 4, by +means of two pins, <i>e</i> and <i>e'</i>, so that it can oscillate about an +axis which is perpendicular to the shaft, <i>d</i>, to which is attached +the disk, F, carrying the crank.</p> + +<p>This arrangement of parts, in combination with the horizontal axis of +the distribution valve and with the piston rod, <i>g</i>, considered as a +vertical axis of rotation, forms a species of universal joint between +the crank pin and the table, so that it can be put in place without +adjustment by any workman, who only has to screw up the two screws, +<i>h</i>, to fasten to the table the standard, E, and the piece, E', in +which are screwed the pivots, <i>e</i> and <i>e'</i>, which support the tank, +and this all the rest of the motor.</p> + +<p>As is seen more clearly in Fig. 2, the water under pressure enters by +the pipe, <i>c</i>, to which is attached a small tube of India rubber, and +leaves by the pipe, <i>c'</i>, and is carried away by another India rubber +tube.</p> + +<p>The openings of the distribution cock are symmetrically pierced in the +seat and plug, which latter is divided internally by a horizontal +diaphragm so arranged that at each oscillation communication is +established alternately above and below the piston. So that it can be +started or stopped quickly, the opening and closing of the throttle +valve, <i>i</i> (Fig. 2), is effected by a single pulling movement upon the +handle, I, and this draws out the valve horizontally. For this end the +lever is pivoted upon the extremity of the valve stem, and ends in a +bar engaging with a fork which acts as its fulcrum. This fork is cast +in one piece with the plug, J, which closes the opening through which +the valve is put in place, as shown in detail in Fig. 8. To prevent +the lever from spinning out of the fork when it is pulled or pushed, +this lever is prevented from turning by the valve stem, provided for +this purpose with a double rib, <i>i'</i> (Figs. 2 and 8), which engages in +slots in one piece, <i>j</i>, secured in the interior of the plug, J.</p> + +<p>Lest the friction of the conical distribution valve oscillating with +the cylinder should occasion a loss of power, care is taken to leave +the key free in its seat, <i>b</i>, by not forcing the pivot, <i>k</i> (Figs. 1, +3, and 5), whose position in its seat is regulated by the screw, <i>k'</i>. +It follows that a very slight escape of water may be produced, but +that does no harm, as it is caught in the reservoir, C, provided with +a little pipe, K (Figs. 1 and 3), to carry it away.</p> + +<p>To maintain proper relations between the pressure of the water, or the +work it is called upon to do, and the motor, the quantity of water +introduced into the cylinder at each stroke of the piston is regulated +by adjusting the length of stroke by the crank pin. For this end the +course of the latter is made variable by means of the piece, <i>f</i>, +adjusted by set-screw in the interior of the disk, F (Figs. 3 and 7), +and tapped for the reception of a screw terminated by a milled button, +<i>f</i>. If this button is turned, it moves the piece, <i>f</i>, and therefore +regulates the distance of the crank pin, <i>g'</i>, to which the piston +rod, <i>g</i>, is attached (Fig. 3) from the center of rotation.</p> + +<p>When the motor is arranged as shown in Figs. 1 and 2, or for the +transmission of motion by means of a band wheel, <i>p</i>, cast in one with +the flywheel, P, the disk which receives the crank pin of variable +position is fixed directly upon the axle, <i>d</i>, of the same flywheel +carried by the support, D; but when the motor can be applied directly, +as is the case for example in the Singer sewing machine, upon the axle +of the machine, no support is used, and the arrangement shown in Figs. +3 and 4 is adopted. In this case the disk, F', is cast with three arms +which serve, by means of a screw, to fasten it to the flywheel carried +by the axle of the sewing machine.</p> + +<p>When the motor is used on the upper stories of buildings, the changes +of speed incidental to drawing the water from the lower stories from +the same pipe can be compensated by the use of an accumulator. This +accessory apparatus is composed of a reservoir of a capacity of 10 +liters or more, intercalated in the pipe which supplies the motor, so +that the water coming from the principal pipe enters the bottom of +this reservoir, passing through an India rubber valve opening inward, +the supply for the motor coming through a tube always open and placed +above this valve. The air trapped in the accumulator is compressed by +the water, and when the pressure in the pipe decreases, the valve +closes and the compressed air drives the water through the motor with +decreasing pressure until normal pressure is re-established in the +pipes.—<i>Publication Industrielle.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art13" id="art13"></a>TRIAL TRIP OF THE OHIO.</h2> + +<p>Some important trials of the new machinery of the screw steamer Ohio, +belonging to the International Navigation Company, have recently taken +place on the Clyde. The Ohio is an American built steamer measuring +343 ft. by 43 ft. by 34 ft. 6 in., and of 3,325 tons gross. She has +been entirely refitted with new engines and boilers by Messrs. James +Howden & Co., Glasgow, who also rearranged the bunker, machinery, and +hold spaces, so as to give the important advantage of increased cargo +accommodation obtainable from the use of their improved machinery, +which occupies considerably less space than the engines and boilers of +the same power which have been replaced. The new engines are of the +triple expansion type, and the boilers, which are designed for +supplying steam of 150 lb. pressure, are worked on Howden's system of +forced draught, which combines increased power with high economy in +fuel. The object of the owners in refitting the Ohio was to test the +capability and economy of this system of forced draught on a +sufficient scale to guide them in dealing with steamships of the +largest class and great power.</p> + +<p>In the refit of the Ohio the boilers were designed to work with a very +moderate air pressure, this being sufficient for the power required by +the contract. The combined power and economy, however, guaranteed by +Messrs. Howden & Co. for the use of their system of forced draught was +higher than has hitherto been attempted in any steamship, and +sufficient, if attained, to prove the large reduction that could +safely be made in the number and size of boilers for the use of the +system, and the quantity of coal required to produce a given power. +The contract for the refit of the steamer required that 2,100 +indicated horse power (which was the maximum power of the engines +removed) should be maintained during the trial on a consumption of +1.25 lb. of coal per indicated horse power per hour. Originally the +boilers of the Ohio, from which this power was produced, were three in +number, double ended, 12 ft. 6 in. in diameter by 17 ft. 6 in. in +length, having each six furnaces 3 ft. in diameter, or eighteen +furnaces in all, with an aggregate fire grate area of 300 square feet. +The new boilers, fitted with the forced draught, are likewise three in +number, but single ended, 13 ft. in diameter by 11 ft. 2 in. in +length, having each three furnaces 3 ft. 3 in. in diameter, or nine +furnaces in all, with an aggregate fire grate area of 112 square feet. +Air for combustion is supplied to the boilers by one of Messrs. W.H. +Allen & Co.'s fans, 5 ft. 6 in. in diameter, driven direct by an +engine having a cylinder 7 in. in diameter with stroke of 4 in. The +boilers removed had two stoke holds across the ship, one fore and one +aft of the boilers, while the new boilers have only one stoke hold on +the after side. The engines removed have cylinders 57 in. and 90 in. +in diameter by 48 in. stroke, while the new engines have three +cylinders 31 in., 46 in., and 72 in. in diameter respectively, with +piston stroke of 51 in.</p> + +<p>During the trials the coals were weighed out under the supervision of +the officers of the company, who also took the record of speed and +other data. After running down Channel for a considerable time, the +trial on the coals weighed out began, and lasted 4 hours 10 minutes, +during which time 10,885 lb. of Welsh coal were burned, the trial +ending with the same revolutions of engines and the same pressure in +boilers with <a name="Page_9752" id="Page_9752"></a>which it began. The mean indicated horse power, +calculated from the mean of seven sets of indicator cards, taken +during the trial, and the mean revolutions per minute, found by +dividing the total revolutions recorded on the engine counter by the +minutes in the period of the trial, amounted to 2,124, thus making the +consumption 1.23 lb. per indicated horse power per hour, and the power +per square foot of fire grate almost exactly 19 indicated horse power. +While testing the indicated horse power and consumption of coal, the +steamer ran to and fro between the Cloch and Cumbrae lights, and also +made several runs on the measured mile at Skelmorlie, from which the +mean speed of the vessel was found to be 14.12 knots per hour. The +remarkably high results obtained were most satisfactory to the +representatives of the owners, and a large party of experts on board +congratulated Mr. Howden on the successful fulfillment of the onerous +guarantees undertaken.—<i>Engineering.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art06" id="art06"></a>THE CEARA HARBOR WORKS.</h2> + +<p>The works illustrated by the engravings are now being constructed +under a concession from the imperial government of Brazil. The +province of Ceara has an area of about 50,000 square miles, and is one +of the richest in Brazil. Its produce comprises sugar, coffee, cocoa, +cotton, tobacco, spices, fruit, cabinet and dye woods, India rubber, +etc. Its population at the last census, taken in 1877, amounted to +952,624 inhabitants, that of the capital, the city and port of Ceara, +being about 40,000. Although Ceara is the principal seaport at which +lines of English, French, American, Brazilian, and other steamers +regularly call, prior to the commencement of the harbor improvements +it was almost an open roadstead, passengers and goods having to be +conveyed by lighters and boats between vessels and the shore. The +official statistics of the trade and shipping of the port show that an +income of £35,750 per annum will be collected by the Ceara harbor +corporation from the dues which they are authorized by their +concession to charge on all imports and exports and on the vessels +using the port and from the rent of the bonded warehouses.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/2_th.png" width="454" height="400" alt="NEW HARBOR WORKS, CEARA, BRAZIL." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />NEW HARBOR WORKS, CEARA, BRAZIL.</span> +</div> + +<p>The drawings given here show the nature of the works, which are of a +simple character. The depth of water along the principal quay, which +is being constructed of solid concrete, and is connected with the +shore by an iron and steel viaduct over 750 ft. in length—which is +already completed—will be 19 ft. at low water and 25 ft. at high. +This quay and breakwater is shown in perspective, in plan, and in +section, and is of a very heavy section, as will be gathered by the +scale given immediately below it. Meanwhile the landing of cargo is +temporarily carried on at the end of the viaduct, which at high tide +has a depth of about 20 ft. of water. The custom house and bonded +warehouses are being built of the fine granite obtained at the Monguba +quarries, which adjoin the Baturite railway, about sixteen miles from +the port. A new incline has also been constructed from the rail way +down to the port. The line has been laid along the viaduct, and will +be extended over the quays as soon as they are completed. The +concrete, of which a large quantity is being used, is mixed by Carey & +Latham's patent mixers, and the contractors have supplied the very +large and complete plant for carrying out the operations.</p> + +<p>The engineer to the corporation is Mr. R.E. Wilson, M. Inst. C.E., +Westminster, and his resident at Ceara is Mr. R.T.H. Saunders, M. +Inst. C.E. The contractors for the work are Messrs. Punchard, +McTaggart & Co., their representative at Ceara being Mr. George +Wilson, M. Inst. C.E.<i>—The Engineer.</i></p> +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art04" id="art04"></a>ELECTRIC STREET RAILROADS.</h2> + +<h3>By GEORGE W. MANSFIELD.</h3> + +<p>Why should we prefer electricity as the propelling agent of our street +cars over all other known methods? I answer, without hesitation, +because it is the best, and being the best is the cheapest. Briefly I +will present the grounds upon which I take my stand.</p> + +<p>To-day the only methods for tramway service are three in number: +Horses, with a history of fifty years and over; cables, with a history +of fifteen years; and electricity, with a history of two years. I give +the latter two years on the basis of the oldest electric street +railroad in existence to-day, and that is the Baltimore railroad, +equipped with the Daft system.</p> + +<p>The main points for consideration common to each are six in number:</p> + + +<ul> +<li>1st. Obtaining of franchise.</li> +<li>2d. Construction of buildings, viz., engine house or stable.</li> +<li>3d. Equipment—rolling stock, horses, engines and dynamos.</li> +<li>4th. Construction of tramway.</li> +<li>5th. Cost of operation.</li> +<li>6th. Individual characteristics and advantages.</li> +</ul> + + +<p>Each of these requires a paper by itself, but in as concise a way as +possible, presenting only the salient reasons and figures, I shall +endeavor to embody it in one.</p> + +<p>1st. Obtaining of franchise.</p> + +<p>I assume the municipal officers and the promoters honest men.</p> + +<p>It is the universal settled conviction that a street car propelled +with certainty and promptness by mechanical means is infinitely to be +preferred to horses. Hence, if this guarantee can be given, there need +be no fear from the other side of the house. Years of experience prove +that this guarantee can be given.</p> + +<p>The mechanical methods are electricity and the cable. To suit local +conditions the former has three general applications—overhead, +underground, and accumulator systems; while the latter has but one, +the underground. Hence, the former, electricity, has three chances to +the latter's one to meet the whims, opinions, or decisions of +municipal authorities. Other advantages accruing from mechanical +methods are cleaner streets, absence of noise, quick time, no +blockades, no stables accumulating filth and breeding pestilence, and +lastly the great moral sympathetic feeling for man's most faithful and +valuable servant, the horse. These all are directly in favor of +obtaining the right franchise.</p> + +<p>The three general ways of obtaining the same are a definite payment of +cash to the authorities, a guarantee of an annual payment of a certain +per cent. of the earnings, and lastly a combination of the two. For +the city or town the latter way is the safest, and the best, all +things considered. As electricity is mechanical, and as it can be +shown that it is the cheapest to construct and most economical, and +has three chances to operate, it stands by far the most likely to +obtain the franchise.</p> + +<p>2d. Construction of buildings.</p> + +<p>The governing factors under this head are the local land valuation and +tax. The system necessitating a spread eagle policy on the land +question will cost. What could be a more perfect illustration than the +horse railroad system? The motive power of the New York Central +Railroad between New York and Albany could be comfortably stowed in +the barns of some of the New York City street railways. What a +contrast! The real estate, buildings, and fixtures of the Third Ave. +line are valued at $1,524,000, and what buildings! Cattle sheds in the +metropolis of America. Surely they did not cost a tithe of this great +sum. What did? The land, a whole block and more. Henry George +advocates might find food for thought here. All this is true of the +other lines in every city in the Union. Enormous expenditures for +land. A good one half of their capital sunk in purchasing the +necessary room. Go where you will, a good fifty per cent. of the +capital is used for land for their stables. This obviously does not +include equipment.</p> + +<p>How is it with mechanical systems? The land is one of the minor +considerations, the last thing considered. Let us look at some +figures. From careful examination of many engine plants, considering +the ratio between a certain number of horses with their necessary +adjuncts and a steam plant of numerically equal power, I find it +stands as 1 to 30. That is, a steam plant complete of 30 horse power +capacity would need only one thirtieth the floor space of thirty +horses. With larger powers this ratio is still greater, and from one +estimate I found that it stood as 1 to 108, i.e., for horses I should +have to have 108 times more floor space than for an equal number of +mechanical horse power. It must be remembered also that the mechanical +horse power is 50 per cent. greater than the best animal horsepower.</p> + +<p>From one maker, taking the engine alone, I found that a rated 100 +horse power engine, guaranteed in every particular, would have ample +room in the stall for one horse in the average stable. Another +instance showed that I could get a steam plant complete, engine, +boiler, etc., of 50 horse power, in a space 5 by 6 feet, which is +smaller than the average stall. Here is shown the enormous saving in +land purchase.</p> + +<p>For car room a building several stories high would answer perfectly, +since quick-hoisting elevators could be put in and the tracks on each +floor have wire connections with the dynamos, so that the cars could +be run across the floor to where you please, facilitating storage and +dispensing with handling. This would not be possible with the cable.</p> + +<p>Comparing electricity and cable on this point, all things favor the +former clearly and beyond all question. Furthermore, if locality so +favored, the subject of land purchase for electricity could be tabooed +entirely, since distance can be so readily overcome. Way out in the +suburbs or back in the country by the side of some waterfall, your +station might be, while the current is sent to the great city over +heavy conductors. Here land rent or tax would be at the minimum. With +horses or cable plainly proximity must be had. It is estimated that +the land occupied by the Madison Avenue line of New York City is worth +the cost of 40 miles of ordinary double track.</p> + +<p>3d. Equipment at station and rolling stock.</p> + +<p>The rolling stock would be in each case approximately the same. +Consisting of cars of equal seating capacity, the difference of cost +would be the necessary attachments for the mechanical systems.</p> + +<ul> +<li>A first class 16 foot horse car costs $1,200;</li> +<li>A first class 16 foot cable car costs about $1,800; and</li> +<li>A first class 16 foot electric car costs about $2,200.</li> +<li>Rates: Electricity, 1; horse, 0.54; cable, 0.81.</li> +</ul> + + +<p>I believe, however, that the mechanical system is bound to work +material changes in car construction, in fact it is almost imperative. +In all probability a car with 15 to 20 per cent. greater seating +capacity than the horse car can be constructed on a different plan for +the price given for the electric car. This price, it must be noted, is +the one for attachment of motor to the present horse car. The horse +cars produced to-day are most carefully planned, thoroughly built, and +admirably adapted to their service, but the inexorable law of progress +decrees their extinction, for something better.</p> + +<p>Motive power. To represent clearly the costs, etc., of the three +systems under this head, let us assume a road. Take, if you please, a +double line 6 miles long, and operating 24 cars with speed of 6 miles +an hour, and running 20 hours out of 24. This would call for 48 horses +on the track and 192 horses in the stables, or a total of 240 horses; +at $160, counting harness, etc., this would cost $38,400.</p> + +<p>With electricity we will proceed as follows: The weight of car with 30 +passengers and motor attachments would be about 9,000 lb. It is easily +calculated that to propel the same at the specified rate on a level +would take about 1.75 horse power, a total of 42 horse power. To make +allowances for grades we can calculate that, if the entire road was +one gradient of three per cent., each car would take about 6.4 horse +power, or since only 12 are going up, a total of 76.8 horse power. It +will be fair now to take the average of these two, or 59.4 horse power +for an average road. Allowing 35 per cent. loss from engine to work +done in actually propelling car, we would have to have 91.3 horse +power. Allowing a good safety factor, it would be well to put in a 150 +horse power plant. This would cost complete $7,000; necessary dynamos, +$3,500. Among these figures should be counted cost of conductor of +sufficient size to allow of but three per cent. in energy to overcome +its resistance. This I have calculated using a potential of 600 volts; +and find that the total cost of six miles copper conductor is $16,000 +with above conditions. The total cost is now seen to be $26,500.</p> + +<p>As to cables, since the recovery of energy available for tractive +purposes is but 35 percent., then the engine of 169 horse power +represents what must be had. Allowing a generous factor of safety, let +us say that a 250 is all sufficient. This would cost complete and +erected about $12,000. The cable would cost $15.000, and gears, etc., +$8,000, making a total of $35,000.</p> + +<p>The ratio of the three systems stands: Electricity, 1; cable, 1.09; +horse, 1.45.</p> + +<p>4th. Construction of tramway.</p> + +<p>Figures upon this point must necessarily be either averages or +approximations. The nature of the locality socially, naturally, and we +grieve to say it, politically, has a strong influence upon its +construction. Estimating on single track only, a horse road would cost +as an average $9,000 per mile. With electricity we have several +methods we can avail ourselves of: Surface, costing about $10,000; +overhead double conductor, $15.696; underground, $23,500.</p> + +<p>With cable but one method, the underground, is possible. This cost is +variously estimated at from $30,000 to $110,000 per mile; however, the +latter figure is excessive. A fair average would be $35,000.</p> + +<p>The ratio of constructions could be fairly placed as follows, putting +electricity as 1, by taking the average <a name="Page_9753" id="Page_9753"></a>of the three methods at +$16,732: Horse road, 0.53; cable, 2.09.</p> + +<p>Unquestionably a great majority of roads of the past have not been +constructions of engineering, and of all places requiring care, skill, +and engineering, the street roads are the places.</p> + +<p>5th. Cost of operation.</p> + +<p>A fair figure for cost of one horse for one year is $220.</p> + +<p>For electricity, allowing 35 per cent. loss in transmission, etc., +1.54 horsepower would be the work done by engine to get 1 horse power +on the track. There are to-day plenty of steam plants producing 1 +horse power for work at from $30 to $50 per annum. Take the average, +$40. With electricity then $65 would well represent the price of +producing 1.54 horsepower.</p> + +<p>With cable these figures would hold true, but more work is required. A +greater loss is entailed. Since but 32 per cent. is recovered, the +figure for 1 horse power on the track would be 2.86 horse power. At +the above rates this would be $110 per horse power per year.</p> + +<p>Our ratio here is: Electricity, 1; cables, 1.71; horses, 3.38.</p> + +<p>This is by no means the whole of the story, for just here must we +compute the depreciation and hence repairs due to time. Let us take +the road figured on heretofore, and make three tables.</p> + +<p>In the following I have under each system taken the estimated costs, +allowed a fair per cent. for depreciation, summed up and obtained the +ratios.</p> + +<p>Any figure then like interest, etc., which would not affect ratios, I +have omitted.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="center">ELECTRICITY.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Conductors, 1 per cent.</td><td align="right">$160.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Engine and dynamos, 5 per cent.</td><td align="right">525.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Cars, 10 per cent.</td><td align="right">5,280.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Roadway, 10 per cent.</td><td align="right">2,007.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Total.</td><td align="right"><span class="over">$7,972.00</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">HORSES.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Horses and appurtenances, 20 per cent.</td><td align="right">$7,780.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Cars, 10 per cent.</td><td align="right">2,880.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Roadway, etc., 10 per cent.</td><td align="right">3,500.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Total.</td><td align="right"><span class="over">$11,740.00</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">CABLES.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Cable, 50 per cent.</td><td align="right">$7,500.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Engine and boiler, etc., 5 per cent.</td><td align="right">1,000.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Cars, 10 per cent.</td><td align="right">4,320.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Roadway, 10 per cent.</td><td align="right">3,500.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Total.</td><td align="right"><span class="over">$16,320.00</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>These totals put in ratio are as follows: Electricity, 1; cable, 2.04; +and horses, 1.47.</p> + +<p>Placing all the ratios obtained in a table, we have the following:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="center">Electricity.</td><td align="center">Horses.</td><td align="center">Cables.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Depreciation.</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="right">1.47</td><td align="right">2.04</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Operating expenses.</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="right">3.38</td><td align="right">1.71</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Construction of tramway.</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="right">0.53</td><td align="right">2.09</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Motors, cars, etc.</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="right">1.63</td><td align="right">1.21</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Cars.</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="right">0.54</td><td align="right">0.81</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Totals.</td><td align="center"><span class="over">5</span></td><td align="right"><span class="over">7.55</span></td><td align="right"><span class="over">7.86</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Average.</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="right">1.51</td><td align="right">1.57</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Now this table must stand by itself for what it represents, and no +more. It will be noted that I have not introduced the subject of men. +This would unquestionably show favorably for both electricity and +cable. Again, note, please, that this table does not represent your +profits exactly as per ratios. I have to get them operated the same +number of cars and under the same headway. Now with either electricity +or cable a higher rate of speed can be maintained with but a very +small proportionate increase of cost. This means quicker time, more +trips, and greater receipts.</p> + +<p>Evidently, as a financial investment, even if cost of maintenance and +operating is greater, the cable is to be preferred to horses.</p> + +<p>How is it with electricity? The ratios of expenses, etc., stand for +themselves, the law of speed is far simpler than with cable, bringing +even greater receipts, and again in practice the saving of coal in +proportion to work done on track day or night is immensely more +economical than with the cable. This point will be touched upon later.</p> + +<p>6th. Individual characteristics and advantages.</p> + +<p>Under this head a few of the salient features of each system will be +mentioned. As the possibilities and limitations of the horse railroad +system are, however, so well known, it is needless to go over them. I +therefore will confine myself to the electric and cable systems.</p> + +<p>With electricity single track lines, crooked streets, all descriptions +of turnouts, crossings, branches, etc., are as easy to construct and +operate as with horses. With the cable system they are either +impossible or enormously expensive.</p> + +<p>With electricity the line is not a unit, so that the complete stoppage +of the whole line is absolutely impossible. With cable it is a unit +and it is possible.</p> + +<p>With electricity the life of the conductor is infinite; with cable, +two years.</p> + +<p>With electricity, and the improvements now being made in traction +wheels, etc., the heaviest grades are as easily surmounted as with the +cable; although it is true that for grades exceptional in character, +such as 20 per cent. grades or over, I should be willing to give the +contract to cable.</p> + +<p>With electricity any speed can be attained by the individual cars. +They are absolutely independent. Lost time can be made up, etc. With +cable the cars are dependent upon speed of cable. Lost time cannot be +made up except on down grades.</p> + +<p>With electricity work done by engine is synchronous with work done on +the track at any time of the day or night, with the loss of 35 per +cent. due to the conversions in each case. In other words, for every +horse power of useful work done on track the engine does 1.54 horse +power. This ratio is constant. It makes no difference whether 1 or 100 +horse power of work is necessary on the track, the engine has but to +do 35 per cent. in excess.</p> + +<p>With cable, if 1 horse power of work is all that is required on the +track, the engine may be doing 25 horse power to get that amount there +through the gears and cable. With heavier loads this is somewhat +diminished, but about the very best figure that can be put forth is +but 35 per cent. recovery, with 65 per cent. loss—the exact converse +of electricity under heavy loads.—<i>Street Railway Journal.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art03" id="art03"></a>ELECTRICAL ALARM FOR PHARMACIES.</h2> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/3a.png" width="600" height="305" alt="Fig. 1." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />Fig. 1.</span> +</div> + +<p>To avoid the errors which sometimes occur in a pharmacy or in a +laboratory, where one bottle is taken for another, especially in the +case of those containing highly poisonous or dangerous substances, a +simple arrangement, shown in the cuts, has been proposed. The +apparatus, in principle, is a species of electrical alarm, in circuit +with an ordinary house telegraph line. It consists essentially, as +shown in Fig. 1, of a battery, bell, and pedestal, provided with an +electric contact on which the flask rests. Fig. 2 shows this contact +or break piece. On a series of pedestals thus arranged and +intercalated in the same circuit the flasks containing poisonous or +dangerous substances, whose inadvertent handling might cause trouble, +are placed. In removing one of these flasks the circuit is closed, and +the electric bell notifies the pharmacist of the danger attendant on +the use of the substances contained in the flask referred to, thus +guarding against the errors due to carelessness, and quite too +frequent, especially in pharmacies.—<i>Chronica Cientifica.</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/3b.png" width="600" height="334" alt="Fig. 2." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />Fig. 2.</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art14" id="art14"></a>APPARATUS FOR DETERMINING MECHANICALLY THE REACTION PERIOD OF +HEARING.</h2> + +<p>The following apparatus, constructed after the designs of Dr. Loeb, +assistant in the Physiological Institute at Wurzburg, is for the +purpose of measuring the reaction period of hearing, that is, the +period which elapses between the time when a sound wave affects the +auditory nerve and is thence transferred to the brain, then affecting +the consciousness, and the moment when the motor nerves can be thrown +into action by the will. It is, therefore, necessary to fix both +instants—when the sound is produced and when the observer has, from +its warning, received the impulse so as to press down a key. The great +advantage of this instrument over others adapted for the same end +consists in this, that the determination in its essentials is effected +entirely by mechanism, and, therefore, the graphic results attained by +it are free from all sources of error, which errors other methods +always introduce to a greater or less extent. Thus its results are +quite unexceptionable.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/3c.png"><img src="./images/3c_th.png" width="600" height="431" alt="REACTION PERIOD OF HEARING." title="" /> +</a><span class="caption"><br />REACTION PERIOD OF HEARING.</span> +</div> + +<p>The apparatus shown in the cut rests on three feet, two of them +consisting of strong screws, so that by aid of the circular level, +<i>l</i>, on the base plate, it can be adjusted perfectly level. On a +little shelf attached to a square rod, seen on the left of the +instrument, rising from the base plate, and near its top, is a +horizontal tube, through which, by a bulb not shown in the cut, a +blast of air can be blown. In front of the other opening of the tube +is a horizontal fork of ebonite, whose arms carry on the side opposite +the tube a metallic ball. Through the arms of the fork pass the wires +of the circuit of an electric battery. These terminate in two rounded +ends, which, when the arms approach each other, are touched by the +metallic ball, so that the latter also closes the metallic circuit. By +the blast of air a wooden wedge contained in the tube is driven +between the arms of the fork, the ball falls from them, and the +electric stream is cut off. The ball drops upon the inclined metallic +plate, <i>p</i>, bounces off it, and is received in a little sack, S. When +the observer hears the ball strike the plate, he presses on the key, +<i>t</i>, and the interval between the two instants, namely, the falling of +the ball upon the plate and the pressing of the key, <i>t</i>, is what is +to be mechanically fixed and measured.</p> + +<p>The electric current, which is closed by the ball as long as it lies +on the jaws of the fork, flows around the arms of the electro-magnet, +<i>m</i>, which continually attracts an armature fastened to a lever arm, +and coming over the poles of the magnet. If the circuit is broken by +the fall of the ball, the armature at once rises upward. By this a +spring contained in the tube, <i>g</i>, and hitherto kept compressed, is +released, which gives a shock to the right angled ½frame, <i>a a</i>, +containing a blackened or smoked plate of glass, so that, following +the wire, <i>b</i>, acting as a guide, the plate flies from left to right +of the apparatus. To prevent the plate from recoiling, a catch, <i>d</i>, +is fastened to the side bar, <i>c</i>. Furthermore, lest the friction of +the wire, <i>b</i>, in the guiding apertures of the frame should impair its +velocity as it moves from left to right, it is connected with a weight +pan by a cord passing over the pulley, <i>g</i>, which is so loaded that by +the added velocity with which it strives to fall, the retardation +already alluded to is overcome, so that the frame moves from left to +right with even speed.</p> + +<p>In front of the frame, <i>a a</i>, is the tuning fork, <i>f</i>, which as +estimated makes 184 vibrations in a second. By the stylus, <i>y</i>, on the +upper limb of the fork these oscillations are marked upon the sliding +plate of glass as a wave line. Lest, after the first impulses of the +fork have been registered, they should soon die away, in front of it +is an electro-magnet, H, whose pole-faces near the arms of the tuning +fork pass over them. The latter, to be more strongly affected by the +magnet, are provided with faces of soft iron. To the lower face of the +lower arm of the fork a small sharp stylus is fastened, which, with +each beat of the fork, comes into contact with the mercury in the +little cup, <i>n</i>, or a spring used instead of it. This closes an +electric circuit, which passes around the magnet, thence going through +the tuning fork by the binding screw, <i>k</i>, and thence by connections +not shown in the cut back to the battery. In consequence of the +magnetism thus excited, the arms of the tuning fork are attracted by +the poles of the magnet, and forced to beat with increased amplitude. +In a short time a constant amplitude of oscillation is reached, when +the magnetic impulses are of equal influence with the atmospheric +resistance and the internal force of the tuning fork restraining its +movements.</p> + +<p>Finally, the stylus, <i>s</i>, which touches the glass plate directly above +<i>y</i>, is for registering the moments when by the falling ball the sound +is produced and when the observer presses the key. This is brought +about by the rod, <i>i</i>, to which <i>s</i> is firmly screwed, being jerked +upward a short distance at each of these instants, so that the +horizontal lines which the stylus, <i>s</i>, marks upon the screen passing +in front of it are broken at both places.</p> + +<p>The mechanism which jerks the rod, <i>i</i>, upward is thus arranged: The +inclined plate, <i>p</i>, on which the ball drops, is carried by the upper +horizontal arm of an angular lever turning on the axis, <i>x</i>, and +counterpoised by the balancing weight, <i>x'</i>. By the falling ball this +arm is pressed downward, and the lower horizontal arm, <i>w</i>, of the +lever is also moved. On a second horizontal axis the lever, <i>v</i>, +partly concealed, moves, restricted as to its length of swing by the +screws, <i>n</i>. As long as the concealed arm is not moved, <i>v</i> is lightly +pressed by the small spring, <i>e</i>, against <i>w</i>. The projection, <i>z</i>, at +the upper end of <i>v</i> holds the rod, <i>i</i>, which the strong spring, <i>h</i>, +is continually pressing upward. When the ball falls upon the plate, +<i>p</i>, the arm, <i>w</i>, presses against the lower end of <i>v</i>, the +projection, <i>z</i>, sets free the rod, and it springs upward. This +movement is soon arrested, as the projection, <i>z'</i>, engages with a +stud situated on the right side of the rod, <i>i</i>. This projection is +situated on the vertical arm of an angular lever <a name="Page_9754" id="Page_9754"></a>whose other arm is +the key, <i>t</i>. When the observer presses the key, the rod, <i>i</i>, again +is jerked upward by the spring, <i>h</i>. The screw, <i>o</i>, tapped into the +rod, <i>i</i>, prevents the rod going higher than necessary, by striking a +plate, which also serves as guide for <i>i</i>.</p> + +<p>To determine the interval between the falling of the ball and pressing +of the key, one has finally to count the waves inscribed by the tuning +fork, which come under the portion of the line inscribed by <i>s</i>, which +is bounded by the two breaks produced by the successive movements of +the rod.</p> + +<p>To make the glass plate carried by the frame available for more +observations, which plate can be used as a photographic negative, the +frame, T, is adjustable up and down upon the pillars, N. This frame +carries the tuning fork, mercury cup, <i>n</i>, and the electro-magnet, M. +The spring, <i>s</i>, can also be moved up and down along the rod, i.—<i>H. +Heele in Zeitschrift fur Instrumentenkunde.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art15" id="art15"></a>A NEW DISINFECTOR.</h2> + +<p>The accompanying engravings represent a new disinfecting apparatus +invented by Mr. W.E. Thursfield, M. Inst. C.E., of Victorgasse, +Vienna. The principle on which its action is based is that the +complete destruction of all germs in wearing apparel and bedding, +without any material injury whatever to the latter, is only to be +obtained by subjecting the articles infected, for a period +proportionate to their structural resistance, to a moist heat of at +least 212 deg. Fah. Recent experiences in Berlin have shown that, for +security's sake, a temperature of 220 deg. is better. To insure the +thorough penetration of this temperature in every fiber, a heat of +from 260 deg. to 270 deg. must be maintained in the disinfecting +chamber itself. To obtain this by means of ordinary or superheated +steam involves the employment of boilers working under a pressure of +2½ to 3 atmospheres, of disinfecting chambers capable of resisting an +equal tension, and of skilled labor in attending to the same; in other +words, a large initial outlay and correspondingly heavy working +expenses in fuel and wages.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/4a.png"><img src="./images/4a_th.png" width="385" height="450" alt="Fig. I THE AERO-STEAM DISINFECTOR." title="" /> +</a><span class="caption"><br />Fig. I</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/4b.png" width="600" height="405" alt="Fig. II THE AERO-STEAM DISINFECTOR." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />Fig. II <br />THE AERO-STEAM DISINFECTOR.</span> +</div> + +<p>The disinfecting apparatus, illustrated in a portable and stationary +form, of the dimensions adopted by the sanitary authorities of Vienna, +Budapest, Prague, Lemberg, Teplitz, etc., and by the Imperial and +Royal Theresianum Institute, and sanctioned for use in barracks, +military hospitals, etc., by the Austrian Ministry of War, and for +ambulance hospitals by the Red Cross, acts by means of a mixture of +steam and hot air in such proportion that the steam, after expending +its mechanical energy in inducting the hot air into the disinfecting +chamber, is, by contact with the clothes or bedding of a lower +temperature, not only condensed, but by condensation completely +neutralizes the risk of injury through any chance excess of hot air. +The boiler being practically open is inexplosive, and requires neither +safety valves nor skilled attendance.</p> + +<p>The heat generated in the furnace is utilized to the utmost, and the +escaping vapors form a steam jacket in the double casing of the +disinfecting chamber. The method of manipulation reduces the danger of +contagion to a minimum, as the clothes or bedding are placed in +specially constructed sacks in the sick chamber itself, and, after +being tightly closed, the sacks are removed and hung in the +disinfector. The stationary apparatus, which is constructed to +disinfect four complete suits of clothes, including underlinen, or one +complete set of bedding, including mattress, is specially adapted for +hospitals, barracks, jails, etc. Its dimensions can easily be +increased, but the size shown has proved itself, from an economical +point of view, the best, as, where the quantity of articles to be +disinfected varies, several apparatus can be erected at a less cost +than one large one, and one or more be heated as the quantity of +infected articles be small or large. In the accompanying drawing A is +the boiler, which is filled by pouring water into the reservoir, B, +until the same, entering the boiler at its lowest part through the +tube, C, rises to the desired height in the water gauge, G. C acts +also in the place of a safety valve. D is the fire space, E a movable +grate, and F the coal hopper. The fuel consists of charcoal or coke. +The boiler is emptied by the cock, H. I is a steam pipe connecting the +steam space with the hot air tube, L¹. K is an auxiliary pipe to admit +the steam into the chimney during stoppage for emptying and recharging +the disinfecting chamber in continuous working. The admission of air +is regulated by the handle, L, and the draught in the chimney, M, by +the handle, N. O is the disinfecting chamber inclosed by the space, P, +which acts at the same time as a steam jacket and as a channel for +the downward passage of the vapors escaping from the chamber through +the outlets, S. The lower portion of the disinfecting chamber, Q, is +funnel-shaped for the better mixture and distribution of the steam and +hot air, and to collect any condensation water. Q¹ is a sieve to catch +any fallen article. The vertical tubes, S, which serve at the same +time to strengthen the chamber, connect the lower portion of the steam +jacket, P, with the circular channel, T, which is again connected with +the chimney, M, by the tube, T'. The disinfection chamber is +hermetically closed by the double cover, R, to the lower plate of +which hooks for hanging the sacks are fastened. The cover fits in a +sand bath, and is raised and lowered by means of the pulley chain, W, +and the swinging crane, X. U is a thermometer indicating the +temperature of the steam and hot air in the disinfecting chamber, V a +cock for drawing off any condensation water, Y a battery connected +with an electrical thermometer to be placed in the clothes or bedding, +and Z the sacks in which the infected articles are hung.</p> + +<p>The portable apparatus, as shown, for heating with gas, or even +spirits of wine, can also be heated with a similar steam and hot air +apparatus as the stationary disinfector. In country towns or villages, +or even in cities, whose architectural arrangements permit, the +portable disinfector can easily be drawn by one man into the courtyard +or garden of any house, and the process of disinfection conducted on +the spot. Its usefulness in campaigns for ambulance hospitals is +self-evident. The letters denoting the several parts are the same as +in the stationary apparatus. The portable disinfector is constructed +to disinfect two complete suits of clothes or one mattress. The +extremely favorable results are shown in the accompanying table of +trials.—<i>The Engineer.</i></p> + + +<p class="center">TABLE OF RESULTS WITH WM. E. THURSFIELD'S STEAM AND HOT AIR DISINFECTORS.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table summary="Steam and Hot Air" border="1"> +<tr><th rowspan="2" valign="middle" align="center">Series of Trials.</th> +<th>I.</th><th>II.</th><th>III.</th><th> IV.</th><th> V.</th><th> VI.</th><th> VII.</th><th>VIII.</th> +<th>IX.</th><th> X.</th><th> XI.</th><th> XII.</th><th>XIII.</th><th> XIV.</th><th>XV.</th> +</tr> +<tr><th colspan="8" align="center">Portable Apparatus.</th> +<th colspan="8" align="center">Stationary Apparatus.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Contents of boiler, in <span class="emph">gallons</span></td> +<td>3.85</td><td>4.18</td><td>—</td><td>4.18</td> +<td>4.18</td><td>4.18</td><td>5.7</td><td>5.7</td> +<td>10.0</td><td>10.0</td><td>10.0</td><td>10.0</td> +<td>10.0</td><td>10.0</td><td>10.0 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Water added during the process</td> +<td>—</td><td>1.54</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>1.4</td><td>0.6</td> +<td>4.3</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>7.4</td> +<td>1.4</td><td>—</td><td>— +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Temperature of water <span class="emph">degs. Fah</span>.</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>72</td> +<td>57</td><td>54</td><td>43</td><td>132</td> +<td>54</td><td>46</td><td>176</td><td>43</td> +<td>43</td><td>43</td><td>104 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Firing commenced with spirits of wine at <span class="emph">hours min.</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>2.12</td><td>9.10</td><td>4.30</td> +<td>—</td><td>10.0</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>— +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Firing commenced with gas at <span class="emph">hours min.</span></td> +<td>1.30</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>3.0</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>— +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Firing commenced with coke at <span class="emph">hours min.</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>1.10</td><td>—</td><td>8.15</td><td>1.13</td> +<td>1.43</td><td>2.54</td><td>—</td><td>— +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Firing commenced with charcoal at <span class="emph">hours min.</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>10.12</td><td>—</td> +<td>2.15</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>8.43</td><td>10.16 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Steam generated at <span class="emph">hours min.</span></td> +<td>— </td><td>2.34</td><td>9.28</td> +<td>4.41</td><td>3.15</td><td>10.18</td><td>10.35</td> +<td>1.34</td><td>2.38</td><td>8.53</td><td>1.20</td> +<td>2.3</td><td>3.19</td><td>9.3</td><td>10.23 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">212 deg. in chamber registered by external thermometer at <span class="emph">hours min</span>.</td> +<td>2.30</td><td>2.40</td><td>9.34</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>— </td><td>10.50</td><td>1.52</td> +<td>2.45</td><td>9.3</td><td>1.28</td><td>2.18</td> +<td>3.37</td><td>9.12</td><td>10.31 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">212 deg. in clothes registered by electrical thermometer at <span class="emph">hours min.</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>5.25</td><td>4.18</td><td>12.12</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>1.55</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>— +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">221 deg. in clothes registered by electrical thermometer at <span class="emph">hours min.</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>11.51</td> +<td>2.34</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>3.50</td><td>4.26</td><td>10.4</td><td>12.03 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Highest temperature in chamber registered by external thermometer <span class="emph">deg.</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>270 </td><td>250</td><td>—</td> +<td>324</td><td>255</td><td>302</td><td>275</td> +<td>293</td><td>320</td><td>284</td><td>284</td> +<td>302</td><td>284</td><td>275 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Mean temperature in chamber registered by external thermometer <span class="emph">deg.</span></td> +<td>241 </td><td>257</td><td>239</td> +<td>266</td><td>—</td><td>253</td><td>266</td> +<td>266</td><td>284</td><td>284</td><td>266</td> +<td>266</td><td>284</td><td>266</td><td>266 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Trial closed at <span class="emph">hours, min.</span></td> +<td>4.45</td><td>4.10</td><td>11.4</td> +<td>5.45</td><td>4.30</td><td>12.30</td><td>11.51</td> +<td>2.35</td><td>4.30</td><td>11.0</td><td>2.10</td> +<td>3.50</td><td>4.35</td><td>10.10</td><td>12.03 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Max. therm. registered in mattress <span class="emph">deg.</span></td> +<td>262</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>— +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Max. therm. registered in overcoat <span class="emph">deg.</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>239</td><td>226</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>223</td><td>223</td> +<td>253</td><td>244</td><td>226</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>223 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Max. therm. registered in winter coat <span class="emph">deg.</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>232</td> +<td>223</td><td>214</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>230</td> +<td>232</td><td>223</td><td>— +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Max. therm. regis'd in winter trousers <span class="emph">deg.</span></td> +<td>— </td><td>243</td><td>239</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>262</td><td>—</td><td>253</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>— +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Max. therm. regis'd in summer trousers <span class="emph">deg.</span></td> +<td>— </td><td>246</td><td>252</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>280</td><td>—</td><td>264</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>— +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Time required to generate steam <span class="emph">min.</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>22</td><td>18</td> +<td>11</td><td>15</td><td>18</td><td>23</td> +<td>24</td><td>23</td><td>38</td><td>7</td> +<td>20</td><td>25</td><td>20</td><td>7 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Time required to generate 212 deg. in chamber <span class="emph">min.</span></td> +<td>60</td><td>28</td><td>24</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>38</td> +<td>42</td><td>30</td><td>48</td><td>15</td> +<td>35</td><td>43</td><td>29</td><td>15 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Time required to generate 212 deg. in clothes <span class="emph">min.</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>55</td> +<td>78</td><td>132</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>42</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>— +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Time required to generate 221 deg. in clothes <span class="emph">min.</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>99</td><td>85</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>127</td> +<td>92</td><td>81</td><td>107 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Total duration of process <span class="emph">min.</span></td> +<td>135 </td><td>118</td><td>114</td> +<td>75</td><td>90</td><td>150</td><td>99</td> +<td>85</td><td>135</td><td>105</td><td>57</td> +<td>127</td><td>101</td><td>87</td><td>107 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Water evaporated, in <span class="emph">gallons</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>1.65</td><td>1.90</td><td>2.75</td><td>4.3</td> +<td>3.3</td><td>6.93</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>9.24</td><td>—</td><td>3.63</td><td>4.84 +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Consumption of spirits of wine <span class="emph">pints</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>3.0</td><td>—</td><td>9.6</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>— +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Consumption of gas, in <span class="emph">cubic feet</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>70</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>— +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Consumption of cokes, in <span class="emph">cbs</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>6</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>8.8</td> +<td>16.5</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>— +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="lsmall">Consumption of charcoal, in <span class="emph">cbs</span></td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>8.8</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td> +<td>—</td><td>—</td><td>14.3</td><td>13.8 +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<div class="note"> +<p>N.B.—In every case, even in the trials V. and X., in which the +temperature in the disinfecting chamber rose above 320 deg. Fah., the +clothes, owing to the complete saturation of the hot air with live +steam, remained absolutely unimpaired.</p> + +<p>The column "water evaporated" shows the quantity of live steam passing +through the disinfecting chamber averages 13 cubic feet per minute +with gas or spirits, and 22 cubic feet with charcoal or coke in the +portable and 33 cubic feet in the stationary apparatus. Trials VI., +VII., and VIII. took place in open air.</p> + +<p>According to trial XII., from 28 to 30 complete suits of clothes can +be disinfected at an expenditure of about 75 cbs. of coke per diem.</p> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art09" id="art09"></a>DRAWING INSTRUMENT FOR ACCURATE WORK.</h2> + +<h3>By <span class="smcap">J. Lehrke.</span></h3> + +<p>This arrangement consists in a cylindrical metal or horn mounted lens +two to four centimeters long, and magnifying two or three times, and +two or three centimeters in diameter, whose side is provided with a +contrivance for holding after it has been pushed into place a copying +needle, a protractor, etc.</p> + +<p>While hitherto the architect in using millimeter paper must hold +separately in his hands a magnifying glass and needle, while the +engraver holds the engraving tool inclined in one hand and the +magnifying glass in the other, or must work under a large lens +standing on three feet, it is now possible by a firm connection +between the lens and needle or other instrument to draw directly with +one hand and under the lens. In the accompanying cut one of these +lenses is shown in section, A, in which the glass is set obliquely, in +whose focus the needle, <i>a</i>, is held and the field of view is +enlarged. A longer description is unnecessary, as the illustration +gives the best explanation. It need only be remarked that the stud, +<i>s</i>, projecting a little near the glass, is for the purpose of +preventing the instrument from leaving the position coinciding with +the plane of the drawing. For architects and engineers is provided a +small compass, <i>b</i>, of about 2 cm. diameter, for laying off parallel +widths, for making smaller scales and the like. In these cases it is +substituted for the needle. In like manner for calculating cross +profiles by graphical methods, for reading parallel divisions, for +estimating areas, or revising maps, a finely divided prismatic ivory +rule, <i>c</i>, can be placed under the glass, B, and will do good service. +In this case the plane of the lens must be perpendicular to the axis +of the tube.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/4c.png" width="600" height="359" alt="IMPROVED DRAWING INSTRUMENT." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />IMPROVED DRAWING INSTRUMENT.</span> +</div> + +<p>For draughtsmen a parallel drawing pen, something like <i>b</i>, is used, +which gives several lines at once, perfectly parallel and close +together; or a drawing pen with which the smallest signatures, such as +boundary stones and figures, can be made neatly and exactly, which is +secured like the needle, <i>a</i>, and for which the cylinder serves also +as pen holder, offers a great advance.</p> + +<p>Thus a whole series of instruments can be used with the lens. For +instance, a naturalist can use with it a knife or other instrument. To +avoid injury from the instruments, one should, in laying down the +cylinder, place it on its side. It is also recommended that on the +outer tube of the frame, which is appropriately lacquered of black +color, white arrows should be placed in the direction of the points of +the instrument, so that the eyes shall be protected from injury in +handling the instrument, as by the points being stuck into the pupil, +owing to lifting the instrument in an inverted position.—<i>Zeitschrift +fur Instrumentenkunde.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art19" id="art19"></a>BARLOW'S MACHINE FOR MOULDING CANDLES.</h2> + +<p>That style of machine for moulding candles in which the candles are +forced out at the top by means of a piston is the one most employed, +and it is an apparatus of this kind that we illustrate herewith. In +its construction, this apparatus presents some important improvements +in detail which it is of interest to set forth. The improvements made +by the Messrs. Barlow have been studied with a view of manufacturing +candles with conical ends, adapted to all chandeliers, without +interfering with rapidity of production or increasing the net cost.</p> + +<p>These gentlemen have likewise so simplified the continuous system of +drawing the wick along as to prevent any loss of cotton. In the next +place, the structure of the moulds, properly so called, is new. +Instead of being cast, as is usually the case, they are rolled and +drawn out, thus giving them smooth surfaces and permitting of their +being soldered, are assembled by means of threaded bronze sockets. The +engravings between Figs. 3 and 4 show these two modes of fixation. At +<i>a</i> may be seen the old method of junction by soldering, and at <i>b</i> +the screwing of the moulds into the socket. This machine consists of a +box which is alternately heated and cooled, and which is fixed upon a +<a name="Page_9755" id="Page_9755"></a>frame, A, at the lower part of which are located the wick bobbins, E. +Toward the top of the machine there is a mechanism for actuating the +two pairs of jaws, B, which grasp the candles forced upward by the +play of the pistons, D. This mechanism, which is controlled by a +lever, acts by means of an eccentric.</p> + +<div class="wider" style="width: 800px"> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 368px;"> +<a href="./images/5b.png"><img src="./images/5b_th.png" width="368" height="400" alt="Fig. 1" title="" /> +</a><span class="caption">Fig. 1</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 363px;"> +<a href="./images/5c.png"><img src="./images/5c_th.png" width="363" height="400" alt="Fig. 2. BARLOW'S CANDLE MOULDING MACHINE." title="" /> +</a><span class="caption">Fig. 2.</span> +</div> +<p class="center">BARLOW'S CANDLE MOULDING MACHINE.</p> +</div> + +<p>The pistons, D, are hollow, and are provided above with pieces which +form the small end of the candles. Instead of using tin, as is usually +done, the Messrs. Barlow employ galvanized iron in the construction of +these pistons, and mount them through screw rings—no soldering being +used. For this reason, any workman whatever can quickly replace one of +the tubes. All the pistons are placed upon a horizontal table, which +is made to rise and descend at will, in order to regulate the length +of the candles and remove them from the mould. A winch transmits the +motion which is communicated to it to two pairs of pinions that gear +with racks fixed to the frame to lift the table that supports the +pistons. How these latter are mounted may be seen from an inspection +of Figs. 3 to 5. This new arrangement of spiral springs for the +purpose is designed to hold the pistons on the table firmly, and at +the same time to prevent the shock that their upper ends might undergo +in case of an abrupt turn of the winch. Moreover, the forged iron +plate, H, is not exposed to breakage as it is in other machines, where +it is of cast iron. The bobbins already mentioned revolve upon strong +iron rods, and the moving forward of the wick in the moulds is +effected automatically by the very fact of the manufactured candles' +being forced out. These latter are held in position through the double +play of the jaws, B, while the stearic acid is flowing into the upper +part of the moulds. The cotton wick is thus drawn along and kept in +the axis of the candles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/5a.png"><img src="./images/5a_th.png" width="574" height="450" alt="Figs. 1 and 2. BARLOW'S CANDLE MOULDING MACHINE." title="" /> +</a><span class="caption"><br />Figs. 3, 4, and 5.<br /> BARLOW'S CANDLE MOULDING MACHINE.</span> +</div> + +<p>One peculiarity of the machine consists in the waste system applied to +the mould box. Steam or hot or cold water is sent into the latter +through the conduit, L, starting from a junction between pipes +provided with cocks. When the water contained in the box is in excess, +it flows out through the waste pipes, G, which terminate in a single +conduit. Owing to the branchings at T, and to the cocks of the +conduits that converge at L, it is very easy to vary the temperature +of the box at will. The warm or cold water or steam may be admitted or +shut off simultaneously.</p> + +<p>When first beginning operations, the wick is introduced into each +mould by hand. The piston table is raised by means of the winch, and +is held in this position through the engaging of a click with a +ratchet on the windlass. A fine iron rod long enough to reach beneath +the pistons and catch the end of the wick is next introduced. After +this is removed, the wick is fixed once for all, and in any way +whatever, to the top of the mould. This operation having been +accomplished, the piston table is lowered, and the machine is ready to +receive the stearic acid. The moulds are of tin and are open at both +ends. In order to facilitate the removal of the candles, they are made +slightly conical. When the candles have hardened, the ends are +equalized with a wooden or tin spatula, and then the piston table is +raised. At this instant, the jaws, B, are closed so as to hold the +candles in place. The latter, in rising, pull into the mould a new +length of wick, well centered. A slight downward tension is exerted +upon the wick by hand, then a new operation is begun. During this +time, the candles held between the jaws having become hard, their +wicks are now cut by means of the levers, C, and they are removed from +the machine and submitted to a finishing process.—<i>Revue +Industrielle.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art17" id="art17"></a>A NEW ALKALI PROCESS.</h2> + +<p>In several former notes and articles in these pages, we have spoken of +the severe crisis through which the old established, or "Leblanc," +process has now for some years been passing. It is, in fact, pushed +well nigh out of the running by the newer process, known as the +"ammonia-soda" process, and would have had to give up the battle +before now were it not for the fact that one of its by-products, +bleaching powder, cannot, so far, be produced at all by the +ammonia-soda works. The bleaching powder trade has thus remained in +the hands of the workers of the Leblanc process, and its sale has +enabled them to cover much of the loss which they are suffering on the +manufacture of soda ash and caustic soda.</p> + +<p>In brief outline, the old Leblanc process consists in the following +operations: Salt is decomposed and boiled down with sulphuric acid. +Sulphate of sodium is formed, and a large amount of hydrochloric acid +is given off. This is condensed, and is utilized in the manufacture of +the bleaching powder mentioned above. The sulphate of sodium, known as +"salt cake," is mixed with certain proportions of small coal and +limestone, and subjected to a further treatment in a furnace, by which +a set of reactions take place, causing the conversion of the sulphate +of sodium of the "salt cake" into carbonate of sodium, a quantity of +sulphide of calcium being produced at the same time. The mass +resulting from this process is known as "black ash." It is extracted +with water, which dissolves out the carbonate of sodium, which is sold +as such or worked into "caustic" soda, as may be required. The +insoluble residue is the "alkali waste," which forms the vast piles, +so hideous to look at and so dreadful to smell, which surround our +large alkali works.</p> + +<p>The sulphuric acid required for the conversion of the salt into "salt +cake" is made by the alkali manufacturer himself, this manufacture +necessitating a large plant of "lead chambers" and accessories, and +keeping up an immense trade in pyrites from Spain and Portugal. The +development of the alkali trade in this country has been something +colossal, and the interests involved in it and connected with it are +so great that anything affecting it may safely be said to be of truly +national importance, quite apart from what technical interest it may +possess.</p> + +<p>The "ammonia-soda" process, which has played such havoc with the old +style of manufacture, proceeds on totally different lines. Briefly +stated, it depends on the fact that if a solution of salt in water is +mixed with bicarbonate of ammonium, under proper conditions, a +reaction takes place by which the salt, or chloride of sodium, is +converted at once into bicarbonate of sodium, the bicarbonate of +ammonium being at the same time converted into chloride of ammonium.</p> + +<p>The bicarbonate of sodium settles out at once as insoluble crystals, +easily removed, marketable at once as such, or easily converted into +simple carbonate of sodium, and further into caustic soda, as in the +ordinary "old" process. The residual chloride of ammonium is +decomposed by distillation with lime, giving ammonia for reconversion +into bicarbonate of ammonium, and chloride of calcium, which is a +waste product.</p> + +<p>The maker of "ammonia" soda works direct on the brine, as pumped from +the salt fields. His plant is simpler and less costly, and he arrives +at his first marketable product much more rapidly and with very much +lower working costs than the maker of Leblanc soda, in spite of all +the great mechanical improvements which have of late years been +introduced into the old process, and which have cheapened its work.</p> + +<p>The original patents on the use of ammonium bicarbonate have, we +understand, long since expired. But the working details of the process +and much of the most successful apparatus have undergone great +development and improvement during late years, all the important +points being covered by patents still in force, and mainly, if not +wholly, in the hands of the one large firm which is now carrying on +the manufacture in this country, and is controlling the market.</p> + +<p>The one weak spot of the ammonia-soda process, as we mentioned before, +is its inability to supply hydrochloric acid or chlorine, and so allow +of making bleaching powder. Time after time it has been announced +positively that the problem was solved, that the ammonia-soda <a name="Page_9756" id="Page_9756"></a>makers +had devised a method of producing hydrochloric acid or chlorine, or +both, without the use of sulphuric acid. But the announcements have so +far proved baseless, and at present the Leblanc makers are getting +incredulous, and do not much excite themselves over new statements of +the kind, though they know that if once their rivals had this weapon +in their hands the battle would be over and the Leblanc process doomed +to rapid extinction.</p> + +<p>Such is at present the state of the struggle in this great industry, +and the above outline sketch of the two processes is designed to give +some idea of the conditions to such of our readers as may not have any +special knowledge of these manufactures.</p> + +<p>At the present moment great interest is being taken in a new process, +about to be put to work on a large scale, which is designed to take up +the cudgels against the ammonia process and enable the Leblanc makers +to continue the fight on something more like equal terms.</p> + +<p>We allude to the process proposed and patented by Messrs. Parnell & +Simpson, and about to be worked by the "Lancashire Alkali and Sulphur +Company," at Widnes. We recently had the opportunity of inspecting +fully the plant erected, and of having the method of procedure +explained to us. We look upon the new process as such a spirited +attempt to turn the tide of a long and losing battle, and as so very +interesting on its own merits, that an account of it in these pages +will be thoroughly in place.</p> + +<p>The main idea of the process is to combine the "Leblanc" and the +"ammonia-soda" manufacture. But in place of using caustic lime to +decompose the ammonium chloride and get back the ammonia, the "alkali +waste" spoken of above is employed, it being found that not only is +the ammonia driven off, but that also the sulphur in the "waste" is +obtained in a form allowing of its easy utilization, it and the +ammonia combining to form ammonium sulphide, which passes over in +gaseous form from the decomposing apparatus. This ammonium sulphide +is, as we shall see, quite as available for the working of the +ammonia-soda manufacture as pure and simple ammonia, and all the +sulphur can be obtained from it.</p> + +<p>In outline the process is as follows: We will suppose that a quantity +of bicarbonate of sodium has been just precipitated from a brine +solution, and we have the residual ammonium chloride to deal with. +This is decomposed by "alkali waste," giving a final liquor of calcium +chloride, which is run to waste, and a quantity of ammonium sulphide +gas. This latter is led at once into a solution of salt in water, till +saturation takes place. Into this liquor of brine and ammonium +sulphide <i>pure</i> carbonic acid gas is now passed. The ammonium sulphide +is decomposed, pure sulphureted hydrogen gas is given off, which is +conducted to a gas holder and stored, while ammonium bicarbonate is +formed in the liquor, which brings about the conversion of the salt +into bicarbonate of sodium, ready for removal and preparation for the +market.</p> + +<p>It will be observed that we printed the word <i>pure</i> in italics in +speaking of the carbonic acid used. This is one of the great points in +the process, as in order that the sulphureted hydrogen gas obtained +shall be concentrated and pure, only pure carbonic acid can be used in +liberating it. The apparatus employed in its preparation is perhaps +the most ingenious part of the works, and well worthy of attention by +others besides alkali makers. The method is based on the fact that if +dilute impure carbonic acid is passed into a solution of carbonate of +sodium, the carbonic acid is absorbed, bicarbonate of sodium being +formed, and the diluting gases passing away.</p> + +<p>The bicarbonate of sodium on heating gives up the extra carbonic acid, +which can be collected and stored pure, while the liquor passes back +to simple carbonate of sodium, to be used over again as an absorbent. +This is not at all new in theory, of course, nor is this the first +proposal to use it commercially; but it is claimed that this is the +first successful working of it on a large scale.</p> + +<p>The gases from a large limekiln supply the dilute carbonic acid gas, +which contains 25 per cent. to 30 per cent. of pure gas, the principal +diluting gas being, of course, nitrogen. This kiln gas is drawn from +the kiln by a blowing engine, and is first cooled in two large +receivers. It is then forced into the solution of sodium carbonate in +the absorption tower, 65 ft. high by 6 ft. diameter, filled with the +liquor. The tower has many diaphragms and perforated "mushrooms," to +cause a proper dispersion of the gases as they ascend through the +liquor. The strength of liquor found best adapted for the work is +equal to a density of about 30° Twaddell. After saturation the mud of +bicarbonate of sodium is drawn off and passed into the "decomposer," a +tower 35 ft. high by 6 ft. 6 in. in diameter, with perforated shelves, +into which steam is blown from below, the liquor passing downward. The +bicarbonate is decomposed, pure carbonic acid being given off. This is +passed through a scrubber and into a gas holder ready for use. The +liquor, which has now returned to the state of simple carbonate of +sodium, only requires cooling to be ready to absorb a fresh lot of +carbonic acid gas. The cooling is effected in a tower packed loosely +with bricks, the hot liquor trickling down against a powerful current +of air blown in from below. Liquor has been cooled in this way, in +once passing through the tower, from 220° Fahr. to 58° Fahr., but of +course the exact cooling obtained depends more or less on the +temperature of the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>The next stage of the process, if we follow on after the preparation +of the pure carbonic acid, is the employment of the gas for the +decomposition of the ammonium sulphide absorbed in a brine liquor as +above explained. The brine and ammonium sulphide are contained in what +is known as a "Solvay tower," provided with proper means for +dispersion and absorption of the carbonic acid gas. The precipitated +bicarbonate of sodium is removed and washed, and prepared for the +market in whatever form is required, the sulphureted hydrogen gas +being led to a holder and stored, as before stated.</p> + +<p>The decomposition of the ammonium chloride by means of "alkali waste" +is carried out in a specially designed still. This is a tower 45 ft. +high by 8 ft. diameter, divided by horizontal plates into compartments +of about 3 ft. 8 in. in height. These compartments communicate with +one another by means of pockets, or recesses, in the shell of the +tower. A vertical shaft, with arms, revolves in the tower. The "waste" +is fed in at the top by means of hopper and screw feed. The liquor is +heated by steam blown in to over 212° Fahr. The ammonium sulphide is +led direct into an absorbing vessel full of brine.</p> + +<p>It now only remains to see how it is proposed to deal with the +sulphureted hydrogen gas which represents the sulphur recovered from +the waste. It can be burnt direct to sulphurous acid and utilized for +the production of vitriol perfectly pure and free from arsenic, +commanding a special price. But Messrs. Parnell & Simpson state that +by a method of restricted combustion they are able to obtain nearly +all the sulphur as such, and put it on the market on equal terms with +the best Sicilian sulphur. We did not gather that this has yet been +done on the working scale, however.</p> + +<p>It will be seen that it is proposed that a Leblanc alkali maker shall +continue to produce a portion of his make by the old process, but +shall erect plant to enable him to make another portion by the Parnell +& Simpson method, using his Leblanc "waste" in place of the caustic +lime now employed by the ammonia soda people. He is thus to have the +benefit of the cheaper process for, say, half his make, while he +further cheapens the ammonia method by saving the cost of lime and by +recovering the sulphur otherwise lost in his waste.</p> + +<p>The saving in lime is stated to be one ton for each ton of sodium +carbonate produced, or in cash value about 10s. per ton at Widnes, +while the sulphur saved is estimated to be 6 cwt. per ton of sodium +carbonate. We reproduce these figures with all reserve, not being +ourselves sufficiently specialists to judge of them. But we were +assured that they represent the minimum expected, and reasons were +given to us to show that they would probably be exceeded.</p> + +<p>Another gain for the Leblanc maker would be that he will escape the +cost of removal and disposal of a portion of his refuse or waste.</p> + +<p>The plant now erected was calculated for a yield of one hundred tons +carbonate of sodium and about thirty-five tons of sulphur per week, +but it now appears likely that this will be exceeded; while the +carbonic acid plant was supposed to be equal to a yield of 6 tons of +pure gas per day, and is now found capable of doing twice as much.</p> + +<p>A few weeks will now bring this new combination process into the +active and crucial test of the markets. Chemists and chemical +engineers have all along taken a keen interest in the ingenious ideas +of Parnell & Simpson. Commercial men are no less interested in the +financial result of the experiment about to be tried at the expense of +a few gentlemen of Liverpool and district. So far as we can learn, +opinions are to some extent divided, though many good judges are very +hopefully inclined. For our own part, speaking with diffidence, as +being a little off our regular track of work, we will only say that we +were favorably impressed with what we saw and heard; and we certainly +wish the venture that full success which its cleverness and its pluck, +as well as its great importance at this crisis, deserve for +it.—<i>Engineering</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art20" id="art20"></a>TEMPERATURE OF GAS DISTILLATION.</h2> + +<p>An important subject for investigation, which has not yet been +satisfactorily determined, is the temperature at which it is most +beneficial to distill coals of various qualities. The practice of +allowing the charge to remain in the retort for some time after most +of the gas has been driven off, to enable (it is said) the retort to +recover heat for the next charge, often leads to misconception as to +the true temperature of carbonization. The effect of this is to +equalize the temperatures inside and outside the retort. This inside +temperature is not maintained, the temperature outside not being high +enough to transmit the heat with sufficient rapidity; and so, in an +apparently hot retort, the coal may be carbonized at a comparatively +low temperature. A truer test of temperature is that of the outside of +the retort, which should be not less than 400° to 500° Fahr. above the +temperature necessary for proper carbonization. In all experiments +relating to temperature pretending to any degree of accuracy, a +pyrometer of some kind should be used. Judging of the temperature by +the color is often misleading. Not only may the eye be deceived, but +different clays do not present the same appearance at the same +temperature. A good, reliable pyrometer to estimate temperatures to +(say) 2500° Fahr. is much wanted.</p> + +<p>Experience during the last few years with the high temperatures +obtained by the use of regenerative furnaces has led me to the +conclusion that higher heats than are usual may be employed with +advantage, as regards both the quantity and the quality of gas, +provided the retorts are heated uniformly throughout their length, and +the weight and duration of the charge are so adjusted that the coal +does not remain longer in the retort than is just sufficient to drive +off the gas; and that the more rapidly the coal is carbonized, the +better are the results. In two retorts of the same size, one making +5,000 and the other 10,000 cubic feet per day, the gas will be twice +as long in contact with the surface of the retort in the former as in +the latter—to the probable detriment of its quality, and increased +tendency to stoppage in the ascension pipes.</p> + +<p>A subject closely allied to that just alluded to is the temperature of +the gas as it leaves the retort. Until within the last few years, it +was generally assumed that this was not higher than from 200° to 300° +Fahr.; and a very plausible theory was given to account for such a +comparatively low temperature. A discussion which took place a few +years ago in the <i>Journal of Gas Lighting</i> showed that at that time +opinions on this subject were not unanimous. But the conclusion +arrived at seemed to be that the gas was not higher in temperature +than that before stated; and if higher temperatures were observed, +they were due to the tarry matter in the gas, and were not those of +the gas itself. A little reflection is sufficient to show that the +existence of gas intimately mixed with tarry matter at a high +temperature, without being itself raised to that temperature, is a +physical impossibility.</p> + +<p>In a paper read to a Continental gas association about a year ago, the +writer stated, as the result of many experiments, that unless the +temperature in the ascension pipe rises above 480° Fahr., thickening +of the tar in the hydraulic main and choking of the ascension pipe +will certainly occur. This led me to make a series of experiments, +extending over many months, on the temperature of the gas in the +ascension pipes at different points and at various times during the +charge. The results of these experiments may be of some interest, and +may lead to further investigation. The temperatures were taken by +mercurial thermometers registering 600° Fahr., except those near the +mouthpiece, which were taken by a Siemens water pyrometer. Every care +was exercised to insure accuracy; and the instruments were carefully +adjusted. At a distance of 18 inches from the mouthpiece, the +temperatures varied from an average of 890°, shortly after the retort +was charged, to 518° at the end of the charge; at 12 feet distant from +the mouthpiece, the corresponding temperature was 444°, falling to +167° at the end of the charge; and at 22 feet, the average temperature +varied from 246° at the commencement to 144° at the end of the charge. +These are the averages of a number of experiments. In some instances +they were considerably above these averages—temperatures over 900° +being frequently obtained. This is about the temperature of a low red +heat, and is much higher than any I have seen recorded. When the gas +was allowed to issue from a hole in the ascension pipe, 1¼ inches in +diameter, 18 inches above the mouthpiece, a strip of lead held about +an inch from the orifice was freely melted.</p> + +<p>In the settings on which these experiments were made, the middle +ascension pipe takes the gas from the two central retorts; and it is +of interest to note that in this pipe the temperature of the gas 18 +inches from the upper retort was found to be 1014° Fahr., and at the +point where it entered the hydraulic main it was 440° Fahr. Zinc was +freely melted by the gas issuing from a hole 18 inches from the +mouthpiece. The temperatures always fall toward the end of the charge; +the fall of temperature in the ascension pipe being a good indication +that the charge is worked off. They increase with the heat of the +retort and with the weight of the charge.</p> + +<p>Experiments were also made to ascertain the temperature of the gas in +the retort; and for this purpose one of Murrie's pyrometers was used, +the action of which depends on the pressure produced by the +vaporization of mercury in a malleable iron tube. The end of this tube +was first rested on the top of the coal, but not in contact with the +retort. It reached about 18 inches into the retort, and therefore was +not in the hottest part. In this position the temperature indicated +shortly after charging the retort was 1110° Fahr., gradually rising to +1640° Fahr. The end of the tube was then embedded in the coal, when +the pyrometer indicated a temperature of 1260° Fahr. within 30 minutes +after the retort was charged; gradually rising toward the end of the +charge as before. At the time these temperatures were taken, the +retorts were each producing 10,000 cubic feet of gas per day. I had no +opportunity of testing the accuracy of the statement that, with lower +temperatures, there is a tendency to stoppage of the ascension pipes; +but with these high temperatures (contrary to what might be expected) +there is no trouble from stoppages.</p> + +<p>These experiments, so far as they have gone, lead to the conclusion +that the temperature of the gas as it is evolved from the coal is not +less than 1200° Fahr., and that cooling commences immediately on the +gas leaving the retort. The temperatures being far above that of +liquefaction, the gases are cooled very rapidly. The temperature of +the gas in the ascension pipe depends on the rapidity with which the +gas is evolved—that is to say, the greater the quantity produced in a +given time, the less effective is the cooling action of the mouthpiece +and the ascension pipe; and although I had no opportunity of testing +it, I should expect to find that with retorts making from 5,000 to +6,000 cubic feet of gas per day, the maximum temperature in the +ascension pipe 18 inches from the mouthpiece will not exceed 400° to +500° Fahr., while with lower heats and lighter charges the +temperatures will be still lower. That these temperatures have some +effect in causing or preventing stoppage in the ascension pipes there +can be no doubt; and it is important that this subject should be +thoroughly investigated.</p> + +<p>It is of interest to consider what must be the physical condition of +the gas at these high temperatures. All the hydrocarbons which are +afterward condensed must then be in the condition of gases having +various degrees of condensability, mixed with and rendered visible by +a cloud of carbon particles or soot. If this soot could be removed +from the gas at this stage without reducing the temperature, we should +probably have no thick tar or pitch, but only comparatively +light-colored oils; and it might possibly lead to an entirely +different mode of conducting the process of condensation.</p> + +<p>These are a few of the subjects on which it is extremely desirable +that we should possess that complete information which can only be +obtained by well-directed investigations with different materials and +under varying conditions. There are many others in connection with +carbonization and purification which might be mentioned; but I think I +have said sufficient to show the necessity that exists for more minute +investigation and research. Investigations such as are here indicated +do not involve any large expenditure of money; but they do require +care and intelligence to prevent errors being made. Experiments should +not be condemned as defective because the results differ from +old-established theories; yet when this does happen, it is in all +cases better to suspect the new experiment rather than the old theory, +until the results have been fully established.—<i>Wm. Foulis, Journal +of Gas Lighting.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art21" id="art21"></a>THE LARGEST BLACK ASH FURNACE IN THE WORLD.</h2> + +<p>The Widnes Alkali Company have recently erected an enormous revolving +black ash furnace, which is 30 ft. in length and has a diameter of 12 +ft. 6 in. The inside length is 28 ft. 6 in., with a diameter of 11 ft. +4 in. The furnace is lined with 16,000 fire bricks and 120 fire-clay +breakers, each weighing 1¼ cwt. The weight of salt cake per charge, +<i>i.e.</i>, contained in each charge of salt cake, limestone, mud, and +slack, is 8 tons 12 cwt. For 110 tons of salt cake charged there are +also used about 100 tons of lime mud and limestone and 55 tons of +mixing slack. The total amount of salt cake decomposed weekly is about +400 tons, which may be calculated to yield 240 tons of 60 per cent. +caustic soda. There is claimed for this massive furnace an economy in +iron plate, in expense on the engine power and on fuel consumed, as +well as on wear and tear.—<i>Watson Smith, in Industries.</i></p> + +<hr /> + + +<h2><a name="Page_9757" id="Page_9757"></a><a name="art01" id="art01"></a>THE STATUE OF PHILIP LEBON.</h2> + +<p>The inauguration of the statue of Philip Lebon, the inventor of +lighting by gas, occurred on the 26th of June, at Chaumont, under the +auspices of the Technical Gas Society of France. The statue, which we +illustrate herewith, is due to the practiced chisel of the young +sculptor Antide Pechine, who has perfectly understood his work, and +has represented the inventor at the moment at which he observes a +flame start from a glass balloon in which he had heated some sawdust. +The attitude is graceful and the expression of the face is meditative +and intelligent. The statue, which is ten feet in height, was +exhibited at the last <i>Salon</i>. It was cast at the Barbedienne works.</p> + +<p>It would be impossible to applaud too much the homage that has just +been rendered to the inventor of gas lighting, for Philip Lebon, like +so many other benefactors of humanity, has not by far the celebrity +that ought to belong to him. When we study the documents that relate +to his existence, when we follow the flashes of genius that darted +through his brain, when we see the obstacles that he had to conquer, +and when we thoroughly examine his great character and the lofty +sentiments that animated him, we are seized with admiration for the +humble worker who endowed his country with so great a benefit.</p> + +<p>Lebon was born at Brachay on the 29th of May, 1767. At the age of +twenty, he was admitted to the School of Bridges and Roads, where he +soon distinguished himself by his ingenious and investigating turn of +mind. His first labors were in connection with the steam engine, then +in its infancy, and on April 18, 1792, the young engineer obtained a +national award of $400 to continue the experiments that he had begun +on the improvement of this apparatus.</p> + +<p>It was at about the same epoch that Lebon was put upon the track of +lighting by gas, during a sojourn at Brachay. He one day threw a +handful of sawdust into a glass vial that he heated over a fire. He +observed issuing from the bottle a dense smoke which suddenly caught +fire and produced a beautiful luminous flame. The inventor understood +the importance of the experiment that he had just performed, and +resolved to work it further. He had just found that wood and other +combustibles were, under the action of heat, capable of disengaging a +gas fit for lighting and heating. He had seen that the gas which is +disengaged from wood is accompanied with blackish vapors of an acrid +and empyreumatic odor. In order that it might serve for the production +of light, it was necessary to free it from these foreign products.</p> + +<p>Lebon passed the vapor through a tube into a flask of water, which +condensed the tarry and acid substances, and the gas escaped in a +state of purity. This modest apparatus was the first image of the gas +works; and it comprised the three essential parts thereof—the +generating apparatus, the purifying apparatus, and the receiver for +collecting the gas.</p> + +<p>One year afterward, the inventor had seen Fourcroy, Prony, and the +great scientists of his epoch. On the 28th of September, 1799, he took +out a patent in which he gives a complete description of his thermo +lamp, by means of which he produced a luminous gas, while at the same +time manufacturing wood tar and pyroligneous or acetic acid. In this +patent he mentions coal as proper to replace wood, and he explains his +system with a visible emotion and singular ardor. In reading what he +has written we are struck with that form of persuasion that does not +permit of doubting that he foresaw the future in reserve for his +system.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately, Lebon could not devote all his time to his discovery. +Being a government engineer, without money and fortune, he had to +attend to his duties. He went as an ordinary engineer to Angouleme, +but he did not forget his illuminating gas, and he strongly regretted +Paris, which he termed "an incomparable focus of study." He devoted +himself to mathematics and science, he made himself beloved by all, +and his mind wandered far from his daily occupation. The engineer in +chief soon complained of him, but a committee appointed to investigate +the charges that had been made against him affirmed that he was free +from any reproach. He was sent back to his post, but war was +decimating the resources of France, and the republic, while Bonaparte +was in Italy, no longer had any time to pay its engineers. Lebon wrote +some pressing letters to the minister, asking for the sums due on his +work, but all of them remained without reply. His wife went to Paris, +but her applications were fruitless. She wrote herself to the minister +the following letter, which exists in the archives of the School of +Bridges and Roads:</p> + +<div class="note"> +<p>"Liberty, equality, fraternity—Paris. 22 Messidor, year VII. of + the French Republic, one and indivisible—the wife of Citizen + Lebon to Citizen Minister of the Interior:</p> + +<p>"It is neither alms nor a favor that I ask of you, it is + justice. I have for two months been languishing at 120 leagues + from my household. Do not, by further delay, force the father of + a family, for want of means, to leave a state for which he has + sacrificed everything. ... Have regard for our position, + citizen. It is oppressive, and my demand is just. There is more + than one motive to persuade me that my application will not be + fruitless with a minister who makes it a law and duty for + himself to be just.</p> + +<p>"Greeting and esteem. Your devoted fellow-citizen,</p> + +<p class="right">"Madame Lebon, <i>nee</i> De Brambille."</p> +</div> + +<p>In 1801, Lebon was called to Paris, as <i>attache</i> in the service of +Blin, engineer in chief of pavements. He took a second patent—a true +scientific memoir full of facts and ideas. It speaks of the numerous +applications of illuminating gas and its mode of production, lays down +the basis of the entire manufacture—furnaces, condensers, purifiers, +gas burners. Nothing is forgotten, not even the steam engine and +balloon. Lebon proposed to the government to construct an apparatus +for heating and lighting the public buildings, but the offer was +rejected. It was then that the unfortunate inventor, wearied by all +his tentatives, fatigued by his thousands of vexations, made up his +mind to have recourse to the public in order to convince it of the +utility of his invention. He rented the hotel Seignelay, St. +Dominique-St. Germain St., and invited the public thither. Here he +arranged a gas apparatus, which distributed light and heat to all the +rooms. He lighted the gardens with thousands of gas jets in the form +of rosettes and flowers. A fountain was illuminated with the new gas, +and the water that flowed from it seemed to be luminous. The crowd +hastened from all parts and came to salute the new invention. Lebon, +excited by this success, published a prospectus, a sort of profession +of faith, a model of grandeur and sincerity, a true monument of +astonishing foresight. He followed his gas into the future and saw it +circulating through pipes, whence it threw light into all the streets +of future capitals. We reproduce a few passages from this remarkable +production:</p> + +<p>"It is painful," says he, "and I experience the fact at this moment, +to have extraordinary effects to announce. Those who have not seen cry +out against the possibility, and those who have seen often judge of +the facility of a discovery by what they have to conceive of its +demonstration. If the difficulty is conquered, the merit of the +inventor vanishes with it. I would rather destroy every idea of merit +than allow the slightest appearance of mystery or charlatanism to +exist.</p> + +<p>"This aeriform principle is freed from those humid vapors that are so +injurious and disagreeable to the organs of sight and smell, and of +the soot which soils apartments. Purified to perfect transparency, it +travels in the state of cold air, and is led by the smallest as well +as frailest pipes, by conduits an inch square, formed in the plaster +of ceilings or walls, and even tubes of gummed taffety would perfectly +answer the purpose. Only the extremity of the tube, which puts the +inflammable gas in contact with the air, and upon which the flame +rests, should be of metal."</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 240px;"> +<a href="./images/7.png"><img src="./images/7_th.png" width="240" height="450" alt="STATUE OF PHILIP LEBON." title="" /> +</a><span class="caption">STATUE OF PHILIP LEBON.</span> +</div> + +<p>Every one finally paid homage to the illustrious inventor, and a +committee appointed in the name of the minister affirmed that "the +advantageous results given by the experiments of Citizen Lebon have +met and even exceeded the hopes of the friends of the sciences and +arts." Napoleon I. soon granted Lebon a concession in the forest of +Rouvray for the organization of an industry of wood distillation and +gas making. Unfortunately, Lebon was obliged to undertake too many +things at once. He prepared the gas, and produced acetic acid and tar +that he had to send to Harve for the use of the navy. Despite all his +trouble and fatigue, he had something like a ray of hope. He believed +that he saw the day of fortune dawning. His works were visited by +numerous scientists, and among others the Russian princes Galitzin and +Dolgorouki, who, in the name of their government, proposed to the +inventor to transfer his plant to Russia, he to be free to set forth +the conditions. Lebon refused this splendid offer, and, in an outburst +of patriotism, answered that his discovery belonged to his country, +and that no other nation should before his own have the benefit of his +labors.</p> + +<p>The hopes of Lebon were of short duration. Enemies and competitors +caused him a thousand troubles, and the elements themselves seemed to +turn against him. During a hurricane, the humble house in which he +dwelt was destroyed, and a fire shortly afterward consumed a portion +of his works. Fatality, like the genius of old, seemed to be following +up the unfortunate inventor; but sorrows and reverses could not have +any hold on this invincible spirit, who was so well seconded by a wife +of lofty character. Lebon, always at work, was seemingly about to +triumph over all obstacles, and the hour of the realization of his +project of lighting on a large scale was near, when a death as tragic +as it was mysterious snatched him from his labors. On the very day of +the crowning of the emperor, December 2, 1804, the body of Philip +Lebon was found lying inert and lifeless in the Champs Elysees, +exhibiting thirteen deep wounds made by a dagger.—<i>La Nature.</i></p> + + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art18" id="art18"></a>A NEW PROCESS FOR THE DISTILLATION AND CONCENTRATION OF CHEMICAL +LIQUIDS.</h2> + +<h3>ESPECIALLY ADAPTED TO THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHATE OF AMMONIA. +INVENTOR, ALEX. ANGUS CROLL.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a>.</h3> + +<h3>By <span class="smcap">George Anderson</span>, of London.</h3> + +<p>The paper I have to lay before you describes the last product of the +brain of one of your past presidents—Alexander Angus Croll—in +connection with our industry. It may not be so well known to some of +the younger as it is to many of the older members of the Institute +that the fertile brain of Mr. Croll has done much for the improvement +and the extension of the gas industry. I consider that he has been the +most successful pioneer both in the cheapening and the purification of +gas—two elements without which our industry would progress but slowly +if at all; and the success which has crowned his efforts, to our +advantage, has reflected itself favorably on himself, showing by his +financial success that he has also been a good man of business. All +these are conditions which enhance the value of this paper. In the +present instance, I claim no other credit than that of being the +mouthpiece of Mr. Croll, whose assistant I was for ten of the busiest +and most important years of his eventful life; and having (with my son +Bruce) taken part in the experiments, I have been asked to describe +the process to the Institute.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of sulphate of ammonia, as hitherto conducted, has +consisted either in bringing together sulphuric acid and ammoniacal +liquor or in distilling the liquor by external heat, or by the +introduction of steam, and bringing it into contact with the acid in +the form of gases and vapor of water. In either case a large volume of +noxious gases is given off, the chief of which, being sulphureted +hydrogen, has to be fixed by another method, in order to comply with +acts of Parliament for the prevention of nuisances.</p> + +<p>By the processes hitherto used, we sometimes get only 1¼ tons of salts +to every ton of acid used; while in the more perfect forms of +apparatus, we may get 1-1/3 tons of salts. By Mr. Croll's process, +however, we get an increased yield of salts on the acid used, as +follows: The experiments were made with sulphuric acid of the specific +gravity of 1838, or nearly concentrated oil of vitriol; and the +quantity used was 8 ounces in each experiment. The ammoniacal liquor +was of uniform strength throughout all the experiments, being kept in +a corked jar; and the solution of sulphate of ammonia was passed +through filter paper before being crystallized. Thus we obtained a +white salt. In each experiment the solution of sulphate was divided +into four equal parts by weight, and one part filtered and +crystallized to dryness over a spirit lamp; the weight in each +experiment being as nearly as possible the same, or 3¼ oz. of salt to +2 oz. of acid—being in the proportion of 26 oz. of sulphate to 1 lb. +of acid, or 32½ cwt. of salts to 20 cwt. of acid.</p> + +<p>The results surprised me; and being uniform over a number of +experiments, pleased me. Still, I preserved the character of a critic +and said: "I should like to treat 8 oz. of acid in the ordinary +way—saturating it with ammoniacal liquor, and then crystallizing it." +"Oh!" Mr. Croll said, "we know what that will produce." I replied: +"Yes; but I would like to do it with the precise acid and liquor we +have been using, so that we may have the experiment on all fours with +yours, barring your process." These experiments were made at his +country residence. I was staying there for the night. So next morning +I got down before him, went at my experiment, saturated 8 oz. of acid +(and a nice smell I made) out in the grounds, treated it afterward by +division into four parts, filtered and crystallized it, all as before, +with the result that I obtained 2¾ oz., as against his 3½ oz.—or in +the proportion of 27½ cwt. of salt to the ton of acid, as against his +32½ cwt.</p> + +<p>I now thought of business. "What is the royalty to be?" I said, as we +sat at breakfast. This we settled as we Scotch say "in a crack," or as +an Englishman would say "in a jiffy." Mr. Croll decided to have the +apparatus put up on a manufacturing scale here in Glasgow; and I +determined to erect similar apparatus at one of my gas works.</p> + +<p>I dare say that it will be uppermost in your minds, Whence comes the +increased yield of salts? Well, I will state one fact, and leave you +to ruminate on it, namely, by Mr. Croll's process we did not seem to +produce any sulphureted hydrogen. The experiments were conducted in a +room with ordinary doors and windows, but without a chimney; and we +were not troubled with any offensive smell—a state of things that +could not possibly have existed had we been experimenting with any +other apparatus hitherto employed in the manufacture of sulphate of +ammonia. The apparatus, which will presently be described, only +substitutes, for the present mode of distillation, a new one, which +forms the subject of Mr. Croll's patent. All other parts of present +apparatus can remain as they now exist.</p> + +<p>Mr Croll has also introduced another mode of producing sulphate of +ammonia, which dispenses with all the apparatus hitherto in use after +the distillatory portion, and produces the salt in a state fit for the +farmer, ready to be put on the land. This process consists in sending +the products of distillation through a vessel filled with wood sawdust +saturated with sulphuric acid. The ammonia becomes fixed and +crystallized in the sawdust, and is ready for use. There are many +works, both at home and abroad, to which the conveyance of sulphuric +acid is both difficult and expensive, on account of the cost of +carriage and the breakage which occurs; and thus in many such works +the ammonia is not utilized. This saturated sawdust process will, I +think, remove the difficulty; for I find that dry sawdust absorbs +double its own weight of sulphuric acid, and this could be conveyed in +the most ordinary casks in a damp state, and save all waste and +annoyance from breakage of bottles. In this state it could be used by +the farmer, or the sulphate of ammonia could be washed out, +crystallized, and exported in the state of salt.</p> + +<p>In the remainder of this paper I have been assisted by my son Bruce, +who also assisted in the experiments that I have described. He has +since been engaged on the trials on a manufacturing scale; and I ask +you to permit him to read the concluding portion of the paper, <a name="Page_9758" id="Page_9758"></a>in +which he will describe the process, and what he has done.</p> + +<p>The process referred to in the foregoing portion of the paper is a +method employed for heating the liquor, whereby a chemical action is +brought into play, with the results already mentioned. This method +consists in passing the products of combustion of a furnace from a +clear fire in a hot state through a still containing the ammoniacal +liquor. The hot gases from the furnace impart their heat to the +liquor, causing the volatilization of the condensed gases, and at the +same time act chemically upon the liquor and evolved gases, so that +ammonia and sulphuric acid are resulting products, in the compound +state of sulphate of ammonia. The formation of the ammonia produced in +the process is probably due to the decomposition of nitrogenous bodies +contained in solution in the liquor—the sulphocyanide, for instance; +the nitrogen being given off in the form of ammonia. Of the sulphuric +acid produced, we look upon the sulphureted hydrogen as the source, +also any sulphites existing in the liquor, which in their volatile +state take up the atom of oxygen necessary for their conversion into +sulphate.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 257px;"> +<img src="./images/8a.png" width="257" height="450" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>The apparatus used in working the process consists of a tower still, +containing a number of superposed trays about 3 or 4 inches apart, +with a lipped hole through the bottom of each at the side. The trays +are so placed in the tower that the holes are at alternate sides. The +liquor passes into the top of the still, and zigzags down through the +series of trays, as in an ordinary Coffey still. The bottom tray +differs from the rest; being much deeper, and having holes through it +connecting it with the furnace, which is set immediately below it. The +products of combustion of the fuel are caused to pass from the furnace +up through the holes in the trays in the still, and, together with the +gases evolved from the liquor, are directed into the saturator, where +the sulphate of ammonia is obtained either in solution or in the +crystalline state.</p> + +<p>Where the process is at present being worked, an exhauster is used to +draw the furnace gases through the still; but it might be advantageous +to use a blower.</p> + +<p>A small plant has been put in action at the gas works in Kilkenny and +another on a larger scale, and differing somewhat in detail, here in +Glasgow at the Alum and Ammonia Company's works, where the liquor from +the Tradeston Gas Works is converted. The trials on a working scale +have only been made at both places within the past ten days; and, so +far, nothing has appeared against the principle, though in certain of +the details of construction some alterations are being made to improve +it. The extra yield of salt from a given quantity of acid obtained in +the experiments has been proved in practice, as also the absorption of +the sulphureted hydrogen.</p> + +<p>The other day, while ammoniacal liquor of about 9 oz. strength was +being run at the rate of 70 gallons per hour through the still, 5 feet +in diameter and 10 feet high, containing seventeen trays, no smell of +sulphureted hydrogen was perceptible from the waste gases from the +saturator, although on applying lead paper a slight trace of this +impurity was noticeable, and it may be stated that the gases were +being delivered at the ground level, where there was no difficulty in +testing them.</p> + +<p>In the Glasgow apparatus we have found it advisable to enlarge the +pipe leading the gases into the saturator, as the volume of these is +much greater than would be the case in the ordinary method of working. +Further experience will probably indicate the desirability of +increasing the height of the still, which, being only 10 feet, is not +more than half the height that Coffey stills are ordinarily made.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a></p> +<div class="note"><p>Read at the recent meeting of the Gas Institute, Glasgow.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art02" id="art02"></a>THE ANALYSIS OF URINE.</h2> + +<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3> + +<p>Whatever may be the position of British pharmacists in comparison with +those of other countries, it cannot be said that they have paid the +attention to the analysis of urine which the subject has received from +pharmacists on the Continent. Considering the importance of the +subject, this curious neglect can only be attributed to the fact that +the pharmacist in Great Britain is but slowly attaining the position +of chemical expert to the physician, which his foreign <i>confrere</i> has +so long held with credit and even distinction. In France, for example, +M. Méhu, whose name is familiar to readers of this journal, is looked +upon as one of the leading authorities on morbid urine and its +analysis, and yet a list of goodly pharmaceutical papers shows that, +as the medical analyst, he has not forgotten his connection with pure +pharmacy.</p> + +<p>There are several points about urinary analysis which entitle it to a +very high position in the estimation of pharmacists. In the first +place, the physician is no more likely to be fonder of the test tube +than of the pestle, of analyzing urine than of compounding his own +medicines. Leading men in the profession are more and more setting +their faces against the dispensing doctor, and there are numbers among +them who admit that they succeed no better as analysts than they do as +dispensers.</p> + +<p>Some old fashioned practitioners trouble themselves very little about +their patients' urine, except, perhaps, in respect of sugar and +albumen. On the other hand, numbers of leading physicians, including +especially those highly educated gentlemen who cultivate a consulting +practice, are in the habit of pushing urinary analysis almost to an +excess. One well-known specialist of the writer's acquaintance, with +an extensive West End practice, makes quantitative determinations of +urea, uric acid, and total acidity, in addition to conducting other +diagnostic experiments, on every occasion that he interviews his +patients. By this means he has accumulated in his case books a mass of +data which he considers most valuable as an aid to diagnosis, and +through that to successful treatment.</p> + +<p>Pharmacists are proverbially neat-handed, as Mr. Martindale would say, +and their habit of conducting dispensing operations which involve the +dexterous manipulation of very small quantities of material fit them +admirably to undertake volumetric and other rapid analytical +determinations. Compared with the doctor there is no doubt that in +this matter the chemist is <i>facile princeps</i>, and from the nature of +their respective occupations such could only have been expected. A few +chemists throughout the country lay themselves out to save their local +doctors from unwelcome test tube practice, and these almost to a man +find it pay. Some charge a handsome fee to patients, and a small one +when the analysis comes through the physician. Others find it to their +interest to furnish medical men with qualitative reports on sugar or +albumen gratuitously. Although this practice has certain obvious +drawbacks, if a doctor sends his prescriptions to a chemist, the +latter is often willing to gratuitously perform his chemical work. In +the present article we propose to describe briefly but fully the +methods which have been found of most value in practice.</p> + + +<h3>PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS.</h3> + +<p>It is the practice of some physicians to direct the patient to +preserve all the urine passed in twenty-four hours, and to forward +this in one bottle for analysis. Others, again, merely send a small +sample of "morning" and "evening" urine in separate phials, desiring +only a comparative report. In the former case the <i>volume</i> should be +accurately measured, and the quantity noted either in fluid ounces or +cubic centimeters before commencing the analysis. This need not be +done if small samples only are received. The <i>color</i> should be noted. +It varies greatly, through every shade of yellow and amber to dark +brown, with a tinge of green or red, if the coloring matter of bile or +blood is present. Also note relative <i>transparency</i> or <i>cloudiness</i>, +<i>specific gravity</i>, and <i>reaction</i>, as all these observations are +useful in diagnosis. <i>Odor</i> is not quite so important. The <i>specific +gravity</i> should be taken at about 60° F. in an ordinary specific +gravity bottle, or more conveniently by means of a good <i>urinometer</i>. +In the latter case it is very important to have an instrument of known +accuracy, many of those in the market being valueless. Urinometers of +glass, though fragile, are decidedly more cleanly and less liable to +get out of order than the gilded brass instruments carried in the +pocket by many physicians. Mr. J.J. Hicks, of 8 Hatton Garden, E.C., +manufactures a very creditable "patent urinometer" at an extremely low +cost. Healthy urine has a density of from 1.015 to 1.025; but +variations from this range are common.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 138px;"> +<img src="./images/8b.png" width="138" height="450" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>A fair quantity of the urine, after shaking, should be placed in a +tall conical glass vessel, to allow easy collection of the precipitate +for subsequent, microscopical examination. If an abundant amorphous +deposit of a fawn or pink—from <i>uroerythrin</i>—color slowly settles +and is readily diffused, <i>urates</i> in excess can be anticipated. Their +presence is proved by the readiness with which they dissolve on +warming with the supernatant urine to about the temperature of the +blood. No difficulty is experienced if small quantities of albumen are +present, as that body is not coagulated until the temperature rises +much higher. A sandy precipitate of free <i>uric acid</i> will not dissolve +on warming the urine, and its identity can further be determined by +means of the microscope, or by applying a well-known color-reaction. A +grain or so is oxidized into reddish alloxan and alloxantin by +carefuly evaporating with a few drops of strong nitric acid on a piece +of porcelain. A little ammonia is then added, when the fine <i>purple</i> +murexide stain will be produced.</p> + +<p>It is always advisable to mention the reaction to test papers of all +samples received. Urine is normally <i>acid</i>, but there are certain +diseases which render fluid neutral or alkaline. The urea of acid +urine on standing is changed by a putrefactive ferment into ammonic +carbonate, but this decomposition in a state of health should not +take place for at least twenty-four hours. Alkalies, or organic salts +of alkaline metals, when taken as medicine render the urine alkaline, +and the indication is then not of much moment; but if none of these +causes exist, the condition is of serious diagnostic import. Where it +is desired to determine the degree of acidity of the urine voided, +say, by a gouty patient, a dilute volumetric solution of caustic soda +should be employed, using a few drops of an alcoholic solution of +phenolphthalein as an indicator, and reporting in terms of oxalic +acid. The soda solution may conveniently contain the equivalent of one +milligramme of recrystallized oxalic acid (H<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>.2H<sub>2</sub>O) in +each cubic centimeter.</p> + +<h3>UREA.</h3> + +<p>Carbamide, as it is called by systematic chemists, or <i>urea</i>, is next +to water the largest constituent of urine, and forms about one-third +of its total solids. Derived from ammonic carbonate by abstracting two +molecules of the elements of water, it is readily converted by +putrefaction into that salt, and the urine under these circumstances +becomes strongly alkaline in reaction. Earthy phosphates then fall +naturally out of solution, so that the putrid fluid is always well +furnished with sediment. Nitrogen that has served its purpose as +muscle or other proteid leaves the animal economy chiefly in the form +of urea, and its proportion in the urine, therefore, is a fair index +of the activity of wasting influences.</p> + +<p>For its determination Knop's sodic hypobromite method, on account of +its convenience, is now generally preferred. The volumetric process of +Liebig, which depends on the formation of an insoluble compound of +urea with mercuric nitrate, possesses no advantages and is troublesome +to work. The principle of the hypobromite process is simple. In a +strongly alkaline solution urea is broken up by sodic hypobromite, its +nitrogen being evolved in the gaseous state, and its carbon and +hydrogen oxidized to carbonic anhydride and water respectively. The +volume of free nitrogen obtained bears a direct ratio to the amount of +urea decomposed.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 282px;"> +<img src="./images/8c.png" width="282" height="400" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>Among the number of instruments which have been introduced for the +purpose of conveniently measuring the evolved gas, that of Gerrard, an +illustration of which we give, is one of the simplest, cheapest, and +best. The ureometer tube, <i>b</i>, is connected at the base with a movable +reservoir, <i>c</i>, and by means of a rubber tube passing through a cork +at the top to the generating bottle, <i>a</i>. To use the apparatus, fill +<i>b</i> to zero with water and have the reservoir placed so high that it +contains only an inch or so of the liquid. Replace the cork with +attached tube tightly in <i>b</i>. Now pour into the generating bottle 25 +c.c. of a solution prepared by dissolving 1 part of caustic soda in 2½ +parts of distilled water, and dexterously break in the liquid a tube +containing 2.2 c.c. of bromine. The tubes will be found very +convenient, obviating entirely the suffocating fumes diffused in the +act of measuring bromine. Allow to stand in the solution of sodic +hypobromite thus prepared a test tube containing exactly 5 c.c. of the +urine under examination. Cork the bottle as shown in the illustration, +see that the water is at zero, and that the liquid in the reservoir is +at the same level, and then allow the urine to gradually mix with the +hypobromite solution. Cool the evolved gas by placing the bottle in +cold water, adjust the levels of the water in the tube and reservoir +(to obviate a correction for pressure), and read off the percentage of +urea in terms of which the tube is graduated. Stale urine, the urea of +which has largely been converted into ammonic carbonate, still yields +a very fair result, that salt being also completely split up by the +powerful oxidant employed. Should the urine contain albumen, it is +advisable to remove it by boiling and filtering, as, although only +slowly decomposed by the hypobromite solution, it communicates to the +liquid such a tendency to froth that the disengagement of the nitrogen +is seriously impeded. Most of those alkaloids which might possibly be +present do not yield the gas when treated in this manner, and +therefore may be disregarded.</p> + +<h3>SUGAR.</h3> + +<p>Glucose, so characteristic of <i>diabetes mellitus</i>, is not difficult of +detection or estimation. The facility with which it reduces alkaline +cupric, argentic, bismuthous, ferric, mercuric salts, indigo and +potassic picrate and chromate solutions has been utilized for the +preparation of several ready methods for its determination. Trommer's +test consists in adding enough cupric sulphate to color green, then +excess of alkali, and boiling. Yellow to brick-red cuprous oxide forms +as a heavy precipitate if glucose is present. The organic matter of +the urine prevents the precipitation of cupric hydrate on the addition +of the alkali. This test is delicate and deservedly popular. Fehling's +well-known solution contains sodio-potassic tartrate, which serves the +purpose chiefly of retaining the copper in solution. Unfortunately, +Fehling's original solution has a tendency to become hyper-sensitive +if kept long, a proneness to change that is much increased on +dilution. <a name="Page_9759" id="Page_9759"></a>When so altered, the solution will yield a more or less +copious precipitate of cuprous oxide on merely boiling, and quite +independent of the presence of glucose. This decomposition is obviated +by preserving the copper salt in a separate solution from the tartrate +and alkali, and mixing before use. Schmiedeberg substitutes mannite +and Cresswell glycerin for the Rochelle salt, in order to render the +solution stable. Some prepared by the writer over twelve months ago, +according to the suggestion of the latter physician, has since shown +no signs of decomposition, and is now as good as it was then. For +qualitative purposes the solution may be prepared thus: Dissolve 35 +gm. of recrystallized cupric sulphate and 200 c.c. of pure glycerin in +100 c.c. of distilled water. Dissolve separately 80 gm. of caustic +soda in 400 c.c. of water. Mix the solutions and boil for a quarter of +an hour. A small amount of reduction from impurity in the glycerin +takes place. Allow to stand till clear, decant, and dilute to 1,250 +c.c. Ten cubic centimeters will then equal roughly 5 centigrammes of +glucose. For exact quantitative determination it is necessary to +standardize the solution with pure anhydrous dextrose.</p> + +<p>To a practiced operator the indications yielded by the use of this +test are of great value; but beginners are exceedingly liable to +mistake its various reactions, and to report the urine as saccharine +when normal traces only of sugar are present. The bismuth test of +Bottger, as greatly improved by Nylander, is fairly delicate, and not +so easily misread as Fehling's. A large volume of reagent being used +with a comparatively small quantity of urine, the precipitate of +earthy phosphates does not interfere in the least with the reaction. +On boiling about 3 drachms of Nylander's solution and 20 minims of +urine for a minute or two, the liquid darkens with a trace of sugar, +and becomes opaque and black if the latter is present in quantity. The +reagent is prepared by dissolving 494 grains of caustic soda, 247 +grains of Rochelle salt, and 154 grains of subnitrate of bismuth (free +from silver) in 13 fluid oz. of distilled water. It should be decanted +for use from any sediment.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 175px;"> +<a href="./images/9a.png"><img src="./images/9a_th.png" width="175" height="400" alt="DR. PAVY'S APPARATUS." title="" /> +</a><span class="caption">DR. PAVY'S APPARATUS.</span> +</div> + +<p>In those cases where the amount of glucose present is required to be +determined, Dr. Pavy's ammonia cupric process distances all compeers +for ease of application and delicacy of end-reaction, combined with +considerable accuracy. His solution differs from that of Fehling in +containing ammonia, which dissolves the cuprous oxide as soon as it is +formed, yielding a colorless solution. It is only necessary, +therefore, to note the moment that the blue color of the liquid is +exactly discharged, in order to tell when all the copper present has +been reduced. Pavy's solution is prepared as follows: Dissolve 356 +grains of Rochelle salt and the same weight of caustic potash in +distilled water; dissolve separately 73 grains of recrystallized +cupric sulphate in more water with heat. Add the copper solution to +that first prepared, and when cold add 12 fluid oz. of strong ammonia +(sp. gr. 0.880), and distilled water to 40 fluid oz. The estimation is +thus conducted: Dilute 10 c.c. of the ammoniated cupric +solution—equivalent to 5 milligrammes of glucose—with 20 c.c. of +distilled water, and place in a 6 or 8 oz. flask. Attach this by means +of a cork to the nozzle of an ordinary Mohr's burette, <i>b</i>, preferably +fitted with a glass stopcock, and filled previously with the diluted +urine. The small tube, <i>c</i>, which traverses the cork is intended to +permit the escape of steam. Now raise the blue liquid in the flask to +active ebullition—not too violent—by the aid of a spirit lamp or +small Bunsen flame. Turn the stopcock in order to allow the urine to +flow into the boiling solution at the rate of about 100 drops per +minute (not more or much less) until the azure tint is exactly +discharged. Then stop the flow, and note the number of cubic +centimeters used. That amount of dilute urine will contain 5 +milligrammes of glucose. To render the determination as accurate as +possible, the urine should be diluted to such an extent that not less +than 4 or more than 7 c.c. are required to decolorize the solution, +and the proportions necessary will be found to vary from 1 part of +urine in 2½ to 1 in 30 or 40. The subsequent calculation is very +simple. If you wish to give the percentage of sugar, multiply 0.005 by +100, and divide the product by the number of cubic centimeters of +dilute urine employed. The figure thus obtained, multiplied by the +extent of dilution—<i>i.e.</i>, if there is 1 of urine in 10, multiply by +10—gives the required percentage. The number of grains per fluid +ounce can of course be obtained by multiplying the percentage by +4.375. To observe easily the exact end-reaction a piece of white paper +should be placed behind the flask. If the analyst objects to the +escape of the waste ammoniacal fumes, they may be conducted by a +suitable arrangement into water or dilute acid. In addition to glucose +there are small quantities of other copper-reducing bodies present in +all urine, which always render the reading higher than strict accuracy +would demand. Their aggregate proportion, however, is, comparatively +speaking, so minute that for most medical purposes their presence may +be disregarded. Greater care must be exercised, though, in those +instances where such a deoxidizer as chloral hydrate is accidentally +present. In case of doubt, a little washed and pressed yeast should be +allowed to stand with the urine for a day or two in a warm place. +Alcoholic fermentation with evolution of carbonic acid gas soon sets +in, and the specific gravity of the liquid is lowered considerably. +This reaction points conclusively to the presence of sugar.</p> + +<p>Based upon Braun's potassic picrate test, Dr. G. Johnson has devised a +colorimetric process for the estimation of sugar. On boiling an +alkaline solution of that salt with glucose, the former is reduced to +deep red-brown picramate, the color of the liquid, of course, varying +in intensity according to the proportion of sugar present. This +solution is diluted till it corresponds in tint with a ferric acetate +standard, and the percentage of sugar is then readily calculated. For +those who prefer this process the convenient apparatus manufactured by +Mr. Cetti, of 36 Brooke street, Holborn, is recommended, who will also +furnish full particulars of the test.</p> + +<h3>ALBUMEN.</h3> + +<p>Normal urine is free from coagulable proteids, though it is admitted +that albumen may sometimes occur in the absence of disease. It is +always highly important, therefore, to determine accurately the +presence or absence of this body. In the relentless malady named after +Richard Bright, the urine always contains albumen, and if accompanied +by the "casts" of the uriniferous tubules your report may amount to a +sentence of certain death. The tests which we now describe are +accurate and easily applied; but reliance should never be placed on +any single reaction—at any rate until the operator has acquired +considerable experience.</p> + +<p>Galippe's <i>picric acid test</i> has within the last few years attracted +much attention, chiefly through the commendation it has received from +Dr. George Johnson. A saturated solution is prepared by dissolving 140 +grains of recrystallized picric acid (carbazotic acid, or, more +correctly, trinitrophenol) in 1 pint of water with heat, and decanting +the clear solution. Some of the urine is rendered perfectly bright by +filtration—repeated, if necessary—through good filtering paper, and +to this an equal volume of the picric acid solution is added. In the +presence of albumen a more or less distinct haze is produced, which on +heating to the boiling point is rather intensified than otherwise. +Peptones, if present, yield a similar haze, and quinine or other +alkaloid a more or less crystalline precipitate; but in both these +cases the opalescence is completely dissipated by heat. Mucin, an +important constituent of some urines, is not affected by picric acid, +and the test is decidedly one of great value.</p> + +<p>The <i>nitric acid test</i>. Heller's contact method, which can also be +used with the last-described reagent, is the best mode of applying the +old-fashioned and favorite test with nitric acid. To 5 volumes of a +filtered saturated solution of magnesic sulphate, prepared by +dissolving 10 parts of the salt in 13 parts of distilled water, add 1 +volume of strong nitric acid, and label "Sir W. Roberts' nitric acid +reagent." A couple of drachms of bright filtered urine is allowed to +float on an equal quantity of this solution in a test tube; care being +taken that the contact line is sharply defined. In a period of time +varying from a few seconds to a quarter of an hour, according to the +amount of albumen present, a delicate opalescent zone forms at the +point of junction, and if mucin also is present, a more diffused haze +higher up in the urine. Special attention should be given to the +position of the opacity. In some concentrated urines a belt of urates +will appear at the line of demarkation; but these dissolve on warming. +Moreover, owing to the dilution necessary in the mode of applying +Galippe's picric acid test, they are not so readily shown by the +latter. A ½ oz. glass syringe can very conveniently be substituted for +a test tube in making analyses according to Heller's method. Some of +the urine should be drawn up, and then an equal volume of the reagent. +On setting aside, the albumen ring will rapidly develop.</p> + +<p>The <i>boiling test</i>. This method also is very delicate and valuable. It +depends on the well-known property possessed by many proteids of +coagulating under the influence of heat. The urine should have an acid +reaction to test paper; if alkaline, it must be cautiously neutralized +with dilute acetic acid. In either case a single drop of strong acetic +acid should be added to about three drachms of the bright liquid. If +this precaution is omitted, there is danger of precipitating earthy +phosphates on heating; and should a great excess of acid be employed, +a non-coagulable form of albumen known as syntonin is formed, besides +increasing the likelihood of precipitating mucin. Place the prepared +urine in a narrow test-tube and hold it in a small flame so that the +upper part only of the liquid approaches the boiling point. By this +means very small traces of albumen are easily observed, the +opalescence produced contrasting strongly with the cold and clear +fluid beneath.</p> + +<p>The <i>ferrocyanide test</i>. Hydroferrocyanic acid yields a precipitate +immediately in the presence of much albumen, and if traces only are +present, in the course of a few minutes. To apply the test, strongly +acidulate with acetic acid, and then add a few drops of recently +prepared potassic ferrocyanide solution. This is one of the most +delicate tests known.</p> + +<p>It is often desirable that the percentage of albumen present should be +determined at frequent intervals, in order to note the success or +otherwise of the physician's treatment. These quantitative +determinations, being intended only for comparative purposes, do not +demand any very excessive degree of accuracy, such as would be +difficult to obtain in ordinary practice. The recent method of a +Continental worker. Dr. Esbach, affords indications sufficiently +precise for therapeutical requirements, and is at the same time +extremely easy of application. The filtered acid urine is poured into +the glass tube up to the mark U, and then the special reagent is added +till the level of the liquid stands at R.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 66px;"> +<a href="./images/9b.png"><img src="./images/9b_th.png" width="66" height="400" alt="" title="" /> +</a></div> + +<p>Mix the liquids thoroughly, without shaking, by reversing the tube a +dozen times, close with a cork, and allow it to stand upright for +twenty-four hours. The height at which the coagulum then stands, read +off on the scale, will indicate the number of parts per thousand, or +grammes of albumen in one liter. This divided by ten gives the +percentage. Dr. Esbach's test solution is prepared by dissolving 10 +grammes of picric acid and 20 grammes of citric acid in 900 c.c. of +boiling distilled water, and then adding, when cold, sufficient water +to yield 1 liter. The citric acid is only employed for the purpose of +maintaining the acidity of the liquid, and is really not essential.</p> + +<h3>URIC OR LITHIC ACID.</h3> + +<p>The determination of the proportion of uric acid in urine was formerly +rather neglected by physicians. There is now, however, a growing +tendency in a certain class of diseases to attach considerable +importance to its accurate estimation, and, as some little trouble is +involved, pharmacists should be prepared to undertake the work. A +rough way is to concentrate somewhat, acidulate with hydrochloric +acid, and collect and weigh the precipitate thrown down on standing. +There are several objections, however, to this method, and many +attempts have been made to elaborate a more reliable process. One of +the most recent, and which has been pronounced the most practical and +successful, has been devised by Professor Haycraft. Although +apparently rather detailed and elaborate, the determination is easy +and extremely simple.</p> + +<p>The following solutions must be prepared: 1. Dissolve 5 grammes of +nitrate of silver in 100 c.c. of distilled water, and add ammonia +until the precipitate first formed redissolves. 2. Dilute strong +nitric acid with about two volumes of distilled water; boil, to +destroy the lower oxides of nitrogen, and preserve in the dark. 3. +Dissolve about 8 grammes of ammonic thiocyanate (sulphocyanide) +crystals in a liter of water, and adjust to decinormal argentic +nitrate solution, by diluting till one volume is exactly equal to a +volume of the latter. Dilute the solution thus prepared with nine +volumes of distilled water, and label "Centinormal ammonic-thiocyanate +solution." 4. A saturated solution of ferric alum. 5. Strong solution +of ammonia (sp. gr. 0.880). The uric acid estimation is conducted as +follows: Place 25 per cent. of urine in a beaker with 1 gramme of +sodic bicarbonate. Add 2 or 3 c.c. of strong ammonia, and then 1 or 2 +c.c. of the ammoniated silver solution. If, on allowing the +precipitate caused by the latter reagent to subside, a further +precipitate is produced by the addition of more solution, the urine +contains an iodide, and silver solution must be added till there is an +excess. The gelatinous urate must now be collected, the following +special procedure being necessary: Prepare an asbestos filter by +filling a 4 oz. glass funnel to about one-third with broken glass, and +covering this with a bed of asbestos to about a quarter of an inch +deep. This is best managed by shaking the latter in a flask with water +until the fibers are thoroughly separated, and then pouring the +emulsion so made in separate portions on to the<a name="Page_9760" id="Page_9760"></a> broken glass. On +account of the nature of the precipitate and of the filter, it is +necessary to use a Sprengel pump, in order to suck the liquid through. +The small apparatus sold to students by chemical instrument makers +will answer the purpose admirably. Having collected the precipitate of +silver urate on the prepared filter, wash it repeatedly with distilled +water, until the washings cease to become opalescent with a soluble +chloride. Now dissolve the pure urate by washing it through the filter +with a few cubic centimeters of the special nitric acid. The process +is carried out thus: Add to the liquid in the beaker a few drops of +the ferric-alum solution to act as an indicator, and from a burette +carefully drop in centinormal ammonic thiocyanate until a permanent +red coloration of ferric thiocyanate barely appears. The number of +cubic centimeters used of the thiocyanate solution multiplied by +0.00168 gives the amount of uric acid in the 25 c.c. One milligramme +may be added to compensate for loss, and the whole multiplied by four +gives the percentage of uric acid in the urine. The whole process +depends on the fact that argentic urate fails to dissolve in ammonia, +but is soluble in nitric acid, and is thus easily obtained in the pure +state. By determining the amount of combined silver, the percentage of +uric acid can readily be calculated. The addition of sodic bicarbonate +prevents the otherwise inevitable reduction of the silver salt.</p> + +<h3>BILE.</h3> + +<p>In diseases affecting the liver, the urine frequently becomes +contaminated with biliary constituents. If the coloring matter of bile +is present (<i>bilirubin</i>, etc.), the liquid is darkened considerably in +tint, and may assume various shades of brown or green. Should the +color be decided, the fluid will be found to foam strongly on shaking, +and white blotting-paper will be stained by it yellow or greenish. +These characters point to the presence of bile in fair quantity, and +it is only necessary to apply a single confirmatory test. Allow some +of the urine to flow carefully, according to Heller's method, over a +couple of drachms of yellow nitric acid (i.e., acid containing traces +of the lower oxides of nitrogen). A number of rapidly changing colors +soon appear, passing through green, blue, violet, and red to yellow. +The first of these tints, green, is the only one that undoubtedly +points to the presence of biliary coloring matter, all the others +being yielded by another constituent of urine, indican, when similarly +treated. Should the color of the urine suggest the presence of only +traces of bile, the best plan is not to treat the urine directly, but +extract a quantity of it by shaking with chloroform. On separating the +latter, and covering with yellowish nitric acid, the color changes +will be observed penetrating into the chloroform. A little, also, +evaporated on a slide yields reddish crystals, which exhibit a pretty +play of colors under the microscope when touched with nitric acid.</p> + +<p>It is not unfrequently considered important to test urine for the +sodium salts of the conjugate biliary acids, taurocholic and +glycocholic. Dr. Oliver, of Harrogate, has proposed the use of an +acidulated peptone solution for this purpose, and the reaction is +undoubtedly a good one. The reagent is prepared by dissolving 30 +grains of flesh peptone, 4 grains of salicylic acid, and 30 minims of +strong acetic acid, in sufficient water to produce 8 fluid oz. of +solution. Thus prepared, the peptone shows no signs of decomposition +on keeping. To use the test, mix 1 fluid drachm of the reagent with 20 +minims of urine, previously diluted to a standard specific gravity of +1.003. A haze is produced, which will be found to be more or less +distinct, according to the proportion of bile salts present.</p> + +<h3>CHLORIDES.</h3> + +<p>A normal and variable constituent of urine, chlorine, is not usually +required to be determined. Should the estimation be considered +necessary, however, Volhard's silver process, which has been noticed +in treating of uric acid, possesses several advantages over other +methods: 10 c.c. of urine are diluted with 60 c.c. of distilled water. +To this is added 2 c.c. of pure 70 percent. nitric acid and 15 c.c. of +a standard solution of silver nitrate (1 c.c. = 0.01 gramme NaCl). +Shake well and make up to 100 c.c. with water. All the chlorine +present will now be precipitated in the liquid as a silver salt. +Filter an aliquot part (about 70 or 80 c.c.), and determine in the +clear solution the excess of silver with standard ammonic thiocyanate, +using the ferric alum indicator. The difference between this and the +amount of silver originally present in the aliquot part has been +precipitated as silver chloride (AgCl). The whole estimation should be +conducted as rapidly as possible. A simple calculation will then give +the proportion of chlorine in the dilute urine, and this multiplied by +ten shows the percentage. It is usual to report in terms of NaCl.</p> + +<h3>PHOSPHATES.</h3> + +<p>In those cases where the pharmacist is asked to determine phosphoric +acid quantitatively, the uranic-acetate method described in Sutton's +"Volumetric Analysis" yields the most satisfactory results. The +process requires some little experience to use it with ease, and is +too lengthy for quotation here.</p> + +<h3>MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION.</h3> + +<p>A good microscope is one of the first necessaries of the urinary +analyst. By its aid it is possible to distinguish easily many solid +constituents of urine—normal and pathological; indeed, the +examination of urinary deposits is often quite as important as the +more elaborate wet analysis. A well-made instrument is no luxury to +the pharmacist; but even those whose chief aim is <i>bon marché</i> can +procure capital students' microscopes at exceedingly low cost. One of +the cheapest, and at the same time an instrument of good quality, is +the "Star," manufactured by Messrs. R. & J. Beck, of 31 Cornhill, E.C.</p> + +<p>Equipped with a good microscope, the analyst should obtain a fair +supply of typical slides for comparison. The following selection will +be found sufficient for his purpose: A set of the chief varieties of +uric acid, calcic oxalate, and triple phosphate; the urates and +oxalurates; urea nitrate, calcic hippurate and carbonate, hippuric +acid, cystin, well mounted "casts" of the <i>tubili uriniferi</i>, +spermatozoa, etc. In doubtful cases microchemical reagents can be +employed, using Professor Attfield's "Chemistry" as a guide. Where +mounted objects are not at hand, reference may be made to the +capitally executed plates in that work. After obtaining a little +experience in the use of the microscope, no difficulty will be met +with in these examinations.—<i>The Chemist and Druggist.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art10" id="art10"></a>LIQUID AND GASEOUS RINGS.</h2> + +<p>All who have learned a little of chemistry doubtless remember the +experiment with vortex rings produced by phosphorus trihydride mixed +with a little phosphide of hydrogen. As this curious phenomenon +evidently does not depend upon the peculiar properties of this gas, I +have been trying for some time to reproduce it by means of tobacco +smoke, and even with chemical precipitates, which are, in a way, +liquid smoke. After a few tentatives made at different times, my +experiment succeeded perfectly. The following is, in brief, the mode +of operating:</p> + +<p>Take up a little hydrochloric acid in a pipette and put a few drops of +it into a very dilute solution of nitrate of mercury, and you will +obtain rings of mercurial chloride that will, in their descent, take +on the same whirling motion that characterizes the aureolas of +phosphureted hydrogen.</p> + +<p>The drops of acid should be allowed to fall slowly, and from a feeble +height, to the surface of the liquid contained in the vessel. It is +unnecessary to say that the result may be obtained through the use of +other solutions, provided that a precipitate is produced that is not +very thick, for in the latter case the rings do not form. If need be, +we may have recourse to milk, and carefully pour a few drops of it +into a glass of water.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/10a.png" width="519" height="400" alt="Fig. 1.—PRODUCTION OF SMOKE RINGS." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />Fig. 1.—PRODUCTION OF SMOKE RINGS.</span> +</div> + +<p>As regards smoke rings, it is easy to produce these by puffing cigar +smoke through a tube (Fig. 1). But, in order to insure success, a few +precautions are necessary. The least current of air must be avoided, +and this requires the closing of the windows and doors. Moreover, in +order to interrupt the ascending currents that are formed in proximity +to the body, the operation should be performed over a table, as shown +in the figure. The rings that pass beyond the table are not +perceptibly influenced by currents of hot air. A tube ¾ inch in +diameter, made by rolling up a sheet of common letter paper, suffices +for making very beautiful rings of one inch or more in diameter. In +order to observe the rings well, it is well to project them toward the +darkest part of the room, or toward the black table, if the operator +is seated. The first puffs will not produce any rings if the tube has +not previously been filled with smoke. The whirling motion is +perfectly visible on the exit of the ring from the tube, and even far +beyond.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/10b.png" width="600" height="201" alt="Figs. 2, 3, and 4.—VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SMOKE RINGS." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />Figs. 2, 3, and 4.—VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SMOKE RINGS.</span> +</div> + +<p>As for the aspect of the rings projected with more or less velocity +to different distances from the tube, Figs. 2, 3, and 4 give quite a +clear idea of that. Figs. 3 and 6 show the mode of destruction of the +rings when the air is still. There are always filaments of smoke that +fall after being preceded by a sort of cup. These capricious forms of +smoke, in spreading through a calm atmosphere, are especially very +apparent when the rays of the sun enter the room. Very similar ones +may be obtained in a liquid whose transparency is interfered with by +producing a precipitate or rings in it.—<i>La Nature.</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/10c.png" width="536" height="400" alt="Figs. 5 and 6..—SMOKE RINGS BREAKING UP." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />Figs. 5 and 6..—SMOKE RINGS BREAKING UP.</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art12" id="art12"></a>SHALL WE HAVE A NATIONAL HORSE?</h2> + +<p><i>To the Editor of</i> <span class="smcap">Scientific American Supplement:</span></p> + +<p>In your issue for August 13 is "A Proposition for a Government +Breeding Farm for Cavalry Horses," by Lieutenant S.C. Robertson +U.S.A., First Cavalry. The article is national in conception, deep in +careful thought, which only gift, with practical experience with +ability, could so ably put before the people. As a business +proposition, it is creditable to an officer in the United States army.</p> + +<p>The husbandman and agriculturist, also the navy and scientific +explorations, each in turn present their wants before the government +for help in some way, and receive assistance. The seaman wants new and +improved or better ships, and the navy gets them; but the poor +cavalryman must put up with any kind of a craft he can get; the horse +is the cavalryman's ship—war vessel on land.</p> + +<p>The appeal of Lieut. Robertson to our government for better horses is +reasonable; and he tries to help the government with a carefully +studied business proposition through which to enable our government to +grant the supplication of the army. That Lieut. Robertson loves a +horse, and knows what a good one is, no man can dispute who has read +his article; but as to how it can best be produced, he does not know. +While I for one applaud both his article and his earnestness, with +your permission I will make some suggestions as to the breeding side +of his proposition. The business portion will, of course, come under +the ordnance department in any event.</p> + +<p>As for a government breeding establishment for any kind of livestock +in this great agricultural country, I feel that such would be at +variance with the interests of husbandry in America.</p> + +<p>The breeding of horses is particularly an important branch of +agriculture, and the farmers should be assisted by the government in +the improvement of their horses, until they are raised to a standard +which in case of emergency could supply the army at a moment's notice +with the best horses in the world at the least possible expense.</p> + +<p>Our government Agricultural Bureau is constantly spending thousands of +dollars to help the agriculturist in matter of better and greater +varieties of improved seeds and the better way for cultivation. Now, +the seed of animal life is as important as in vegetable life to the +interest and welfare of the husbandman, which also means the +government. For the government to become a monopolist of any important +branch in agriculture is not in harmony with the principles of our +republican-democratic form of government. While advocating a +protective tariff against outside depreciation of home industries, our +government should not in any way approach monarchical intrusion upon +the industries of its husbandmen. Our government cannot afford to make +its agriculturists competitors in so important a matter to them (the +farmers) as in the raising of horses; but the government can see to it +that the husbandman has a standard for excellence in the breeding of +horses which shall be recognized as a national standard the civilized +world over. Then, by that standard, and through our superior +advantages <a name="Page_9761" id="Page_9761"></a>over any other civilized nation in the vast extent of +cheap and good grass lands, with abundance of pure water, and with all +temperatures of climate, we can grow, as a people, the best horses in +the world, to be known as the National Horse of America. Our +government must have a blood standard for the breeding of horses, by +which our horses can be bred and raised true to a type, able to +reproduce itself in any country to which we may export them; and the +types can be several, as our territory is so great and demands so +varied, but blood and breeding must be the standard for each type. Our +fancy breeders have a standard now, called a "time standard," which is +purely a gambling standard, demoralizing in all its tendencies to both +man and beast. With this the government need have nothing to do, for +it will die out of itself as the masses learn more of it, and +especially would it cease to be, once the government established a +<i>blood</i> standard for the breeding of all horses, and particularly a +National Horse.</p> + +<p>When the cereal crops of our country are light, or the prices fall +below profitable production, the farmer has always a colt or two to +sell, thus helping him through the year. In place of constantly +importing horses from France, England, and Scotland, where they are +raised mostly in paddocks, and paying out annually millions of +dollars, it is our duty to be exporting.</p> + +<p>As an American I am ashamed when I see paraded at our county or state +fairs stallions and mares wearing the "blue ribbon" of +superexcellence, with boastful exclamation by the owner of "a +thoroughbred imported Percheron, or a thoroughbred imported French +coacher, or a thoroughbred imported Scotch Clyde, or a thoroughbred +imported English coacher, or a thoroughbred imported English Shire, or +a thoroughbred imported English Cleveland Bay!"</p> + +<p>The American farmer and his boys look on aghast at the majesty and +beauty of these prize winners over our big-headed, crowbar-necked, +limp-tailed, peeked-quartered horses called "standard bred!" What +standard? "Time standard," as created by a man who is neither a +horseman nor a breeder; but because of the lack of intelligent +information and want of courage upon the part of a few, this man's +<i>ipse dixit</i> has become law for the American breeders until such time +as cultured intelligence shall cause them to rebel. It soon will.</p> + +<p>It is indeed time for the government to step in and regulate our horse +breeding. Of all the national industries there is none of more +importance than that of horses. More so in America than in any other +country, because our facilities are greater, and results can be +greater under proper regulation. Lieut. Robertson has proved to be the +right man in the right place, to open the door for glorious results to +our nation. No one man or a small body of men can regulate this +horse-breeding industry, but as in France, Russia, and England, the +government must place its hand and voice.</p> + +<p>We are indeed an infant country, but have grown to an age where +parental restraint must be used now, if ever. We have millions of +farmers in America, breeding annually millions of horses; and except +we have another internal war, our horses will soon become a burden and +a pest.</p> + +<p>There are numbers of rich men throughout the country breeding fancy +horses, for sport and speculation, but they only add to the increasing +burden of useless animals, except for gambling purposes; for they are +neither work horses, coach horses, nor saddle horses. Our farmers of +the land are the breeders, as our recent war of the rebellion +testified. The war of 1812, the Mexican war of 1847, and the war of +1861 each called for horses at a moment's notice, and our farmers +supplied them, destroying foundation bloods for recuperation. From +1861 to 1863 the noble patriotism of our farmers caused them to vie +with each other as to who should give the best and least money to help +the government; and cannot our government now do something for the +strength and sinew of the land, the farmers?</p> + +<p>I was dealing in horses, more or less, from 1861 to 1863 (as I had +been before and long after), and many was the magnificent horse I saw +led out by the farmer for the government, at a minimum price, when, +previous to 1861, $400, $500, and even $600 was refused for the same +animals. Horses that would prove a headlight to any gentleman's coach +in the city, and others that would trot off fourteen to sixteen miles +an hour on the road as easy as they would eat their oats, went into +the cavalry or artillery or to baggage trains. What were left for +recuperation at the close of the war were mongrels from Canada or the +Indian and wild lands of the West, and such other lazy brutes as our +good farmers would not impose upon the government with or later were +condemned by the army buyers. These were largely of the Abdallah type +of horse, noted for coarseness, homeliness, also soft and lazy +constitutions. No one disputes the brute homeliness of the Abdallah +horse, and in this the old and trite saying of "Like begets like" is +exemplified in descendants, with which our country is flooded. The +speed element of which we boast was left in our mares of Arabian blood +through Clay and Morgan, but was so limited in numbers as to be an +apology for our present time standard in the breeding of fancy horses. +Knowing that Abdallah blood produced no speed, and being largely +ignorant as to the breeding of our mares, which were greatly scattered +over the land after the war, some kind of a guess had to be made as to +the possibility of the colts we were breeding, hence the time standard +fallacy. But it has ruined enough men, and gone far enough.</p> + +<p>Upon Lieutenant Robertson's proposition, a turn can be made, and a +solid base for blood with breeding of all American horses can be +demanded by the government for the country's good.</p> + +<p>From the earliest history of man, as a people increased in wealth, +they gave attention to mental culture with refinement; following which +the horse was cultivated to a high <i>blood</i> standard with national +pride. From the Egyptians, the Moors, the Romans, and Britons to +France, Russia, and Prussia we look, finding the horse by each nation +had been a national pride—each nation resorting to the same primitive +blood from which to create its type, and that primitive was the +Arabian. Scientists have theorized, men have written, and boys have +imagined in print, as to some other than the Arabian from which to +create a type of horse, and yet through all ages we find that Arabian +has been the one stepping stone for each advanced nation upon which +blood to build its national horse.</p> + +<p>Scientists have reasoned and explored, trying to prove to the +contrary, but what have they proved? The Arabian horse still remains +the fact.</p> + +<p>The lion, the tiger, the leopard, still remain the same, as does the +ass and the zebra. As God created and man named them, with all animal +life, subject to the will of man, so do they all continue to remain +and reproduce, each true to its type, free from imperfections or +disease; also the same in vegetable and mineral life. In animal life, +the build, form, color, size, and instincts remain the same, true to +its blood from the first, and yet all was created for man through +which to amuse him and make him work.</p> + +<p>It is a fact that all of man's creations from any primitive life, +either animal or vegetable, will degenerate and cease to be, while of +God's perfect creations, all continue the same.</p> + +<p>We will condense on the horse. The Arabian is the most pliable in its +blood of any other known to man. From it, any other type can be +created. Once a type has been created, it must be sustained in itself +by close breeding, which can be continued for quite a number of years +without degeneracy. For invigoration or revitalizing, resort must be +made to its primitive blood cause. To go out of the family to colder +or even warmer creations of man means greater mongrelization of both +blood and instinct, also to invite new diseases.</p> + +<p>Nothing is more infatuating than the breeding of horses. A gifted +practical student in the laws of animal life may create a new and +fixed type of horse, but it can be as quickly destroyed by the +multitude, through ignorant mongrelization.</p> + +<p>In the breeding of horses, our people are wild; and in no industry can +our government do more good than in making laws relating to their +breeding. It can father the production of a national horse without +owning a breeding farm. It can make <i>blood</i> and <i>breeding</i> a standard +for different types, and see to it that its laws are obeyed, thus +benefiting all the agriculturists, and have breeding farms in America; +and also itself as a government, financially. We must not however +begin upon the creation of other nations, but independently upon God's +gift to man, as did England, France, and Russia. That a government +should interfere in the breeding of horses is no new thing. The Arabs +of the desert boast to this day of King Solomon's stud of horses; but +in each and every instance where a nation has regulated and encouraged +the breeding of the horse to a high standard of excellence, they have +all begun at the primitive, or Arabian. Thus England in boasting of +her thoroughbred race horse admits it to be of Arabian origin. Russia +in boasting of her Orloff trotting and saddle horse tells you it is of +Arabian origin. France boldly informs you that her Percheron is but an +enlarged Arabian, and offers annual special premiums to such as +revitalize it with fresh Arabian blood.</p> + +<p>After the war of 1812 our forefathers imported many Arabian stallions +to recuperate the blood of their remnants in horses. From 1830 such +prominent men as Andrew Jackson and Henry Clay said all they could by +private letter and public speech to encourage the importation of and +breeding freely to the Arabian horse, and specially did the State of +Kentucky follow the advice of Henry Clay, so that from 1830 up to 1857 +Kentucky had more Arabian stallions in her little district than the +combined States of the Union. Kentucky has had a prestige in her mares +since the war, and it comes in the larger amount of Arabian blood +influence she has had in them, than could be found elsewhere. Kentucky +is shut in, as it were, and retaining her mares largely impregnated +with Arabian blood, all that was necessary for them to do was to get +trotting-bred stallions from New York State, then eclipse all other +States in the produce. While I cheerfully award to Kentucky all credit +due to it, I am not willing that Lieut. Robertson should make his base +for government breeding establishment sectional, nor would I submit to +England through Kentucky. I am too American for that.</p> + +<p>For cavalry purposes, the Prussian horse is the best in the world, and +is also Arabian in its closest foundation.</p> + +<p>To get at this blood question more definitely, let us inquire into +these different recognized self-producing national types of horses +abroad.</p> + +<p>First is the English thoroughbred race horse, which is simply an +improved Arab. The functions of this English national horse are but +twofold—to run races and to beget himself, after which he ceases to +be of value. He is not a producer of any other type of value; to breed +him out of his family is mongrelism and degeneracy, so we don't want +him, even though we could humiliate our American pride through our +loved State of Kentucky.</p> + +<p>Count Orloff of Russia was a great horseman, exceedingly fond of +horseback riding independent of the chase. He tried in 1800 to breed a +satisfactory horse from the English thoroughbred race horse, but went +from bad to worse until he resorted to the ever-pliant blood of the +Arabian. He sent to Egypt and secured a thoroughbred Arabian stallion, +paying $8,000 for him (in our money). This horse he bred to Danish +mares, largely of Arabian blood, and created a very stout, short-backed +horse, standing from 15½ to 15¾ and 16 hands high, of great trotting +speed, also able to run to weight, and with good disposition, which +the English thoroughbred did not have. This type he continued to +close-breed, going back to the Arabian for renewed stoutness. At his +death, his estates passed to his daughter, who continued her father's +breedings until the Russian government purchased the entire +collection, about 1846, since when the Russian government Orloff +trotting and saddle horse has become famous the world over as a +first-class saddle, cavalry, stage coach, and trotting horse combined. +They are broken at three years of age, and scarce any that cannot beat +2:30 at trotting speed, and from that down to 2:15 in their crude way +of hitching and driving. This is something for American breeders to +think very interestedly upon.</p> + +<p>France wanted heavy draught horses, also proud coach horses; so rather +than go to any competing nation for their created types, her +enterprising subjects took the same Arabian blood, and from it created +the beautiful Percheron, also French coach horses, so greatly valued +and admired the world over, and which the gifted and immortal Rosa +Bonheur has so happily reproduced upon canvas. Can America show any +kind of a horse to tempt her brush?</p> + +<p>With regard to a foundation for a government or national horse, I am +certain so gifted and able United States officer as Mr. S.C. Robertson +did not know that it was unnecessary to go to England for the blood of +their national horse, even though we smuggled it through Kentucky or +any other of our States. Again, it would be impossible to produce any +type of a horse from the English thoroughbred, except a dunghill, and +Mr. Robertson would not have his government breed national dunghills!</p> + +<p>I love England as our mother country, but am an American, born and +dyed in the wool to our independence, from the "Declaration."</p> + +<p>Now let us see what England says of her thoroughbred: "He is no longer +to be relied upon for fulfilling his twofold functions as a racer and +reproducer of himself. He is degenerating in stoutness and speed. As a +sire he has acquired faults of constitution and temper which, while +leaving him the best we have, is not the best we should aspire to +have. His stoutness and speed are distinctly Arabian qualities, to +which we must resort for fresh and pure blood." We have shown that the +Englishman says "his thoroughbred is full of radical and growing +defects in wind, tendons, feet, and temper, and that his twofold +functions are to run races and reproduce himself, which are the end of +his purpose." Does our government want breeding farms upon which to +nurse these admitted "defects," including the "confirmed roarer," for +cavalry horses? I quote again: "Those who have had most to do with him +are ready to admit that he no longer possesses the soundness, +stoutness, speed, courage, and beauty he inherited from his Arabian +parentage. As a sire for half-bred stock, he may do for those who will +use him, but we must resort to the Arabian if we would revitalize and +sustain our thoroughbred race horse."</p> + +<p>In the face of these statements, in print abroad, would Lieut. +Robertson make the base for our proposed national horse that of the +English thoroughbred, scattering the weeds from such imperfect +breedings among the farmers of our land?</p> + +<p>I am writing as an old horseman and breeder, and not as a newspaper +man or young enthusiast, although the enthusiasm of youth is still in +me, for which I am thankful.</p> + +<p>This question of horse breeding I have been deeply interested in for +forty years past. Let me quote to the reader from one of many letters +I have received from Sir Wilfrid Seawen Blunt during the past seven +years. His practical knowledge of the English thoroughbred race horse +and his blood cause, the Arabian, is the equal if not superior to any +other one man of this present age.</p> + +<p>With his wife, Lady Anne, he dwelt with the different tribes of the +desert, studying the Arabs as a people, in their customs and habits, +also traditions with beliefs. In matter of their horses, Mr. Blunt +made a special study, while Lady Anne put her diaries in book form +after her return, and which book should be owned by every cultured and +educated lady in America. After spending a year in Arabia, traveling +both sides of the Euphrates and through Mesopotamia, as no other +Anglo-Saxons have been known to do, living with the different Bedouin +tribes of the desert as they lived, Mr. Blunt and his wife, Lady Anne, +came out with sixteen of the choicest bred mares to be found, also two +stallions, the mares mostly with foal. These were placed upon their +estates, "Crabbet Park," to continue inbreeding as upon the desert, +pure to its blood. As this question in itself will make a long and +interesting article, I will avoid it at present, quoting to the reader +from one of my old letters:</p> + +<div class="note"> +<p>"CRABBET PARK, SUSSEX, ENGLAND.</p> + +<p>"Dear Sir: Political matters have prevented an earlier reply to + your last.</p> + +<p>"I am well satisfied with my present results, and shall not + abandon what I have undertaken. The practical merits of Arabian + blood are well understood by us.</p> + +<p>"Our sale of young stock maintains itself in good prices in + spite of bad times; indeed, my average within the past two years + has risen from £84 to £102 on the pure-breds sold as yearlings, + and we receive the most flattering and satisfactory accounts + from purchasers, although it is known that I retain the best of + each year's produce, and so have greatly improved my breeding + stock.</p> + +<p>"You speak of the opinions of the press as against you. The + sporting press are not breeders, but are the mouthpiece of + prejudices. We have had them somewhat against us, but they now + view things in more friendly tone.</p> + +<p>"For immediate use in running races (in which the sporting press + are chiefly interested), the Arabian in his undeveloped state + and under size will not compete with the English race horse. + This fact has caused racing men to doubt his other many and more + important merits; indeed, it is only those who have had personal + experience of him that as yet acknowledge them.</p> + +<p>"The strong points in the Arabian are many:</p> + +<p>"<i>First</i>, his undoubted soundness in constitution, in <i>wind</i>, + <i>limb</i>, and <i>feet</i>. It will be noticed that the Englishman must + have soundness in wind, limb, and feet, showing that their + thoroughbred is the thorn in that particular. The Arabian has + also wonderful intelligence, great beauty, and good disposition, + with an almost affectionate desire to adapt himself to your + wishes.</p> + +<p>"In breeding, I have found the pure-breds delicate during the + first few weeks after birth, and have lost a good many, + especially those foaled early in the year; yet it is a + remarkable fact that during the eight years of my breeding them, + I have had no serious illness in the stables; once over the + dangerous age, they seem to have excellent constitutions, and + are always sound in <i>wind</i>, <i>limb</i>, and <i>feet</i>.</p> + +<p>"<i>Second</i>, they are nearly all good natural and <i>fast walkers</i>, + also fast trotters; and from the soundness of their feet are + especially fitted for fast road work, being able to do almost + any number of miles without fatigue.</p> + +<p>"<i>Third</i>, they are nearly all good natural jumpers, and I have + not had a single instance of a colt that would not go across + country well to hounds.</p> + +<p>"They are very bold fencers, requiring neither whip nor spur. + They carry weight well, making bold and easy jumps where other + larger horses fail.</p> + +<p>"<i>Fourth</i>, they have naturally good mouths, and good tempers, + with free and easy paces; so that one <a name="Page_9762" id="Page_9762"></a>who has accustomed + himself to riding a pure-bred Arabian will hardly go back, if he + can help it, to any other sort of horse.</p> + +<p>"There is all the difference in riding the Arabian and the + ordinary English hunter or half-bred that there is in riding in + a well-hung gig or a cart without springs.</p> + +<p>"<i>Fifth.</i> As sires for half-bred stock, the Arabian may not be + better than a <i>first-class</i> English thoroughbred, but is + certainly better than a <i>second</i>-class one, and <i>first</i>-class + sires are out of the reach of all ordinary breeders; for that + reason I recommend a fair trial of his quality, confident your + breeders will not be disappointed.</p> + +<p>"With good young mares who require a horse to give their + offspring quality, that is to say, beauty, with courage and + stoutness, and with a turn of speed for fast road work, the + Arabian is better than any class of English thoroughbreds that + are used for cross breeding.</p> + +<p>"I trust then for that reason you will not allow yourself to be + discouraged by the slowness of the people to appreciate all the + merits of the Arabian at once.</p> + +<p>"Our breeders are full of prejudices, and only experience can + teach them the value of things outside their own circle of + knowledge.</p> + +<p>"I have no doubt whatever that truth will in the end prevail; + but you must have patience. Remember that a public is always + impatient, and most often unreasonably so.</p> + +<p>"My stud I keep at a permanent strength of twelve brood mares, + and as many fillies growing in reserve.</p> + +<p>"You ask me regarding the <i>pacing</i> gait. I have seen it in the + pure-bred Arabs on the desert; and in many parts of the East it + is cultivated, notably in Asia Minor and Barbary. The walk, + pace, amble, trot, and run are found in the Arabian, and either + can be cultivated as a specialty.</p> + +<p>"If you think any of my letters to you are of general value to + your people, I am quite willing you should so use them.</p> + +<p>"I am, very truly yours,</p> + +<p class="signature">"WILFRID SCAWEN BLUNT.</p> + +<p>"To RANDOLPH HUNTINGTON, Rochester, N.Y."</p> +</div> + +<p>My experience with Arabian blood the past seven years justifies all +that Mr. Blunt has predicted to me from time to time. So also do old +letters by Andrew Jackson and Henry Clay hold out the same inducements +to the breeders of Kentucky and Tennessee in their day.</p> + +<p>From my long years of experience in all classes of horses, I am frank +to say to-day that I would not be without a thoroughbred Arabian +stallion on my place, and journalists who inform their readers that +they "are liable to splints, ringbones, and spavins," give themselves +away to all intelligent readers and breeders as exceedingly +superficial in matter of horses; for ringbones and spavins are +positively unknown among the Arabs. The way to get rid of such +imperfections in our mongrel breed of horses is to fill them up with +pure Arab blood.</p> + +<p>Such paper men also talk about "<i>fresh Diomed</i>" and "fresh Messenger +blood," as though there had been a drop of it in never so diluted form +for any influence these many years, of course forgetting that <i>Diomed</i> +was a very strongly <i>inbred Arabian</i> horse. He came to this country +when 21 years old.</p> + +<p>He was foaled 1777, and arrived in Virginia in 1798. From his old age +and rough voyage in an old-fashioned ship, it required nearly a year +to recuperate from the journey, and was 23 years old before he could +do stud service to any extent. Then, at no time to his death was he a +sure foal getter, even to a few mares. He died in 1808, thirty-one +years old, long enfeebled and unfit for service.</p> + +<p>Between 1808 and 1887 is quite a period of time, during which we have +had four different wars, beginning with 1812, and how much Diomed +blood does the reader suppose there is in this country? Yet I take up +daily and weekly papers devoted to horse articles, extolling the value +of <i>Diomed</i> blood as cause for excellence in some young horse. Are we +a nation of idiots to be influenced by such nonsense?</p> + +<p>I wish there was fresh Diomed blood; thus the public would know what +Arab blood had done for England. So I can say of imported Messenger. +What our breeders want is good, solid information in print, and not +the; dreamings of some professional writer for money. For myself, I am +on the downhill side of life, but so long as I can help the young by +pen or example, I shall try.</p> + +<p class="signature">RANDOLPH HUNTINGTON.</p> + +<p>Rochester, N.Y.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art11" id="art11"></a>SCENES AMONG THE EXTINCT VOLCANOES OF RHINELAND.</h2> + +<p>In the province of the Rhine there is a range of mountains, including +several extinct volcanoes, which offer grand and beautiful scenery and +every opportunity for geological study, leading the mind back to the +early ages of the earth.</p> + +<p>Let us take an imaginary trip through this region, starting on our +wanderings from the Rhine, where it breaks through the vine-clad slate +mountains of the Westerwald and the Eifel. A short distance above the +mouth of the Ahr we leave its banks, turning to the west, and entering +the mountains at the village of Nieder Breisig. A pretty valley leads +us up through orchards and meadows. The lower hills are covered with +vineyards and the mountains with a dense growth of bushes, so that we +do not obtain an extended view until we reach an elevated ridge.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 478px;"> +<img src="./images/13c.png" width="478" height="450" alt="DISTANT VIEW OF THE VOLCANIC PORTION OF THE EIFEL, TAKEN FROM THE HEIGHTS OF THE SCHNEIFEL." title="" /> +<span class="caption">DISTANT VIEW OF THE VOLCANIC PORTION OF THE EIFEL, TAKEN FROM THE HEIGHTS OF THE SCHNEIFEL.</span> +</div> + +<p>The valley of the Rhine lies far below us, but the glittering surface +of the river, with the little towns, the castles and villas and the +gardens and vineyards on its banks are still visible, while in the +background the mountains of the Westerwald have risen above the hills +on the river. This range stretches out into a long wooded ridge +crowned by cone-shaped peaks of basalt. To the northwest of this lies +Siebengebirge, with its numerous domes and pinnacles, making a grand +picture veiled in the blue mist of distance. On the opposite side we +have a very different view of curious dome and cone shaped summits +surrounded by undulating plateaus or descending into deep ravines and +gorges. It is the western part of the volcanic region of Rhineland +which lies before us, and in the center of which is the Laachersee or +lake of Laach. The origin of these volcanoes is not as remote as many +suppose, but their activity must have continued for a comparatively +long period, judging from the extent of their lava beds.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/13b.png" width="568" height="450" alt="THE SHORES OF LAACHERSEE." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />THE SHORES OF LAACHERSEE.</span> +</div> + +<p>There was a time when the sea covered the lowlands of North Germany, +and the waves of a deep bay washed the slopes of the Siebengebirge. +Then the bed of the Rhine lay in the highlands, which it gradually +washed away until the surface of the river was far, far below the +level of its old bed; and then the volcanoes poured forth their +streams of lava over the surrounding plains.</p> + +<p>In the course of time the surface of the country has changed so that +these lava beds now lie on the mountain sides overhanging the valleys +of to-day. Some of the volcanoes sent forth melted stones and ashes +from their summits, and streams of lava from their sides, while the +craters of others cracked and then sank in, throwing their debris over +the neighboring country. In the Eifel there are many such funnels +which now contain water forming beautiful lakes (Maaren), which add +much to the scenery of the Eifel. The Laachersee is the largest of +these lakes. In the mean time the channel of the Rhine had been worn +away almost to its present level, but the mountains still sent forth +their streams of lava, which stopped brooks and filled the ravines, +and even the Rhine itself was dammed up by the great stream from +Fornicherkopf forming what was formerly the Neuwied. The old lava +stream which obstructed the river is still to be seen in a towering +wall of rock, extending close beside the road and track that follow +the shore.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/12a.png" width="600" height="396" alt="CRATER AND LAKE ON TOP OF THE MOSENBERGE." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />CRATER AND LAKE ON TOP OF THE MOSENBERGE.</span> +</div> + +<p>After having made these observations, we descend from the height which +afforded us the view of the Vinrt Valley. A clear brook flows through +green meadows and variegated fields stretch along the mountain sides, +while modest little villages are scattered among the fruit trees. On +the other side of the valley rises the Herchenberg, an extinct +volcano. As we climb its sides we see traces of the former +devastation. Loose ashes cover the ground, bits of mica glittering in +the sun, and on the summit we find enormous masses of stone which were +melted and then baked together. In the center lies the old crater, a +quiet, barren place bearing very little vegetation, but from its wall +an <a name="Page_9763" id="Page_9763"></a>excellent view of the surrounding country can be obtained. Not far +from this mountain lies the mighty Bausenberg, with its immense, well +preserved crater, only one side of which has been broken away, and +which is covered with a thick growth of bushes. The ledges of this +mountain are full of interest for the mineralogist. Nearer to Lake +Laach are the Wahnenkopfe, the proud Veitskopf, and other cone-shaped +peaks. To these we direct our steps, and after a long tramp over the +rolling, cultivated plateau, we climb the wood-covered sides of the +great basin in whose depths the Laachersee lies. From the shore of +this lake rise the high volcanic peaks which tower above all the other +mountains.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/12d.png" width="469" height="450" alt="LAKE GEMUNDEN." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />LAKE GEMUNDEN.</span> +</div> + +<p>Tired from our climb through the ashes, which are heated by the sun, +we rest in the shade of a beech-wood, looking through the leaves into +the valley below us, with the old cloisters and the high Roman church +which the monks once built on the banks of the lake.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/13a.png" width="503" height="450" alt="THE CRATER OF THE HERCHENBERGES." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />THE CRATER OF THE HERCHENBERGES.</span> +</div> + +<p>To the south of the lake rise other volcanoes, lying on the border of +the fertile Maifeld, which gradually descends to the valley of +Neuwied. Here, at the southern declivity of the group of volcanoes +which surrounds the Laachersee, remarkably large streams of lava were +ejected, covering the surface of the plateau with a thick layer. The +largest of these streams is that from the Niedermendig, which consists +of porous masses of nepheline lava. In the time of the Romans +millstones were made from this mass of rock, and the industry is +carried on now on a larger scale. It is a strange sight which meets +one's eyes when, after descending through narrow passages, he finds +himself in large, dark halls, from which the stone has been cut away, +and in which there are well-like shafts. The stones are raised through +these shafts by means of gigantic cranes and engines. Because of the +rapid evaporation of the water in the porous stone, these vaults are +always cool, winter and summer, and therefore they are used by several +brewers as storehouses for their beer, which owes its fame to these +underground halls.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/13d.png" width="600" height="326" alt="THE MILLSTONE GALLERIES IN THE LAVA BEDS OF NIEDERMENDIG." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />THE MILLSTONE GALLERIES IN THE LAVA BEDS OF NIEDERMENDIG.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/13f.png" width="488" height="450" alt="ON THE LAVA BEDS OF NIEDERMENDIG." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />ON THE LAVA BEDS OF NIEDERMENDIG.</span> +</div> + +<p>Although the traces of former volcanic action are evident to the +student of nature, the Rhine with its mild climate and luxuriant +vegetation has covered many marks of the former chaotic state of the +land. Very little of this beauty is seen on the higher and, +therefore, more severe and barren mountains of the Western Eifel, +through which a volcanic fissure runs from the foot of the high +unhospitable Schneifel to Bertrich Baths, near the Moselle. From the +ridge of the Schneifel the traveler from the north has his first +glimpse of the still distant system of volcanoes. The most beautiful +part of this portion of the Eifel is in the neighborhood of Dann and +Manderscheid. Near the former rises a barren mountain with a long +ridge, on each side of which is a deep basin. These are sunken +craters, which now contain lakes, and near these two there is a third, +larger lake, the Maar von Schalkemehren, on the cultivated banks of +which we find a little village. The middle one, the Weinfelder Maar, +is the most interesting for geologists, for there seems to have been +scarcely any change here since the time of the eruption. On the other +side of the mountain lies the Gremundener Maar, the shores of which +are not barren and waste land, like those of the middle lake, but it +is surrounded by a dark wreath of woods whose tops are mirrored in the +crystal water. Farther to the south, near the villages of Gillenfeld +and Meerfeld, there are more lakes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/13e.png" width="600" height="371" alt="THE WEINFELDER LAKE ON THE MAUSEBERGE." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />THE WEINFELDER LAKE ON THE MAUSEBERGE.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/12b.png" width="600" height="358" alt="EASTERN DECLIVITY OF MOSENBERGE NEAR MANDERSCHEID." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />EASTERN DECLIVITY OF MOSENBERGE NEAR MANDERSCHEID.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="Page_9764" id="Page_9764"></a>The grandest picture of these ancient events is offered by the +Mosenberg, near Manderscheid, a mighty volcano which commands an +extensive view of the country. Two old craters lie on its double top, +one of which has fallen in, forming a short rocky valley, but the +other retains its original regular shape. In the circular funnel, +whose walls consist of masses of lava stone, rests a quiet, black +lake, that looks very mysterious to the wanderer. Only low juniper +bushes grow near the crater, bearing witness to the barrenness of the +land. From the foot of this mountain an immense stream of lava, as +wide and deep as a glacier, broke forth and flowed into the valley, +where the end of the stream is still to be seen in a high, steep wall +of rock.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 353px;"> +<img src="./images/12c.png" width="353" height="400" alt="THE "CHEESE GROTTO" AT BERTRICH BATHS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE "CHEESE GROTTO" AT BERTRICH BATHS.</span> +</div> + +<p>Similar sights are met all through this western volcanic region, and +we can consider the mineral and acid springs, which are very numerous, +as the last traces of the former disturbances, the products of the +decomposition of the volcanic stones buried in the earth. At Bertrich +Baths there are hot springs which were known to the Romans, for +numerous antiquities dating from their time have been excavated here. +Near these springs, at Bertrich, there is a "Cheese Grotto," which is +a break through the foot of a stream of lava, the stones of which have +not assumed the usual form of solidified columns, but have taken flat, +round shapes which resemble the forms of cheeses.</p> + +<p>Now we have completed our wanderings, which required only a few days, +although they extended over this whole volcanic region, and which end +here on the Moselle.—<i>Ueber Land und Meer; Allgemeine Illustrirte +Zeitung.</i></p> + +<div style="width: 100%"> +<hr /> +</div> + +<p class="center">[<span class="smcap">Nature.</span>]</p> + +<h2><a name="art08" id="art08"></a>THE "METEOROLOGISKE INSTITUT" AT UPSALA, AND CLOUD +MEASUREMENTS.</h2> + +<p>The Meteorological Institute at Upsala has gained so much fame by the +investigations on clouds which have been carried on there during the +last few years, that a few notes on a recent visit to that +establishment will interest many readers.</p> + +<p>The Institute is not a government establishment; it is entirely +maintained by the University of Upsala. The <i>personnel</i> consists of +Prof. Hildebrandsson, as director; M. Ekholm and one other male +assistant, besides a lady who does the telegraphic and some of the +computing work.</p> + +<p>The main building contains a commodious office, with a small library +and living apartments for the assistant. The principal instrument room +is a separate pavilion in the garden. Here is located Thiorell's +meteograph, which records automatically every quarter of an hour on a +slip of paper the height of the barometer, and the readings of the wet +and dry thermometers. Another instrument records the direction and +velocity of the wind.</p> + +<p>This meteograph of Thiorell's is a very remarkable instrument. Every +fifteen minutes an apparatus is let loose which causes three wires to +descend from rest till they are stopped by reaching the level of the +mercury in the different tubes. When contact is made with the surface +of the mercuries, an electric current passes and stops the descent of +each wire at the proper time. The downward motion of the three wires +has actuated three wheels, each of which carries a series of types on +its edge, to denote successive readings of its own instrument. For +instance, the barometer-wheel carries successive numbers for every +five-hundredth of a millimeter—760.00, 760.05, 760.1, etc.; so that +when the motion is stopped the uppermost type gives in figures the +actual reading of the barometer. Then a subsidiary arrangement first +inks the types, then prints them on a slip of paper, and finally winds +the dipping wires up to zero again.</p> + +<p>An ingenious apparatus prevents the electricity from sparking when +contact is made, so that there is no oxidation of the mercury. The +mechanism is singularly beautiful, and it is quite fascinating to +watch the self acting starting, stopping, inking, and printing +arrangements.</p> + +<p>We could not but admire the exquisite order in which the whole +apparatus was maintained. The sides of the various glass tubes were as +clean as when they were new, and the surfaces of the mercuries were as +bright as looking glasses.</p> + +<p>The university may well be proud that the instruments were entirely +constructed in Stockholm by the skillful mechanic Sorrenson, though +the cost is necessarily high. The meteograph, with the anemograph, +cost £600, but the great advantage is that no assistant is required to +sit up at night, and that all the figures wanted for climatic +constants are ready tabulated without any further labor.</p> + +<p>But the Institute is most justly celebrated for the researches on the +motion and heights of clouds that have been carried on of late years +under the guidance of Prof. Hildebrandsson, with the assistance of +Messrs. Ekholm and Hagström.</p> + +<p>The first studies were on the motion of clouds round cyclones and +anticyclones; but the results are now so well known that we need not +do more than mention them here.</p> + +<p>Latterly the far more difficult subjects of cloud heights and cloud +velocities have been taken up, and as the methods employed and the +results that have been obtained are both novel and important, we will +describe what we saw there.</p> + +<p>We should remark, in the first instance, that the motion of the higher +atmosphere is far better studied by clouds than by observations on +mountain tops, for on the latter the results are always more or less +influenced by the local effect of the mountain in deflecting the wind +and forcing it upward.</p> + +<p>The instrument which they employ to measure the angles from which to +deduce the height of the clouds is a peculiar form of altazimuth that +was originally designed by Prof. Mohn, of Christiania, for measuring +the parallax of the aurora borealis. It resembles an astronomical +altazimuth, but instead of a telescope it carries an open tube without +any lenses. The portion corresponding to the object glass is formed by +thin cross wires: and that corresponding to the eye piece by a plate +of brass, pierced in the center by a small circular hole an eighth of +an inch in diameter. The tube of the telescope is replaced by a +lattice of brass work, so as to diminish, as far as possible, the +resistance of the wind. The vertical and horizontal circles are +divided decimally, and this much facilitates the reduction of the +readings.</p> + +<p>The general appearance of the instrument is well shown in the figure, +which is engraved from a photograph I took of Mr. Ekholm while +actually engaged in talking through a telephone to M. Hagström as to +what portion of a cloud should be observed. The latticework tube, the +cross wires in place of an object glass, and the vertical circle are +very obvious, while the horizontal circle is so much end on that it +can scarcely be recognized except by the tangent screw which is seen +near the lower telephone.</p> + +<p>Two such instruments are placed at the opposite extremities of a +suitable base. The new base at Upsala has a length of 4,272 feet; the +old one was about half the length. The result of the change has been +that the mean error of a single determination of the highest clouds +has been reduced from 9 to a little more than 3 per cent. of the +actual height. At the same time the difficulty of identifying a +particular spot on a low cloud is considerably increased. A wire is +laid between the two ends of the base, and each observer is provided +with two telephones—one for speaking, the other for listening. When +an observation is to be taken, the conversation goes on somewhat as +follows: First observer, who takes the lead—"Do you see a patch of +cloud away down west?" "Yes." "Can you make out a well-marked point on +the leading edge?" "Yes." "Well, then; now." At this signal both +observers put down their telephones, which have hitherto engaged both +their hands, begin to count fifteen seconds, and adjust their +instruments to the point of cloud agreed on. At the fifteenth second +they stop, read the various arcs, and the operation is complete.</p> + +<p>But when the angles have been measured the height has to be +calculated, and also the horizontal and vertical velocities of the +cloud by combining the position and height at two successive +measurements at a short interval. There are already well-known +trigonometrical formulæ for calculating all these elements, if all the +observations are good; but at Upsala they do far more. Not only are +the observations first controlled by forming an equation to express +the condition that the two lines of sight from either end of the base +should meet in a point, if the angles have been correctly measured and +all bad sets rejected; but the mean errors of the rectangular +co-ordinates are calculated by the method of least squares.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/14.png" width="600" height="406" alt="N. EKHOLM MEASURING CLOUDS." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><br />N. EKHOLM MEASURING CLOUDS.<br /><br /></span> +<p class="longcaption">This figure shows the peculiar ocular part of the altazimuth, +with the vertical and horizontal circles. It also shows the telephonic arrangement.</p> +</div> + +<p>The whole of the calculations are combined into a series of formulæ +which are necessarily complicated, and even by using logarithms of +addition and subtraction and one or two subsidiary tables—such as for +log. sin²(θ/2) specially constructed for this work—the +computation of each set of observations takes about twenty minutes.</p> + +<p>Before we describe the principal results that have been attained, it +may be well to compare this with the other methods which have been +used to determine the height of clouds. A great deal of time and skill +and money have been spent at Kew in trying to perfect the photographic +method of measuring the height of clouds. Very elaborate cloud +cameras, or photo-nephoscopes, have been constructed, by means of +which photographs of a cloud were taken simultaneously from both ends +of a suitable base. The altitude and azimuth of the center of the +plate were read off by the graduated circles which were attached to +the cameras; and the angular measurements of any point of cloud on the +picture were calculated by proper measurements from the known center +of the photographic plate. When all this is done, the result ought to +be the same as if the altitude and azimuth of the point of the cloud +had been taken directly by an ordinary angle measuring instrument.</p> + +<p>It might have been thought that there would be less chance of +mistaking the point of the cloud to be measured, if you had the +pictures from the two ends of the base to look at leisurely than if +you could only converse through a telephone with the observer at the +other end of the base. But in practice it is not so. No one who has +not seen such cloud photographs can realize the difficulty of +identifying any point of a low cloud when seen from two stations half +a mile or a whole mile apart, and for other reasons, which we will +give presently, the form of a cloud is not so well defined in a +photograph as it is to the naked eye.</p> + +<p>At Kew an extremely ingenious sort of projector has been devised, +which gives graphically the required height of a cloud from two +simultaneous photographs at opposite ends of the same base, but it is +evident that this method is capable of none of the refinements which +have been applied to the Upsala measures, and that the rate of +vertical ascent or descent of a cloud could hardly be determined by +this method. But there is a far greater defect in the photographic +method, which at present no skill can surmount.</p> + +<p>We saw that the altazimuth employed at Upsala had no lenses. The +meaning of this will be obvious to anyone who looks through an opera +glass at a faint cloud. He will probably see nothing for want of +contrast, and if anything of the nature of a telescope is employed, +only well-defined cloud outlines can be seen at all. The same loss of +light and contrast occurs with a photographic lens, and many clouds +that can be seen in the sky are invisible on the ground glass of the +camera. Cirrus and cirro-stratus—the very clouds we want most to +observe—are always thin and indefined as regards their form and +contrast against the rest of the sky, so that this defect of the +method is the more unfortunate.</p> + +<p>But even when the image of a cloud is visible on the focusing glass, +it does not follow that any image will be seen in the picture. In +practice, thin, high white clouds against a blue sky can rarely be +taken at all, or only under exceptional circumstances of illumination. +The reason seems to be that there is very little light reflected at +all from a thin wisp of cirrus, and what there is must pass through an +atmosphere always more or less charged with floating particles of ice +or water, besides earthy dust of all kinds. The light which is +scattered and diffused by all these small particles is also +concentrated on the sensitive plate by the lens, and the resulting +negative shows a uniform dark surface for the sky without any trace of +the cloud. What image there might have been is buried in photographic +fog.</p> + +<p>In order to compare the two methods of measuring clouds, I went out +one day last December at Upsala with Messrs. Ekholm and Hagström when +they were measuring the height of some clouds. It was a dull +afternoon, a low foggy stratus was driving rapidly across the sky at a +low level, and through the general misty gloom of a northern winter +day we could just make out some striated stripes of strato-cirrus—low +cirro-stratus—between the openings in the lower cloud layer. The +camera and lens that I use habitually for photographing cloud +forms—not their angular height—was planted a few feet from the +altazimuth with which M. Ekholm was observing, and while he was +measuring the necessary angles I took a picture of the clouds. As +might have been expected under the circumstances, the low dark cloud +came out quite well, but there was not the faintest trace of the +strato-cirrus on the negative. MM. Ekholm and Hagström, however, +succeeded in measuring both layers of cloud, and found that the low +stratus was floating at an altitude of about 2,000 feet high, while +the upper strato-cirrus was driving from S. 57° W. at an altitude of +19,653 feet, with a horizontal velocity of 81 and a downward velocity +of 7.2 feet per second. This is a remarkable result, and shows +conclusively the superiority of the altazimuth to the photographic +method of measuring the heights of clouds.</p> + +<p>Whenever opportunity occurs, measures of clouds are taken three times +a day at Upsala, and it may be well to glance at the principal results +that have been obtained.</p> + +<p>The greatest height of any cloud which has yet been satisfactorily +measured is only 43,800 feet, which is rather less than has usually +been supposed; but the highest velocity, 112 miles an hour with a +cloud at 28,000 feet, is greater than would have been expected. It may +be interesting to note that the isobars when this high velocity was +reported were nearly straight, and sloping toward the northwest.</p> + +<p>The most important result which has been obtained from all the +numerous measures that have been made is the fact clouds are not +distributed promiscuously at all heights in the air, but that they +have, on the contrary, a most decided tendency to form at three +definite levels. The mean summer level of these three stories of +clouds at Upsala has been found to be as follows: low clouds—stratus, +cumulus, cumulo-nimbus, 2,000-6,000 feet; middle clouds—strato-cirrus +and cumulo-cirrus, 12,900-15,000 feet; high clouds—cirrus, +cirro-stratus, cirro-cumulus, 20,000-27,000 feet.</p> + +<p>It would be premature at present to speculate on the physical +significance of this fact, but we find the same definite layers of +clouds in the tropics as in these high latitudes, and no future cloud +nomenclature or cloud observations will be satisfactory which do not +take the idea of these levels into account.</p> + +<p>But the refinements of the methods employed allow the diurnal +variations both of velocity and altitude to be successfully measured. +The velocity observations confirm the results that have been obtained +from mountain stations—that, though the general travel of the middle +and higher clouds is much greater than that of the surface winds, the +diurnal variation of speed at those levels is the reverse of what +occurs near the ground. The greatest velocity on the earth's surface +is usually about 2 p.m.; whereas the lowest rate of the upper currents +is about midday.</p> + +<p>The diurnal variation of height is remarkable, for they find at Upsala +that the mean height of all varieties of clouds rises in the course of +the day, and is higher between 6 and 8 in the evening than either in +the early morning or at midday.</p> + +<p>Such are the principal results that have been obtained at Upsala, and +no doubt they surpass any previous work that has been done on the +subject. But whenever we see good results it is worth while to pause a +moment to consider the conditions under which the work has been +developed, and the nature and nurture of the men by whom the research +has been conducted. Scientific research is a delicate plant, that is +easily nipped in the bud, but which, under certain surroundings and in +a suitable moral atmosphere, develops a vigorous growth.</p> + +<p>The Meteorological Institute of Upsala is an offshoot of the +Astronomical Observatory of the university; and a university, if +properly directed, can develop research which promises no immediate +reward in a manner that no other body can approach.</p> + +<p>If you want any quantity of a particular kind of calculation, or to +carry on the routine of any existing work in an observatory, it is +easy to go into the labor market and engage a sufficient number of +accurate computers, either by time or piece work, or to find an +assistant who will make observations with the regularity of clockwork.</p> + +<p>But original research requires not only special natural aptitudes and +enthusiasm to begin with, but even then will not flourish unless +developed by encouragement and the identification of the worker with +his work. It is rarely, except in universities, that men can be found +for the highest original research. For there only are young students +encouraged to come forward and interest themselves in any work for +which they seem to have special aptitude.</p> + +<p>Now, this is the history of the Upsala work. Prof. <a name="Page_9765" id="Page_9765"></a>Hildebrandsson was +attached as a young man to the meteorological department of the +astronomical observatory, and when the study of stars and weather were +separated, he obtained the second post in the new Meteorological +Institute. From this his great abilities soon raised him to the +directorship, which he now holds with so much credit to the +university. M. Ekholm, a much younger man, has been brought up in the +same manner. First as a student he showed such aptitude for the work +as to be engaged as assistant; and now, as the actual observation and +reduction of the cloud work is done by him and M. Hagström, the +results are published under their names, so that they are thoroughly +identified with the work.</p> + +<p>Upsala is the center of the intellectual life of Sweden, and there, +rather than at Stockholm, could men be found to carry out original +research. It redounds to the credit of the university that it has so +steadily supported Prof. Hildebrandsson, and that he in his turn has +utilized the social and educational system by which he is surrounded +to bring up assistants who can co-operate with him in a great work +that brings credit both to himself, to themselves, and to the +institute which they all represent.</p> + +<p class="signature">Ralph Abercromby.</p> + +<hr /> + + +<p class="center">[Continued from <span class="smcap">Supplement</span>, No. 610, page 9744.]</p> + +<p class="center">[<span class="smcap">Journal Of The Society Of Chemical Industry.</span>]</p> + +<h2><a name="art07" id="art07"></a>NOTES OF A RECENT VISIT TO SOME OF THE PETROLEUM-PRODUCING +TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA.</h2> + +<h3>By <span class="smcap">Boverton Redwood</span>, F.I.C., F.C.S.</h3> + +<h3>CANADIAN PETROLEUM.</h3> + +<p>When I visited Canada in 1877-78, the refining of petroleum was +principally conducted in the city of London, Ontario. At the present +time Petrolia, Ontario, is the chief seat of the industry, and it was +accordingly to this city that we made our way. Here we were treated +with the greatest kindness and hospitality by Mr. John D. Noble, +vice-president of the Petrolia Crude Oil and Tanking Co., and his +brother, Mr. R. D'Oyley Noble, and were enabled in the short time at +our disposal to visit typical portions of the producing territory and +some of the principal refineries.</p> + +<p>The development of the Canadian petroleum industry may be said to date +from 1857, when a well dug for water was found to yield a considerable +quantity of petroleum; but long previously, indeed from the time of +the earliest settlements in the county of Lamberton, in the western +part of the province of Ontario, petroleum was known to exist in +Canada. In 1862 productive flowing wells were drilled at Oil Springs, +but these wells, which were comparatively shallow, quickly became +exhausted, and the territory was deserted on the discovery in 1865 of +oil at Petrolia, seven miles to the northward, and about 16 miles +southwest of the outlet of Lake Huron. Recently the Oil Springs wells +have been drilled deeper, and are now producing 10,000 to 12,000 +barrels (of 42 American gallons) per month. Petroleum has also been +found at Bothwell, 35 miles from Oil Springs, but this district has +ceased to yield. Quite recently a new territory has been discovered at +Euphemia, 17 miles from Bothwell, where, at the time of our visit, +there were four wells producing collectively 70 barrels per day. This +territory is by some regarded as part of the Bothwell field.</p> + +<p>The present producing oil belt extends from Petrolia in a +northwesterly direction, to the township of Sarnia, and in a +southeasterly direction to Oil Springs, but in the latter direction +there is a break of about four and a quarter miles, commencing at a +point about two miles from Petrolia. At Oil Springs there appears to +be a pool about two miles square. The extension of the belt then +continues in the same direction, with another break of about nine +miles, to the new oil field of Euphemia, the average width of the oil +belt being about two miles. In all, about 15,000 wells are believed to +have been drilled in the Canadian oil fields, and of these about 2,500 +are now producing, the average yield being about three quarters of a +barrel per well per day. The aggregate production is probably about +700,000 barrels per annum, the greater part of which is obtained in +the Petrolia district, and the stocks were at the time of our visit +stated to amount to from 400,000 to 450,000 barrels.</p> + +<p>In the Canadian oil fields the drilling contractor usually employs his +own derrick, engine, boiler, and tools, furnishes wood and water, +cases the well, and fixes the pump; the well owner providing the +casing and pump, and subsequently erecting the permanent derrick.</p> + +<p>The wells in the Oil Springs field were formerly from 200 ft. to 300 +ft. in depth, but the oil stratum then worked became waterlogged, and +the wells are now sunk to a depth of about 375 ft., and are cased to a +depth of about 275 ft. to shut off the water. The contract price for +drilling a 4⅝ in. hole to a depth of about 375 ft. under the +conditions mentioned is 150 dols. (£30), and the time occupied in +drilling is usually about a week when the work is continued night and +day. The wells in the Petrolia field have a depth of 480 ft., the +contract price, including the cost of 100 ft. of wooden conductor, +being 175 dols. (£35), and the time occupied in drilling being from +six to twelve days. Pole tools are used in drilling, the poles being +of white ash, 37 ft. in length. The derrick is about 48 ft. in height. +An auger some 4 ft. in length, and about a foot in diameter, is used +to bore through the earth to the bed rock, the auger being rotated by +horse power.</p> + +<p>The drilling tools commonly consist of a bit, 2½ ft. in length by +4⅝ in. in diameter, weighing about 60 lb.; a sinker bar, into which +the bit is screwed, 30 ft. in length by 3 in. in diameter, weighing +about 1,040 lb.; and the jars, inserted between the sinker bar and the +poles about 6 ft. in length, and weighing 150 lb. The tools are +suspended by a chain, which passes three times round the end of the +walking beam and thence to the windlass, with ratchet wheel fixed on +the walking beam, by means of which the tools are gradually lowered as +the drilling proceeds. The cable is thus only employed in raising the +tools from the well and lowering them into it.</p> + +<p>The sand pump or bailer is frequently as much as 37 ft. in length, and +is about 4 in. in diameter. The casing (4⅝ in diameter) costs about +45 cents (1s. 10½d.) per foot, and the 1¼ in. pump, with piping, costs +from 65 dols. (£13) to 85 dols. (£17), according to the length of +pipe required. An ordinary square frame derrick costs, with mud sill, +from 22 dols. (£4 8s.) to 27 dols. (£5 8s.), and the walking beam +about 8 dols. (£1 12s.) In many cases, however, a three-pole derrick, +which can be erected at an expense of about 10 dols. (£2), is +employed. A 100 barrel wooden tank costs, erected, 50 dols. (£10).</p> + +<h3>THE CANADIAN TORPEDO.</h3> + +<p>The wells are torpedoed on completion with from 8 to 10 quarts of +nitroglycerine, at a cost of 4 dols. (16s.) per quart. The torpedoes +employed in the Canadian oil field are much smaller than those used +for a similar purpose in the United States, the tin shell being only 6 +ft. in length by 3 in. in diameter. We were enabled to witness the +operation of torpedoing a well, and the following particulars, based +on notes taken at the time, may be of interest: The torpedo case, +which was furnished with a tube or "anchor" at the lower end, 8 ft. in +length, was placed in the mouth of the well and suspended so that its +upper end was level with the surface of the ground. Eight quarts of +nitroglycerine, which was in a tin can, was then poured into the +torpedo case, and the torpedo was carefully lowered into the well, +which contained at the time about 250 ft. of water, until the end of +the anchor rested on the bottom of the well. A traveling primer or +"go-devil squib" was then prepared as follows: A tin cone, 14 in. in +length by 2 in. in diameter at the open end, was partially filled with +sand to give it the necessary weight. A piece of double tape fuse, 2 +ft. long, was inserted into a Nobel's treble detonator, and over the +detonator and a portion of the fuse a perforated tin tube or sheath +was passed. This tube was then inserted through a hole in a strip of +tin fixed across the mouth of the conical cup into the sand, so that +the detonator was embedded. The sand was then saturated with +nitroglycerine, the fuse lighted, and the primer dropped into the +well. In about 45 seconds there was a perceptible tremor of the +ground, immediately followed by a slight sound of the explosion. After +an interval of a second or two there was a gurgling noise, and a +magnificent black fountain shot up twice as high as the derrick, upon +which all the spectators ran for shelter from the impending shower of +oil and water. The well not being a flowing one, the outrush was only +of momentary duration, and within a few minutes the drillers were at +work removing from the well, by means of the sand pump, the fragments +of rock which had been detached by the explosion. On the table are +specimens of this rock, which I obtained at the time.</p> + +<p>The maximum yield per well is ten barrels per day, and the minimum +yield for which it is considered profitable to pump is a quarter of a +barrel per day. The yield being in some cases so small, it is usual to +pump a number of wells through the agency of one engine, the various +pumps being connected with the motor by means of wooden rods. In one +instance I saw as many as eighty wells being thus pumped from one +center. The motive power was a 70 h.p. engine, which communicated +motion, similar to that of the balance wheel of a watch, to a large +horizontal wheel. From this wheel six main rod lines radiated, the +length of stroke of the main lines being 16 in., and the rate of +movement 32 strokes per minute. Some of the wells being pumped from +this center were from one-half to three-quarters of a mile distant, +and altogether about eight miles of rods were employed in the pumping +of the eighty wells.</p> + +<p>The pipe line system in Canada has not been fully developed, and +accordingly the well owner has to convey his oil by road to the +nearest receiving station. Thus from the Euphemia oil field the oil +has to be "teamed" 17 miles, to Bothwell. For the conveyance of the +oil by road a long and slightly conical wooden tank or barrel, resting +horizontally on a wagon, is employed. These vessels hold from eight to +ten barrels of oil. The Petrolia Crude Oil and Tanking Company is the +principal transporting and storing company. The storage charge is one +cent (½d.) per barrel per month, and the delivery charge two cents +per barrel. The petroleum produced in the Oil Springs field is stored +separately from that obtained in the Petrolia field.</p> + +<p>The storage takes place for the most part in large underground tanks +excavated in the retentive clay. These remarkable tanks are often as +much as 30 ft. in diameter by 60 ft. in depth, and hold from 5,000 to +8,000 barrels. In the construction of the tanks the alluvial soil, of +which there is about 18 ft. or 20 ft. above the clay, is curbed with +wood and thoroughly puddled with clay. On the completion of the +excavation, the entire vertical surface is then lined with rings of +pine wood, so that the upper part down to the solid clay is doubly +lined. The bottom is not lined. The roof of the tank is of wood, +covered with clay. The cost of such a tank is about 22 cents (11d.) +per barrel, or 1,760 dols. (£363) for an 8,000 barrel tank, and the +time occupied in making such a tank is about six weeks.</p> + +<p>The crude petroleum from the Petrolia field usually has a specific +gravity ranging from 0.859 to 0.877, while the specific gravity of the +petroleum from the Oil Springs field ranges from 0.844 to 0.854.</p> + +<p>The oil occurs in the corniferous limestone, and buildings constructed +of this stone frequently exude petroleum in hot weather.</p> + +<p>Canadian crude petroleum is of a black color, and possesses a very +disagreeable odor, due to the presence of sulphur compounds. These +characteristics are shown by the samples on the table, for some of +which I am indebted to Mr. James Kerr, secretary of the Petrolia Oil +Exchange.</p> + +<p>The stills used in the process of refining the crude oil are +horizontal two-flued cylinders, 30 ft. in length by 10 ft. in +diameter, provided with six 2 in. vapor pipes. The charge is 260 +barrels, and the following is an outline of the method of working. +Assuming the still to be charged on Monday morning, heating is +commenced about 7 A.M., and the naphtha begins to come over about 8 +A.M. Of this product about six barrels is obtained in the case of +Petrolia crude, or 7½ barrels in the case of Oil Springs crude. The +distillation of the naphtha takes from 2 to 3 hours, say till 10:30 +A.M. The heat is then increased, and the distillation of the kerosene +commences about noon, and continues till about 10 P.M. Of the kerosene +distillate about 80 barrels are obtained. The first portion of the +kerosene distillate is usually collected separately, is steamed to +drive off the more volatile hydrocarbons, and is then mixed with the +remainder of the kerosene distillate. The product which then commences +to distill is known as tailings. This is collected separately and is +redistilled. The distillation of the tailings continues till about 5 +A.M. on Wednesday, by which time about 80 barrels has been obtained. +Steam is then passed into the still through a perforated pipe +extending to the bottom, and about 21 barrels of "gas oil" is +distilled over. The additional quantity of kerosene obtained on +redistilling the tailings brings up the total yield of this product to +about 42 per cent. of the crude oil. The gas oil is sold for the +manufacture of illuminating gas. The residue is distilled for +lubricating oils and paraffin.</p> + +<p>The agitator in which the kerosene distillate is treated commonly +takes a charge of 465 barrels. To this quantity of distillate two +carboys of oil of vitriol is added, and the oil and acid are agitated +together for 20 minutes. The tarry acid having been allowed to settle +is drawn off, and seven carboys more of acid is added. Agitation +having been effected for 30 or 40 minutes, the tarry acid is removed +as before. Another similar treatment with seven carboys of acid +follows, and occasionally a fourth addition of acid is made. The oil +is next allowed to remain at rest for an hour, any acid which settles +out being drawn off, and cold (or, in winter, slightly warmed) water +is allowed to pass down through the oil in fine streams, this +treatment being continued, without agitation of the oil, for half an +hour, or until the dark color which the oil assumed on treatment with +acid is removed. The water is then drawn off, 10 barrels of solution +of caustic soda (sp. gr. 15° B.) is added, and agitation conducted for +15 minutes. The caustic soda solution having been drawn off, 30 +barrels of a solution of litharge in caustic soda is added. This +solution is made by dissolving caustic soda in water to a density of +18° B. and then adding the litharge. Agitation with this solution is +continued for about six hours, or until the oil is thoroughly +deodorized. About 100 lb. of sublimed sulphur is then added, and the +agitation is continued for another two hours. The oil having been +allowed to settle all night, the litharge solution is drawn off, and +the oil run into a shallow tank or "bleacher," where it is exposed to +the light to improve its color, and is, if necessary, steamed to drive +off the lighter hydrocarbons and raise the flashing point to the legal +minimum of 95° F. To raise the flashing point from 73° F. to 95° F. +(Abel test) is stated to involve in practice a loss of 10 per cent., +the burning quality of the oil being at the same time seriously +impaired, and upon this ground the Ontario refiners in 1886 petitioned +for a reduction of the test standard.</p> + +<p>The average percentage yield of the various products is given in the +following table:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left">Naphtha.</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Kerosene.</td><td align="right">42</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Gas oil.</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Tar.</td><td align="right">25</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Coke.</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Loss (including water).</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"><span class="over">100</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>There are a dozen petroleum refineries in Canada, and the annual +outturn of kerosene is about 200,000 barrels of 45 imperial gallons +per annum. The total consumption of kerosene in Canada is about +300,000 barrels, one-third of which is manufactured in the United +States. The United States oil is subject to a duty of 40 cents on the +package and 7-1/5 cents per imperial gallon on the contents, besides +which there is an inspection fee of 30 cents per package. Of +lubricating oils the outturn is from 75,000 to 100,000 barrels per +annum.</p> + +<p>The quality of Canadian kerosene has been greatly improved of late +years, but notwithstanding the elaborate process of refining, the oil, +though thoroughly deodorized and of good color, contains sulphur, and +of course evolves sulphur compounds in its combustion.</p> + +<p>The rules of the Petrolia Oil Exchange provide that refined kerosene +shall be of the odor "locally known as inoffensive," and shall +"absolutely stand the test of oxide of lead in a strong solution of +caustic soda without change of color."</p> + +<p>The "burning percentage" in the case of "Extra Refined Oil," "Water +White" in color, and of specific gravity not exceeding 0.800, is +required to be not less than 70; in the case of "No. 1 Refined Oil," +"Prime White" in color, not less than 60; and in the case of "No. 2 +Refined Oil," "Standard White" in color, to be not less than 55.</p> + +<p>The "burning percentage" is determined by the use of a lamp thus +described: "The bowl of the lamp is cylindrical, 4 in. in diameter and +2¾ in. deep, with a neck placed thereon of such a height that the top +of the wick tube is 3 in. above the bowl. A sun-hinge burner is used, +taking a wick 7/8 in. wide and 1/8 in. thick, and a chimney about 8 +in. long." The test is conducted as follows: "The lamp bowl is filled +with the oil and weighed, then lighted and turned up full flame just +below the smoking point, and burned without interference till 12 oz. +of the oil is consumed. The quantity consumed during the first hour +and the last hour is noted." The ratio of the two quantities is the +measure of the burning quality, and the percentage that the latter +quantity is of the former is the "burning percentage" referred to.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art16" id="art16"></a>TREES FROM A SANITARY ASPECT.</h2> + +<h3>By <span class="smcap">Charles Roberts</span>, F.R.C.S., etc.</h3> + +<p>As this is the usual time of the year for planting, pruning, and +removing forest trees and shrubs, it is a fit time for considering the +influence which trees exert on the sanitary surroundings of dwelling +places. The recent parliamentary report on forestry shows that trees +are now of little commercial value in this country. And we may +conclude, therefore, that they are chiefly grown for picturesque +effect, and for the shelter from the sun and winds which they afford.</p> + +<p>The relation of forests to rainfall has been studied by +meteorologists, but little attention has been given by medical +climatologists to the share which trees take in determining local +variations of climate and the sanitary condition of dwellings, +notwithstanding they play as important a part as differences of soil, +of which so much is said and written nowadays. This remark does not +apply to large towns, where trees grow with difficulty <a name="Page_9766" id="Page_9766"></a>and are +comparatively few in number, and where they afford a grateful relief +to the eye, shade from the sun, and to a very slight extent temper the +too dry atmosphere, but to suburban and country districts, where it is +the custom to bury houses in masses of foliage—a condition of things +which is deemed the chief attraction, and often a necessary +accompaniment, of country life.</p> + +<p>Trees of all kinds exercise a cooling and moistening influence on the +atmosphere and soil in which they grow. The extent of these conditions +depends on the number of trees and whether they stand alone, in belts, +or in forests; on their size, whether tall trees with branchless stems +or thickets of underwood: on their species, whether deciduous or +evergreen; and on the season of the year. The cooling of the air and +soil is due to the evaporation of water by the leaves, which is +chiefly drawn from the subsoil—not the surface—by the roots, and to +the exclusion of the sun's rays from the ground, trees themselves +being little susceptible of receiving and radiating heat. The moisture +of the atmosphere and ground about trees is due to the collection by +the leaves and branches of a considerable portion of the rainfall, the +condensation of aqueous vapor by the leaves, and the obstruction +offered by the foliage to evaporation from the ground beneath the +trees.</p> + +<p>The experiments of M. Fautrat show that the leafage of leaf bearing +trees intercepts one-third, and that of pine trees the half, of the +rainfall, which is afterward returned to the atmosphere by +evaporation. On the other hand, these same leaves and branches +restrain the evaporation of the water which reaches the ground, and +that evaporation is nearly four times less under a mass of foliage in +a forest, and two and one-third times under a mass of pines, than in +the open. Moreover, trees prevent the circulation of the air by +lateral wind currents and produce stagnation. Hence, as Mr. E.J. +Symons has truly observed, "a lovely spot embowered in trees and +embraced by hills is usually characterized by a damp, misty, cold, and +stagnant atmosphere," a condition of climate which is obviously +unfavorable to good health and especially favorable to the development +of consumption and rheumatism, our two most prevalent diseases.</p> + +<p>Now, if we examine the surroundings of many of our suburban villas and +country houses of the better sort, we shall find them embowered in +trees, and subject to all the insanitary climatic conditions just +mentioned. The custom almost everywhere prevails of blocking out of +view other houses, roads, etc., by belts of trees, often planted on +raised mounds of earth, and surrounded by high close walls or palings, +from a foolish ambition of seeming to live "quite in the country."</p> + +<p>This is a most unwise proceeding from a sanitary point of view, and +should be protested against as strongly by medical men as defective +drainage and bad water supply. Many houses stand under the very drip +and shadow of trees, and "the grounds" of others are inclosed by dense +belts of trees and shrubs, which convert them into veritable +reservoirs of damp, stagnant air, often loaded with the effluvia of +decaying leaves and other garden refuse, a condition of atmosphere +very injurious to health, and answerable for much of the neuralgia of +a malarious kind, of which we have heard so much lately. A very slight +belt of trees suffices to obstruct the lateral circulation of the air, +and if the sun be also excluded the natural upward currents are also +prevented.</p> + +<p>As far back as 1695 Lancisi recognized the influence of slight belts +of trees in preventing the spread of malaria in Rome, and the cold, +damp, stagnant air of spaces inclosed by trees is easily demonstrated +by the wet and dry bulb thermometer, or even by the ordinary +sensations of the body. A dry garden, on gravel, of three acres in +extent in Surrey, surrounded by trees, is generally three or four +degrees colder than the open common beyond the trees; and a large pond +in a pine wood twenty miles from London afforded skating for ninety +consecutive days in the winter of 1885-86, while during the greater +part of the time the lakes in the London parks were free from ice.</p> + +<p>The speculative builder has more sins to answer for than the faulty +construction of houses. He generally begins his operations by cutting +down all the fine old trees which occupy the ground, and which from +their size and isolation are more beautiful than young ones and are +little likely to be injurious to health, and ends them by raising +mounds and sticking into them dense belts of quick-growing trees like +poplars to hide as speedily as possible the desolation of bricks and +mortar he has created. It is this senseless outdoor work of the +builder and his nurseryman which stands most in need of revision from +time to time in suburban residences, but which rarely receives it from +a silly notion, amounting to tree worship, which prohibits the cutting +down of trees, no matter how injudicious may have been the planting of +them in the first instance from a sanitary or picturesque point of +view.</p> + +<p>The following hints for planting and removing trees may be useful to +those persons who have given little attention to the subject. A tree +should not stand so near a house that, if it were to fall, it would +fall on the house; or, in other words, the root should be as far from +the house as the height of the tree. Belts of trees may be planted on +the north and east aspects of houses, but on the east side the trees +should not be so near, nor so high, as to keep the morning sun from +the bedroom windows in the shorter days of the year. On the south and +west aspects of houses isolated trees only should be permitted, so +that there may be free access of the sunshine and the west winds to +the house and grounds.</p> + +<p>High walls and palings on these aspects are also objectionable, and +should be replaced by fences, or better still open palings, especially +about houses which are occupied during the fall of the leaf, and in +the winter. Trees for planting near houses should be chosen in the +following order: Conifers, birch, acacia, beech, oak, elm, lime, and +poplar. Pine trees are the best of all trees for this purpose, as they +collect the greatest amount of rainfall and permit the freest +evaporation from the ground, while their branchless stems offer the +least resistance to the lateral circulation of the air.</p> + +<p>Acacias, oaks, and birches are late to burst into leaf, and therefore +allow the ground to be warmed by the sun's rays in the early spring. +The elm, lime, and chestnut are the least desirable kinds of trees to +plant near houses, although they are the most common. They come into +leaf early and cast their leaves early, so that they exclude the +spring sun and do not afford much shade in the hot autumn months, +when it is most required. The lime and the elm are, however, beautiful +trees, and will doubtless on this account often be tolerated nearer +houses than is desirable from a purely sanitary point of view.</p> + +<p>Trees are often useful guides to the selection of residences. Numerous +trees with rich foliage and a rank undergrowth of ferns or moss +indicate a damp, stagnant atmosphere; while abundance of flowers and +fruit imply a dry, sunny climate. Children will be healthiest where +most flowers grow, and old people will live longest where our common +fruits ripen best, as these conditions of vegetation indicate a +climate which is least favorable to bronchitis and rheumatism. Pines +and their companions, the birches, indicate a dry, rocky, sandy, or +gravel soil; beeches, a dryish, chalky, or gravel soil; elms and +limes, a rich and somewhat damp soil; oaks and ashes, a heavy clay +soil; and poplars and willows, a low, damp, or marshy soil. Many of +these are found growing together, and it is only when one species +predominates in number and vigor that it is truly characteristic of +the soil and that portion of the atmosphere in connection with it.</p> + +<p>Curzon Street, Mayfair, W.—<i>Lancet.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art00" id="art00"></a>SOLIDIFICATION BY PRESSURE.</h2> + +<p>M. Amagat has succeeded in solidifying various liquids, by compressing +them in cylinders of bronze and steel. He has also photographed the +crystals after crystallization, by means of a ray of electric light +traversing the interior of the vessel by glass cones serving as panes. +The stages of crystallization can be observed in this way with +chloride of carbon, and it is seen that the process varies with the +rapidity with which the pressure is produced. If rapidly, a sudden +circlet of crystals gathers round the edge of the luminous field, and +grows to the center. The pressure being continued, the field becomes +obscure, then transparent. As the pressure is diminished the reverse +takes place, and the liquid state is reproduced. M. Amagat finds that +chloride of carbon solidifies at 19.5° Cent., under a pressure of 210 +atmospheres. At 22° Cent., benzine crystallizes with a pressure of +about 900 atmospheres.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>The</h3> + +<h2>Scientific American Supplement.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<div class="center">Terms of Subscription, $5 a year.</div> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. 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Each number contains about +forty large quarto pages, equal to about two hundred ordinary book +pages, forming, practically, a large and splendid <b>Magazine of +Architecture</b>, richly adorned with <i>elegant plates in colors</i> and with +fine engravings, illustrating the most interesting examples of modern +Architectural Construction and allied subjects.</p> + +<p>A special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of +the latest and best plans for private residences, city and country, +including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive. +Drawings in perspective and in color are given, together with full +Plans, Specifications, Costs, Bills of Estimate, and Sheets of +Details.</p> + +<p>No other building paper contains so many plans, details, and +specifications regularly presented as the <span class="smcap">Scientific +American</span>. 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All who contemplate building +or improving homes, or erecting structures of any kind, have before +them in this work an almost <i>endless series of the latest and best +examples</i> from which to make selections, thus saving time and money.</p> + +<p>Many other subjects, including Sewerage, Piping, Lighting, Warming, +Ventilating, Decorating, Laying out of Grounds, etc., are illustrated. +An extensive Compendium of Manufacturers' Announcements is also given, +in which the most reliable and approved Building Materials, Goods, +Machines, Tools, and Appliances are described and illustrated, with +addresses of the makers, etc.</p> + +<p>The fullness, richness, cheapness, and convenience of this work have +won for it the <b>Largest Circulation</b> of any Architectural publication +in the world.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers</b>,<br /> +<b>361 Broadway, New York</b>.</p> + +<p>A Catalogue of valuable books on Architecture, Building, Carpentry, +Masonry, Heating, Warming, Lighting, Ventilation, and all branches of +industry pertaining to the art of Building, is supplied free of +charge, sent to any address.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>Building Plans and Specifications.</h3> + +<p>In connection with the publication of the <span class="smcap">Building Edition</span> of +the <span class="smcap">Scientific American</span>, Messrs. 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