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diff --git a/16847-h/16847-h.htm b/16847-h/16847-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bf0bd2b --- /dev/null +++ b/16847-h/16847-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,27860 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Hinduism And Buddhism, Volume III (of 3) by Sir. Charles Eliot. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + h2 { text-align:center; margin-top: 2em; } + + a[name] { position:absolute; } + a:link {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + link {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:#ff0000} + div.index { /* styles that apply to all text in an index */ + font-size: 90%; /*small type for compactness */ + } + ul.IX { + list-style-type: none; + font-size:inherit; + } + .IX li { /* list items in an index: compressed verticallly */ + margin-top: 0; + } + + + + span.ralign { position: absolute; right: 0; top: auto;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; text-indent: 0; font-weight: normal; color: gray; font-size: 0.7em; text-align: right;} + /* page numbers */ + + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table { padding: 1em; text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + .tr {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; margin-top: 5%; margin-bottom: 5%; padding: 2em; background-color: #f6f2f2; color: black; border: dotted black 1px;} + .tocch { text-align: right; vertical-align: top;} + .tocpg {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + + + .footnotes { /* only use is for border, background-color of block */ + border-width: medium; border-style: solid; color:#000000; + background-color: #FFFFFF; + padding: 0 1em 1em 1em; + } + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: text-bottom; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i3 {display: block; margin-left: 3em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em;} + + + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 16847 ***</div> + +<div class="tr"> +<div> + <b>Transcriber's Note:</b> + <p><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15255">Link to Volume One</a></p> + <p><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/16546">Link to Volume Two</a></p> + +</div> +<p> </p> + + <div> + <p><b>Excerpts from the Preface to the book from Volume 1, + regarding the method of transcription used.</b></p> + + </div> + <p> </p> + + "In the following pages I have occasion to transcribe words + belonging to many oriental languages in Latin characters. + Unfortunately a uniform system of transcription, applicable + to all tongues, seems not to be practical at present. It was + attempted in the Sacred Books of the East, but that system + has fallen into disuse and is liable to be misunderstood. It + therefore seems best to use for each language the method of + transcription adopted by standard works in English dealing + with each, for French and German transcriptions, whatever + their merits may be as representations of the original + sounds, are often misleading to English readers, especially + in Chinese. For Chinese I have adopted Wade's system as used + in Giles's Dictionary, for Tibetan the system of Sarat + Chandra Das, for Pali that of the Pali Text Society and for + Sanskrit that of Monier-Williams's Sanskrit Dictionary, + except that I write s instead of s. Indian languages however + offer many difficulties: it is often hard to decide whether + Sanskrit or vernacular forms are more suitable and in + dealing with Buddhist subjects whether Sanskrit or Pali + words should be used. I have found it convenient to vary the + form of proper names according as my remarks are based on + Sanskrit or on Pali literature, but this obliges me to write + the same word differently in different places, e.g. + sometimes Ajâtasatru and sometimes Ajâtasattu, just as in a + book dealing with Greek and Latin mythology one might employ + both Herakles and Hercules. Also many Indian names such as + Ramayana, Krishna, nirvana have become Europeanized or at + least are familiar to all Europeans interested in Indian + literature. It seems pedantic to write them with their full + and accurate complement of accents and dots and my general + practice is to give such words in their accurate spelling + (Râmâyana, etc.) when they are first mentioned and also in + the notes but usually to print them in their simpler and + unaccented forms. I fear however that my practice in this + matter is not entirely consistent since different parts of + the book were written at different times." +</div> + + +<div class="tr"><b>LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS</b><br /> + + <b>[From Volume 1]</b><br /> + <br /> + +The following are the principal abbreviations used:<br /> +<br /> + +Ep. Ind. Epigraphia India.<br /> + +E.R.E. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (edited by Hastings).<br /> + +I.A. Indian Antiquary.<br /> + +J.A. Journal Asiatique.<br /> + +J.A.O.S. Journal of the American Oriental Society.<br /> + +J.R.A.S. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.<br /> + +P.T.S. Pali Text Society.<br /> + +S.B.E. Sacred Books of the East (Clarendon Press).<br /> +</div> +<div class="tr"> Volume 3 has a number of words in Chinese. These are represented by the notation [Chinese: ] in the text files. +In html the words are included as image files.</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + + + + +<h1> HINDUISM AND BUDDHISM</h1> + + <h3>AN HISTORICAL SKETCH</h3> + + + + + <h3> </h3> + <h3> </h3> + <h3>BY</h3> + <h2>SIR CHARLES ELIOT</h2> + + + <h4> </h4> + <h4> </h4> + <h4>In three volumes</h4> + <h3>VOLUME III</h3> + <div class="center"><img src="images/image_01.jpg" alt="Symbol" width="150" height="129" /></div> + + + + + + + <h3>ROUTLEDGE & KEGAN PAUL LTD</h3> + <h4>Broadway House, 68-74 Carter Lane,</h4> + <h4>London, E.C.4.</h4> + <h4>1921</h4> + + + + +<h4> </h4> + <h4> </h4> + <h4> </h4> + <h4> </h4> + +<h4><i>First published</i> 1921<br /> + <i>Reprinted</i> 1954<br /> + <i>Reprinted</i> 1957<br /> + <i>Reprinted</i> 1962<br /> +</h4> + + + <h4> </h4> + <h4> </h4> + <h4>PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY<br /> + LUND HUMPHRIES<br /> + LONDON - BRADFORD</h4> + + + + +<h2> </h2> +<h2> </h2> +<h2> </h2> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> +<table summary="Contents"> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"> <h3>BOOK VI</h3></td> + + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" align="center"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"> <h3>BUDDHISM OUTSIDE INDIA</h3></td> + + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" align="center"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td>CHAPTER</td> + <td class="tocpg">PAGE</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XXXIV.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXIV">EXPANSION OF INDIAN INFLUENCE</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_3">3</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XXXV.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXV">CEYLON</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_11">11</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XXXVI.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXVI">BURMA</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_46">46</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XXXVII.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXVII">SIAM</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_78">78</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XXXVIII.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXVIII">CAMBOJA</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_100">100</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XXXIX.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXIX">CHAMPA</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_137">137</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XL.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XL">JAVA AND THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_151">151</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XLI.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XLI">CENTRAL ASIA</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_188">188</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XLII.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XLII">CHINA. INTRODUCTORY</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_223">223</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XLIII.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XLIII">CHINA (<i>continued</i>). HISTORY</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_244">244</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XLIV.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XLIV">CHINA (<i>continued</i>). THE CANON</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_281">281</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XLV.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XLV">CHINA (<i>continued</i>). SCHOOLS OF CHINESE BUDDHISM</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_303">303</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XLVI.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XLVI">CHINA (<i>continued</i>). CHINESE BUDDHISM AT THE PRESENT DAY</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_321">321</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XLVII.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XLVII">KOREA</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_336">336</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XLVIII.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XLVIII">ANNAM</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_340">340</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">XLIX.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XLIX">TIBET. INTRODUCTORY</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_345">345</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">L.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_L">TIBET (<i>continued</i>). HISTORY</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_347">347</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">LI.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_LI">TIBET (<i>continued</i>). THE CANON</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_372">372</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">LII.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_LII">TIBET (<i>continued</i>). DOCTRINES OF LAMAISM</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_382">382</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">LIII.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_LIII">TIBET (<i>continued</i>). SECTS</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_397">397</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">LIV.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_LIV">JAPAN</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_402">402</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><h3>BOOK VII</h3></td> + + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><h3>MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF EASTERN AND WESTERN RELIGIONS</h3></td> + + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">LV.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_LV">INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_409">409</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">LVI.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_LVI">INDIAN INFLUENCE IN THE WESTERN WORLD</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_429">429</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">LVII.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_LVII">PERSIAN INFLUENCE IN INDIA</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_449">449</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tocch">LVIII.</td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_LVIII">MOHAMMEDANISM IN INDIA</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_455">455</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></td> + <td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3_463">463</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<h2> </h2> +<h2> </h2> +<h2> </h2> +<h2>BOOK VI</h2> +<h2>BUDDHISM OUTSIDE INDIA</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3_3" id="Page_3_3"></a>[Pg 3]</span> +</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXXIV"></a>CHAPTER XXXIV</h2> + +<h3>EXPANSION OF INDIAN INFLUENCE</h3> + +<h3>INTRODUCTORY</h3> + + + +<p>The subject of this Book is the expansion of Indian influence +throughout Eastern Asia and the neighbouring islands. That influence +is clear and wide-spread, nay almost universal, and it is with justice +that we speak of Further India and the Dutch call their colonies +Neerlands Indië. For some early chapters in the story of this +expansion the dates and details are meagre, but on the whole the +investigator's chief difficulty is to grasp and marshal the mass of +facts relating to the development of religion and civilization in this +great region.</p> + +<p>The spread of Hindu thought was an intellectual conquest, not an +exchange of ideas. On the north-western frontier there was some +reciprocity, but otherwise the part played by India was consistently +active and not receptive. The Far East counted for nothing in her +internal history, doubtless because China was too distant and the +other countries had no special culture of their own. Still it is +remarkable that whereas many Hindu missionaries preached Buddhism in +China, the idea of making Confucianism known in India seems never to +have entered the head of any Chinese.</p> + +<p>It is correct to say that the sphere of India's intellectual conquests +was the East and North, not the West, but still Buddhism spread +considerably to the west of its original home and entered Persia. +Stein discovered a Buddhist monastery in "the terminal marshes of the +Helmund" in Seistan<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and Bamian is a good distance from our +frontier. But in Persia and its border lands there were powerful state +religions, first Zoroastrianism and then Islam, which disliked and +hindered the importation of foreign creeds and though we may see some +resemblance between Sufis and Vedantists, it does not appear that the +Moslim civilization of Iran owed much to Hinduism.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_4" id="Page_3_4"></a>[Pg 4]</span></p> + +<p>But in all Asia north and east of India, excluding most of Siberia but +including the Malay Archipelago, Indian influence is obvious. Though +primarily connected with religion it includes much more, such as +architecture, painting and other arts, an Indian alphabet, a +vocabulary of Indian words borrowed or translated, legends and +customs. The whole life of such diverse countries as Tibet, Burma, and +Java would have been different had they had no connection with India.</p> + +<p>In these and many other regions the Hindus must have found a low state +of civilization, but in the Far East they encountered a culture +comparable with their own. There was no question of colonizing or +civilizing rude races. India and China met as equals, not hostile but +also not congenial, a priest and a statesman, and the statesman made +large concessions to the priest. Buddhism produced a great +fermentation and controversy in Chinese thought, but though its +fortunes varied it hardly ever became as in Burma and Ceylon the +national religion. It was, as a Chinese Emperor once said, one of the +two wings of a bird. The Chinese characters did not give way to an +Indian alphabet nor did the Confucian Classics fall into desuetude. +The subjects of Chinese and Japanese pictures may be Buddhist, the +plan and ornaments of their temples Indian, yet judged as works of art +the pictures and temples are indigenous. But for all that one has only +to compare the China of the Hans with the China of the T'angs to see +how great was the change wrought by India.</p> + +<p>This outgrowing of Indian influence, so long continued and so wide in +extent, was naturally not the result of any one impulse. At no time +can we see in India any passion of discovery, any fever of conquest +such as possessed Europe when the New World and the route to the East +round the Cape were discovered. India's expansion was slow, generally +peaceful and attracted little attention at home. Partly it was due to +the natural permeation and infiltration of a superior culture beyond +its own borders, but it is equally natural that this gradual process +should have been sometimes accelerated by force of arms. The Hindus +produced no Tamerlanes or Babers, but a series of expeditions, spread +over long ages, but still not few in number, carried them to such +distant goals as Ceylon, Java and Camboja.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_5" id="Page_3_5"></a>[Pg 5]</span></p> + +<p>But the diffusion of Indian influence, especially in China, was also +due to another agency, namely religious propaganda and the deliberate +despatch of missions. These missions seem to have been exclusively +Buddhist for wherever we find records of Hinduism outside India, for +instance in Java and Camboja, the presence of Hindu conquerors or +colonists is also recorded.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Hinduism accompanied Hindus and +sometimes spread round their settlements, but it never attempted to +convert distant and alien lands. But the Buddhists had from the +beginning the true evangelistic temper: they preached to all the world +and in singleness of purpose: they had no political support from +India. Many as were the charges brought against them by hostile +Confucians, it was never suggested that they sought political or +commercial privileges for their native land. It was this simple +disinterested attitude which enabled Buddhism, though in many ways +antipathetic to the Far East, to win its confidence.</p> + +<p>Ceylon is the first place where we have a record of the introduction +of Indian civilization and its entry there illustrates all the +phenomena mentioned above, infiltration, colonization and propaganda. +The island is close to the continent and communication with the Tamil +country easy, but though there has long been a large Tamil population +with its own language, religion and temples, the fundamental +civilization is not Tamil. A Hindu called Vijaya who apparently +started from the region of Broach about 500 B.C. led an expedition to +Ceylon and introduced a western Hindu language. Intercourse with the +north was doubtless maintained, for in the reign of Asoka we find the +King of Ceylon making overtures to him and receiving with enthusiasm +the missionaries whom he sent. It is possible that southern India +played a greater part in this conversion than the accepted legend +indicates, for we hear of a monastery built by Mahinda near +Tanjore.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> But still language, monuments and tradition attest the +reality of the connection with northern India.</p> + +<p>It is in Asoka's reign too that we first hear of Indian influence +spreading northwards. His Empire included Nepal and Kashmir,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_6" id="Page_3_6"></a>[Pg 6]</span> he +sent missionaries to the region of Himavanta, meaning apparently the +southern slopes of the Himalayas, and to the Kambojas, an ambiguous +race who were perhaps the inhabitants of Tibet or its border lands. +The Hindu Kush seems to have been the limit of his dominions but +tradition ascribes to this period the joint colonization of Khotan +from India and China.</p> + +<p>Sinhalese and Burmese traditions also credit him with the despatch of +missionaries who converted Suvarṇabhûmi or Pegu. No mention of this +has been found in his own inscriptions, and European critics have +treated it with not unnatural scepticism for there is little +indication that Asoka paid much attention to the eastern frontiers of +his Empire. Still I think the question should be regarded as being +<i>sub judice</i> rather than as answered in the negative.</p> + +<p>Indian expeditions to the East probably commenced, if not in the reign +of Asoka, at least before our era. The Chinese Annals<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> state that +Indian Embassies reached China by sea about 50 B.C. and the Questions +of Milinda allude to trade by this route: the Ramayana mentions Java +and an inscription seems to testify that a Hindu king was reigning in +Champa (Annam) about 150 A.D. These dates are not so precise as one +could wish, but if there was a Hindu kingdom in that distant region in +the second century it was probably preceded by settlements in nearer +halting places, such as the Isthmus of Kra<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> or Java, at a +considerably anterior date, although the inscriptions discovered there +are not earlier than the fifth century A.D.</p> + +<p>Java seems to have left some trace in Indian tradition, for instance +the proverb that those who go to Java do not come back, and it may +have been an early distributing centre for men and merchandize in +those seas. But Ligor probably marks a still earlier halting place. It +is on the same coast as the Mon kingdom of Thaton, which had +connection with Conjevaram by sea and was a centre of Pali Buddhism. +At any rate there was a movement of conquest and colonization in these +regions which brought with it Hinduism and Mahayanism, and established +Hindu kingdoms in Java, Camboja, Champa and Borneo, and another +movement of Hinayanist propaganda, apparently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_7" id="Page_3_7"></a>[Pg 7]</span> earlier, but of +which we know less.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Though these expeditions both secular and +religious probably took ship on the east coast of India, <i>e.g.</i> at +Masulipatam or the Seven Pagodas, yet their original starting point +may have been in the west, such as the district of Badami or even +Gujarat, for there were trade routes across the Indian Peninsula at an +early date.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> + +<p>It is curious that the early history of Burma should be so obscure and +in order not to repeat details and hypotheses I refer the reader to +the chapter dealing specially with this country. From an early epoch +Upper Burma had connection with China and Bengal by land and Lower +Burma with Orissa and Conjevaram by sea. We know too that Pali +Buddhism existed there in the sixth century, that it gained greatly in +power in the reign of Anawrata (<i>c.</i> 1060) and that in subsequent +centuries there was a close ecclesiastical connection with Ceylon.</p> + +<p>Siam as a kingdom is relatively modern but like Burma it has been +subject to several influences. The Siamese probably brought some form +of Buddhism with them when they descended from the north to their +present territories. From the Cambojans, their neighbours and at one +time their suzerains, they must have acquired some Hinduism and +Mahayanism, but they ended by adopting Hinayanism. The source was +probably Pegu but learned men from Ligor were also welcomed and the +ecclesiastical pre-eminence of Ceylon was accepted.</p> + +<p>We thus see how Indian influence conquered Further India and the Malay +Archipelago and we must now trace its flow across Central Asia to +China and Japan, as well as the separate and later stream which +irrigated Tibet and Mongolia.</p> + +<p>Tradition as mentioned ascribes to Asoka some connection with Khotan +and it is probable that by the beginning of our era the lands of the +Oxus and Tarim had become Buddhist and acquired a mixed civilization +in which the Indian factor was large. As usual it is difficult to give +precise dates, but Buddhism probably reached China by land a little +before rather than after our era and the prevalence of Gandharan art +in the cities of the Tarim basin makes it likely that their +efflorescence was not far removed in time from the Gandharan epoch of +India.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_8" id="Page_3_8"></a>[Pg 8]</span> The discovery near Khotan of official documents written in +Prakrit makes colonization as well as religious missions probable. +Further, although the movements of Central Asian tribes commonly took +the form of invading India, yet the current of culture was, on the +whole, in the opposite direction. The Kushans and others brought with +them a certain amount of Zoroastrian theology and Hellenistic art, but +the compound resulting from the mixture of these elements with +Buddhism was re-exported to the north and to China.</p> + +<p>I shall discuss below the grounds for believing that Buddhism was +known in China before A.D. 62, the date when the Emperor Ming Ti is +said to have despatched a mission to enquire about it. For some time +many of its chief luminaries were immigrants from Central Asia and it +made its most rapid progress in that disturbed period of the third and +fourth centuries when North China was split up into contending Tartar +states which both in race and politics were closely connected with +Central Asia. Communication with India by land became frequent and +there was also communication <i>viâ</i> the Malay Archipelago, especially +after the fifth century, when a double stream of Buddhist teachers +began to pour into China by sea as well as by land. A third tributary +joined them later when Khubilai, the Mongol conqueror of China, made +Lamaism, or Tibetan Buddhism, the state religion.</p> + +<p>Tibetan Buddhism is a form of late Indian Mahayanism with a +considerable admixture of Hinduism, exported from Bengal to Tibet and +there modified not so much in doctrine as by the creation of a +powerful hierarchy, curiously analogous to the Roman Church. It is +unknown in southern China and not much favoured by the educated +classes in the north, but the Lamaist priesthood enjoys great +authority in Tibet and Mongolia, and both the Ming and Ch́ing +dynasties did their best to conciliate it for political reasons. +Lamaism has borrowed little from China and must be regarded as an +invasion into northern Asia and even Europe<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> of late Indian religion +and art, somewhat modified by the strong idiosyncrasy of the Tibetan +people. This northern movement was started by the desire of imitation, +not of conquest. At the beginning of the seventh century the King<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_9" id="Page_3_9"></a>[Pg 9]</span> +of Tibet, who had dealings with both India and China, sent a mission +to the former to enquire about Buddhism and in the eighth and eleventh +centuries eminent doctors were summoned from India to establish the +faith and then to restore it after a temporary eclipse.</p> + +<p>In Korea, Annam, and especially in Japan, Buddhism has been a great +ethical, religious and artistic force and in this sense those +countries owe much to India. Yet there was little direct communication +and what they received came to them almost entirely through China. The +ancient Champa was a Hindu kingdom analogous to Camboja, but modern +Annam represents not a continuation of this civilization but a later +descent of Chinese culture from the north. Japan was in close touch +with the Chinese just at the period when Buddhism was fermenting their +whole intellectual life and Japanese thought and art grew up in the +glow of this new inspiration, which was more intense than in China +because there was no native antagonist of the same strength as +Confucianism.</p> + +<p>In the following chapters I propose to discuss the history of Indian +influence in the various countries of Eastern Asia, taking Ceylon +first, followed by Burma and Siam. Whatever may have been the origin +of Buddhism in these two latter they have had for many centuries a +close ecclesiastical connection with Ceylon. Pali Buddhism prevails in +all, as well as in modern Camboja.</p> + +<p>The Indian religion which prevailed in ancient Camboja was however of +a different type and similar to that of Champa and Java. In treating +of these Hindu kingdoms I have wondered whether I should not begin +with Java and adopt the hypothesis that the settlements established +there sent expeditions to the mainland and Borneo.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> But the history +of Java is curiously fragmentary whereas the copious inscriptions of +Camboja and Champa combined with Chinese notices give a fairly +continuous chronicle. And a glance at the map will show that if there +were Hindu colonists at Ligor it would have been much easier for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_10" id="Page_3_10"></a>[Pg 10]</span> +them to go across the Gulf of Siam to Camboja than <i>viâ</i> Java. I have +therefore not adopted the hypothesis of expansion from Java (while +also not rejecting it) nor followed any chronological method but have +treated of Camboja first, as being the Hindu state of which on the +whole we know most and then of Champa and Java in comparison with it.</p> + +<p>In the later sections of the book I consider the expansion of Indian +influence in the north. A chapter on Central Asia endeavours to +summarize our rapidly increasing knowledge of this meeting place of +nations. Its history is closely connected with China and naturally +leads me to a somewhat extended review of the fortunes and +achievements of Buddhism in that great land, and also to a special +study of Tibet and of Lamaism. I have treated of Nepal elsewhere. For +the history of religion it is not a new province, but simply the +extreme north of the Indian region where the last phase of decadent +Indian Buddhism which practically disappeared in Bengal still retains +a nominal existence.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>Geog. Jour</i>. Aug., 1916, p. 362.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The presence of Brahmans at the Courts of Burma and Siam +is a different matter. They were expressly invited as more skilled in +astrology and state ceremonies than Buddhists.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Watters, <i>Yüan Chuang</i>, vol. II. p. 228.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> But not contemporary Annals. The Liang Annals make the +statement about the reign of Hsüan Li 73-49 B.C.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Especially at Ligor or Dharmaraja.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The statement of I-Ching that a wicked king destroyed +Buddhism in Funan is important.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> See Fleet in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1901, p. 548.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> There are settlements of Kalmuks near Astrakhan who have +Lama temples and maintain a connection with Tibet.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> The existence of a Hindu kingdom on the <i>East</i> Coast of +Borneo in 400 A.D. or earlier is a strong argument in favour of +colonization from Java. Expeditions from any other quarter would +naturally have gone to the <i>West</i> Coast. Also there is some knowledge +of Java in India, but apparently none of Camboja or Champa. This +suggests that Java may have been the first halting place and kept up +some slight connection with the mother country.</p></div> + +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_11" id="Page_3_11"></a>[Pg 11]</span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXV" id="CHAPTER_XXXV"></a>CHAPTER XXXV</h2> + +<h3>CEYLON</h3> + +<h3>1</h3> + + +<p>The island of Ceylon, perhaps the most beautiful tropical country in +the world, lies near the end of the Indian peninsula but a little to +the east. At one point a chain of smaller islands and rocks said to +have been built by Rama as a passage for his army of monkeys leads to +the mainland. It is therefore natural that the population should have +relations with southern India. Sinhalese art, religion and language +show traces of Tamil influence but it is somewhat surprising to find +that in these and in all departments of civilization the influence of +northern India is stronger. The traditions which explain the +connection of Ceylon with this distant region seem credible and the +Sinhalese, who were often at war with the Tamils, were not disposed to +imitate their usages, although juxtaposition and invasion brought +about much involuntary resemblance.</p> + +<p>The school of Buddhism now professed in Ceylon, Burma and Siam is +often called Sinhalese and (provided it is not implied that its +doctrines originated in Ceylon) the epithet is correct. For the school +ceased to exist in India and in the middle ages both Burma and Siam +accepted the authority of the Sinhalese Sangha.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> This Sinhalese +school seems to be founded on the doctrines and scriptures accepted in +the time of Asoka in Magadha and though the faith may have been +codified and supplemented in its new home, I see no evidence that it +underwent much corruption or even development. One is inclined at +first to think that the Hindus, having a continuous living tradition +connecting them with Gotama who was himself a Hindu, were more likely +than these distant islanders to preserve the spirit of his teaching. +But there is another side to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_12" id="Page_3_12"></a>[Pg 12]</span> the question. The Hindus being +addicted to theological and metaphysical studies produced original +thinkers who, if not able to found new religions, at least modified +what their predecessors had laid down. If certain old texts were held +in too high esteem to be neglected, the ingenuity of the commentator +rarely failed to reinterpret them as favourable to the views popular +in his time. But the Sinhalese had not this passion for theology. So +far as we can judge of them in earlier periods they were endowed with +an amiable and receptive but somewhat indolent temperament, moderate +gifts in art and literature and a moderate love and understanding of +theology. Also their chiefs claimed to have come from northern India +and were inclined to accept favourably anything which had the same +origin. These are exactly the surroundings in which a religion can +flourish without change for many centuries and Buddhism in Ceylon +acquired stability because it also acquired a certain national and +patriotic flavour: it was the faith of the Sinhalese and not of the +invading Tamils. Such Sinhalese kings as had the power protected the +Church and erected magnificent buildings for its service.</p> + +<p>If Sinhalese tradition may be believed, the first historical contact +with northern India was the expedition of Vijaya, who with 700 +followers settled in the island about the time of the Buddha's death. +Many details of the story are obviously invented. Thus in order to +explain why Ceylon is called Sinhala, Vijaya is made the grandson of +an Indian princess who lived with a lion. But though these legends +inspire mistrust, it is a fact that the language of Ceylon in its +earliest known form is a dialect closely connected with Pali (or +rather with the spoken dialect from which ecclesiastical Pali was +derived) and still more closely with the Mahârâshtri Prakrit of +western India. It is not however a derivative of this Prakrit but +parallel to it and in some words presents older forms.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> It does not +seem possible to ascribe the introduction of this language to the +later mission of Mahinda, for, though Buddhist monks have in many +countries influenced literature and the literary vocabulary, no +instance is recorded of their changing the popular speech.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> But +Vijaya is said to have conquered Ceylon and to have slaughtered +many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_13" id="Page_3_13"></a>[Pg 13]</span> of its ancient inhabitants, called Yakkhas,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> of whom we +know little except that Sinhalese contains some un-Aryan words +probably borrowed from them. According to the Dîpavaṃsa,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> +Vijaya started from Bharukaccha or Broach and both language and such +historical facts as we know confirm the tradition that some time +before the third century B.C. Ceylon was conquered by Indian +immigrants from the west coast.</p> + +<p>It would not be unreasonable to suppose that Vijaya introduced into +Ceylon the elements of Buddhism, but there is little evidence to +indicate that it was a conspicuous form of religion in India in his +time. Sinhalese tradition maintains that not only Gotama himself but +also the three preceding Buddhas were miraculously transported to +Ceylon and made arrangements for its conversion. Gotama is said to +have paid no less than three visits:<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> all are obviously impossible +and were invented to enhance the glory of the island. But the legends +which relate how Paṇḍuvâsudeva came from India to succeed +Vijaya, how he subsequently had a Sakya princess brought over from +India to be his wife and how her brothers established cities in +Ceylon,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> if not true in detail, are probably true in spirit in so +far as they imply that the Sinhalese kept up intercourse with India +and were familiar with the principal forms of Indian religion. Thus we +are told<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> that King Paṇḍukâbhaya built religious edifices for +Nigaṇṭhas (Jains), Brahmans, Paribbâjakas (possibly Buddhists) +and Âjîvikas. When Devânampiya Tissa ascended the throne (<i>circ.</i> 245 +B.C.) he sent a complimentary mission bearing wonderful treasures to +Asoka with whom he was on friendly terms, although they had never met. +This implies that the kingdom of Magadha was known and respected in +Ceylon, and we hear that the mission included a Brahman. The answer +attributed to Asoka will surprise no one acquainted with the +inscriptions of that pious monarch. He said that he had taken<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_14" id="Page_3_14"></a>[Pg 14]</span> +refuge in the law of Buddha and advised the King of Ceylon to find +salvation in the same way. He also sent magnificent presents +consisting chiefly of royal insignia and Tissa was crowned for the +second time, which probably means that he became not only the disciple +but the vassal of Asoka.</p> + +<p>In any case the records declare that the Indian Emperor showed the +greatest solicitude for the spiritual welfare of Ceylon and, though +they are obviously embellished, there is no reason to doubt their +substantial accuracy.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> The Sinhalese tradition agrees on the whole +with the data supplied by Indian inscriptions and Chinese pilgrims. +The names of missionaries mentioned in the Dîpa and Mahâvamsas recur +on urns found at Sanchi and on its gateways are pictures in relief +which appear to represent the transfer of a branch of the Bo-tree in +solemn procession to some destination which, though unnamed, may be +conjectured to be Ceylon.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> The absence of Mahinda's name in Asoka's +inscriptions is certainly suspicious, but the Sinhalese chronicles +give the names of other missionaries correctly and a mere <i>argumentum +ex silentio</i> cannot disprove their testimony on this important point.</p> + +<p>The principal repositories of Sinhalese tradition are the Dîpavamsa, +the Mahâvamsa, and the historical preface of Buddhaghosa's +Samanta-pâsâdikâ.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> All later works are founded on these three, so +far as concerns the conversion of Ceylon and the immediately +subsequent period, and the three works appear to be rearrangements of +a single source known as the Aṭṭhakathâ, Sihalaṭṭhakathâ, +or the words of the Porâṇa (ancients). These names were given to +commentaries on the Tipiṭaka written in Sinhalese prose +interspersed with Pali verse and several of the greater monasteries +had their own editions of them, including a definite historical +section.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> It is probable that at the beginning of the fifth century +A.D. and perhaps in the fourth century the old Sinhalese in which the +prose parts of the Atthakathâ were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_15" id="Page_3_15"></a>[Pg 15]</span> written was growing +unintelligible, and that it was becoming more and more the fashion to +use Pali as the language of ecclesiastical literature, for at least +three writers set themselves to turn part of the traditions not into +the vernacular but into Pali. The earliest and least artistic is the +unknown author of the short chronicle called Dîpavamsa, who wrote +between 302 A.D. and 430 A.D.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> His work is weak both as a specimen +of Pali and as a narrative and he probably did little but patch +together the Pali verses occurring from time to time in the Sinhalese +prose of the Atthakathâ. Somewhat later, towards the end of the fifth +century, a certain Mahânâma arranged the materials out of which the +Dîpavamsa had been formed in a more consecutive and artistic form, +combining ecclesiastical and popular legends.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> His work, known as +the Mahâvamsa, does not end with the reign of Eḷâra, like the +Dîpavamsa, but describes in 15 more chapters the exploits of +Duṭṭhagâmaṇi and his successors ending with Mahâsena.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> The +third writer, Buddhaghosa, apparently lived between the authors of the +two chronicles. His voluminous literary activity will demand our +attention later but so far as history is concerned his narrative is +closely parallel to the Mahâvamsa.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> + +<p>The historical narrative is similar in all three works. After the +Council of Pataliputra, Moggaliputta, who had presided over it, came +to the conclusion that the time had come to despatch missionaries to +convert foreign countries. Sinhalese tradition represents this +decision as emanating from Moggaliputta whereas the inscriptions of +Asoka imply that the king himself initiated the momentous project. But +the difference is small. We cannot now tell to whom the great idea +first occurred but it must have been carried out by the clergy with +the assistance of Asoka, the apostle selected for Ceylon was his<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_16" id="Page_3_16"></a>[Pg 16]</span>near relative Mahinda who according to the traditions of the +Sinhalese made his way to their island through the air with six +companions. The account of Hsüan Chuang hints at a less miraculous +mode of progression for he speaks of a monastery built by Mahinda +somewhere near Tanjore.</p> + +<p>The legend tells how Mahinda and his following alighted on the Missaka +mountain<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> whither King Devânampiya Tissa had gone in the course of +a hunt. The monks and the royal cortege met: Mahinda, after testing +the king's intellectual capacity by some curious dialectical puzzles, +had no difficulty in converting him.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> Next morning he proceeded to +Anuradhapura and was received with all honour and enthusiasm. He +preached first in the palace and then to enthusiastic audiences of the +general public. In these discourses he dwelt chiefly on the terrible +punishment awaiting sinners in future existences.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> + +<p>We need not follow in detail the picturesque account of the rapid +conversion of the capital. The king made over to the Church the +Mahâmegha garden and proceeded to construct a series of religious +edifices in Anuradhapura and its neighbourhood. The catalogue of them +is given in the Mahâvamsa<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> and the most important was the +Mahâvihâra monastery, which became specially famous and influential in +the history of Buddhism. It was situated in the Mahâmegha garden close +to the Bo-tree and was regarded as the citadel of orthodoxy. Its +subsequent conflicts with the later Abhayagiri monastery are the chief +theme of Sinhalese ecclesiastical history and our version of the Pali +Piṭakas is the one which received its imprimatur.</p> + +<p>Tissa is represented as having sent two further missions to India. The +first went in quest of relics and made its way not only to Pataliputra +but to the court of Indra, king of the gods, and the relics obtained, +of which the principal was the Buddha's alms-bowl,<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> were deposited +in Anuradhapura. The king then built the Thuparâma dagoba over them +and there is no reason <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_17" id="Page_3_17"></a>[Pg 17]</span>to doubt that the building which now bears +this name is genuine. The story may therefore be true to the extent +that relics were brought from India at this early period.</p> + +<p>The second mission was despatched to bring a branch of the tree<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> +under which the Buddha had sat when he obtained enlightenment. This +narrative<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> is perhaps based on a more solid substratum of fact. The +chronicles connect the event with the desire of the Princess Anulâ to +become a nun. Women could receive ordination only from ordained nuns +and as these were not to be found on the island it was decided to ask +Asoka to send a branch of the sacred tree and also Mahinda's sister +Sanghamittâ, a religieuse of eminence. The mission was successful. A +branch from the Bo-tree was detached, conveyed by Asoka to the coast +with much ceremony and received in Ceylon by Tissa with equal respect. +The princess accompanied it. The Bo-tree was planted in the Meghavana +garden. It may still be seen and attracts pilgrims not only from +Ceylon but from Burma and Siam. Unlike the buildings of Anuradhapura +it has never been entirely neglected and it is clear that it has been +venerated as the Bo-tree from an early period of Sinhalese history. +Botanists consider its long life, though remarkable, not impossible +since trees of this species throw up fresh shoots from the roots near +the parent stem. The sculptures at Sanchi represent a branch of a +sacred tree being carried in procession, though no inscription attests +its destination, and Fa-Hsien says that he saw the tree.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> The +author of the first part of the Mahâvamsa clearly regards it as +already ancient, and throughout the history of Ceylon there are +references to the construction of railings and terraces to protect it.</p> + + +<p>Devânampiya Tissa probably died in 207 B.C. In 177 the kingdom passed +into the hands of Tamil monarchs who were not Buddhists, although the +chroniclers praise their justice and the respect which they showed to +the Church. The most important of them, Eḷâra, reigned for +forty-four years and was dethroned by a descendant of Tissa, called +Duṭṭhagâmaṇi.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_18" id="Page_3_18"></a>[Pg 18]</span>The exploits of this prince are recorded at such length in the +Mahâvamsa (XXII.-XXXII.) as to suggest that they formed the subject of +a separate popular epic, in which he figured as the champion of +Sinhalese against the Tamils, and therefore as a devout Buddhist. On +ascending the throne he felt, like Asoka, remorse for the bloodshed +which had attended his early life and strove to atone for it by good +works, especially the construction of sacred edifices. The most +important of these were the Lohapasâda or Copper Palace and the +Mahâthûpa or Ruwanweli Dagoba. The former<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> was a monastery roofed +or covered with copper plates. Its numerous rooms were richly +decorated and it consisted of nine storeys, of which the four +uppermost were set apart for Arhats, and the lower assigned to the +inferior grades of monks. Perhaps the nine storeys are an +exaggeration: at any rate the building suffered from fire and +underwent numerous reconstructions and modifications. King Mahâsena +(301 A.D.) destroyed it and then repenting of his errors rebuilt it, +but the ruins now representing it at Anuradhapura, which consist of +stone pillars only, date from the reign of Parâkrama Bâhu I (about +A.D. 1150). The immense pile known as the Ruwanweli Dagoba, though +often injured by invaders in search of treasure, still exists. The +somewhat dilapidated exterior is merely an outer shell, enclosing a +smaller dagoba.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> This is possibly the structure erected by +Duṭṭhagâmaṇi, though tradition says that there is a still +smaller edifice inside. The foundation and building of the original +structure are related at great length.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> Crowds of distinguished +monks came to see the first stone laid, even from Kashmir and +Alasanda. Some have identified the latter name with Alexandria in +Egypt, but it probably denotes a Greek city on the Indus.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> But in +any case tradition represents Buddhists from all parts of India as +taking part in the ceremony and thus recognizing the unity of Indian +and Sinhalese Buddhism.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_19" id="Page_3_19"></a>[Pg 19]</span>Of great importance for the history of the Sinhalese Church is the +reign of Vaṭṭagâmaṇi Abhaya who after being dethroned by +Tamils recovered his kingdom and reigned for twelve years.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> He +built a new monastery and dagoba known as Abhayagiri,<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> which soon +became the enemy of the Mahâvihâra and heterodox, if the latter is to +be considered orthodox. The account of the schism given in the +Mahâvaṃsa<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> is obscure, but the dispute resulted in the +Piṭakas, which had hitherto been preserved orally, being committed +to writing. The council which defined and edited the scriptures was +not attended by all the monasteries of Ceylon, but only by the monks +of the Mahâvihâra, and the text which they wrote down was their +special version and not universally accepted. It included the +Parivâra, which was apparently a recent manual composed in Ceylon. The +Mahâvaṃsa says no more about this schism, but the +Nikâya-Sangrahawa<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> says that the monks of the Abhayagiri monastery +now embraced the doctrines of the Vajjiputta school (one of the +seventeen branches of the Mahâsanghikas) which was known in Ceylon as +the Dhammaruci school from an eminent teacher of that name. Many pious +kings followed who built or repaired sacred edifices and Buddhism +evidently flourished, but we also hear of heresy. In the third century +A.D.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> King Voharaka Tissa suppressed<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> the Vetulyas. This sect +was connected with the Abhayagiri monastery, but, though it lasted +until the twelfth century, I have found no Sinhalese account of its +tenets. It is represented as the worst of heresies, which was +suppressed by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_20" id="Page_3_20"></a>[Pg 20]</span>all orthodox kings but again and again revived, or +was reintroduced from India. Though it always found a footing at the +Abhayagiri it was not officially recognized as the creed of that +Monastery which since the time of Vaṭṭagâmaṇi seems to have +professed the relatively orthodox doctrine called Dhammaruci.</p> + +<p>Mention is made in the Kathâ-vatthu of heretics who held that the +Buddha remained in the Tusita heaven and that the law was preached on +earth not by him but by Ananda and the commentary<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> ascribes these +views to the Vetulyakas. The reticence of the Sinhalese chronicles +makes it doubtful whether the Vetulyakas of Ceylon and these heretics +are identical but probably the monks of the Abhayagiri, if not +strictly speaking Mahayanist, were an off-shoot of an ancient sect +which contained some germs of the Mahayana. Hsüan Chuang in his +narrative<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> states (probably from hearsay) that the monks of the +Mahâvihâra were Hinayanists but that both vehicles were studied at the +Abhayagiri. I-Ching on the contrary says expressly that all the +Sinhalese belonged to the Âryasthavira Nikâya. Fa-Hsien describes the +Buddhism of Ceylon as he saw it about 412 A.D., but does not apply to +it the terms Hina or Mahayana. He evidently regarded the Abhayagiri as +the principal religious centre and says it had 5000 monks as against +3000 in the Mahâvihâra, but though he dwells on the gorgeous +ceremonial, the veneration of the sacred tooth, the representations of +Gotama's previous lives, and the images of Maitreya, he does not +allude to the worship of Avalokita and Mañjusrî or to anything that +can be called definitely Mahayanist. He describes a florid and +somewhat superstitious worship which may have tended to regard the +Buddha as superhuman, but the relics of Gotama's body were its chief +visible symbols and we have no ground for assuming that such teaching +as is found in the Lotus sûtra was its theological basis. Yet we may +legitimately suspect that the traditions of the Abhayagiri remount to +early prototypes of that teaching.</p> + +<p>In the second and third centuries the Court seems to have favoured the +Mahâvihâra and King Goṭhâbhaya banished <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_21" id="Page_3_21"></a>[Pg 21]</span>monks belonging to the +Vetulya sect,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> but in spite of this a monk of the Abhayagiri named +Sanghamitta obtained his confidence and that of his son, Mahâsena, who +occupied the throne from 275 to 302 A.D. The Mahâvihâra was destroyed +and its occupants persecuted at Sanghamitta's instigation but he was +murdered and after his death the great Monastery was rebuilt. The +triumph however was not complete for Mahâsena built a new monastery +called Jetavana on ground belonging to the Mahâvihâra and asked the +monks to abandon this portion of their territory. They refused and +according to the Mahâvamsa ultimately succeeded in proving their +rights before a court of law. But the Jetavana remained as the +headquarters of a sect known as Sagaliyas. They appear to have been +moderately orthodox, but to have had their own text of the Vinaya for +according to the Commentary<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> on the Mahâvamsa they "separated the +two Vibhangas of the Bhagavâ<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> from the Vinaya ... altering their +meaning and misquoting their contents." In the opinion of the +Mahâvihâra both the Abhayagiri and Jetavana were schismatical, but the +laity appear to have given their respect and offerings to all three +impartially and the Mahâvamsa several times records how the same +individual honoured the three Confraternities.</p> + +<p>With the death of Mahâsena ends the first and oldest part of the +Mahâvamsa, and also in native opinion the grand period of Sinhalese +history, the subsequent kings being known as the Cûlavaṃsa or minor +dynasty. A continuation<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> of the chronicle takes up the story and +tells of the doings of Mahâsena's son Sirimeghavaṇṇa.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> Judged +by the standard of the Mahâvihâra, he was fairly satisfactory. He +rebuilt the Lohapasâda and caused a golden image of Mahinda to be made +and carried in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_22" id="Page_3_22"></a>[Pg 22]</span>procession. This veneration of the founder of a +local church reminds one of the respect shown to the images of +half-deified abbots in Tibet, China and Japan. But the king did not +neglect the Abhayagiri or assign it a lower position than the +Mahâvihâra for he gave it partial custody of the celebrated relic +known as the Buddha's tooth which was brought to Ceylon from Kalinga +in the ninth year of his reign and has ever since been considered the +palladium of the island.</p> + +<h3>2</h3> + + +<p>It may not be amiss to consider here briefly what is known of the +history of the Buddha's relics and especially of this tooth. Of the +minor distinctions between Buddhism and Hinduism one of the sharpest +is this cultus. Hindu temples are often erected over natural objects +supposed to resemble the footprint or some member of a deity and +sometimes tombs receive veneration.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> But no case appears to be +known in which either Hindus or Jains show reverence to the bones or +other fragments of a human body. It is hence remarkable that +relic-worship should be so wide-spread in Buddhism and appear so early +in its history. The earliest Buddhist monuments depict figures +worshipping at a stupa, which was probably a reliquary, and there is +no reason to distrust the traditions which carry the practice back at +least to the reign of Asoka. The principal cause for its prevalence +was no doubt that Buddhism, while creating a powerful religious +current, provided hardly any objects of worship for the faithful.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> +It is also probable that the rudiments of relic worship existed in the +districts frequented by the Buddha. The account of his death states +that after the cremation of his body the Mallas placed his bones in +their council hall and honoured them with songs and dances. Then eight +communities or individuals demanded a portion of the relics and over +each portion a cairn was built. These proceedings are mentioned as if +they were the usual ceremonial observed on the death of a great man +and in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_23" id="Page_3_23"></a>[Pg 23]</span>the same Sutta<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> the Buddha himself mentions four classes +of men worthy of a cairn or dagoba.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> We may perhaps conclude that +in the earliest ages of Buddhism it was usual in north-eastern India +to honour the bones of a distinguished man after cremation and inter +them under a monument. This is not exactly relic worship but it has in +it the root of the later tree. The Piṭakas contain little about the +practice but the Milinda Pañha discusses the question at length and in +one passage<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> endeavours to reconcile two sayings of the Buddha, +"Hinder not yourselves by honouring the remains of the Tathâgatha" and +"Honour that relic of him who is worthy of honour." It is the first +utterance rather than the second that seems to have the genuine ring +of Gotama.</p> + +<p>The earliest known relics are those discovered in the stupa of Piprâvâ +on the borders of Nepal in 1898. Their precise nature and the date of +the inscription describing them have been the subject of much +discussion. Some authorities think that this stupa may be one of those +erected over a portion of the Buddha's ashes after his funeral. Even +Barth, a most cautious and sceptical scholar, admitted<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> first that +the inscription is not later than Asoka, secondly that the vase is a +reliquary containing what were believed to be bones of the Buddha. +Thus in the time of Asoka the worship of the Buddha's relics was well +known and I see no reason why the inscription should not be anterior +to that time.</p> + +<p>According to Buddhaghosa's <i>Sumangalavilâsinî</i> and Sinhalese texts +which though late are based on early material<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>, Mahâkassapa +instigated Ajâtasattu to collect the relics of the Buddha, and to +place them in a stupa, there to await the advent of Asoka. In Asoka's +time the stupa had become overgrown and hidden by jungle but when the +king was in search of relics, its position was revealed to him. He +found inside it an inscription authorizing him to disperse the +contents and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_24" id="Page_3_24"></a>[Pg 24]</span>proceeded to distribute them among the 84,000 +monasteries which he is said to have constructed.</p> + +<p>In its main outlines this account is probable. Ajâtasattu conquered +the Licchavis and other small states to the north of Magadha and if he +was convinced of the importance of the Buddha's relics it would be +natural that he should transport them to his capital, regarding them +perhaps as talismans.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> Here they were neglected, though not +damaged, in the reigns of Brahmanical kings and were rescued from +oblivion by Asoka, who being sovereign of all India and anxious to +spread Buddhism throughout his dominions would be likely to distribute +the relics as widely as he distributed his pillars and inscriptions. +But later Buddhist kings could not emulate this imperial impartiality +and we may surmise that such a monarch as Kanishka would see to it +that all the principal relics in northern India found their way to his +capital. The bones discovered at Peshawar are doubtless those +considered most authentic in his reign.</p> + +<p>Next to the tooth, the most interesting relic of the Buddha was his +<i>patra</i> or alms-bowl, which plays a part somewhat similar to that of +the Holy Grail in Christian romance. The Mahâvaṃsa states that +Asoka sent it to Ceylon, but the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> saw it +at Peshawar about 405 A.D. It was shown to the people daily at the +midday and evening services. The pilgrim thought it contained about +two pecks yet such were its miraculous properties that the poor could +fill it with a gift of a few flowers, whereas the rich cast in myriads +of bushels and found there was still room for more. A few years later +Fa-Hsien heard a sermon in Ceylon<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> in which the preacher predicted +that the bowl would be taken in the course of centuries to Central +Asia, China, Ceylon and Central India whence it would ultimately +ascend to the Tusita heaven for the use of the future Buddha. Later +accounts to some extent record the fulfilment of these predictions +inasmuch as they relate how the bowl (or bowls) passed from land to +land but the story of its wandering may have little foundation since +it is combined with the idea that it is wafted from shrine to shrine +according as the faith is nourishing or decadent. Hsüan Chuang says +that it "had gone <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_25" id="Page_3_25"></a>[Pg 25]</span>on from Peshawar to several countries and was +now in Persia.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>" A Mohammedan legend relates that it is at Kandahar +and will contain any quantity of liquid without overflowing. Marco +Polo says Kublai Khan sent an embassy in 1284 to bring it from Ceylon +to China.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p> + +<p>The wanderings of the tooth, though almost as surprising as those of +the bowl, rest on better historical evidence, but there is probably +more continuity in the story than in the holy object of which it is +related, for the piece of bone which is credited with being the left +canine tooth of the Blessed One may have been changed on more than one +occasion. The Sinhalese chronicles,<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> as mentioned, say that it was +brought to Ceylon in the ninth year of Sirimeghavaṇṇa.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> This +date may be approximately correct for about 413 or later Fa-Hsien +described the annual festival of the tooth, during which it was +exposed for veneration at the Abhayagiri monastery, without indicating +that the usage was recent.</p> + +<p>The tooth did not, according to Sinhalese tradition, form part of the +relics distributed after the cremation of the Buddha. Seven bones, +including four teeth,<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> were excepted from that distribution and +the Sage Khema taking the left canine tooth direct from the funeral +pyre gave it to the king of Kalinga, who enshrined it in a gorgeous +temple at Dantapura<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> where it is supposed to have remained 800 +years. At the end of that period <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_26" id="Page_3_26"></a>[Pg 26]</span>a pious king named Guhasiva +became involved in disastrous wars on account of the relic, and, as +the best means of preserving it, bade his daughter fly with her +husband<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> and take it to Ceylon. This, after some miraculous +adventures, they were able to do. The tooth was received with great +ceremony and lodged in an edifice called the Dhammacakka from which it +was taken every year for a temporary sojourn<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> in the Abhayagiri +monastery.</p> + +<p>The cultus of the tooth flourished exceedingly in the next few +centuries and it came to be regarded as the talisman of the king and +nation. Hence when the court moved from Anuradhapura to Pollunaruwa it +was installed in the new capital. In the troubled times which followed +it changed its residence some fifteen times. Early in the fourteenth +century it was carried off by the Tamils to southern India but was +recovered by Parâkrama Bâhu III and during the commotion created by +the invasions of the Tamils, Chinese and Portuguese it was hidden in +various cities. In 1560 Dom Constantino de Bragança, Portuguese +Viceroy of Goa, led a crusade against Jaffna to avenge the alleged +persecution of Christians, and when the town was sacked a relic, +described as the tooth of an ape mounted in gold, was found in a +temple and carried off to Goa. On this Bayin Naung, King of Pegu, +offered an enormous ransom to redeem it, which the secular government +wished to accept, but the clergy and inquisition put such pressure on +the Viceroy that he rejected the proposal. The archbishop of Goa +pounded the tooth in a mortar before the viceregal court, burned the +fragments and scattered the ashes over the sea.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p> + +<p>But the singular result of this bigotry was not to destroy one sacred +tooth but to create two. The king of Pegu, who wished to marry a +Sinhalese princess, sent an embassy to Ceylon to arrange the match. +They were received by the king of Cotta, who bore the curiously +combined name of Don Juan Dharmapâla. He had no daughter of his own +but palmed off the daughter of a chamberlain. At the same time he +informed the king <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_27" id="Page_3_27"></a>[Pg 27]</span>of Pegu that the tooth destroyed at Goa was not +the real relic and that this still remained in his possession. Bayin +Naung was induced to marry the lady and received the tooth with +appropriate ceremonies. But when the king of Kandy heard of these +doings, he apprized the king of Pegu of the double trick that had been +played on him. He offered him his own daughter, a veritable princess, +in marriage and as her dowry the true tooth which, he said, was +neither that destroyed at Goa nor yet that sent to Pegu, but one in +his own possession. Bayin Naung received the Kandyan embassy politely +but rejected its proposals, thinking no doubt that it would be awkward +to declare the first tooth spurious after it had been solemnly +installed as a sacred relic. The second tooth therefore remained in +Kandy and appears to be that now venerated there. When Vimala Dharma +re-established the original line of kings, about 1592, it was accepted +as authentic.</p> + +<p>As to its authenticity, it appears to be beyond doubt that it is a +piece of discoloured bone about two inches long, which could never +have been the tooth of an ordinary human being, so that even the +faithful can only contend that the Buddha was of superhuman stature. +Whether it is the relic which was venerated in Ceylon before the +arrival of the Portuguese is a more difficult question, for it may be +argued with equal plausibility that the Sinhalese had good reasons for +hiding the real tooth and good reasons for duplicating it. The +strongest argument against the authenticity of the relic destroyed by +the Portuguese is that it was found in Jaffna, which had long been a +Tamil town, whereas there is no reason to believe that the real tooth +was at this time in Tamil custody. But, although the native +literature always speaks of it as unique, the Sinhalese appear to have +produced replicas more than once, for we hear of such being sent to +Burma and China.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Again, the offer to ransom the tooth came not +from Ceylon but from the king of Pegu, who, as the sequel shows, was +gullible in such matters: the Portuguese clearly thought that they had +acquired a relic of primary importance; on any hypothesis one of the +kings of Ceylon must have deceived the king of Pegu, and finally +Vimala Dharma had the strongest political reasons for accepting as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_28" id="Page_3_28"></a>[Pg 28]</span>genuine the relic kept at Kandy, since the possession of the true +tooth went far to substantiate a Sinhalese monarch's right to the +throne.</p> + +<p>The tooth is now preserved in a temple at Kandy. The visitor looking +through a screen of bars can see on a silver table a large jewelled +case shaped like a bell. Flowers scattered on the floor or piled on +other tables fill the chamber with their heavy perfume. Inside the +bell are six other bells of diminishing size, the innermost of which +covers a golden lotus containing the sacred tooth. But it is only on +rare occasions that the outer caskets are removed. Worshippers as a +rule have to content themselves with offering flowers<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> and bowing +but I was informed that the priests celebrate <i>puja</i> daily before the +relic. The ceremony comprises the consecration and distribution of +rice and is interesting as connecting the veneration of the tooth with +the ritual observed in Hindu temples. But we must return to the +general history of Buddhism in Ceylon.</p> + +<h3>3</h3> + + +<p>The kings who ruled in the fifth century were devout Buddhists and +builders of vihâras but the most important event of this period, not +merely for the island but for the whole Buddhist church in the south, +was the literary activity of Buddhaghosa who is said to have resided +in Ceylon during the reign of Mahânâma. The chief authorities for his +life are a passage in the continuation of the Mahâvamsa<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> and the +Buddhaghosuppatti, a late Burmese text of about 1550, which, while +adding many anecdotes, appears not to come from an independent +source.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> The gist of their account is that he was born in a Brahman +family near Gaya and early obtained renown as a disputant. He was +converted to Buddhism by a monk named Revata and began to write +theological treatises.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> Revata observing his <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_29" id="Page_3_29"></a>[Pg 29]</span>intention to +compose a commentary on the Piṭakas, told him that only the text +(pâlimattam) of the scriptures was to be found in India, not the +ancient commentaries, but that the Sinhalese commentaries were +genuine, having been composed in that language by Mahinda. He +therefore bade Buddhaghosa repair to Ceylon and translate these +Sinhalese works into the idiom of Magadha, by which Pali must be +meant. Buddhaghosa took this advice and there is no reason to distrust +the statement of the Mahâvamsa that he arrived in the reign of +Mahânâma, who ruled according to Geiger from 458 to 480, though the +usual reckoning places him about fifty years earlier. The fact that +Fa-Hsien, who visited Ceylon about 412, does not mention Buddhaghosa +is in favour of Geiger's chronology.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p> + +<p>He first studied in the Mahâvihâra and eventually requested permission +to translate the Sinhalese commentaries. To prove his competence for +the task he composed the celebrated Visuddhi-magga, and, this being +considered satisfactory, he took up his residence in the Ganthâkara +Vihâra and proceeded to the work of translation. When it was finished +he returned to India or according to the Talaing tradition to Thaton. +The Buddhaghosuppatti adds two stories of which the truth and meaning +are equally doubtful. They are that Buddhaghosa burnt the works +written by Mahinda and that his knowledge of Sanskrit was called in +question but triumphantly proved. Can there be here any allusion to a +Sanskrit canon supported by the opponents of the Mahâvihâra?</p> + +<p>Even in its main outline the story is not very coherent for one would +imagine that, if a Buddhist from Magadha went to Ceylon to translate +the Sinhalese commentaries, his object must have been to introduce +them among Indian Buddhists. But there is no evidence that Buddhaghosa +did this and he is for us simply a great figure in the literary and +religious history of Ceylon. Burmese tradition maintains that he was a +native of Thaton and returned thither, when his labours in Ceylon were +completed, to spread the scriptures in his native language. This +version of his activity is intelligible, though the evidence for it is +weak.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_30" id="Page_3_30"></a>[Pg 30]</span>He composed a great corpus of exegetical literature which has been +preserved, but, since much of it is still unedited, the precise extent +of his labours is uncertain. There is however little doubt of the +authenticity of his commentaries on the four great Nikâyas, on the +Abhidhamma and on the Vinaya (called Samanta-pâsâdikâ) and in them<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> +he refers to the Visuddhi-magga as his own work. He says expressly +that his explanations are founded on Sinhalese materials, which he +frequently cites as the opinion of the ancients (porânâ). By this word +he probably means traditions recorded in Sinhalese and attributed to +Mahinda, but it is in any case clear that the works which he consulted +were considered old in the fifth century A.D. Some of their names are +preserved in the Samanta-pâsâdikâ where he mentions the great +commentary (Mahâ-Aṭṭhakathâ), the Raft commentary (Paccari, so +called because written on a raft), the Kurundi commentary composed at +Kurunda-Velu and others<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a>. All this literature has disappeared and +we can only judge of it by Buddhaghosa's reproduction which is +probably not a translation but a selection and rearrangement. Indeed +his occasional direct quotations from the ancients or from an +Aṭṭhakathâ imply that the rest of the work is merely based on +the Sinhalese commentaries.</p> + +<p>Buddhaghosa was not an independent thinker but he makes amends for his +want of originality not only by his industry and learning but by his +power of grasping and expounding the whole of an intricate subject. +His Visuddhi-magga has not yet been edited in Europe, but the extracts +and copious analysis<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> which have been published indicate that it is +a comprehensive restatement of Buddhist doctrine made with as free a +hand as orthodoxy permitted. The Mahâvamsa observes that the Theras +held his works in the same estimation as the Piṭakas. They are in +no way coloured by the Mahayanist tenets which were already prevalent +in India, but state in its severest form the Hinayanist creed, of +which he is the most authoritative exponent. The Visuddhi-magga is +divided into three parts treating of conduct (sîlam), meditation +(samâdhi) and knowledge <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_31" id="Page_3_31"></a>[Pg 31]</span>(paññâ), the first being the necessary +substratum for the religious life of which the others are the two +principal branches. But though he intersperses his exposition with +miraculous stories and treats exhaustively of superhuman powers, no +trace of the worship of Mahayanist Bodhisattvas is found in his works +and, as for literature, he himself is the chief authority for the +genuineness and completeness of the Pali Canon as we know it.</p> + +<p>When we find it said that his works were esteemed as highly as the +Piṭakas, or that the documents which he translated into Pali were +the words of the Buddha<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a>, the suspicion naturally arises that the +Pali Canon may be in part his composition and it may be well to review +briefly its history in Ceylon. Our knowledge appears to be derived +entirely from the traditions of the Mahâvihâra which represent Mahinda +as teaching the text of the Piṭakas orally, accompanied by a +commentary. If we admit the general truth of the narrative concerning +Mahinda's mission, there is nothing improbable in these statements, +for it would be natural that an Indian teacher should know by heart +his sacred texts and the commentaries on them. We cannot of course +assume that the Piṭakas of Mahinda were the Pali Canon as we know +it, but the inscriptions of Asoka refer to passages which can be found +in that canon and therefore parts of it at any rate must have been +accepted as scripture in the third century B.C. But it is probable +that considerable variation was permitted in the text, although the +sense and a certain terminology were carefully guarded. It was not +till the reign of Vaṭṭagâmaṇi, probably about 20 B.C., that +the canon was committed to writing and the Parivâra, composed in +Ceylon<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a>, was included in it.</p> + +<p>In the reign of Buddhadâsa<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> a learned monk named Mahâdhammakathi is +said to have translated the Suttas into Sinhalese, which at this time +was esteemed the proper language for letters and theology, but in the +next century a contrary tendency, probably initiated by Buddhaghosa, +becomes apparent and Sinhalese works are rewritten in Pali.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> But +nothing indicates that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_32" id="Page_3_32"></a>[Pg 32]</span>any part of what we call the Pali Canon +underwent this process. Buddhaghosa distinguishes clearly between text +and comment, between Pali and Sinhalese documents. He has a coherent +history of the text, beginning with the Council of Râjagaha; he +discusses various readings, he explains difficult words. He treated +the ancient commentaries with freedom, but there is no reason to think +that he allowed himself any discretion or right of selection in +dealing with the sacred texts accepted by the Mahâvihâra, though it +might be prudent to await the publication of his commentaries on all +the Nikâyas before asserting this unreservedly.</p> + +<p>To sum up, the available evidence points to the conclusion that in the +time of Asoka texts and commentaries preserved orally were brought to +Ceylon. The former, though in a somewhat fluid condition, were +sufficiently sacred to be kept unchanged in the original Indian +language, the latter were translated into the kindred but still +distinct vernacular of the island. In the next century and a half +some additions to the Pali texts were made and about 20 B.C. the +Mahâvihâra, which proved as superior to the other communities in +vitality as it was in antiquity, caused written copies to be made of +what it considered as the canon, including some recent works. There is +no evidence that Buddhaghosa or anyone else enlarged or curtailed the +canon, but the curious tradition that he collected and burned all the +books written by Mahinda in Sinhalese<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> may allude to the existence +of other works which he (presumably in agreement with the Mahâvihâra) +considered spurious.</p> + +<p>Soon after the departure of Buddhaghosa Dhâtusena came to the throne +and "held like Dhammasoka a convocation about the three +Piṭakas."<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> This implies that there was still some doubt as to +what was scripture and that the canon of the Mahâvihâra was not +universally accepted. The Vetulyas, of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_33" id="Page_3_33"></a>[Pg 33]</span>whom we heard in the third +century A.D., reappear in the seventh when they are said to have been +supported by a provincial governor but not by the king Aggabodhi<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> +and still more explicitly in the reign of Parâkrama Bâhu (c. 1160). He +endeavoured to reconcile to the Mahâvihâra "the Abhayagiri brethren +who separated themselves from the time of king Vaṭṭagâmaṇi +Abhaya and the Jetavana brethren that had parted since the days of +Mahâsena and taught the Vetulla Piṭaka and other writings as the +words of Buddha, which indeed were not the words of Buddha<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a>." So it +appears that another recension of the canon was in existence for many +centuries.</p> + +<p>Dhâtusena, though depicted in the Mahâvaṃsa as a most orthodox +monarch, embellished the Abhayagiri monastery and was addicted to +sumptuous ceremonies in honour of images and relics. Thus he made an +image of Mahinda, dedicated a shrine and statue to Metteyya and +ornamented the effigies of Buddha with the royal jewels. In an image +chamber (apparently at the Abhayagiri) he set up figures of +Bodhisattvas,<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> by which we should perhaps understand the previous +births of Gotama. He was killed by his son and Sinhalese history +degenerated into a complicated story of crime and discord, in which +the weaker faction generally sought the aid of the Tamils. These +latter became more and more powerful and with their advance Buddhism +tended to give place to Hinduism. In the eighth century the court +removed from Anuradhapura to Pollannaruwa, in order to escape from the +pressure of the Tamils, but the picture of anarchy and decadence grows +more and more gloomy until the accession of Vijaya Bâhu in 1071 who +succeeded in making himself king of all Ceylon. Though he recovered +Anuradhapura it was not made the royal residence either by himself or +by his greater successor, Parâkrama Bâhu.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> This monarch, the most +eminent in the long list of Ceylon's sovereigns, after he had +consolidated his power, devoted himself, in the words of Tennent, "to +the two grand objects of royal solicitude, religion and agriculture." +He was lavish in building monasteries, temples and libraries, but not +less generous in constructing or repairing <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_34" id="Page_3_34"></a>[Pg 34]</span>tanks and works of +irrigation. In the reign of Vijaya Bâhu hardly any duly ordained monks +were to be found,<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> the succession having been interrupted, and the +deficiency was supplied by bringing qualified Theras from Burma. But +by the time of Parâkrama Bâhu the old quarrels of the monasteries +revived, and, as he was anxious to secure unity, he summoned a synod +at Anuradhapura. It appears to have attained its object by recognizing +the Mahâvihâra as the standard of orthodoxy and dealing summarily with +dissentients.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> The secular side of monastic life also received +liberal attention. Lands, revenues and guest-houses were provided for +the monasteries as well as hospitals. As in Burma and Siam Brahmans +were respected and the king erected a building for their use in the +capital. Like Asoka, he forbade the killing of animals.</p> + +<p>But the glory of Parâkrama Bâhu stands up in the later history of +Ceylon like an isolated peak and thirty years after his death the +country had fallen almost to its previous low level of prosperity. The +Tamils again occupied many districts and were never entirely dislodged +as long as the Sinhalese kingdom lasted. Buddhism tended to decline +but was always the religion of the national party and was honoured +with as much magnificence as their means allowed. Parâkrama Bâhu II +(c. 1240), who recovered the sacred tooth from the Tamils, is said to +have celebrated splendid festivals and to have imported learned monks +from the country of the Colas.<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> Towards the end of the fifteenth +century the inscriptions of Kalyani indicate that Sinhalese religion +enjoyed a great reputation in Burma.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p> + +<p>A further change adverse to Buddhism was occasioned by the arrival of +the Portuguese in 1505. A long and horrible struggle ensued between +them and the various kings among whom the distracted island was +divided until at the end of the sixteenth century only Kandy remained +independent, the whole coast being in the hands of the Portuguese. The +singular barbarities which they perpetrated throughout this struggle +are vouched for by their own historians,<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> but it does not appear +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_35" id="Page_3_35"></a>[Pg 35]</span>that the Sinhalese degraded themselves by similar atrocities. +Since the Portuguese wished to propagate Roman Catholicism as well as +to extend their political rule and used for this purpose (according to +the Mahâvaṃsa) the persuasions of gold as well as the terrors of +torture, it is not surprising if many Sinhalese professed allegiance +to Christianity, but when in 1597 the greater part of Ceylon formally +accepted Portuguese sovereignty, the chiefs insisted that they should +be allowed to retain their own religion and customs.</p> + +<p>The Dutch first appeared in 1602 and were welcomed by the Court of +Kandy as allies capable of expelling the Portuguese. This they +succeeded in doing by a series of victories between 1638 and 1658, and +remained masters of a great part of the island until their possessions +were taken by the British in 1795. Kandy however continued independent +until 1815. At first the Dutch tried to enforce Christianity and to +prohibit Buddhism within their territory<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> but ultimately hatred of +the Roman Catholic church made them favourable to Buddhism and they +were ready to assist those kings who desired to restore the national +religion to its former splendour.</p> + +<h3>4</h3> + + +<p>In spite of this assistance the centuries when the Sinhalese were +contending with Europeans were not a prosperous time for Buddhism. +Hinduism spread in the north,<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> Christianity in the coast belt, but +still it was a point of honour with most native sovereigns to protect +the national religion so far as their distressed condition allowed. +For the seventeenth century we have an interesting account of the +state of the country called <i>An Historical Relation of the Island of +Ceylon</i> by an Englishman, Robert Knox, who was detained by the king of +Kandy from 1660 to 1680. He does not seem to have been aware that +there was any distinction between Buddhism and Hinduism. Though he +describes the Sinhalese as idolaters, he also emphasizes the fact that +Buddou (as he writes the name) is the God "unto whom the salvation of +souls belongs," and for whom "above all others they have a high +respect and devotion." He also describes <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_36" id="Page_3_36"></a>[Pg 36]</span>the ceremonies of pirit +and bana, the perahera procession, and two classes of Buddhist monks, +the elders and the ordinary members of the Sangha. His narrative +indicates that Buddhism was accepted as the higher religion, though +men were prone to pray to deities who would save from temporal danger.</p> + +<p>About this time Vimala Dharma II<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> made great efforts to improve the +religious condition of the island and finding that the true succession +had again failed, arranged with the Dutch to send an embassy to Arakan +and bring back qualified Theras. But apparently the steps taken were +not sufficient, for when king Kittisiri Râjasiha (1747-81), whose +piety forms the theme of the last two chapters of the Mahâvaṃsa, +set about reforming the Sangha, he found that duly ordained monks were +extinct and that many so-called monks had families. He therefore +decided to apply to Dhammika, king of Ayuthia in Siam, and like his +predecessor despatched an embassy on a Dutch ship. Dhammika sent back +a company of "more than ten monks" (that is more than sufficient for +the performance of all ecclesiastical acts) under the Abbot Upâli in +1752 and another to relieve it in 1755.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> They were received by the +king of Ceylon with great honour and subsequently by the ordination +which they conferred placed the succession beyond dispute. But the +order thus reconstituted was aristocratic and exclusive: only members +of the highest caste were admitted to it and the wealthy middle +classes found themselves excluded from a community which they were +expected to honour and maintain. This led to the despatch of an +embassy to Burma in 1802 and to the foundation of another branch of +the Sangha, known as the Amarapura school, distinct in so far as its +validity depended on Burmese not Siamese ordination.</p> + +<p>Since ordination is for Buddhists merely self-dedication to a higher +life and does not confer any sacramental or sacerdotal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_37" id="Page_3_37"></a>[Pg 37]</span>powers, the +importance assigned to it may seem strange. But the idea goes back to +the oldest records in the Vinaya and has its root in the privileges +accorded to the order. A Bhikkhu had a right to expect much from the +laity, but he also had to prove his worth and Gotama's early +legislation was largely concerned with excluding unsuitable +candidates. The solicitude for valid ordination was only the +ecclesiastical form of the popular feeling that the honours and +immunities of the order were conditional on its maintaining a certain +standard of conduct. Other methods of reform might have been devised, +but the old injunction that a monk could be admitted only by other +duly ordained monks was fairly efficacious and could not be disputed. +But the curious result is that though Ceylon was in early times the +second home of Buddhism, almost all (if indeed not all) the monks +found there now derive their right to the title of Bhikkhu from +foreign countries.</p> + +<p>The Sinhalese Sangha is generally described as divided into four +schools, those of Siam, Kelani, Amarapura and Ramanya, of which the +first two are practically identical, Kelani being simply a separate +province of the Siamese school, which otherwise has its headquarters +in the inland districts. This school, founded as mentioned above by +priests who arrived in 1750, comprises about half of the whole Sangha +and has some pretensions to represent the hierarchy of Ceylon, since +the last kings of Kandy gave to the heads of the two great monasteries +in the capital, Asgiri and Malwatte, jurisdiction over the north and +south of the island respectively. It differs in some particulars from +the Amarapura school. It only admits members of the highest caste and +prescribes that monks are to wear the upper robe over one shoulder +only, whereas the Amarapurans admit members of the first three castes +(but not those lower in the social scale) and require both shoulders +to be covered. There are other minor differences among which it is +interesting to note that the Siamese school object to the use of the +formula "I dedicate this gift to the Buddha" which is used in the +other schools when anything is presented to the order for the use of +the monks. It is held that this expression was correct in the lifetime +of the Buddha but not after his death. The two schools are not +mutually hostile, and members of each find a hospitable reception in +the monasteries of the other. The laity patronize <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_38" id="Page_3_38"></a>[Pg 38]</span>both +indifferently and both frequent the same places of pilgrimage, though +all of these and the majority of the temple lands belong to the sect +of Siam. It is wealthy, aristocratic and has inherited the ancient +traditions of Ceylon, whereas the Amarapurans are more active and +inclined to propaganda. It is said they are the chief allies of the +Theosophists and European Buddhists. The Ramanya<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> school is more +recent and distinct than the others, being in some ways a reformed +community. It aims at greater strictness of life, forbidding +monasteries to hold property and insisting on genuine poverty. It also +totally rejects the worship of Hindu deities and its lay members do +not recognize the monks of other schools. It is not large but its +influence is considerable.</p> + +<p>It has been said that Buddhism flourished in Ceylon only when it was +able to secure the royal favour. There is some truth in this, for the +Sangha does not struggle on its own behalf but expects the laity to +provide for its material needs, making a return in educational and +religious services. Such a body if not absolutely dependent on royal +patronage has at least much to gain from it. Yet this admission must +not blind us to the fact that during its long and often distinguished +history Sinhalese Buddhism has been truly the national faith, as +opposed to the beliefs of various invaders, and has also ministered to +the spiritual aspirations of the nation. As Knox said in a period when +it was not particularly flourishing, the Hindu gods look after worldly +affairs but Buddha after the soul. When the island passed under +British rule and all religions received impartial recognition, the +result was not disastrous to Buddhism: the number of Bhikkhus greatly +increased, especially in the latter half of the nineteenth century. +And if in earlier periods there was an interval in which technically +speaking the Sangha did not exist, this did not mean that interest in +it ceased, for as soon as the kingdom became prosperous the first care +of the kings was to set the Church in order. This zeal can be +attributed to nothing but conviction and affection, for Buddhism is +not a faith politically useful to an energetic and warlike prince.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_39" id="Page_3_39"></a>[Pg 39]</span></p> + +<h3>5</h3> + + +<p>Sinhalese Buddhism is often styled primitive or original and it may +fairly be said to preserve in substance both the doctrine and practice +inculcated in the earliest Pali literature. In calling this primitive +we must remember the possibility that some of this literature was +elaborated in Ceylon itself. But, putting the text of the Piṭakas +aside, it would seem that the early Sinhalese Buddhism was the same as +that of Asoka, and that it never underwent any important change. It is +true that mediæval Sinhalese literature is full of supernatural +legends respecting the Buddha,<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> but still he does not become a god +(for he has attained Nirvana) and the great Bodhisattvas, Avalokita +and Manjuśrî, are practically unknown. The +<i>Abhidhammattha-sangaha</i>,<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> which is still the text-book most in +use among the Bhikkhus, adheres rigidly to the methods of the +Abhidhamma.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> It contains neither devotional nor magical matter +but prescribes a course of austere mental training, based on +psychological analysis and culminating in the rapture of meditation. +Such studies and exercises are beyond the capacity of the majority, +but no other road to salvation is officially sanctioned for the +Bhikkhu. It is admitted that there are no Arhats now—just as +Christianity has no contemporary saints—but no other ideal, such as +the Boddhisattva of the Mahayanists, is held up for imitation.</p> + +<p>Mediæval images of Avalokita and of goddesses have however been found +in Ceylon.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> This is hardly surprising for the island was on the +main road to China, Java, and Camboja<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> and Mahayanist teachers and +pilgrims must have continually passed through it. The Chinese +biographies of that eminent tantrist, Amogha, say that he went to +Ceylon in 741 and elaborated his system there before returning to +China. It is said that in 1408 the Chinese being angry at the +ill-treatment of envoys whom they had sent to the shrine of the tooth, +conquered Ceylon and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_40" id="Page_3_40"></a>[Pg 40]</span>made it pay tribute for fifty years. By +conquest no doubt is meant merely a military success and not +occupation, but the whole story implies possibilities of acquaintance +with Chinese Buddhism.</p> + +<p>It is clear that, though the Hinayanist church was predominant +throughout the history of the island, there were up to the twelfth +century heretical sects called Vaitulya or Vetulyaka and Vâjira which +though hardly rivals of orthodoxy were a thorn in its side. A party at +the Abhayagiri monastery were favourably disposed to the Vaitulya sect +which, though often suppressed, recovered and reappeared, being +apparently reinforced from India. This need not mean from southern +India, for Ceylon had regular intercourse with the north and perhaps +the Vaitulyas were Mahayanists from Bengal. The Nikâya-Sangrahawa also +mentions that in the ninth century there was a sect called +Nîlapatadarśana,<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> who wore blue robes and preached indulgence +in wine and love. They were possibly Tantrists from the north but were +persecuted in southern India and never influential in Ceylon.</p> + +<p>The Mahâvaṃsa is inclined to minimize the importance of all sects +compared with the Mahâvihâra, but the picture given by the +Nikâya-Sangrahawa may be more correct. It says that the Vaitulyas, +described as infidel Brahmans who had composed a Piṭaka of their +own, made four attempts to obtain a footing at the Abhayagiri +monastery.<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> In the ninth century it represents king Matvalasen as +having to fly because he had embraced the false doctrine of the +Vâjiras. These are mentioned in another passage in connection with the +Vaitulyas: they are said to have composed the Gûḍha Vinaya<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> and +many Tantras. They perhaps were connected with the Vajrayâna, a phase +of Tantric Buddhism. But a few years later king Mungayinsen set the +church in order. He recognized the three orthodox schools or nikâyas +called Theriya, Dhammaruci and Sâgaliya but proscribed the others and +set guards on the coast to prevent the importation of heresy. +Nevertheless the Vâjiriya and Vaitulya doctrines <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_41" id="Page_3_41"></a>[Pg 41]</span>were secretly +practised. An inscription in Sanskrit found at the Jetavana and +attributed to the ninth century<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> records the foundation of a +Vihâra for a hundred resident monks, 25 from each of the four nikâyas, +which it appears to regard as equivalent. But in 1165 the great +Parâkrama Bâhu held a synod to restore unity in the church. As a +result, all Nikâyas (even the Dhammaruci) which did not conform to the +Mahâvihâra were suppressed<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> and we hear no more of the Vaitulyas +and Vâjiriyas.</p> + +<p>Thus there was once a Mahayanist faction in Ceylon, but it was +recruited from abroad, intermittent in activity and was finally +defeated, whereas the Hinayanist tradition was national and +continuous.</p> + +<p>Considering the long lapse of time, the monastic life of Ceylon has +not deviated much in practice from the injunctions of the Vinaya. +Monasteries like those of Anuradhapura, which are said to have +contained thousands of monks, no longer exist. The largest now to be +found—those at Kandy—do not contain more than fifty but as a rule a +pansala (as these institutions are now called) has not more than five +residents and more often only two or three. Some pansalas have +villages assigned to them and some let their lands and do not scruple +to receive the rent. The monks still follow the ancient routine of +making a daily round with the begging bowl, but the food thus +collected is often given to the poor or even to animals and the +inmates of the pansala eat a meal which has been cooked there. The +Pâtimokkha is recited (at least in part) twice a month and ordinations +are held annually.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p> + +<p>The duties of the Bhikkhus are partly educational, partly clerical. In +most villages the children receive elementary education gratis in the +pansala, and the preservation of the ancient texts, together with the +long list of Pali and Sinhalese works produced until recent times +almost exclusively by members of the Sangha,<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> is a proof that it +has not neglected literature. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_42" id="Page_3_42"></a>[Pg 42]</span>chief public religious +observances are preaching and reading the scriptures. This latter, +known as Bana, is usually accompanied by a word for word translation +made by the reciter or an assistant. Such recitations may form part of +the ordinary ceremonial of Uposatha days and most religious +establishments have a room where they can be held, but often monks are +invited to reside in a village during Was (July to October) and read +Bana, and often a layman performs a pinkama or act of merit by +entertaining monks for several days and inviting his neighbours to +hear them recite. The recitation of the Jâtakas is particularly +popular but the suttas of the Dîgha Nikâya are also often read. On +special occasions such as entry into a new house, an eclipse or any +incident which suggests that it might be well to ward off the enmity +of supernatural powers, it is usual to recite a collection of texts +taken largely from the Suttanipâta and called Pirit. The word appears +to be derived from the Pali <i>paritta</i>, a defence, and though the Pali +scriptures do not sanction this use of the Buddha's discourses they +countenance the idea that evil may be averted by the use of +formulæ.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p> + +<p>Although Sinhalese Buddhism has not diverged much from the Pali +scriptures in its main doctrines and discipline, yet it tolerates a +superstructure of Indian beliefs and ceremonies which forbid us to +call it pure except in a restricted sense. At present there may be +said to be three religions in Ceylon; local animism, Hinduism and +Buddhism are all inextricably mixed together. By local animism I mean +the worship of native spirits who do not belong to the ordinary Hindu +pantheon though they may be identified with its members. The priests +of this worship are called Kapuralas and one of their principal +ceremonies consists in dancing until they are supposed to be possessed +by a spirit—the devil dancing of Europeans. Though this religion is +distinct from ordinary Hinduism, its deities and ceremonies find +parallels in the southern Tamil country. In Ceylon it is not merely a +village superstition but possesses <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_43" id="Page_3_43"></a>[Pg 43]</span>temples of considerable +size<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a>, for instance at Badulla and near Ratnapura. In the latter +there is a Buddhist shrine in the court yard, so that the Blessed One +may countenance the worship, much as the Piṭakas represent him as +patronizing and instructing the deities of ancient Magadha, but the +structure and observances of the temple itself are not Buddhist. The +chief spirit worshipped at Ratnapura and in most of these temples is +Mahâ Saman, the god of Adam's Peak. He is sometimes identified with +Lakshmana, the brother of Râma, and sometimes with Indra.</p> + +<p>About a quarter of the population are Tamils professing Hinduism. +Hindu temples of the ordinary Dravidian type are especially frequent +in the northern districts, but they are found in most parts and at +Kandy two may be seen close to the shrine of the Tooth.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> Buddhists +feel no scruple in frequenting them and the images of Hindu deities +are habitually introduced into Buddhist temples. These often contain a +hall, at the end of which are one or more sitting figures of the +Buddha, on the right hand side a recumbent figure of him, but on the +left a row of four statues representing Mahâbrahmâ, Vishṇu, +Kârttikeya and Mahâsâman. Of these Vishṇu generally receives marked +attention, shown by the number of prayers written on slips of paper +which are attached to his hand. Nor is this worship found merely as a +survival in the older temples. The four figures appear in the newest +edifices and the image of Vishṇu never fails to attract votaries. +Yet though a rigid Buddhist may regard such devotion as dangerous, it +is not treasonable, for Vishṇu is regarded not as a competitor but +as a very reverent admirer of the Buddha and anxious to befriend good +Buddhists.</p> + +<p>Even more insidious is the pageantry which since the days of King +Tissa has been the outward sign of religion. It may be justified as +being merely an edifying method of venerating the memory of a great +man but when images and relics are treated with profound reverence or +carried in solemn procession it is hard for the ignorant, especially +if they are accustomed to the ceremonial of Hindu temples, not to +think that these symbols are divine. This ornate ritualism is not +authorized in any <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_44" id="Page_3_44"></a>[Pg 44]</span>known canonical text, but it is thoroughly +Indian. Asoka records in his inscriptions the institution of religious +processions and Hsüan Chuang relates how King Harsha organized a +festival during which an image of the Buddha was carried on an +elephant while the monarch and his ally the king of Assam, dressed as +Indra and Brahmâ respectively, waited on it like servants.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> Such +festivities were congenial to the Sinhalese, as is attested by the +long series of descriptions which fill the Mahâvaṃsa down to the +very last book, by what Fa-Hsien saw about 412 and by the Perahera +festival celebrated to-day.</p> + +<h3>6</h3> + + +<p>The Buddhism of southern India resembled that of Ceylon in character +though not in history. It was introduced under the auspices of Asoka, +who mentions in his inscriptions the Colas, Pândyas and +Keralaputras.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> Hsüan Chuang says that in the Malakûta country, +somewhere near Madura or Tanjore, there was a stupa erected by Asoka's +orders and also a monastery founded by Mahinda. It is possible that +this apostle and others laboured less in Ceylon and more in south +India than is generally supposed. The pre-eminence and continuity of +Sinhalese Buddhism are due to the conservative temper of the natives +who were relatively little moved by the winds of religion which blew +strong on the mainland, bearing with them now Jainism, now the worship +of Vishṇu or Śiva.</p> + +<p>In the Tamil country Buddhism of an Asokan type appears to have been +prevalent about the time of our era. The poem Manimegalei, which by +general consent was composed in an early century A.D., is Buddhist but +shows no leanings to Mahayanism. It speaks of Śivaism and many +other systems<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> as flourishing, but contains no hint that Buddhism +was persecuted. But persecution or at least very unfavourable +conditions set in. Since at the time of Hsüan Chuang's visit Buddhism<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_45" id="Page_3_45"></a>[Pg 45]</span> +was in an advanced stage of decadence, it seems probable that the +triumph of Śivaism began in the third or fourth century and that +Buddhism offered slight resistance, Jainism being the only serious +competitor for the first place. But for a long while, perhaps even +until the sixteenth century, monasteries were kept up in special +centres, and one of these is of peculiar importance, namely Kancîpuram +or Conjeveram.<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> Hsüan Chuang found there 100 monasteries with more +than 10,000 brethren, all Sthaviras, and mentions that it was the +birthplace of Dharmapâla.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> We have some further information from +the Talaing chronicles<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> which suggests the interesting hypothesis +that the Buddhism of Burma was introduced or refreshed by missionaries +from southern India. They give a list of teachers who flourished in +that country, including Kaccâyana and the philosopher Anuruddha.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> +Of Dharmapâla they say that he lived at the monastery of Bhadratittha +near Kancipura and wrote fourteen commentaries in Pali.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> One was +on the Visuddhi-magga of Buddhaghosa and it is probable that he lived +shortly after that great writer and like him studied in Ceylon.</p> + +<p>I shall recur to this question of south Indian Buddhism in treating +of Burma, but the data now available are very meagre.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Burma in the reign of Anawrata and later in the +time of Chapaṭa about 1200, and Siam in the time of Sûryavaṃsa +Râma, 1361. On the other hand in 1752 the Sinhalese succession was +validated by obtaining monks from Burma.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Geiger, <i>Literatur und Sprache der Singhalesen</i>, p. 91.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Compare the history of Khotan. The first Indian +colonists seem to have introduced a Prakrit dialect. Buddhism and +Sanskrit came afterwards.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Literally demons, that is wild uncanny men. I refrain +from discussing the origin and ethnological position of the Vaeddas +for it hardly affects the history of Buddhism in Ceylon. For Vijaya's +conquests see Mahâvaṃsa VII.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> IX. 26.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Dîpavaṃsa I. 45-81, II. 1-69. Mahâvaṃsa I. 19-83. +The legend that the Buddha visited Ceylon and left his footprint on +Adam's peak is at least as old as Buddhaghosa. See Samanta-pâsâdikâ in +Oldenburg's <i>Vinaya Pitaka</i>, vol. III, p. 332 and the quotations in +Skeen's <i>Adam's Peak</i>, p. 50.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Dîpa. V. x. 1-9. Mahâvaṃsa VIII. 1-27, IX. 1-12.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Mahâvaṃsa X. 96, 102.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> For the credibility of the Sinhalese traditions see +Geiger introd. to translation of Mahâvaṃsa 1912 and Norman in +<i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1908, pp. 1 ff. and on the other side R.O. Franke in +<i>W.Z.K.M.</i> 21, pp. 203 ff., 317 ff. and <i>Z.D.M.G.</i> 63, pp. 540 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Grünwedel, <i>Buddhist art in India</i>, pp. 69-72. Rhys +Davids, <i>Buddhist India</i>, p. 302.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The Jâtaka-nidâna-kathâ is also closely allied to these +works in those parts where the subject matter is the same.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> This section was probably called Mahâvaṃsa in a +general sense long before the name was specially applied to the work +which now bears it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> See introduction to Oldenburg's edition, pp. 8, 9.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Perhaps this is alluded to at the beginning of the +Mahâvaṃsa itself, "The book made by the ancients (porvâṇehi +kato) was in some places too diffuse and in others too condensed and +contained many repetitions."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The Mahâvaṃsa was continued by later writers and +brought down to about 1780 A.D.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> The Mahâvaṃsatîkâ, a commentary written between 1000 +and 1250 A.D., has also some independent value because the old +Aṭṭhakathâ-Mahâvaṃsa was still extant and used by the +writer.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Son according to the Sinhalese sources but according to +Hsüan Chuang and others, younger brother. In favour of the latter it +may be said that the younger brothers of kings often became monks in +order to avoid political complications.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The modern Mahintale.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The Mahâvaṃsa implies that he had already some +acquaintance with Buddhism. It represents him as knowing that monks do +not eat in the afternoon and as suggesting that it would be better to +ordain the layman Bhandu.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> The chronicles give with some slight divergences the +names of the texts on which his preaching was based. It is doubtless +meant that he recited the Sutta with a running exposition.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Mahâvaṃ. xx. 17.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Many other places claimed to possess this relic.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Of course the antiquity of the Sinhalese Bo-tree is a +different question from the identity of the parent tree with the tree +under which the Buddha sat.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Mahâvaṃ. XVIII.; Dîpavaṃ. XV. and XVI.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> But he says nothing about Mahinda or Sanghamittâ and +does not support the Mahâvaṃsa in details.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Duṭṭha, meaning bad, angry or violent, apparently +refers to the ferocity shown in his struggle with the Tamils.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Dîpavaṃsa XIX. 1. Mahâvaṃsa XXVII. 1-48. See +Fergusson, <i>Hist. Ind. Architecture</i>, 1910, pp. 238, 246. I find it +hard to picture such a building raised on pillars. Perhaps it was +something like the Sat-mahal-prasâda at Pollanarua.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Parker, <i>Ancient Ceylon</i>, p. 282. The restoration of the +Ruwanweli Dagoba was undertaken by Buddhists in 1873.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Mahâvaṃsa XXVIII.-XXXI. Duṭṭhagâmaṇi died +before it was finished.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Mahâvaṃsa XXIX. 37. Yonanâgarâlasanda. The town is +also mentioned as situated on an Island in the Indus: Mil. Pan. III. +7. 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> According to the common reckoning B.C. 88-76: according +to Geiger B.C. 29-17. It seems probable that in the early dates of +Sinhalese history there is an error of about 62 years. See Geiger, +<i>Trans. Mahâvaṃsa</i>, pp. XXX ff. and Fleet, <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1909, pp. +323-356.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> For the site see Parker's <i>Ancient Ceylon</i>, pp. 299 ff. +The Mahâvaṃsa (XXXIII. 79 and X. 98-100) says it was built on the +site of an ancient Jain establishment and Kern thinks that this +tradition hints at circumstances which account for the heretical and +contentious spirit of the Abhaya monks.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Mahâv. XXXIII. 100-104. See too the Ṫîkâ quote by +Turnour in his introduction, p. liii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> A work on ecclesiastical history written about 1395. Ed. +and Trans. Colombo Record Office.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> The probable error in Sinhalese dates mentioned in a +previous note continues till the twelfth century A.D. though gradually +decreasing. For the early centuries of the Christian era it is +probable that the accepted dates should be put half a century later</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Mahâvaṃsa XXXVI. 41. Vetulyavâdam madditvâ. According +to the Nikâya Sang, he burnt their Piṭaka.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> On Kathâ-vat. XVIII. 1 and 2. Printed in the <i>Journal of +the Pali Text Soc.</i> for 1889.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Watters, II. 234. Cf. <i>Hsüan Chuang's life</i>, chap. IV.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Mahâvaṃ. XXXVI. iii. ff. Goṭhâbhaya's date was +probably 302-315 and Mahâsena's 325-352. The common chronology makes +Goṭhâbhaya reign from 244 to 257 and Mahâsena from 269 to 296 A.D.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Quoted by Turnour, Introd. p. liii. The Mahâvaṃ. V. +13, expressly states that the Dhammaruci and Sâgaliya sects originated +in Ceylon.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i> as I understand, the two divisions of the Sutta +Vibhanga.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> It was written up to date at various periods. The +chapters which take up the history after the death of Mahâsena are +said to be the work of Dhammakitti, who lived about 1250.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> He was a contemporary of the Gupta King Samudragupta who +reigned approximately 330-375 A.D. See S. Lévi in <i>J.A.</i> 1900, pp. 316 +ff, 401 ff. This synchronism is a striking confirmation of Fleet and +Geiger's chronology.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> the tomb of Râmânuja at Srîrangam.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> For a somewhat similar reason the veneration of relics +is prevalent among Moslims. Islam indeed provides an object of worship +but its ceremonies are so austere and monotonous that any devotional +practices which are not forbidden as idolatrous are welcome to the +devout.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Dig. Nik. XVI. v. 27.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Plutarch mentions a story that the relics of King +Menander were similarly divided into eight portions but the story may +be merely a replica of the obsequies of the Buddha.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> IV. 3, 24. The first text is from Mahâparinibbâna Sutta, +V. 24. The second has not been identified.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> <i>Journal des Savants</i>, Oct. 1906.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> See Norman, "Buddhist legends of Asoka and his times," +in <i>J.A.S.</i> Beng. 1910.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Just as the Tooth was considered to be the palladium of +Sinhalese kings.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Record of Buddhist kingdoms. Legge, pp. 34, 35. Fa-Hsien +speaks of the country not the town of Peshawar (Purûshapura).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> p. 109. Fa-Hsien does not indicate that at this +time there was a rival bowl in Ceylon but represents the preacher as +saying it was then in Gandhara.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Watters, I. pp. 202, 203. But the life of Hsüan Chuang +says Benares not Persia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Marco Polo trans. Yule, II. pp. 320, 330.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> For the history of the tooth see <i>Mahâvaṃsa</i>, p. 241, +in Turnour's edition: the Dathavaṃsa in Pali written by Dhammakitti +in 1211 A.D.: and the Sinhalese poems Daladapujavali and Dhatuvansaya. +See also Da Cunha, <i>Memoir on the History of the Tooth Relic of +Ceylon</i>, 1875, and Yule's notes on Marco Polo, II. pp. 328-330.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i> about 361 or 310, according to which chronology +is adopted, but neither Fa-Hsien or Hsüan Chuang says anything about +its arrival from India and this part of the story might be dismissed +as a legend. But seeing how extraordinary were the adventures of the +tooth in historical times, it would be unreasonable to deny that it +may have been smuggled out of India for safety.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Various accounts are given of the disposal of these +teeth, but more than enough relics were preserved in various shrines +to account for all. Hsüan Chuang saw or heard of sacred teeth in +Balkh, Nagar, Kashmir, Kanauj and Ceylon. Another tooth is said to be +kept near Foo-chow.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Plausibly supposed to be Puri. The ceremonies still +observed in the temple of Jagannath are suspected of being based on +Buddhist rites. Dantapura of the Kâlingas is however mentioned in some +verses quoted in Dîgha Nikâya XIX. 36. This looks as if the name might +be pre-Buddhist.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> They are called Ranmali and Danta in the Râjâvaliya.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> There is a striking similarity between this rite and the +ceremonies observed at Puri, where the images of Jagannâtha and his +relatives are conveyed every summer with great pomp to a country +residence where they remain during some weeks.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> See Tennent's <i>Ceylon</i>, vol. II. pp. 29, 30 and 199 ff. +and the Portuguese authorities quoted.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Fortune in <i>Two Visits to Tea Countries of China</i>, vol. +II. pp. 107-8, describes one of these teeth preserved in the Ku-shan +monastery near Foo-chow.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> This practice must be very old. The Vinaya of the +Mûlasarvâstivâdins and similar texts speak of offering flowers to a +tooth of the Buddha. See <i>J.A.</i> 1914, II. pp. 523, 543. The Pali Canon +too tells us that the relics of the Buddha were honoured with garlands +and perfumes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Chap. XXXVII.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Both probably represent the tradition current at the +Mahâvihâra, but according to the Talaing tradition Buddhaghosa was a +Brahman born at Thaton.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> The Mahâvaṃsa says he composed the Jñânodaya and +Atthasâlinî at this time before starting for Ceylon.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Fa-Hsien is chary of mentioning contemporary celebrities +but he refers to a Well-known monk called Ta-mo-kiu-ti (? Dhammakathi +) and had Buddhaghosa been already celebrated he would hardly have +omitted him.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> In the Coms. on the Dîgha and Dhammasangani.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> See Rhys Davids and Carpenter's introduction to +<i>Sumangalavi</i>, I. p. x.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> In the <i>Journal of Pali Text Soc.</i> 1891, pp. 76-164. +Since the above was written the first volume of the text of the +Visuddhi magga, edited by Mrs. Rhys Davids, has been published by the +Pali Text Society, 1920.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Bhagavato Sâsanam. See Buddhaghosuppatti, chap. I.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> It appears to be unknown to the Chinese Tripitaka. For +some further remarks on the Sinhalese Canon see Book III. chap. XIII. +§ 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> That is according to Geiger 386-416 A.D. Perhaps he was +the Ta-mo-kiu-ti mentioned by Fa-Hsien.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> The tendency seems odd but it can be paralleled in India +where it is not uncommon to rewrite vernacular works in Sanskrit. See +Grierson, <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1913, p. 133. Even in England in the seventeenth +century Bacon seems to have been doubtful of the immortality of his +works in English and prepared a Latin translation of his <i>Essays.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> It is reported with some emphasis as the tradition of +the Ancients in Buddhaghosuppatti, chap. VII. If the works were merely +those which Buddhaghosa himself had translated the procedure seems +somewhat drastic.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Mahâv. XXXIII. Dhammasokova so kasi Piṭakattaye +Saṇgahan. Dhâtusena reigned from 459-477 according to the common +chronology or 509-527 according to Geiger.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Mahâv. XLII. 35 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Mahâv. LXXVIII. 21-23.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Mahâv. XXXVIII. Akâsi patimâgehe bahumangalacetiye +boddhisatte ca tathâsun. Cf. Fa-Hsien, chap. XXVIII. <i>ad fin.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Or Parakkama Bâhu. Probably 1153-1186.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> Mahâvaṃsa LX. 4-7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Mahâvaṃsa LXXVIII. 21-27.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> Mahâv. LXXXIV. If this means the region of Madras, the +obvious question is what learned Buddhist can there have been there at +this period.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>J. Ant</i>. 1893, pp. 40, 41.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> I take this statement from Tennent who gives +references.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> See <i>Ceylon Antiquary</i>, I. 3, pp. 148, 197.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Râjasinha I (1581) is said to have made Śivaism the +Court religion.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> His reign is dated as 1679-1701, also as 1687-1706. It +is remarkable that the Mahâvaṃsa makes <i>both</i> the kings called +Vimala Dharma send religious embassies to Arakan. See XCIV. 15, 16 and +XCVII. 10, 11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> See for some details Lorgeou: Notice sur un Manuscrit +Siamois contenant la relation de deux missions religieuses envoyées de +Siam à Ceylon au milieu du xviii Siècle. <i>Jour. Asiat</i>. 1906, pp. 533 +ff. The king called Dhammika by the Mahâvaṃsa appears to have been +known as Phra Song Tham in Siam. The interest felt by the Siamese in +Ceylon at this period is shown by the Siamese translation of the +Mahâvaṃsa made in 1796.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Râmañña is the part of Burma between Arakan and Siam.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> See Spence Hardy, <i>Manual of Buddhism</i>, chap. VII.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> A translation by S.Z. Aung and Mrs. Rhys Davids has +been published by the Pali Text Society. The author Anuruddha appears +to have lived between the eighth and twelfth centuries.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> The Sinhalese had a special respect for the Abhidhamma. +Kassapa V (<i>c.</i> A.D. 930) caused it to be engraved on plates of gold. +<i>Ep. Zeyl.</i> I. p. 52.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> See Coomaraswamy in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1909, pp. 283-297.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> For intercourse with Camboja see <i>Epigr. Zeylanica</i>, +II. p. 74.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> A dubious legend relates that they were known in the +north and suppressed by Harsha. See Ettinghausen, <i>Harsha Vardhana</i>, +1906, p. 86. Nil Sâdhana appears to be a name for tantric practices. +See Avalon, <i>Principles of Tantra</i>, preface, p. xix.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> In the reigns of Vohâratissa, Goṭhâbhaya, Mahâsena +and Ambaherana Salamevan. The kings Matvalasen and Mungayinsen are +also known as Sena I and II.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Secret Vinaya.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> <i>Epigraphia Zeylan</i>. I. p. 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> One of the king's inscriptions says that he reconciled +the clergy of the three Nikâyas. <i>Ep. Zeyl</i>. I. p. 134.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> See Bowden in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1893, pp. 159 ff. The account +refers to the Malwatte Monastery. But it would appear that the +Pâtimokkha is recited in country places when a sufficient number of +monks meet on Uposatha days.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Even the poets were mostly Bhikkhus. Sinhalese +literature contains a fair number of historical and philosophical +works but curiously little about law. See Jolly, <i>Recht und Sitte</i>, p. +44.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> in the Aṭânâṭiya sutta (Dig. Nik. XXXII.) +friendly spirits teach a spell by which members of the order may +protect themselves against evil ones and in Jâtaka 159 the Peacock +escapes danger by reciting every day a hymn to the sun and the praises +of past Buddhas. See also Bunyiu, <i>Nanjios Catalogue</i>, Nos. 487 and +800.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> See for an account of the Maha Saman Devale, <i>Ceylon +Ant.</i> July, 1916.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> So a mediæval inscription at Mahintale of Mahinda IV +records the foundation of Buddhist edifices and a temple to a goddess. +<i>Ep. Zeyl.</i> I. p. 103.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Similarly in a religious procession described in the +Mahâvaṃsa (XCIX. 52; about 1750 A.D.) there were "men in the dress +of Brahmâs."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> Rock Edicts, II. and XIII. Three inscriptions of Asoka +have been found in Mysore.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> The Manimegalei even mentions six systems of philosophy +which are not the ordinary Darśanas but Lokâyatam, Bauddham, +Sâṇkhyam, Naiyâyikam, Vaiśeshikam, Mîmâmsakam.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Kan-chih-pu-lo. Watters, <i>Yüan Chuang</i>, II. 226. The +identification is not without difficulties and it has been suggested +that the town is really Negapatam. The Life of the pilgrim says that +it was on the coast, but he does not say so himself and his biographer +may have been mistaken.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> See art. by Rhys Davids in <i>E.R.E.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> See Forchhammer, <i>Jardine Prize Essay</i>, 1885, pp. 24 +ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Author of the <i>Abhidhammattha-sangaha.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> Some have been published by the P.T. Society.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_46" id="Page_3_46"></a>[Pg 46]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXXVI"></a>CHAPTER XXXVI </h2> + +<h3>BURMA</h3> + +<h3>1</h3> + + +<p>Until recent times Burma remained somewhat isolated and connected with +foreign countries by few ties. The chronicles contain a record of long +and generally peaceful intercourse with Ceylon, but this though +important for religion and literature had little political effect. The +Chinese occasionally invaded Upper Burma and demanded tribute but the +invasions were brief and led to no permanent occupation. On the west +Arakan was worried by the Viceroys of the Mogul Emperors and on the +east the Burmese frequently invaded Siam. But otherwise from the +beginning of authentic history until the British annexation Burma was +left to itself and had not, like so many Asiatic states, to submit to +foreign conquest and the imposition of foreign institutions. Yet let +it not be supposed that its annals are peaceful and uneventful. The +land supplied its own complications, for of the many races inhabiting +it, three, the Burmese, Talaings and Shans, had rival aspirations and +founded dynasties. Of these three races, the Burmese proper appear to +have come from the north west, for a chain of tribes speaking cognate +languages is said to extend from Burma to Nepal. The Mōns or +Talaings are allied linguistically to the Khmers of Camboja. Their +country (sometimes called Râmaññadesa) was in Lower Burma and its +principal cities were Pegu and Thaton. The identity of the name +Talaing with Telingana or Kalinga is not admitted by all scholars, but +native tradition connects the foundation of the kingdom with the east +coast of India and it seems certain that such a connection existed in +historical times and kept alive Hinayanist Buddhism which may have +been originally introduced by this route.</p> + +<p>The Shan States lie in the east of Burma on the borders of Yünnan and +Laos. Their traditions carry their foundation back to the fourth and +fifth centuries B.C. There is no confirmation of this, but bodies of +Shans, a race allied to the Siamese, may <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_47" id="Page_3_47"></a>[Pg 47]</span>have migrated into this +region at any date, perhaps bringing Buddhism with them or receiving +it direct from China. Recent investigations have shown that there was +also a fourth race, designated as Pyus, who occupied territory between +the Burmese and Talaings in the eleventh century. They will probably +prove of considerable importance for philology and early history, +perhaps even for the history of some phases of Burmese Buddhism, for +the religious terms found in their inscriptions are Sanskrit rather +than Pali and this suggests direct communication with India. But until +more information is available any discussion of this interesting but +mysterious people involves so many hypotheses and arguments of detail +that it is impossible in a work like the present. Prome was one of +their principal cities, their name reappears in P'iao, the old Chinese +designation of Burma, and perhaps also in Pagan, one form of which is +Pugâma.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a></p> + +<p>Throughout the historical period the pre-eminence both in individual +kings and dynastic strength rested with the Burmese but their contests +with the Shans and Talaings form an intricate story which can be +related here only in outline. Though the three races are distinct and +still preserve their languages, yet they conquered one another, lived +in each other's capitals and shared the same ambitions so that in more +recent centuries no great change occurred when new dynasties came to +power or territory was redistributed. The long chronicle of +bloodstained but ineffectual quarrels is relieved by the exploits of +three great kings, Anawrata, Bayin Naung and Alompra.</p> + +<p>Historically, Arakan may be detached from the other provinces. The +inhabitants represent an early migration from Tagaung and were not +annexed by any kingdom in Burma until 1784 A.D. Tagaung, situated on +the Upper Irrawaddy in the Ruby Mines district, was the oldest capital +of the Burmese and has a scanty history apparently going back to the +early centuries of our era. Much the same may be said of the Talaing +kingdom in Lower Burma. The kings of Tagaung were succeeded by another +dynasty connected with them which reigned at Prome. No dates can be +given for these events, nor is the part which the Pyus played in them +clear, but it is said that the Talaings <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_48" id="Page_3_48"></a>[Pg 48]</span>destroyed the kingdom of +Prome in 742 A.D.<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> According to tradition the centre of power +moved about this time to Pagan<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> on the bank of the Irrawaddy +somewhat south of Mandalay. But the silence of early Chinese +accounts<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> as to Pagan, which is not mentioned before the Sung +dynasty, makes it probable that later writers exaggerated its early +importance and it is only when Anawrata, King of Pagan and the first +great name in Burmese history, ascended the throne that the course of +events becomes clear and coherent. He conquered Thaton in 1057 and +transported many of the inhabitants to his own capital. He also +subdued the nearer Shan states and was master of nearly all Burma as +we understand the term. The chief work of his successors was to +construct the multitude of pagodas which still ornament the site of +Pagan. It would seem that the dynasty gradually degenerated and that +the Shans and Talaings acquired strength at its expense. Its end came +in 1298 and was hastened by the invasion of Khubilai Khan. There then +arose two simultaneous Shan dynasties at Panya and Sagaing which +lasted from 1298 till 1364. They were overthrown by King Thadominpaya +who is believed to have been a Shan. He founded Ava which, whether it +was held by Burmese or Shans, was regarded as the chief city of Burma +until 1752, although throughout this period the kings of Pegu and +other districts were frequently independent. During the fourteenth +century another kingdom grew up at Toungoo<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> in Lower Burma. Its +rulers were originally Shan governors sent from Ava but ultimately +they claimed to be descendants of the last king of Pagan and, in this +character, Bureng or Bayin Naung (1551-1581), the second great ruler +of Burma, conquered Prome, Pegu and Ava. His kingdom began to break up +immediately after his death but his dynasty ruled in Ava until the +middle of the eighteenth century.</p> + +<p>During this period Europeans first made their appearance and quarrels +with Portuguese adventurers were added to native <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_49" id="Page_3_49"></a>[Pg 49]</span>dissensions. The +Shans and Talaings became turbulent and after a tumultuous interval +the third great national hero, Alaung-paya or Alompra, came to the +front. In the short space of eight years (1752-1760), he gained +possession of Ava, made the Burmese masters of both the northern and +southern provinces, founded Rangoon and invaded both Manipur and Siam. +While on the latter expedition he died. Some of his successors held +their court at Ava but Bodawpaya built a new capital at Amarapura +(1783) and Mindon Min another at Mandalay (1857). The dynasty came to +an end in 1886 when King Thibaw was deposed by the Government of India +and his dominions annexed.</p> + +<h3>2</h3> + + +<p>The early history of Buddhism in Burma is obscure, as in most other +countries, and different writers have maintained that it was +introduced from northern India, the east coast of India, Ceylon, China +or Camboja.<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> All these views may be in a measure true, for there +is reason to believe that it was not introduced at one epoch or from +one source or in one form.</p> + +<p>It is not remarkable that Indian influence should be strong among the +Burmese. The wonder rather is that they have preserved such strong +individuality in art, institutions and everyday life, that no one can +pass from India into Burma without feeling that he has entered a new +country. This is because the mountains which separate it from Eastern +Bengal and run right down to the sea form a barrier still sufficient +to prevent <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_50" id="Page_3_50"></a>[Pg 50]</span>communication by rail. But from the earliest times +Indian immigrants and Indian ideas have been able to find their way +both by land and sea. According to the Burmese chronicles Tagaung was +founded by the Hindu prince Abhirâja in the ninth century B.C. and the +kingdom of Arakan claims as its first ruler an ancient prince of +Benares. The legends have not much more historical value than the +Kshattriya genealogies which Brahmans have invented for the kings of +Manipur, but they show that the Burmese knew of India and wished to +connect themselves with it. This spirit led not only to the invention +of legends but to the application of Indian names to Burmese +localities. For instance Aparantaka, which really designates a +district of western India, is identified by native scholars with Upper +Burma.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> The two merchants Tapussa and Bhallika who were the first +to salute the Buddha after his enlightenment are said to have come +from Ukkala. This is usually identified with Orissa but Burmese +tradition locates it in Burma. A system of mythical geography has thus +arisen.</p> + +<p>The Buddha himself is supposed to have visited Burma, as well as +Ceylon, in his lifetime<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> and even to have imparted some of his +power to the celebrated image which is now in the Arakan Pagoda at +Mandalay. Another resemblance to the Sinhalese story is the +evangelization of lower Burma by Asoka's missionaries. The Dîpavamsa +states<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> that Sona and Uttara were despatched to Suvarṇabhûmi. +This is identified with Râmaññadesa or the district of Thaton, which +appears to be a corruption of Saddhammapura<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> and the tradition is +accepted in Burma. The scepticism with which modern scholars have +received it is perhaps unmerited, but the preaching of these +missionaries, if it ever took place, cannot at present be connected +with other historical events. Nevertheless the statement of the +Dîpavaṃsa is significant. The work was composed in the fourth +century A.D. and taken from older chronicles. It may therefore be +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_51" id="Page_3_51"></a>[Pg 51]</span>concluded that in the early centuries of our era lower Burma had +the reputation of being a Buddhist country.<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> It also appears +certain that in the eleventh century, when the Talaings were conquered +by Anawrata, Buddhist monks and copies of the Tipiṭaka were found +there. But we know little about the country in the preceding +centuries. The Kalyani inscription says that before Anawrata's +conquest it was divided and decadent and during this period there is +no proof of intercourse with Ceylon but also no disproof. One result +of Anawrata's conquest of Thaton was that he exchanged religious +embassies with the king of Ceylon, and it is natural to suppose that +the two monarchs were moved to this step by traditions of previous +communications. Intercourse with the east coast of India may be +assumed as natural, and is confirmed by the presence of Sanskrit words +in old Talaing and the information about southern India in Talaing +records, in which the city of Conjevaram, the great commentator +Dharmapâla and other men of learning are often mentioned. Analogies +have also been traced between the architecture of Pagan and southern +India.<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> It will be seen that such communication by sea may have +brought not only Hinayanist Buddhism but also Mahayanist and Tantric +Buddhism as well as Brahmanism from Bengal and Orissa, so that it is +not surprising if all these influences can be detected in the ancient +buildings and sculptures of the country.<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> Still the most important +evidence as to the character of early Burmese Buddhism is Hinayanist +and furnished by inscriptions on thin golden plates and tiles, found +near the ancient site of Prome and deciphered by Finot.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> They +consist of Hinayanist religious formulæ: the language is Pali: the +alphabet is of a south Indian type and is said to resemble closely +that used in the inscriptions of the Kadamba dynasty which ruled in +Kanara from the third to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_52" id="Page_3_52"></a>[Pg 52]</span>sixth century. It is to the latter +part of this period that the inscriptions are to be attributed. They +show that a form of the Hinayana, comparable, so far as the brief +documents permit us to judge, with the church of Ceylon, was then +known in lower Burma and was probably the state church. The character +of the writing, taken together with the knowledge of southern India +shown by the Talaing chronicles and the opinion of the Dîpavamsa that +Burma was a Buddhist country, is good evidence that lower Burma had +accepted Hinayanism before the sixth century and had intercourse with +southern India. More than that it would perhaps be rash to say.</p> + +<p>The Burmese tradition that Buddhaghosa was a native of Thaton and +returned thither from Ceylon merits more attention than it has +received. It can be easily explained away as patriotic fancy. On the +other hand, if Buddhaghosa's object was to invigorate Hinayanism in +India, the result of his really stupendous labours was singularly +small, for in India his name is connected with no religious movement. +But if we suppose that he went to Ceylon by way of the holy places in +Magadha and returned from the Coromandel Coast to Burma where +Hinayanism afterwards nourished, we have at least a coherent +narrative.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p> + +<p>It is noticeable that Târanâtha states<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> that in the Koki +countries, among which he expressly mentions Pukham (Pagan) and +Haṃsavatî (Pegu), Hinayanism was preached from the days of Asoka +onwards, but that the Mahayana was not known until the pupils of +Vasubandhu introduced it.</p> + +<p>The presence of Hinayanism in Lower Burma naturally did not prevent +the arrival of Mahayanism. It has not left many certain traces but +Atîśa (<i>c.</i> 1000), a great figure in the history of Tibetan +Buddhism, is reported to have studied both in Magadha and in +Suvarnadvîpa by which Thaton must be meant. He would hardly have done +this, had the clergy of Thaton been unfriendly to Tantric learning. +This mediæval Buddhism was also, as in other countries, mixed with +Hinduism <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_53" id="Page_3_53"></a>[Pg 53]</span>but whereas in Camboja and Champa Śivaism, especially +the worship of the lingam, was long the official and popular cult and +penetrated to Siam, few Śivaite emblems but numerous statues of +Vishṇuite deities have hitherto been discovered in Burma.</p> + +<p>The above refers chiefly to Lower Burma. The history of Burmese +Buddhism becomes clearer in the eleventh century but before passing to +this new period we must enquire what was the religious condition of +Upper Burma in the centuries preceding it. It is clear that any +variety of Buddhism or Brahmanism may have entered this region from +India by land at any epoch. According to both Hsüan Chuang and I-Ching +Buddhism flourished in Samaṭata and the latter mentions images of +Avalokita and the reading of the Prajñâ-pâramitâ. The precise position +of Samaṭata has not been fixed but in any case it was in the east +of Bengal and not far from the modern Burmese frontier. The existence +of early Sanskrit inscriptions at Taungu and elsewhere has been +recorded but not with as much detail as could be wished.<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> Figures +of Bodhisattvas and Indian deities are reported from Prome,<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> and +in the Lower Chindwin district are rock-cut temples resembling the +caves of Barabar in Bengal. Inscriptions also show that at Prome there +were kings, perhaps in the seventh century, who used the Pyu language +but bore Sanskrit titles. According to Burmese tradition the Buddha +himself visited the site of Pagan and prophesied that a king called +Sammutiraya would found a city there and establish the faith. This +prediction is said to have been fulfilled in 108 A.D. but the notices +quoted from the Burmese chronicles are concerned less with the +progress of true religion than with the prevalence of heretics known +as Aris.<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> It has been conjectured that this name is a corruption +of Arya but it appears that the correct orthography is <i>arañ</i> +representing an original <i>araṇyaka</i>, that is forest priests. It is +hard to say whether they were degraded Buddhists or an indigenous +priesthood who in some <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_54" id="Page_3_54"></a>[Pg 54]</span>ways imitated what they knew of Brahmanic +and Buddhist institutions. They wore black robes, let their hair grow, +worshipped serpents, hung up in their temples the heads of animals +that had been sacrificed, and once a year they assisted the king to +immolate a victim to the Nats on a mountain top. They claimed power to +expiate all sins, even parricide. They lived in convents (which is +their only real resemblance to Buddhist monks) but were not +celibate.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> Anawrata is said to have suppressed the Aris but he +certainly did not extirpate them for an inscription dated 1468 records +their existence in the Myingyan district. Also in a village near Pagan +are preserved Tantric frescoes representing Bodhisattvas with their +Śaktis. In one temple is an inscription dated 1248 and requiring +the people to supply the priests morning and evening with rice, beef, +betel, and a jar of spirits.<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> It is not clear whether these +priests were Aris or not, but they evidently professed an extreme form +of Buddhist Śaktism.</p> + +<p>Chinese influences in Upper Burma must also be taken into account. +Burmese kings were perhaps among the many potentates who sent +religious embassies to the Emperor Wu-ti about 525 A.D. and the +T'ang<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> annals show an acquaintance with Burma. They describe the +inhabitants as devout Buddhists, reluctant to take life or even to +wear silk, since its manufacture involves the death of the silk worms. +There were a hundred monasteries into which the youth entered at the +age of seven, leaving at the age of twenty, if they did not intend to +become monks. The Chinese writer does not seem to have regarded the +religion of Burma as differing materially from Buddhism as he knew it +and some similarities in ecclesiastical terminology shown by Chinese +and Burmese may indicate the presence of Chinese <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_55" id="Page_3_55"></a>[Pg 55]</span>influence.<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> +But this influence, though possibly strong between the sixth and tenth +centuries A.D., and again about the time of the Chinese invasion of +1284,<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> cannot be held to exclude Indian influence.</p> + +<p>Thus when Anawrata came to the throne<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> several forms of religion +probably co-existed at Pagan, and probably most of them were corrupt, +though it is a mistake to think of his dominions as barbarous. The +reformation which followed is described by Burmese authors in +considerable detail and as usual in such accounts is ascribed to the +activity of one personality, the Thera Arahanta who came from Thaton +and enjoyed Anawrata's confidence. The story implies that there was a +party in Pagan which knew that the prevalent creed was corrupt and +also looked upon Thaton and Ceylon as religious centres. As Anawrata +was a man of arms rather than a theologian, we may conjecture that his +motive was to concentrate in his capital the flower of learning as +known in his time—a motive which has often animated successful +princes in Asia and led to the unceremonious seizure of living saints. +According to the story he broke up the communities of Aris at the +instigation of Arahanta and then sent a mission to Manohari, king of +Pegu, asking for a copy of the Tipiṭaka and for relics. He received +a contemptuous reply intimating that he was not to be trusted with +such sacred objects. Anawrata in indignation collected an army, +marched against the Talaings and ended by carrying off to Pagan not +only elephant loads of scriptures and relics, but also all the Talaing +monks and nobles with the king himself.<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> The Piṭakas were +stored in a splendid pagoda and Anawrata <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_56" id="Page_3_56"></a>[Pg 56]</span>sent to Ceylon<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> for +others which were compared with the copies obtained from Thaton in +order to settle the text.<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a></p> + +<p>For 200 years, that is from about 1060 A.D. until the later decades of +the thirteenth century, Pagan was a great centre of Buddhist culture +not only for Burma but for the whole east, renowned alike for its +architecture and its scholarship. The former can still be studied in +the magnificent pagodas which mark its site. Towards the end of his +reign Anawrata made not very successful attempts to obtain relics from +China and Ceylon and commenced the construction of the Shwe Zigon +pagoda. He died before it was completed but his successors, who +enjoyed fairly peaceful reigns, finished the work and constructed +about a thousand other buildings among which the most celebrated is +the Ananda temple erected by King Kyansithâ.<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p> + +<p>Pali literature in Burma begins with a little grammatical treatise +known as Kârikâ and composed in 1064 A.D. by the monk Dhammasenâpati +who lived in the monastery attached to this temple. A number of other +works followed. Of these the most celebrated was the Saddanîti of +Aggavaṃsa (1154), a treatise on the language of the Tipiṭaka +which became a classic not only in Burma but in Ceylon. A singular +enthusiasm for linguistic studies prevailed especially in the reign of +Kyocvâ (<i>c.</i> 1230), when even women are said to have been +distinguished for the skill and ardour which they displayed in +conquering the difficulties of Pali grammar. Some treatises on the +Abhidhamma were also produced.</p> + +<p>Like Mohammedanism, Hinayanist Buddhism is too simple and definite to +admit much variation in doctrine, but its clergy are prone to violent +disputes about apparently trivial questions. In the thirteenth century +such disputes assumed grave proportions in Burma. About 1175 A.D. a +celebrated elder named <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_57" id="Page_3_57"></a>[Pg 57]</span>Uttarâjîva accompanied by his pupil +Chapaṭa left for Ceylon. They spent some years in study at the +Mahâvihâra and Chapaṭa received ordination there. He returned to +Pagan with four other monks and maintained that valid ordination could +be conferred only through the monks of the Mahâvihâra, who alone had +kept the succession unbroken. He with his four companions, having +received this ordination, claimed power to transmit it, but he +declined to recognize Burmese orders. This pretension aroused a storm +of opposition, especially from the Talaing monks. They maintained that +Arahanta who had reformed Buddhism under Anawrata was spiritually +descended from the missionaries sent by Asoka, who were as well +qualified to administer ordination as Mahinda. But Chapaṭa was not +only a man of learning and an author<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> but also a vigorous +personality and in favour at Court. He had the best of the contest and +succeeded in making the Talaing school appear as seceders from +orthodoxy. There thus arose a distinction between the Sinhalese or +later school and the old Burmese school, who regarded one another as +schismatics. A scandal was caused in the Sinhalese community by +Râhula, the ablest of Chapaṭa's disciples, who fell in love with an +actress and wished to become a layman. His colleagues induced him to +leave the country for decency's sake and peace was restored but +subsequently, after Chapaṭa's death, the remaining three +disciples<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> fell out on questions of discipline rather than +doctrine and founded three factions, which can hardly be called +schools, although they refused to keep the Uposatha days together. The +light of religion shone brightest at Pagan early in the thirteenth +century while these three brethren were alive and the Sâsanavaṃsa +states that at least three Arhats lived in the city. But the power of +Pagan collapsed under attacks from both Chinese and Shans at the end +of the century <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_58" id="Page_3_58"></a>[Pg 58]</span>and the last king became a monk under the +compulsion of Shan chiefs. The deserted city appears to have lost its +importance as a religious centre, for the ecclesiastical chronicles +shift the scene elsewhere.</p> + +<p>The two Shan states which arose from the ruin of Pagan, namely Panya +(Vijayapura) and Sagaing (Jeyyapura), encouraged religion and +learning. Their existence probably explains the claim made in Siamese +inscriptions of about 1300 that the territory of Siam extended to +Haṃsavatî or Pegu and this contact of Burma and Siam was of great +importance for it must be the origin of Pali Buddhism in Siam which +otherwise remains unexplained.</p> + +<p>After the fall of the two Shan states in 1364, Ava (or Ratnapura) +which was founded in the same year gradually became the religious +centre of Upper Burma and remained so during several centuries. But +it did not at first supersede older towns inasmuch as the loss of +political independence did not always involve the destruction of +monasteries. Buddhism also flourished in Pegu and the Talaing country +where the vicissitudes of the northern kingdoms did not affect its +fortunes.</p> + +<p>Anawrata had transported the most eminent Theras of Thaton to Pagan +and the old Talaing school probably suffered temporarily. Somewhat +later we hear that the Sinhalese school was introduced into these +regions by Sâriputta<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a>, who had been ordained at Pagan. About the +same time two Theras of Martaban, preceptors of the Queen, visited +Ceylon and on returning to their own land after being ordained at the +Mahâvihâra considered themselves superior to other monks. But the old +Burmese school continued to exist. Not much literature was produced in +the south. Sâriputta was the author of a Dhammathat or code, the first +of a long series of law books based upon Manu. Somewhat later Mahâyasa +of Thaton (<i>c.</i> 1370) wrote several grammatical works.</p> + +<p>The most prosperous period for Buddhism in Pegu was the reign of +Dhammaceti, also called Râmâdhipati (1460-1491). He was not of the +royal family, but a simple monk who helped a princess of Pegu to +escape from the Burmese court where she was detained. In 1453 this +princess became Queen of Pegu and Dhammaceti left his monastery to +become her prime minister, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_59" id="Page_3_59"></a>[Pg 59]</span>son-in-law and ultimately her +successor. But though he had returned to the world his heart was with +the Church. He was renowned for his piety no less than for his +magnificence and is known to modern scholars as the author of the +Kalyani inscriptions<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a>, which assume the proportions of a treatise +on ecclesiastical laws and history. Their chief purpose is to settle +an intricate and highly technical question, namely the proper method +of defining and consecrating a <i>sîmâ</i>. This word, which means +literally <i>boundary</i>, signifies a plot of ground within which Uposatha +meetings, ordinations and other ceremonies can take place. The +expression occurs in the Vinaya Piṭaka<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a>, but the area there +contemplated seems to be an ecclesiastical district within which the +Bhikkhus were obliged to meet for Uposatha. The modern <i>sîmâ</i> is much +smaller<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a>, but more important since it is maintained that valid +ordination can be conferred only within its limits. To Dhammaceti the +question seemed momentous, for as he explains, there were in southern +Burma six schools who would not meet for Uposatha. These were, first +the Camboja<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> school (identical with the Arahanta school) who +claimed spiritual descent from the missionaries sent by Asoka to +Suvarṇabhûmi, and then five divisions of the Sinhalese school, +namely the three founded by Chapaṭa's disciples as already related +and two more founded by the theras of Martaban. Dhammaceti accordingly +sent a mission to Ceylon charged to obtain an authoritative ruling as +to the proper method of consecrating a <i>sîmâ</i> and conferring +ordination. On their return a locality known as the Kalyanisîmâ was +consecrated in the manner prescribed by the Mahâvihâra and during +three years all the Bhikkhus of Dhammaceti's kingdom were reordained +there. The total number reached 15,666, and the king boasts that he +had thus purified religion and made the school of the Mahâvihâra the +only sect, all other distinctions being obliterated.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_60" id="Page_3_60"></a>[Pg 60]</span>There can be little doubt that in the fifteenth century Burmese +Buddhism had assumed the form which it still has, but was this form +due to indigenous tradition or to imitation of Ceylon? Five periods +merit attention. (<i>a</i>) In the sixth century, and probably several +centuries earlier, Hinayanism was known in Lower Burma. The +inscriptions attesting its existence are written in Pali and in a +south Indian alphabet. (<i>b</i>) Anawrata (1010-1052) purified the +Buddhism of Upper Burma with the help of scriptures obtained from the +Talaing country, which were compared with other scriptures brought +from Ceylon. (<i>c</i>) About 1200 Chapata and his pupils who had studied +in Ceylon and received ordination there refused to recognize the +Talaing monks and two hostile schools were founded, predominant at +first in Upper and Lower Burma respectively. (<i>d</i>) About 1250 the +Sinhalese school, led by Sâriputta and others, began to make conquests +in Lower Burma at the expense of the Talaing school. (<i>e</i>) Two +centuries later, about 1460, Dhammaceti of Pegu boasts that he has +purified religion and made the school of the Mahâvihâra, that is the +most orthodox form of the Sinhalese school, the only sect.</p> + +<p>In connection with these data must be taken the important statement +that the celebrated Tantrist Atîśa studied in Lower Burma about +1000 A.D. Up to a certain point the conclusion seems clear. Pali +Hinayanism in Burma was old: intercourse with southern India and +Ceylon tended to keep it pure, whereas intercourse with Bengal and +Orissa, which must have been equally frequent, tended to import +Mahayanism. In the time of Anawrata the religion of Upper Burma +probably did not deserve the name of Buddhism. He introduced in its +place the Buddhism of Lower Burma, tempered by reference to Ceylon. +After 1200 if not earlier the idea prevailed that the Mahâvihâra was +the standard of orthodoxy and that the Talaing church (which probably +retained some Mahayanist features) fell below it. In the fifteenth +century this view was universally accepted, the opposition and indeed +the separate existence of the Talaing church having come to an end.</p> + +<p>But it still remains uncertain whether the earliest Burmese Buddhism +came direct from Magadha or from the south. The story of Asoka's +missionaries cannot be summarily rejected <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_61" id="Page_3_61"></a>[Pg 61]</span>but it also cannot be +accepted without hesitation<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a>. It is the Ceylon chronicle which +knows of them and communication between Burma and southern India was +old and persistent. It may have existed even before the Christian era.</p> + +<p>After the fall of Pagan, Upper Burma, of which we must now speak, +passed through troubled times and we hear little of religion or +literature. Though Ava was founded in 1364 it did not become an +intellectual centre for another century. But the reign of Narapati +(1442-1468) was ornamented by several writers of eminence among whom +may be mentioned the monk poet Sîlavaṃsa and Ariyavaṃsa, an +exponent of the Abhidhamma. They are noticeable as being the first +writers to publish religious works, either original or translated, in +the vernacular and this practice steadily increased. In the early part +of the sixteenth century<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> occurred the only persecution of +Buddhism known in Burma. Thohanbwâ, a Shan who had become king of Ava, +endeavoured to exterminate the order by deliberate massacre and +delivered temples, monasteries and libraries to the flames. The +persecution did not last long nor extend to other districts but it +created great indignation among the Burmese and was perhaps one of the +reasons why the Shan dynasty of Ava was overthrown in 1555.</p> + +<p>Bayin (or Bureng) Naung stands out as one of the greatest +personalities in Burmese history. As a Buddhist he was zealous even to +intolerance, since he forced the Shans and Moslims of the northern +districts, and indeed all his subjects, to make a formal profession of +Buddhism. He also, as related elsewhere, made not very successful +attempts to obtain the tooth relic from Ceylon. But it is probable +that his active patronage of the faith, as shown in the construction +and endowment of religious buildings, was exercised chiefly in Pegu +and this must be the reason why the Sâsanavaṃsa (which is +interested chiefly in Upper Burma) says little about him.</p> + +<p>His successors showed little political capacity but encouraged +religion and literature. The study of the Abhidhamma was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_62" id="Page_3_62"></a>[Pg 62]</span>specially +flourishing in the districts of Ava and Sagaing from about 1600 to +1650 and found many illustrious exponents. Besides works in Pali, the +writers of this time produced numerous Burmese translations and +paraphrases of Abhidhamma works, as well as edifying stories.</p> + +<p>In the latter part of the seventeenth century Burma was in a disturbed +condition and the Sâsanavaṃsa says that religion was dimmed as the +moon by clouds. A national and religious revival came with the +victories of Alompra (1752 onwards), but the eighteenth century also +witnessed the rise of a curious and not very edifying controversy +which divided the Sangha for about a hundred years and spread to +Ceylon<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a>. It concerned the manner in which the upper robe of a +monk, consisting of a long piece of cloth, should be worn. The old +practice in Burma was to wrap this cloth round the lower body from the +loins to the ankles, and draw the end from the back over the left +shoulder and thence across the breast over the right shoulder so that +it finally hung loose behind. But about 1698 began the custom of +walking with the right shoulder bare, that is to say letting the end +of the robe fall down in front on the left side. The Sangha became +divided into two factions known as <i>Ekaṃsika</i> (one-shouldered) and +<i>Pârupana</i> (fully clad). The bitterness of the seemingly trivial +controversy was increased by the fact that the Ekaṃsikas could +produce little scriptural warrant and appealed to late authorities or +the practice in Ceylon, thus neglecting sound learning. For the Vinaya +frequently<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> prescribes that the robe is to be adjusted so as to +fall over only one shoulder as a mark of special respect, which +implies that it was usually worn over both shoulders. In 1712 and +again about twenty years later arbitrators were appointed by the king +to hear both sides, but they had not sufficient authority or learning +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_63" id="Page_3_63"></a>[Pg 63]</span>to give a decided opinion. The stirring political events of 1740 +and the following years naturally threw ecclesiastical quarrels into +the shade but when the great Alompra had disposed of his enemies he +appeared as a modern Asoka. The court religiously observed Uposatha +days and the king was popularly believed to be a Bodhisattva<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a>. He +was not however sound on the great question of ecclesiastical dress. +His chaplain, Atula, belonged to the Ekaṃsika party and the king, +saying that he wished to go into the whole matter himself but had not +for the moment leisure, provisionally ordered the Saṇgha to obey +Atula's ruling. But some champions of the other side stood firm. +Alompra dealt leniently with them, but died during his Siamese +campaign before he had time to unravel the intricacies of the Vinaya.</p> + +<p>The influence of Atula, who must have been an astute if not learned +man, continued after the king's death and no measures were taken +against the Ekaṃsikas, although King Hsin-byu-shin (1763-1776) +persecuted an heretical sect called Paramats<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a>. His youthful +successor, Sing-gu-sa, was induced to hold a public disputation. The +Ekaṃsikas were defeated in this contest and a royal decree was +issued making the Pârupana discipline obligatory. But the vexed +question was not settled for it came up again in the long reign +(1781-1819) of Bodôpayâ. This king has won an evil reputation for +cruelty and insensate conceit<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a>, but he was a man of vigour and +kept together his great empire. His megalomania naturally detracted +from the esteem won by his piety. His benefactions to religion were +lavish, the shrines and monasteries which he built innumerable. But he +desired to build a pagoda larger than any in the world and during some +twenty years wasted an incalculable amount of labour and money on this +project, still commemorated by a gigantic but unfinished mass of +brickwork now in ruins. In order to supervise its erection he left his +palace and lived at Mingun, where he <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_64" id="Page_3_64"></a>[Pg 64]</span>conceived the idea that he +was a Buddha, an idea which had not been entirely absent from the +minds of Alompra and Hsin-byu-shin. It is to the credit of the Theras +that, despite the danger of opposing an autocrat as cruel as he was +crazy, they refused to countenance these pretensions and the king +returned to his palace as an ordinary monarch.</p> + +<p>If he could not make himself a Buddha, he at least disposed of the +Ekaṃsika dispute, and was probably influenced in his views by +Ñânâbhivaṃsa, a monk of the Pârupana school whom he made his +chaplain, although Atula was still alive. At first he named a +commission of enquiry, the result of which was that the Ekaṃsikas +admitted that their practice could not be justified from the +scriptures but only by tradition. A royal decree was issued enjoining +the observance of the Pârupana discipline, but two years later Atula +addressed a letter to the king in which he maintained that the +Ekaṃsika costume was approved in a work called +Cûlagaṇṭhipada, composed by Moggalâna, the immediate disciple of +the Buddha. The king ordered representatives of both parties to +examine this contention and the debate between them is dramatically +described in the Sâsanavaṃsa. It was demonstrated that the text on +which Atula relied was composed in Ceylon by a thera named Moggalâna +who lived in the twelfth century and that it quoted mediæval Sinhalese +commentaries. After this exposure the Ekaṃsika party collapsed. The +king commanded (1784) the Pârupana discipline to be observed and at +last the royal order received obedience.</p> + +<p>It will be observed that throughout this controversy both sides +appealed to the king, as if he had the right to decide the point in +dispute, but that his decision had no compelling power as long as it +was not supported by evidence. He could ensure toleration for views +regarded by many as heretical, but was unable to force the views of +one party on the other until the winning cause had publicly disproved +the contentions of its opponents. On the other hand the king had +practical control of the hierarchy, for his chaplain was <i>de facto</i> +head of the Church and the appointment was strictly personal. It was +not the practice for a king to take on his predecessor's chaplain and +the latter could not, like a Lamaist or Catholic ecclesiastic, claim +any permanent supernatural powers. Bodôpayâ did something towards +organizing the hierarchy for he appointed four <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_65" id="Page_3_65"></a>[Pg 65]</span>elders of repute to +be Saṇgharâjas or, so to speak, Bishops, with four more as +assistants and over them all his chaplain Ñâṇa as Archbishop. +Ñâṇa was a man of energy and lived in turn in various monasteries +supervising the discipline and studies.</p> + +<p>In spite of the extravagances of Bodôpayâ, the Church was flourishing +and respected in his reign. The celebrated image called Mahâmuni was +transferred from Arakan to his capital together with a Sanskrit +library, and Burma sent to Ceylon not only the monks who founded the +Amarapura school but also numerous Pali texts. This prosperity +continued in the reigns of Bagyidaw, Tharrawadi and Pagan-min, who +were of little personal account. The first ordered the compilation of +the Yazawin, a chronicle which was not original but incorporated and +superseded other works of the same kind. In his reign arose a question +as to the validity of grants of land, etc., for religious purposes. It +was decided in the sense most favourable to the order, <i>viz.</i> that +such grants are perpetual and are not invalidated by the lapse of +time. About 1845 there was a considerable output of vernacular +literature. The Dîgha, Samyutta and Anguttara Nikâyas with their +commentaries were translated into Burmese but no compositions in Pali +are recorded.</p> + +<p>From 1852 till 1877 Burma was ruled by Mindon-min, who if not a +national hero was at least a pious, peace-loving, capable king. His +chaplain, Paññâsâmi, composed the Sâsanavaṃsa, or ecclesiastical +history of Burma, and the king himself was ambitious to figure as a +great Buddhist monarch, though with more sanity than Bodôpayâ, for his +chief desire was to be known as the Convener of the Fifth Buddhist +Council. The body so styled met from 1868 to 1871 and, like the +ancient Saṇgîtis, proceeded to recite the Tipiṭaka in order to +establish the correct text. The result may still be seen at Mandalay +in the collection of buildings commonly known as the four hundred and +fifty Pagodas: a central Stupa surrounded by hundreds of small shrines +each sheltering a perpendicular tablet on which a portion of this +veritable bible in stone is inscribed. Mindon-min also corrected the +growing laxity of the Bhikkhus, and the esteem in which the Burmese +church was held at this time is shown by the fact that the monks of +Ceylon sent a deputation to the Saṇgharâja of Mandalay referring to +his decision a dispute about a <i>sîmâ</i> or ecclesiastical boundary.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_66" id="Page_3_66"></a>[Pg 66]</span>Mindon-min was succeeded by Thibaw, who was deposed by the +British. The Saṇgharâja maintained his office until he died in +1895. An interregnum then occurred for the appointment had always been +made by the king, not by the Sangha. But when Lord Curzon visited +Burma in 1901 he made arrangements for the election by the monks +themselves of a superior of the whole order and Taunggwin Sayâdaw was +solemnly installed in this office by the British authorities in 1903 +with the title of Thathanabaing<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a>.</p> + +<h3>3</h3> + + +<p>We may now examine briefly some sides of popular religion and +institutions which are not Buddhist. It is an interesting fact that +the Burmese law books or Dhammathats<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>, which are still accepted as +regulating inheritance and other domestic matters, are Indian in +origin and show no traces of Sinhalese influence although since 1750 +there has been a decided tendency to bring them into connection with +authorities accepted by Buddhism. The earliest of these codes are +those of Dhammavilâsa (1174 A.D.) and of Waguru, king of Martaban in +1280. They professedly base themselves on the authority of Manu and, +so far as purely legal topics are concerned, correspond pretty closely +with the rules of the Mânava-dharmaśâstra. But they omit all +prescriptions which involve Brahmanic religious observances such as +penance and sacrifice. Also the theory of punishment is different and +inspired by the doctrine of Karma, namely, that every evil deed will +bring its own retribution. Hence the Burmese codes ordain for every +crime not penalties to be suffered by the criminal but merely the +payment of compensation to the party aggrieved, proportionate to the +damage suffered<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a>. It is probable that the law-books on which these +codes were based were brought from the east coast of India and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_67" id="Page_3_67"></a>[Pg 67]</span>were of the same type as the code of Nârada, which, though of +unquestioned Brahmanic orthodoxy, is almost purely legal and has +little to say about religion. A subsidiary literature embodying local +decisions naturally grew up, and about 1640 was summarized by a +Burmese nobleman called Kaing-zâ in the Mahârâja-dhammathat. He +received from the king the title of Manurâja and the name of Manu +became connected with his code, though it is really based on local +custom. It appears to have superseded older law-books until the reign +of Alompra who remodelled the administration and caused several codes +to be compiled<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a>. These also preserve the name of Manu, but he and +Kaing-zâ are treated as the same personage. The rules of the older +law-books are in the main retained but are made to depend on Buddhist +texts. Later Dhammathats become more and more decidedly Buddhist. Thus +the Mohavicchedanî (1832) does not mention Manu but presents the +substance of the Manu Dhammathats as the law preached by the Buddha.</p> + +<p>Direct Indian influence may be seen in another department not +unimportant in an oriental country. The court astrologers, soothsayers +and professors of kindred sciences were even in recent times Brahmans, +known as Pônnâ and mostly from Manipur. An inscription found at Pagan +and dated 1442 mentions the gift of 295 books<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> to the Sangha among +which several have Sanskrit titles and about 1600 we hear of Pandits +learned in the Vedaśâstras, meaning not Vedic learning in the +strict sense but combinations of science and magic described as +medicine, astronomy, Kâmaśâstras, etc. Hindu tradition was +sufficiently strong at the Court to make the presence of experts in +the Atharva Veda seem desirable and in the capital they were in +request for such services as drawing up horoscopes<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_68" id="Page_3_68"></a>[Pg 68]</span>invoking good luck at weddings whereas monks will not attend +social gatherings.</p> + +<p>More important as a non-Buddhist element in Burmese religion is the +worship of Nats<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> or spirits of various kinds. Of the prevalence of +such worship there is no doubt, but I cannot agree with the +authorities who say that it is the practical religion of the Burmese. +No passing tourist can fail to see that in the literal as well as +figurative sense Burma takes its colour from Buddhism, from the gilded +and vermilion pagodas and the yellow robed priests. It is impossible +that so much money should be given, so many lives dedicated to a +religion which had not a real hold on the hearts of the people. The +worship of Nats, wide-spread though it be, is humble in its outward +signs and is a superstition rather than a creed. On several occasions +the kings of Burma have suppressed its manifestations when they became +too conspicuous. Thus Anawrata destroyed the Nat houses of Pagan and +recent kings forbade the practice of firing guns at funerals to scare +the evil spirits.</p> + +<p>Nats are of at least three classes, or rather have three origins. +Firstly they are nature spirits, similar to those revered in China and +Tibet. They inhabit noticeable natural features of every kind, +particularly trees, rivers and mountains; they may be specially +connected with villages, houses or individuals. Though not essentially +evil they are touchy and vindictive, punishing neglect or discourtesy +with misfortune and ill-luck. No explanation is offered as to the +origin of many Nats, but others, who may be regarded as forming the +second category, are ghosts or ancestral spirits. In northern Burma +Chinese influence encouraged ancestor worship, but apart from this +there is a disposition (equally evident in India) to believe that +violent and uncanny persons and those who meet with a tragic death +become powerful ghosts requiring propitiation. Thirdly, there are Nats +who are at least in part identified with the Indian deities recognized +by early Buddhism. It would seem that the Thirty Seven Nats, described +in a work called the Mahâgîtâ Medânigyân, correspond to the Thirty +Three Gods of Buddhist mythology, but that the number has been raised +for unknown <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_69" id="Page_3_69"></a>[Pg 69]</span>reasons to 37<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a>. They are spirits of deceased +heroes, and there is nothing unbuddhist in this conception, for the +Piṭakas frequently represent deserving persons as being reborn in +the Heaven of the Thirty Three. The chief is Thagyâ, the Śakra or +Indra of Hindu mythology<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a>, but the others are heroes, connected +with five cycles of legends based on a popular and often inaccurate +version of Burmese history<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a>.</p> + +<p>Besides Thagyâ Nat we find other Indian figures such as Man Nat (Mâra) +and Byammâ Nat (Brahmâ). In diagrams illustrating the Buddhist +cosmology of the Burmans<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> a series of heavens is depicted, +ascending from those of the Four Kings and Thirty Three Gods up to the +Brahmâ worlds, and each inhabited by Nats according to their degree. +Here the spirits of Burma are marshalled and classified according to +Buddhist system just as were the spirits of India some centuries +before. But neither in ancient India nor in modern Burma have the +devas or Nats anything to do with the serious business of religion. +They have their place in temples as guardian genii and the whole band +may be seen in a shrine adjoining the Shwe-zi-gon Pagoda at Pagan, but +this interferes no more with the supremacy of the Buddha than did the +deputations of spirits who according to the scriptures waited on him.</p> + +<h3>4</h3> + + +<p>Buddhism is a real force in Burmese life and the pride of the Burmese +people. Every male Burman enters a monastery when he is about 15 for a +short stay. Devout parents send their sons for the four months of +<i>Was</i> (or even for this season during three successive years), but by +the majority a period of from one month to one week is considered +sufficient. To omit this stay in a monastery altogether would not be +respectable: it is in common esteem the only way to become a human +being, for without it a boy is a mere animal. The praises of the +Buddha <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_70" id="Page_3_70"></a>[Pg 70]</span>and vows to lead a good life are commonly recited by the +laity<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> every morning and evening. It is the greatest ambition of +most Burmans to build a pagoda and those who are able to do so (a +large percentage of the population to judge from the number of +buildings) are not only sure of their reward in another birth but +even now enjoy respect and receive the title of pagoda-builder. +Another proof of devotion is the existence of thousands of +monasteries<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a>—perhaps on an average more than two for each large +village and town—built and supported by voluntary contributions. The +provision of food and domicile for their numerous inmates is no small +charge on the nation, but observers are agreed that it is cheerfully +paid and that the monks are worthy of what they receive. In energy and +morality they seem, as a class, superior to their brethren in Ceylon +and Siam, and their services to education and learning have been +considerable. Every monastery is also a school, where instruction is +given to both day boys and boarders. The vast majority of Burmans +enter such a school at the age of eight or nine and learn there +reading, writing, and arithmetic. They also receive religious +instruction and moral training. They commit to memory various works in +Pali and Burmese, and are taught the duties which they owe to +themselves, society and the state. Sir. J.G. Scott, who is certainly +not disposed to exaggerate the influence of Buddhism in Burma, says +that "the education of the monasteries far surpasses the instruction +of the Anglo-vernacular schools from every point of view except that +of immediate success in life and the obtaining of a post under +Government<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a>." The more studious monks are not merely schoolmasters +but can point to a considerable body of literature which they have +produced in the past and are still producing<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a>. Indeed among the +Hinayanist churches that of Burma has in recent centuries held the +first place for learning. The age and continuity of Sinhalese +traditions have given the Sangha of Ceylon a correspondingly great +prestige but it has more than <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_71" id="Page_3_71"></a>[Pg 71]</span>once been recruited from Burma and +in literary output it can hardly rival the Burmese clergy.</p> + +<p>Though many disquisitions on the Vinaya have been produced in Burma, +and though the Jâtakas and portions of the Sutta Piṭaka (especially +those called Parittam) are known to everybody, yet the favourite study +of theologians appears to be the Abhidhamma, concerning which a +multitude of hand-books and commentaries have been written, but it is +worth mentioning that the Abhidhammattha-sangaha, composed in Ceylon +about the twelfth century A.D., is still the standard manual<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a>. Yet +it would be a mistake to think of the Burmese monks as absorbed in +these recondite studies: they have on the contrary produced a long +series of works dealing with the practical things of the world, such +as chronicles, law-books, ethical and political treatises, and even +poetry, for Sîlavamsa and Ratthapâla whose verses are still learned by +the youth of Burma were both of them Bhikkhus. The Sangha has always +shown a laudable reserve in interfering directly with politics, but in +former times the king's private chaplain was a councillor of +importance and occasionally matters involving both political and +religious questions were submitted to a chapter of the order. In all +cases the influence of the monks in secular matters made for justice +and peace: they sometimes interceded on behalf of the condemned or +represented that taxation was too heavy. In 1886, when the British +annexed Burma, the Head of the Sangha forbade monks to take part in +the political strife, a prohibition which was all the more remarkable +because King Thibaw had issued proclamations saying that the object of +the invasion was to destroy Buddhism.</p> + +<p>In essentials monastic life is much the same in Burma and Ceylon but +the Burmese standard is higher, and any monk known to misconduct +himself would be driven out by the laity. The monasteries are numerous +but not large and much space is wasted, for, though the exterior +suggests that they are built in several stories the interior usually +is a single hall, although it may be divided by partitions. To the +eastern side is attached a chapel containing images of Gotama before +which daily devotions <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_72" id="Page_3_72"></a>[Pg 72]</span>are performed. It is surmounted by a steeple +culminating in a <i>hti</i>, a sort of baldachino or sacred umbrella +placed also on the top of dagobas, and made of open metal work hung +with little bells. Monasteries are always built outside towns and, +though many of them become subsequently enclosed by the growth of the +larger cities, they retain spacious grounds in which there may be +separate buildings, such as a library, dormitories for pupils and a +hall for performing the ordination service. The average number of +inmates is six. A large establishment may house a superior, four +monks, some novices and besides them several lay scholars. The grades +are <i>Sahin</i> or novice, <i>Pyit-shin</i> or fully ordained monk and +<i>Pôngyi</i>, literally great glory, a monk of at least ten years' +standing. Rank depends on seniority—that is to say the greatest +respect is shown to the monk who has observed his vows for the longest +period, but there are some simple hierarchical arrangements. At the +head of each monastery is a Sayâ or superior, and all the monasteries +of a large town or a country district are under the supervision of a +Provincial called Gaing-Ok. At the head of the whole church is the +Thathanabaing, already mentioned. All these higher officials must be +Pôngyîs.</p> + +<p>Although all monks must take part in the daily round to collect alms +yet in most monasteries it is the custom (as in Ceylon and Siam) not +to eat the food collected, or at least not all of it, and though no +solid nourishment is taken after midday, three morning meals are +allowed, namely, one taken very early, the next served on the return +from the begging round and a third about 11.30. Two or three services +are intoned before the image of the Buddha each day. At the morning +ceremony, which takes place about 5.30, all the inmates of the +monastery prostrate themselves before the superior and vow to observe +the precepts during the day. At the conclusion of the evening service +a novice announces that a day has passed away and in a loud voice +proclaims the hour, the day of the week, the day of the month and the +year. The laity do not usually attend these services, but near large +monasteries there are rest houses for the entertainment of visitors +and Uposatha days are often celebrated by a pious picnic. A family or +party of friends take a rest-house for a day, bring a goodly store of +cheroots and betel nut, which are not regarded as out of place during +divine <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_73" id="Page_3_73"></a>[Pg 73]</span>service<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a>, and listen at their ease to the exposition of +the law delivered by a yellow-robed monk. When the congregation +includes women he holds a large fan-leaf palm before his face lest his +eyes should behold vanity. A custom which might not be to the taste of +western ecclesiastics is that the congregation ask questions and, if +they do not understand, request the preacher to be clearer.</p> + +<p>There is little sectarianism in Burma proper, but the Sawtis, an +anti-clerical sect, are found in some numbers in the Shan States and +similar communities called Man are still met with in Pegu and +Tenasserim, though said to be disappearing. Both refuse to recognize +the Sangha, monasteries or temples and perform their devotions in the +open fields. Otherwise their mode of thought is Buddhist, for they +hold that every man can work out his own salvation by conquering +Mâra<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a>, as the Buddha did, and they use the ordinary formulæ of +worship, except that they omit all expressions of reverence to the +Sangha. The orthodox Sangha is divided into two schools known as +Mahâgandi and Sûlagandi. The former are the moderate easy-going +majority who maintain a decent discipline but undeniably deviate +somewhat from the letter of the Vinaya. The latter are a strict and +somewhat militant Puritan minority who protest against such +concessions to the flesh. They insist for instance that a monk should +eat out of his begging bowl exactly as it is at the end of the morning +round and they forbid the use of silk robes, sunshades and sandals. +The Sûlagandi also believe in free will and attach more value to the +intention than the action in estimating the value of good deeds, +whereas the Mahâgandi accept good actions without enquiring into the +motive and believe that all deeds are the result of karma.</p> + +<h3>5</h3> + + +<p>In Burma all the higher branches of architecture are almost +exclusively dedicated to religion. Except the Palace at Mandalay there +is hardly a native building of note which is not connected with a +shrine or monastery. Burmese architectural <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_74" id="Page_3_74"></a>[Pg 74]</span>forms show most analogy +to those of Nepal and perhaps<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> both preserve what was once the +common style for wooden buildings in ancient India. In recent +centuries the Burmese have shown little inclination to build anything +that can be called a temple, that is a chamber containing images and +the paraphernalia of worship. The commonest form of religious edifice +is the dagoba or zedi<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a>: images are placed in niches or shrines, +which shelter them, but only rarely, as on the platform of the Shwe +Dagon at Rangoon, assume the proportions of rooms. This does not apply +to the great temples of Pagan, built from about 1050 to 1200, but that +style was not continued and except the Arakan Pagoda at Mandalay has +perhaps no modern representative. Details of these buildings may be +found in the works of Forchhammer, Fergusson, de Beylié and various +archæological reports. Their construction is remarkably solid. They do +not, like most large buildings in India or Europe, contain halls of +some size but are rather pyramids traversed by passages. But this +curious disinclination to build temples of the usual kind is not due +to any dislike of images. In no Buddhist country are they more common +and their numbers are more noticeable because there is here no +pantheon as in China and Tibet, but images of Gotama are multiplied, +merely in order to obtain merit. Some slight variety in these figures +is produced by the fact that the Burmese venerate not only Gotama but +the three Buddhas who preceded him<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a>. The Shwe Dagon Pagoda is +reputed to contain relics of all four; statues of them all stand in +the beautiful Ananda Pagoda at Pagan and not infrequently they are +represented by four sitting figures facing the four quarters. A +gigantic group of this kind composed of statues nearly 90 feet high +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_75" id="Page_3_75"></a>[Pg 75]</span>stands in the outskirts of Pegu, and in the same neighbourhood is +a still larger recumbent figure 180 feet long. It had been forgotten +since the capture of Pegu by the Burmans in 1757 and was rediscovered +by the engineers surveying the route for the railway. It lies almost +in sight of the line and is surprising by its mere size, as one comes +upon it suddenly in the jungle. As a work of art it can hardly be +praised. It does not suggest the Buddha on his death bed, as is +intended, but rather some huge spirit of the jungle waking up and +watching the railway with indolent amusement.</p> + +<p>In Upper Burma there are not so many large images but as one +approaches Mandalay the pagodas add more and more to the landscape. +Many are golden and the rest are mostly white and conspicuous. They +crown the hills and punctuate the windings of the valleys. Perhaps +Burmese art and nature are seen at their best near Sagaing on the bank +of the Irrawaddy, a mighty flood of yellow water, sweeping down smooth +and steady, but here and there showing whirlpools that look like +molten metal. From the shore rise hills of moderate height studded +with monasteries and shrines. Flights of white steps lead to the +principal summits where golden spires gleam and everywhere are pagodas +of all ages, shapes and sizes. Like most Asiatics the Burmese rarely +repair, but build new pagodas instead of renovating the old ones. The +instinct is not altogether unjust. A pagoda does not collapse like a +hollow building but understands the art of growing old. Like a tree it +may become cleft or overgrown with moss but it remains picturesque. In +the neighbourhood of Sagaing there is a veritable forest of pagodas; +humble seedlings built by widows' mites, mature golden domes reared by +devout prosperity and venerable ruins decomposing as all compound +things must do.</p> + +<p>The pagoda slaves are a curious institution connected with temples. +Under the Burmese kings persons could be dedicated to pagodas and by +this process not only became slaves for life themselves but involved +in the same servitude all their posterity, none of whom could by any +method become free. They formed a low caste like the Indian Pariahs +and though the British Government has abolished the legal status of +slavery, the social stigma which clings to them is said to be +undiminished.</p> + +<p>Art and architecture make the picture of Burma as it <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_76" id="Page_3_76"></a>[Pg 76]</span>remains in +memory and they are the faithful reflection of the character and ways +of its inhabitants, their cheerful but religious temper, their love of +what is fanciful and graceful, their moderate aspirations towards what +is arduous and sublime. The most striking feature of this architecture +is its free use of gold and colour. In no country of the world is +gilding and plating with gold so lavishly employed on the exterior of +buildings. The larger Pagodas such as the Shwe Dagon are veritable +pyramids of gold, and the roofs of the Arakan temple as they rise +above Mandalay show tier upon tier of golden beams and plates. The +brilliancy is increased by the equally lavish use of vermilion, +sometimes diversified by glass mosaic. I remember once in an East +African jungle seeing a clump of flowers of such brilliant red and +yellow that for a moment I thought it was a fire. Somewhat similar is +the surprise with which one first gazes on these edifices. I do not +know whether the epithet flamboyant can be correctly applied to them +as architecture but both in colour and shape they imitate a pile of +flame, for the outlines of monasteries and shrines are fanciful in the +extreme; gabled roofs with finials like tongues of fire and panels +rich with carvings and fret-work. The buildings of Hindus and Burmans +are as different as their characters. When a Hindu temple is imposing +it is usually because of its bulk and mystery, whereas these buildings +are lighthearted and fairy-like: heaps of red and yellow fruit with +twining leaves and tendrils that have grown by magic. Nor is there +much resemblance to Japanese architecture. There also, lacquer and +gold are employed to an unusual extent but the flourishes, horns and +finials which in Burma spring from every corner and projection are +wanting and both Japanese and Chinese artists are more sparing and +reticent. They distribute ornament so as to emphasize and lead up to +the more important parts of their buildings, whereas the open-handed, +splendour-loving Burman puts on every panel and pillar as much +decoration as it will hold.</p> + +<p>The result must be looked at as a whole and not too minutely. The best +work is the wood carving which has a freedom and boldness often +missing in the minute and crowded designs of Indian art. Still as a +rule it is at the risk of breaking the spell that you examine the +details of Burmese ornamentation. Better rest content with your first +amazement on beholding these <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_77" id="Page_3_77"></a>[Pg 77]</span>carved and pinnacled piles of gold +and vermilion, where the fantastic animals and plants seem about to +break into life.</p> + +<p>The most celebrated shrine in Burma is the Shwe Dagon Pagoda which +attracts pilgrims from all the Buddhist world. No descriptions of it +gave me any idea of its real appearance nor can I hope that I shall be +more successful in giving the reader my own impressions. The pagoda +itself is a gilt bell-shaped mass rather higher than the Dome of St. +Paul's and terminating in a spire. It is set in the centre of a raised +mound or platform, approached by lofty flights of steps. The platform, +which is paved and level, is of imposing dimensions, some nine hundred +feet long and seven hundred wide. Round the base of the central pagoda +is a row of shrines and another row runs round the edge of the +platform so that one moves, as it were, in a street of these edifices, +leading here and there into side squares where are quiet retreats with +palm trees and gigantic images. But when after climbing the long +staircase one first emerges on the platform one does not realize the +topography at once and seems to have entered suddenly into Jerusalem +the Golden. Right and left are rows of gorgeous, fantastic +sanctuaries, all gold, vermilion and glass mosaic, and within them sit +marble figures, bland, enigmatic personages who seem to invite +approach but offer no explanation of the singular scene or the part +they play in it. If analyzed in detail the artistic merits of these +shrines might be found small but the total impression is unique. The +Shwe Dagon has not the qualities which usually distinguish great +religious buildings. It is not specially impressive by its majesty or +holiness; it is certainly wanting in order and arrangement. But on +entering the platform one feels that one has suddenly passed from this +life into another and different world. It is not perhaps a very +elevated world; certainly not the final repose of the just or the +steps of the throne of God, but it is as if you were walking in the +bazaars of Paradise—one of those Buddhist Paradises where the souls +of the moderately pure find temporary rest from the whirl of +transmigration, where the very lotus flowers are golden and the leaves +of the trees are golden bells that tinkle in the perfumed breeze.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> For the Pyus see Blagden in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> pp. 365-388. +<i>Ibid.</i> in <i>Epigr. Indica</i>, 1913, pp. 127-133. Also reports of <i>Burma +Arch. Survey</i>, 1916, 1917.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> So C.C. Lowis in the <i>Gazetteer of Burma</i>, vol. I. p. +292, but according to others the Burmese chronicles place the event at +the beginning of the Christian era.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> Sometimes called New Pagan to distinguish it from Old +Pagan which was a name of Tagaung. Also called Pagan or Pugâma and in +Pali Arimaddanapura.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> See the travels of Kia Tan described by Pelliot in +<i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, pp. 131-414.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> More correctly Taung-ngu.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> For the history and present condition of Buddhism in +Burma the following may be consulted besides other works referred to +in the course of this chapter. +</p><p> +M. Bode, <i>Edition of the Sâsanavaṃsa</i> with valuable dissertations, +1897. This work is a modern Burmese ecclesiastical history written in +1861 by Paññâsâmi. +</p><p> +M. Bode, <i>The Pali Literature of Burma</i>, 1909. +</p><p> +The Gandhavaṃsa: containing accounts of many Pali works written in +Burma. Edited by Minayeff in <i>Jour. Pali Text Soc.</i> for 1886, pp. 54 +ff. and indexed by M. Bode, <i>ibid.</i> 1896, 53 ff. +</p><p> +Bigandet, <i>Vie ou Légende de Gautama</i>, 1878. +</p><p> +Yoe, <i>The Burman, his life and notions</i>. +</p><p> +J.G. Scott, <i>Burma, a handbook of practical information</i>, 1906. +</p><p> +<i>Reports of the Superintendent, Archaeological Survey, Burma</i>, +1916-1920. +</p><p> +Various articles (especially by Duroiselle, Taw-Sein-Ko and R.C. +Temple) in the <i>Indian Antiquary</i>, <i>Buddhism</i>, and <i>Bulletin de +l'Ecole Française de l'Extrême Orient.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> So too Prome is called Śrîkshetra and the name +Irrawaddy represents Irâvatî (the modern Ravi). The ancient town of +Śrâvastî or Sâvatthi is said to reappear in the three forms +Tharawaddy, Tharawaw and Thawutti.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> See <i>Indian Antiquary</i>, 1893, p. 6, and Forchhammer on +the Mahamuni Pagoda in <i>Burmese Archaeological Report</i> (? 1890).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Dîpav. VIII. 12, and in a more embellished form in +Mahâvaṃsa XII. 44-54. See also the Kalyani Inscriptions in <i>Indian +Ant.</i> 1893, p. 16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Through the form Saton representing Saddhan. Early +European travellers called it Satan or Xatan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> The Burmese identify Aparantaka and Yona to which Asoka +also sent missionaries with Upper Burma and the Shan country. But this +seems to be merely a misapplication of Indian names.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> See Forchhammer, <i>Jardine Prize Essay</i>, 1885, pp. +23-27. He also says that the earliest Talaing alphabet is identical +with the Vengi alphabet of the fourth century A.D. <i>Burma Archaeol. +Report</i>, 1917, p. 29.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> See R.C. Temple, "Notes on Antiquities of Râmaññadesa," +<i>Ind. Antiq.</i> 1893, pp. 327 ff. Though I admit the possibility that +Mahâyânism and Tantrism may have flourished in lower Burma, it does +not seem to me that the few Hindu figures reproduced in this article +prove very much.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> <i>J.A.</i> 1912, II. pp. 121-136.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> It is remarkable that Buddhaghosa commenting on Ang. +Nik. 1. 14. 6 (quoted by Forchhammer) describes the merchants of +Ukkala as inhabiting Asitañjana in the region of Haṃsavatî or Pegu. +This identification of Ukkala with Burmese territory is a mistake but +accepted in Burma and it is more likely that a Burmese would have made +it than a Hindu.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Chap. XXXIX.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> See however <i>Epig. Indica</i>, vol. V. part iv. Oct. 1898, +pp. 101-102. For the prevalence of forms which must be derived from +Sanskrit not Pali see <i>Burma Arch. Rep.</i> 1916, p. 14, and 1917, p. +39.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Report of <i>Supt. Arch. Survey Burma</i>, 1909, p. 10, +1910, p. 13, and 1916, pp. 33, 38. Finot, <i>Notes d'Epigraphie</i>, p. +357.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> See especially Finot in <i>J.A.</i> 1912, II. p. 123, and +Huber in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1909 P. 584.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> The Aris are further credited with having practised a +sort of <i>jus primæ noctis</i>. See on this question the chapter on +Camboja and alleged similar customs there.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> See <i>Burma Arch. Rep.</i> 1916, pp. 12, 13. They seem to +have been similar to the Nîlapatanadarśana of Ceylon. The +Prabodhacandrodaya (about 1100 A.D.) represents Buddhist monks as +drunken and licentious.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> See Parker, <i>Burma</i>, 1892. The annalist says "There is +a huge white elephant (or image) 100 feet high. Litigants burn +incense and kneel before it, reflecting within themselves whether they +are right or wrong.... When there is any disaster or plague the king +also kneels in front of it and blames himself." The Chinese character +means either image or elephant, but surely the former must be the +meaning here.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> See Taw-Sein-Ko, in <i>Ind. Antiquary</i>, 1906, p. 211. But +I must confess that I have not been able to follow or confirm all the +etymologies suggested by him.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> See for Chinese remains at Pagan, <i>Report of the +Superintendent, Arch. Survey, Burma, for year ending 31st March, +1910</i>, pp. 20, 21. An inscription at Pagan records that in 1285 +Khubilai's troops were accompanied by monks sent to evangelize Burma. +Both troops and monks halted at Tagaung and both were subsequently +withdrawn. See <i>Arch. Survey</i>, 1917, p. 38.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> The date of Anawrata's conquest of Thaton seems to be +now fixed by inscriptions as 1057 A.D., though formerly supposed to be +earlier. See <i>Burma Arch. Rep.</i> 1916. For Anawrata's religious reforms +see <i>Sâsanavaṃsa</i>, pp. 17 ff. and 57 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> It has been noted that many of the inscriptions +explanatory of the scenes depicted on the walls of the Ananda temple +at Pagan are in Talaing, showing that it was some time before the +Burmans were able to assimilate the culture of the conquered country.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> See the <i>Sâsanavaṃsa</i>, p. 64 and p. 20. See also +Bode, <i>Pali Literature of Burma</i>, p. 15. But the Mahâvaṃsa, LX. +4-7, while recording the communications between Vijaya Bahu and +Aniruddha ( = Anawrata) represents Ceylon as asking for monks from +Râmañña, which implies that lower Burma was even then regarded as a +Buddhist country with a fine tradition.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> The Burmese canon adds four works to the +Khuddaka-Nikâya, namely: (a) Milinda Pañha, (b) Netti-Pakaraṇa, (c) +Suttasaṇgaha, (d) Peṭakopadesa.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> Inscriptions give his reign as 1084-1112 A.D. See +<i>Burma Arch. Rep.</i> 1916, p. 24. Among many other remarkable edifices +may be mentioned the Thapinyu or Thabbannu (1100), the Gaudapalin +(1160) and the Bodhi (<i>c.</i> 1200) which is a copy of the temple at +Bodhgaya.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> The best known of his works are the Sutta-niddesa on +grammar and the Sankhepavaṇṇanâ. The latter is a commentary on +the Abhidhammattha-sangaha, but it is not certain if Chapaṭa +composed it or merely translated it from the Sinhalese.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> Some authorities speak as if the four disciples of +Chapaṭa had founded four sects, but the reprobate Râhula can hardly +have done this. The above account is taken from the Kalyani +inscription, <i>Ind. Ant</i>. 1893, pp. 30, 31. It says very distinctly +"There were in Pugama (Pagan) 4 sects. 1. The successors of the +priests who introduced the religion from Sudhammanâgara (<i>i.e.</i> the +Mramma Sangha). 2. The disciples of Sîvalimahâthera. 3. The disciples +of Tâmalindamahâthera. 4. The disciples of Ananda Mahâthera."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> Also known by the title of Dhammavitasa. He was active +in 1246.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> Found in Zaingganaing, a suburb of Pegu. The text, +translation and notes are contained in various articles by Taw-Sein-Ko +in the <i>Indian Antiquary</i> for 1893-4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Mahâvagga, II. 11, 12, 13.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> According to Taw-Sein-Ko (<i>Ind. Ant.</i> 1893, p. 11) +"about 105 or 126 feet in perimeter."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> No contact with Cambojan religion is implied. The sect +was so called because its chief monastery was near the Camboja market +and this derived its name from the fact that many Cambojan (probably +meaning Shan) prisoners were confined near it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> In favour of it, it may be said that the Dîpavaṃsa +and the earlier traditions on which the Dîpavaṃsa is based are +ancient and impartial witnesses: against it, that Asoka's attention +seems to have been directed westwards, not towards Bengal and Burma, +and that no very early proof of the existence of Buddhism in Burma has +been found.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Apparently about 1525-1530.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> See <i>Sâsanavaṃsa</i>, pp. 118 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Mahâvagga, I. 29, 2; IV. 3, 3. Ekaṃsam +uttarâsangam karitvâ. But both arrangements of drapery are found in +the oldest images of the Buddha and perhaps the Ekaṃsika fashion is +the commoner. See Grünwedel, <i>Buddhist Art in India</i>, 1901, p. 172. +Though these images are considerably later than the Mahâvagga and +prove nothing as to the <i>original</i> practice of the Saṇgha, yet they +show that the Ekaṃsika fashion prevailed at a relatively early +period. It now prevails in Siam and partly in Ceylon. I-Ching (chap. +XI.) has a discussion on the way robes were worn in India (<i>c.</i> 680 +A.D.) which is very obscure but seems to say that monks may keep their +shoulders covered while in a monastery but should uncover one when +they go out.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> <i>Sâsanav.</i> p. 123. Sakala-Maramma-raṭṭhavâsino +ca: ayaṃ amhakâṃ râjâ bodhisatto ti vohârimsu. In the Po-U-Daung +inscription, Alompra's son, Hsin-byu-shin, says twice "In virtue of +this my good deed, may I become a Buddha, ... an omniscient one." +<i>Indian Antiquary</i>, 1893, pp. 2 and 5. There is something Mahâyânist +in this aspiration. Cf. too the inscriptions of the Siamese King +Śrî-Sûryavaṃsa Râma mentioned below.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> They were Puritans who objected to shrines and images +and are said to be represented to-day by the Sawti sect.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> See <i>The Burmese Empire</i> by the Italian Father +Sangermano, who went to Burma in 1783 and lived there about 20 years.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Thathana is the Pali Sâsana. In Burmese pronunciation +the s of Indian words regularly appears as th ( = θ), r as y +and j as z. Thus Thagya for Sakra, Yazawin for Râjavaṃśa.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> See E. Forchhammer, <i>Jardine Prize Essay</i> (on the +sources and development of Burmese Law), 1885. J. Jolly, "Recht und +Sitte" in <i>Grundriss der Ind. Ar. Phil.</i> 1896, pp. 41-44. M.H. Bode, +<i>Pali Lit. of Burma</i>, pp. 83 ff. Dhammathat is the Burmese +pronunciation of Dhammasattha, Sanskrit Dharmaśâstra.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> This theory did not prevent the kings of Burma and +their subordinates from inflicting atrociously cruel punishments.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> Forchhammer gives a list of 39 Dhammathats compiled +between 1753 and 1882.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> They seem to have included tantric works of the +Mahâkâlacakra type. See Bode, <i>Pali Lit. of Burma</i>, p. 108, Nos. 270, +271. But the name is given in the Pali form cakka.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Among usages borrowed from Hinduism may be mentioned +the daily washing in holy water of the image in the Arakan temple at +Mandalay. Formerly court festivities, such as the New Year's feast and +the festival of ploughing, were performed by Pônnâs and with Indian +rites. On the other hand the Râmâyana does not seem to have the same +influence on art and literature that it has had in Siam and Java, +though scenes from it are sometimes depicted. See <i>Report, Supt. +Archaeolog. Survey, Burma</i>, 1908, p. 22.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> See especially <i>The Thirty Seven Nats</i> by Sir. R.C. +Temple, 1906, and <i>Burma</i> by Sir. J.G. Scott, 1906, pp. 380 ff. The +best authorities seem agreed that Nat is not the Sanskrit Nâtha but an +indigenous word of unknown derivation.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> Possibly in order to include four female spirits: or +possibly because it was felt that sundry later heroes had as strong a +claim to membership of this distinguished body as the original 33.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> It is noticeable that Thagyâ comes from the Sanskrit +Śakra not the Pali Sakka. Th = Sk. s: y = Sk. r.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> See R.C. Temple, <i>The Thirty Seven Nats</i>, chaps. +X.-XIII., for these cycles.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> R.C. Temple, <i>l.c.</i> p. 36.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> According to Sir. J.G. Scott much more commonly than +prayers among Christians. <i>Burma</i>, p. 366.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> 15,371 according to the census of 1891. The figures in +the last census are not conveniently arranged for Buddhist +statistics.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> Hastings' <i>Encycl. of Religion and Ethics</i>, art. "Burma +(Buddhism)."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> See Bode, <i>Pali Literature in Burma</i>, pp. 95 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> No less than 22 translations of it have been made into +Burmese. See S.Z. Aung in <i>J.P.T.S.</i> 1912, p. 129. He also mentions +that night lectures on the Abhidhamma in Burmese are given in +monasteries.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> But on such occasions the laity usually fast after +midday.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> Man is the Burmese form of Mâra.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> Among the most striking characteristics of the Nepalese +style are buildings of many stories each with a projecting roof. No +examples of similar buildings from ancient India have survived, +perhaps because they were made of wood, but representations of +two-storied buildings have come down to us, for instance on the +Sohgaura copper plate which dates probably from the time of Asoka (see +Bühler, <i>W.Z.K.M.</i> 1896, p. 138). See also the figures in Foucher's +<i>Art Gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra</i>, on pp. 121, 122. The monuments at +Mâmallapuram known as Raths (see Fergusson, <i>Indian and Eastern +Architecture</i>, I. p. 172) appear to be representations of many storied +Vihâras. There are several references to seven storied buildings in +the Jâtakas.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> = cetiya.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> Occasionally groups of five Buddhas, that is, these +four Buddhas together with Metteyya, are found. See <i>Report of the +Supt. Arch. Survey (Burma) for the year ending March 31st, 1910</i>, p. +16.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_78" id="Page_3_78"></a>[Pg 78]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXXVII"></a>CHAPTER XXXVII</h2> + +<h3>SIAM<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a></h3> + +<h3>1</h3> + + +<p>The Buddhism of Siam does not differ materially from that of Burma and +Ceylon but merits separate mention, since it has features of its own +due in some measure to the fact that Siam is still an independent +kingdom ruled by a monarch who is also head of the Church. But whereas +for the last few centuries this kingdom may be regarded as a political +and religious unit, its condition in earlier times was different and +Siamese history tells us nothing of the introduction and first +diffusion of Indian religions in the countries between India and +China.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_79" id="Page_3_79"></a>[Pg 79]</span>The people commonly known as Siamese call themselves Thăi which +(in the form Tai) appears to be the racial name of several tribes who +can be traced to the southern provinces of China. They spread thence, +in fanlike fashion, from Laos to Assam, and the middle section +ultimately descended the Menam to the sea. The Siamese claim to have +assumed the name Thăi (free) after they threw off the yoke of the +Cambojans, but this derivation is more acceptable to politics than to +ethnology. The territories which they inhabited were known as Siem, +Syâm or Syâma, which is commonly identified with the Sanskrit +Śyâma, dark or brown<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a>. But the names Shan and A-hom seem to be +variants of the same word and Śyâma is possibly not its origin but +a learned and artificial distortion<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a>. The Lao were another +division of the same race who occupied the country now called Laos +before the Tai had moved into Siam. This movement was gradual and +until the beginning of the twelfth century they merely established +small principalities, the principal of which was Lamphun<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a>, on the +western arm of the Mekong. They gradually penetrated into the kingdoms +of Svankalok, Sukhothai<a name="FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> and Lavo (Lophburi) which then were +vassals of Camboja, and they were reinforced by another body of Tais +which moved southwards early in the twelfth century. For some time the +Cambojan Empire made a successful effort to control these immigrants +but in the latter part of the thirteenth century the Siamese +definitely shook off its yoke and founded an independent state with +its capital at Sukhothai. There was probably some connection between +these events and the southern expeditions of Khubilai Khan who in 1254 +conquered Talifu and set the Tai tribes in motion.</p> + +<p>The history of their rule in Siam may be briefly described as a +succession of three kingdoms with capitals at Sukhothai, Ayuthia and +Bangkok respectively. Like the Burmese, the Siamese have annals or +chronicles. They fall into two divisions, + +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_80" id="Page_3_80"></a>[Pg 80]</span>the chronicles<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> of the northern kingdom in three volumes which +go down to the foundation of Ayuthia and are admitted even by the +Siamese to be mostly fabulous, and the later annals in 40 volumes +which were rearranged after the sack of Ayuthia in 1767 but claim to +begin with the foundation of the city. Various opinions have been +expressed as to their trustworthiness<a name="FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a>, but it is allowed by all +that they must be used with caution. More authoritative but not very +early are the inscriptions set up by various kings, of which a +considerable number have been published and translated<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a>.</p> + +<p>The early history of Sukhothai and its kings is not yet beyond dispute +but a monarch called Râmarâja or Râma Khomhëng played a considerable +part in it. His identity with Phăya Rùang, who is said to have +founded the dynasty and city, has been both affirmed and denied. +Sukhothai, at least as the designation of a kingdom, seems to be much +older than his reign<a name="FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a>. It was undoubtedly understood as the +equivalent of the Sanskrit Sukhodaya, but like Śyâma it may be an +adaptation of some native word. In an important inscription found at +Sukhothai and now preserved at Bangkok<a name="FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a>, which was probably +composed about 1300 A.D., Râma Khomhëng gives an account of his +kingdom. On the east it extended to the banks of the Mekhong and +beyond it to Chavâ (perhaps a name of Luang-Prabang): on the south to +the sea, as far as Śrî Dharmarâja or Ligor: on the west to +Haṃsavatî or Pegu. This last statement is important for it enables +us to understand how at this period, and no doubt considerably +earlier, the Siamese were acquainted with Pali Buddhism. The king +states that hitherto his people had no alphabet but that he invented +one<a name="FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a>. This script subsequently <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_81" id="Page_3_81"></a>[Pg 81]</span>developed into the modern +Siamese writing which, though it presents many difficulties, is an +ingenious attempt to express a language with tones in an alphabet. The +vocabulary of Siamese is not homogeneous: it comprises (<i>a</i>) a +foundation of Thai, (<i>b</i>) a considerable admixture of Khmer words, +(<i>c</i>) an element borrowed from Malay and other languages, (<i>d</i>) +numerous ecclesiastical and learned terms taken from Pali and +Sanskrit. There are five tones which must be distinguished, if either +written or spoken speech is to be intelligible. This is done partly by +accents and partly by dividing the forty-four consonants (many of +which are superfluous for other purposes) into three groups, the high, +middle and deep.</p> + +<p>The king also speaks of religion. The court and the inhabitants of +Sukhothai were devout Buddhists: they observed the season of Vassa and +celebrated the festival of Kaṭhina with processions, concerts and +reading of the scriptures. In the city were to be seen statues of the +Buddha and scenes carved in relief, as well as large monasteries. To +the west of the city was the Forest Monastery, presented to a +distinguished elder who came from Śri Dharmarâja and had studied +the whole Tripitaka. The mention of this official and others suggests +that there was a regular hierarchy and the king relates how he exhumed +certain sacred relics and built a pagoda over them. Though there is no +direct allusion to Brahmanism, stress is laid on the worship of +spirits and devas on which the prosperity of the kingdom depends.</p> + +<p>The form of Buddhism described seems to have differed little from the +Hinayanism found in Siam to-day. Whence did the Siamese obtain it? For +some centuries before they were known as a nation, they probably +professed some form of Indian religion. They came from the border +lands, if not from the actual territory of China, and must have been +acquainted with Chinese Buddhism. Also Burmese influence probably +reached Yünnan in the eighth century<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a>, but it is not easy to say +what form of religion it brought with it. Still when the Thai entered +what is now Siam, it is likely that their religion was some form of +Buddhism. While they were subject to Camboja they must have felt the +influence of Śivaism and possibly <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_82" id="Page_3_82"></a>[Pg 82]</span>of Mahayanist Sanskrit +Buddhism but no Pali Buddhism can have come from this quarter<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a>.</p> + +<p>Southern Siam was however to some extent affected by another wave of +Buddhism. From early times the eastern coast of India (and perhaps +Ceylon) had intercourse not only with Burma but with the Malay +Peninsula. It is proved by inscriptions that the region of Ligor, +formerly known as Śrî Dharmarâja, was occupied by Hindus (who were +probably Buddhists) at least as early as the fourth century A.D.<a name="FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a>, +and Buddhist inscriptions have been found on the mainland opposite +Penang. The Chinese annals allude to a change in the customs of +Camboja and I-Ching says plainly that Buddhism once nourished there +but was exterminated by a wicked king, which may mean that Hinayanist +Buddhism had spread thither from Ligor but was suppressed by a dynasty +of Śivaites. He also says that at the end of the seventh century +Hinayanism was prevalent in the islands of the Southern Sea. An +inscription of about the fourth century found in Kedah and another of +the seventh or eighth from Phra Pathom both contain the formula <i>Ye +dharmâ</i>, etc. The latter inscription and also one from Mergui ascribed +to the eleventh century seem to be in mixed Sanskrit and Pali. The +Sukhothai inscription summarized above tells how a learned monk was +brought thither from Ligor and clearly the Pali Buddhism of northern +Siam may have followed the same route. But it probably had also +another more important if not exclusive source, namely Burma. After +the reign of Anawrata Pali Buddhism was accepted in Burma and in what +we now call the Shan States as the religion of civilized mankind and +this conviction found its way to the not very distant kingdom of +Sukhothai. Subsequently the Siamese recognized the seniority and +authority of the Sinhalese Church by inviting an instructor to come +from Ceylon, but in earlier times they can hardly have had direct +relation with the island.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_83" id="Page_3_83"></a>[Pg 83]</span>We have another picture of religious life in a Khmer +inscription<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> of Lidaiya or Śrî Sûryavaṃsa Râma composed in +1361 or a little later. This monarch, who is also known by many +lengthy titles, appears to have been a man of learning who had +studied the Tipiṭaka, the Vedas, the Śâstrâgama and Dharmañâya +and erected images of Maheśvara and Vishnu as well as of the +Buddha. In 1361 he sent a messenger to Ceylon charged with the task of +bringing back a Metropolitan or head of the Saṇgha learned in the +Pitakas. This ecclesiastic, who is known only by his title, was duly +sent and on arriving in Siam was received with the greatest honour and +made a triumphal progress to Sukhothai. He is not represented as +introducing a new religion: the impression left by the inscription is +rather that the king and his people being already well-instructed in +Buddhism desired ampler edification from an authentic source. The +arrival of the Saṇgharâja coincided with the beginning of Vassa and +at the end of the sacred season the king dedicated a golden image of +the Buddha, which stood in the midst of the city, and then entered the +order. In doing so he solemnly declared his hope that the merit thus +acquired might make him in future lives not an Emperor, an Indra or a +Brahmâ but a Buddha able to save mankind. He pursued his religious +career with a gratifying accompaniment of miracles and many of the +nobility and learned professions followed his example. But after a +while a deputation waited on his Majesty begging him to return to the +business of his kingdom<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a>. An edifying contest ensued. The monks +besought him to stay as their preceptor and guide: the laity pointed +out that government was at an end and claimed his attention. The +matter was referred to the Saṇgharâja who decided that the king +ought to return to his secular duties. He appears to have found little +difficulty in resuming lay habits for he proceeded to chastise the +people of Luang-Prabang.</p> + +<p>Two other inscriptions<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a>, apparently dating from this epoch, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_84" id="Page_3_84"></a>[Pg 84]</span>relate that a cutting of the Bo-tree was brought from Ceylon and +that certain relics (perhaps from Patna) were also installed with +great solemnity. To the same time are referred a series of engravings +on stone (not reliefs) found in the Vat-si-jum at Sukhothai. They +illustrate about 100 Jatakas, arranged for the most part according to +the order followed in the Pali Canon.</p> + +<p>The facts that King Śrî Sûryavaṃsa sent to Ceylon for his +Metropolitan and that some of the inscriptions which extol his merits +are in Pali<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> make it probable that the religion which he professed +differed little from the Pali Buddhism which flourishes in Siam to-day +and this supposition is confirmed by the general tone of his +inscriptions. But still several phrases in them have a Mahayanist +flavour. He takes as his model the conduct of the Bodhisattvas, +described as ten headed by Metteyya, and his vow to become a Buddha +and save all creatures is at least twice mentioned. The Buddhas are +said to be innumerable and the feet of Bhikkhus are called Buddha +feet<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a>. There is no difficulty in accounting for the presence of +such ideas: the only question is from what quarter this Mahayanist +influence came. The king is said to have been a student of Indian +literature: his country, like Burma, was in touch with China and his +use of the Khmer language indicates contact with Camboja.</p> + +<p>Another inscription engraved by order of Dharmâsokarâja<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> and +apparently dating from the fourteenth century is remarkable for its +clear statement of the doctrine (generally considered as Mahayanist) +that merit acquired by devotion to the Buddha can be transferred. The +king states that a woman called Bunrak has transferred all her merit +to the Queen and that he himself makes over all his merit to his +teacher, to his relations and to all beings in unhappy states of +existence.</p> + +<p>At some time in this period the centre of the Thai empire <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_85" id="Page_3_85"></a>[Pg 85]</span>changed +but divergent views have been held as to the date<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> and character +of this event. It would appear that in 1350 a Siamese subsequently +known as King Râmâdhipati, a descendant of an ancient line of Thai +princes, founded Ayuthia as a rival to Sukhothai. The site was not +new, for it had long been known as Dvâravatî and seems to be mentioned +under that name by I-Ching (<i>c.</i> 680), but a new city was apparently +constructed. The evidence of inscriptions indicates that Sukhothai was +not immediately subdued by the new kingdom and did not cease to be a +royal residence for some time. But still Ayuthia gradually became +predominant and in the fifteenth century merited the title of capital +of Siam.</p> + +<p>Its rise did not affect the esteem in which Buddhism was held, and it +must have contained many great religious monuments. The jungles which +now cover the site of the city surround the remnants of the Wăt +Somarokot, in which is a gigantic bronze Buddha facing with scornful +calm the ruin which threatens him. The Wăt Chern, which lies at +some distance, contains another gigantic image. A curious +inscription<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> engraved on an image of Śiva found at Sukhothai +and dated 1510 A.D. asserts the identity of Buddhism and Brahmanism, +but the popular feeling was in favour of the former. At Ayuthia the +temples appear to be exclusively Buddhist and at Lophburi ancient +buildings originally constructed for the Brahmanic cult have been +adapted to Buddhist uses. It was in 1602 that the mark known as the +footprint of Buddha was discovered at the place now called Phra-bat.</p> + +<p>Ayuthia was captured by the Burmese in 1568 and the king was carried +into captivity but the disaster was not permanent, for at the end of +the century the power of the Siamese reached its highest point and +their foreign relations were extensive. We hear that five hundred +Japanese assisted them to repulse a Burmese attack and that there was +a large Japanese colony in Ayuthia. On the other hand when Hideyoshi +invaded Korea in 1592, the Siamese offered to assist the Chinese. +Europeans appeared first in 1511 when the Portuguese took Malacca. +But on the whole <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_86" id="Page_3_86"></a>[Pg 86]</span>the dealings of Siam with Europe were peaceful +and both traders and missionaries were welcomed. The most singular +episode in this international intercourse was the career of the Greek +adventurer Constantine Phaulcon who in the reign of King Nărai was +practically Foreign Minister. In concert with the French missionaries +he arranged an exchange of embassies (1682 and 1685) between Nărai +and Louis XIV, the latter having been led to suppose that the king and +people of Siam were ready to embrace Christianity. But when the French +envoys broached the subject of conversion, the king replied that he +saw no reason to change the religion which his countrymen had +professed for two thousand years, a chronological statement which it +might be hard to substantiate. Still, great facilities were given to +missionaries and further negotiations ensued, in the course of which +the French received almost a monopoly of foreign trade and the right +to maintain garrisons. But the death of Nărai was followed by a +reaction. Phaulcon died in prison and the French garrisons were +expelled. Buddhism probably flourished at this period for the +Mahâvaṃsa tells us that the king of Ceylon sent to Ayuthia for +monks in 1750 because religion there was pure and undefiled.</p> + +<p>Ayuthia continued to be the capital until 1767 when it was laid in +ruins by the Burmese who, though Buddhists, did not scruple to destroy +or deface the temples and statues with which it was ornamented. But +the collapse of the Siamese was only local and temporary. A leader of +Chinese origin named Phăya Täk Sin rallied their forces, cleared +the Burmese out of the country and made Bangkok, officially described +as the Capital of the Angels, the seat of Government. But he was +deposed in 1782 and one of the reasons for his fall seems to have been +a too zealous reformation of Buddhism. In the troublous times +following the collapse of Ayuthia the Church had become disorganized +and corrupt, but even those who desired improvement would not assent +to the powers which the king claimed over monks. A new dynasty (of +which the sixth monarch is now on the throne) was founded in 1782 by +Chao Phăya Chakkri. One of his first acts was to convoke a council +for the revision of the Tipiṭaka and to build a special hall in +which the text thus agreed on was preserved. His successor Phra: +Buddha Löt La is considered the best poet that Siam has produced and +it is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_87" id="Page_3_87"></a>[Pg 87]</span>probably the only country in the world where this +distinction has fallen to the lot of a sovereign. The poet king had +two sons, Phra: Nang: Klao, who ascended the throne after his death, +and Mongkut, who during his brother's reign remained in a monastery +strictly observing the duties of a monk. He then became king and +during his reign (1851-1868) Siam "may be said to have passed from the +middle ages to modern times<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a>." It is a tribute to the excellence +of Buddhist discipline that a prince who spent twenty-six years as a +monk should have emerged as neither a bigot nor an impractical mystic +but as an active, enlightened and progressive monarch. The equality +and simplicity of monastic life disposed him to come into direct touch +with his subjects and to adopt straightforward measures which might +not have occurred to one who had always been surrounded by a wall of +ministers. While still a monk he founded a stricter sect which aimed +at reviving the practice of the Buddha, but at the same time he +studied foreign creeds and took pleasure in conversing with +missionaries. He wrote several historical pamphlets and an English +Grammar, and was so good a mathematician that he could calculate the +occurrence of an eclipse. When he became king he regulated the +international position of Siam by concluding treaties of friendship +and commerce with the principal European powers, thus showing the +broad and liberal spirit in which he regarded politics, though a +better acquaintance with the ways of Europeans might have made him +refuse them extraterritorial privileges. He abolished the custom which +obliged everyone to keep indoors when the king went out and he +publicly received petitions on every Uposatha day. He legislated +against slavery<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a>, gambling, drinking spirits and smoking opium and +considerably improved the status of women. He also published edicts +ordering the laity to inform the ecclesiastical authorities if they +noticed any abuses in the monasteries. He caused the annals of Siam to +be edited and issued numerous orders on archaeological and literary +questions, in which, though a good Pali scholar, he deprecated the +affected use of Pali words and enjoined the use of a terse and simple +Siamese style, which he certainly wrote himself. He appears to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_88" id="Page_3_88"></a>[Pg 88]</span>have died of scientific zeal for he caught a fatal fever on a trip +which he took to witness a total eclipse of the sun.</p> + +<p>He was succeeded by his son Chulalongkorn<a name="FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> (1868-1911), a liberal +and enlightened ruler, who had the misfortune to lose much territory +to the French on one side and the English on the other. For religion, +his chief interest is that he published an edition of the Tipiṭaka. +The volumes are of European style and printed in Siamese type, whereas +Cambojan characters were previously employed for religious works.</p> + +<h3>2</h3> + + +<p>As I have already observed, there is not much difference between +Buddhism in Burma and Siam. In mediæval times a mixed form of religion +prevailed in both countries and Siam was influenced by the Brahmanism +and Mahayanism of Camboja. Both seem to have derived a purer form of +the faith from Pegu, which was conquered by Anawrata in the eleventh +century and was the neighbour of Sukhothai so long as that kingdom +lasted. Both had relations with Ceylon and while venerating her as the +metropolis of the faith also sent monks to her in the days of her +spiritual decadence. But even in externals some differences are +visible. The gold and vermilion of Burma are replaced in Siam by more +sober but artistic tints—olive, dull purple and dark orange—and the +change in the colour scheme is accompanied by other changes in the +buildings.</p> + +<p>A religious establishment in Siam consists of several edifices and is +generally known as Wăt<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a>, followed by some special designation +such as Wăt Chang. Bangkok is full of such establishments mostly +constructed on the banks of the river or canals. The entrance is +usually guarded by gigantic and grotesque figures which are often +lions, but at the Wăt Phô in Bangkok the tutelary demons are +represented by curious caricatures of Europeans wearing tall hats. The +gate leads into several courts opening out of one another and not +arranged on any fixed plan. The first is sometimes surrounded by a +colonnade in which are set a long line of the Buddha's eighty +disciples. The most <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_89" id="Page_3_89"></a>[Pg 89]</span>important building in a Wăt is known as +Bỗt<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a>. It has a colonnade of pillars outside and is surmounted +by three or four roofs, not much raised one above the other, and +bearing finials of a curious shape, said to represent a snake's +head<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a>. It is also marked off by a circuit of eight stones, cut in +the shape of Bo-tree leaves, which constitute a sîmâ or boundary. It +is in the Bỗt that ordinations and other acts of the Sangha are +performed. Internally it is a hall: the walls are often covered with +paintings and at the end there is always a sitting figure of the +Buddha<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> forming the apex of a pyramid, the lower steps of which +are decorated with smaller images and curious ornaments, such as +clocks under glass cases.</p> + +<p>Siamese images of the Buddha generally represent him as crowned by a +long flame-like ornament called Sĩrô rồt<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a>, probably +representing the light supposed to issue from the prominence on his +head. But the ornament sometimes becomes a veritable crown terminating +in a spire, as do those worn by the kings of Camboja and Siam. On the +left and right of the Buddha often stand figures of Phra: Môkha: la +(Moggalâna) and Phra: Sárĩbŭt (Sâriputta). It is stated that the +Siamese pray to them as saints and that the former is invoked to heal +broken limbs<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a>. The Buddha when represented in frescoes is robed in +red but his face and hands are of gold. Besides the Bỗt a Wăt +contains one or more wĩháns. The word is derived from <i>Vihâra</i> but +has come to mean an image-house. The wĩháns are halls not unlike +the Bỗts but smaller. In a large Wăt there is usually one +containing a gigantic recumbent image of the Buddha and they sometimes +shelter Indian deities such as Yama.</p> + +<p>In most if not in all Wăt there are structures known as Phra: chedi +and Phra: prang. The former are simply the ancient cetiyas, called +dagobas in Ceylon and zedis in Burma. They do not depart materially +from the shape usual in other countries <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_90" id="Page_3_90"></a>[Pg 90]</span>and sometimes, for +instance in the gigantic chedi at Pra Pratom, the part below the spire +is a solid bell-shaped dome. But Siamese taste tends to make such +buildings slender and elongate and they generally consist of stone +discs of decreasing size, set one on the other in a pile, which +assumes in its upper parts the proportions of a flagstaff rather than +of a stone building. The Phra: prangs though often larger than the +Phra: chedis are proportionally thicker and less elongate. They appear +to be derived from the Brahmanic temple towers of Camboja which +consist of a shrine crowned by a dome. But in Siam the shrine is often +at some height above the ground and is reduced to small dimensions, +sometimes becoming a mere niche. In large Phra: prangs it is +approached by a flight of steps outside and above it rises the tower, +terminating in a metal spire. But whereas in the Phra: chedis these +spires are simple, in the Phra: prangs they bear three crescents +representing the trident of Śiva and appear like barbed arrows. A +large Wat is sure to contain a number of these structures and may also +comprise halls for preaching, a pavilion covering a model of Buddha's +foot print, tanks for ablution and a bell tower. It is said that only +royal Wats contain libraries and buildings called chẵtta mŭkh, +which shelter a four-faced image of Brahmâ<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a>.</p> + +<p>The monks are often housed in single chambers arranged round the +courts of a Wat but sometimes in larger buildings outside it. The +number of monks and novices living in one monastery is larger than in +Burma, and according to the Bangkok Directory (1907) works out at an +average of about 12. In the larger Wats this figure is considerably +exceeded. Altogether there were 50,764 monks and 10,411 novices in +1907<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a>, the province of Ayuthia being decidedly the best provided +with clergy. As in Burma, it is customary for every male to spend some +time in a monastery, usually at the age of about 20, and two months is +considered the minimum which is respectable. It is also common to +enter a monastery for a short stay on the day when a parent is +cremated. During the season of Vassa all <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_91" id="Page_3_91"></a>[Pg 91]</span>monks go out to collect +alms but at other seasons only a few make the daily round and the food +collected, as in Burma and Ceylon, is generally not eaten. But during +the dry season it is considered meritorious for monks to make a +pilgrimage to Phra Bât and while on the way to live on charity. They +engage to some extent in manual work and occupy themselves with +carpentering<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a>. As in Burma, education is in their hands, and they +also act as doctors, though their treatment has more to do with charms +and faith cures than with medicine.</p> + +<p>As in Burma there are two sects, the ordinary unreformed body, and the +rigorous and select communion founded by Mongkut and called Dhammayut. +It aims at a more austere and useful life but in outward observances +the only distinction seems to be that the Dhammayuts hold the +alms-bowl in front of them in both hands, whereas the others hold it +against the left hip with the left hand only. The hierarchy is well +developed but somewhat secularized, though probably not more so than +it was in India under Asoka. In the official directory where the +departments of the Ministry of Public Instruction are enumerated, the +Ecclesiastical Department comes immediately after the Bacteriological, +the two being clearly regarded as different methods of expelling evil +spirits. The higher clerical appointments are made by the king. He +names four Primates<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a>, one of whom is selected as chief. The +Primates with nineteen superior monks form the highest governing body +of the Church. Below them are twelve dignitaries called Gurus, who are +often heads of large Wats. There are also prelates who bear the +Cambojan title of Burien equivalent to Mahâcârya. They must have +passed an examination in Pali and are chiefly consulted on matters of +ceremonial.</p> + +<p>It will thus be seen that the differences between the churches of +Burma, Ceylon and Siam are slight; hardly more than the local +peculiarities which mark the Roman church in Italy, Spain, and +England. Different opinions have been expressed as to the moral tone +and conduct of Siamese monks and most critics state that they are +somewhat inferior to their Burmese <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_92" id="Page_3_92"></a>[Pg 92]</span>brethren. The system by which +a village undertakes to support a monk, provided that he is a +reasonably competent school-master and of good character, works well. +But in the larger monasteries it is admitted that there are inmates +who have entered in the hope of leading a lazy life and even fugitives +from justice. Still the penalty for any grave offence is immediate +expulsion by the ecclesiastical authorities and the offender is +treated with extreme severity by the civil courts to which he then +becomes amenable.</p> + +<p>The religious festivals of Siam are numerous and characteristic. Many +are Buddhist, some are Brahmanic, and some are royal. Uposatha days +(wăn phra:) are observed much as in Burma. The birth, enlightenment +and death of the Buddha (which are all supposed to have taken place on +the 15th day of the 6th waxing moon) are celebrated during a three +days festival. These three days are of peculiar solemnity and are +spent in the discharge of religious duties, such as hearing sermons +and giving alms. But at most festivals religious observances are +mingled with much picturesque but secular gaiety. In the morning the +monks do not go their usual round<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> and the alms-bowls are arranged +in a line within the temple grounds. The laity (mostly women) arrive +bearing wicker trays on which are vessels containing rice and +delicacies. They place a selection of these in each bowl and then +proceed to the Bỗt where they hear the commandments recited and +often vow to observe for that day some which are usually binding only +on monks. While the monks are eating their meal the people repair to a +river, which is rarely far distant in Siam, and pour water drop by +drop saying "May the food which we have given for the use of the holy +ones be of benefit to our fathers and mothers and to all of our +relatives who have passed away." This rite is curiously in harmony +with the injunctions of the Tirokuḍḍasuttam in the +Khuddakapâtha, which is probably an ancient work<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a>. The rest of +the day is usually devoted to pious merrymaking, such as processions +by day and illuminations by night. On some feasts <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_93" id="Page_3_93"></a>[Pg 93]</span>the laws against +gambling are suspended and various games of chance are freely indulged +in. Thus the New Year festival called Trŭ̃t (or Krŭ̃t) Thăi +lasts three days. On the first two days, especially the second, crowds +fill the temples to offer flowers before the statues of Buddha and +more substantial presents of food, clothes, etc., to the clergy. +Well-to-do families invite monks to their houses and pass the day in +listening to their sermons and recitations. Companies of priests are +posted round the city walls to scare away evil spirits and with the +same object guns are fired throughout the night. But the third day is +devoted to gambling by almost the whole population except the monks. +Not dissimilar is the celebration of the Só̆ngkran holidays, at the +beginning of the official year. The special religious observance at +this feast consists in bathing the images of Buddha and in theory the +same form of watery respect is extended to aged relatives and monks. +In practice its place is taken by gifts of perfumes and other +presents.</p> + +<p>The rainy season is preceded and ended by holidays. During this period +both monks and pious laymen observe their religious duties more +strictly. Thus monks eat only once a day and then only what is put +into their bowls and laymen observe some of the minor vows. At the end +of the rains come the important holidays known as Thòt +Kăthí̆n<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a>, when robes are presented to monks. This festival +has long had a special importance in Siam. Thus Râma Khomhëng in his +inscription of A.D. 1292<a name="FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> describes the feast of Kaṭhina which +lasts a month. At the present day many thousands of robes are prepared +in the capital alone so as to be ready for distribution in October and +November, when the king or some deputy of high rank visits every +temple and makes the offering in person. During this season Bangkok +witnesses a series of brilliant processions.</p> + +<p>These festivals mentioned may be called Buddhist though their +light-hearted and splendour-loving gaiety, their processions and +gambling are far removed from the spirit of Gotama. Others however are +definitely Brahmanic and in Bangkok are superintended by the Brahmans +attached to the Court. Since the time of Mongkut Buddhist priests are +also present as a sign that the rites, if not ordered by Buddhism, at +least have its <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_94" id="Page_3_94"></a>[Pg 94]</span>countenance. Such is the R`ëk Na<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a>, or +ploughing festival. The king is represented by the Minister of +Agriculture who formerly had the right to exact from all shops found +open such taxes as he might claim for his temporary sovereignty. At +present he is escorted in procession to Dusit<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a>, a royal park +outside Bangkok, where he breaks ground with a plough drawn by two +white oxen.</p> + +<p>Somewhat similar is the Thĩb-Chĩng-Cha, or Swinging holidays, a +two days' festival which seems to be a harvest thanksgiving. Under the +supervision of a high official, four Brahmans wearing tall conical +hats swing on a board suspended from a huge frame about 100 ft high. +Their object is to catch with their teeth a bag of money hanging at a +little distance from the swing. When three or four sets of swingers +have obtained a prize in this way, they conclude the ceremony by +sprinkling the ground with holy water contained in bullock horns. +Swinging is one of the earliest Indian rites<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> and as part of the +worship of Krishna it has lasted to the present day. Yet another +Brahmanic festival is the Loi Kăthŏng<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a>, when miniature rafts +and ships bearing lights and offerings are sent down the Menam to the +sea.</p> + +<p>Another class of ceremonies may be described as royal, inasmuch as +they are religious only in so far as they invoke religion to protect +royalty. Such are the anniversaries of the birth and coronation of the +king and the Thú̓ Năm or drinking of the water of allegiance +which takes place twice a year. At Bangkok all officials assemble at +the Palace and there drink and sprinkle on their heads water in which +swords and other weapons have been dipped thus invoking vengeance on +themselves should they prove disloyal. Jars of this water are +despatched to Governors who superintend the performance of the same +ceremony in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_95" id="Page_3_95"></a>[Pg 95]</span>provincial capitals. It is only after the water +has been drunk that officials receive their half yearly salary. Monks +are excused from drinking it but the chief ecclesiastics of Bangkok +meet in the Palace temple and perform a service in honour of the +occasion.</p> + +<p>Besides these public solemnities there are a number of domestic +festivals derived from the twelve Saṃskâras of the Hindus. Of these +only three or four are kept up by the nations of Indo-China, namely +the shaving of the first hair of a child a month after birth, the +giving of a name, and the piercing of the ears for earrings. This last +is observed in Burma and Laos, but not in Siam and Camboja where is +substituted for it the Kôn Chũ̆k or shaving of the topknot, which +is allowed to grow until the eleventh or thirteenth year. This +ceremony, which is performed on boys and girls alike, is the most +important event in the life of a young Siamese and is celebrated by +well-to-do parents with lavish expenditure. Those who are indigent +often avail themselves of the royal bounty, for each year a public +ceremony is performed in one of the temples of Bangkok at which poor +children receive the tonsure gratis. An elaborate description of the +tonsure rites has been published by Gerini<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a>. They are of +considerable interest as showing how closely Buddhist and Brahmanic +rites are intertwined in Siamese family life.</p> + +<p>Marriages are celebrated with a feast to which monks are invited but +are not regarded as religious ceremonies. The dead are usually +disposed of by cremation, but are often kept some time, being either +embalmed or simply buried and exhumed subsequently. Before cremation +the coffin is usually placed within the grounds of a temple. The monks +read Suttas over it and it is said<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> that they hold ribbons which +enter into the coffin and are supposed to communicate to the corpse +the merit acquired by the recitations and prayers.</p> + +<h3>3</h3> + + +<p>In the preceding pages mention has often been made not only of +Brahmanic rites but of Brahman priests<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a>. These are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_96" id="Page_3_96"></a>[Pg 96]</span>still to be +found in Bangkok attached to the Court and possibly in other cities. +They dress in white and have preserved many Hindu usages but are said +to be poor Sanskrit scholars. Indeed Gerini<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> seems to say that +they use Pali in some of their recitations. Their principal duty is to +officiate at Court functions, but wealthy families invite them to take +part in domestic rites, and also to cast horoscopes and fix lucky +days. It is clear that the presence of these Brahmans is no +innovation. Brahmanism must have been strong in Siam when it was a +province of Camboja, but in both countries gave way before Buddhism. +Many rites, however, connected with securing luck or predicting the +future were too firmly established to be abolished, and, as Buddhist +monks were unwilling to perform them<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> or not thought very +competent, the Brahmans remained and were perhaps reinforced from time +to time by new importations, for there are still Brahman colonies in +Ligor and other Malay towns. Siamese lawbooks, like those of Burma, +seem to be mainly adaptations of Indian Dharmaśâstras.</p> + +<p>On a cursory inspection, Siamese Buddhism, especially as seen in +villages, seems remarkably free from alien additions. But an +examination of ancient buildings, of royal temples in Bangkok and +royal ceremonial, suggests on the contrary that it is a mixed faith in +which the Brahmanic element is strong. Yet though this element appeals +to the superstition of the Siamese and their love of pageantry, I +think that as in Burma it has not invaded the sphere of religion and +ethics more than the Piṭakas themselves allow. In art and +literature its influence has been considerable. The story of the +Ramayana is illustrated on the cloister walls of the royal temple at +Bangkok and Indian mythology has supplied a multitude of types to the +painter and sculptor; such as Yŏmma: ràt (Yâma), Phăya Man +(Mâra), Phra: In (Indra). These are all deities known to the +Piṭakas but the sculptures or images<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> in Siamese temples also +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_97" id="Page_3_97"></a>[Pg 97]</span>include Ganeśa, Phra: Nărai (Nârâyana or Vishṇu) riding +on the Garuda and Phra: Isuén (Śiva) riding on a bull. There is a +legend that the Buddha and Śiva tried which could make himself +invisible to the other. At last the Buddha sat on Śiva's head and +the god being unable to see him acknowledged his defeat. This story is +told to explain a small figure which Śiva bears on his head and +recalls the legend found in the Piṭakas<a name="FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> that the Buddha made +himself invisible to Brahmâ but that Brahmâ had not the corresponding +power. Lingas are still venerated in a few temples, for instance at +Wăt Phô in Bangkok, but it would appear that the majority (<i>e.g.</i> +those found at Pra Pratom and Lophburi) are survivals of ancient +Brahmanic worship and have a purely antiquarian importance. The +Brahmanic cosmology which makes Mt. Meru the centre of this Universe is +generally accepted in ecclesiastical treatises and paintings, though +the educated Siamese may smile at it, and when the topknot of a +Siamese prince is cut off, part of the ceremony consists in his being +received by the king dressed as Śiva on the summit of a mound cut +in the traditional shape of Mt. Kailâśa.</p> + +<p>Like the Nâts of Burma, Siam has a spirit population known as +Phís<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a>. The name is occasionally applied to Indian deities, but the +great majority of Phís fall into two classes, namely, ghosts of the +dead and nature spirits which, though dangerous, do not rise above the +position of good or bad fairies. In the first class are included the +Phí Prẽt, who have the characteristics as well as the name of the +Indian Pretas, and also a multitude of beings who like European +ghosts, haunt houses and behave in a mysterious but generally +disagreeable manner. The Phíăm is apparently our nightmare. The +ghosts of children dying soon after birth are apt to kill their +mothers and in general women are liable to be possessed by Phís. The +ghosts of those who have died a violent death are dangerous but it +would seem that Siamese magicians know how to utilize them as familiar +spirits. The better sort of ghosts are known as Chào Phí and shrines +called San Chào are set up in their honour. It does not however appear +that there is any hierarchy of Phís like the thirty-seven Náts of +Burma.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_98" id="Page_3_98"></a>[Pg 98]</span>Among those Phís who are not ghosts of the dead the most important +is the Phí ru̓en or guardian spirit of each house. Frequently a +little shrine is erected for him at the top of a pole. There are also +innumerable Phís in the jungle mostly malevolent and capable of +appearing either in human form or as a dangerous animal. But the tree +spirits are generally benevolent and when their trees are cut down +they protect the houses that are made of them.</p> + +<p>Thus the Buddhism of Siam, like that of Burma, has a certain admixture +of Brahmanism and animism. The Brahmanism is perhaps more striking +than in Burma on account of the Court ceremonies: the belief in +spirits, though almost universal, seems to be more retiring and less +conspicuous. Yet the inscription of Râma Komhëng mentioned above +asserts emphatically that the prosperity of the Empire depends on due +honour being shown to a certain mountain spirit<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a>.</p> + +<p>It is pretty clear that the first introduction of Hinayanist Buddhism +into Siam was from Southern Burma and Pegu, but that somewhat later +Ceylon was accepted as the standard of orthodoxy. A learned thera who +knew the Sinhalese Tipitaka was imported thence, as well as a branch +of the Bo-tree. But Siamese patriotism flattered itself by imagining +that the national religion was due to personal contact with the +Buddha, although not even early legends can be cited in support of +such traditions. In 1602 a mark in the rocks, now known as the Phra: +Bãt, was discovered in the hills north of Ayuthia and identified as a +footprint of the Buddha similar to that found on Adam's Peak and in +other places. Burma and Ceylon both claim the honour of a visit from +the Buddha but the Siamese go further, for it is popularly believed +that he died at Praten, a little to the north of Phra Pathom, on a +spot marked by a slab of rock under great trees<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a>. For this reason +when the Government of India presented <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_99" id="Page_3_99"></a>[Pg 99]</span>the king of Siam with the +relics found in the Piprava vase, the gift though received with +honour, aroused little enthusiasm and was placed in a somewhat +secluded shrine<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a>.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> The principal sources for information about Siamese +Buddhism are: <i>Journal of Siam Society</i>, 1904, and onwards. +</p><p> +L. Fournereau, <i>Le Siam Ancien</i>, 2 vols. 1895 and 1908 in <i>Annales du +Musée Guimet</i>. Cited here as Fournereau. +</p><p> +Mission Pavie II, <i>Histoire du Laos, du Cambodge et du Siam</i>, 1898. +</p><p> +Gerini, <i>Researches on Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia</i>, 1909. +Cited here as Gerini, <i>Ptolemy</i>. +</p><p> +Gerini, <i>Chŭlăkantamangala or Tonsure Ceremony</i>, 1893. +</p><p> +H. Alabaster, <i>The Wheel of the Law</i>, 1871. +</p><p> +P.A. Thompson, <i>Lotus Land</i>, 1906. +</p><p> +W.A. Graham, <i>Siam</i>, 1912. +</p><p> +Petithuguenin, "Notes critiques pour servir à l'histoire du Siam," +<i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1916, No. 3. +</p><p> +Coedès, "Documents sur la Dynastie de Sukhodaya," <i>ib.</i> 1917, No. 2. +</p><p> +Much curious information may be found in the <i>Directory for Bangkok +and Siam</i>, a most interesting book. I have only the issue for 1907. +</p><p> +I have adopted the conventional European spelling for such words as +may be said to have one. For other words I have followed Pallegoix's +dictionary (1896) for rendering the vowels and tones in Roman +characters, but have departed in some respects from his system of +transliterating consonants as I think it unnecessary and misleading to +write j and x for sounds which apparently correspond to y and ch as +pronounced in English. +</p><p> +The King of Siam has published a work on the spelling of His Majesty's +own language in Latin letters which ought to be authoritative, but it +came into my hands too late for me to modify the orthography here +adopted. +</p><p> +As Pallegoix's spelling involves the use of a great many accents I +have sometimes begun by using the strictly correct orthography and +afterwards a simpler but intelligible form. It should be noted that in +this orthography ":" is not a colon but a sign that the vowel before +it is very short.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> The name is found on Champan inscriptions of 1050 A.D. +and according to Gerini appears in Ptolemy's <i>Samarade</i> = +Sâmaraṭṭha. See Gerini, <i>Ptolemy</i>, p. 170. But Samarade is +located near Bangkok and there can hardly have been Tais there in +Ptolemy's time.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> So too in Central Asia Kustana appears to be a learned +distortion of the name Khotan, made to give it a meaning in Sanskrit.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> Gerini states (<i>Ptolemy</i>, p. 107) that there are Pali +manuscript chronicles of Lamphun apparently going back to 924 A.D.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> Strictly Sŭkhồthăi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> Phongsá va: dan or Vaṃsavâda. See for Siamese +chronicles, <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1914, No. 3, "Recension palie des annales +d'Ayuthia," and <i>ibid.</i> 1916, pp. 5-7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Aymonier in <i>J.A.</i> 1903, p. 186, and Gerini in +<i>Journal of Siam Society</i>, vol. II. part 1, 1905.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> See especially Fournereau and the publications of the +Mission Pavie and <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> Gerini, <i>Ptolemy</i>, p. 176.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> See Fournereau, I. p. 225. <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1916, III. pp. +8-13, and especially Bradley in <i>J. Siam Society</i>, 1909, pp. 1-68.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> This alphabet appears to be borrowed from Cambojan but +some of the letters particularly in their later shapes show the +influence of the Môn or Talaing script. The modern Cambojan alphabet, +which is commonly used for ecclesiastical purposes in Siam, is little +more than an elaborate form of Siamese.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> See <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, p. 161.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> Bradley, <i>J. Siam Society</i>, 1913, p. 10, seems to think +that Pali Buddhism may have come thence but the objection is that we +know a good deal about the religion of Camboja and that there is no +trace of Pali Buddhism there until it was imported from Siam. The fact +that the Siamese alphabet was borrowed from Camboja does not prove +that religion was borrowed in the same way. The Mongol alphabet can be +traced to a Nestorian source.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> See for these inscriptions papers on the Malay +Peninsula and Siam by Finot and Lajonquière in <i>Bull. de la Comm. +Archéol. de l'Indo-Chine</i>, 1909, 1910 and 1912.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> Fournereau, pp. 157 ff. and Coedès in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> +1917, No. 2. Besides the inscription itself, which is badly defaced in +parts, we have (1) a similar inscription in Thai, which is not however +a translation, (2) a modern Siamese translation, used by Schmitt but +severely criticized by Coedès and Petithuguenin.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> This portion of the narrative is found only in +Schmitt's version of the Siamese translation. The part of the stone +where it would have occurred is defaced.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> See Fournereau, vol. II. inscriptions xv and xvi and +the account of the Jâtakas, p. 43.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> Fournereau, I. pp. 247, 273. <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1917, No. 2, +p. 29.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> See the texts in <i>B.E.F.E.O. l.c.</i> The Bodhisattvas are +described as Ariyametteyâdînam dasannam Bodhisattânam. The vow to +become a Buddha should it seems be placed in the mouth of the King, +not of the Metropolitan as in Schmitt's translation.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> See Fournereau, pp. 209 ff. Dharmâsokarâja may perhaps +be the same as Mahâdharmarâja who reigned 1388-1415. But the word may +also be a mere title applied to all kings of this dynasty, so that +this may be another inscription of Śrî Sûryavaṃsa Râma.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> 1350 is the accepted date but M. Aymonier, <i>J.A.</i> 1903, +pp. 185 ff. argues in favour of about 1460. See Fournereau, <i>Ancien +Siam</i>, p. 242, inscription of 1426 A.D. and p. 186, inscription of +1510 described as Groupe de Sajjanalaya et Sukhodaya.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> Fournereau, vol. I. pp. 186 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> O. Frankfürter, "King Mongkut," <i>Journal of Siam +Society</i>, vol. I. 1904.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> But it was his son who first decreed in 1868 that no +Siamese could be born a slave. Slavery for debt, though illegal, is +said not to be practically extinct.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> = Cûlâlaṇkâra.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> The word has been derived from Vâta, a grove, but may +it not be the Pali Vatthu, Sanskrit Vâstu, a site or building?</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> = Uposatha.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> These finials are very common on the roof ends of +Siamese temples and palaces. It is strange that they also are found in +conjunction with multiple roofs in Norwegian Churches of eleventh +century. See de Beylié, <i>Architecture hindoue dans l'extrême Orient</i>, +pp. 47, 48.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> The Buddha is generally known as Phra: Khodom +( = Gotama).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> In an old Siamese bronze from Kampeng Pet, figured in +Grünwedel's <i>Buddhist Art in India</i>, p. 179, fig. 127, the Sirô rồt +seems to be in process of evolution.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> P.A. Thompson, <i>Lotus Land</i>, 1906, p. 100.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> Four images facing the four quarters are considered in +Burma to represent the last four Buddhas and among the Jains some of +the Tirthankaras are so represented, the legend being that whenever +they preached they seemed to face their hearers on every side.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> These figures only take account of twelve out of the +seventeen provinces.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> Thompson, <i>Lotus Land</i>, p. 120.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> They bear the title of Só̆mdĕ̃t Phra: Chào +Ràjagama and have authority respectively over (<i>a</i>) ordinary Buddhists +in northern Siam, (<i>b</i>) ordinary Buddhists in the south, (<i>c</i>) +hermits, (<i>d</i>) the Dhammayut sect.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> For this and many other details I am indebted to P.A. +Thompson, <i>Lotus Land</i>, p. 123.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> When gifts of food are made to monks on ceremonial +occasions, they usually acknowledge the receipt by reciting verses 7 +and 8 of this Sutta, commonly known as <i>Yathâ</i> from the first word.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> Kathina in Pali. See Mahâvag. cap. VII.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> Fournereau, p. 225.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> The ploughing festival is a recognized imperial +ceremony in China. In India ceremonies for private landowners are +prescribed in the Gṛihya Sûtras but I do not know if their +performance by kings is anywhere definitely ordered. However in the +Nidâna Kathâ 270 the Buddha's father celebrates an imposing ploughing +ceremony.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i> Tusita. Compare such English names descriptive +of beautiful scenery as Heaven's Gate.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> See Keith, <i>Aitereya Aranyaka</i>, pp. 174-178. The +ceremony there described undoubtedly originated in a very ancient +popular festival.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i> float-raft. Most authors give the word as +Krathong, but Pallegoix prefers Kathong.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> <i>Chulakantamangalam</i>, Bangkok, 1893.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> P.A. Thompson, <i>Lotus Land</i>, p. 134.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> For the Brahmans of Siam see Frankfürter, <i>Oriental. +Archiv.</i> 1913, pp. 196-7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> <i>Chulakantamangala</i>, p. 56.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> They are mostly observances such as Gotama would have +classed among "low arts" (tîracchânavijjâ). At present the monks of +Siam deal freely in charms and exorcisms but on important occasions +public opinion seems to have greater confidence in the skill and power +of Brahmans.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> King Śrî Sûryavaṃsa Râma relates in an +inscription of about 1365 how he set up statues of Parameśvara and +Vishṇukarma (?) and appointed Brahmans to serve them.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> Maj. Nik. 47.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> <i>Siam Society</i>, vol. IV. part ii. 1907. <i>Some Siamese +ghost-lore</i> by A.J. Irwin.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> <i>Jour. Siam Soc.</i> 1909, p. 28. "In yonder mountain is a +demon spirit Phră Khăphŭng that is greater than every other +spirit in this realm. If any Prince ruling this realm reverences him +well with proper offerings, this realm stands firm, this realm +prospers. If the spirit be not reverenced well, if the offerings be +not right, the spirit in the mountain does not protect, does not +regard:—this realm perishes."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> The most popular life of the Buddha in Siamese is +called Pa:thó̆mma Só̆mphôthĩyan, translated by Alabaster in +<i>The Wheel of the Law</i>. But like the Lalita vistara and other Indian +lives on which it is modelled it stops short at the enlightenment. +Another well-known religious book is the Traiphûm ( = Tribhûmi), an +account of the universe according to Hindu principles, compiled in +1776 from various ancient works. +</p><p> +The Pali literature of Siam is not very large. Some account of it is +given by Coedès in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1915, III. pp. 39-46.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> When in Bangkok in 1907 I saw in a photographer's shop +a photograph of the procession which escorted these relics to their +destination. It was inscribed "Arrival of Buddha's tooth from Kandy." +This shows how deceptive historical evidence may be. The inscription +was the testimony of an eye-witness and yet it was entirely wrong.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_100" id="Page_3_100"></a>[Pg 100]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXXVIII"></a>CHAPTER XXXVIII</h2> + +<h3>CAMBOJA<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a></h3> + +<h3>1</h3> + + +<p>The French Protectorate of Camboja corresponds roughly to the nucleus, +though by no means to the whole extent of the former Empire of the +Khmers. The affinities of this race have given rise to considerable +discussion and it has been proposed to connect them with the +Muṇḍa tribes of India on one side and with the Malays and +Polynesians on the other<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a>. They are allied linguistically to the +Mons or Talaings of Lower Burma and to the Khasias of Assam, but it is +not proved that they are similarly related to the Annamites, and +recent investigators are not disposed to maintain the Mon-Annam family +of languages <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_101" id="Page_3_101"></a>[Pg 101]</span>proposed by Logan and others. But the undoubted +similarity of the Mon and Khmer languages suggests that the ancestors +of those who now speak them were at one time spread over the central +and western parts of Indo-China but were subsequently divided and +deprived of much territory by the southward invasions of the Thais in +the middle ages.</p> + +<p>The Khmers also called themselves Kambuja or Kamvuja and their name +for the country is still either Srŏk Kâmpûchéa or Srŏk +Khmer<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a>. Attempts have been made to find a Malay origin for this +name Kambuja but native tradition regards it as a link with India and +affirms that the race is descended from Kambu Svayambhuva and Merâ or +Perâ who was given to him by Śiva as wife<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a>. This legend hardly +proves that the Khmer people came from India but they undoubtedly +received thence their civilization, their royal family and a +considerable number of Hindu immigrants, so that the mythical ancestor +of their kings naturally came to be regarded as the progenitor of the +race. The Chinese traveller Chou Ta-kuan (1296 A.D.) says that the +country known to the Chinese as Chên-la is called by the natives +Kan-po-chih but that the present dynasty call it Kan-p'u-chih on the +authority of Sanskrit (Hsi-fan) works. The origin of the name Chên-la +is unknown.</p> + +<p>There has been much discussion respecting the relation of Chên-la to +the older kingdom of Fu-nan which is the name given by Chinese +historians until the early part of the seventh century to a state +occupying the south-eastern and perhaps central portions of +Indo-China. It has been argued that Chên-la is simply the older name +of Fu-nan and on the other hand that Fu-nan is a wider designation +including several states, one of which, Chên-la or Camboja, became +paramount at the expense of the others<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a>. But the point seems +unimportant for their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_102" id="Page_3_102"></a>[Pg 102]</span>religious history with which we have to +deal. In religion and general civilization both were subject to Indian +influence and it is not recorded that the political circumstances +which turned Fu-nan into Chên-la were attended by any religious +revolution.</p> + +<p>The most important fact in the history of these countries, as in +Champa and Java, is the presence from early times of Indian influence +as a result of commerce, colonization, or conquest. Orientalists have +only recently freed themselves from the idea that the ancient Hindus, +and especially their religion, were restricted to the limits of India. +In mediæval times this was true. Emigration was rare and it was only +in the nineteenth century that the travelling Hindu became a familiar +and in some British colonies not very welcome visitor. Even now Hindus +of the higher caste evade rather than deny the rule which forbids them +to cross the ocean<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a>. But for a long while Hindus have frequented +the coast of East Africa<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> and in earlier <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_103" id="Page_3_103"></a>[Pg 103]</span>centuries their +traders, soldiers and missionaries covered considerable distances by +sea. The Jâtakas<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> mention voyages to Babylon: Vijaya and Mahinda +reached Ceylon in the fifth and third centuries B.C. respectively. +There is no certain evidence as to the epoch when Hindus first +penetrated beyond the Malay peninsula, but Java is mentioned in the +Ramayana<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a>: the earliest Sanskrit inscriptions of Champa date from +our third or perhaps second century, and the Chinese Annals of the +Tsin indicate that at a period considerably anterior to that dynasty +there were Hindus in Fu-nan<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a>. It is therefore safe to conclude +that they must have reached these regions about the beginning of the +Christian era and, should any evidence be forthcoming, there is no +reason why this date should not be put further back. At present we can +only say that the establishment of Hindu kingdoms probably implies +earlier visits of Hindu traders and that voyages to the south coast of +Indo-China and the Archipelago were probably preceded by settlements +on the Isthmus of Kra, for instance at Ligor.</p> + +<p>The motives which prompted this eastward movement have been variously +connected with religious persecution in India, missionary enterprise, +commerce and political adventure. The first is the least probable. +There is little evidence for the systematic persecution of Buddhists +in India and still less for the persecution of Brahmans by Buddhists. +Nor can these Indian settlements be regarded as primarily religious +missions. The Brahmans have always been willing to follow and +supervise the progress of Hindu civilization, but they have never +shown any disposition to evangelize foreign countries apart from Hindu +settlements in them. The Buddhists had this evangelistic temper and +the journeys of their missionaries doubtless stimulated other classes +to go abroad, but still no inscriptions or annals suggest that the +Hindu migrations to Java and Camboja were parallel to Mahinda's +mission to Ceylon. Nor is there any reason to think that they were +commanded or encouraged by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_104" id="Page_3_104"></a>[Pg 104]</span>Indian Rajas, for no mention of their +despatch has been found in India, and no Indian state is recorded to +have claimed suzerainty over these colonies. It therefore seems likely +that they were founded by traders and also by adventurers who followed +existing trade routes and had their own reasons for leaving India. In +a country where dynastic quarrels were frequent and the younger sons +of Rajas had a precarious tenure of life, such reasons can be easily +imagined. In Camboja we find an Indian dynasty established after a +short struggle, but in other countries, such as Java and Sumatra, +Indian civilization endured because it was freely adopted by native +chiefs and not because it was forced on them as a result of conquest.</p> + +<p>The inscriptions discovered in Camboja and deciphered by the labours +of French savants offer with one lacuna (about 650-800 A.D.) a fairly +continuous history of the country from the sixth to the thirteenth +centuries. For earlier periods we depend almost entirely on Chinese +accounts which are fragmentary and not interested in anything but the +occasional relations of China with Fu-nan. The annals of the Tsin +dynasty<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> already cited say that from 265 A.D. onwards the kings +of Fu-nan sent several embassies to the Chinese Court, adding that the +people have books and that their writing resembles that of the Hu. The +Hu are properly speaking a tribe of Central Asia, but the expression +doubtless means no more than alphabetic writing as opposed to Chinese +characters and such an alphabet can hardly have had other than an +Indian origin. Originally, adds the Annalist, the sovereign was a +woman, but there came a stranger called Hun-Hui who worshipped the +Devas and had had a dream in which one of them gave him a bow<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> and +ordered him to sail for Fu-nan. He conquered the country and married +the Queen but his descendants deteriorated and one Fan-Hsün founded +another dynasty. The annals of the Ch'i dynasty (479-501) give +substantially the same story but say that the stranger was called +Hun-T'ien (which is probably the correct form of the name) and that he +came from Chi or Chiao, an unknown locality. The same annals state +that towards the end <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_105" id="Page_3_105"></a>[Pg 105]</span>of the fifth century the king of Fu-nan who +bore the family name of Ch'iao-ch'ên-ju<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> or Kauṇḍinya and +the personal name of Shê-yeh-po-mo (Jayavarman) traded with Canton. A +Buddhist monk named Nâgasena returned thence with some Cambojan +merchants and so impressed this king with his account of China that he +was sent back in 484 to beg for the protection of the Emperor. The +king's petition and a supplementary paper by Nâgasena are preserved in +the annals. They seem to be an attempt to represent the country as +Buddhist, while explaining that Maheśvara is its tutelary deity.</p> + +<p>The Liang annals also state that during the Wu dynasty (222-280) Fan +Chan, then king of Fu-nan, sent a relative named Su-Wu on an embassy +to India, to a king called Mao-lun, which probably represents +Muruṇḍa, a people of the Ganges valley mentioned by the +Purâṇas and by Ptolemy. This king despatched a return embassy to +Fu-nan and his ambassadors met there an official sent by the Emperor +of China<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a>. The early date ascribed to these events is noticeable.</p> + +<p>The Liang annals contain also the following statements. Between the +years 357 and 424 A.D. named as the dates of embassies sent to China, +an Indian Brahman called Ch'iao-ch'ên-ju (Kauṇḍinya) heard a +supernatural voice bidding him go and reign in Fu-nan. He met with a +good reception and was elected king. He changed the customs of the +country and made them conform to those of India. One of his +successors, Jayavarman, sent a coral image of Buddha in 503 to the +Emperor Wu-ti (502-550). The inhabitants of Fu-nan are said to make +bronze images of the heavenly genii with two or four heads and four or +eight arms. Jayavarman was succeeded by a usurper named Liu-t'o-pa-mo +(Rudravarman) who sent an image made of sandal wood to the Emperor in +519 and in 539 offered him a hair of the Buddha twelve feet long. The +Sui annals (589-618) state that Citrasena, king of Chên-la, conquered +Fu-nan and was succeeded by his son Iśânasena.</p> + +<p>Two monks of Fu-nan are mentioned among the translators of the Chinese +scriptures<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a>, namely, Saṇghapâla and Mandra. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_106" id="Page_3_106"></a>[Pg 106]</span>Both arrived in +China during the first years of the sixth century and their works are +extant. The pilgrim I-Ching who returned from India in 695 says<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> +that to the S.W. of Champa lies the country Po-nan, formerly called +Fu-nan, which is the southern corner of Jambudvîpa. He says that "of +old it was a country the inhabitants of which lived naked; the people +were mostly worshippers of devas and later on Buddhism flourished +there, but a wicked king has now expelled and exterminated them all +and there are no members of the Buddhist brotherhood at all."</p> + +<p>These data from Chinese authorities are on the whole confirmed by the +Cambojan inscriptions. Rudravarman is mentioned<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> and the kings +claim to belong to the race of Kauṇḍinya<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a>. This is the name +of a Brahman gotra, but such designations were often borne by +Kshatriyas and the conqueror of Camboja probably belonged to that +caste. It may be affirmed with some certainty that he started from +south-eastern India and possibly he sailed from Mahâbalipûr (also +called the Seven Pagodas). Masulipatam was also a port of embarcation +for the East and was connected with Broach by a trade route running +through Tagara, now Têr in the Nizam's dominions. By using this road, +it was possible to avoid the west coast, which was infested by +pirates.</p> + +<p>The earliest Cambojan inscriptions date from the beginning of the +seventh century and are written in an alphabet closely resembling that +of the inscriptions in the temple of Pâpanâtha at Paṭṭadkal in +the Bîjapur district<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a>. They are composed in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_107" id="Page_3_107"></a>[Pg 107]</span> Sanskrit verse of a +somewhat exuberant style, which revels in the commonplaces of Indian +poetry. The deities most frequently mentioned are Śiva by himself +and Śiva united with Vishṇu in the form Hari-Hara. The names of +the kings end in Varman and this termination is also specially +frequent in names of the Pallava dynasty<a name="FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a>. The magnificent +monuments still extant attest a taste for architecture on a large +scale similar to that found among the Dravidians. These and many other +indications justify the conclusion that the Indian civilization and +religion which became predominant in Camboja were imported from the +Deccan.</p> + +<p>The Chinese accounts distinctly mention two invasions, one under +Ch'iao-ch'ên-ju (Kaundinya) about 400 A.D. and one considerably +anterior to 265 under Hun-T'ien. It might be supposed that this name +also represents Kauṇḍinya and that there is a confusion of +dates. But the available evidence is certainly in favour of the +establishment of Hindu civilization in Fu-nan long before 400 A.D. and +there is nothing improbable in the story of the two invasions and even +of two Kauṇḍinyas. Maspéro suggests that the first invasion came +from Java and formed part of the same movement which founded the +kingdom of Champa. It is remarkable that an inscription in Sanskrit +found on the east coast of Borneo and apparently dating from the fifth +century mentions Kuṇḍagga as the grandfather of the reigning +king, and the Liang annals say that the king of Poli (probably in +Borneo but according to some in Sumatra) was called Ch'iao-ch'ên-ju. +It seems likely that the Indian family of Kauṇḍinya was +established somewhere in the South Seas (perhaps in Java) at an early +period and thence invaded various countries at various times. But +Fu-nan is a vague geographical term and it may be that Hun-T'ien +founded a Hindu dynasty in Champa.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_108" id="Page_3_108"></a>[Pg 108]</span>It is clear that during the period of the inscriptions the +religion of Camboja was a mixture of Brahmanism and Buddhism, the only +change noticeable being the preponderance of one or other element in +different centuries. But it would be interesting to know the value of +I-Ching's statement that Buddhism flourished in Fu-nan in early times +and was then subverted by a wicked king, by whom Bhavavarman<a name="FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> may +be meant. <i>Primâ facie</i> the statement is not improbable, for there is +no reason why the first immigrants should not have been Buddhists, but +the traditions connecting these countries with early Hinayanist +missionaries are vague. Târanâtha<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> states that the disciples of +Vasubandhu introduced Buddhism into the country of Koki (Indo-China) +but his authority does not count for much in such a matter. The +statement of I-Ching however has considerable weight, especially as +the earliest inscription found in Champa (that of Vocan) appears to be +inspired by Buddhism.</p> + +<h3>2</h3> + + +<p>It may be well to state briefly the chief facts of Cambojan +history<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> before considering the phases through which religion +passed. Until the thirteenth century our chief authorities are the +Sanskrit and Khmer inscriptions, supplemented by notices in the +Chinese annals. The Khmer inscriptions are often only a translation or +paraphrase of Sanskrit texts found in the same locality and, as a +rule, are more popular, having little literary pretension. They +frequently contain lists of donations or of articles to be supplied by +the population for the upkeep of pious foundations. After the +fourteenth century we have Cambojan annals of dubious value and we +also find inscriptions in Pali or in modern Cambojan. The earliest +Sanskrit inscriptions date from the beginning of the seventh century +and mention works undertaken in 604 and 624.</p> + +<p>The first important king is Bhavavarman (c. 500 A.D.), a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_109" id="Page_3_109"></a>[Pg 109]</span>conqueror +and probably a usurper, who extended his kingdom considerably towards +the west. His career of conquest was continued by Mahâvarman (also +called Citrasena), by Iśânavarman and by Jayavarman<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id="FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a>. This last +prince was on the throne in 667, but his reign is followed by a lacuna +of more than a century. Notices in the Chinese annals, confirmed by +the double genealogies given for this period in later inscriptions, +indicate that Camboja was divided for some time into two states, one +littoral and the other inland.</p> + +<p>Clear history begins again with the reign of Jayavarman II (802-869). +Later sovereigns evidently regard him as the great national hero and +he lives in popular legend as the builder of a magnificent palace, +Beng Mealea, whose ruins still exist<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id="FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> and as the recipient of the +sacred sword of Indra which is preserved at Phnom-penh to this day. We +are told that he "came from Javâ," which is more likely to be some +locality in the Malay Peninsula or Laos than the island of that name. +It is possible that Jayavarman was carried away captive to this region +but returned to found a dynasty independent of it<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a>.</p> + +<p>The ancient city of Angkor has probably done more to make Camboja +known in Europe than any recent achievements of the Khmer race. In the +centre of it stands the temple now called Bayon and outside its walls +are many other edifices of which the majestic Angkor Wat is the +largest and best preserved. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_110" id="Page_3_110"></a>[Pg 110]</span>King Indravarman (877-899) seems +responsible for the selection of the site but he merely commenced the +construction of the Bayon. The edifice was completed by his son +Yaśovarman (889-908) who also built a town round it, called +Yaśod harapura, Kambupuri or Mahânagara. Angkor Thom is the +Cambojan translation of this last name, Angkor being a corruption of +Nokor ( = Nagara). Yaśovarman's empire comprised nearly all +Indo-China between Burma and Champa and he has been identified with +the Leper king of Cambojan legend. His successors continued to +embellish Angkor Thom, but Jayavarman IV abandoned it and it was +deserted for several years until Rajendravarman II (944-968) made it +the capital again. The Chinese Annals, supported by allusions in the +inscriptions, state that this prince conquered Champa. The long +reigns of Jayavarman V, Suryavarman I, and Udayâdityavarman, which +cover more than a century (968-1079) seem to mark a prosperous period +when architecture flourished, although Udayâdityavarman had to contend +with two rebellions. Another great king, Sûryavarman II (1112-1162) +followed shortly after them, and for a time succeeded in uniting +Camboja and Champa under his sway. Some authorities credit him with a +successful expedition to Ceylon. There is not sufficient evidence for +this, but he was a great prince and, in spite of his foreign wars, +maintained peace and order at home.</p> + +<p>Jayavarman VII, who appears to have reigned from 1162 to 1201, reduced +to obedience his unruly vassals of the north and successfully invaded +Champa which remained for thirty years, though not without rebellion, +the vassal of Camboja. It was evacuated by his successor Indravarman +in 1220.</p> + +<p>After this date there is again a gap of more than a century in +Cambojan history, and when the sequence of events becomes clear again, +we find that Siam has grown to be a dangerous and aggressive enemy. +But though the vigour of the kingdom may have declined, the account of +the Chinese traveller Chou Ta-kuan who visited Angkor Thom in 1296 +shows that it was not in a state of anarchy nor conquered by Siam. +There had however been a recent war with Siam and he mentions that the +country was devastated. He unfortunately does not tell us the name of +the reigning king and the list of sovereigns begins again only in 1340 +when the Annals of Camboja take up the history.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_111" id="Page_3_111"></a>[Pg 111]</span> They are not of great +value. The custom of recording all events of importance prevailed at +the Cambojan Court in earlier times but these chronicles were lost in +the eighteenth century. King Ang Chan (1796-1834) ordered that they +should be re-written with the aid of the Siamese chronicles and such +other materials as were available and fixed 1340 as the point of +departure, apparently because the Siamese chronicles start from that +date<a name="FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a>. Although the period of the annals offers little but a +narrative of dissensions at home and abroad, of the interference of +Annam on one side and of Siam on the other, yet it does not seem that +the sudden cessation of inscriptions and of the ancient style of +architecture in the thirteenth century was due to the collapse of +Camboja, for even in the sixteenth century it offered a valiant, and +often successful, resistance to aggressions from the west. But Angkor +Thom and the principal monuments were situated near the Siamese +frontier and felt the shock of every collision. The sense of security, +essential for the construction of great architectural works, had +disappeared and the population became less submissive and less willing +to supply forced labour without which such monuments could not be +erected.</p> + +<p>The Siamese captured Angkor Thom in 1313, 1351 and 1420 but did not on +any occasion hold it for long. Again in 1473 they occupied Chantaboun, +Korat and Angkor but had to retire and conclude peace. King Ang Chan I +successfully disputed the right of Siam to treat him as a vassal and +established his capital at Lovek, which he fortified and ornamented. +He reigned from 1505 to 1555 and both he and his son, Barom Racha, +seem entitled to rank among the great kings of Camboja. But the +situation was clearly precarious and when a minor succeeded to the +throne in 1574 the Siamese seized the opportunity and recaptured Lovek +and Chantaboun. Though this capture was the death blow to the power of +the Khmers, the kingdom of Camboja did not cease to exist but for +nearly three centuries continued to have an eventful but uninteresting +history as the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_112" id="Page_3_112"></a>[Pg 112]</span>vassal of Siam or Annam or even of both<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a>, until +in the middle of the nineteenth century the intervention of France +substituted a European Protectorate for these Asiatic rivalries.</p> + +<p>The provinces of Siem-reap and Battambang, in which Angkor Thom and +the principal ancient monuments are situated, were annexed by Siam at +the end of the eighteenth century, but in virtue of an arrangement +negotiated by the French Government they were restored to Camboja in +1907, Krat and certain territories being at the same time ceded to +Siam<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a>.</p> + +<h3>3</h3> + + +<p>The religious history of Camboja may be divided into two periods, +exclusive of the possible existence there of Hinayanist Buddhism in +the early centuries of our era. In the first period, which witnessed +the construction of the great monuments and the reigns of the great +kings, both Brahmanism and Mahayanist Buddhism nourished, but as in +Java and Champa without mutual hostility. This period extends +certainly from the sixth to the thirteenth centuries and perhaps its +limits should be stretched to 400-1400 A.D. In any case it passed +without abrupt transition into the second period in which, under +Siamese influence, Hinayanist Buddhism supplanted the older faiths, +although the ceremonies of the Cambojan court still preserve a good +deal of Brahmanic ritual.</p> + +<p>During the first period, Brahmanism and Mahayanism were professed by +the Court and nobility. The multitude of great temples and opulent +endowments, the knowledge of Sanskrit literature and the use of Indian +names, leave no doubt about this, but it is highly probable that the +mass of the people had their own humbler forms of worship. Still there +is no record of anything that can be called Khmer—as opposed to +Indian—religion. As in Siam, the veneration of nature spirits is +universal in Camboja and little shrines elevated on poles are erected +in their honour in the neighbourhood of almost every house. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_113" id="Page_3_113"></a>[Pg 113]</span>Possibly the more important of these spirits were identified in +early times with Indian deities or received Sanskrit names. Thus we +hear of a pious foundation in honour of Brahmarakshas<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a>, perhaps a +local mountain spirit. Śiva is adored under the name of Śrî +Śikhareśvara, the Lord of the Peak and Krishṇa appears to be +identified with a local god called Śrî Champeśvara who was +worshipped by Jayavarman VI<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a>.</p> + +<p>The practice of accepting and hinduizing strange gods with whom they +came in contact was so familiar to the Brahmans that it would be odd +if no examples of it occurred in Camboja. Still the Brahmanic religion +which has left such clear records there was in the main not a +hinduized form of any local cult but a direct importation of Indian +thought, ritual and literature. The Indian invaders or colonists were +accompanied by Brahmans: their descendants continued to bear Indian +names and to give them to all places of importance: Sanskrit was the +ecclesiastical and official language, for the inscriptions written in +Khmer are clearly half-contemptuous notifications to the common +people, respecting such details as specially concerned them: +<i>Aśramas</i> and castes (<i>varṇa)</i> are mentioned<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> and it is +probable that natives were only gradually and grudgingly admitted to +the higher castes. There is also reason to believe that this Hindu +civilization was from time to time vivified by direct contact with +India. The embassy of Su-Wu has already been mentioned<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id="FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> and an +inscription records the marriage of a Cambojan princess with a Brahman +called Divâkara who came from the banks of the Yamunâ, "where +Kṛishṇa sported in his infancy."</p> + +<p>During the whole period of the inscriptions the worship of Śiva +seems to have been the principal cultus and to some extent the state +religion, for even kings who express themselves in their inscriptions +as devout Buddhists do not fail to invoke him. But there is no trace +of hostility to Vishnuism and the earlier inscriptions constantly +celebrate the praises of the compound deity Vishṇu-Śiva, known +under such names as <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_114" id="Page_3_114"></a>[Pg 114]</span>Hari-Hara<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id="FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a>, Śambhu-Vishṇu, +Śaṇkara-Narâyaṇa, etc. Thus an inscription of Ang-Pou dating +from Iśânavarman's reign says "Victorious are Hara and Acyuta +become one for the good of the world, though as the spouses of Parvatî +and Śrî they have different forms<a name="FNanchor_276_276" id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a>." But the worship of this +double being is accompanied by pure Śivaism and by the adoration of +other deities. In the earliest inscriptions Bhavavarman invokes +Śiva and dedicates a linga. He also celebrates the compound deity +under the name of Śambhu-Vishṇu and mentions Umâ, Lakshmî, +Bhâratî, Dharma, the Maruts, and Vishṇu under the names of +Caturbhuja and Trailokyasâra. There appears to be no allusion to the +worship of Vishṇu-Śiva as two in one after the seventh century, +but though Śiva became exalted at the expense of his partner, +Vishṇu must have had adorers for two kings, Jayavarman III and +Sûryavarman II, were known after their death by the names of +Vishṇu-loka and Parama-Vishṇu-loka.</p> + +<p>Śiva became generally recognized as the supreme deity, in a +comprehensive but not an exclusive sense. He is the universal spirit +from whom emanate Brahmâ and Vishṇu. His character as the Destroyer +is not much emphasized: he is the God of change, and therefore of +reproduction, whose symbol is the Linga. It is remarkable to find that +a pantheistic form of Śivaism is clearly enunciated in one of the +earliest inscriptions<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id="FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a>. Śiva is there styled Vibhu, the +omnipresent, Paramvrahmâ ( = Brahmâ), Jagatpati, Paśupati. An +inscription found at Angkor<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id="FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> mentions an Acârya of the +Pâśupatas as well as an Acârya of the Śaivas and Chou Ta-kuan +seems to allude to the worshippers of Paśupati under the name of +Pa-ssŭ-wei. It would therefore appear that the Pâśupatas existed +in Camboja as a distinct sect and there are some indications<a name="FNanchor_279_279" id="FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> that +ideas which prevailed among the Lingayats also found their way +thither.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_115" id="Page_3_115"></a>[Pg 115]</span>The most interesting and original aspect of Cambojan religion is +its connection with the state and the worship of deities somehow +identified with the king or with prominent personages<a name="FNanchor_280_280" id="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a>. These +features are also found in Champa and Java. In all these countries it +was usual that when a king founded a temple, the god worshipped in it +should be called by his name or by something like it. Thus when +Bhadravarman dedicated a temple to Śiva, the god was styled +Bhadreśvara. More than this, when a king or any distinguished +person died, he was commemorated by a statue which reproduced his +features but represented him with the attributes of his favourite god. +Thus Indravarman and Yaśovarman dedicated at Bakô and Lolei shrines +in which deceased members of the royal family were commemorated in the +form of images of Śiva and Devî bearing names similar to their own. +Another form of apotheosis was to describe a king by a posthumous +title, indicating that he had gone to the heaven of his divine patron +such as Paramavishṇuloka or Buddhaloka. The temple of Bayon was a +truly national fane, almost a Westminster abbey, in whose many shrines +all the gods and great men of the country were commemorated. The +French archæologists recognize four classes of these shrines dedicated +respectively to (<i>a</i>) Indian deities, mostly special forms of Śiva, +Devî and Vishṇu; (<i>b</i>) Mahayanist Buddhas, especially Buddhas of +healing, who were regarded as the patron saints of various towns and +mountains; (<i>c</i>) similar local deities apparently of Cambojan origin +and perhaps corresponding to the God of the City worshipped in every +Chinese town; (<i>d</i>) deified kings and notables, who appear to have +been represented in two forms, the human and divine, bearing slightly +different names. Thus one inscription speaks of Śrî +Mahendreśvarî who is the divine form (vraḥ rûpa) of the lady +Śrî Mahendralakshmî.</p> + +<p>The presiding deity of the Bayon was Śiva, adored under the form of +the linga. The principal external ornaments of the building are forty +towers each surmounted by four heads. These were formerly thought to +represent Brahmâ but there is little doubt that they are meant for +lingas bearing four faces of Śiva, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_116" id="Page_3_116"></a>[Pg 116]</span>since each head has three +eyes. Such lingas are occasionally seen in India<a name="FNanchor_281_281" id="FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> and many metal +cases bearing faces and made to be fitted on lingas have been +discovered in Champâ. These four-headed columns are found on the gates +of Angkor Thom as well as in the Bayon and are singularly impressive. +The emblem adored in the central shrine of the Bayon was probably a +linga but its title was <i>Kamrateṇ jagat ta râja</i> or <i>Devarâja</i>, the +king-god. More explicitly still it is styled <i>Kamrateṇ jagat ta +râjya</i>, the god who is the kingdom. It typified and contained the +royal essence present in the living king of Camboja and in all her +kings. Several inscriptions make it clear that not only dead but +living people could be represented by statue-portraits which +identified them with a deity, and in one very remarkable record a +general offers to the king the booty he has captured, asking him to +present it "to your subtle ego who is Iśvara dwelling in a golden +linga<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id="FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a>." Thus this subtle ego dwells in a linga, is identical with +Śiva, and manifests itself in the successive kings of the royal +house.</p> + +<p>The practices described have some analogies in India. The custom of +describing the god of a temple by the name of the founder was known +there<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id="FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a>. The veneration of ancestors is universal; there are some +mausolea (for instance at Ahar near Udeypore) and the notion that in +life the soul can reside elsewhere than in the body is an occasional +popular superstition. Still these ideas and practices are not +conspicuous features of Hinduism and the Cambojans had probably come +within the sphere of another influence. In all eastern Asia the +veneration of the dead is the fundamental and ubiquitous form of +religion and in China we find fully developed such ideas as that the +great should be buried in monumental tombs, that a spirit can be made +to reside in a tablet or image, and that the human soul is compound so +that portions of it can be in different places. These beliefs combined +with the Indian doctrine that the deity <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_117" id="Page_3_117"></a>[Pg 117]</span>is manifested in +incarnations, in the human soul and in images afford a good +theoretical basis for the worship of the Devarâja. It was also +agreeable to far-eastern ideas that religion and the state should be +closely associated and the Cambojan kings would be glad to imitate the +glories of the Son of Heaven. But probably a simpler cause tended to +unite church and state in all these Hindu colonies. In mediæval India +the Brahmans became so powerful that they could claim to represent +religion and civilization apart from the state. But in Camboja and +Champa Brahmanic religion and civilization were bound up with the +state. Both were attacked by and ultimately succumbed to the same +enemies.</p> + +<p>The Brahmanism of Camboja, as we know it from the inscriptions, was so +largely concerned with the worship of this "Royal God" that it might +almost be considered a department of the court. It seems to have been +thought essential to the dignity of a Sovereign who aspired to be more +than a local prince, that his Chaplain or preceptor should have a +pontifical position. A curious parallel to this is shown by those +mediæval princes of eastern Europe who claimed for their chief bishops +the title of patriarch as a complement to their own imperial +pretensions. In its ultimate form the Cambojan hierarchy was the work +of Jayavarman II, who, it will be remembered, reestablished the +kingdom after an obscure but apparently disastrous interregnum. He +made the priesthood of the Royal God hereditary in the family of +Śivakaivalya and the sacerdotal dynasty thus founded enjoyed during +some centuries a power inferior only to that of the kings.</p> + +<p>In the inscriptions of Sdok Kâk Thom<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id="FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> the history of this family +is traced from the reign of Jayavarman II to 1052. The beginning of +the story as related in both the Sanskrit and Khmer texts is +interesting but obscure. It is to the effect that Jayavarman, anxious +to assure his position as an Emperor (Cakravartin) independent of +Javâ<a name="FNanchor_285_285" id="FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a>, summoned from Janapada a Brahman called Hiranyadâma, +learned in magic (siddhividyâ), who arranged the rules (viddhi) for +the worship of the Royal God and taught the king's Chaplain, +Śivakaivalya, four treatises called Vrah Vinâśikha, Nayottara, +Sammoha and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_118" id="Page_3_118"></a>[Pg 118]</span>Śiraścheda. These works are not otherwise +known<a name="FNanchor_286_286" id="FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a>. The king made a solemn compact that "only the members of +his (Śivakaivalya's) maternal<a name="FNanchor_287_287" id="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> family, men and women, should be +Yâjakas (sacrificers or officiants) to the exclusion of all others." +The restriction refers no doubt only to the cult of the Royal God and +the office of court chaplain, called Purohita, Guru or Hotri, of whom +there were at least two.</p> + +<p>The outline of this narrative, that a learned Brahman was imported and +charged with the instruction of the royal chaplain, is simple and +probable but the details are perplexing. The Sanskrit treatises +mentioned are unknown and the names singular. Janapada as the name of +a definite locality is also strange<a name="FNanchor_288_288" id="FNanchor_288_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a>, but it is conceivable that +the word may have been used in Khmer as a designation of India or a +part of it.</p> + +<p>The inscription goes on to relate the gratifying history of the +priestly family, the grants of land made to them, the honours they +received. We gather that it was usual for an estate to be given to a +priest with the right to claim forced labour from the population. He +then proceeded to erect a town or village embellished with temples and +tanks. The hold of Brahmanism on the country probably depended more on +such priestly towns than on the convictions of the people. The +inscriptions often speak of religious establishments being restored +and sometimes say that they had become deserted and overgrown. We may +conclude that if the Brahman lords of a village ceased for any reason +to give it their attention, the labour and contributions requisite for +the upkeep of the temples were not forthcoming and the jungle was +allowed to grow over the buildings.</p> + +<p>Numerous inscriptions testify to the grandeur of the Śivakaivalya +family. The monotonous lists of their properties and slaves, of the +statues erected in their honour and the number of parasols borne +before them show that their position was almost regal, even when the +king was a Buddhist. They prudently refrained from attempting to +occupy the throne, but <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_119" id="Page_3_119"></a>[Pg 119]</span>probably no king could succeed unless +consecrated by them. Sadaśiva, Śaṇkarapaṇḍita and +Divâkarapaṇḍita formed an ecclesiastical dynasty from about 1000 +to 1100 A.D. parallel to the long reigns of the kings in the same +period<a name="FNanchor_289_289" id="FNanchor_289_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a>. The last-named mentions in an inscription that he had +consecrated three kings and Śaṇkarapaṇḍita, a man of great +learning, was <i>de facto</i> sovereign during the minority of his pupil +Udayâdityavarman nor did he lose his influence when the young king +attained his majority.</p> + +<p>The shrine of the Royal God was first near Mt. Mahendra and was then +moved to Hariharâlaya<a name="FNanchor_290_290" id="FNanchor_290_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_290_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a>. Its location was definitely fixed in the +reign of Indravarman, about 877 A.D. Two Śivakaivalya Brahmans, +Śivasoma and his pupil Vâmaśiva, chaplain of the king, built a +temple called the Śivâśrama and erected a linga therein. It is +agreed that this building is the Bayon, which formed the centre of the +later city of Angkor. Indravarman also illustrated another +characteristic of the court religion by placing in the temple now +called Prah Kou three statues of Śiva with the features of his +father, grandfather and Jayavarman II together with corresponding +statues of Śakti in the likeness of their wives. The next king, +Yaśovarman, who founded the town of Angkor round the Bayon, built +near his palace another linga temple, now known as Ba-puon. He also +erected two convents, one Brahmanic and one Buddhist. An +inscription<a name="FNanchor_291_291" id="FNanchor_291_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_291_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> gives several interesting particulars respecting the +former. It fixes the provisions to be supplied to priests and students +and the honours to be rendered to distinguished visitors. The right of +sanctuary is accorded and the sick and helpless are to receive food +and medicine. Also funeral rites are to be celebrated within its +precincts for the repose of the friendless and those who have died in +war. The royal residence was moved from Angkor in 928, but about +twenty years later the court returned thither and the inscriptions +record that the Royal God accompanied it.</p> + +<p>The cultus was probably similar to what may be seen in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_120" id="Page_3_120"></a>[Pg 120]</span>Sivaite +temples of India to-day. The principal lingam was placed in a shrine +approached through other chambers and accessible only to privileged +persons. Libations were poured over the emblem and sacred books were +recited. An interesting inscription<a name="FNanchor_292_292" id="FNanchor_292_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> of about 600 A.D. relates how +Śrîsomasarman (probably a Brahman) presented to a temple "the +Râmâyaṇa, the Purâṇa and complete Bhârata" and made arrangements +for their recitation. Sanskrit literature was held in esteem. We are +told that Sûryavarman I was versed in the Atharva-Veda and also in the +Bhâshya, Kâvyas, the six Darśanas, and the Dharmaśâstras<a name="FNanchor_293_293" id="FNanchor_293_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a>. +Sacrifices are also frequently mentioned and one inscription records +the performance of a Koṭihoma<a name="FNanchor_294_294" id="FNanchor_294_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a>. The old Vedic ritual remained +to some extent in practice, for no circumstances are more favourable +to its survival than a wealthy court dominated by a powerful +hierarchy. Such ceremonies were probably performed in the ample +enclosures surrounding the temples<a name="FNanchor_295_295" id="FNanchor_295_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a>.</p> + +<h3>4</h3> + + +<p>Mahayanist Buddhism existed in Camboja during the whole of the period +covered by the inscriptions, but it remained in such close alliance +with Brahmanism that it is hard to say whether it should be regarded +as a separate religion. The idea that the two systems were +incompatible obviously never occurred to the writers of the +inscriptions and Buddhism was not regarded as more distinct from +Śivaism and Vishnuism than these from one another. It had +nevertheless many fervent and generous, if not exclusive, admirers. +The earliest record of its existence is a short inscription dating +from the end of the sixth or beginning of the seventh century<a name="FNanchor_296_296" id="FNanchor_296_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_296_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a>, +which relates how a person called Pon Prajnâ Candra dedicated male and +female slaves to the three Bodhisattvas, Śâstâ<a name="FNanchor_297_297" id="FNanchor_297_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a>, Maitreya and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_121" id="Page_3_121"></a>[Pg 121]</span>Avalokiteśvara. The title given to the Bodhisattvas (Vrah +Kamratâañ) which is also borne by Indian deities shows that this +Buddhism was not very different from the Brahmanic cult of Camboja.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to find that Yaśovarman founded in Angkor Thom a +Saugatâśrama or Buddhist monastery parallel to his +Brâhmaṇâśrama already described. Its inmates enjoyed the same +privileges and had nearly the same rules and duties, being bound to +afford sanctuary, maintain the destitute and perform funeral masses. +It is laid down that an Acârya versed in Buddhist lore corresponds in +rank to the Acâryas of the Śaivas and Pâsupatas and that in both +institutions greater honour is to be shown to such Acâryas as also are +learned in grammar. A Buddhist Acârya ought to be honoured a little +less than a learned Brahman. Even in form the inscriptions recording +the foundation of the two Aśramas show a remarkable parallelism. +Both begin with two stanzas addressed to Śiva: then the Buddhist +inscription inserts a stanza in honour of the Buddha who delivers from +transmigration and gives nirvâṇa, and then the two texts are +identical for several stanzas<a name="FNanchor_298_298" id="FNanchor_298_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_298_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a>.</p> + +<p>Mahayanism appears to have flourished here especially from the tenth +to the thirteenth centuries and throughout the greater part of this +period we find the same feature that its principal devotees were not +the kings but their ministers. Sûryavarman I († 1049) +and Jayavarman VII († 1221) in some sense deserved +the name of Buddhists since the posthumous title of the former was +Nirvâṇapada and the latter left a long inscription<a name="FNanchor_299_299" id="FNanchor_299_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a> beginning +with a definitely Buddhist invocation. Yet an inscription of +Sûryavarman which states in its second verse that only the word of the +Buddha is true, opens by singing the praises of Śiva, and +Jayavarman certainly did not neglect the Brahmanic gods. But for about +a hundred years there was a series of great ministers who specially +encouraged Buddhism. Such were Satyavarman (<i>c.</i> 900 A.D.), who was +charged with the erection of the building in Angkor known as +Phimeanakas; Kavindrârimathana, minister under Râjendravarman II and +Jayavarman V, who erected many Buddhist statues and +Kîrtipaṇḍita, minister of Jayavarman V. Kîrtipaṇḍita was +the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_122" id="Page_3_122"></a>[Pg 122]</span>author<a name="FNanchor_300_300" id="FNanchor_300_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a> of the inscription found at Srey Santhor, which +states that thanks to his efforts the pure doctrine of the Buddha +reappeared like the moon from behind the clouds or the sun at dawn.</p> + +<p>It may be easily imagined that the power enjoyed by the court chaplain +would dispose the intelligent classes to revolt against this hierarchy +and to favour liberty and variety in religion, so far as was safe. +Possibly the kings, while co-operating with a priesthood which +recognized them as semi-divine, were glad enough to let other +religious elements form some sort of counterpoise to a priestly family +which threatened to be omnipotent. Though the identification of +Śivaism and Buddhism became so complete that we actually find a +Trinity composed of Padmodbhava (Brahmâ), Ambhojanetra (Vishṇu) and +the Buddha<a name="FNanchor_301_301" id="FNanchor_301_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a>, the inscriptions of the Buddhist ministers are marked +by a certain diplomacy and self-congratulation on the success of their +efforts, as if they felt that their position was meritorious, yet +delicate.</p> + +<p>Thus in an inscription, the object of which seems to be to record the +erection of a statue of Prajñâ-pâramitâ by Kavindrârimathana we are +told that the king charged him with the embellishment of +Yaśodharapura because "though an eminent Buddhist" his loyalty was +above suspicion<a name="FNanchor_302_302" id="FNanchor_302_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a>. The same minister erected three towers at Bàṭ +C̆uṃ with inscriptions<a name="FNanchor_303_303" id="FNanchor_303_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> which record the dedication of a +tank. The first invokes the Buddha, Vajrapâni<a name="FNanchor_304_304" id="FNanchor_304_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_304_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> and Lokeśvara. +In the others Lokeśvara is replaced by Prajñâ-pâramitâ who here, as +elsewhere, is treated as a goddess or Śakti and referred to as Devî +in another stanza<a name="FNanchor_305_305" id="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a>. The three inscriptions commemorate the +construction of a sacred tank <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_123" id="Page_3_123"></a>[Pg 123]</span>but, though the author was a +Buddhist, he expressly restricts the use of it to Brahmanic +functionaries.</p> + +<p>The inscription of Srey Santhor<a name="FNanchor_306_306" id="FNanchor_306_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> (<i>c</i>. 975 A.D.) describes the +successful efforts of Kîrtipaṇḍita to restore Buddhism and +gives the instructions of the king (Jayavarman V) as to its status. +The royal chaplain is by no means to abandon the worship of Śiva +but he is to be well versed in Buddhist learning and on feast days he +will bathe the statue of the Buddha with due ceremony.</p> + +<p>A point of interest in this inscription is the statement that +Kîrtipaṇḍita introduced Buddhist books from abroad, including +the Śâstra Madhyavibhâga and the commentary on the Tattvasangraha. +The first of these is probably the Mâdhyântavibhâga śâstra<a name="FNanchor_307_307" id="FNanchor_307_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a> by +Vasubandhu and the authorship is worth attention as supporting +Târanâtha's statement that the disciples of Vasubandhu introduced +Buddhism into Indo-China.</p> + +<p>In the time of Jayavarman VII (<i>c</i>. 1185 A.D.), although Hindu +mythology is not discarded and though the king's chaplain (presumably +a Śivaite) receives every honour, yet Mahayanist Buddhism seems to +be frankly professed as the royal religion. It is noteworthy that +about the same time it becomes more prominent in Java and Champa. +Probably the flourishing condition of the faith in Ceylon and Burma +increased the prestige of all forms of Buddhism throughout +south-eastern Asia. A long inscription of Jayavarman in 145 stanzas +has been preserved in the temple of Ta Prohm near Angkor. It opens +with an invocation to the Buddha, in which are mentioned the three +bodies, Lokeśvara<a name="FNanchor_308_308" id="FNanchor_308_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a>, and the Mother of the Jinas, by whom +Prajñâ-pâramitâ must be meant. Śiva is not invoked but allusion is +made to many Brahmanic deities and Bhikkhus and Brahmans are mentioned +together. The inscription contains a curious list of the materials +supplied daily for the temple services and of the personnel. Ample +provision is made for both, but it is not clear how far a purely +Buddhist ritual is contemplated and it seems probable that an +extensive Brahmanic cultus existed side by side with the Buddhist +ceremonial. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_124" id="Page_3_124"></a>[Pg 124]</span>We learn that there were clothes for the deities and +forty-five mosquito nets of Chinese material to protect their statues. +The Uposatha days seem to be alluded to<a name="FNanchor_309_309" id="FNanchor_309_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> and the spring festival +is described, when "Bhagavat and Bhagavatî" are to be escorted in +solemn procession with parasols, music, banners and dancing girls. The +whole staff, including Burmese and Chams (probably slaves), is put +down at the enormous figure of 79,365, which perhaps includes all the +neighbouring inhabitants who could be called on to render any service +to the temple. The more sacerdotal part of the establishment consisted +of 18 principal priests (adhikâriṇaḥ), 2740 priests and 2232 +assistants, including 615 dancing girls. But even these figures seem +very large<a name="FNanchor_310_310" id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a>.</p> + +<p>The inscription comes to a gratifying conclusion by announcing that +there are 102 hospitals in the kingdom<a name="FNanchor_311_311" id="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a>. These institutions, which +are alluded to in other inscriptions, were probably not all founded by +Jayavarman VII and he seems to treat them as being, like temples, a +natural part of a well-ordered state. But he evidently expended much +care and money on them and in the present inscription he makes over +the fruit of these good deeds to his mother. The most detailed +description of these hospitals occurs in another of his inscriptions +found at Say-fong in Laos. It is, like the one just cited, definitely +Buddhist and it is permissible to suppose that Buddhism took a more +active part than Brahmanism in such works of charity. It opens with an +invocation first to the Buddha who in his three bodies transcends the +distinction between existence and non-existence, and then to the +healing Buddha and the two Bodhisattvas who drive away darkness and +disease. These divinities, who are the lords of a heaven in the east, +analogous to the paradise of Amitâbha, are still worshipped in China +and Japan and were evidently gods of light<a name="FNanchor_312_312" id="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a>. The hospital erected +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_125" id="Page_3_125"></a>[Pg 125]</span>under their auspices by the Cambojan king was open to all the four +castes and had a staff of 98 persons, besides an astrologer and two +sacrificers (yâjaka).</p> + +<h3>5</h3> + + +<p>These inscriptions of Jayavarman are the last which tell us anything +about the religion of mediæval Camboja but we have a somewhat later +account from the pen of Chou Ta-kuan, a Chinese who visited Angkor in +1296<a name="FNanchor_313_313" id="FNanchor_313_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_313_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a>. He describes the temple in the centre of the city, which +must be the Bayon, and says that it had a tower of gold and that the +eastern (or principal) entrance was approached by a golden bridge +flanked by two lions and eight statues, all of the same metal. The +chapter of his work entitled "The Three Religions," runs as follows, +slightly abridged from M. Pelliot's version.</p> + +<p>"The literati are called Pan-ch'i, the bonzes Ch'u-ku and the Taoists +Pa-ssŭ-wei. I do not know whom the Pan-ch'i worship. They have no +schools and it is difficult to say what books they read. They dress +like other people except that they wear a white thread round their +necks, which is their distinctive mark. They attain to very high +positions. The Ch'u-ku shave their heads and wear yellow clothes. They +uncover the right shoulder, but the lower part of their body is draped +with a skirt of yellow cloth and they go bare foot. Their temples are +sometimes roofed with tiles. Inside there is only one image, exactly +like the Buddha Śâkya, which they call Po-lai ( = Prah), ornamented +with vermilion and blue, and clothed in red. The Buddhas of the towers +(? images in the towers of the temples) are different and cast in +bronze. There are no bells, drums, cymbals, or flags in their temples. +They eat only one meal a day, prepared by someone who entertains them, +for they do not cook in their temples. They eat fish and meat and also +use them in their offerings to Buddha, but they do not drink wine. +They recite numerous texts written on strips of palm-leaf. Some bonzes +have a right to have the shafts of their palanquins and the handles of +their parasols in gold or silver. The prince consults them on serious +matters. There are no Buddhist nuns.</p> + +<p>"The Pa-ssŭ-wei dress like everyone else, except that they wear on +their heads a piece of red or white stuff like the Ku-ku <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_126" id="Page_3_126"></a>[Pg 126]</span>worn by +Tartar women but lower. Their temples are smaller than those of the +Buddhists, for Taoism is less prosperous than Buddhism. They worship +nothing but a block of stone, somewhat like the stone on the altar of +the God of the Sun in China. I do not know what god they adore. There +are also Taoist nuns. The Pa-ssŭ-wei do not partake of the food of +other people or eat in public. They do not drink wine.</p> + +<p>"Such children of the laity as go to school frequent the bonzes, who +give them instruction. When grown up they return to a lay life.</p> + +<p>"I have not been able to make an exhaustive investigation."</p> + +<p>Elsewhere he says "All worship the Buddha" and he describes some +popular festivals which resemble those now celebrated in Siam. In +every village there was a temple or a Stûpa. He also mentions that in +eating they use leaves as spoons and adds "It is the same in their +sacrifices to the spirits and to Buddha."</p> + +<p>Chou Ta-kuan confesses that his account is superficial and he was +perhaps influenced by the idea that it was natural there should be +three religions in Camboja, as in China. Buddhists were found in both +countries: Pan-ch'i no doubt represents Paṇḍita and he saw an +analogy between the Brahmans of the Cambojan Court and Confucian +mandarins: a third and less known sect he identified with the Taoists. +The most important point in his description is the prominence given to +the Buddhists. His account of their temples, of the dress and life of +their monks<a name="FNanchor_314_314" id="FNanchor_314_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_314_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> leaves no doubt that he is describing Hinayanist +Buddhism such as still nourishes in Camboja. It probably found its way +from Siam, with which Camboja had already close, but not always +peaceful, relations. Probably the name by which the bonzes are +designated is Siamese<a name="FNanchor_315_315" id="FNanchor_315_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_315_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a>. With Chou Ta-kuan's statements may be +compared the inscription of the Siamese King Râma Khomhëng<a name="FNanchor_316_316" id="FNanchor_316_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> which +dwells on the nourishing condition of Pali Buddhism in Siam about 1300 +A.D. The contrast indicated by Chou Ta-kuan is significant. The +Brahmans held <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_127" id="Page_3_127"></a>[Pg 127]</span>high office but had no schools. Those of the laity +who desired education spent some portion of their youth in a Buddhist +monastery (as they still do) and then returned to the world. Such a +state of things naturally resulted in the diffusion of Buddhism among +the people, while the Brahmans dwindled to a Court hierarchy. When +Chou Ta-kuan says that all the Cambojans adored Buddha, he probably +makes a mistake, as he does in saying that the sculptures above the +gates of Angkor are heads of Buddha. But the general impression which +he evidently received that everyone frequented Buddhist temples and +monasteries speaks for itself. His statement about sacrifices to +Buddha is remarkable and, since the inscriptions of Jayavarman VII +speak of sacrificers, it cannot be rejected as a mere mistake. But if +Hinayanist Buddhism countenanced such practices in an age of +transition, it did not adopt them permanently for, so far as I have +seen, no offerings are made to-day in Cambojan temples, except flowers +and sticks of incense.</p> + +<p>The Pa-ssŭ-wei have given rise to many conjectures and have been +identified with the Basaih or sacerdotal class of the Chams. But there +seems to be little doubt that the word really represents Pâśupata +and Chou Ta-kuan's account clearly points to a sect of linga +worshippers, although no information is forthcoming about the "stone +on the altar of the Sun God in China" to which he compares their +emblem. His idea that they represented the Taoists in Camboja may have +led him to exaggerate their importance but his statement that they +were a separate body is confirmed, for an inscription of Angkor<a name="FNanchor_317_317" id="FNanchor_317_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> +defines the order of hierarchical precedence as "the Brahman, the +Śaiva Acârya, the Pâśupata Acârya<a name="FNanchor_318_318" id="FNanchor_318_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a>."</p> + +<p>From the time of Chou Ta-kuan to the present day I have <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_128" id="Page_3_128"></a>[Pg 128]</span>found few +notices about the religion of Camboja. Hinayanist Buddhism became +supreme and though we have few details of the conquest we can hardly +go wrong in tracing its general lines. Brahmanism was exclusive and +tyrannical. It made no appeal to the masses but a severe levy of +forced labour must have been necessary to erect and maintain the +numerous great shrines which, though in ruins, are still the glory of +Camboja<a name="FNanchor_319_319" id="FNanchor_319_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_319_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a>. In many of them are seen the remains of inscriptions +which have been deliberately erased. These probably prescribed certain +onerous services which the proletariat was bound to render to the +established church. When Siamese Buddhism invaded Camboja it had a +double advantage. It was the creed of an aggressive and successful +neighbour but, while thus armed with the weapons of this world, it +also appealed to the poor and oppressed. If it enjoyed the favour of +princes, it had no desire to defend the rights of a privileged caste: +it offered salvation and education to the average townsman and +villager. If it invited the support and alms of the laity, it was at +least modest in its demands. Brahmanism on the other hand lost +strength as the prestige of the court declined. Its greatest shrines +were in the provinces most exposed to Siamese attacks. The first +Portuguese writers speak of them as already deserted at the end of the +sixteenth century. The connection with India was not kept up and if +any immigrants came from the west, after the twelfth century they are +more likely to have been Moslims than Hindus. Thus driven from its +temples, with no roots among the people, whose affections it had never +tried to win, Brahmanism in Camboja became what it now is, a court +ritual without a creed and hardly noticed except at royal functions.</p> + +<p>It is remarkable that Mohammedanism remained almost unknown to +Camboja, Siam and Burma. The tide of Moslim invasion swept across the +Malay Peninsula southwards. Its effect was strongest in Sumatra and +Java, feebler on the coasts of Borneo and the Philippines. From the +islands it reached Champa, where it had some success, but Siam and +Camboja lay on one side of its main route, and also showed no +sympathy <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_129" id="Page_3_129"></a>[Pg 129]</span>for it. King Rama Thuppdey Chan<a name="FNanchor_320_320" id="FNanchor_320_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> who reigned in +Camboja from 1642-1659 became a Mohammedan and surrounded himself with +Malays and Javanese. But he alienated the affections of his subjects +and was deposed by the intervention of Annam. After this we hear no +more of Mohammedanism. An unusual incident, which must be counted +among the few cases in which Buddhism has encouraged violence, is +recorded in the year 1730, when a Laotian who claimed to be inspired, +collected a band of fanatics and proceeded to massacre in the name of +Buddha all the Annamites resident in Camboja. This seems to show that +Buddhism was regarded as the religion of the country and could be used +as a national cry against strangers.</p> + +<p>As already mentioned Brahmanism still survives in the court ceremonial +though this by no means prevents the king from being a devout +Buddhist. The priests are known as Bakus. They wear a top-knot and the +sacred thread after the Indian fashion, and enjoy certain privileges. +Within the precincts of the palace at Phnom Penh is a modest building +where they still guard the sword of Indra. About two inches of the +blade are shown to visitors, but except at certain festivals it is +never taken out of its sheath.</p> + +<p>The official programme of the coronation of King Sisowath (April +23-28, 1906), published in French and Cambojan, gives a curious +account of the ceremonies performed, which were mainly Brahmanic, +although prayers were recited by the Bonzes and offerings made to +Buddha. Four special Brahmanic shrines were erected and the essential +part of the rite consisted in a lustral bath, in which the Bakus +poured water over the king. Invocations were addressed to beings +described as "Anges qui êtes au paradis des six séjours célestes, qui +habitez auprès d'Indra, de Brahmâ et de l'archange Sahabodey," to the +spirits of mountains, valleys and rivers and to the spirits who guard +the palace. When the king has been duly bathed the programme +prescribes that "le Directeur des Bakous remettra la couronne â M. le +Gouverneur Général qui la portera sur la tête de Sa Majesté au nom du +Gouvernement de la République Française." Equally curious is the +"Programme des fêtes royales à l'occasion de la crémation de S.M. +Norodom" (January 2-16, 1906). The lengthy ceremonial consisted of a +strange mixture of prayers, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_130" id="Page_3_130"></a>[Pg 130]</span>sermons, pageants and amusements. The +definitely religious exercises were Buddhist and the amusements which +accompanied them, though according to our notions curiously out of +place, clearly correspond to the funeral games of antiquity. Thus we +read not only of "offrande d'un repas aux urnes royales" but of +"illuminations générales ... lancement de ballons ... luttes et +assauts de boxe et de l'escrime ... danses et soirée de gala.... Après +la crémation, Sa Majesté distribuera des billets de tombola."</p> + +<p>The ordinary Buddhism of Camboja at the present day resembles that of +Siam and is not mixed with Brahmanic observances. Monasteries are +numerous: the monks enjoy general respect and their conduct is said to +be beyond reproach. They act as schoolmasters and, as in Siam and +Burma, all young men spend some time in a monastery. A monastery +generally contains from thirty to fifty monks and consists of a number +of wooden houses raised on piles and arranged round a square. Each +monk has a room and often a house to himself. Besides the dwelling +houses there are also stores and two halls called Salâ and Vihéar +(vihâra). In both the Buddha is represented by a single gigantic +sitting image, before which are set flowers and incense. As a rule +there are no other images but the walls are often ornamented with +frescoes of Jâtaka stories or the early life of Gotama. Meals are +taken in the Salâ at about 7 and 11 a.m.<a name="FNanchor_321_321" id="FNanchor_321_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_321_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a>, and prayers are recited +there on ordinary days in the morning and evening. The eleven o'clock +meal is followed by a rather long grace. The prayers consist mostly of +Pali formulæ, such as the Three Refuges, but they are sometimes in +Cambojan and contain definite petitions or at least wishes formulated +before the image of the Buddha. Thus I have heard prayers for peace +and against war. The more solemn ceremonies, such as the Uposatha and +ordinations, are performed in the Vihear. The recitation of the +Pâtimokkha is regularly performed and I have several times witnessed +it. All but ordained monks have to withdraw outside the Sîmâ stones +during the service. The ceremony begins about 6 p.m.: the Bhikkhus +kneel down in pairs face to face and rubbing their foreheads in the +dust ask for mutual forgiveness if they have inadvertently offended. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_131" id="Page_3_131"></a>[Pg 131]</span>This ceremony is also performed on other occasions. It is followed +by singing or intoning lauds, after which comes the recitation of the +Pâtimokkha itself which is marked by great solemnity. The reader sits +in a large chair on the arms of which are fixed many lighted tapers. +He repeats the text by heart but near him sits a prompter with a +palm-leaf manuscript who, if necessary, corrects the words recited. I +have never seen a monk confess in public, and I believe that the usual +practice is for sinful brethren to abstain from attending the ceremony +and then to confess privately to the Abbot, who assigns them a +penance. As soon as the Pâtimokkha is concluded all the Bhikkhus smoke +large cigarettes. In most Buddhist countries it is not considered +irreverent to smoke<a name="FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a>, chew betel or drink tea in the intervals of +religious exercises. When the cigarettes are finished there follows a +service of prayer and praise in Cambojan. During the season of Wassa +there are usually several Bhikkhus in each monastery who practise +meditation for three or four days consecutively in tents or enclosures +made of yellow cloth, open above but closed all round. The four stages +of meditation described in the Piṭakas are said to be commonly +attained by devout monks<a name="FNanchor_323_323" id="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a>.</p> + +<p>The Abbot has considerable authority in disciplinary matters. He eats +apart from the other monks and at religious ceremonies wears a sort of +red cope, whereas the dress of the other brethren is entirely yellow. +Novices prostrate themselves when they speak to him.</p> + +<p>Above the Abbots are Provincial Superiors and the government of the +whole Church is in the hands of the Somdec práh sanghrâc. There is, +or was, also a second prelate called Lòk práh só̆kŏn, or Braḥ +Sugandha, and the two, somewhat after the manner of the two primates +of the English Church, supervise the clergy in different parts of the +kingdom, the second being inferior to the first in rank, but not +dependent on him. But it is said that no successor has been appointed +to the last Braḥ Sugandha who died in 1894. He was a distinguished +scholar and introduced the Dhammayut sect from Siam into Camboja. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_132" id="Page_3_132"></a>[Pg 132]</span>The king is recognized as head of the Church, but cannot alter its +doctrine or confiscate ecclesiastical property.</p> + +<h3>6</h3> + + +<p>No account of Cambojan religion would be complete without some +reference to the splendid monuments in which it found expression and +which still remain in a great measure intact. The colonists who +established themselves in these regions brought with them the +Dravidian taste for great buildings, but either their travels enlarged +their artistic powers or they modified the Indian style by +assimilating successfully some architectural features found in their +new home. What pre-Indian architecture there may have been among the +Khmers we do not know, but the fact that the earliest known monuments +are Hindu makes it improbable that stone buildings on a large scale +existed before their arrival. The feature which most clearly +distinguishes Cambojan from Indian architecture is its pyramidal +structure. India has stupas and gopurams of pyramidal appearance but +still Hindu temples of the normal type, both in the north and south, +consist of a number of buildings erected on the same level. In Camboja +on the contrary many buildings, such as Ta-Keo, Ba-phuong and the +Phimeanakas, are shrines on the top of pyramids, which consist of +three storeys or large steps, ascended by flights of relatively small +steps. In other buildings, notably Angkor Wat, the pyramidal form is +obscured by the slight elevation of the storeys compared with their +breadth and by the elaboration of the colonnades and other edifices, +which they bear. But still the general plan is that of a series of +courts each rising within and above the last and this gradual rise, by +which the pilgrim is led, not only through colonnade after colonnade, +but up flight after flight of stairs, each leading to something higher +but invisible from the base, imparts to Cambojan temples a sublimity +and aspiring grandeur which is absent from the mysterious halls of +Dravidian shrines.</p> + +<p>One might almost suppose that the Cambojan architects had deliberately +set themselves to rectify the chief faults of Indian architecture. One +of these is the profusion of external ornament in high relief which by +its very multiplicity ceases to produce any effect proportionate to +its elaboration, with the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_133" id="Page_3_133"></a>[Pg 133]</span>result that the general view is +disappointing and majestic outlines are wanting. In Cambojan buildings +on the contrary the general effect is not sacrificed to detail: the +artists knew how to make air and space give dignity to their work. +Another peculiar defect of many Dravidian buildings is that they were +gradually erected round some ancient and originally humble shrine with +the unfortunate result that the outermost courts and gateways are the +most magnificent and that progress to the holy of holies is a series +of artistic disappointments. But at Angkor Wat this fault is carefully +avoided. The long paved road which starts from the first gateway +isolates the great central mass of buildings without dwarfing it and +even in the last court, when one looks up the vast staircases leading +to the five towers which crown the pyramid, all that has led up to the +central shrine seems, as it should, merely an introduction.</p> + +<p>The solidity of Cambojan architecture is connected with the prevalence +of inundations. With such dangers it was of primary importance to have +a massive substructure which could not be washed away and the style +which was necessary in building a firm stone platform inspired the +rest of the work. Some unfinished temples reveal the interesting fact +that they were erected first as piles of plain masonry. Then came the +decorator and carved the stones as they stood in their places, so that +instead of carving separate blocks he was able to contemplate his +design as a whole and to spread it over many stones. Hence most +Cambojan buildings have a peculiar air of unity. They have not had +ornaments affixed to them but have grown into an ornamental whole. Yet +if an unfavourable criticism is to be made on these +edifices—especially Angkor Wat—it is that the sculptures are wanting +in meaning and importance. They cannot be compared to the reliefs of +Boroboedoer, a veritable catechism in stone where every clause teaches +the believer something new, or even to the piles of figures in +Dravidian temples which, though of small artistic merit, seem to +represent the whirl of the world with all its men and monsters, +struggling from life into death and back to life again. The reliefs in +the great corridors of Angkor are purely decorative. The artist justly +felt that so long a stretch of plain stone would be wearisome, and as +decoration, his work is successful. Looking <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_134" id="Page_3_134"></a>[Pg 134]</span>outwards the eye is +satisfied with such variety as the trees and houses in the temple +courts afford: looking inwards it finds similar variety in the +warriors and deities portrayed on the walls. Some of the scenes have +an historical interest, but the attempt to follow the battles of the +Ramayana or the Churning of the Sea soon becomes a tedious task, for +there is little individuality or inspiration in the figures.</p> + +<p>This want of any obvious correspondence between the decoration and +cult of the Cambojan temples often makes it difficult to say to what +deities they were dedicated. The Bayon, or Śivâśrama, was +presumably a linga temple, yet the conjecture is not confirmed as one +would expect by any indubitable evidence in the decoration or +arrangements. In its general plan the building seems more Indian than +others and, like the temple of Jagannâtha at Puri, consists of three +successive chambers, each surmounted by a tower. The most remarkable +feature in the decoration is the repetition of the four-headed figure +at the top of every tower, a striking and effective motive, which is +also found above the gates of the town. Chou Ta-kuan says that there +were golden statues of Buddhas at the entrance to the Bayon. It is +impossible to say whether this statement is accurate or not. He may +have simply made a mistake, but it is equally possible that the fusion +of the two creeds may have ended in images of the Buddha being placed +outside the shrine of the linga.</p> + +<p>Strange as it may seem, there is no clear evidence as to the character +of the worship performed in Camboja's greatest temple, Angkor Wat. +Since the prince who commenced it was known by the posthumous title of +Paramavishṇuloka, we may presume that he intended to dedicate it to +Vishṇu and some of the sculptures appear to represent Vishṇu +slaying a demon. But it was not finished until after his death and his +intentions may not have been respected by his successors. An +authoritative statement<a name="FNanchor_324_324" id="FNanchor_324_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> warns us that it is not safe to say more +about the date of Angkor Wat than that its extreme limits are 1050 and +1170. Jayavarman VII (who came to the throne at about this latter +date) was a Buddhist, and may possibly have used the great temple for +his own worship. The sculptures are hardly <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_135" id="Page_3_135"></a>[Pg 135]</span>Brahmanic in the +theological sense, and those which represent the pleasures of paradise +and the pains of hell recall Buddhist delineations of the same +theme<a name="FNanchor_325_325" id="FNanchor_325_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_325_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a>. The four images of the Buddha which are now found in the +central tower are modern and all who have seen them will, I think, +agree that the figure of the great teacher which seems so appropriate +in the neighbouring monasteries is strangely out of place in this +aerial shrine. But what the designer of the building intended to place +there remains a mystery. Perhaps an empty throne such as is seen in +the temples of Annam and Bali would have been the best symbol<a name="FNanchor_326_326" id="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a>.</p> + +<p>Though the monuments of Camboja are well preserved the grey and +massive severity which marks them at present is probably very +different from the appearance that they wore when used for worship. +From Chou Ta-kuan and other sources<a name="FNanchor_327_327" id="FNanchor_327_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> we gather that the towers and +porches were gilded, the bas-reliefs and perhaps the whole surface of +the walls were painted, and the building was ornamented with flags. +Music and dances were performed in the courtyards and, as in many +Indian temples, the intention was to create a scene which by its +animation and brilliancy might amuse the deity and rival the pleasures +of paradise.</p> + +<p>It is remarkable that ancient Camboja which has left us so many +monuments, produced no books<a name="FNanchor_328_328" id="FNanchor_328_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a>. Though the inscriptions and Chou +Ta-kuan testify to the knowledge of literature (especially religious), +both Brahmanic and Buddhist, diffused among the upper classes, no +original works or even adaptations of Indian originals have come down +to us. The length and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_136" id="Page_3_136"></a>[Pg 136]</span>ambitious character of many inscriptions +give an idea of what the Cambojans could do in the way of writing, but +the result is disappointing. These poems in stone show a knowledge of +Sanskrit, of Indian poetry and theology, which is surprising if we +consider how far from India they were composed, but they are almost +without exception artificial, frigid and devoid of vigour or +inspiration.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> See among other authorities: +</p><p> +(<i>a</i>) E. Aymonier, <i>Le Cambodge</i>, Paris, 3 vols. 1900, 1904 (cited as +Aymonier). +</p><p> +(<i>b</i>) A. Barth, <i>Inscriptions Sanscrites du Cambodge (Notices et +extraits des MSS. de la Bibliot. Nat.</i>), Paris, 1885 (cited as +<i>Corpus</i>, I.). +</p><p> +(<i>c</i>) A. Bergaigne, <i>Inscriptions Sanscrites de Campâ et du Cambodge</i> +(in same series), 1893 (cited as <i>Corpus</i>, II.). +</p><p> +(<i>d</i>) L. Finot, "Buddhism in Indo-China," <i>Buddhist Review</i>, Oct. +1909. +</p><p> +(<i>e</i>) G. Maspéro, <i>L'Empire Khmèr, Phnom Penh</i>, 1904 (cited as +Maspéro). +</p><p> +(<i>f</i>) P. Pelliot, "Mémoires sur les Coutumes de Cambodge par Tcheou +Ta-kouan, traduits et annotés," <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1902, pp. 123-177 (cited +as Pelliot, <i>Tcheou Ta-kouan</i>). +</p><p> +(<i>g</i>) <i>Id.</i> "Le Founan," <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1903, pp. 248-303 (cited as +Pelliot, <i>Founan</i>). +</p><p> +(<i>h</i>) Articles on various inscriptions by G. Coedès in <i>J.A.</i> 1908, +XI. p. 203, XII. p. 213; 1909, XIII. p. 467 and p. 511. +</p><p> +(<i>i</i>) <i>Bulletin de la Commission Archéologique de l'Indochine</i>, 1908 +onwards. +</p><p> +(<i>j</i>) <i>Le Bayon d'Angkor Thom, Mission Henri Dufour</i>, 1910-1914. +Besides the articles cited above the <i>Bulletin de l'Ecole Française +d'Extrême Orient</i> (quoted as <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i>) contains many others +dealing with the religion and archaeology of Camboja. +</p><p> +(<i>k</i>) L. Finot, <i>Notes d'Epigraphie Indo-Chinoise</i>, 1916. See for +literature up to 1909, G. Coedès, <i>Bibliothèque raisonnée des travaux +relatifs à l'Archéologie du Cambodge et du Champa</i>. Paris, Imprimerie +Nationale, 1909.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> See especially P.W. Schmitt, <i>Die Mon-Khmer Völker. Ein +Bindeglied zwischen Völkern Zentral-Asiens und Austronesiens</i>. +Braunschweig, 1906.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> Cambodge is the accepted French spelling of this +country's name. In English Kamboja, Kambodia, Camboja and Cambodia are +all found. The last is the most usual but <i>di</i> is not a good way of +representing the sound of <i>j</i> as usually heard in this name. I have +therefore preferred Camboja.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> See the inscription of Bàksĕ, Càṃkró̆ṇ, +<i>J.A.</i> XIII. 1909, pp. 468, 469, 497.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> The Sui annals (Pelliot, <i>Founan</i>, p. 272) state that +"Chên-la lies to the west of Lin-yi: it was originally a vassal state +of Fu-nan.... The name of the king's family was Kshatriya: his +personal name was Citrasena: his ancestors progressively acquired the +sovereignty of the country: Citrasena seized Fu-nan and reduced it to +submission." This seems perfectly clear and we know from Cambojan +inscriptions that Citrasena was the personal name of the king who +reigned as Mahendravarman, <i>c</i>. 600 A.D. But it would appear from the +inscriptions that it was his predecessor Bhavavarman who made whatever +change occurred in the relations of Camboja to Fu-nan and in any case +it is not clear who were the inhabitants of Fu-nan if not Cambojans. +Perhaps Maspéro is right in suggesting that Fu-nan was something like +imperial Germany (p. 25), "Si le roi de Bavière s'emparait de la +couronne impériale, rien ne serait changé en Allemagne que la famille +régnante."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> It is remarkable that the Baudhâyana-dharma-sûtra +enumerates going to sea among the customs peculiar to the North (I. 1, +2, 4) and then (II. 1, 2, 2) classes making voyages by sea as the +first of the offences which cause loss of caste. This seems to +indicate that the emigrants from India came mainly from the North, but +it would be rash to conclude that in times of stress or enthusiasm the +Southerners did not follow their practice. A passage in the second +chapter of the Kautilîya Arthaśâstra has been interpreted as +referring to the despatch of colonists to foreign countries, but it +probably contemplates nothing more than the transfer of population +from one part of India to another. See Finot, <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1912, No. +8. But the passage at any rate shows that the idea of the King being +able to transport a considerable mass of population was familiar in +ancient India. Jâtaka 466 contains a curious story of a village of +carpenters who being unsuccessful in trade built a ship and emigrated +to an island in the ocean. It is clear that there must have been a +considerable seafaring population in India in early times for the Rig +Veda (II. 48, 3; I. 56, 2; I. 116, 3), the Mahabharata and the Jâtakas +allude to the love of gain which sends merchants across the sea and to +shipwrecks. Sculptures at Salsette ascribed to about 150 A.D. +represent a shipwreck. Ships were depicted in the paintings of Ajanta +and also occur on the coins of the Andhra King Yajñaśrî (<i>c</i>. 200 +A.D.) and in the sculptures of Boroboedoer. The Dîgha Nikâya (XI. 85) +speaks of sea-going ships which when lost let loose a land sighting +bird. Much information is collected in Radhakumud Mookerji's <i>History +of Indian Shipping</i>, 1912.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> Voyages are still regularly made in dhows between the +west coast of India and Zanzibar or Mombasa and the trade appears to +be old.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> See Jâtaka 339 for the voyage to Baveru or Babylon. +Jâtakas 360 and 442 mention voyages to Suvaṇṇabhûmi or Lower +Burma from Bharukaccha and from Benares down the river. The Milinda +Pañha (VI. 21) alludes to traffic with China by sea.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> Râm. iv. 40, 30.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> Pelliot, <i>Founan</i>, p. 254. The Western and Eastern Tsin +reigned from 265 to 419 A.D.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> Pelliot, <i>Founan</i>, p. 254. Most of the references to +Chinese annals are taken from this valuable paper.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> The inscription of Mi-son relates how Kauṇḍinya +planted at Bharapura (? in Camboja) a javelin given to him by +Aśvatthâman.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> This is the modern reading of the characters in Peking, +but Julien's <i>Méthode</i> justifies the transcription Kau-ḍi-nya.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> See S. Lévi in <i>Mélanges Charles de Harlez</i>, p. 176. +Deux peuples méconnus. i. Les Murunḍas.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> <i>Nanjio Catalogue</i>, p. 422.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> I-Tsing, trans. Takakusu, p. 12.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> <i>Corpus</i>, I. p. 65.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> <i>Corpus</i>, I. pp. 84, 89, 90, and <i>Jour. Asiatique</i>, +1882, p. 152.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> When visiting Badami, Paṭṭadkal and Aihole in +1912 I noted the following resemblances between the temples of that +district and those of Camboja. (<i>a</i>) The chief figures are Harihara, +Vâmana and Nṛisiṃha. At Paṭṭadkal, as at Angkor Wat, the +reliefs on the temple wall represent the Churning of the Sea and +scenes from the Râmâyana. (<i>b</i>) Large blocks of stone were used for +building and after being put in their positions were carved <i>in situ</i>, +as is shown by unfinished work in places. (<i>c</i>) Medallions containing +faces are frequent. (<i>d</i>) The architectural scheme is not as in +Dravidian temples, that is to say larger outside and becoming smaller +as one proceeds towards the interior. There is generally a central +tower attached to a hall. (<i>e</i>) The temples are often raised on a +basement. (<i>f</i>) Mukhalingas and kośhas are still used in worship. +(<i>g</i>) There are verandahs resembling those at Angkor Wat. They have +sloping stone roofs, sculptures in relief on the inside wall and a +series of windows in the outside wall. (<i>h</i>) The doors of the Linga +shrines have a serpentine ornamentation and are very like those of the +Bayon. (<i>i</i>) A native gentleman told me that he had seen temples with +five towers in this neighbourhood, but I have not seen them myself.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Mahendravarman, Narasinhavarman, +Parameśvaravarman, etc. It may be noticed that Paṭṭadkal is +considerably to the N.W. of Madras and that the Pallavas are supposed +to have come from the northern part of the present Madras Presidency. +Though the Hindus who emigrated to Camboja probably embarked in the +neighbourhood of Madras, they may have come from countries much +further to the north. Varman is recognized as a proper termination of +Kshatriya names, but it is remarkable that it is found in <i>all</i> the +Sanskrit names of Cambojan kings and is very common in Pallava names. +The name of Aśvatthâman figures in the mythical genealogies of both +the Pallavas and the kings of Champa or perhaps of Camboja, see +<i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, p. 923.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> Some authorities think that Kaundinya is meant by the +wicked king, but he lived about 300 years before I-Ching's visit and +the language seems to refer to more recent events. Although +Bhavavarman is not known to have been a religious innovator he appears +to have established a new order of things in Camboja and his +inscriptions show that he was a zealous worshipper of Śiva and +other Indian deities. It would be even more natural if I-Ching +referred to Iśânavarman (c. 615) or Jayavarman I (c. 650), but +there is no proof that these kings were anti-buddhist.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> Schiefner, p. 262.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> See Maspéro, <i>L'Empire Khmèr</i>, pp. 24 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> Perhaps a second Bhavavarman came between these last +two kings; see Coedès in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, p 691.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> See Mecquenem in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1913, No. 2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> But the captivity is only an inference and not a +necessary one. Finot suggests that the ancient royal house of Fu-nan +may have resided at Javâ and have claimed suzerain rights over Camboja +which Jayavarman somehow abolished. The only clear statements on the +question are those in the Sdok Kak Thom inscription, Khmer text c. 72, +which tell us that Camboja had been dependent on Javâ and that +Jayavarman II instituted a special state cult as a sign that this +dependence had come to an end. +</p><p> +It is true that the Hindu colonists of Camboja may have come from the +island of Java, yet no evidence supports the idea that Camboja was a +dependency of the island about 800 A.D. and the inscriptions of Champa +seem to distinguish clearly between Yavadvîpa (the island) and the +unknown country called Javâ. See Finot, <i>Notes d'Epig.</i> pp. 48 and +240. Hence it seems unlikely that the barbarous pirates (called the +armies of Java) who invaded Champa in 787 (see the inscription of Yang +Tikuh) were from the island. The Siamese inscription of Râma Khomhëng, +c. 1300 A.D., speaks of a place called Chavâ, which may be Luang +Prabang. On the other hand it does not seem likely that pirates, +expressly described as using ships, would have come from the +interior.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> For these annals see F. Garnier, "La Chronique royale +du Cambodje," <i>J.A.</i> 1871 and 1872. A. de Villemereuil, <i>Explorations +et Missions de Doudard de Lagrée</i>, 1882. J. Moura, <i>Le Royaume de +Cambodje</i>, vol. II. 1883. E. Aymonier, <i>Chronique des Anciens rois du +Cambodje. (Excursions et reconnaissances</i>. Saigon, 1881.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Ang Chan (1796-1834) received his crown from the +King of Siam and paid tribute to the King of Annam; Ang Duong +(1846-1859) was crowned by representatives of Annam and Siam and his +territory was occupied by the troops of both countries.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> The later history of Camboja is treated in considerable +detail by A. Leclerc, <i>Histoire de Cambodge</i>, 1914.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> Inscrip. of Moroun, <i>Corpus</i>, II. 387.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> Other local deities may be alluded to, under the names +of Śrî Jayakshetra, "the field of victory" adored at Basset +Simâdamataka, Śrî Mandareśvara, and Śrî Jalangeśvara. +Aymonier, II. p. 297; I. pp. 305, 306 and 327.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> Inscrip. of Lovek.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> Prea Eynkosey, 970 A.D. See <i>Corpus</i>, I. pp. 77 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> This compound deity is celebrated in the Harivamsa and +is represented in the sculptures of the rock temple at Badami, which +is dated 578 A.D. Thus his worship may easily have reached Camboja in +the sixth or seventh century.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> Jayato jagatâm bhûtyai Kritasandhî Harâcyutau, +Parvatîśrîpatitvena Bhinnamûrttidharâvapi. See also the Inscrip. of +Ang Chumnik (667 A.D.), verses 11 and 12 in <i>Corpus</i>, I. p. 67.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> The Bayang Inscription, <i>Corpus</i>, I. pp. 31 ff. which +mentions the dates 604 and 626 as recent.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> <i>Corpus</i>, II. p. 422 Śaivapaśupatâcâryyau. The +inscription fixes the relative rank of various Acâryas.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> See <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1906, p. 70.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> See specially on this subject, Coedès in <i>Bull. Comm. +Archéol. de l'Indochine</i>, 1911, p. 38, and 1913, p. 81, and the +letterpress of <i>Le Bayon d'Angkor Thorn</i>, 1914.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> I have seen myself a stone lingam carved with four +faces in a tank belonging to a temple at Maḥakut not far from +Badami.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> Suvarṇamayalingagateśvare te sûkshmântarâtmani. +Inscrip. of Prea Ngouk, <i>Corpus</i>, I. p. 157.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> see <i>Epig. Indica</i>, vol. III. pp. 1 ff. At +Paṭṭadkal (which region offers so many points of resemblance to +Camboja) King Vijayâditya founded a temple of Vijayeśvara and two +Queens, Lokamahâdevî and Trailokyamahâdevî founded temples of +Lokeśvara and Trailokyeśvara.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> Aymonier, II. pp. 257 ff. and especially Finot in +<i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1915, xv. 2, p. 53.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> See above.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_286_286" id="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> Sammohana and Niruttara are given as names of Tantras. +The former word may perhaps be the beginning of a compound. There are +Pali works called Sammohavinodinî and S. vinâśinî. The inscription +calls the four treatises the four faces of Tumburn.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_287_287" id="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> This shows that matriarchy must have been in force in +Camboja.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_288_288" id="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> Jânapada as the name of a locality is cited by +Böthlingck and Roth from the Gaṇa to Pâniṇi, 4. 2. 82.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_289_289" id="Footnote_289_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a> Possibly others may have held office during this long +period, but evidently all three priests lived to be very old men and +each may have been Guru for forty years.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_290_290" id="Footnote_290_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a> This place which means merely "the abode of Hari and +Hara" has not been identified.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_291_291" id="Footnote_291_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a> <i>Corpus</i>, II. Inscrip. lvi. especially pp. 248-251.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> Veal Kantel. <i>Corpus</i>, I. p. 28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> Inscr. of Prah Khan, <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, p. 675.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_294_294" id="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, p. 677.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_295_295" id="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> Just as a Vedic sacrifice was performed in the court of +the temple of Chidambaram about 1908.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_296_296" id="Footnote_296_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a> Aymonier, <i>Cambodja</i>, I. p. 442.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_297_297" id="Footnote_297_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a> Śâstâ sounds like a title of Śâkyamuni, but, if +Aymonier is correct, the personage is described as a Bodhisattva. +There were pagoda slaves even in modern Burma.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_298_298" id="Footnote_298_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a> See Coedès, "La Stèle de Tép Praṇaṃ," in <i>J.A.</i> +XI. 1908, p. 203.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_299_299" id="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> Inscrip. of Ta Prohm, <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1906, p. 44.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> See Senart in <i>Revue Archéologique</i>, 1883. As in many +inscriptions it is not always plain who is speaking but in most parts +it is apparently the minister promulgating the instructions of the +king.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a> Inscript. of Prasat Prah Khse, <i>Corpus</i>, I. p. 173.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> Buddhânâm agraṇîr api, <i>J.A.</i> XX. 1882, p. 164.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_303_303" id="Footnote_303_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a> See Coedès, "Inscriptions de Bàt Cuṃ," in <i>J.A.</i> +XII. 1908, pp. 230, 241.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_304_304" id="Footnote_304_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a> The Bodhisattva corresponding to the Buddha Akshobhya. +He is green or blue and carries a thunderbolt. It seems probable that +he is a metamorphosis of Indra.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_305_305" id="Footnote_305_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a> An exceedingly curious stanza eulogizes the doctrine of +the non-existence of the soul taught by the Buddha which leads to +identification with the universal soul although contrary to it. Vuddho +vodhîm vidaddhyâd vo yena nairâtmyadarśanaṃ viruddhasyâpi +sâdhûktaṃ sâdhanaṃ paramâtmanaḥ.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_306_306" id="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> Aymonier, I pp. 261 ff. Senart, <i>Revue Archéologique</i>, +Mars-Avril, 1883.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_307_307" id="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> Nanjio, 1244 and 1248.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_308_308" id="Footnote_308_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a> The common designation of Avalokita in Camboja and +Java. For the inscription see <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1906, pp. 44 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_309_309" id="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> Stanza XLVI.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_310_310" id="Footnote_310_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a> The inscription only says "There are here (atra)." Can +this mean in the various religious establishments maintained by the +king?</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_311_311" id="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> See also Finot, <i>Notes d'Epig</i>. pp. 332-335. The +Mahâvaṃsa repeatedly mentions that kings founded hospitals and +distributed medicines. See too, Yule, <i>Marco Polo</i>, I. p. 446. The +care of the sick was recognized as a duty and a meritorious act in all +Buddhist countries and is recommended by the example of the Buddha +himself.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> Their somewhat lengthy titles are +Bhaishajyaguruvaidûryaprabharâja, Sûryavairocanacaṇḍaroci and +Candravairocanarohinîśa. See for an account of them and the texts +on which their worship is founded the learned article of M. Pelliot, +"Le Bhaiṣajyaguru," <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1903, p. 33.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_313_313" id="Footnote_313_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a> His narrative is translated by M. Pelliot in +<i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1902, pp. 123-177.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> Pelliot (<i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1902, p. 148) cites a statement +from the Ling Wai Tai Ta that there were two classes of bonzes in +Camboja, those who wore yellow robes and married and those who wore +red robes and lived in convents.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> M. Finot conjectures that it represents the Siamese +Chao (Lord) and a corruption of Guru.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> See chapter on Siam, sect. 1.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_317_317" id="Footnote_317_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a> <i>Corpus</i>, II. p. 422.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> The strange statement of Chou Ta-kuan (pp. 153-155) +that the Buddhist and Taoist priests enjoyed a species of <i>jus primæ +noctis</i> has been much discussed. Taken by itself it might be merely a +queer story founded on a misunderstanding of Cambojan customs, for he +candidly says that his information is untrustworthy. But taking it in +connection with the stories about the Aris in Burma (see especially +Finot, <i>J.A.</i> 1912, p. 121) and the customs attributed by Chinese and +Europeans to the Siamese and Philippinos, we can hardly come to any +conclusion except that this strange usage was an aboriginal custom in +Indo-China and the Archipelago, prior to the introductions of Indian +civilization, but not suppressed for some time. At the present day +there seems to be no trace or even tradition of such a custom. For +Siamese and Philippine customs see <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1902, p. 153, note 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_319_319" id="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> The French Archæological Commission states that +exclusive of Angkor and the neighbouring buildings there are remains +of 600 temples in Camboja, and probably many have entirely +disappeared.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_320_320" id="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> Maspéro, pp. 62-3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_321_321" id="Footnote_321_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a> The food is prepared in the monasteries, and, as in +other countries, the begging round is a mere formality.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_322_322" id="Footnote_322_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a> But in Chinese temples notices forbidding smoking are +often posted on the doors.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> The word dhyâna is known, but the exercise is more +commonly called Vipassanâ or Kammathâna.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_324_324" id="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> M.G. Coedès in <i>Bull. Comm. Archéol.</i> 1911, p. 220.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_325_325" id="Footnote_325_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a> Although there is no reason why these pictures of the +future life should not be Brahmanic as well as Buddhist, I do not +remember having seen them in any purely Brahmanic temple.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_326_326" id="Footnote_326_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a> After spending some time at Angkor Wat I find it hard +to believe the theory that it was a palace. The King of Camboja was +doubtless regarded as a living God, but so is the Grand Lama, and it +does not appear that the Potala where he lives is anything but a large +residential building containing halls and chapels much like the +Vatican. But at Angkor Wat everything leads up to a central shrine. It +is quite probable however that the deity of this shrine was a deified +king, identified with Vishṇu after his death. This would account +for the remarks of Chou Ta-kuan who seems to have regarded it as a +tomb.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> See especially the inscription of Bassac. Kern, +<i>Annales de l'Extrème Orient</i>, t. III. 1880, p. 65.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> Pali books are common in monasteries. For the +literature of Laos see Finot, <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1917, No. 5.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_137" id="Page_3_137"></a>[Pg 137]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXXIX"></a>CHAPTER XXXIX</h2> + +<h3>CHAMPA<a name="FNanchor_329_329" id="FNanchor_329_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a></h3> + +<h3>1</h3> +<p>The kingdom of Champa, though a considerable power from about the +third century until the end of the fifteenth, has attracted less +attention than Camboja or Java. Its name is a thing of the past and +known only to students: its monuments are inferior in size and +artistic merit to those of the other Hindu kingdoms in the Far East +and perhaps its chief interest is that it furnishes the oldest +Sanskrit inscription yet known from these regions.</p> + +<p>Champa occupied the south-eastern corner of Asia beyond the Malay +Peninsula, if the word corner can be properly applied to such rounded +outlines. Its extent varied at different epochs, but it may be roughly +defined in the language of modern geography as the southern portion of +Annam, comprising the provinces of Quãng-nam in the north and +Bînh-Thuan in the south with the intervening country. It was divided +into three provinces, which respectively became the seat of empire at +different periods. They were (i) in the north Amarâvatî (the modern +Quãng-nam) with the towns of Indrapura and Sinhapura; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_138" id="Page_3_138"></a>[Pg 138]</span>(ii) in the +middle Vijaya (the modern Bing-Dinh) with the town of Vijaya and the +port of Śrî-Vinaya; (iii) in the south Pâṇḍurânga or Panran +(the modern provinces of Phanrang and Binh-Thuan) with the town of +Vîrapura or Râjapura. A section of Pâṇḍurânga called Kauthâra +(the modern Kanh hoa) was a separate province at certain times. Like +the modern Annam, Champa appears to have been mainly a littoral +kingdom and not to have extended far into the mountains of the +interior.</p> + +<p>Champa was the ancient name of a town in western Bengal near +Bhagalpur, but its application to these regions does not seem due to +any connection with north-eastern India. The conquerors of the +country, who were called Chams, had a certain amount of Indian culture +and considered the classical name Champa as an elegant expression for +the land of the Chams. Judging by their language these Chams belonged +to the Malay-Polynesian group and their distribution along the +littoral suggests that they were invaders from the sea like the Malay +pirates from whom they themselves subsequently suffered. The earliest +inscription in the Cham language dates from the beginning of the ninth +century but it is preceded by a long series of Sanskrit inscriptions +the oldest of which, that of Vo-can<a name="FNanchor_330_330" id="FNanchor_330_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a>, is attributed at latest to +the third century, and refers to an earlier king. It therefore seems +probable that the Hindu dynasty of Chaṃpa was founded between 150 +and 200 A.D. but there is no evidence to show whether a Malay race +already settled in Champa was conquered and hinduized by Indian +invaders, or whether the Chams were already hinduized when they +arrived, possibly from Java.</p> + +<p>The inferiority of the Chams to the Khmers in civilization was the +result of their more troubled history. Both countries had to contend +against the same difficulty—a powerful and aggressive neighbour on +either side. Camboja between Siam and Annam in 1800 was in very much +the same position as Champa had been between Camboja and Annam five +hundred years earlier. But between 950 and 1150 A.D. when Champa by no +means enjoyed stability and peace, the history of Camboja, if not +altogether tranquil, at least records several long reigns of powerful +kings who were able to embellish their capital and assure its +security. The Chams were exposed to attacks not only <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_139" id="Page_3_139"></a>[Pg 139]</span>from Annam +but also from the more formidable if distant Chinese and their +capital, instead of remaining stationary through several centuries +like Angkor Thom, was frequently moved as one or other of the three +provinces became more important.</p> + +<p>The inscription of Vo-can is in correct Sanskrit prose and contains a +fragmentary address from a king who seems to have been a Buddhist and +writes somewhat in the style of Asoka. He boasts that he is of the +family of Śrîmârarâja. The letters closely resemble those of +Rudradaman's inscription at Girnar and contemporary inscriptions at +Kanheri. The text is much mutilated so that we know neither the name +of the writer nor his relationship to Śrîmâra. But the latter was +evidently the founder of the dynasty and may have been separated from +his descendant by several generations. It is noticeable that his name +does not end in Varman, like those of later kings. If he lived at the +end of the second century this would harmonize with the oldest Chinese +notices which fix the rise of Lin-I (their name for Champa) about 192 +A.D.<a name="FNanchor_331_331" id="FNanchor_331_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_331_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> Agreeably to this we also hear that Hun T'ien founded an +Indian kingdom in Fu-nan considerably before 265 A.D. and that some +time between 220 and 280 a king of Fu-nan sent an embassy to India. +The name Fu-nan may include Champa. But though we hear of Hindu +kingdoms in these districts at an early date we know nothing of their +civilization or history, nor do we obtain much information from those +Cham legends which represent the dynasties of Champa as descended from +two clans, those of the cabbage palm (aréquier) and cocoanut.</p> + +<p>Chinese sources also state that a king called Fan-yi sent an embassy +to China in 284 and give the names of several kings who reigned +between 336 and 440. One of these, Fan-hu-ta, is apparently the +Bhadravarman who has left some Sanskrit inscriptions dating from about +400 and who built the first temple at Mĩ-so'n. This became the +national sanctuary of Champa: it was burnt down about 575 A.D. but +rebuilt. Bhadravarman's son Gangarâja appears to have abdicated and to +have gone on a pilgrimage to the Ganges<a name="FNanchor_332_332" id="FNanchor_332_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_332_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a>—another instance of the +intercourse prevailing between these regions and India.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_140" id="Page_3_140"></a>[Pg 140]</span>It would be useless to follow in detail the long chronicle of the +kings of Champa but a few events merit mention. In 446 and again in +605 the Chinese invaded the country and severely chastised the +inhabitants. But the second invasion was followed by a period of peace +and prosperity. Śambhuvarman (†629) restored the temples of +Mi-so'n and two of his successors, both called Vikrântavarman, were +also great builders. The kings who reigned from 758 to 859, reckoned +as the fifth dynasty, belonged to the south and had their capital at +Vîrapura. The change seems to have been important, for the Chinese who +had previously called the country Lin-I, henceforth call it Huan-wang. +The natives continued to use the name Champa but Satyavarman and the +other kings of the dynasty do not mention Mi-so'n though they adorned +and endowed Po-nagar and other sanctuaries in the south. It was during +this period (A.D. 774 and 787) that the province of Kauthâra was +invaded by pirates, described as thin black barbarians and cannibals, +and also as the armies of Java<a name="FNanchor_333_333" id="FNanchor_333_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a>. They pillaged the temples but +were eventually expelled. They were probably Malays but it is +difficult to believe that the Javanese could be seriously accused of +cannibalism at this period<a name="FNanchor_334_334" id="FNanchor_334_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_334_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a>.</p> + +<p>The capital continued to be transferred under subsequent dynasties. +Under the sixth (860-900) it was at Indrapura in the north: under the +seventh (900-986) it returned to the south: under the eighth +(989-1044) it was in Vijaya, the central province. These internal +changes were accompanied by foreign attacks. The Khmers invaded the +southern province in 945. On the north an Annamite Prince founded the +kingdom of Dai-côviêt, which became a thorn in the side of Champa. In +982 its armies destroyed Indrapura, and in 1044 they captured Vijaya. +In 1069 King Rudravarman was taken prisoner but was released in return +for the cession of the three northernmost provinces. Indrapura however +was rebuilt and for a time successful wars were waged against Camboja, +but though the kings of Champa did not acquiesce in the loss of the +northern provinces, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_141" id="Page_3_141"></a>[Pg 141]</span>though Harivarman III (1074-80) was +temporarily victorious, no real progress was made in the contest with +Annam, whither the Chams had to send embassies practically admitting +that they were a vassal state. In the next century further disastrous +quarrels with Camboja ensued and in 1192 Champa was split into two +kingdoms, Vijaya in the north under a Cambojan prince and Panran in +the south governed by a Cham prince but under the suzerainty of +Camboja. This arrangement was not successful and after much fighting +Champa became a Khmer province though a very unruly one from 1203 till +1220. Subsequently the aggressive vigour of the Khmers was tempered by +their own wars with Siam. But it was not the fate of Champa to be left +in peace. The invasion of Khubilai lasted from 1278 to 1285 and in +1306 the provinces of O and Ly were ceded to Annam.</p> + +<p>Champa now became for practical purposes an Annamite province and in +1318 the king fled to Java for refuge. This connection with Java is +interesting and there are other instances of it. King Jaya Simhavarman +III († 1307) of Champa married a Javanese princess called Tapasi. +Later we hear in Javanese records that in the fifteenth century the +princess Darawati of Champa married the king of Madjapahit and her +sister married Raden Radmat, a prominent Moslim teacher in Java<a name="FNanchor_335_335" id="FNanchor_335_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a>.</p> + +<p>The power of the Chams was crushed by Annam in 1470. After this date +they had little political importance but continued to exist as a +nationality under their own rulers. In 1650 they revolted against +Annam without success and the king was captured. But his widow was +accorded a titular position and the Cham chronicle<a name="FNanchor_336_336" id="FNanchor_336_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_336_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a> continues the +list of nominal kings down to 1822.</p> + +<p>In Champa, as in Camboja, no books dating from the Hindu period have +been preserved and probably there were not many. The Cham language +appears not to have been used for literary purposes and whatever +culture existed was exclusively Sanskrit. The kings are credited with +an extensive knowledge of Sanskrit literature. An inscription at +Po-nagar<a name="FNanchor_337_337" id="FNanchor_337_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a> (918 A.D.) says that Śrî Indravarman was acquainted +with the Mîmâṃsâ and other <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_142" id="Page_3_142"></a>[Pg 142]</span>systems of philosophy, Jinendra, and +grammar together with the Kâśikâ (vṛitti) and the +Śaivottara-Kalpa. Again an inscription of Mi-son<a name="FNanchor_338_338" id="FNanchor_338_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> ascribes to +Jaya Indravarmadeva (<i>c.</i> 1175 A.D.) proficiency in all the sciences +as well as a knowledge of the Mahâyâna and the Dharmaśâstras, +particularly the Nâradîya and Bhârgavîya. To some extent original +compositions in Sanskrit must have been produced, for several of the +inscriptions are of considerable length and one<a name="FNanchor_339_339" id="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> gives a quotation +from a work called the Purâṇârtha or Arthapurâṇaśâstra which +appears to have been a chronicle of Champa. But the language of the +inscriptions is often careless and incorrect and indicates that the +study of Sanskrit was less flourishing than in Camboja.</p> + +<h3>2</h3> + + +<p>The monuments of Champa, though considerable in size and number, are +inferior to those of Camboja. The individual buildings are smaller and +simpler and the groups into which they are combined lack unity. Brick +was the chief material, stone being used only when brick would not +serve, as for statues and lintels. The commonest type of edifice is a +square pyramidal structure called by the Chams Kalan. A Kalan is as a +rule erected on a hill or rising ground: its lowest storey has on the +east a porch and vestibule, on the other three sides false doors. The +same shape is repeated in four upper storeys of decreasing size which +however serve merely for external decoration and correspond to nothing +in the interior. This is a single windowless pyramidal cell lighted by +the door and probably also by lamps placed in niches on the inner +walls. In the centre stood a pedestal for a linga or an image, with a +channel to carry off libations, leading to a spout in the wall. The +outline of the tower is often varied by projecting figures or +ornaments, but the sculpture is less lavish than in Camboja and Java.</p> + +<p>In the greater religious sites several structures are grouped +together. A square wall surrounds an enclosure entered by a gateway +and containing one or more Kalans, as well as smaller buildings, +probably for the use of priests. Before the gateway there is +frequently a hall supported by columns but open at the sides.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_143" id="Page_3_143"></a>[Pg 143]</span>All known specimens of Cham architecture are temples; palaces and +other secular buildings were made of wood and have disappeared. Of the +many sanctuaries which have been discovered, the most remarkable are +those of Mi-son, and Dong Duong, both in the neighbourhood of Tourane, +and Po Nagar close to Nhatrang.</p> + +<p>Mi-son<a name="FNanchor_340_340" id="FNanchor_340_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> is an undulating amphitheatre among mountains and contains +eight or nine groups of temples, founded at different times. The +earliest structures, erected by Bhadravarman I about 400, have +disappeared<a name="FNanchor_341_341" id="FNanchor_341_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> and were probably of wood, since we hear that they +were burnt (apparently by an accident) in 575 A.D. New temples were +constructed by Śambhuvarman about twenty-five years later and were +dedicated to Śambhu-bhadreśvara, in which title the names of the +founder, restorer and the deity are combined. These buildings, of +which portions remain, represent the oldest and best period of Cham +art. Another style begins under Vikrântavarman I between 657 and 679 +A.D. This reign marks a period of decadence and though several +buildings were erected at Mi-son during the eighth and ninth +centuries, the locality was comparatively neglected<a name="FNanchor_342_342" id="FNanchor_342_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a> until the +reign of Harivarman III (1074-1080). The temples had been ravaged by +the Annamites but this king, being a successful warrior, was able to +restore them and dedicated to them the booty which he had captured. +Though his reign marks a period of temporary prosperity in the annals +of Champa, the style which he inaugurated in architecture has little +originality. It reverts to the ancient forms but shows conscious +archaism rather than fresh vigour. The position of Mi-son, however, +did not decline and about 1155 Jaya Harivarman I repaired the +buildings, dedicated the booty taken in battle and erected a new +temple in fulfilment of a vow. But after this period the princes of +Champa had no authority in the district of Mi-son, and the Annamites, +who seem to have disliked the religion of the Chams, plundered the +temples.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_144" id="Page_3_144"></a>[Pg 144]</span>Po-nagar<a name="FNanchor_343_343" id="FNanchor_343_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_343_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> is near the port of Nha-trang and overlooks the sea. +Being smaller that Mi-son it has more unity but still shows little +attempt to combine in one architectural whole the buildings of which +it is composed.</p> + +<p>An inscription<a name="FNanchor_344_344" id="FNanchor_344_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> states with curious precision that the shrine was +first erected in the year 5911 of the Dvâpara age and this fantastic +chronology shows that in our tenth century it was regarded as ancient. +As at Mi-son, the original buildings were probably of wood for in 774 +they were sacked and burnt by pirates who carried off the image<a name="FNanchor_345_345" id="FNanchor_345_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_345_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a>. +Shortly afterwards they were rebuilt in brick by King Satyavarman and +the existing southern tower probably dates from his reign, but the +great central tower was built by Harivarman I (817 A.D.) and the other +edifices are later.</p> + +<p>Po Nagar or Yang Po Nagar means the Lady or Goddess of the city. She +was commonly called Bhagavatî in Sanskrit<a name="FNanchor_346_346" id="FNanchor_346_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> and appears to have +been the chief object of worship at Nha-trang, although Śiva was +associated with her under the name of Bhagavatîśvara. In 1050 an +ardhanarî image representing Śiva and Bhagavatî combined in one +figure was presented to the temple by King Parameśvara and a +dedicatory inscription describes this double deity as the cosmic +principle.</p> + +<p>When Champa was finally conquered the temple was sold to the +Annamites, who admitted that they could not acquire it except by some +special and peaceful arrangement. Even now they still continue the +worship of the goddess though they no longer know who she is<a name="FNanchor_347_347" id="FNanchor_347_347"></a><a href="#Footnote_347_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a>.</p> + +<p>Dong Duong, about twenty kilometres to the south of Mi-son, marks the +site of the ancient capital Indrapura. The monument which has made its +name known differs from those already described. Compared with them it +has some pretensions to be a whole, laid out on a definite plan and it +is Buddhist. It consists of three courts<a name="FNanchor_348_348" id="FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a> surrounded by walls and +entered by massive porticoes. In the third there are about twenty +buildings <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_145" id="Page_3_145"></a>[Pg 145]</span>and perhaps it did not escape the fault common to Cham +architecture of presenting a collection of disconnected and unrelated +edifices, but still there is clearly an attempt to lead up from the +outermost portico through halls and gateways to the principal shrine. +From an inscription dated 875 A.D. we learn that the ruins are those +of a temple and vihâra erected by King Indravarman and dedicated to +Avalokita under the name of Lakshmîndra Lokeśvara.</p> + +<h3>3</h3> + + +<p>The religion of Champa was practically identical with that of Camboja. +If the inscriptions of the former tell us more about mukhalingas and +koshas and those of the latter have more allusions to the worship of +the compound deity Hari-hara, this is probably a matter of chance. But +even supposing that different cults were specially prominent at +different places, it seems clear that all the gods and ceremonies +known in Camboja were also known in Champa and <i>vice versa</i>. In both +countries the national religion was Hinduism, mainly of the Śivaite +type, accompanied by Mahayanist Buddhism which occasionally came to +the front under royal patronage. In both any indigenous beliefs which +may have existed did not form a separate system. It is probable +however that the goddess known at Po-nagar as Bhagavatî was an ancient +local deity worshipped before the Hindu immigration and an inscription +found at Mi-son recommends those whose eyes are diseased to propitiate +Kuvera and thus secure protection against Ekâkshapingalâ, "the tawny +one-eyed (spirit)." Though this goddess or demon was probably a +creation of local fancy, similar identifications of Kâlî with the +spirits presiding over cholera, smallpox, etc., take place in India.</p> + +<p>The social system was theoretically based on the four castes, but +Chinese accounts indicate that in questions of marriage and +inheritance older ideas connected with matriarchy and a division into +clans still had weight. But the language of the inscriptions is most +orthodox. King Vikrântavarman<a name="FNanchor_349_349" id="FNanchor_349_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a> quotes with approval the saying +that the horse sacrifice is the best of good deeds and the murder of a +Brahman the worst of sins. Brahmans, chaplains (purohita), pandits and +ascetics are frequently mentioned <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_146" id="Page_3_146"></a>[Pg 146]</span>as worthy of honour and gifts. +The high priest or royal chaplain is styled Śrîparamapurohita but +it does not appear that there was a sacerdotal family enjoying the +unique position held by the Śivakaivalyas in Camboja. The frequent +changes of capital and dynasty in Champa were unfavourable to +continuity in either Church or State.</p> + +<p>Śivaism, without any hostility to Vishṇuism or Buddhism, was the +dominant creed. The earliest known inscription, that of Vo-can, +contains indications of Buddhism, but three others believed to date +from about 400 A.D. invoke Śiva under some such title as +Bhadreśvara, indicating that a temple had been dedicated to him by +King Bhadravarman. Thus the practice of combining the names of a king +and his patron deity in one appellation existed in Champa at this +early date<a name="FNanchor_350_350" id="FNanchor_350_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a>. It is also recorded from southern India, Camboja and +Java. Besides Śiva one of the inscriptions venerates, though in a +rather perfunctory manner, Umâ, Brahmâ, Vishṇu and the five +elements. Several inscriptions<a name="FNanchor_351_351" id="FNanchor_351_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> give details of Śivaite +theology which agree with what we know of it in Camboja. The world +animate and inanimate is an emanation from Śiva, but he delivers +from the world those who think of him. Meditation, the practice of +Yoga, and devotion to Śiva are several times mentioned with +approval<a name="FNanchor_352_352" id="FNanchor_352_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a>. He abides in eight forms corresponding to his eight +names Śarva, Bhava, Paśupati, Iśâna, Bhîma, Rudra, Mahâdeva, +and Ugra. He is also, as in Java, Guru or the teacher and he has the +usual mythological epithets. He dances in lonely places, he rides on +the bull Nandi, is the slayer of Kâma, etc. Though represented by +figures embodying such legends he was most commonly adored under the +form of the linga which in Champa more than elsewhere came to be +regarded as not merely symbolic but as a personal god. To mark this +individuality it was commonly enclosed in a metal case (kosha) bearing +one or more human faces<a name="FNanchor_353_353" id="FNanchor_353_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_353_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a>. It was then called mukhalinga and the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_147" id="Page_3_147"></a>[Pg 147]</span>faces were probably intended as portraits of royal donors, +identified with the god in form as well as in name. An inscription of +1163 A.D. records the dedication of such a kosha, adorned with five +royal faces, to Śrîśânabhadreśvara. The god, it is said, will +now be able to give his blessing to all regions through his five +mouths which he could not do before, and being enclosed in the kosha, +like an embryo in the matrix, he becomes Hiraṇyagarbha. The linga, +with or without these ornaments, was set on a <i>snânadroṇi</i> or stone +table arranged for receiving libations, and sometimes (as in Java and +Camboja) four or more lingas were set upon a single slab. From A.D. +400 onwards, the cult of Śiva seems to have maintained its +paramount position during the whole history of Champa, for the last +recorded Sanskrit inscription is dedicated to him. From first to last +it was the state religion. Śiva is said to have sent Uroja to be +the first king and is even styled the root of the state of Champa.</p> + +<p>An inscription<a name="FNanchor_354_354" id="FNanchor_354_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_354_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a> of 811 A.D. celebrates the dual deity +Śankara-Nârâyaṇa. It is noticeable that Nârâyaṇa is said to +have held up Mt. Govardhana and is apparently identified with +Kṛishṇa. Râma and Kṛishṇa are both mentioned in an +inscription of 1157 which states that the whole divinity of Vishṇu +was incarnate in King Jaya Harivarman I<a name="FNanchor_355_355" id="FNanchor_355_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_355_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a>. But neither allusions to +Vishṇu nor figures of him<a name="FNanchor_356_356" id="FNanchor_356_356"></a><a href="#Footnote_356_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a> are numerous and he plays the part +of an accessory though respected personage. Garuḍa, on whom he +rides, was better known than the god himself and is frequently +represented in sculpture.</p> + +<p>The Śakti of Śiva, amalgamated as mentioned with a native +goddess, received great honour (especially at Nhatrang) under the +names of Umâ, Bhagavatî, the Lady of the city (Yang Po Nagar) and the +goddess of Kauthâra. In another form or aspect <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_148" id="Page_3_148"></a>[Pg 148]</span>she was called +Maladâkuṭhâra.<a name="FNanchor_357_357" id="FNanchor_357_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> There was also a temple of Ganeśa +(Śri-Vinâyaka) at Nhatrang but statues of this deity and of Skanda +are rare.</p> + +<p>The Chinese pilgrim I-Ching, writing in the last year of the seventh +century, includes Champa (Lin-I) in the list of countries which +"greatly reverence the three jewels" and contrasts it with Fu-nan +where a wicked king had recently almost exterminated Buddhism. He says +"In this country Buddhists generally belong to the Arya-sammiti +school, and there are also a few followers of the Aryasarvâstivâdin +school." The statement is remarkable, for he also tells us that the +Sarvâstivâdins were the predominant sect in the Malay Archipelago and +flourished in southern China. The headquarters of the Sammitîyas were, +according to the accounts of both Hsüan Chuang and I-Ching, in western +India though, like the three other schools, they were also found in +Magadha and eastern India. We also hear that the brother and sister of +the Emperor Harsha belonged to this sect and it was probably +influential. How it spread to Champa we do not know, nor do the +inscriptions mention its name or indicate that the Buddhism which they +knew was anything but the mixture of the Mahayana with Śivaism<a name="FNanchor_358_358" id="FNanchor_358_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a> +which prevailed in Camboja.</p> + +<p>I-Ching's statements can hardly be interpreted to mean that Buddhism +was the official religion of Champa at any rate after 400 A.D., for +the inscriptions abundantly prove that the Śivaite shrines of +Mi-son and Po-nagar were so to speak national cathedrals where the +kings worshipped on behalf of the country. But the Vo-can inscription +(? 250 A.D.), though it does not mention Buddhism, appears to be +Buddhist, and it would be quite natural that a dynasty founded about +150 A.D. should be Buddhist but that intercourse with Camboja and +probably with India should strengthen Śivaism. The Chinese annals +mention<a name="FNanchor_359_359" id="FNanchor_359_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> that 1350 Buddhist books were carried off during a +Chinese invasion in 605 A.D. and this allusion implies the existence +of Buddhism and monasteries with libraries. As in Camboja it was +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_149" id="Page_3_149"></a>[Pg 149]</span>perhaps followed by ministers rather than by kings. An inscription +found<a name="FNanchor_360_360" id="FNanchor_360_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a> in southern Champa and dated as 829 A.D. records how a +sthavira named Buddhanirvâṇa erected two vihâras and two temples +(devakula) to Jina and Śankara (Buddha and Śiva) in honour of +his deceased father. Shortly afterwards there came to the throne +Indravarman II (860-890 A.D.), the only king of Champa who is known +to have been a fervent Buddhist. He did not fail to honour Śiva as +the patron of his kingdom but like Asoka he was an enthusiast for the +Dharma<a name="FNanchor_361_361" id="FNanchor_361_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_361_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a>. He desires the knowledge of the Dharma: he builds +monasteries for the sake of the Dharma: he wishes to propagate it: he +even says that the king of the gods governs heaven by the principles +of Dharma. He wishes to lead all his subjects to the "yoke and abode +of Buddha," to "the city of deliverance."</p> + +<p>To this end he founded the vihâra of Dong Duong, already described, +and dedicated it to Śri Lakshmîndra Lokeśvara<a name="FNanchor_362_362" id="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a>. This last +word is a synonym of Avalokita, which also occurs in the dedicatory +inscription but in a fragmentary passage. Lakshmîndra is explained by +other passages in the inscription from which we learn that the king's +name before he ascended the throne was Lakshmîndra Bhûmîśvara, so +that the Bodhisattva is here adored under the name of the king who +erected the vihâra according to the custom prevalent in Śivaite +temples. Like those temples this vihâra received an endowment of land +and slaves of both sexes, as well as gold, silver and other +metals<a name="FNanchor_363_363" id="FNanchor_363_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a>.</p> + +<p>A king who reigned from 1080 to 1086 was called Paramabodhisattva, but +no further epigraphic records of Buddhism are known until the reigns +of Jaya Indravarmadeva (1167-1192) and his successor +Sûryavarmadeva<a name="FNanchor_364_364" id="FNanchor_364_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a>. Both of these monarchs, while worshipping +Śiva, are described as knowing or practising the jñâna or dharma +of the Mahayana. Little emphasis seems to be laid on these expressions +but still they imply that the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_150" id="Page_3_150"></a>[Pg 150]</span>Mahayana was respected and +considered part of the royal religion. Sûryavarmadeva erected a +building called Śrî Herukaharmya<a name="FNanchor_365_365" id="FNanchor_365_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a>. The title is interesting for +it contains the name of the Tantric Buddha Heruka.</p> + +<p>The grotto of Phong-nha<a name="FNanchor_366_366" id="FNanchor_366_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_366_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a> in the extreme north of Champa (province +of Quang Binh) must have been a Buddhist shrine. Numerous medallions +in clay bearing representations of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and Dagobas +have been found there but dates are wanting.</p> + +<p>It does not appear that the Hinayanist influence which became +predominant in Camboja extended to Champa. That influence came from +Siam and before it had time to traverse Camboja, Champa was already in +the grip of the Annamites, whose religion with the rest of their +civilization came from China rather than India. Chinese culture and +writing spread to the Cambojan frontier and after the decay of Champa, +Camboja marks the permanent limit within which an Indian alphabet and +a form of Buddhism not derived through China have maintained +themselves.</p> + +<p>A large number of the Chams were converted to Mohammedanism but the +time and circumstances of the event are unknown. When Friar Gabriel +visited the country at the end of the sixteenth century a form of +Hinduism seems to have been still prevalent<a name="FNanchor_367_367" id="FNanchor_367_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_367_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a>. It would be of +interest to know how the change of religion was effected, for history +repeats itself and it is likely that the Moslims arrived in Champa by +the route followed centuries before by the Hindu invaders.</p> + +<p>There are still about 130,000 Chams in the south of Annam and Camboja. +In the latter country they are all Mohammedans. In Annam some traces +of Hinduism remain, such as mantras in broken Sanskrit and hereditary +priests called Baśaih. Both religions have become unusually corrupt +but are interesting as showing how beliefs which are radically +distinct become distorted and combined in Eastern Asia<a name="FNanchor_368_368" id="FNanchor_368_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_368_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a>.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_329_329" id="Footnote_329_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a> Also spelt Campâ and Tchampa. It seems safer to use Ch +for C in names which though of Indian origin are used outside India. +The final <i>a</i> though strictly speaking long is usually written without +an accent. The following are the principal works which I have +consulted about Champa. +</p><p> +(a) G. Maspéro, <i>Le Royaume de Champa</i>. Published in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, +1910-1912. Cited as Maspéro. +</p><p> +(b) A. Bergaigne, "Inscriptions Sanskrites de Champa" in <i>Notices et +Extraits des Manuscrits de la Bibliothèque Nationale</i>, tome XXVII. +1<sup>re</sup> partie. 2<sup>e</sup> fascicule, 1893, pp. 181-292. Cited as +<i>Corpus</i>, II. +</p><p> +(c) H. Parmentier, <i>Inventaire descriptif des Monuments Ćams de +l'Annam</i>. 1899. +</p><p> +(d) L. Finot, "La Religion des Chams," <i>B.E.F.E.O</i>, 1901, and <i>Notes +d'Epigraphie</i>. "Les Inscriptions de Mi-son," <i>ib</i>. 1904. Numerous +other papers by this author, Durand, Parmentier and others in the same +periodical can be consulted with advantage. +</p><p> +(e) <i>Id., Notes d'Epigraphie Indo-Chinoise</i>, 1916.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_330_330" id="Footnote_330_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a> <i>Corpus</i>, II. p. 11, and Finot, <i>Notes d'Epig.</i> pp. 227 +ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_331_331" id="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> See authorities quoted by Maspéro, <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1910, +p. 329.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_332_332" id="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> Finot in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, pp. 918 and 922.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_333_333" id="Footnote_333_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a> <i>Corpus</i>, II. <i>Stêle de Po Nagar</i>, pp. 252 ff. and +<i>Stêle de Yang Tikuh</i>, p. 208, etc.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_334_334" id="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a> The statements that they came from Java and were +cannibals occur in different inscriptions and may conceivably refer to +two bodies of invaders. But the dates are very near. Probably Java is +not the island now so called. See the chapter on Camboja, sec. 2. The +undoubted references in the inscriptions of Champa to the island of +Java call it Yavadvîpa.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> <i>Veth. Java</i>, I. p. 233.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_336_336" id="Footnote_336_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a> See "La Chronique Royale," <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1905, p. 377.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_337_337" id="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> <i>Corpus</i>, II. p. 259. Jinendra may be a name either of +the Buddha or of a grammarian. The mention of the Kâśikâ vṛitti +is important as showing that this work must be anterior to the ninth +century. The Uttara Kalpa is quoted in the Tantras (see Bergaigne's +note), but nothing is known of it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_338_338" id="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, p. 973.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_339_339" id="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> From Mi-son, date 1157 A.D. See <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, pp. +961 and 963.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_340_340" id="Footnote_340_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a> = Chinese Mei shan, beautiful mountain. For an account +of the temples and their history see the articles by Parmentier and +Finot, <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, pp. 805-977.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> But contemporary inscriptions have been discovered. +<i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1902, pp. 185 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_342_342" id="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> Doubtless because the capital was transferred to the +south where the shrine of Po-nagar had rival claims.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_343_343" id="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> See especially the article by Parmentier, <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> +1902, pp. 17-54.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_344_344" id="Footnote_344_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a> XXVI <i>Corpus</i>, II. pp. 244, 256; date 918 A.D.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_345_345" id="Footnote_345_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a> Śivamukham: probably a mukhalinga.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_346_346" id="Footnote_346_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a> Also Yäpunagara even in Sanskrit inscriptions.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_347_347" id="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a> Parmentier, <i>l.c.</i> p. 49.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_348_348" id="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a> This is only a very rough description of a rather +complicated structure. For details see Parmentier, <i>Monuments +C̆ams</i>, planche XCVIII.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_349_349" id="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a> Inscrip. at Mi-son of 658 A.D. See <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, +p. 921.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_350_350" id="Footnote_350_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a> Other examples are Indrabhadreśvara, <i>Corpus</i>, II. +p. 208. Harivarmeśvara, <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, p. 961.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_351_351" id="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a> <i>E.g. B.E.F.E.O.</i> pp. 918 ff. Dates 658 A.D. onwards.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_352_352" id="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a> Yogaddhyâna, Śivârâdha, Śivabhakti. See +<i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, pp. 933-950. Harivarman III abdicated in 1080 and +gave himself up to contemplation and devotion to Śiva.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_353_353" id="Footnote_353_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a> See <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, pp. 912 ff. and esp. p. 970. I +have seen a kosha which is still in use in the neighbourhood of +Badami. It is kept in a village called Nandikeśvara, but on certain +festivals it is put on a linga at the temple of Mahakut. It is about 2 +feet high and 10 inches broad; a silver case with a rounded and +ornamented top. On one side is a single face in bold embossed work and +bearing fine moustaches exactly as in the mukhalingas of Champa. In +the tank of the temple of Mahakut is a half submerged shrine, from +which rises a stone linga on which are carved four faces bearing +moustaches. There is said to be a gold kosha set with jewels at +Śringeri. See <i>J. Mythic. Society</i> (Bangalore), vol. VIII. p. 27. +According to Gopinatha Rao, <i>Indian Iconography</i>, vol. II. p. 63, the +oldest known lingas have figures carved on them.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> <i>Corpus</i>, II. pp. 229, 230.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_355_355" id="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a> <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, pp. 959, 960.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_356_356" id="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a> See for an account of same <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1901, p. 18.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_357_357" id="Footnote_357_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_357_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a> <i>Corpus</i>, II. p. 282.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_358_358" id="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a> In several passages Hsüan Chuang notes that there were +Pâśupatas or other Śivaites in the same towns of India where +Sammitiyas were found. See Watters, <i>Yüan Chwang</i>, I. 331, 333; II. +47, 242, 256, 258, 259.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_359_359" id="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a> Maspéro, <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1910, p. 514.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_360_360" id="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a> At Yang Kur. See <i>Corpus</i>, II. pp. 237-241.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_361_361" id="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a> For his views see his inscriptions in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> +1904, pp. 85 ff. But kings who are not known to have been Buddhists +also speak of Dharma. <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, pp. 922, 945.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_362_362" id="Footnote_362_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a> Apparently special forms of deities such as +Śrîśânabhadreśvara or Lakshmînda Lokeśvara were regarded +as to some extent separate existences. Thus the former is called a +portion of Śiva, <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, p. 973.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_363_363" id="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a> Presumably in the form of vessels.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, pp. 973-975.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, p. 975.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_366_366" id="Footnote_366_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a> <i>Ib.</i> 1901, p. 23, and Parmentier, <i>Inventaire des +Monuments Chams</i>, p. 542.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_367_367" id="Footnote_367_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367_367"><span class="label">[367]</span></a> Gabriel de San Antonio, <i>Breve y verdadera relation de +los successes de Reyno de Camboxa</i>, 1604.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_368_368" id="Footnote_368_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368_368"><span class="label">[368]</span></a> See for the modern Chams the article "Chams" in <i>E.R.E. +and Ethics</i>, and Durand, "Les Chams Bani," <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1903, and +"Notes sur les Chams," <i>ib.</i> 1905-7.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_151" id="Page_3_151"></a>[Pg 151]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XL" id="CHAPTER_XL"></a>CHAPTER XL</h2> + +<h3>JAVA AND THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO</h3> + +<h3>1</h3> + + +<p>In most of the countries which we have been considering, the native +civilization of the present day is still Indian in origin, although in +the former territories of Champa this Indian phase has been superseded +by Chinese culture with a little Mohammedanism. But in another area we +find three successive stages of culture, indigenous, Indian and +Mohammedan. This area includes the Malay Peninsula with a large part +of the Malay Archipelago, and the earliest stratum with which we need +concern ourselves is Malay. The people who bear this name are +remarkable for their extraordinary powers of migration by sea, as +shown by the fact that languages connected with Malay are spoken in +Formosa and New Zealand, in Easter Island and Madagascar, but their +originality both in thought and in the arts of life is small. The +three stages are seen most clearly in Java where the population was +receptive and the interior accessible. Sumatra and Borneo also passed +through them in a fashion but the indigenous element is still +predominant and no foreign influence has been able to affect either +island as a whole. Islam gained no footing in Bali which remains +curiously Hindu but it reached Celebes and the southern Philippines, +in both of which Indian influence was slight<a name="FNanchor_369_369" id="FNanchor_369_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_369_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a>. The destiny of +south-eastern Asia with its islands depends on the fact that the tide +of trade and conquest whether Hindu, Moslim or European, flowed from +India or Ceylon to the Malay Peninsula and Java and thence northwards +towards China with a reflux westwards in Champa and Camboja. Burma and +Siam lay outside this track. They received their culture from India +mainly by land and were untouched by Mohammedanism. But the Mohammedan +current <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_152" id="Page_3_152"></a>[Pg 152]</span>which affected the Malays was old and continuous. It +started from Arabia in the early days of the Hijra and had nothing to +do with the Moslim invasions which entered India by land.</p> + +<h3>2</h3> + + +<p>Indian civilization appears to have existed in Java from at least the +fifth century of our era<a name="FNanchor_370_370" id="FNanchor_370_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_370_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a>. Much light has been thrown on its +history of late by the examination of inscriptions and of fairly +ancient literature but the record still remains fragmentary. There are +considerable gaps: the seat of power shifted from one district to +another and at most epochs the whole island was not subject to one +ruler, so that the title king of Java merely indicates a prince +pre-eminent among others doubtfully subordinate to him.</p> + +<p>The name Java is probably the Sanskrit <i>Yava</i> used in the sense of +grain, especially millet. In the Ramayana<a name="FNanchor_371_371" id="FNanchor_371_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_371_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a> the monkeys of Hanuman +are bidden to seek for Sîtâ in various places including Yava-dvîpa, +which contains seven kingdoms and produces gold and silver. Others +translate these last words as referring to another or two other +islands known as Gold and Silver Land. It is probable that the poet +did not distinguish clearly between Java and Sumatra. He goes on to +say that beyond Java is the peak called Śiśira. This is possibly +the same as the Yavakoṭi mentioned in 499 A.D. by the Indian +astronomer Aryabhaṭṭa.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_153" id="Page_3_153"></a>[Pg 153]</span>Since the Ramayana is a product of gradual growth it is not easy +to assign a definite date to this passage, but it is probably not +later than the first or second century A.D. and an early date is +rendered probable by the fact that the Alexandrian Geographer Ptolemy +(<i>c.</i> 130 A.D.) mentions<a name="FNanchor_372_372" id="FNanchor_372_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_372_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> <i>Νῆσος Ἰαβαδίου ἢ Σαβαδίου</i> +and by various notices collected from inscriptions and from Chinese +historians. The annals of the Liang Dynasty (502-556 A.D.) in speaking +of the countries of the Southern Ocean say that in the reign of Hsüan +Ti (73-49 B.C.) the Romans and Indians sent envoys to China by that +route<a name="FNanchor_373_373" id="FNanchor_373_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_373_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a>, thus indicating that the Archipelago was frequented by +Hindus. The same work describes under the name of Lang-ya-hsiu a +country which professed Buddhism and used the Sanskrit language and +states that "the people say that their country was established more +than 400 years ago<a name="FNanchor_374_374" id="FNanchor_374_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a>." Lang-ya-hsiu has been located by some in +Java by others in the Malay Peninsula, but even on the latter +supposition this testimony to Indian influence in the Far East is +still important. An inscription found at Kedah in the Malay Peninsula +is believed to be older than 400 A.D.<a name="FNanchor_375_375" id="FNanchor_375_375"></a><a href="#Footnote_375_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a> No more definite accounts +are forthcoming before the fifth or sixth century. Fa-Hsien<a name="FNanchor_376_376" id="FNanchor_376_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> +relates how in 418 he returned to China from India by sea and "arrived +at a country called Ya-va-di." "In this country" he says "heretics and +Brahmans flourish but the law of Buddha hardly deserves +mentioning<a name="FNanchor_377_377" id="FNanchor_377_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a>." Three inscriptions found in west Java in the +district of Buitenzorg are referred for palæographic reasons to about +400 A.D. They are all in Sanskrit and eulogize a prince named +Pûrṇavarman, who appears to have been a Vishnuite. The name of his +capital is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_154" id="Page_3_154"></a>[Pg 154]</span>deciphered as Narumâ or Tarumâ. In 435 according to the +Liu Sung annals<a name="FNanchor_378_378" id="FNanchor_378_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_378_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a> a king of Ja-va-da named +Shih-li-pa-da-do-a-la-pa-mo sent tribute to China. The king's name +probably represents a Sanskrit title beginning with Śrî-Pâda and it +is noticeable that two footprints are carved on the stones which bear +Pûrṇavarman's inscriptions. Also Sanskrit inscriptions found at +Koetei on the east coast of Borneo and considered to be not later than +the fifth century record the piety and gifts to Brahmans of a King +Mûlavarman and mention his father and grandfather<a name="FNanchor_379_379" id="FNanchor_379_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_379_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a>.</p> + +<p>It follows from these somewhat disjointed facts that the name of +Yava-dvîpa was known in India soon after the Christian era, and that +by the fifth century Hindu or hinduized states had been established in +Java. The discovery of early Sanskrit inscriptions in Borneo and +Champa confirms the presence of Hindus in these seas. The T'ang +annals<a name="FNanchor_380_380" id="FNanchor_380_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_380_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a> speak definitely of Kaling, otherwise called Java, as +lying between Sumatra and Bali and say that the inhabitants have +letters and understand a little astronomy. They further mention the +presence of Arabs and say that in 674 a queen named Sima ascended the +throne and ruled justly.</p> + +<p>But the certain data for Javanese history before the eighth century +are few. For that period we have some evidence from Java itself. An +inscription dated 654 Śaka ( = 732 A.D.) discovered in Kĕdoe +celebrates the praises of a king named Sanjaya, son of King Sanna. It +contains an account of the dedication of a linga, invocations of +Śiva, Brahmâ and Vishṇu, a eulogy of the king's virtue and +learning, and praise of Java. Thus about 700 A.D. there was a Hindu +kingdom in mid Java and this, it would seem, was then the part of the +island most important politically. Buddhist inscriptions of a somewhat +later date (one is of 778 A.D.) have been found in the neighbourhood +of Prambânam. They are written in the Nagari alphabet and record +various pious foundations. A little later again (809 and 840 A.D.) are +the inscriptions found on the Dieng (Dihyang), a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_155" id="Page_3_155"></a>[Pg 155]</span>lonely mountain +plateau on which are several Brahmanic shrines in fair preservation. +There is no record of their builders but the New T'ang Annals say that +the royal residence was called Java but "on the mountains is the +district Lang-pi-ya where the king frequently goes to look at the +sea<a name="FNanchor_381_381" id="FNanchor_381_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a>." This may possibly be a reference to pilgrimages to Dieng. +The inscriptions found on the great monument of Boroboedoer throw no +light on the circumstances of its foundation, but the character of the +writing makes it likely that it was erected about 850 and obviously by +a king who could command the services of numerous workmen as well as +of skilled artists. The temples of Prambânam are probably to be +assigned to the next century. All these buildings indicate the +existence from the eighth to the tenth century of a considerable +kingdom (or perhaps kingdoms) in middle Java, comprising at least the +regions of Mataram, Kĕdoe and the Dieng plateau. From the Arabic +geographers also we learn that Java was powerful in the ninth century +and attacked Qamar (probably Khmer or Camboja). They place the capital +at the mouth of a river, perhaps the Solo or Brantas. If so, there +must have been a principality in east Java at this period. This is not +improbable for archæological evidence indicates that Hindu +civilization moved eastwards and flourished first in the west, then in +mid Java and finally from the ninth to the fifteenth centuries in the +east.</p> + +<p>The evidence at our disposal points to the fact that Java received +most of its civilization from Hindu colonists, but who were these +colonists and from what part of India did they come? We must not think +of any sudden and definite conquest, but rather of a continuous +current of immigration starting perhaps from several springs and often +merely trickling, but occasionally swelling into a flood. Native +traditions collected by Raffles<a name="FNanchor_382_382" id="FNanchor_382_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_382_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> ascribe the introduction of +Brahmanism and the Śaka era to the sage Tritresta and represent the +invaders as coming from Kalinga or from Gujarat.</p> + +<p>The difference of locality may be due to the fact that there was a +trade route running from Broach to Masulipatam through Tagara (now +Ter). People arriving in the Far East by this route might be described +as coming either from Kalinga, where they <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_156" id="Page_3_156"></a>[Pg 156]</span>embarked, or from +Gujarat, their country of origin. Dubious as is the authority of these +legends, they perhaps preserve the facts in outline. The earliest +Javanese inscriptions are written in a variety of the Vengi script and +the T'ang annals call the island Kaling as well as Java. It is +therefore probable that early tradition represented Kalinga as the +home of the Hindu invaders. But later immigrants may have come from +other parts. Fa-Hsien could find no Buddhists in Java in 418, but +Indian forms of Mahayanism indubitably flourished there in later +centuries. The Kalasan inscription dated 778 A.D. and engraved in +Nâgari characters records the erection of a temple to Târâ and of a +Mahayanist monastery. The change in both alphabet and religion +suggests the arrival of new influences from another district and the +Javanese traditions about Gujarat are said to find an echo among the +bards of western India and in such proverbs as, they who go to Java +come not back<a name="FNanchor_383_383" id="FNanchor_383_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_383_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a>. In the period of the Hunnish and Arab invasions +there may have been many motives for emigration from Gujarat. The land +route to Kalinga was probably open and the sea route offers no great +difficulties<a name="FNanchor_384_384" id="FNanchor_384_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a>.</p> + +<p>Another indication of connection with north-western India is found in +the Chinese work <i>Kao Sêng Chuan</i> (519 A.D.) or <i>Biographies of +Eminent Monks</i>, if the country there called Shê-p'o can be identified +with Java<a name="FNanchor_385_385" id="FNanchor_385_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_385_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a>. It is related that Guṇavarman, son of the king of +Kashmir, became a monk and, declining the throne, went first to Ceylon +and then to the kingdom of Shê-p'o, which he converted to Buddhism. He +died at Nanking in 431 B.C.</p> + +<p>Târanâtha<a name="FNanchor_386_386" id="FNanchor_386_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_386_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a> states that Indo-China which he calls the Koki +country<a name="FNanchor_387_387" id="FNanchor_387_387"></a><a href="#Footnote_387_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a>, was first evangelized in the time of Asoka and that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_157" id="Page_3_157"></a>[Pg 157]</span>Mahayanism was introduced there by the disciples of Vasubandhu, +who probably died about 360 A.D., so that the activity of his +followers would take place in the fifth century. He also says that +many clergy from the Koki country were in Madhyadeśa from the time +of Dharmapâla (about 800 A.D.) onwards, and these two statements, if +they can be accepted, certainly explain the character of Javanese and +Cambojan Buddhism. Târanâtha is a confused and untrustworthy writer, +but his statement about the disciples of Vasubandhu is confirmed by +the fact that Dignâga, who was one of them, is the only authority +cited in the Kamahâyânikan<a name="FNanchor_388_388" id="FNanchor_388_388"></a><a href="#Footnote_388_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a>.</p> + +<p>The fact that the terms connected with rice cultivation are Javanese +and not loan-words indicates that the island had some indigenous +civilization when the Hindus first settled there. Doubtless they often +came with military strength, but on the whole as colonists and +teachers rather than as conquerors. The Javanese kings of whom we know +most appear to have been not members of Hindu dynasties but native +princes who had adopted Hindu culture and religion. Sanskrit did not +oust Javanese as the language of epigraphy, poetry and even religious +literature. Javanese Buddhism appears to have preserved its powers of +growth and to have developed some special doctrines. But Indian +influence penetrated almost all institutions and is visible even +to-day. Its existence is still testified to by the alphabet in use, by +such titles as Arjo, Radja, Praboe, Dipati ( = adhipati), and by various +superstitions about lucky days and horoscopes. Communal land tenure of +the Indian kind still exists and in former times grants of land were +given to priests and, as in India, recorded on copper plates. +Offerings to old statues are still made and the Tenggerese<a name="FNanchor_389_389" id="FNanchor_389_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_389_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a> are +not even nominal Mohammedans. The Balinese still profess a species of +Hinduism and employ a Hindu Calendar.</p> + +<p>From the tenth century onwards the history of Java becomes a little +plainer.</p> + +<p>Copper plates dating from about 900 A.D. mention Mataram. A certain +Mpoe Sindok was vizier of this kingdom in 919, but ten years later we +find him an independent king in east Java. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_158" id="Page_3_158"></a>[Pg 158]</span>He lived at least +twenty-five years longer and his possessions included Pasoeroean, +Soerabaja and Kediri. His great-grandson, Er-langga (or Langghya), is +an important figure. Er-langga's early life was involved in war, but +in 1032 he was able to call himself, though perhaps not with great +correctness, king of all Java. His memory has not endured among the +Javanese but is still honoured in the traditions of Bali and Javanese +literature began in his reign or a little earlier. The poem +Arjuna-vivâha is dedicated to him, and one book of the old Javanese +prose translation of the Mahabharata bears a date equivalent to 996 +A.D.<a name="FNanchor_390_390" id="FNanchor_390_390"></a><a href="#Footnote_390_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a></p> + +<p>One of the national heroes of Java is Djajabaja<a name="FNanchor_391_391" id="FNanchor_391_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_391_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a> who is supposed +to have lived in the ninth century. But tradition must be wrong here, +for the free poetic rendering of part of the Mahabharata called +Bhârata-Yuddha, composed by Mpoe Sĕdah in 1157 A.D., is dedicated +to him, and his reign must therefore be placed later than the +traditional date. He is said to have founded the kingdom of Daha in +Kediri, but his inscriptions merely indicate that he was a worshipper +of Vishṇu. Literature and art flourished in east Java at this +period for it would seem that the Kawi Ramayana and an <i>ars poetica</i> +called Vṛitta-sañcaya<a name="FNanchor_392_392" id="FNanchor_392_392"></a><a href="#Footnote_392_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a> were written about 1150 and that the +temple of Panataran was built between 1150 and 1175.</p> + +<p>In western Java we have an inscription of 1030 found on the river +Tjitjatih. It mentions a prince who is styled Lord of the World and +native tradition, confirmed by inscriptions, which however give few +details, relates that in the twelfth century a kingdom called +Padjadjaran was founded in the Soenda country south of Batavia by +princes from Toemapĕl in eastern Java.</p> + +<p>There is a gap in Javanese history from the reign of Djajabaja till +1222 at which date the Pararaton<a name="FNanchor_393_393" id="FNanchor_393_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_393_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a>, or Book of the Kings of +Toemapĕl and Madjapahit, begins to furnish information. The Sung +annals<a name="FNanchor_394_394" id="FNanchor_394_394"></a><a href="#Footnote_394_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a> also give some account of the island but it is not +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_159" id="Page_3_159"></a>[Pg 159]</span>clear to what years their description refers. They imply, however, +that there was an organized government and that commerce was +flourishing. They also state that the inhabitants "pray to the gods +and Buddha": that Java was at war with eastern Sumatra: that embassies +were sent to China in 992 and 1109 and that in 1129 the Emperor gave +the ruler of Java (probably Djajabaja) the title of king.</p> + +<p>The Pararaton opens with the fall of Daha in 1222 which made +Toemapĕl, known later as Singasari, the principal kingdom. Five of +its kings are enumerated, of whom Vishṇuvardhana was buried in the +celebrated shrine of Tjandi Djago, where he was represented in the +guise of Buddha. His successor Śrî Râjasanâgara was praised by the +poet Prapantja<a name="FNanchor_395_395" id="FNanchor_395_395"></a><a href="#Footnote_395_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> as a zealous Buddhist but was known by the +posthumous name of Śivabuddha. He was the first to use the name of +Singasâri and perhaps founded a new city, but the kingdom of +Toemapĕl came to an end in his reign for he was slain by Djaja +Katong<a name="FNanchor_396_396" id="FNanchor_396_396"></a><a href="#Footnote_396_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a>, prince of Daha, who restored to that kingdom its previous +primacy, but only for a short time, since it was soon supplanted by +Madjapahit. The foundation of this state is connected with a Chinese +invasion of Java, related at some length in the Yüan annals<a name="FNanchor_397_397" id="FNanchor_397_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_397_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a>, so +that we are fortunate in possessing a double and fairly consistent +account of what occurred.</p> + +<p>We learn from these sources that some time after Khubilai Khan had +conquered China, he sent missions to neighbouring countries to demand +tribute. The Javanese had generally accorded a satisfactory reception +to Chinese missions, but on this occasion the king (apparently Djaja +Katong) maltreated the envoy and sent him back with his face cut or +tattooed. Khubilai could not brook this outrage and in 1292 +despatched a punitive expedition. At that time Raden Vidjaja, the +son-in-law of Kĕrtanagara, had not submitted to Djaja Katong and +held out at Madjapahit, a stronghold which he had founded near the +river Brantas. He offered his services to the Chinese and after a two +months' campaign Daha was captured and Djaja Katong killed. Raden +Vidjaja now found that he no longer <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_160" id="Page_3_160"></a>[Pg 160]</span>needed his Chinese allies. He +treacherously massacred some and prepared to fight the rest. But the +Mongol generals, seeing the difficulties of campaigning in an unknown +country without guides, prudently returned to their master and +reported that they had taken Daha and killed the insolent king.</p> + +<p>Madjapahit (or Wilwatikta) now became the premier state of Java, and +had some permanency. Eleven sovereigns, including three queens, are +enumerated by the Pararaton until its collapse in 1468. We learn from +the Ming annals and other Chinese documents<a name="FNanchor_398_398" id="FNanchor_398_398"></a><a href="#Footnote_398_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> that it had +considerable commercial relations with China and sent frequent +missions: also that Palembang was a vassal of Java. But the general +impression left by the Pararaton is that during the greater part of +its existence Madjapahit was a distracted and troubled kingdom. In +1403, as we know from both Chinese and Javanese sources, there began a +great war between the western and eastern kingdoms, that is between +Madjapahit and Balambangan in the extreme east, and in the fifteenth +century there was twice an interregnum. Art and literature, though not +dead, declined and events were clearly tending towards a break-up or +revolution. This appears to have been consummated in 1468, when the +Pararaton simply says that King Paṇḍansalas III left the +<i>Kraton</i>, or royal residence.</p> + +<p>It is curious that the native traditions as to the date and +circumstances in which Madjapahit fell should be so vague, but perhaps +the end of Hindu rule in Java was less sudden and dramatic than we are +inclined to think. Islam had been making gradual progress and its last +opponents were kings only in title. The Chinese mention the presence +of Arabs in the seventh century, and the geography called <i>Ying-yai +Shêng-lan</i> (published in 1416), which mentions Grissé, Soerabaja and +Madjapahit as the principal towns of Java, divides the inhabitants +into three classes: (<i>a</i>) Mohammedans who have come from the west, +"their dress and food is clean and proper"; (<i>b</i>) the Chinese, who are +also cleanly and many of whom are Mohammedans; (<i>c</i>) the natives who +are ugly and uncouth, devil-worshippers, filthy in food and habits. As +the Chinese do not generally speak so severely of the hinduized +Javanese it would appear that Hinduism lasted longest among the lower +and more savage <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_161" id="Page_3_161"></a>[Pg 161]</span>classes, and that the Moslims stood on a higher +level. As in other countries, the Arabs attempted to spread Islam from +the time of their first appearance. At first they confined their +propaganda to their native wives and dependents. Later we hear of +veritable apostles of Islam such as Malik Ibrahim, and Raden Rahmat, +the ruler of a town called Ampel<a name="FNanchor_399_399" id="FNanchor_399_399"></a><a href="#Footnote_399_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a> which became the head quarter of +Islam. The princes whose territory lay round Madjapahit were gradually +converted and the extinction of the last Hindu kingdom became +inevitable<a name="FNanchor_400_400" id="FNanchor_400_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a>.</p> + +<h3>3</h3> + + +<p>It is remarkable that the great island of Sumatra, which seems to lie +in the way of anyone proceeding from India eastwards and is close to +the Malay peninsula, should in all ages have proved less accessible to +invaders coming from the west than the more distant Java. Neither +Hindus, Arabs nor Europeans have been able to establish their +influence there in the same thorough manner. The cause is probably to +be found in its unhealthy and impenetrable jungles, but even so its +relative isolation remains singular.</p> + +<p>It does not appear that any prince ever claimed to be king of all +Sumatra. For the Hindu period we have no indigenous literature and our +scanty knowledge is derived from a few statues and inscriptions and +from notices in Chinese writings. The latter do not refer to the +island as a whole but to several states such as Indragiri near the +Equator and Kandali (afterwards called San-bo-tsai, the Sabaza of the +Arabs) near Palembang. The annals of the Liang dynasty say that the +customs of Kandali were much the same as those of Camboja and +apparently we are to understand that the country was Buddhist, for one +king visited the Emperor Wu-ti in a dream, and his son addressed a +letter to His Majesty eulogizing his devotion to Buddhism. Kandali is +said to have sent three envoys to China between 454 and 519.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_162" id="Page_3_162"></a>[Pg 162]</span>The Chinese pilgrim I-Ching<a name="FNanchor_401_401" id="FNanchor_401_401"></a><a href="#Footnote_401_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a> visited Sumatra twice, once for +two months in 672 and subsequently for some years (about 688-695). He +tells us that in the islands of the Southern Sea, "which are more than +ten countries," Buddhism flourishes, the school almost universally +followed being the Mûlasarvâstivâda, though the Sammitîyas and other +schools have a few adherents. He calls the country where he sojourned +and to which these statements primarily refer, Bhoja or Śrîbhoja +(Fo-shih or Shih-li-fo-shih), adding that its former name was Malayu. +It is conjectured that Shih-li-fo-shih is the place later known as +San-bo-tsai<a name="FNanchor_402_402" id="FNanchor_402_402"></a><a href="#Footnote_402_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> and Chinese authors seem to consider that both this +place and the earlier Kandali were roughly speaking identical with +Palembang. I-Ching tells us that the king of Bhoja favoured Buddhism +and that there were more than a thousand priests in the city. Gold was +abundant and golden flowers were offered to the Buddha. There was +communication by ship with both India and China. The Hinayana, he +says, was the form of Buddhism adopted "except in Malayu, where there +are a few who belong to the Mahayana." This is a surprising statement, +but it is impossible to suppose that an expert like I-Ching can have +been wrong about what he actually saw in Śrîbhoja. So far as his +remarks apply to Java they must be based on hearsay and have less +authority, but the sculptures of Boroboedoer appear to show the +influence of Mûlasarvâstivâdin literature. It must be remembered that +this school, though nominally belonging to the Hinayana, came to be +something very different from the Theravâda of Ceylon.</p> + +<p>The Sung annals and subsequent Chinese writers know the same district +(the modern Palembang) as San-bo-tsai (which may indicate either mere +change of name or the rise of a new city) and say that it sent +twenty-one envoys between 960 and 1178. The real object of these +missions was to foster trade and there was evidently frequent +intercourse between eastern Sumatra, Champa and China. Ultimately the +Chinese seem to have thought that the entertainment of Sumatran +diplomatists cost more than they were worth, for in 1178 the emperor +ordered that they should not come to Court but present themselves in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_163" id="Page_3_163"></a>[Pg 163]</span>the province of Fu-kien. The Annals state that Sanskrit writing +was in use at San-bo-tsai and lead us to suppose that the country was +Buddhist. They mention several kings whose names or titles seem to +begin with the Sanskrit word Śrî<a name="FNanchor_403_403" id="FNanchor_403_403"></a><a href="#Footnote_403_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a>. In 1003 the envoys reported +that a Buddhist temple had been erected in honour of the emperor and +they received a present of bells for it. Another envoy asked for +dresses to be worn by Buddhist monks. The Ming annals also record +missions from San-bo-tsai up to 1376, shortly after which the region +was conquered by Java and the town decayed<a name="FNanchor_404_404" id="FNanchor_404_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_404_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a>. In the fourteenth +century Chinese writers begin to speak of Su-mên-ta-la or Sumatra by +which is meant not the whole island but a state in the northern part +of it called Samudra and corresponding to Atjeh<a name="FNanchor_405_405" id="FNanchor_405_405"></a><a href="#Footnote_405_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a>. It had relations +with China and the manners and customs of its inhabitants are said to +be the same as in Malacca, which probably means that they were +Moslims.</p> + +<p>Little light is thrown on the history of Sumatra by indigenous or +Javanese monuments. Those found testify, as might be expected, to the +existence here and there of both Brahmanism and Buddhism. In 1343 a +Sumatran prince named Adityavarman, who was apparently a vassal of +Madjapahit, erected an image of Manjuśrî at Tjandi Djago and in +1375 one of Amoghapâśa.</p> + +<h3>4</h3> + + +<p>The Liang and T'ang annals both speak of a country called Po-li, +described as an island lying to the south-east of Canton. Groeneveldt +identified it with Sumatra, but the account of its position suggests +that it is rather to be found in Borneo, parts of which were +undoubtedly known to the Chinese as Po-lo and Pu-ni<a name="FNanchor_406_406" id="FNanchor_406_406"></a><a href="#Footnote_406_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a>. The Liang +annals state that Po-li sent an embassy to the Emperor Wu-ti in 518 +bearing a letter which described the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_164" id="Page_3_164"></a>[Pg 164]</span>country as devoted to +Buddhism and frequented by students of the three vehicles. If the +letter is an authentic document the statements in it may still be +exaggerations, for the piety of Wu-ti was well known and it is clear +that foreign princes who addressed him thought it prudent to represent +themselves and their subjects as fervent Buddhists. But there +certainly was a Hindu period in Borneo, of which some tradition +remains among the natives<a name="FNanchor_407_407" id="FNanchor_407_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_407_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a>, although it ended earlier and left +fewer permanent traces than in Java and elsewhere.</p> + +<p>The most important records of this period are three Sanskrit +inscriptions found at Koetei on the east coast of Borneo<a name="FNanchor_408_408" id="FNanchor_408_408"></a><a href="#Footnote_408_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a>. They +record the donations made to Brahmans by King Mûlavarman, son of +Aśvavarman and grandson of Kuṇḍagga. They are not dated, but +Kern considers for palæographical reasons that they are not later than +the fifth century. Thus, since three generations are mentioned, it is +probable that about 400 A.D. there were Hindu princes in Borneo. The +inscriptions testify to the existence of Hinduism there rather than of +Buddhism: in fact the statements in the Chinese annals are the only +evidence for the latter. But it is most interesting to find that these +annals give the family name of the king of Poli as +Kauṇḍinya<a name="FNanchor_409_409" id="FNanchor_409_409"></a><a href="#Footnote_409_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a> which no doubt corresponds to the Kuṇḍagga +of the Koetei inscription. At least one if not two of the Hindu +invaders of Camboja bore this name, and we can hardly be wrong in +supposing that members of the same great family became princes in +different parts of the Far East. One explanation of their presence in +Borneo would be that they went thither from Camboja, but we have no +record of expeditions from Camboja and if adventurers started thence +it is not clear why they went to the <i>east</i> coast of Borneo. It would +be less strange if Kaundinyas emigrating from Java reached both +Camboja and Koetei. It is noticeable that in Java, Koetei, Champa and +Camboja alike royal names end in <i>varman</i>.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_165" id="Page_3_165"></a>[Pg 165]</span></p> + +<h3>5</h3> + + +<p>The architectural monuments of Java are remarkable for their size, +their number and their beauty. Geographically they fall into two chief +groups, the central (Boroboedoer, Prambanan, Dieng plateau, etc.) in +or near the kingdom of Mataram and the eastern (Tjandi Djago, +Singasari, Panataran, etc.) lying not at the extremity of the island +but chiefly to the south of Soerabaja. No relic of antiquity deserving +to be called a monument has been found in western Java for the records +left by Pûrnavarman (<i>c</i>. 400 A.D.) are merely rocks bearing +inscriptions and two footprints, as a sign that the monarch's +triumphal progress is compared to the three steps of Vishṇu.</p> + +<p>The earliest dated (779 A.D.) monument in mid Java, Tjandi Kalasan, is +Buddhist and lies in the plain of Prambanan. It is dedicated to Târâ +and is of a type common both in Java and Champa, namely a chapel +surmounted by a tower. In connection with it was erected the +neighbouring building called Tjandi Sari, a two-storied monastery for +Mahayanist monks. Not far distant is Tjandi Sevu, which superficially +resembles the 450 Pagodas of Mandalay, for it consists of a central +cruciform shrine surrounded by about 240 smaller separate chapels, +everyone of which, apparently, contained the statue of a Dhyâni +Buddha. Other Buddhist buildings in the same region are Tjandi +Plaosan, and the beautiful chapel known as Tjandi Mendut in which are +gigantic seated images of the Buddha, Manjuśrî and Avalokita. The +face of the last named is perhaps the most exquisite piece of work +ever wrought by the chisel of a Buddhist artist.</p> + +<p>It is not far from Mendut to Boroboedoer, which deserves to be +included in any list of the wonders of the world. This celebrated +stûpa—for in essence it is a highly ornamented stûpa with galleries +of sculpture rising one above the other on its sides—has been often +described and can be described intelligibly only at considerable +length. I will therefore not attempt to detail or criticize its +beauties but will merely state some points which are important for our +purpose.</p> + +<p>It is generally agreed that it must have been built about 850 A.D., +but obviously the construction lasted a considerable time and there +are indications that the architects altered their original plan. The +unknown founder must have been a powerful <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_166" id="Page_3_166"></a>[Pg 166]</span>and prosperous king for +no one else could have commanded the necessary labour. The stûpa shows +no sign of Brahmanic influence. It is purely Buddhist and built for +purposes of edification. The worshippers performed pradakshiṇâ by +walking round the galleries, one after the other, and as they did so +had an opportunity of inspecting some 2000 reliefs depicting the +previous births of Śakyamuni, his life on earth and finally the +mysteries of Mahayanist theology. As in Indian pilgrim cities, temple +guides were probably ready to explain the pictures.</p> + +<p>The selection of reliefs is not due to the artists' fancy but aims at +illustrating certain works. Thus the scenes of the Buddha's life +reproduce in stone the story of the Lalita Vistara<a name="FNanchor_410_410" id="FNanchor_410_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> and the Jâtaka +pictures are based on the Divyâvadâna. It is interesting to find that +both these works are connected with the school of the +Mûlasarvâstivâdins, which according to I-Ching was the form of +Buddhism prevalent in the archipelago. In the third gallery the figure +of Maitreya is prominent and often seems to be explaining something to +a personage who accompanies him. As Maitreya is said to have revealed +five important scriptures to Asaṇga, and as there is a tradition +that the east of Asia was evangelized by the disciples of Asaṇga or +Vasubandhu, it is possible that the delivery and progress of +Maitreya's revelation is here depicted. The fourth gallery seems to +deal with the five superhuman Buddhas<a name="FNanchor_411_411" id="FNanchor_411_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_411_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a>, their paradises and other +supra-mundane matters, but the key to this series of sculptures has +not yet been found. It is probable that the highest storey proved to +be too heavy in its original form and that the central dagoba had to +be reduced lest it should break the substructure. But it is not known +what image or relic was preserved in this dagoba. Possibly it was +dedicated to Vairocana who was regarded as the Supreme Being and +All-God by some Javanese Buddhists<a name="FNanchor_412_412" id="FNanchor_412_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_412_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a>.</p> + +<p>The creed here depicted in stone seems to be a form of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_167" id="Page_3_167"></a>[Pg 167]</span>Mahayanism. +Śâkyamuni is abundantly honoured but there is no representation of +his death. This may be because the Lalita Vistara treats only of his +early career, but still the omission is noteworthy. In spite of the +importance of Śâkyamuni, a considerable if mysterious part is +played by the five superhuman Buddhas, and several Bodhisattvas, +especially Maitreya, Avalokita and Manjuśrî. In the celestial +scenes we find numerous Bodhisattvas both male and female, yet the +figures are hardly Tantric and there is no sign that any of the +personages are Brahmanic deities.</p> + +<p>Yet the region was not wholly Buddhist. Not far from Boroboedoer and +apparently of about the same age is the Sivaite temple of Banon, and +the great temple group of Prambanam is close to Kalasan and to the +other Buddhist shrines mentioned above. It consists of eight temples +of which four are dedicated to Brahmâ, Śiva, Vishṇu and Nandi +respectively, the purpose of the others being uncertain. The largest +and most decorated is that dedicated to Śiva, containing four +shrines in which are images of the god as Mahâdeva and as Guru, of +Ganeśa and of Durgâ. The balustrade is ornamented with a series of +reliefs illustrating the Ramayana. These temples, which appear to be +entirely Brahmanic, approach in style the architecture of eastern Java +and probably date from the tenth century, that is about a century +later than the Buddhist monuments. But there is no tradition or other +evidence of a religious revolution.</p> + +<p>The temples on the Dieng plateau are also purely Brahmanic and +probably older, for though we have no record of their foundation, an +inscribed stone dated 800 A.D. has been found in this district. The +plateau which is 6500 feet high was approached by paved roads or +flights of stairs on one of which about 4000 steps still remain. +Originally there seem to have been about 40 buildings on the plateau +but of these only eight now exist besides several stone foundations +which supported wooden structures. The place may have been a temple +city analogous to Girnar or Śatrunjaya, but it appears to have been +deserted in the thirteenth century, perhaps in consequence of volcanic +activity. The Dieng temples are named after the heroes of the +Mahabharata (Tjandi Ardjuno, Tjandi Bimo, etc.), but these appear to +be late designations. They are rectangular towerlike <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_168" id="Page_3_168"></a>[Pg 168]</span>shrines with +porches and a single cellule within. Figures of Brahma, Śiva and +Vishṇu have been discovered, as well as spouts to carry off the +libation water.</p> + +<p>Before leaving mid Java I should perhaps mention the relatively modern +(1435-1440 A.D.) temples of Suku. I have not seen these buildings, but +they are said to be coarse in execution and to indicate that they were +used by a debased sect of Vishṇuites. Their interest lies in the +extraordinary resemblance which they bear to the temples of Mexico and +Yucatan, a resemblance "which no one can fail to observe, though no +one has yet suggested any hypothesis to account for it<a name="FNanchor_413_413" id="FNanchor_413_413"></a><a href="#Footnote_413_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a>."</p> + +<p>The best known and probably the most important monuments of eastern +Java are Panataran, Tjandi Djago and Tjandi Singasari<a name="FNanchor_414_414" id="FNanchor_414_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_414_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a>.</p> + +<p>The first is considered to date from about 1150 A.D. It is practically +a three-storied pyramid with a flat top. The sides of the lowest +storey are ornamented with a series of reliefs illustrating portions +of the Ramayana, local legends and perhaps the exploits of Krishna, +but this last point is doubtful<a name="FNanchor_415_415" id="FNanchor_415_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_415_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a>. This temple seems to indicate +the same stage of belief as Prambanam. It shows no trace of Buddhism +and though Śiva was probably the principal deity, the scenes +represented in its sculptures are chiefly Vishṇuite.</p> + +<p>Tjandi Djago is in the province of Pasoeroean. According to the +Pararaton and the Nâgarakrĕtâgama<a name="FNanchor_416_416" id="FNanchor_416_416"></a><a href="#Footnote_416_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a>, Vishṇuvardhana, king of +Toemapĕl, was buried there. As he died in 1272 or 1273 A.D. and the +temple was already in existence, we may infer that it dates from at +least 1250. He was represented there in the form of Sugata (that is +the Buddha) and at Waleri in the form of Śiva. Here we have the +custom known also in Champa and Camboja of a deceased king being +represented by a statue with his own features but the attributes of +his tutelary deity. It is strange that a king named after Vishṇu +should be portrayed in the guise of Śiva and Buddha. But in spite +of this impartiality, the cult practised at Tjandi Djago seems to have +been not a mixture but Buddhism of a late Mahayanist type. It was +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_169" id="Page_3_169"></a>[Pg 169]</span>doubtless held that Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are identical with +Brahmanic deities, but the fairly numerous pantheon discovered in or +near the ruins consists of superhuman Buddhas and Bodhisattvas with +their spouses<a name="FNanchor_417_417" id="FNanchor_417_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_417_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a>.</p> + +<p>In form Tjandi Djago has somewhat the appearance of a three-storied +pyramid but the steps leading up to the top platform are at one end +only and the shrine instead of standing in the centre of the platform +is at the end opposite to the stairs. The figures in the reliefs are +curiously square and clumsy and recall those of Central America.</p> + +<p>Tjandi Singasari, also in the province of Pasoeroean, is of a +different form. It is erected on a single low platform and consists of +a plain rectangular building surmounted by five towers such as are +also found in Cambojan temples. There is every reason to believe that +it was erected in 1278 A.D. in the reign of Krĕtanâgara, the last +king of Toemapĕl, and that it is the temple known as +Śiva-buddhâlaya in which he was commemorated under the name of +Śiva-buddha. An inscription found close by relates that in 1351 +A.D. a shrine was erected on behalf of the royal family in memory of +those who died with the king<a name="FNanchor_418_418" id="FNanchor_418_418"></a><a href="#Footnote_418_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a>.</p> + +<p>The Nâgarakrĕtagama represents this king as a devout Buddhist but +his very title Śivabuddha shows how completely Sivaism and Buddhism +were fused in his religion. The same work mentions a temple in which +the lower storey was dedicated to Śiva and the upper to Akshobhya: +it also leads us to suppose that the king was honoured as an +incarnation of Akshobhya even during his life and was consecrated as a +Jina under the name of Śrîjnânabajreśvara<a name="FNanchor_419_419" id="FNanchor_419_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a>. The Singasari +temple is less ornamented with reliefs than the others described but +has furnished numerous statues of excellent workmanship which +illustrate the fusion of the Buddhist and Sivaite pantheons. On the +one side we have Prajnâpâramitâ, Manjuśrî and Târâ, on the other +Ganeśa, the Linga, Śiva in various forms (Guru, Nandîsvara, +Mahâkâla, etc.), Durgâ and Brahmâ. Not only is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_170" id="Page_3_170"></a>[Pg 170]</span>the Sivaite element +predominant but the Buddhist figures are concerned less with the +veneration of the Buddha than with accessory mythology.</p> + +<p>Javanese architecture and sculpture are no doubt derived from India, +but the imported style, whatever it may have been, was modified by +local influences and it seems impossible at present to determine +whether its origin should be sought on the eastern or western side of +India. The theory that the temples on the Dieng plateau are Chalukyan +buildings appears to be abandoned but they and many others in Java +show a striking resemblance to the shrines found in Champa. Javanese +architecture is remarkable for the complete absence not only of +radiating arches but of pillars, and consequently of large halls. This +feature is no doubt due to the ever present danger of earthquakes. +Many reliefs, particularly those of Panataran, show the influence of a +style which is not Indian and may be termed, though not very +correctly, Polynesian. The great merit of Javanese sculpture lies in +the refinement and beauty of the faces. Among figures executed in +India it would be hard to find anything equal in purity and delicacy +to the Avalokita of Mendut, the Manjuśri now in the Berlin Museum +or the Prajñâpâramitâ now at Leyden.</p> + +<h3>6</h3> + + +<p>From the eleventh century until the end of the Hindu period Java can +show a considerable body of literature, which is in part theological. +It is unfortunate that no books dating from an earlier epoch should be +extant. The sculptures of Prambanam and Boroboedoer clearly presuppose +an acquaintance with the Ramayana, the Lalita Vistara and other +Buddhist works but, as in Camboja, this literature was probably known +only in the original Sanskrit and only to the learned. But it is not +unlikely that the Javanese adaptations of the Indian epics which have +come down to us were preceded by earlier attempts which have +disappeared.</p> + +<p>The old literary language of Java is commonly known as Båså Kawi or +Kawi, that is the language of poetry<a name="FNanchor_420_420" id="FNanchor_420_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_420_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a>. It is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_171" id="Page_3_171"></a>[Pg 171]</span>however simply +the predecessor of modern Javanese and many authorities prefer to +describe the language of the island as Old Javanese before the +Madjapahit period, Middle-Javanese during that period and New Javanese +after the fall of Madjapahit. The greater part of this literature +consists of free versions of Sanskrit works or of a substratum in +Sanskrit accompanied by a Javanese explanation. Only a few Javanese +works are original, that is to say not obviously inspired by an Indian +prototype, but on the other hand nearly all of them handle their +materials with freedom and adapt rather than translate what they +borrow.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest works preserved appears to be the Tantoe +Panggĕlaran, a treatise on cosmology in which Indian and native +ideas are combined. It is supposed to have been written about 1000 +A.D. Before the foundation of Madjapahit Javanese literature +flourished especially in the reigns of Erlangga and Djajabaja, that is +in the eleventh and twelfth centuries respectively. About the time of +Erlangga were produced the old prose version of the Mahabharata, in +which certain episodes of that poem are rendered with great freedom +and the poem called Arjuna-vivâha, or the marriage of Arjuna.</p> + +<p>The Bhâratayuddha<a name="FNanchor_421_421" id="FNanchor_421_421"></a><a href="#Footnote_421_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a>, which states that it was composed by Mpoe +Sedah in 1157 by order of Djajabaja, prince of Kediri, is, even more +than the prose version mentioned above, a free rendering of parts of +the Mahabharata. It is perhaps based on an older translation preserved +in Bali<a name="FNanchor_422_422" id="FNanchor_422_422"></a><a href="#Footnote_422_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a>. The Kawi Ramayana was in the opinion of Kern composed +about 1200 A.D. It follows in essentials the story of the Ramayana, +but it was apparently composed by a poet unacquainted with Sanskrit +who drew his knowledge from some native source now unknown<a name="FNanchor_423_423" id="FNanchor_423_423"></a><a href="#Footnote_423_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a>. He +appears to have been a Sivaite. To the eleventh century are also +referred the Smaradahana and the treatise on prosody called +Vrittasañcaya. All this literature is based upon classical Sanskrit +models and is not distinctly Buddhist although the prose version of +the Mahabharata states that it was written for Brahmans, Sivaites and +Buddhists<a name="FNanchor_424_424" id="FNanchor_424_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_424_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a>. Many other translations <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_172" id="Page_3_172"></a>[Pg 172]</span>or adaptations of Sanskrit +work are mentioned, such as the Nîtiśâstra, the Sârasamuccaya, the +Tantri (in several editions), a prose translation of the +Brahmândapurâṇa, together with grammars and dictionaries. The +absence of dates makes it difficult to use these works for the history +of Javanese thought. But it seems clear that during the Madjapahit +epoch, or perhaps even before it, a strong current of Buddhism +permeated Javanese literature, somewhat in contrast with the tone of +the works hitherto cited. Brandes states that the Sutasoma, +Vighnotsava, Kuñjarakarna, Sang Hyang Kamahâyânikan, and Buddhapamutus +are purely Buddhist works and that the Tjantakaparva, Arjunavijaya, +Nâgarakrĕtagama, Wariga and Bubukshah show striking traces of +Buddhism<a name="FNanchor_425_425" id="FNanchor_425_425"></a><a href="#Footnote_425_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a>. Some of these works are inaccessible to me but two of +them deserve examination, the Sang Hyang Kamahâyânikan<a name="FNanchor_426_426" id="FNanchor_426_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> and the +story of Kuñjarakarṇa<a name="FNanchor_427_427" id="FNanchor_427_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_427_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a>. The first is tentatively assigned to +the Madjapahit epoch or earlier, the second with the same caution to +the eleventh century. I do not presume to criticize these dates which +depend partly on linguistic considerations. The Kamahâyânikan is a +treatise (or perhaps extracts from treatises) on Mahayanism as +understood in Java and presumably on the normal form of Mahayanism. +The other work is an edifying legend including an exposition of the +faith by no one less than the Buddha Vairocana. In essentials it +agrees with the Kamahâyânikan but in details it shows either sectarian +influence or the idiosyncrasies of the author.</p> + +<p>The Kamahâyânikan consists of Sanskrit verses explained by a +commentary in old Javanese and is partly in the form of questions and +answers. The only authority whom it cites is Dignâga. It professes to +teach the Mahâyâna and Mantrâyana, which is apparently a misspelling +for Mantrayâna. The emphasis laid on Bajra (that is vajra or dorje), +ghantâ, mudrâ, maṇḍala, mystic syllables, and Devîs marks it as +an offshoot of Tantrism and it offers many parallels to Nepalese +literature. On the other hand it is curious that it uses the form +Nibâṇa not Nirvâṇa<a name="FNanchor_428_428" id="FNanchor_428_428"></a><a href="#Footnote_428_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a>. Its <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_173" id="Page_3_173"></a>[Pg 173]</span>object is to teach a neophyte, +who has to receive initiation, how to become a Buddha<a name="FNanchor_429_429" id="FNanchor_429_429"></a><a href="#Footnote_429_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a>. In the +second part the pupil is addressed as Jinaputra, that is son of the +Buddha or one of the household of faith. He is to be moderate but not +ascetic in food and clothing: he is not to cleave to the Purâṇas +and Tantras but to practise the Pâramitâs. These are defined first as +six<a name="FNanchor_430_430" id="FNanchor_430_430"></a><a href="#Footnote_430_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a> and then four others are added<a name="FNanchor_431_431" id="FNanchor_431_431"></a><a href="#Footnote_431_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a>. Under Prajñâpâramitâ is +given a somewhat obscure account of the doctrine of Śûnyatâ. Then +follows the exposition of Paramaguhya (the highest secret) and +Mahâguhya (the great secret). The latter is defined as being Yoga, the +bhâvanâs, the four noble truths and the ten pâramitâs. The former +explains the embodiment of Bhaṭâra Viśesha, that is to say the +way in which Buddhas, gods and the world of phenomena are evolved from +a primordial principle, called Advaya and apparently equivalent to the +Nepalese Adibuddha<a name="FNanchor_432_432" id="FNanchor_432_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a>. Advaya is the father of Buddha and +Advayajñâna, also called Bharâlî Prajñâpâramitâ, is his mother, but +the Buddha principle at this stage is also called Divarûpa. In the +next stage this Divarûpa takes form as Śâkyamuni, who is regarded +as a superhuman form of Buddhahood rather than as a human teacher, for +he produces from his right and left side respectively Lokeśvara and +Bajrapâni. These beings produce, the first Akshobhya and +Ratnasambhava, the second Amitâbha and Amoghasiddhi, but Vairocana +springs directly from the face of Śâkyamuni. The five superhuman +Buddhas are thus accounted for. From Vairocana spring Iśvara +(Śiva), Brahmâ, and Vishṇu: from them the elements, the human +body and the whole world. A considerable part of the treatise is +occupied with connecting these various emanations of the Advaya with +mystic syllables and in showing how the five Buddhas correspond to the +different skandas, elements, senses, etc. Finally we are told that +there are five Devîs, or female counterparts corresponding in the same +order to the Buddhas named above and called Locanâ, Mâmakî, +Pâṇḍaravâsinî, Târâ and Dhâtvîśvarî. But it is declared that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_174" id="Page_3_174"></a>[Pg 174]</span>the first and last of these are the same and therefore there are +really only four Devîs.</p> + +<p>The legend of Kuñjarakarṇa relates how a devout Yaksha of that name +went to Bodhicitta<a name="FNanchor_433_433" id="FNanchor_433_433"></a><a href="#Footnote_433_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a> and asked of Vairocana instruction in the holy +law and more especially as to the mysteries of rebirth. Vairocana did +not refuse but bade his would-be pupil first visit the realms of Yama, +god of the dead. Kuñjarakarṇa did so, saw the punishments of the +underworld, including the torments prepared for a friend of his, whom +he was able to warn on his return. Yama gave him some explanations +respecting the alternation of life and death and he was subsequently +privileged to receive a brief but more general exposition of doctrine +from Vairocana himself.</p> + +<p>This doctrine is essentially a variety of Indian pantheism but +peculiar in its terminology inasmuch as Vairocana, like Kṛishṇa +in the Bhagavad-gîtâ, proclaims himself to be the All-God and not +merely the chief of the five Buddhas. He quotes with approval the +saying "you are I: I am you" and affirms the identity of Buddhism and +Śivaism. Among the monks<a name="FNanchor_434_434" id="FNanchor_434_434"></a><a href="#Footnote_434_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a> there are no <i>muktas</i> (<i>i.e.</i> none +who have attained liberation) because they all consider as two what is +really one. "The Buddhists say, we are Bauddhas, for the Lord Buddha +is our highest deity: we are not the same as the Śivaites, for the +Lord Śiva is for them the highest deity." The Śivaites are +represented as saying that the five Kuśikas are a development or +incarnations of the five Buddhas. "Well, my son" is the conclusion, +"These are all one: we are Śiva, we are Buddha."</p> + +<p>In this curious exposition the author seems to imply that his doctrine +is different from that of ordinary Buddhists, and to reprimand them +more decidedly than Śivaites. He several times uses the phrase +<i>Namo Bhaṭâra, namaḥ Śivâya</i> (Hail, Lord: hail to Śiva) +yet he can hardly be said to favour the Śivaites on the whole, for +his All-God is Vairocana who once (but only once) receives the title +of Buddha. The doctrine attributed to the Śivaites that the five +Kusikas are identical with the superhuman Buddhas remains +obscure<a name="FNanchor_435_435" id="FNanchor_435_435"></a><a href="#Footnote_435_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a>. These five personages are said to be often mentioned in +old Javanese literature but to be variously <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_175" id="Page_3_175"></a>[Pg 175]</span>enumerated<a name="FNanchor_436_436" id="FNanchor_436_436"></a><a href="#Footnote_436_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a>. They +are identified with the five Indras, but these again are said to be +the five senses (indriyas). Hence we can find a parallel to this +doctrine in the teaching of the Kamahâyânikan that the five Buddhas +correspond to the five senses.</p> + +<p>Two other special theses are enounced in the story of Kuñjarakarṇa. +The first is Vairocana's analysis of a human being, which makes it +consist of five Atmans or souls, called respectively Atman, +Cetanâtman, Parâtman, Nirâtman and Antarâtman, which somehow +correspond to the five elements, five senses and five Skandhas. The +singular list suggests that the author was imperfectly acquainted with +the meaning of the Sanskrit words employed and the whole terminology +is strange in a Buddhist writer. Still in the later Upanishads<a name="FNanchor_437_437" id="FNanchor_437_437"></a><a href="#Footnote_437_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a> +the epithet pancâtmaka is applied to the human body, especially in the +Garbha Upanishad which, like the passage here under consideration, +gives a psychophysiological explanation of the development of an +embryo into a human being.</p> + +<p>The second thesis is put in the mouth of Yama. He states that when a +being has finished his term in purgatory he returns to life in this +world first as a worm or insect, then successively as a higher animal +and a human being, first diseased or maimed and finally perfect. No +parallel has yet been quoted to this account of metempsychosis.</p> + +<p>Thus the Kuñjarakarṇa contains peculiar views which are probably +sectarian or individual. On the other hand their apparent singularity +may be due to our small knowledge of old Javanese literature. Though +other writings are not known to extol Vairocana as being Śiva and +Buddha in one, yet they have no scruple in identifying Buddhist and +Brahmanic deities or connecting them by some system of emanations, as +we have already seen in the Kamahâyânikan. Such an identity is still +more definitely proclaimed in the old Javanese version of the Sutasoma +Jâtaka<a name="FNanchor_438_438" id="FNanchor_438_438"></a><a href="#Footnote_438_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a>. It is called Purushâda-Śânta and was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_176" id="Page_3_176"></a>[Pg 176]</span>composed by +Tantular who lived at Madjapahit in the reign of Râjasanagara +(1350-1389 A.D.). In the Indian original Sutasoma is one of the +previous births of Gotama. But the Javanese writer describes him as an +Avatâra of the Buddha who is Brahmâ, Vishṇu and Iśvara, and he +states that "The Lord Buddha is not different from Śiva the king of +the gods.... They are distinct and they are one. In the Law is no +dualism." The superhuman Buddhas are identified with various Hindu +gods and also with the five senses. Thus Amitâbha is Mahâdeva and +Amoghasiddhi is Vishṇu. This is only a slight variation of the +teaching in the Kamahâyânikan. There Brahmanic deities emanate from +Śâkyamuni through various Bodhisattvas and Buddhas: here the Buddha +spirit is regarded as equivalent to the Hindu Trimûrti and the various +aspects of this spirit can be described in either Brahmanic or +Buddhistic terminology though in reality all Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and +gods are one. But like the other authors quoted, Tantular appears to +lean to the Buddhist side of these equations, especially for didactic +purposes. For instance he says that meditation should be guided "by +Lokeśvara's word and Śâkyamuni's spirit."</p> + +<h3>7</h3> + + +<p>Thus it will be seen that if we take Javanese epigraphy, monuments and +literature together with Chinese notices, they to some extent confirm +one another and enable us to form an outline picture, though with many +gaps, of the history of thought and religion in the island. Fa-Hsien +tells us that in 418 A.D. Brahmanism flourished (as is testified by +the inscriptions of Pûrṇavarman) but that the Buddhists were not +worth mentioning. Immediately afterwards, probably in 423, +Guṇavarman is said to have converted Shê-po, if that be Java, to +Buddhism, and as he came from Kashmir he was probably a Sarvâstivâdin. +Other monks are mentioned as having visited the southern seas<a name="FNanchor_439_439" id="FNanchor_439_439"></a><a href="#Footnote_439_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a>. +About 690 I-Ching says that Buddhism of the Mûlasarvâstivâdin school +was flourishing in Sumatra, which he visited, and in the other islands +of the Archipelago. The remarkable series of Buddhist monuments in mid +Java <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_177" id="Page_3_177"></a>[Pg 177]</span>extending from about 779 to 900 A.D. confirms his statement. +But two questions arise. Firstly, is there any explanation of this +sudden efflorescence of Buddhism in the Archipelago, and next, what +was its doctrinal character? If, as Târanâtha says, the disciples of +Vasubandhu evangelized the countries of the East, their influence +might well have been productive about the time of I-Ching's visit. But +in any case during the sixth and seventh centuries religious +travellers must have been continually journeying between India and +China, in both directions, and some of them must have landed in the +Archipelago. At the beginning of the sixth century Buddhism was not +yet decadent in India and was all the fashion in China. It is not +therefore surprising if it was planted in the islands lying on the +route. It may be, as indicated above, that some specially powerful +body of Hindus coming from the region of Gujarat and professing +Buddhism founded in Java a new state.</p> + +<p>As to the character of this early Javanese Buddhism we have the +testimony of I-Ching that it was of the Mûlasarvâstivâdin school and +Hinayanist. He wrote of what he had seen in Sumatra but of what he +knew only by hearsay in Java and his statement offers some +difficulties. Probably Hinayanism was introduced by Guṇavarman but +was superseded by other teachings which were imported from time to +time after they had won for themselves a position in India. For the +temple of Kalasan (A.D. 779) is dedicated to Târâ and the inscription +found there speaks of the Mahayana with veneration. The later Buddhism +of Java has literary records which, so far as I know, are unreservedly +Mahayanist but probably the sculptures of Boroboedoer are the most +definite expression which we shall ever have of its earlier phases. +Since they contain images of the five superhuman Buddhas and of +numerous Bodhisattvas, they can hardly be called anything but +Mahayanist. But on the other hand the personality of Śâkyamuni is +emphasized; his life and previous births are pictured in a long series +of sculptures and Maitreya is duly honoured. Similar collections of +pictures and images may be seen in Burma which differ doctrinally from +those in Java chiefly by substituting the four human Buddhas<a name="FNanchor_440_440" id="FNanchor_440_440"></a><a href="#Footnote_440_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> and +Maitreya for the superhuman Buddhas. But Mahayanist teaching declares +that these human Buddhas are reflexes of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_178" id="Page_3_178"></a>[Pg 178]</span>counterparts of the +superhuman Buddhas so that the difference is not great.</p> + +<p>Mahayanist Buddhism in Camboja and at a later period in Java itself +was inextricably combined with Hinduism, Buddha being either directly +identified with Śiva or regarded as the primordial spirit from +which Śiva and all gods spring. But the sculptures of Boroboedoer +do not indicate that the artists knew of any such amalgamation nor +have inscriptions been found there, as in Camboja, which explain this +compound theology. It would seem that Buddhism and Brahmanism +co-existed in the same districts but had not yet begun to fuse +doctrinally. The same condition seems to have prevailed in western +India during the seventh and eighth centuries, for the Buddhist caves +of Ellora, though situated in the neighbourhood of Brahmanic buildings +and approximating to them in style, contain sculptures which indicate +a purely Buddhist cultus and not a mixed pantheon.</p> + +<p>Our meagre knowledge of Javanese history makes it difficult to +estimate the spheres and relative strength of the two religions. In +the plains the Buddhist monuments are more numerous and also more +ancient and we might suppose that the temples of Prambanan indicate +the beginning of some change in belief. But the temples on the Dieng +plateau seem to be of about the same age as the oldest Buddhist +monuments. Thus nothing refutes the supposition that Brahmanism +existed in Java from the time of the first Hindu colonists and that +Buddhism was introduced after 400 A.D. It may be that Boroboedoer and +the Dieng plateau represent the religious centres of two different +kingdoms. But this supposition is not necessary for in India, whence +the Javanese received their ideas, groups of temples are found of the +same age but belonging to different sects. Thus in the Khajraho +group<a name="FNanchor_441_441" id="FNanchor_441_441"></a><a href="#Footnote_441_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a> some shrines are Jain and of the rest some are dedicated to +Śiva and some to Vishṇu.</p> + +<p>The earliest records of Javanese Brahmanism, the inscriptions of +Pûrnavarman, are Vishnuite but the Brahmanism which prevailed in the +eighth and ninth centuries was in the main Śivaite, though not of a +strongly sectarian type. Brahmâ, Vishṇu and Śiva were all +worshipped both at Prambanan and on the Dieng but Śiva together +with Ganeśa, Durgâ, and Nandi <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_179" id="Page_3_179"></a>[Pg 179]</span>is evidently the chief deity. An +image of Śiva in the form of Bhaṭâra Guru or Mahâguru is +installed in one of the shrines at Prambanan. This deity is +characteristic of Javanese Hinduism and apparently peculiar to it. He +is represented as an elderly bearded man wearing a richly ornamented +costume. There is something in the pose and drapery which recalls +Chinese art and I think the figure is due to Chinese influence, for at +the present day many of the images found in the temples of Bali are +clearly imitated from Chinese models (or perhaps made by Chinese +artists) and this may have happened in earlier times. The Chinese +annals record several instances of religious objects being presented +by the Emperors to Javanese princes. Though Bhaṭâra Guru is only an +aspect of Śiva he is a sufficiently distinct personality to have a +shrine of his own like Ganeśa and Durgâ, in temples where the +principal image of Śiva is of another kind.</p> + +<p>The same type of Brahmanism lasted at least until the erection of +Panataran (c. 1150). The temple appears to have been dedicated to +Śiva but like Prambanan it is ornamented with scenes from the +Ramayana and from Vishnuite Purânas<a name="FNanchor_442_442" id="FNanchor_442_442"></a><a href="#Footnote_442_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a>. The literature which can be +definitely assigned to the reigns of Djajabaja and Erlangga is +Brahmanic in tone but both literature and monuments indicate that +somewhat later there was a revival of Buddhism. Something similar +appears to have happened in other countries. In Camboja the +inscriptions of Jayavarman VII (c. 1185 A.D.) are more definitely +Buddhist than those of his predecessors and in 1296 Chou Ta-kuan +regarded the country as mainly Buddhist. Parakrama Bahu of Ceylon +(1153-1186) was zealous for the faith and so were several kings of +Siam. I am inclined to think that this movement was a consequence of +the flourishing condition of Buddhism at Pagan in Burma from 1050 to +1250. Pagan certainly stimulated religion in both Siam and Ceylon and +Siam reacted strongly on Camboja<a name="FNanchor_443_443" id="FNanchor_443_443"></a><a href="#Footnote_443_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a>. It is true that the later +Buddhism of Java was by no means of the Siamese type, but probably the +idea was current that the great kings of the world were pious +Buddhists and consequently in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_180" id="Page_3_180"></a>[Pg 180]</span>most countries the local form of +Buddhism, whatever it was, began to be held in esteem. Java had +constant communication with Camboja and Champa and a king of +Madjapahit married a princess of the latter country. It is also +possible that a direct stimulus may have been received from India, for +the statement of Târanâtha<a name="FNanchor_444_444" id="FNanchor_444_444"></a><a href="#Footnote_444_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a> that when Bihar was sacked by the +Mohammedans the Buddhist teachers fled to other regions and that some +of them went to Camboja is not improbable.</p> + +<p>But though the prestige of Buddhism increased in the thirteenth +century, no rupture with Brahmanism took place and Pali Buddhism does +not appear to have entered Java. The unity of the two religions is +proclaimed: Buddha and Siva are one. But the Kamahâyânikan while +admitting the Trimûrti makes it a derivative, and not even a primary +derivative, of the original Buddha spirit. It has been stated that the +religion of Java in the Madjapahit epoch was Sivaism with a little +Buddhism thrown in, on the understanding that it was merely another +method of formulating the same doctrine. It is very likely that the +bulk of the population worshipped Hindu deities, for they are the gods +of this world and dispense its good things. Yet the natives still +speak of the old religion as Buddhâgama; the old times are "Buddha +times" and even the flights of stairs leading up to the Dieng plateau +are called Buddha steps. This would hardly be so if in the Madjapahit +epoch Buddha had not seemed to be the most striking figure in the +non-Mohammedan religion. Also, the majority of <i>religious</i> works which +have survived from this period are Buddhist. It is true that we have +the Ramayana, the Bhârata Yuddha and many other specimens of Brahmanic +literature. But these, especially in their Javanese dress, are <i>belles +lettres</i> rather than theology, whereas Kamahâyânikan and Kuñjarakarna +are dogmatic treatises. Hence it would appear that the religious life +of Madjapahit was rooted in Buddhism, but a most tolerant Buddhism +which had no desire to repudiate Brahmanism.</p> + +<p>I have already briefly analysed the Sang Hyang Kamahâyânikan which +seems to be the most authoritative exposition of this creed. The +learned editor has collected many parallels from Tibetan and Nepalese +works and similar parallels between Javanese and Tibetan iconography +have been indicated by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_181" id="Page_3_181"></a>[Pg 181]</span>Pleyte<a name="FNanchor_445_445" id="FNanchor_445_445"></a><a href="#Footnote_445_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a> and others. The explanation +must be that the late forms of Buddhist art and doctrine which +nourished in Magadha spread to Tibet and Nepal but were also +introduced into Java. The Kamahâyânikan appears to be a paraphrase of +a Sanskrit original, perhaps distorted and mutilated. This original +has not been identified with any work known to exist in India but +might well be a Mahayanist catechism composed there about the eleventh +century. The terminology of the treatise is peculiar, particularly in +calling the ultimate principle Advaya and the more personal +manifestation of it Divarûpa. The former term may be paralleled in +Hemacandra and the Amarakosha, which give respectively as synonyms for +Buddha, advaya (in whom is no duality) and advayavâdin (who preaches +no duality), but Divarûpa has not been found in any other work<a name="FNanchor_446_446" id="FNanchor_446_446"></a><a href="#Footnote_446_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a>. +It is also remarkable that the Kamahâyânikan does not teach the +doctrine of the three bodies of Buddha<a name="FNanchor_447_447" id="FNanchor_447_447"></a><a href="#Footnote_447_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a>. It clearly states<a name="FNanchor_448_448" id="FNanchor_448_448"></a><a href="#Footnote_448_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> +that the Divarûpa is identical with the highest being worshipped by +various sects: with Paramaśûnya, Paramaśiva, the Purusha of the +followers of Kapila, the Nirguṇa of the Vishnuites, etc. Many names +of sects and doctrines are mentioned which remain obscure, but the +desire to represent them all as essentially identical is obvious.</p> + +<p>The Kamahâyânikan recognizes the theoretical identity of the highest +principles in Buddhism and Vishnuism<a name="FNanchor_449_449" id="FNanchor_449_449"></a><a href="#Footnote_449_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> but it does not appear that +Vishṇu-Buddha was ever a popular conception like Śiva-Buddha or +that the compound deity called Śiva-Vishṇu, Hari-Hara, +Śaṇkara-Narâyaṇa, etc., so well known in Camboja, enjoyed +much honour in Java, Vishṇu is relegated to a distinctly secondary +position and the Javanese version of the Mahabharata is more +distinctly Śivaite than the Sanskrit text. Still he has a shrine at +Prambanan, the story of the Ramayana is depicted there and at +Panataran, and various <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_182" id="Page_3_182"></a>[Pg 182]</span>unedited manuscripts contain allusions to +his worship, more especially to his incarnation as Narasimha and to +the Garuḍa on which he rides<a name="FNanchor_450_450" id="FNanchor_450_450"></a><a href="#Footnote_450_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a>.</p> + +<h3>8</h3> + + +<p>At present nearly all the inhabitants of Java profess Islam although +the religion of a few tribes, such as the Tenggarese, is still a +mixture of Hinduism with indigenous beliefs. But even among nominal +Moslims some traces of the older creed survive. On festival days such +monuments as Boroboedoer and Prambanan are frequented by crowds who, +if they offer no worship, at least take pleasure in examining the +ancient statues. Some of these however receive more definite honours: +they are painted red and modest offerings of flowers and fruit are +laid before them. Yet the respect shown to particular images seems due +not to old tradition but to modern and wrongheaded interpretations of +their meaning. Thus at Boroboedoer the relief which represents the +good tortoise saving a shipwrecked crew receives offerings from women +because the small figures on the tortoise's back are supposed to be +children. The minor forms of Indian mythology still flourish. All +classes believe in the existence of raksasas, boetas (bhûtas) and +widadaris (vidyâdharîs), who are regarded as spirits similar to the +Jinns of the Arabs. Lakshmî survives in the female genius believed +even by rigid Mohammedans to preside over the cultivation of rice and +the somewhat disreputable sect known as Santri Birahis are said to +adore devas and the forces of nature<a name="FNanchor_451_451" id="FNanchor_451_451"></a><a href="#Footnote_451_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a>. Less obvious, but more +important as more deeply affecting the national character, is the +tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. What is known as +ngelmoe<a name="FNanchor_452_452" id="FNanchor_452_452"></a><a href="#Footnote_452_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a> plays a considerable part in the religious life of the +modern Javanese. The word is simply the Arabic 'ilm (or knowledge) +used in the sense of secret science. It sometimes signifies mere magic +but the higher forms of it, such as the <i>ngelmoe peling</i>, are said +to teach that the contemplative life is the way to the knowledge of +God and the attainment of supernatural powers. With such <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_183" id="Page_3_183"></a>[Pg 183]</span>ngelmoe +is often connected a belief in metempsychosis, in the illusory nature +of the world, and in the efficacy of regulating the breath. Asceticism +is still known under the name of tåpå and it is said that there are +many recluses who live on alms and spend their time in meditation. The +affinity of all this to Indian religion is obvious, although the +Javanese have no idea that it is in any way incompatible with orthodox +Islam.</p> + +<p>Indian religion, which in Java is represented merely by the influence +of the past on the present, is not dead in Bali<a name="FNanchor_453_453" id="FNanchor_453_453"></a><a href="#Footnote_453_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a> where, though +much mixed with aboriginal superstitions, it is still a distinct and +national faith, able to hold its own against Mohammedanism and +Christianity<a name="FNanchor_454_454" id="FNanchor_454_454"></a><a href="#Footnote_454_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a>.</p> + +<p>The island of Bali is divided from the east coast of Java only by a +narrow strait but the inhabitants possess certain characters of their +own. They are more robust in build, their language is distinct from +Javanese though belonging to the same group, and even the alphabet +presents idiosyncrasies. Their laws, social institutions, customs and +calendar show many peculiarities, explicable on the supposition that +they have preserved the ancient usages of pre-Mohammedan Java. At +present the population is divided into the Bali-Agas or aborigines and +the Wong Madjapahit who profess to have immigrated from that kingdom. +The Chinese references<a name="FNanchor_455_455" id="FNanchor_455_455"></a><a href="#Footnote_455_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a> to Bali seem uncertain but, if accepted, +indicate that it was known in the middle ages as a religious centre. +It was probably a colony and dependency of Madjapahit and when +Madjapahit fell it became a refuge for those who were not willing to +accept Islam.</p> + +<p>Caste is still a social institution in Bali, five classes being +recognized, namely Brahmans, Kshatriyas (Satriyas), Vaisyas (Visias), +Sudras and Parias. These distinctions are rigidly observed and though +intermarriage (which in former times was often punished with death) is +now permitted, the offspring are not recognized as belonging to the +caste of the superior parent. The bodies of the dead are burned and +Sati, which was formerly frequent, is believed still to take place in +noble families. Pork <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_184" id="Page_3_184"></a>[Pg 184]</span>is the only meat used and, as in other Hindu +countries, oxen are never slaughtered.</p> + +<p>An idea of the Balinese religion may perhaps be given most easily by +describing some of the temples. These are very abundant: in the +neighbourhood of Boeleling (the capital) alone I have seen more than +ten of considerable size. As buildings they are not ancient, for the +stone used is soft and does not last much more than fifty years. But +when the edifices are rebuilt the ancient shape is preserved and what +we see in Bali to-day probably represents the style of the middle +ages. The temples consist of two or more courts surrounded by high +walls. Worship is performed in the open air: there are various +pyramids, seats, and small shrines like dovecots but no halls or +rooms. The gates are ornamented with the heads of monsters, especially +lions with large ears and winglike expansions at the side. The +outermost gate has a characteristic shape. It somewhat resembles an +Indian gopuram divided into two parts by a sharp, clean cut in the +middle and tradition quotes in explanation the story of a king who was +refused entrance to heaven but cleft a passage through the portal with +his sword.</p> + +<p>In the outer court stand various sheds and hollow wooden cylinders +which when struck give a sound like bells. Another ornamented doorway +leads to the second court where are found some or all of the following +objects: (<i>a</i>) Sacred trees, especially <i>Ficus elastica</i>. (<i>b</i>) Sheds +with seats for human beings. It is said that on certain occasions +these are used by mediums who become inspired by the gods and then +give oracles, (<i>c</i>) Seats for the gods, generally under sheds. They +are of various kinds. There is usually one conspicuous chair with an +ornamental back and a scroll hanging behind it which bears some such +inscription as "This is the chair of the Bhatâra." Any deity may be +invited to take this seat and receive worship. Sometimes a stone +linga is placed upon it. In some temples a stone chair, called +padmâsana, is set apart for Sûrya. (<i>d</i>) Small shrines two or three +feet high, set on posts or pedestals. When well executed they are +similar to the cabinets used in Japanese temples as shrines for images +but when, as often happens, they are roughly made they are curiously +like dovecots. On them are hung strips of dried palm-leaves in bunches +like the Japanese <i>gohei</i>. As a rule the shrines contain no image but +only a small seat and some <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_185" id="Page_3_185"></a>[Pg 185]</span>objects said to be stones which are +wrapped up in a cloth and called Artjeh<a name="FNanchor_456_456" id="FNanchor_456_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a>. In some temples (<i>e.g.</i> +the Bale Agoeng at Singaraja) there are erections called Meru, +supposed to represent the sacred mountain where the gods reside. They +consist of a stout pedestal or basis of brick on which is erected a +cabinet shrine as already described. Above this are large round discs +made of straw and wood, which may be described as curved roofs or +umbrellas. They are from three to five in number and rise one above +the other, with slight intervals between them. (<i>e</i>) In many temples +(for instance at Sangsit and Sawan) pyramidal erections are found +either in addition to the Merus or instead of them. At the end of the +second court is a pyramid in four stages or terraces, often with +prolongations at the side of the main structure or at right angles to +it. It is ascended by several staircases, consisting of about +twenty-five steps, and at the top are rows of cabinet shrines.</p> + +<p>Daily worship is not performed in these temples but offerings are laid +before the shrines from time to time by those who need the help of the +gods and there are several annual festivals. The object of the ritual +is not to honour any image or object habitually kept in the temple but +to induce the gods, who are supposed to be hovering round like birds, +to seat themselves in the chair provided or to enter into some sacred +object, and then receive homage and offerings. Thus both the ideas and +ceremonial are different from those which prevail in Hindu temples and +have more affinity with Polynesian beliefs. The deities are called +Dewa, but many of them are indigenous nature spirits (especially +mountain spirits) such as Dewa Gunung Agung, who are sometimes +identified with Indian gods.</p> + +<p>Somewhat different are the Durgâ temples. These are dedicated to the +spirits of the dead but the images of Durgâ and her attendant Kaliki +receive veneration in them, much as in Hindu temples. But on the whole +the Malay or Polynesian element seemed to me to be in practice +stronger than Hinduism in the religion of the Balinese and this is +borne out by the fact that the Pĕmangku or priest of the indigenous +gods ranks higher than the Pĕdanda or Brahman priest. But by +talking to Balinese one may obtain a different impression, for they +are proud of their connection with Madjapahit and Hinduism: they +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_186" id="Page_3_186"></a>[Pg 186]</span>willingly speak of such subjects and Hindu deities are constantly +represented in works of art. Ganeśa, Indra, Vishṇu, +Kṛishṇa, Sûrya, Garuḍa and Śiva, as well as the heroes of +the Mahâbhârata, are well known but I have not heard of worship being +offered to any of them except Durgâ and Śiva under the form of the +linga. Figures of Vishṇu riding on Garuḍa are very common and a +certain class of artificers are able to produce images of all well +known Indian gods for those who care to order them. Many Indian works +such as the Veda, Mahâbhârata, Râmâyana, Brahmâpurâṇa and +Nîtiśâstra are known by name and are said to exist not in the +original Sanskrit but in Kawi. I fancy that they are rarely read by +the present generation, but any knowledge of them is much respected. +The Balinese though confused in their theology are greatly attached to +their religion and believe it is the ancient faith of Madjapahit.</p> + +<p>I was unable to discover in the neighbourhood of Singarâja even such +faint traces of Buddhism as have been reported by previous +authors<a name="FNanchor_457_457" id="FNanchor_457_457"></a><a href="#Footnote_457_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a>, but they may exist elsewhere. The expression +Śiva-Buddha was known to the Pĕdandas but seemed to have no +living significance, and perhaps certain families have a traditional +and purely nominal connection with Buddhism. In Durgâ temples however +I have seen figures described as Pusa, the Chinese equivalent of +Bodhisattva, and it seems that Chinese artists have reintroduced into +this miscellaneous pantheon an element of corrupt Buddhism, though +the natives do not recognize it as such.</p> + +<p>The art of Bali is more fantastic than that of ancient Java. The +carved work, whether in stone or wood, is generally polychromatic. +Figures are piled one on the top of another as in the sculptures of +Central America and there is a marked tendency to emphasize +projections. Leaves and flowers are very deeply carved and such +features as ears, tongues and teeth are monstrously prolonged. Thus +Balinese statues and reliefs have a curiously bristling and scaly +appearance and are apt to seem barbaric, especially if taken +separately<a name="FNanchor_458_458" id="FNanchor_458_458"></a><a href="#Footnote_458_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a>. Yet the general aspect of the temples is not +unpleasing. The brilliant colours and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_187" id="Page_3_187"></a>[Pg 187]</span>fantastic outlines harmonize +with the tropical vegetation which surrounds them and suggest that the +guardian deities take shape as gorgeous insects. Such bizarre figures +are not unknown in Indian mythology but in Balinese art Chinese +influence is perhaps stronger than Indian. The Chinese probably +frequented the island as early as the Hindus and are now found there +in abundance. Besides the statues called Pusa already mentioned, +Chinese landscapes are often painted behind the seats of the Devas and +in the temple on the Volcano Batoer, where a special place is assigned +to all the Balinese tribes, the Chinese have their own shrine. It is +said that the temples in southern Bali which are older and larger than +those in the north show even more decided signs of Chinese influence +and are surrounded by stone figures of Chinese as guardians.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_369_369" id="Footnote_369_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_369_369"><span class="label">[369]</span></a> I have not been able to find anything more than casual +and second-hand statements to the effect that Indian antiquities have +been found in these islands.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_370_370" id="Footnote_370_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370_370"><span class="label">[370]</span></a> There is no lack of scholarly and scientific works +about Java, but they are mostly written in Dutch and dissertations on +special points are more numerous than general surveys of Javanese +history, literature and architecture. Perhaps the best general account +of the Hindu period in Java will be found in the chapter contributed +by Kern to the publication called <i>Neerlands Indië</i> (Amsterdam, 1911, +chap. VI. II. pp. 219-242). The abundant publications of the +Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen comprise +<i>Verhandelingen, Notulen</i>, and the <i>Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, +Land-, en Volkenkunde</i> (cited here as <i>Tijdschrift</i>), all of which +contain numerous and important articles on history, philology, +religion and archæology. The last is treated specially in the +publications called <i>Archaeologisch Onderzoek op Java en Madura</i>. +Veth's <i>Java</i>, vols. I. and IV. and various articles in the +<i>Encyclopaedie van Nederlandsch-Indië</i> may also be consulted. I have +endeavoured to mention the more important editions of Javanese books +as well as works dealing specially with the old religion in the notes +to these chapters. +</p><p> +Although Dutch orthography is neither convenient nor familiar to most +readers I have thought it better to preserve it in transcribing +Javanese. In this system of transcription j = y; tj = ch; dj = j; sj = sh; +w = v; oe = u.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_371_371" id="Footnote_371_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371_371"><span class="label">[371]</span></a> Râm. IV. 40. 30. Yavadvîpam saptarâjyopaśobhitam +Suvarṇarûpyakadvîpam suvarṇakaramaṇḍitam.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_372_372" id="Footnote_372_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a> Ptolemy's <i>Geography</i>, VII. 2. 29 (see also VIII. 27, +10). <i> +Ἰαβαδίου (ἢ Σαβαδίου), ὅ σημαίνει κριθῆς, νῆσος. Εὐφορωτάτη δὲ λέγεται ἡ νῆσος εἶναι καὶ ἔτι πλεῖστον χρυσὸν ποιεῖν, ἔχειν τε μητρόπολιν ὄνομα Ἀργυρῆν ἐπῖ τοῖς δυσμικοῖς πέρασιν + +</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_373_373" id="Footnote_373_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a> The Milinda Pañhâ of doubtful but not very late date +also mentions voyages to China.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_374_374" id="Footnote_374_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a> Groeneveldt, <i>Notes on the Malay Archipelago compiled +from Chinese sources</i>, 1876 (cited below as Groeneveldt), p. 10. +Confirmed by the statement in the Ming annals book 324 that in 1432 +the Javanese said their kingdom had been founded 1376 years before.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_375_375" id="Footnote_375_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375_375"><span class="label">[375]</span></a> Kern in <i>Versl. en Med. K. Ak. v. W. Afd. Lett. 3 Rks</i>. +I. 1884, pp. 5-12.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_376_376" id="Footnote_376_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376_376"><span class="label">[376]</span></a> Chap. XL. Legge, p. 113, and Groeneveldt, pp. 6-9.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_377_377" id="Footnote_377_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a> He perhaps landed in the present district of Rembang +"where according to native tradition the first Hindu settlement was +situated at that time" (Groeneveldt, p. 9).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_378_378" id="Footnote_378_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a> Groeneveldt, p. 9. The transcriptions of Chinese +characters given in the following pages do not represent the modern +sound but seem justified (though they cannot be regarded as certain) +by the instances collected in Julien's <i>Méthode pour déchiffrer et +transcrire les noms sanscrits</i>. Possibly the syllables Do-a-lo-pa-mo +are partly corrupt and somehow or other represent Pûrṇavarman.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_379_379" id="Footnote_379_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a> Kern in <i>Versl. en Meded, Afd. Lett. 2 R.</i> XI. <i>D</i>. +1882.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_380_380" id="Footnote_380_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a> Groeneveldt, pp. 12, 13.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_381_381" id="Footnote_381_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381_381"><span class="label">[381]</span></a> Groeneveldt, p. 14.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_382_382" id="Footnote_382_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382_382"><span class="label">[382]</span></a> <i>History of Java</i>, vol. II. chap. X.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_383_383" id="Footnote_383_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a> Jackson, <i>Java and Cambodja</i>. App. IV. in <i>Bombay +Gazetteer</i>, vol. I. part 1, 1896.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_384_384" id="Footnote_384_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384_384"><span class="label">[384]</span></a> It is also possible that when the Javanese traditions +speak of Kaling they mean the Malay Peninsula. Indians in those +regions were commonly known as Kaling because they came from Kalinga +and in time the parts of the Peninsula where they were numerous were +also called Kaling.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_385_385" id="Footnote_385_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385_385"><span class="label">[385]</span></a> See for this question Pelliot in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, pp. +274 ff. Also Schlegel in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1899, p. 247, and Chavannes, +<i>ib</i>. 1904, p. 192.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_386_386" id="Footnote_386_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386_386"><span class="label">[386]</span></a> Chap. xxxix. Schiefner, p. 262.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_387_387" id="Footnote_387_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387_387"><span class="label">[387]</span></a> Though he expressly includes Camboja and Champa in +Koki, it is only right to say that he mentions Nas-gling +( = Yava-dvipa) separately in another enumeration together with Ceylon. +But if Buddhists passed in any numbers from India to Camboja and <i>vice +versa</i>, they probably appeared in Java about the same time, or rather +later.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_388_388" id="Footnote_388_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a> See Kamaha. pp. 9, 10, and Watters, <i>Yüan Chwang</i>, II. +pp. 209-214.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_389_389" id="Footnote_389_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_389_389"><span class="label">[389]</span></a> They preserve to some extent the old civilization of +Madjapahit. See the article "Tengereezen" in <i>Encyclopaedie van +Nederlandsch-Indië.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_390_390" id="Footnote_390_390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_390_390"><span class="label">[390]</span></a> See Kern, <i>Kawi-studien Arjuna-vivâha</i>, I. and II. +1871. Juynboll, <i>Drie Boeken van het oudjavaansche Mahâbhârata</i>, 1893, +and <i>id. Wirâtaparwwa</i>, 1912. This last is dated Śaka 918 = 996 +A.D.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_391_391" id="Footnote_391_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_391_391"><span class="label">[391]</span></a> Or Jayabaya.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_392_392" id="Footnote_392_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392_392"><span class="label">[392]</span></a> See <i>Râmâyana. Oudjavaansche Heldendicht</i>, edited Kern, +1900, and <i>Wṛtta Sañcaya</i>, edited and translated by the same, +1875.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_393_393" id="Footnote_393_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a> Composed in 1613 A.D.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_394_394" id="Footnote_394_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394_394"><span class="label">[394]</span></a> Groeneveldt, p. 14.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_395_395" id="Footnote_395_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395_395"><span class="label">[395]</span></a> In the work commonly called "Nâgarakrĕtâgama" (ed. +Brandes, <i>Verhand. Bataav. Genootschap.</i> LIV. 1902), but it is stated +that its real name is "Deçawarṇnana." See <i>Tijdschrift</i>, LVI. 1914, +p. 194.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_396_396" id="Footnote_396_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396_396"><span class="label">[396]</span></a> Or Jayakatong.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_397_397" id="Footnote_397_397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_397_397"><span class="label">[397]</span></a> Groeneveldt, pp. 20-34.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_398_398" id="Footnote_398_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_398_398"><span class="label">[398]</span></a> Groeneveldt, pp. 34-53.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_399_399" id="Footnote_399_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399_399"><span class="label">[399]</span></a> Near Soerabaja. It is said that he married a daughter +of the king of Champa, and that the king of Madjapahit married her +sister. For the connection between the royal families of Java and +Champa at this period see Maspéro in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1911, pp. 595 ff., +and the references to Champa in Nâgarakrĕtagama, 15, 1, and 83, 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_400_400" id="Footnote_400_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400_400"><span class="label">[400]</span></a> See Raffles, chap, X, for Javanese traditions +respecting the decline and fall of Madjapahit.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_401_401" id="Footnote_401_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401_401"><span class="label">[401]</span></a> See Takakusu, <i>A record of the Buddhist religion</i>, +especially pp. xl to xlvi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_402_402" id="Footnote_402_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a> In another pronunciation the characters are read +San-fo-chai. The meaning appears to be The Three Buddhas.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_403_403" id="Footnote_403_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Si-li-ma-ha-la-sha ( = Śrîmahârâjâ) +Si-li-tieh-hwa (perhaps = Śrîdeva).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_404_404" id="Footnote_404_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a> The conquest however was incomplete and about 1400 a +Chinese adventurer ruled there some time. The name was changed to +Ku-Kang, which is said to be still the Chinese name for Palembang.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_405_405" id="Footnote_405_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a> The Ming annals expressly state that the name was +changed to Atjeh about 1600.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_406_406" id="Footnote_406_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406_406"><span class="label">[406]</span></a> For the identification of Po-li see Groeneveldt, p. 80, +and Hose and McDougall, <i>Pagan Tribes of Borneo</i>, chap. II. It might +be identified with Bali, but it is doubtful if Hindu civilization had +spread to that island or even to east Java in the sixth century.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_407_407" id="Footnote_407_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407_407"><span class="label">[407]</span></a> See Hose and McDougall, <i>l.c.</i> p. 12.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_408_408" id="Footnote_408_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408_408"><span class="label">[408]</span></a> See Kern, "Over de Opschriften uit Koetei" in +<i>Verslagen Meded. Afd. Lett. 2 R. XI. D.</i> Another inscription +apparently written in debased Indian characters but not yet deciphered +has been found in Sanggau, south-west Borneo.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_409_409" id="Footnote_409_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409_409"><span class="label">[409]</span></a> Groeneveldt, p. 81. The characters may be read +Kau-ḍi-nya according to Julien's method. The reference is to Liang +annals, book 54.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_410_410" id="Footnote_410_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410_410"><span class="label">[410]</span></a> See Pleyte, <i>Die Buddhalegende in den Sculpturen von +Borobudur</i>. But he points out that the version of the Lalita Vistara +followed by the artist is not quite the same as the one that we +possess.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_411_411" id="Footnote_411_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a> Amitâbha, Amoghasiddhi, Ratnasambhava, Akshobhya, +Vairocana, sometimes called Dhyânî Buddhas, but it does not seem that +this name was in common use in Java or elsewhere. The Kamahâyânikan +calls them the Five Tathâgatas.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_412_412" id="Footnote_412_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412_412"><span class="label">[412]</span></a> So in the Kunjarakarna, for which see below. The +Kamahâyânikan teaches an elaborate system of Buddha emanations but for +purposes of worship it is not quite clear which should be adored as +the highest.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_413_413" id="Footnote_413_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413_413"><span class="label">[413]</span></a> Fergusson, <i>History of Indian and Eastern +Architecture</i>, ed. 1910, vol. II. p. 439.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_414_414" id="Footnote_414_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a> See <i>Archaeologisch Onderzoek op Java en Madura</i>, I. +"Tjandi Djago," 1904; II. "Tj. Singasari en Panataran," 1909.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_415_415" id="Footnote_415_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415_415"><span class="label">[415]</span></a> See Knebel in <i>Tijds. voor Indische T., L. en +Volkenkunde</i>, 41, 1909, p. 27.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_416_416" id="Footnote_416_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416_416"><span class="label">[416]</span></a> See passages quoted in <i>Archaeol. Onderzoek</i>, I. pp. +96-97.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_417_417" id="Footnote_417_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417_417"><span class="label">[417]</span></a> Hayagrîva however may be regarded as a Brahmanic god +adopted by the Buddhists.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_418_418" id="Footnote_418_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418_418"><span class="label">[418]</span></a> See for reasons and references <i>Archaeol. Onderzoek</i>, +II. pp. 36-40. The principal members of the king's household probably +committed suicide during the funeral ceremonies.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_419_419" id="Footnote_419_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419_419"><span class="label">[419]</span></a> Kern in <i>Tijds. voor T., L. en Volkenkunde</i>, Deel LII. +1910, p. 107. Similarly in Burma Alompra was popularly regarded as a +Bodhisattva.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_420_420" id="Footnote_420_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420_420"><span class="label">[420]</span></a> Sanskrit Kavi, a poet. See for Javanese literature Van +der Tuuk in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> XIII. 1881, p. 42, and Hinloopen Labberton, +<i>ib</i>. 1913, p. 1. Also the article "Litteratuur" in the <i>Encyc. van +Nederlandsch-Indië</i>, and many notices in the writings of Kern and +Veth.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_421_421" id="Footnote_421_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a> Edited by Gunning, 1903.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_422_422" id="Footnote_422_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422_422"><span class="label">[422]</span></a> A fragment of it is printed in <i>Notulen. Batav. Gen</i>. +LII. 1914, 108.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_423_423" id="Footnote_423_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_423_423"><span class="label">[423]</span></a> Episodes of the Indian epics have also been used as the +subjects of Javanese dramas. See Juynboll, <i>Indonesische en +achterindische tooneelvoorstellingen uit het Râmâyana</i>, and Hinloopen +Labberton, <i>Pepakem Sapanti Sakoentala</i>, 1912.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_424_424" id="Footnote_424_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424_424"><span class="label">[424]</span></a> Juynboll, <i>Drie Boeken van het Oudjavaansche +Mahâbhârata</i>, p. 28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_425_425" id="Footnote_425_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_425_425"><span class="label">[425]</span></a> <i>Archaeol. Onderzoek</i>, I. p. 98. This statement is +abundantly confirmed by Krom's index of the proper names in the +Nâgarakrĕtâgama in <i>Tijdschrift</i>, LVI. 1914, pp. 495 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_426_426" id="Footnote_426_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426_426"><span class="label">[426]</span></a> Edited with transl. and notes by J. Kat, 's Gravenhage, +1910.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_427_427" id="Footnote_427_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427_427"><span class="label">[427]</span></a> Edited with transl. by H. Kern in <i>Verh. der K. +Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam. Afd. Lett. N.R.</i> III. 3. +1901.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_428_428" id="Footnote_428_428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_428_428"><span class="label">[428]</span></a> But this probably represents nizbâṇa and is not a +Pali form. Cf. Bajra, Bâyu for Vajra, Vâyu.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_429_429" id="Footnote_429_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429_429"><span class="label">[429]</span></a> Adyâbhishiktâyushmanta, p. 30. Prâptam buddhatvam +bhavadbhir, <i>ib</i>. and Esha mârga varah śrîmân mahâyâna mahodayah +Yena yûyam gamishyanto bhavishyatha Tathâgatâh.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_430_430" id="Footnote_430_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a> Dâna, śîla, kshânti, vîrya, dhyâna, prajñâ.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_431_431" id="Footnote_431_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431_431"><span class="label">[431]</span></a> Maitrî, karunâ, muditâ, upekshâ.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_432_432" id="Footnote_432_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a> The Kâraṇḍavyûha teaches a somewhat similar +doctrine of creative emanations. Avalokita, Brahmâ, Śiva, Vishṇu +and others all are evolved from the original Buddha spirit and proceed +to evolve the world.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_433_433" id="Footnote_433_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a> The use of this word, as a name for the residence of +Vairocana, seems to be peculiar to our author.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_434_434" id="Footnote_434_434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_434_434"><span class="label">[434]</span></a> This term may include Śivaite ascetics as well as +Buddhist monks.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_435_435" id="Footnote_435_435"></a><a href="#FNanchor_435_435"><span class="label">[435]</span></a> See further discussion in Kern's edition, p. 16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_436_436" id="Footnote_436_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436_436"><span class="label">[436]</span></a> As are the Panchpirs in modern India.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_437_437" id="Footnote_437_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437_437"><span class="label">[437]</span></a> Garbha. Up. 1 and 3, especially the phrase asmin +pancâtmake śarîre. Piṇḍa Up. 2. Bhinne pancâtmake dehe. Mahâ +Nâr. Up. 23. Sa vâ esha purushaḥ pancadhâ pancâtmâ.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_438_438" id="Footnote_438_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438_438"><span class="label">[438]</span></a> See Kern, "Over de Vermenging van Civaisme en Buddhisme +op Jâva" in <i>Vers. en Meded. der Kon. Akad. van Wet. Afd. Lett</i>. 3 <i>R. +5 Deel</i>, 1888. +</p><p> +For the Sutasomajâtaka see Speyer's translation of the Jâtakamâlâ, pp. +291-313, with his notes and references. It is No. 537 in the Pali +Collection of Jâtakas.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_439_439" id="Footnote_439_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439_439"><span class="label">[439]</span></a> See Nanjio Cat. Nos. 137, 138.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_440_440" id="Footnote_440_440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_440_440"><span class="label">[440]</span></a> Gotama, Kassapa, Konâgamana and Kakusandha.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_441_441" id="Footnote_441_441"></a><a href="#FNanchor_441_441"><span class="label">[441]</span></a> About 950-1050 A.D. Fergusson, <i>Hist. of Indian +Architecture</i>, II. p. 141.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_442_442" id="Footnote_442_442"></a><a href="#FNanchor_442_442"><span class="label">[442]</span></a> See Knebel, "Recherches préparatoires concernant +Krishna et les bas reliefs des temples de Java" in <i>Tijdschrift</i>, LI. +1909, pp. 97-174.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_443_443" id="Footnote_443_443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_443_443"><span class="label">[443]</span></a> In Camboja the result seems to have been double. Pali +Buddhism entered from Siam and ultimately conquered all other forms of +religion, but for some time Mahayanist Buddhism, which was older in +Camboja, revived and received Court patronage.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_444_444" id="Footnote_444_444"></a><a href="#FNanchor_444_444"><span class="label">[444]</span></a> Chap. 37.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_445_445" id="Footnote_445_445"></a><a href="#FNanchor_445_445"><span class="label">[445]</span></a> "Bijdrage tot de Kennis van het Mahâyâna opJava" in +<i>Bijd. tot de Taal Lund en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</i>, 1901 +and 1902.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_446_446" id="Footnote_446_446"></a><a href="#FNanchor_446_446"><span class="label">[446]</span></a> This use of advaya and advayavâdin strengthens the +suspicion that the origins of the Advaita philosophy are to be sought +in Buddhism.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_447_447" id="Footnote_447_447"></a><a href="#FNanchor_447_447"><span class="label">[447]</span></a> It uses the word trikâya but expressly defines it as +meaning Kâya, vâk and citta.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_448_448" id="Footnote_448_448"></a><a href="#FNanchor_448_448"><span class="label">[448]</span></a> In a passage which is not translated from the Sanskrit +and may therefore reflect the religious condition of Java.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_449_449" id="Footnote_449_449"></a><a href="#FNanchor_449_449"><span class="label">[449]</span></a> So too in the Sutasoma Jâtaka Amoghasiddhi is said to +be Vishṇu.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_450_450" id="Footnote_450_450"></a><a href="#FNanchor_450_450"><span class="label">[450]</span></a> See Juynboll in <i>Bijdragen tot de Taal Land en +Volkenkunde van Ned.-Indië</i>, 1908, pp. 412-420.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_451_451" id="Footnote_451_451"></a><a href="#FNanchor_451_451"><span class="label">[451]</span></a> Veth, <i>Java</i>, vol. IV. p. 154. The whole chapter +contains much information about the Hindu elements in modern Javanese +religion.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_452_452" id="Footnote_452_452"></a><a href="#FNanchor_452_452"><span class="label">[452]</span></a> See Veth, <i>l.c.</i> and <i>ngelmoe</i> in <i>Encycl. van +Nederlandsch-Indië. </i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_453_453" id="Footnote_453_453"></a><a href="#FNanchor_453_453"><span class="label">[453]</span></a> Also to some extent in Lombok. The Balinese were +formerly the ruling class in this island and are still found there in +considerable numbers.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_454_454" id="Footnote_454_454"></a><a href="#FNanchor_454_454"><span class="label">[454]</span></a> It has even been suggested that hinduized Malays +carried some faint traces of Indian religion to Madagascar. See +<i>T'oung Pao</i> 1906, p. 93, where Zanahari is explained as Yang ( = God +in Malay) Hari.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_455_455" id="Footnote_455_455"></a><a href="#FNanchor_455_455"><span class="label">[455]</span></a> Groeneveldt, pp. 19, 58, 59.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_456_456" id="Footnote_456_456"></a><a href="#FNanchor_456_456"><span class="label">[456]</span></a> This word appears to be the Sanskrit area, an image for +worship.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_457_457" id="Footnote_457_457"></a><a href="#FNanchor_457_457"><span class="label">[457]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Van Eerde, "Hindu Javaansche en Balische +Eeredienst" in <i>Bijd. T.L. en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</i>, +1910. I visited Bali in 1911.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_458_458" id="Footnote_458_458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_458_458"><span class="label">[458]</span></a> See Pleyte, <i>Indonesian Art</i>, 1901, especially the +seven-headed figure in plate XVI said to be Krishna.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_188" id="Page_3_188"></a>[Pg 188]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLI" id="CHAPTER_XLI"></a>CHAPTER XLI</h2> + +<h3>CENTRAL ASIA</h3> + +<h3>1</h3> + + +<p>The term Central Asia is here used to denote the Tarim basin, without +rigidly excluding neighbouring countries such as the Oxus region and +Badakshan. This basin is a depression surrounded on three sides by +high mountains: only on the east is the barrier dividing it from China +relatively low. The water of the whole area discharges through the +many branched Tarim river into Lake Lobnor. This so-called lake is now +merely a flooded morass and the basin is a desert with occasional +oases lying chiefly near its edges. The fertile portions were formerly +more considerable but a quarter of a century ago this remote and +lonely region interested no one but a few sportsmen and geographers. +The results of recent exploration have been important and surprising. +The arid sands have yielded not only ruins, statues and frescoes but +whole libraries written in a dozen languages. The value of such +discoveries for the general history of Asia is clear and they are of +capital importance for our special subject, since during many +centuries the Tarim region and its neighbouring lands were centres and +highways for Buddhism and possibly the scene of many changes whose +origin is now obscure. But I am unfortunate in having to discuss +Central Asian Buddhism before scholars have had time to publish or +even catalogue completely the store of material collected and the +reader must remember that the statements in this chapter are at best +tentative and incomplete. They will certainly be supplemented and +probably corrected as year by year new documents and works of art are +made known.</p> + +<p>Tarim, in watery metaphor, is not so much a basin as a pool in a tidal +river flowing alternately to and from the sea. We can imagine that in +such a pool creatures of very different provenance might be found +together. So currents both from east to west and from west to east +passed through the Tarim, leaving behind whatever could live there: +Chinese administration and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_189" id="Page_3_189"></a>[Pg 189]</span>civilization from the east: Iranians +from the west, bearing with them in the stream fragments that had +drifted from Asia Minor and Byzantium, while still other currents +brought Hindus and Tibetans from the south.</p> + +<p>One feature of special interest in the history of the Tarim is that it +was in touch with Bactria and the regions conquered by Alexander and +through them with western art and thought. Another is that its +inhabitants included not only Iranian tribes but the speakers of an +Aryan language hitherto unknown, whose presence so far east may oblige +us to revise our views about the history of the Aryan race. A third +characteristic is that from the dawn of history to the middle ages +warlike nomads were continually passing through the country. All these +people, whether we call them Iranians, Turks or Mongols had the same +peculiarity: they had little culture of their own but they picked up +and transported the ideas of others. The most remarkable example of +this is the introduction of Islam into Europe and India. Nothing quite +so striking happened in earlier ages, yet tribes similar to the Turks +brought Manichæism and Nestorian Christianity into China and played no +small part in the introduction of Buddhism.</p> + +<p>A brief catalogue of the languages represented in the manuscripts and +inscriptions discovered will give a safe if only provisional idea of +the many influences at work in Central Asia and its importance as a +receiving and distributing centre. The number of tongues +simultaneously in use for popular or learned purposes was remarkably +large. To say nothing of great polyglot libraries like Tun-huang, a +small collection at Toyog is reported as containing Indian, Manichæan, +Syriac, Sogdian, Uigur and Chinese books. The writing materials +employed were various like the idioms and include imported palm +leaves, birch bark, plates of wood or bamboo, leather and paper, which +last was in use from the first century A.D. onwards. In this dry +atmosphere all enjoyed singular longevity.</p> + +<p>Numerous Sanskrit writings have been found, all dealing with religious +or quasi religious subjects, as medicine and grammar were then +considered to be. Relatively modern Mahayanist literature is abundant +but greater interest attaches to portions of an otherwise lost +Sanskrit canon which agree in substance though not verbally with the +corresponding passages in the Pali Canon and are apparently the +original text from <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_190" id="Page_3_190"></a>[Pg 190]</span>which much of the Chinese Tripitaka was +translated. The manuscripts hitherto published include Sûtras from the +Samyukta and Ekottara Agamas, a considerable part of the Dharmapada, +and the Prâtimoksha of the Sarvâstivâdin school. Fa-Hsien states that +the monks of Central Asia were all students of the language of India +and even in the seventh century Hsüan Chuang tells us the same of +Kucha. Portions of a Sanskrit grammar have been found near Turfan and +in the earlier period at any rate Sanskrit was probably understood in +polite and learned society. Some palm leaves from Ming-Ŏi contain +fragments of two Buddhist religious dramas, one of which is the +Sâriputra-prakaraṇa of Aśvaghosha. The handwriting is believed +to date from the epoch of Kanishka so that we have here the oldest +known Sanskrit manuscripts, as well as the oldest specimens of Indian +dramatic art<a name="FNanchor_459_459" id="FNanchor_459_459"></a><a href="#Footnote_459_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a>. They are written like the Indian classical dramas +in Sanskrit and various forms of Prâkrit. The latter represent +hitherto unknown stages in the development of Indian dialects and some +of them are closely allied to the language of Aśoka's inscriptions. +Another Prâkrit text is the version of the Dharmapada written in +Kharoshṭhî characters and discovered by the Dutreuil de Rhins +mission near Khotan<a name="FNanchor_460_460" id="FNanchor_460_460"></a><a href="#Footnote_460_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a>, and numerous official documents in this +language and alphabet have been brought home by Stein from the same +region. It is probable that they are approximately coeval with the +Kushan dynasty in India and the use of an Indian vernacular as well as +of Sanskrit in Central Asia shows that the connection between the two +countries was not due merely to the introduction of Buddhism.</p> + +<p>Besides these hitherto unknown forms of Prâkrit, Central Asia has +astonished the learned world with two new languages, both written in a +special variety of the Brahmi alphabet called Central Asian Gupta. One +is sometimes called Nordarisch and is regarded by some authorities as +the language of the Śakas whose incursions into India appear to +have begun about the second century B.C. and by others as the language +of the Kushans and of Kanishka's Empire. It is stated that the basis +of the language is Iranian but strongly influenced by Indian +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_191" id="Page_3_191"></a>[Pg 191]</span>idioms<a name="FNanchor_461_461" id="FNanchor_461_461"></a><a href="#Footnote_461_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a>. Many translations of Mahayanist literature (for +instance the Suvarṇaprabhâsa, Vajracchedikâ and Aparimitâyus +Sûtras) were made into it and it appears to have been spoken +principally in the southern part of the Tarim basin<a name="FNanchor_462_462" id="FNanchor_462_462"></a><a href="#Footnote_462_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a>. The other +new language was spoken principally on its northern edge and has been +called Tokharian, which name implies that it was the tongue of the +Tokhars or Indoscyths<a name="FNanchor_463_463" id="FNanchor_463_463"></a><a href="#Footnote_463_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a>. But there is no proof of this and it is +safer to speak of it as the language of Kucha or Kuchanese. It exists +in two different dialects known as A and B whose geographical +distribution is uncertain but numerous official documents dated in the +first half of the seventh century show that it was the ordinary speech +of Kucha and Turfan. It was also a literary language and among the +many translations discovered are versions in it of the Dharmapada and +Vinaya. It is extremely interesting to find that this language spoken +by the early and perhaps original inhabitants of Kucha not only +belongs to the Aryan family but is related more nearly to the western +than the eastern branch. It cannot be classed in the Indo-Iranian +group but shows perplexing affinities to Latin, Greek, Keltic, +Slavonic and Armenian<a name="FNanchor_464_464" id="FNanchor_464_464"></a><a href="#Footnote_464_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a>. It is possible that it influenced Chinese +Buddhist literature<a name="FNanchor_465_465" id="FNanchor_465_465"></a><a href="#Footnote_465_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a>.</p> + +<p>Besides the "Nordarisch" mentioned above which was written in Brahmi, +three other Iranian languages have left literary remains in Central +Asia, all written in an alphabet of Aramaic origin. Two of them +apparently represent the speech of south-western Persia under the +Sassanids, and of north-western Persia under the Arsacids. The texts +preserved in both are Manichæan but the third Iranian language, or +Sogdian, has <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_192" id="Page_3_192"></a>[Pg 192]</span>a more varied literary content and offers Buddhist, +Manichæan and Christian texts, apparently in that chronological order. +It was originally the language of the region round Samarkand but +acquired an international character for it was used by merchants +throughout the Tarim basin and spread even to China. Some Christian +texts in Syriac have also been found.</p> + +<p>The Orkhon inscriptions exhibit an old Turkish dialect written in the +characters commonly called Runes and this Runic alphabet is used in +manuscripts found at Tun-huang and Miran but those hitherto published +are not Buddhist. But another Turkish dialect written in the Uigur +alphabet, which is derived from the Syriac, was (like Sogdian) +extensively used for Buddhist, Manichæan and Christian literature. The +name Uigur is perhaps more correctly applied to the alphabet than the +language<a name="FNanchor_466_466" id="FNanchor_466_466"></a><a href="#Footnote_466_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a> which appears to have been the literary form of the +various Turkish idioms spoken north and south of the Tien-shan. The +use of this dialect for Buddhist literature spread considerably when +the Uigurs broke the power of Tibet in the Tarim basin about 860 and +founded a kingdom themselves: it extended into China and lasted long, +for Sûtras in Uigur were printed at Peking in 1330 and Uigur +manuscripts copied in the reign of K'ang Hsi (1662-1723) are reported +from a monastery near Suchow<a name="FNanchor_467_467" id="FNanchor_467_467"></a><a href="#Footnote_467_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a>. I am informed that a variety of +this alphabet written in vertical columns is still used in some parts +of Kansu where a Turkish dialect is spoken. Though Turkish was used by +Buddhists in both the east and west of the Tarim basin, it appears to +have been introduced into Khotan only after the Moslim conquest. +Another Semitic script, hitherto unknown and found only in a +fragmentary form, is believed to be the writing of the White Huns or +Hephthalites.</p> + +<p>As the Tibetans were the predominant power in the Tarim basin from at +least the middle of the eighth until the middle of the ninth century, +it is not surprising that great stores of Tibetan manuscripts have +been found in the regions of Khotan, Miran and Tun-huang. In Turfan, +as lying more to the north, traces of Tibetan influence, though not +absent, are fewer. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_193" id="Page_3_193"></a>[Pg 193]</span>documents discovered must be anterior to +the ninth century and comprise numerous official and business papers +as well as Buddhist translations<a name="FNanchor_468_468" id="FNanchor_468_468"></a><a href="#Footnote_468_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a>. They are of great importance +for the history of the Tibetan language and also indicate that at the +period when they were written Buddhism at most shared with the Bön +religion the allegiance of the Tibetans. No Manichæan or Christian +translations in Tibetan have yet been discovered.</p> + +<p>Vast numbers of Chinese texts both religious and secular are preserved +in all the principal centres and offer many points of interest among +which two may be noticed. Firstly the posts on the old military +frontier near Tun-huang have furnished a series of dated documents +ranging from 98 B.C. to 153 A.D.<a name="FNanchor_469_469" id="FNanchor_469_469"></a><a href="#Footnote_469_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a> There is therefore no difficulty +in admitting that there was intercourse between China and Central Asia +at this period. Secondly, some documents of the T'ang dynasty are +Manichæan, with an admixture of Buddhist and Taoist ideas<a name="FNanchor_470_470" id="FNanchor_470_470"></a><a href="#Footnote_470_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a>.</p> + +<p>The religious monuments of Central Asia comprise stupas, caves and +covered buildings used as temples or vihâras. Buddhist, Manichæan and +Christian edifices have been discovered but apparently no shrines of +the Zoroastrian religion, though it had many adherents in these +regions, and though representations of Hindu deities have been found, +Hinduism is not known to have existed apart from Buddhism<a name="FNanchor_471_471" id="FNanchor_471_471"></a><a href="#Footnote_471_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a>. Caves +decorated for Buddhist worship are found not only in the Tarim basin +but at Tun-huang on the frontier of China proper, near Ta-t'ung-fu in +northern Shensi, and in the defile of Lung-mên in the province of +Ho-nan. The general scheme and style of these caves are similar, but +while in the last two, as in most Indian caves, the figures and +ornaments are true sculpture, in the caves of Tun-huang and the Tarim +not only is the wall prepared for frescoes, but even the figures are +executed in stucco. This form of decoration was congenial to Central +Asia for the images which embellished the temple walls were moulded in +the same fashion. Temples and caves were sometimes combined, for +instance at Bäzäklik where many edifices were erected on a terrace in +front <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_194" id="Page_3_194"></a>[Pg 194]</span>of a series of caves excavated in a mountain corner. Few +roofed buildings are well preserved but it seems certain that some +were high quadrilateral structures, crowned by a dome of a shape found +in Persia, and that others had barrel-shaped roofs, apparently +resembling the chaityas of Ter and Chezarla<a name="FNanchor_472_472" id="FNanchor_472_472"></a><a href="#Footnote_472_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a>. Le Coq states that +this type of architecture is also found in Persia<a name="FNanchor_473_473" id="FNanchor_473_473"></a><a href="#Footnote_473_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a>. The commonest +type of temple was a hall having at its further end a cella, with a +passage behind to allow of circumambulation. Such halls were +frequently enlarged by the addition of side rooms and sometimes a +shrine was enclosed by several rectangular courts<a name="FNanchor_474_474" id="FNanchor_474_474"></a><a href="#Footnote_474_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a>.</p> + +<p>Many stupas have been found either by themselves or in combination +with other buildings. The one which is best preserved (or at any rate +reproduced in greatest detail)<a name="FNanchor_475_475" id="FNanchor_475_475"></a><a href="#Footnote_475_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a> is the Stupa of Rawak. It is set +in a quadrangle bounded by a wall which was ornamented on both its +inner and outer face by a series of gigantic statues in coloured +stucco. The dome is set upon a rectangular base disposed in three +stories and this arrangement is said to characterize all the stupas of +Turkestan as well as those of the Kabul valley and adjacent regions.</p> + +<p>This architecture appears to owe nothing to China but to include both +Indian (especially Gandharan) and Persian elements. Many of its +remarkable features, if not common elsewhere, are at least widely +scattered. Thus some of the caves at Ming-Ŏi have dome-like roofs +ornamented with a pattern composed of squares within squares, set at +an angle with each other. A similar ornamentation is reported from +Pandrenthan in Kashmir and from Bamian<a name="FNanchor_476_476" id="FNanchor_476_476"></a><a href="#Footnote_476_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a>.</p> + +<p>The antiquities of Central Asia include frescoes executed on the walls +of caves and buildings, and paintings on silk paper<a name="FNanchor_477_477" id="FNanchor_477_477"></a><a href="#Footnote_477_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a>. The origin +and affinities of this art are still the subject of investigation and +any discussion of them would lead me too far from my immediate +subject. But a few statements can be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_195" id="Page_3_195"></a>[Pg 195]</span>made with some confidence. +The influence of Gandhara is plain in architecture, sculpture, and +painting. The oldest works may be described as simply Gandharan but +this early style is followed by another which shows a development both +in technique and in mythology. It doubtless represents Indian Buddhist +art as modified by local painters and sculptors. Thus in the Turfan +frescoes the drapery and composition are Indian but the faces are +eastern asiatic. Sometimes however they represent a race with red hair +and blue eyes.</p> + +<p>On the whole the paintings testify to the invasion of Far Eastern art +by the ideas and designs of Indian Buddhism rather than to an equal +combination of Indian and Chinese influence but in some forms of +decoration, particularly that employed in the Khan's palace at +Idiqutshähri<a name="FNanchor_478_478" id="FNanchor_478_478"></a><a href="#Footnote_478_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a>, Chinese style is predominant. It may be too that +the early pre-buddhist styles of painting in China and Central Asia +were similar. In the seventh century a Khotan artist called Wei-ch'ih +Po-chih-na migrated to China, where both he and his son Wei-ch'ih +I-sêng acquired considerable fame.</p> + +<p>Persian influence also is manifest in many paintings. A striking +instance may be seen in two plates published by Stein<a name="FNanchor_479_479" id="FNanchor_479_479"></a><a href="#Footnote_479_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a> apparently +representing the same Boddhisattva. In one he is of the familiar +Indian type: the other seems at first sight a miniature of some +Persian prince, black-bearded and high-booted, but the figure has four +arms. As might be expected, it is the Manichæan paintings which are +least Indian in character. They represent a "lost late antique +school<a name="FNanchor_480_480" id="FNanchor_480_480"></a><a href="#Footnote_480_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a>" which often recalls Byzantine art and was perhaps the +parent of mediæval Persian miniature painting.</p> + +<p>The paintings of Central Asia resemble its manuscripts. It is +impossible to look through any collection of them without feeling that +currents of art and civilization flowing from neighbouring and even +from distant lands have met and mingled in this basin. As the reader +turns over the albums of Stein, Grünwedel or Le Coq he is haunted by +strange reminiscences and resemblances, and wonders if they are merely +coincidences or whether the pedigrees of these pictured gods and men +really <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_196" id="Page_3_196"></a>[Pg 196]</span>stretch across time and space to far off origins. Here are +coins and seals of Hellenic design, nude athletes that might adorn a +Greek vase, figures that recall Egypt, Byzantium or the Bayeux +tapestry, with others that might pass for Christian ecclesiastics; +Chinese sages, Kṛishṇa dancing to the sound of his flute, +frescoes that might be copied from Ajanta, winged youths to be styled +cupids or cherubs according to our mood<a name="FNanchor_481_481" id="FNanchor_481_481"></a><a href="#Footnote_481_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a>.</p> + +<p>Stein mentions<a name="FNanchor_482_482" id="FNanchor_482_482"></a><a href="#Footnote_482_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a> that he discovered a Buddhist monastery in the +terminal marshes of the Helmund in the Persian province of Seistan, +containing paintings of a Hellenistic type which show "for the first +time <i>in situ</i> the Iranian link of the chain which connects the +Græco-Buddhist art of extreme north-west India with the Buddhist art +of Central Asia and the Far East."</p> + +<p>Central Asian art is somewhat wanting in spontaneity. Except when +painting portraits (which are many) the artists do not seem to go to +nature or even their own imagination and visions. They seem concerned +to reproduce some religious scene not as they saw it but as it was +represented by Indian or other artists.</p> + +<h3>2</h3> + + +<p>Only one side of Central Asian history can be written with any +completeness, namely its relations with China. Of these some account +with dates can be given, thanks to the Chinese annals which +incidentally supply valuable information about earlier periods. But +unfortunately these relations were often interrupted and also the +political record does not always furnish the data which are of most +importance for the history of Buddhism. Still there is no better +framework available for arranging our data. But even were our +information much fuller, we should probably find the history of +Central Asia scrappy and disconnected. Its cities were united by no +bond of common blood or language, nor can any one of them have had a +continuous development in institutions, letters or art. These were +imported in a mature form and more or less assimilated in a precocious +Augustan age, only to be overwhelmed in some catastrophe which, if not +merely destructive, at least brought the ideas and baggage of another +race.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_197" id="Page_3_197"></a>[Pg 197]</span>It was under the Emperor Wu-ti (140-87 B.C.) of the Han dynasty +that the Chinese first penetrated into the Tarim basin. They had heard +that the Hsiung-nu, of whose growing power they were afraid, had +driven the Yüeh-chih westwards and they therefore despatched an envoy +named Chang Ch'ien in the hope of inducing the Yüeh-chih to co-operate +with them against the common enemy. Chang Ch'ien made two adventurous +expeditions, and visited the Yüeh-chih in their new home somewhere on +the Oxus. His mission failed to attain its immediate political object +but indirectly had important results, for it revealed to China that +the nations on the Oxus were in touch with India on one hand and with +the more mysterious west on the other. Henceforth it was her aim to +keep open the trade route leading westwards from the extremity of the +modern Kansu province to Kashgar, Khotan and the countries with which +those cities communicated. Far from wishing to isolate herself or +exclude foreigners, her chief desire was to keep the road to the west +open, and although there were times when the flood of Buddhism which +swept along this road alarmed the more conservative classes, yet for +many centuries everything that came in the way of merchandize, art, +literature, and religion was eagerly received. The chief hindrance to +this intercourse was the hostility of the wild tribes who pillaged +caravans and blocked the route, and throughout the whole stretch of +recorded history the Chinese used the same method to weaken them and +keep the door open, namely to create or utilize a quarrel between two +tribes. The Empire allied itself with one in order to crush the second +and that being done, proceeded to deal with its former ally.</p> + +<p>Dated records beginning with the year 98 B.C. testify to the presence +of a Chinese garrison near the modern Tun-huang<a name="FNanchor_483_483" id="FNanchor_483_483"></a><a href="#Footnote_483_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a>. But at the +beginning of the Christian era the Empire was convulsed by internal +rebellion and ceased to have influence or interest in Central Asia. +With the restoration of order things took another turn. The reign of +the Emperor Ming-ti is the traditional date for the introduction of +Buddhism and it also witnessed the victorious campaigns of the famous +general and adventurer Pan Ch'ao. He conquered Khotan and Kashgar and +victoriously repulsed the attacks of the Kushans or Yüeh-chih who were +interested in these regions and endeavoured to stop his progress. The +Chinese annals do not give the name of their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_198" id="Page_3_198"></a>[Pg 198]</span>king but it must have +been Kanishka if he came to the throne in 78. I confess however that +this silence makes it difficult for me to accept 78-123 A.D. as the +period of Kanishka's reign, for he must have been a monarch of some +celebrity and if the Chinese had come into victorious contact with +him, would not their historians have mentioned it? It seems to me more +probable that he reigned before or after Pan Ch'ao's career in Central +Asia which lasted from A.D. 73-102. With the end of that career +Chinese activity ceased for some time and perhaps the Kushans +conquered Kashgar and Khotan early in the second century. Neither the +degenerate Han dynasty nor the stormy Three Kingdoms could grapple +with distant political problems and during the fourth, fifth and sixth +centuries northern China was divided among Tartar states, short-lived +and mutually hostile. The Empire ceased to be a political power in the +Tarim basin but intercourse with Central Asia and in particular the +influx of Buddhism increased, and there was also a return wave of +Chinese influence westwards. Meanwhile two tribes, the Hephthalites +(or White Huns) and the Turks<a name="FNanchor_484_484" id="FNanchor_484_484"></a><a href="#Footnote_484_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a>, successively became masters of +Central Asia and founded states sometimes called Empires—that is to +say they overran vast tracts within which they took tribute without +establishing any definite constitution or frontiers.</p> + +<p>When the T'ang dynasty (618-907) re-united the Empire, the Chinese +Government with characteristic tenacity reverted to its old policy of +keeping the western road open and to its old methods. The Turks were +then divided into two branches, the northern and western, at war with +one another. The Chinese allied themselves with the latter, defeated +the northern Turks and occupied Turfan (640). Then in a series of +campaigns, in which they were supported by the Uigurs, they conquered +their former allies the western Turks and proceeded to organize the +Tarim basin under the name of the Four Garrisons<a name="FNanchor_485_485" id="FNanchor_485_485"></a><a href="#Footnote_485_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a>. This was the +most glorious period of China's foreign policy and at no other time +had she so great a position as a western power. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_199" id="Page_3_199"></a>[Pg 199]</span>list of her +possessions included Bokhara in the west and starting from +Semirechinsk and Tashkent in the north extended southwards so as to +embrace Afghanistan with the frontier districts of India and +Persia<a name="FNanchor_486_486" id="FNanchor_486_486"></a><a href="#Footnote_486_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a>. It is true that the Imperial authority in many of these +regions was merely nominal: when the Chinese conquered a tribe which +claimed sovereignty over them they claimed sovereignty themselves. But +for the history of civilization, for the migration of art and ideas, +even this nominal claim is important, for China was undoubtedly in +touch with India, Bokhara and Persia.</p> + +<p>But no sooner did these great vistas open, than new enemies appeared +to bar the road. The Tibetans descended into the Tarim basin and after +defeating the Chinese in 670 held the Four Garrisons till 692, when +the fortunes of war were reversed. But the field was not left clear +for China: the power of the northern Turks revived, and Mohammedanism, +then a new force but destined to ultimate triumph in politics and +religion alike, appeared in the west. The conquests of the Mohammedan +general Qutayba (705-715) extended to Ferghana and he attacked +Kashgar. In the long reign of Hsüan Tsung China waged a double warfare +against the Arabs and Tibetans. For about thirty years (719-751) the +struggle was successful. Even Tabaristan is said to have acknowledged +China's suzerainty. Her troops crossed the Hindu Kush and reached +Gilgit. But in 751 they sustained a crushing defeat near Tashkent. The +disaster was aggravated by the internal troubles of the Empire and it +was long before Chinese authority recovered from the blow<a name="FNanchor_487_487" id="FNanchor_487_487"></a><a href="#Footnote_487_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a>. The +Tibetans reaped the advantage. Except in Turfan, they were the +dominant power of the Tarim basin for a century, they took tribute +from China and when it was refused sacked the capital, Chang-an (763). +It would appear however that for a time Chinese garrisons held out in +Central Asia and Chinese officials exercised some authority, though +they obtained no support from the Empire<a name="FNanchor_488_488" id="FNanchor_488_488"></a><a href="#Footnote_488_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a>. But although even late +in the tenth century Khotan sent embassies to the Imperial Court, +China <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_200" id="Page_3_200"></a>[Pg 200]</span>gradually ceased to be a Central Asian power. She made a +treaty with the Tibetans (783) and an alliance with the Uigurs, who +now came to the front and occupied Turfan, where there was a +flourishing Uigur kingdom with Manichæism as the state religion from +about 750 to 843. In that year the Kirghiz sacked Turfan and it is +interesting to note that the Chinese who had hitherto tolerated +Manichæism as the religion of their allies, at once began to issue +restrictive edicts against it. But except in Turfan it does not appear +that the power of the Uigurs was weakened<a name="FNanchor_489_489" id="FNanchor_489_489"></a><a href="#Footnote_489_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a>. In 860-817 they broke +up Tibetan rule in the Tarim basin and formed a new kingdom of their +own which apparently included Kashgar, Urumtsi and Kucha but not +Khotan. The prince of Kashgar embraced Islam about 945, but the +conversion of Khotan and Turfan was later. With this conversion the +connection of the Tarim basin with the history of Buddhism naturally +ceases, for it does not appear that the triumphal progress of Lamaism +under Khubilai Khan affected these regions.</p> + +<h3>3</h3> + + +<p>The Tarim basin, though sometimes united under foreign rule, had no +indigenous national unity. Cities, or groups of towns, divided by +deserts lived their own civic life and enjoyed considerable +independence under native sovereigns, although the Chinese, Turks or +Tibetans quartered troops in them and appointed residents to supervise +the collection of tribute. The chief of these cities or oases were +Kashgar in the west: Kucha, Karashahr, Turfan (Idiqutshähri, Chotscho) +and Hami lying successively to the north-east: Yarkand, Khotan and +Miran to the south-east<a name="FNanchor_490_490" id="FNanchor_490_490"></a><a href="#Footnote_490_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a>. It may be well to review briefly the +special history of some of them.</p> + +<p>The relics found near Kashgar, the most western of these cities, are +comparatively few, probably because its position exposed it to the +destructive influence of Islam at an early date. Chinese writers +reproduce the name as Ch'ia-sha, Chieh-ch'a, etc., but also call the +region Su-lê, Shu-lê, or Sha-lê<a name="FNanchor_491_491" id="FNanchor_491_491"></a><a href="#Footnote_491_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a>. It is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_201" id="Page_3_201"></a>[Pg 201]</span>mentioned first in the +Han annals. After the missions of Chang-Ch'ien trade with Bactria and +Sogdiana grew rapidly and Kashgar which was a convenient emporium +became a Chinese protected state in the first century B.C. But when +the hold of China relaxed about the time of the Christian era it was +subdued by the neighbouring kingdom of Khotan. The conquests of +Pan-Ch'ao restored Chinese supremacy but early in the second century +the Yüeh-chih interfered in the politics of Kashgar and placed on the +throne a prince who was their tool. The introduction of Buddhism is +ascribed to this epoch<a name="FNanchor_492_492" id="FNanchor_492_492"></a><a href="#Footnote_492_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a>. If Kanishka was then reigning the +statement that he conquered Kashgar and Khotan is probably correct. It +is supported by Hsüan Chuang's story of the hostages and by his +assertion that Kanishka's rule extended to the east of the Ts'ung-ling +mountains: also by the discovery of Kanishka's coins in the Khotan +district. Little is heard of Kashgar until Fa-Hsien visited it in +400<a name="FNanchor_493_493" id="FNanchor_493_493"></a><a href="#Footnote_493_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a>. He speaks of the quinquennial religious conferences held by +the king, at one of which he was present, of relics of the Buddha and +of a monastery containing a thousand monks all students of the +Hinayana. About 460 the king sent as a present to the Chinese Court an +incombustible robe once worn by the Buddha. Shortly afterwards Kashgar +was incorporated in the dominions of the Hephthalites, and when these +succumbed to the western Turks about 465, it merely changed masters.</p> + +<p>Hsüan Chuang has left an interesting account of Kashgar as he found it +on his return journey<a name="FNanchor_494_494" id="FNanchor_494_494"></a><a href="#Footnote_494_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a>. The inhabitants were sincere Buddhists and +there were more than a thousand monks of the Sarvâstivâdin school. But +their knowledge was not in proportion to their zeal for they read the +scriptures diligently without understanding them. They used an Indian +alphabet into which they had introduced alterations.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_202" id="Page_3_202"></a>[Pg 202]</span>According to Hsüan Chuang's religious conspectus of these regions, +Kashgar, Osh and Kucha belonged to the Small Vehicle, Yarkand and +Khotan mainly to the Great. The Small Vehicle also flourished at Balkh +and at Bamian<a name="FNanchor_495_495" id="FNanchor_495_495"></a><a href="#Footnote_495_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a>. In Kapiśa the Great Vehicle was predominant but +there were also many Hindu sects: in the Kabul valley too Hinduism and +Buddhism seem to have been mixed: in Persia<a name="FNanchor_496_496" id="FNanchor_496_496"></a><a href="#Footnote_496_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a> there were several +hundred Sarvâstivâdin monks. In Tokhara (roughly equivalent to +Badakshan) there was some Buddhism but apparently it did not flourish +further north in the regions of Tashkent and Samarkand. In the latter +town there were two disused monasteries but when Hsüan Chuang's +companions entered them they were mobbed by the populace. He says that +these rioters were fire worshippers and that the Turks whom he visited +somewhere near Aulieata were of the same religion. This last statement +is perhaps inaccurate but the T'ang annals expressly state that the +population of Kashgar and Khotan was in part Zoroastrian<a name="FNanchor_497_497" id="FNanchor_497_497"></a><a href="#Footnote_497_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a>. No +mention of Nestorianism in Kashgar at this date has yet been +discovered, although in the thirteenth century it was a Nestorian see. +But since Nestorianism had penetrated even to China in the seventh +century, it probably also existed in Samarkand and Kashgar.</p> + +<p>The pilgrim Wu-K'ung spent five months in Kashgar about 786, but there +appear to be no later data of interest for the study of Buddhism.</p> + +<p>The town of Kucha<a name="FNanchor_498_498" id="FNanchor_498_498"></a><a href="#Footnote_498_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a> lies between Kashgar and Turfan, somewhat to +the west of Karashahr. In the second century B.C. it was already a +flourishing city. Numerous dated documents show that about 630 A.D. +the language of ordinary life was the interesting idiom sometimes +called Tokharian B, and, since the Chinese annals record no alien +invasion, we may conclude that Kucha existed as an Aryan colony +peopled by the speakers of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_203" id="Page_3_203"></a>[Pg 203]</span>this language some centuries before the +Christian era. It is mentioned in the Han annals and when brought into +contact with China in the reign of Wu-ti (140-87 B.C.) it became a +place of considerable importance, as it lay at the junction<a name="FNanchor_499_499" id="FNanchor_499_499"></a><a href="#Footnote_499_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a> of +the western trade routes leading to Kashgar and Aulieata respectively. +Kucha absorbed some Chinese civilization but its doubtful loyalty to +the Imperial throne often involved it in trouble. It is not until the +Western Tsin dynasty that we find it described as a seat of Buddhism. +The Tsin annals say that it was enclosed by a triple wall and +contained a thousand stupas and Buddhist temples as well as a +magnificent palace for the king<a name="FNanchor_500_500" id="FNanchor_500_500"></a><a href="#Footnote_500_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a>. This implies that Buddhism had +been established for some time but no evidence has been found to date +its introduction.</p> + +<p>In 383 Fu-chien, Emperor of the Tsin dynasty, sent his general +Lü-Kuang to subdue Kucha<a name="FNanchor_501_501" id="FNanchor_501_501"></a><a href="#Footnote_501_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a>. The expedition was successful and among +the captives taken was the celebrated Kumârajîva. Lü-Kuang was so +pleased with the magnificent and comfortable life of Kucha that he +thought of settling there but Kumârajîva prophesied that he was +destined to higher things. So they left to try their fortune in China. +Lü-Kuang rose to be ruler of the state known as Southern Liang and his +captive and adviser became one of the greatest names in Chinese +Buddhism.</p> + +<p>Kumârajîva is a noticeable figure and his career illustrates several +points of importance. First, his father came from India and he himself +went as a youth to study in Kipin (Kashmir) and then returned to +Kucha. Living in this remote corner of Central Asia he was recognized +as an encyclopædia of Indian learning including a knowledge of the +Vedas and "heretical śâstras." Secondly after his return to Kucha +he was converted to Mahayanism. Thirdly he went from Kucha to China +where he had a distinguished career as a translator. Thus we see how +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_204" id="Page_3_204"></a>[Pg 204]</span>China was brought into intellectual touch with India and how the +Mahayana was gaining in Central Asia territory previously occupied by +the Hinayana. The monk Dharmagupta who passed through Kucha about 584 +says that the king favoured Mahayanism<a name="FNanchor_502_502" id="FNanchor_502_502"></a><a href="#Footnote_502_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a>. That Kucha should have +been the home of distinguished translators is not strange for a +statement<a name="FNanchor_503_503" id="FNanchor_503_503"></a><a href="#Footnote_503_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a> has been preserved to the effect that Sanskrit texts +were used in the cities lying to the west of it, but that in Kucha +itself Indian languages were not understood and translations were +made, although such Sanskrit words as were easily intelligible were +retained.</p> + +<p>In the time of the Wei, Kucha again got into trouble with China and +was brought to order by another punitive expedition in 448. After this +lesson a long series of tribute-bearing missions is recorded, sent +first to the court of Wei, and afterwards to the Liang, Chou and Sui. +The notices respecting the country are to a large extent repetitions. +They praise its climate, fertility and mineral wealth: the +magnificence of the royal palace, the number and splendour of the +religious establishments. Peacocks were as common as fowls and the +Chinese annalists evidently had a general impression of a brilliant, +pleasure-loving and not very moral city. It was specially famous for +its music: the songs and dances of Kucha, performed by native artists, +were long in favour at the Imperial Court, and a list of twenty airs +has been preserved<a name="FNanchor_504_504" id="FNanchor_504_504"></a><a href="#Footnote_504_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a>.</p> + +<p>When the T'ang dynasty came to the throne Kucha sent an embassy to do +homage but again supported Karashahr in rebellion and again brought on +herself a punitive expedition (648). But the town was peaceful and +prosperous when visited by Hsüan Chuang about 630.</p> + +<p>His description agrees in substance with other notices, but he praises +the honesty of the people. He mentions that the king was a native and +that a much modified Indian alphabet was in use. As a churchman, he +naturally dwells with pleasure on the many monasteries and great +images, the quinquennial <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_205" id="Page_3_205"></a>[Pg 205]</span>assemblies and religious processions. +There were more than 100 monasteries with upwards of 5000 brethren who +all followed the Sarvâstivâda and the "gradual teaching," which +probably means the Hinayana as opposed to the sudden illumination +caused by Mahayanist revelation. The pilgrim differed from his hosts +on the matter of diet and would not join them in eating meat. But he +admits that the monks were strict according to their lights and that +the monasteries were centres of learning.</p> + +<p>In 658 Kucha was made the seat of government for the territory known +as the Four Garrisons. During the next century it sent several +missions to the Chinese and about 788 was visited by Wu-K'ung, who +indicates that music and Buddhism were still flourishing. He mentions +an Abbot who spoke with equal fluency the language of the country, +Chinese and Sanskrit. Nothing is known about Kucha from this date +until the eleventh century when we again hear of missions to the +Chinese Court. The annals mention them under the heading of Uigurs, +but Buddhism seems not to have been extinct for even in 1096 the Envoy +presented to the Emperor a jade Buddha. According to Hsüan Chuang's +account the Buddhism of Karashahr (Yenki) was the same as that of +Kucha and its monasteries enjoyed the same reputation for strictness +and learning.</p> + +<p>Turfan is an oasis containing the ruins of several cities and possibly +different sites were used as the capital at different periods. But the +whole area is so small that such differences can be of little +importance. The name Turfan appears to be modern. The Ming Annals<a name="FNanchor_505_505" id="FNanchor_505_505"></a><a href="#Footnote_505_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a> +state that this city lies in the land of ancient Ch'e-shih (or +Kü-shih) called Kao Ch'ang in the time of the Sui. This name was +abolished by the T'ang but restored by the Sung.</p> + +<p>The principal city now generally known as Chotscho seems to be +identical with Kao Ch'ang<a name="FNanchor_506_506" id="FNanchor_506_506"></a><a href="#Footnote_506_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a> and Idiqutshähri and is called by +Mohammedans Apsus or Ephesus, a curious designation connected with an +ancient sacred site renamed the Cave of the Seven Sleepers. Extensive +literary remains have been found in the oasis; they include works in +Sanskrit, Chinese, and various Iranian and Turkish idioms but also in +two dialects of so-called <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_206" id="Page_3_206"></a>[Pg 206]</span>Tokharian. Blue-eyed, red-haired and +red-bearded people are frequently portrayed on the walls of Turfan.</p> + +<p>But the early history of this people and of their civilization is +chiefly a matter of theory. In the Han period<a name="FNanchor_507_507" id="FNanchor_507_507"></a><a href="#Footnote_507_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a> there was a kingdom +called Kü-shih or Kiü-shih, with two capitals. It was destroyed in 60 +B.C. by the Chinese general Chêng-Chi and eight small principalities +were formed in its place. In the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. +Turfan had some connection with two ephemeral states which arose in +Kansu under the names of Hou Liang and Pei Liang. The former was +founded by Lü-Kuang, the general who, as related above, took Kucha. He +fell foul of a tribe in his territory called Chü-ch'ü, described as +belonging to the Hsiung-nu. Under their chieftain Mêng-hsün, who +devoted his later years to literature and Buddhism, this tribe took a +good deal of territory from the Hou Liang, in Turkestan as well as in +Kansu, and called their state Pei Liang. It was conquered by the Wei +dynasty in 439 and two members of the late reigning house determined +to try their fortune in Turfan and ruled there successively for about +twenty years. An Chou, the second of these princes, died in 480 and +his fame survives because nine years after his death a temple to +Maitreya was dedicated in his honour with a long inscription in +Chinese.</p> + +<p>Another line of Chinese rulers, bearing the family name of Ch'iu, +established themselves at Kao-ch'ang in 507 and under the Sui dynasty +one of them married a Chinese princess. Turfan paid due homage to the +T'ang dynasty on its accession but later it was found that tributary +missions coming from the west to the Chinese court were stopped there +and the close relations of its king with the western Turks inspired +alarm. Accordingly it was destroyed by the imperial forces in 640. +This is confirmed by the record of Hsüan Chuang. In his biography +there is a description of his reception by the king of Kao-ch'ang on +his outward journey. But in the account of his travels written after +his return he speaks of the city as no longer existent.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless the political and intellectual life of the oasis was not +annihilated. It was conquered by the Uigurs at an uncertain date, but +they were established there in the eighth and ninth centuries and +about 750 their Khan adopted Manichæism as the state religion. The +many manuscripts in Sogdian and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_207" id="Page_3_207"></a>[Pg 207]</span>other Persian dialects found at +Turfan show that it had an old and close connection with the west. It +is even possible that Mani may have preached there himself but it does +not appear that his teaching became influential until about 700 A.D. +The presence of Nestorianism is also attested. Tibetan influence too +must have affected Turfan in the eighth and ninth centuries for many +Tibetan documents have been found there although it seems to have been +outside the political sphere of Tibet. About 843 this Uigur Kingdom +was destroyed by the Kirghiz.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the massacres of Buddhist priests, clearly indicated by vaults +filled with skeletons still wearing fragments of the monastic robe, +occurred in this period. But Buddhism was not extinguished and +lingered here longer than in other parts of the Tarim basin. Even in +1420 the people of Turfan were Buddhists and the Ming Annals say that +at Huo-chou (or Kara-Khojo) there were more Buddhist temples than +dwelling houses.</p> + +<p>Let us now turn to Khotan<a name="FNanchor_508_508" id="FNanchor_508_508"></a><a href="#Footnote_508_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a>. This was the ancient as well as the +modern name of the principal city in the southern part of the Tarim +basin but was modified in Chinese to Yü-t'ien, in Sanskrit to +Kustana<a name="FNanchor_509_509" id="FNanchor_509_509"></a><a href="#Footnote_509_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a>. The Tibetan equivalent is Li-yul, the land of Li, but no +explanation of this designation is forthcoming.</p> + +<p>Traditions respecting the origin of Khotan are preserved in the +travels of Hsüan Chuang and also in the Tibetan scriptures, some of +which are expressly said to be translations from the language of Li. +These traditions are popular legends but they agree in essentials and +appear to contain a kernel of important truth namely that Khotan was +founded by two streams of colonization coming from China and from +India<a name="FNanchor_510_510" id="FNanchor_510_510"></a><a href="#Footnote_510_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a>, the latter being somehow connected with Asoka. It is +remarkable that the introduction of Buddhism is attributed not to +these original colonists but to a later missionary who, according to +Hsüan Chuang, came from Kashmir<a name="FNanchor_511_511" id="FNanchor_511_511"></a><a href="#Footnote_511_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_208" id="Page_3_208"></a>[Pg 208]</span>This traditional connection with India is confirmed by the +discovery of numerous documents written in Kharoshṭhî characters +and a Prakrit dialect. Their contents indicate that this Prakrit was +the language of common life and they were found in one heap with +Chinese documents dated 269 A.D. The presence of this alphabet and +language is not adequately explained by the activity of Buddhist +missionaries for in Khotan, as in other parts of Asia, the +concomitants of Buddhism are Sanskrit and the Brahmi alphabet.</p> + +<p>There was also Iranian influence in Khotan. It shows itself in art and +has left indubitable traces in the language called by some Nordarisch, +but when the speakers of that language reached the oasis or what part +they played there, we do not yet know.</p> + +<p>As a consequence of Chang Ch'ien's mission mentioned above, Khotan +sent an Embassy to the Chinese Court in the reign of Wu-ti (140-87 +B.C.) and the T'ang Annals state that its kings handed down the +insignia of Imperial investiture from that time onwards. There seems +however to have been a dynastic revolution about 60 A.D. and it is +possible that the Vijaya line of kings, mentioned in various Tibetan +works, then began to reign<a name="FNanchor_512_512" id="FNanchor_512_512"></a><a href="#Footnote_512_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a>. Khotan became a powerful state but +submitted to the conquering arms of Pan-Ch'ao and perhaps was +subsequently subdued by Kanishka. As the later Han dynasty declined, +it again became strong but continued to send embassies to the Imperial +Court. There is nothing more to mention until the visit of Fa-Hsien in +400. He describes "the pleasant and prosperous kingdom" with evident +gusto. There were some tens of thousands of monks mostly followers of +the Mahayana and in the country, where the homes of the people were +scattered "like stars" about the oases, each house had a small stupa +before the door. He stopped in a well ordered convent with 3000 monks +and mentions a magnificent establishment called The King's New +Monastery. He also describes a great car festival which shows the +Indian colour of Khotanese religion. Perhaps Fa-Hsien and Hsüan Chuang +unduly emphasize ecclesiastical features, but they also did not +hesitate to say when they thought things unsatisfactory and their +praise shows that Buddhism was flourishing.</p> + +<p>In the fifth and sixth centuries Khotan passed through troublous times +and was attacked by the Tanguts, Juan-Juan <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_209" id="Page_3_209"></a>[Pg 209]</span>and White Huns. +Throughout this stormy period missions were sent at intervals to China +to beg for help. The pilgrim Sung Yün<a name="FNanchor_513_513" id="FNanchor_513_513"></a><a href="#Footnote_513_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a> traversed the oasis in 519. +His account of the numerous banners bearing Chinese inscriptions hung +up in the temple of Han-mo proves that though the political influence +of China was weak, she was still in touch with the Tarim basin.</p> + +<p>When the T'ang effectively asserted their suzerainty in Central Asia, +Khotan was included in the Four Garrisons. The T'ang Annals while +repeating much which is found in earlier accounts, add some points of +interest, for they say that the Khotanese revere the God of Heaven +(Hsien shên) and also the Law of Buddha<a name="FNanchor_514_514" id="FNanchor_514_514"></a><a href="#Footnote_514_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a>. This undoubtedly means +that there were Zoroastrians as well as Buddhists, which is not +mentioned in earlier periods. The annals also mention that the king's +house was decorated with pictures and that his family name was Wei +Ch'ih. This may possibly be a Chinese rendering of Vijaya, the +Sanskrit name or title which according to Tibetan sources was borne by +all the sovereigns of Khotan.</p> + +<p>Hsüan Chuang broke his return journey at Khotan in 644. He mentions +the fondness of the people for music and says that their language +differed from that of other countries. The Mahâyâna was the prevalent +sect but the pilgrim stopped in a monastery of the +Sarvâstivâdins<a name="FNanchor_515_515" id="FNanchor_515_515"></a><a href="#Footnote_515_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a>. He describes several sites in the neighbourhood, +particularly the Go'sringa or Cow-horn mountain<a name="FNanchor_516_516" id="FNanchor_516_516"></a><a href="#Footnote_516_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a>, supposed to have +been visited by the Buddha. Though he does not mention Zoroastrians, +he notices that the people of P'i-mo near Khotan were not Buddhists.</p> + +<p>About 674 the king of Khotan did personal homage at the Chinese Court. +The Emperor constituted his territory into a government called +P'i-sha after the deity P'i-sha-mên or Vai'sravana and made him +responsible for its administration. Another king did homage between +742 and 755 and received an imperial princess as his consort. Chinese +political influence was effective until the last decade of the eighth +century but after 790 the conquests of the Tibetans put an end to it +and there is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_210" id="Page_3_210"></a>[Pg 210]</span>no mention of Khotan in the Chinese Annals for about +150 years. Numerous Tibetan manuscripts and inscriptions found at +Endere testify to these conquests. The rule of the Uigurs who replaced +Tibet as the dominant power in Turfan and the northern Tarim basin +does not appear to have extended to Khotan.</p> + +<p>It is not till 938 that we hear of renewed diplomatic relations with +China. The Imperial Court received an embassy from Khotan and deemed +it of sufficient importance to despatch a special mission in return. +Eight other embassies were sent to China in the tenth century and at +least three of them were accompanied by Buddhist priests. Their object +was probably to solicit help against the attacks of Mohammedans. No +details are known as to the Mohammedan conquest but it apparently took +place between 970 and 1009 after a long struggle.</p> + +<p>Another cultural centre of the Tarim basin must have existed in the +oases near Lob-nor where Miran and a nameless site to the north of the +lake have been investigated by Stein. They have yielded numerous +Tibetan documents, but also fine remains of Gandharan art and Prakrit +documents written in the Kharoshthî character. Probably the use of +this language and alphabet was not common further east, for though a +Kharoshthî fragment was found by Stein in an old Chinese frontier +post<a name="FNanchor_517_517" id="FNanchor_517_517"></a><a href="#Footnote_517_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a> the library of Tun-huang yielded no specimens of them. That +library, however, dating apparently from the epoch of the T'ang, +contained some Sanskrit Buddhist literature and was rich in Sogdian, +Turkish, and Tibetan manuscripts.</p> + +<h3>4</h3> + + +<p>Ample as are the materials for the study of Buddhism in Central Asia +those hitherto published throw little light on the time and manner of +its introduction. At present much is hypothetical for we have few +historical data—such as the career of Kumârajîva and the inscription +on the Temple of Maitreya at Turfan—but a great mass of literary and +artistic evidence from which various deductions can be drawn.</p> + +<p>It is clear that there was constant intercourse with India and the +Oxus region. The use of Prakrit and of various Iranian idioms points +to actual colonization from these two quarters and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_211" id="Page_3_211"></a>[Pg 211]</span>it is probable +that there were two streams of Buddhism, for the Chinese pilgrims +agree that Shan-shan (near Lob-nor), Turfan, Kucha and Kashgar were +Hînayânist, whereas Yarkand and Khotan were Mahâyânist. Further, much +of the architecture, sculpture and painting is simply Gandharan and +the older specimens can hardly be separated from the Gandharan art of +India by any considerable interval. This art was in part coeval with +Kanishka, and if his reign began in 78 A.D. or later the first +specimens of it cannot be much anterior to the Christian era. The +earliest Chinese notices of the existence of Buddhism in Kashgar and +Kucha date from 400 (Fa-Hsien) and the third century (Annals of the +Tsin, 265-317) respectively, but they speak of it as the national +religion and munificently endowed, so that it may well have been +established for some centuries. In Turfan the first definite record is +the dedication of a temple to Maitreya in 469 but probably the history +of religion there was much the same as in Kucha.</p> + +<p>It is only in Khotan that tradition, if not history, gives a more +detailed narrative. This is found in the works of the Chinese pilgrims +Hsüan Chuang and Sung Yün and also in four Tibetan works which are +apparently translated from the language of Khotan<a name="FNanchor_518_518" id="FNanchor_518_518"></a><a href="#Footnote_518_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a>. As the story +is substantially the same in all, it merits consideration and may be +accepted as the account current in the literary circles of Khotan +about 500 A.D. It relates that the Indians who were part-founders of +that city in the reign of Asoka were not Buddhists<a name="FNanchor_519_519" id="FNanchor_519_519"></a><a href="#Footnote_519_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a> and the +Tibetan version places the conversion with great apparent accuracy +170 years after the foundation of the kingdom and 404 after the death +of the Buddha. At that time a monk named Vairocana, who was an +incarnation of Manjuśri, came to Khotan, according to Hsüan Chuang +from Kashmir<a name="FNanchor_520_520" id="FNanchor_520_520"></a><a href="#Footnote_520_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a>. He is said to have introduced a new language as +well as Mahâyânism, and the king, Vijayasambhava, built for him the +great monastery of Tsarma outside the capital, which was miraculously +supplied with relics. We cannot be sure <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_212" id="Page_3_212"></a>[Pg 212]</span>that the Tibetan dates +were intended to have the meaning they would bear for our chronology, +that is about 80 B.C., but if they had, there is nothing improbable in +the story, for other traditions assert that Buddhism was preached in +Kashmir in the time of Asoka. On the other hand, there was a dynastic +change in Khotan about 60 A.D. and the monarch who then came to the +throne may have been Vijayasambhava.</p> + +<p>According to the Tibetan account no more monasteries were built for +seven reigns. The eighth king built two, one on the celebrated +Gośirsha or Gośringa mountain. In the eleventh reign after +Vijayasambhava, more chaityas and viharas were built in connection +with the introduction of the silkworm industry. Subsequently, but +without any clear indication of date, the introduction of the +Mahâsanghika and Sarvâstivâdin schools is mentioned.</p> + +<p>The Tibetan annals also mention several persecutions of Buddhism in +Khotan as a result of which the monks fled to Tibet and Bruzha. Their +chronology is confused but seems to make these troubles coincide with +a persecution in Tibet, presumably that of Lang-dar-ma. If so, the +persecution in Khotan must have been due to the early attacks of +Mohammedans which preceded the final conquest in about 1000 A.D.<a name="FNanchor_521_521" id="FNanchor_521_521"></a><a href="#Footnote_521_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a></p> + +<p>Neither the statements of the Chinese annalists about Central Asia nor +its own traditions prove that Buddhism flourished there before the +Christian era. But they do not disprove it and even if the dream of +the Emperor Ming-Ti and the consequent embassy are dismissed as +legends, it is admitted that Buddhism penetrated to China by land not +later than the early decades of that era. It must therefore have been +known in Central Asia previously and perhaps Khotan was the place +where it first flourished.</p> + +<p>It is fairly certain that about 160 B.C. the Yüeh-chih moved westwards +and settled in the lands of the Oxus after ejecting the Sakas, but +like many warlike nomads they may have oscillated between the east and +west, recoiling if they struck against a powerful adversary in either +quarter. Le Coq has put forward an interesting theory of their origin. +It is that they were one of the tribes known as Scythians in Europe +and at an unknown <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_213" id="Page_3_213"></a>[Pg 213]</span>period moved eastwards from southern Russia, +perhaps leaving traces of their presence in the monuments still +existing in the district of Minussinsk. He also identifies them with +the red-haired, blue-eyed people of the Chotscho frescoes and the +speakers of the Tokharian language. But these interesting hypotheses +cannot be regarded as proved. It is, however, certain that the +Yüeh-chih invaded India<a name="FNanchor_522_522" id="FNanchor_522_522"></a><a href="#Footnote_522_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a>, founded the Kushan Empire and were +intimately connected (especially in the person of their great king +Kanishka) with Gandharan art and the form of Buddhism which finds +expression in it. Now the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien (<i>c</i>. 400) found +the Hînayâna prevalent in Shan-shan, Kucha, Kashgar, Osh, Udyana and +Gandhara. Hsüan Chuang also notes its presence in Balkh, Bamian, and +Persia. Both notice that the Mahâyâna was predominant in Khotan though +not to the exclusion of the other school. It would appear that in +modern language the North-West Frontier province of India, +Afghanistan, Badakshan (with small adjoining states), the Pamir +regions and the Tarim basin all accepted Gandharan Buddhism and at one +time formed part of the Kushan Empire.</p> + +<p>It is probably to this Gandharan Buddhism that the Chinese pilgrims +refer when they speak of the Sarvâstivâdin school of the Hînayâna as +prevalent. It is known that this school was closely connected with the +Council of Kanishka. Its metaphysics were decidedly not Mahâyânist but +there is no reason why it should have objected to the veneration of +such Bodhisattvas as are portrayed in the Gandhara sculptures. An +interesting passage in the life of Hsüan Chuang relates that he had a +dispute in Kucha with a Mahâyânist doctor who maintained that the +books called Tsa-hsin, Chü-shê, and P'i-sha were sufficient for +salvation, and denounced the Yogaśâstra as heretical, to the great +indignation of the pilgrim<a name="FNanchor_523_523" id="FNanchor_523_523"></a><a href="#Footnote_523_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a> whose practical definition of +Mahâyânism seems to have been the acceptance of this work, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_214" id="Page_3_214"></a>[Pg 214]</span>reputed +to have been revealed by Maitreya to Asanga. Such a definition and +division might leave in the Hînayâna much that we should not expect to +find there.</p> + +<p>The Mahâyânist Buddhism of Khotan was a separate stream and Hsüan +Chuang says that it came from Kashmir. Though Kashmir is not known as +a centre of Mahâyânism, yet it would be a natural route for men and +ideas passing from any part of India to Khotan.</p> + +<h3>5</h3> + + +<p>The Tarim basin and the lands of the Oxus<a name="FNanchor_524_524" id="FNanchor_524_524"></a><a href="#Footnote_524_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a> were a region where +different religions and cultures mingled and there is no difficulty in +supposing that Buddhism might have amalgamated there with +Zoroastrianism or Christianity. The question is whether there is any +evidence for such amalgamation. It is above all in its relations with +China that Central Asia appears as an exchange of religions. It passed +on to China the art and thought of India, perhaps adding something of +its own on the way and then received them back from China with further +additions<a name="FNanchor_525_525" id="FNanchor_525_525"></a><a href="#Footnote_525_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a>. It certainly received a great deal from Persia: the +number of manuscripts in different Iranian languages puts this beyond +doubt. Equally undoubted is its debt to India, but it would be of even +greater interest to determine whether Indian Buddhism owes a debt to +Central Asia and to define that debt. For Tibet the relation was +mutual. The Tibetans occupied the Tarim basin during a century and +according to their traditions monks went from Khotan to instruct +Tibet.</p> + +<p>The Buddhist literature discovered in Central Asia represents, like +its architecture, several periods. We have first of all the fragments +of the Sanskrit Agamas, found at Turfan, Tun-huang, and in the Khotan +district: fragments of the dramas and poems of Aśvaghosha from +Turfan: the Prâtimoksha of the Sarvastivâdins from Kucha and numerous +versions of the anthology called Dharmapada or Udâna. The most +interesting of these is the Prakrit version found in the neighbourhood +of Khotan, but fragments in Tokharian and Sanskrit have also been +discovered. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_215" id="Page_3_215"></a>[Pg 215]</span>All this literature probably represents the canon as +it existed in the epoch of Kanishka and of the Gandharan sculptures, +or at least the older stratum in that canon.</p> + +<p>The newer stratum is composed of Mahâyânist sutras of which there is a +great abundance, though no complete list has been published<a name="FNanchor_526_526" id="FNanchor_526_526"></a><a href="#Footnote_526_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a>. The +popularity of the Prajñâ-pâramitâ, the Lotus and the +Suvarṇa-prabhâsa is attested. The last was translated into both +Uigur (from the Chinese) and into "Iranien Oriental." To a still later +epoch<a name="FNanchor_527_527" id="FNanchor_527_527"></a><a href="#Footnote_527_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a> belong the Dhâraṇîs or magical formulæ which have been +discovered in considerable quantities.</p> + +<p>Sylvain Lévi has shown that some Mahâyânist sutras were either written +or re-edited in Central Asia<a name="FNanchor_528_528" id="FNanchor_528_528"></a><a href="#Footnote_528_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a>. Not only do they contain lists of +Central Asian place-names but these receive an importance which can be +explained only by the local patriotism of the writer or the public +which he addressed. Thus the Sûryagarbha sutra praises the mountain of +Gośringa near Khotan much as the Puranas celebrate in special +chapters called Mâhâtmyas the merits of some holy place. Even more +remarkable is a list in the Chandragarbha sutra. The Buddha in one of +the great transformation scenes common in these works sends forth rays +of light which produce innumerable manifestations of Buddhas. India +(together with what is called the western region) has a total of 813 +manifestations, whereas Central Asia and China have 971. Of these the +whole Chinese Empire has 255, the kingdoms of Khotan and Kucha have +180 and 99 respectively, but only 60 are given to Benares and 30 to +Magadha. Clearly Central Asia was a very important place for the +author of this list<a name="FNanchor_529_529" id="FNanchor_529_529"></a><a href="#Footnote_529_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a>.</p> + +<p>One of the Turkish sutras discovered at Turfan contains a discourse of +the Buddha to the merchants Trapusha and Bhallika who are described as +Turks and Indra is called Kormusta, that is Hormuzd. In another +Brahmâ is called Aṣrua, identified as the Iranian deity +Zervan<a name="FNanchor_530_530" id="FNanchor_530_530"></a><a href="#Footnote_530_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a>. In these instances no innovation of doctrine is implied +but when the world of spirits and men <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_216" id="Page_3_216"></a>[Pg 216]</span>becomes Central Asian +instead of Indian, it is only natural that the doctrine too should +take on some local colour<a name="FNanchor_531_531" id="FNanchor_531_531"></a><a href="#Footnote_531_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a>.</p> + +<p>Thus the dated inscription of the temple erected in Turfan A.D. 469 is +a mixture of Chinese ideas, both Confucian and Taoist, with Indian. It +is in honour of Maitreya, a Bodhisattva known to the Hînayâna, but +here regarded not merely as the future Buddha but as an active and +benevolent deity who manifests himself in many forms<a name="FNanchor_532_532" id="FNanchor_532_532"></a><a href="#Footnote_532_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a>, a view +which also finds expression in the tradition that the works of Asanga +were revelations made by him. Akâśagarbha and the Dharmakâya are +mentioned. But the inscription also speaks of heaven (t'ien) as +appointing princes, and of the universal law (tao) and it contains +several references to Chinese literature.</p> + +<p>Even more remarkable is the admixture of Buddhism in Manichæism. The +discoveries made in Central Asia make intelligible the Chinese edict +of 739 which accuses the Manichæans of falsely taking the name of +Buddhism and deceiving the people<a name="FNanchor_533_533" id="FNanchor_533_533"></a><a href="#Footnote_533_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a>. This is not surprising for +Mani seems to have taught that Zoroaster, Buddha and Christ had +preceded him as apostles, and in Buddhist countries his followers +naturally adopted words and symbols familiar to the people. Thus +Manichæan deities are represented like Bodhisattvas sitting +cross-legged on a lotus; Mani receives the epithet Ju-lai or +Tathâgata: as in Amida's Paradise, there are holy trees bearing +flowers which enclose beings styled Buddha: the construction and +phraseology of Manichæan books resemble those of a Buddhist +Sutra<a name="FNanchor_534_534" id="FNanchor_534_534"></a><a href="#Footnote_534_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a>. In some ways the association of Taoism and Manichæism was +even closer, for the Hu-hua-ching identifies Buddha with Lao-tzû and +Mani, and two Manichæan books have passed into the Taoist Canon<a name="FNanchor_535_535" id="FNanchor_535_535"></a><a href="#Footnote_535_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_217" id="Page_3_217"></a>[Pg 217]</span>Nestorian Christianity also existed in the Tarim basin and became +prominent in the seventh century. This agrees with the record of its +introduction into China by A-lo-pen in 635 A.D., almost simultaneously +with Zoroastrianism. Fragments of the New Testament have been found at +Turfan belonging mostly to the ninth century but one to the fifth. The +most interesting document for the history of Nestorianism is still the +monument discovered at Si-ngan-fu and commonly called the Nestorian +stone<a name="FNanchor_536_536" id="FNanchor_536_536"></a><a href="#Footnote_536_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a>. It bears a long inscription partly in Chinese and partly +in Syriac composed by a foreign priest called Adam or in Chinese +King-Tsing giving a long account of the doctrines and history of +Nestorianism. Not only does this inscription contain many Buddhist +phrases (such as Sêng and Ssû for Christian priests and monasteries) +but it deliberately omits all mention of the crucifixion and merely +says in speaking of the creation that God arranged the cardinal points +in the shape of a cross. This can hardly be explained as due to +incomplete statement for it reviews in some detail the life of Christ +and its results. The motive of omission must be the feeling that +redemption by his death was not an acceptable doctrine<a name="FNanchor_537_537" id="FNanchor_537_537"></a><a href="#Footnote_537_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a>. It is +interesting to find that King-Tsing consorted with Buddhist priests +and even set about translating a sutra from the Hu language. Takakusu +quotes a passage from one of the catalogues of the Japanese +Tripitaka<a name="FNanchor_538_538" id="FNanchor_538_538"></a><a href="#Footnote_538_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a> which states that he was a Persian and collaborated +with a monk of Kapiśa called Prajña.</p> + +<p>We have thus clear evidence not only of the co-existence of Buddhism +and Christianity but of friendly relations between Buddhist and +Christian priests. The Emperor's objection to such commixture of +religions was unusual and probably due to zeal for pure Buddhism. It +is possible that in western China and Central Asia Buddhism, Taoism, +Manichæism, Nestorianism and Zoroastrianism all borrowed from one +another just as the first two do in China to-day and Buddhism may have +become modified by this contact. But proof of it is necessary. In most +places Buddhism was in strength and numbers the most <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_218" id="Page_3_218"></a>[Pg 218]</span>important of +all these religions and older than all except Zoroastrianism. Its +contact with Manichæism may possibly date from the life of Mani, but +apparently the earliest Christian manuscripts found in Central Asia +are to be assigned to the fifth century.</p> + +<p>On the other hand the Chinese Tripiṭaka contains many translations +which bear an earlier date than this and are ascribed to translators +connected with the Yüeh-chih. I see no reason to doubt the statements +that the Happy Land sutra and Prajñâ-pâramitâ (Nanjio, 25, 5) were +translated before 200 A.D. and portions of the Avataṃsaka and Lotus +(Nanjio, 100, 103, 138) before 300 A.D. But if so, the principal +doctrines of Mahayanist Buddhism must have been known in Khotan<a name="FNanchor_539_539" id="FNanchor_539_539"></a><a href="#Footnote_539_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a> +and the lands of Oxus before we have definite evidence for the +presence of Christianity there.</p> + +<p>Zoroastrianism may however have contributed to the development and +transformation of Buddhism for the two were certainly in contact. Thus +the coins of Kanishka bear figures of Persian deities<a name="FNanchor_540_540" id="FNanchor_540_540"></a><a href="#Footnote_540_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a> more +frequently than images of the Buddha: we know from Chinese sources +that the two religions co-existed at Khotan and Kashgar and possibly +there are hostile references to Buddhism (Buiti and Gaotema the +heretic) in the Persian scriptures<a name="FNanchor_541_541" id="FNanchor_541_541"></a><a href="#Footnote_541_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a>.</p> + +<p>It is true that we should be cautious in fancying that we detect a +foreign origin for the Mahâyâna. Different as it may be from the +Buddhism of the Pali Canon, it is an Indian not an exotic growth. +Deification, pantheism, the creation of radiant or terrible deities, +extreme forms of idealism or nihilism in metaphysics are tendencies +manifested in Hinduism as clearly as in Buddhism. Even the doctrine of +the Buddha's three bodies, which sounds like an imitation of the +Christian Trinity, has roots in the centuries before the Christian +era. But late Buddhism indubitably borrowed many personages from the +Hindu pantheon, and when we find Buddhas and Bodhisattvas such as +Amitâbha, Avalokita, Manjuśrî and Kshitigarbha without clear +antecedents in India we may suspect that they are borrowed from some +other mythology, and if similar figures were known to Zoroastrianism, +that may be their source.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_219" id="Page_3_219"></a>[Pg 219]</span>The most important of them is Amitâbha. He is strangely obscure in +the earlier art and literature of Indian Buddhism. Some of the +nameless Buddha figures in the Gandharan sculptures may represent him, +but this is not proved and the works of Grünwedel and Foucher suggest +that compared with Avalokita and Târâ his images are late and not +numerous. In the earlier part of the Lotus<a name="FNanchor_542_542" id="FNanchor_542_542"></a><a href="#Footnote_542_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a> he is only just +mentioned as if he were of no special importance. He is also mentioned +towards the end of the Awakening of Faith ascribed to Aśvaghosha, +but the authorship of the work cannot be regarded as certain and, if +it were, the passage stands apart from the main argument and might +well be an addition. Again in the Mahâyâna-sûtrâlaṇkâra<a name="FNanchor_543_543" id="FNanchor_543_543"></a><a href="#Footnote_543_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a> of +Asanga, his paradise is just mentioned.</p> + +<p>Against these meagre and cursory notices in Indian literature may be +set the fact that two translations of the principal Amidist scripture +into Chinese were made in the second century A.D. and four in the +third, all by natives of Central Asia. The inference that the worship +of Amitâbha flourished in Central Asia some time before the earliest +of these translations is irresistible.</p> + +<p>According to Târanâtha, the Tibetan historian of Buddhism<a name="FNanchor_544_544" id="FNanchor_544_544"></a><a href="#Footnote_544_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a>, this +worship goes back to Saraha or Rahulabhadra. He was reputed to have +been the teacher of Nâgârjuna and a great magician. He saw Amitâbha in +the land of Dhingkoṭa and died with his face turned towards +Sukhâvatî. I have found no explanation of the name Dhingkoṭa but +the name Saraha does not sound Indian. He is said to have been a sudra +and he is represented in Tibetan pictures with a beard and topknot +and holding an arrow<a name="FNanchor_545_545" id="FNanchor_545_545"></a><a href="#Footnote_545_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a> in his hand. In all this there is little +that can be called history, but still it appears that the first person +whom tradition connects with the worship of Amitâbha was of low caste, +bore a foreign name, saw the deity in an unknown country, and like +many tantric teachers was represented as totally unlike a Buddhist +monk. It cannot be proved that he came from the lands of the Oxus or +Turkestan, but such an <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_220" id="Page_3_220"></a>[Pg 220]</span>origin would explain much in the tradition. +On the other hand, there would be no difficulty in accounting for +Zoroastrian influence at Peshawar or Takkasila within the frontiers of +India.</p> + +<p>Somewhat later Vasubandhu is stated to have preached faith in Amitâbha +but it does not appear that this doctrine ever had in India a tithe of +the importance which it obtained in the Far East.</p> + +<p>The essential features of Amidist doctrine are that there is a +paradise of light belonging to a benevolent deity and that the +good<a name="FNanchor_546_546" id="FNanchor_546_546"></a><a href="#Footnote_546_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a> who invoke his name will be led thither. Both features are +found in Zoroastrian writings. The highest heaven (following after the +paradises of good thoughts, good words and good deeds) is called +Boundless Light or Endless Light<a name="FNanchor_547_547" id="FNanchor_547_547"></a><a href="#Footnote_547_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a>. Both this region and its +master, Ahuramazda, are habitually spoken of in terms implying +radiance and glory. Also it is a land of song, just as Amitâbha's +paradise re-echoes with music and pleasant sounds<a name="FNanchor_548_548" id="FNanchor_548_548"></a><a href="#Footnote_548_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a>. Prayers can +win this paradise and Ahura Mazda and the Archangels will come and +show the way thither to the pious<a name="FNanchor_549_549" id="FNanchor_549_549"></a><a href="#Footnote_549_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a>. Further whoever recites the +Ahuna-vairya formula, Ahura Mazda will bring his soul to "the lights +of heaven<a name="FNanchor_550_550" id="FNanchor_550_550"></a><a href="#Footnote_550_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a>," and although, so far as I know, it is not expressly +stated that the repetition of Ahura Mazda's name leads to paradise, +yet the general efficacy of his names as invocations is clearly +affirmed<a name="FNanchor_551_551" id="FNanchor_551_551"></a><a href="#Footnote_551_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a>.</p> + +<p>Thus all the chief features of Amitâbha's paradise are Persian: only +his method of instituting it by making a vow is Buddhist. It is true +that Indian imagination had conceived numerous paradises, and that the +early Buddhist legend tells of the Tushita heaven. But Sukhâvatî is +not like these abodes of bliss. It appears suddenly in the history of +Buddhism as something exotic, grafted adroitly on the parent trunk but +sometimes overgrowing it<a name="FNanchor_552_552" id="FNanchor_552_552"></a><a href="#Footnote_552_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_221" id="Page_3_221"></a>[Pg 221]</span>Avalokita is also connected with Amitâbha's paradise. His figure, +though its origin is not clear, assumes distinct and conspicuous +proportions in India at a fairly early date. There appears to be no +reason for associating him specially with Central Asia. On the other +hand later works describe him as the spiritual son or reflex of +Amitâbha. This certainly recalls the Iranian idea of the Fravashi +defined as "a spiritual being conceived as a part of a man's +personality but existing before he is born and in independence of him: +it can also belong to divine beings<a name="FNanchor_553_553" id="FNanchor_553_553"></a><a href="#Footnote_553_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a>." Although India offers in +abundance both divine incarnations and explanations thereof yet none +of these describe the relationship between a Dhyânî Buddha and his +Boddhisattva so well as the Zoroastrian doctrine of the Fravashi.</p> + +<p>S. Lévi has suggested that the Bodhisattva Manjuśrî is of Tokharian +origin<a name="FNanchor_554_554" id="FNanchor_554_554"></a><a href="#Footnote_554_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a>. His worship at Wu-tai-shan in Shan-si is ancient and +later Indian tradition connected him with China. Local traditions also +connect him with Nepal, Tibet, and Khotan, and he is sometimes +represented as the first teacher of civilization or religion. But +although his Central Asian origin is eminently probable, I do not at +present see any clear proof of it.</p> + +<p>The case of the Bodhisattva Kshitigarbha<a name="FNanchor_555_555" id="FNanchor_555_555"></a><a href="#Footnote_555_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a> is similar. He appears +to have been known but not prominent in India in the fourth century +A.D.: by the seventh century if not earlier his cult was flourishing +in China and subsequently he became in the Far East a popular deity +second only to Kuan-yin. This popularity was connected with his +gradual transformation into a god of the dead. It is also certain that +he was known in Central Asia<a name="FNanchor_556_556" id="FNanchor_556_556"></a><a href="#Footnote_556_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a> but whether he first became +important there or in China is hard to decide. The devotion of the +Chinese to their dead suggests that it was among them that he acquired +his great position, but his rôle as a guide to the next world has a +parallel in the similar benevolent activity of the Zoroastrian angel +Srosh.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_222" id="Page_3_222"></a>[Pg 222]</span>One of Central Asia's clearest titles to importance in the history +of the East is that it was the earliest and on the whole the +principal source of Chinese Buddhism, to which I now turn. Somewhat +later, teachers also came to China by sea and still later, under the +Yüan dynasty, Lamaism was introduced direct from Tibet. But from at +least the beginning of our era onwards, monks went eastwards from +Central Asia to preach and translate the scriptures and it was across +Central Asia that Chinese pilgrims went to India in search of the +truth.</p> + + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_459_459" id="Footnote_459_459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_459_459"><span class="label">[459]</span></a> See Lüders, <i>Bruchstücke Buddhistischer Dramen</i>, 1911, +and <i>id., Das Sâriputra-prakarana</i>, 1911.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_460_460" id="Footnote_460_460"></a><a href="#FNanchor_460_460"><span class="label">[460]</span></a> See Senart, "Le ms Kharoshṭhî du Dhammapada," in +<i>J.A.</i>, 1898, II. p. 193.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_461_461" id="Footnote_461_461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_461_461"><span class="label">[461]</span></a> Lüders, "Die Śakas und die Nordarische Sprache," +<i>Sitzungsber. der Kōn. Preuss. Akad</i>. 1913. Konow, <i>Gōtting. +Gel. Anz</i>. 1912, pp. 551 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_462_462" id="Footnote_462_462"></a><a href="#FNanchor_462_462"><span class="label">[462]</span></a> See Hoernle in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1910, pp. 837 ff. and 1283 +ff.; 1911, pp. 202 ff., 447 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_463_463" id="Footnote_463_463"></a><a href="#FNanchor_463_463"><span class="label">[463]</span></a> An old Turkish text about Maitreya states that it was +translated from an Indian language into Tokhri and from Tokhri into +Turkish. See F.K.W. Müller, <i>Sitzungsber. der Kön. Preuss. Akad</i>. +1907, p. 958. But it is not clear what is meant by Tokhri.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_464_464" id="Footnote_464_464"></a><a href="#FNanchor_464_464"><span class="label">[464]</span></a> The following are some words in this language: Kant, a +hundred; rake, a word; por, fire; soye, son (Greek υἱός); suwan, +swese, rain (Greek ὔει ὑετύς); âlyek, another; okso, an ox.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_465_465" id="Footnote_465_465"></a><a href="#FNanchor_465_465"><span class="label">[465]</span></a> The numerous papers on this language are naturally +quickly superseded. But Sieg and Siegling Tokharisch, "Die Sprache der +Indoskythen" (<i>Sitzungsber. der Berl. Ak. Wiss</i>. 1908, p. 815), may be +mentioned and Sylvain Lévi, "Tokharien B, Langue de Kouteha," <i>J.A.</i> +1913, II. p. 311.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_466_466" id="Footnote_466_466"></a><a href="#FNanchor_466_466"><span class="label">[466]</span></a> See Radloff Tisastvustik (<i>Bibl. Buddh.</i> vol. xii.), p. +v. This manuscript came from Urumtsi. A translation of a portion of +the Saddharma-pundarîka (<i>Bibl. Buddh.</i> xiv.) was found at Turfan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_467_467" id="Footnote_467_467"></a><a href="#FNanchor_467_467"><span class="label">[467]</span></a> Laufer in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1907, p. 392; Radloff, +<i>Kuan-si-im Pursar</i>, p. vii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_468_468" id="Footnote_468_468"></a><a href="#FNanchor_468_468"><span class="label">[468]</span></a> See especially Stein's <i>Ancient Khotan</i>, app. B, and +Francke in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1914, p. 37.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_469_469" id="Footnote_469_469"></a><a href="#FNanchor_469_469"><span class="label">[469]</span></a> Chavannes, <i>Les documents chinois découverts par Aurel +Stein</i>, 1913.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_470_470" id="Footnote_470_470"></a><a href="#FNanchor_470_470"><span class="label">[470]</span></a> See especially Chavannes and Pelliot, "Traité +Manichéen" in <i>J.A.</i> 1911 and 1913.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_471_471" id="Footnote_471_471"></a><a href="#FNanchor_471_471"><span class="label">[471]</span></a> Hsüan Chuang notes its existence however in Kabul and +Kapiśa.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_472_472" id="Footnote_472_472"></a><a href="#FNanchor_472_472"><span class="label">[472]</span></a> See for these Fergusson-Burgess, <i>History of Indian +Architecture</i>, I. pp. 125-8.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_473_473" id="Footnote_473_473"></a><a href="#FNanchor_473_473"><span class="label">[473]</span></a> <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1909, p. 313.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_474_474" id="Footnote_474_474"></a><a href="#FNanchor_474_474"><span class="label">[474]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Grünwedel, <i>Altbuddhistische Kultstätten</i>, fig. +624.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_475_475" id="Footnote_475_475"></a><a href="#FNanchor_475_475"><span class="label">[475]</span></a> Stein, <i>Ancient Khotan</i>, plates xiii-xvii and xl, pp. +83 and 482 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_476_476" id="Footnote_476_476"></a><a href="#FNanchor_476_476"><span class="label">[476]</span></a> See Grünwedel, <i>Buddh. Kultstätten</i>, pp. 129-130 and +plate. Foucher, "L'Art Gréco-Bouddhique," p. 145, <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1886, 333 +and plate i.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_477_477" id="Footnote_477_477"></a><a href="#FNanchor_477_477"><span class="label">[477]</span></a> See Wachsberger's "Stil-kritische Studien zur Kunst +Chinesisch-Turkestan's" in <i>Ostasiatische Ztsft.</i> 1914 and 1915.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_478_478" id="Footnote_478_478"></a><a href="#FNanchor_478_478"><span class="label">[478]</span></a> See Grünwedel, <i>Buddh. Kultstätten</i>, pp. 332 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_479_479" id="Footnote_479_479"></a><a href="#FNanchor_479_479"><span class="label">[479]</span></a> <i>Ancient Khotan</i>, vol. II. plates lx and lxi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_480_480" id="Footnote_480_480"></a><a href="#FNanchor_480_480"><span class="label">[480]</span></a> Le Coq in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1909, pp. 299 ff. See the whole +article.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_481_481" id="Footnote_481_481"></a><a href="#FNanchor_481_481"><span class="label">[481]</span></a> For some of the more striking drawings referred to see +Grünwedel, <i>Buddh. Kultstätten</i>, figs. 51, 53, 239, 242, 317, 337, +345-349.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_482_482" id="Footnote_482_482"></a><a href="#FNanchor_482_482"><span class="label">[482]</span></a> In <i>Geog. Journal</i>, May 1916, p. 362.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_483_483" id="Footnote_483_483"></a><a href="#FNanchor_483_483"><span class="label">[483]</span></a> Chavannes, <i>Documents chinois découverts par Aurel +Stein</i>, 1913.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_484_484" id="Footnote_484_484"></a><a href="#FNanchor_484_484"><span class="label">[484]</span></a> These of course are not the Osmanlis or Turks of +Constantinople. The Osmanlis are the latest of the many branches of +the Turks, who warred and ruled in Central Asia with varying success +from the fifth to the eighth centuries.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_485_485" id="Footnote_485_485"></a><a href="#FNanchor_485_485"><span class="label">[485]</span></a> That is Kashgar, Khotan, Kucha and Tokmak for which +last Karashahr was subsequently substituted. The territory was also +called An Hsi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_486_486" id="Footnote_486_486"></a><a href="#FNanchor_486_486"><span class="label">[486]</span></a> See for lists and details Chavannes, <i>Documents sur les +Tou-kiue Occidentaux</i>, pp. 67 ff. and 270 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_487_487" id="Footnote_487_487"></a><a href="#FNanchor_487_487"><span class="label">[487]</span></a> The conquest and organization of the present Chinese +Turkestan dates only from the reign of Ch'ien Lung.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_488_488" id="Footnote_488_488"></a><a href="#FNanchor_488_488"><span class="label">[488]</span></a> Thus the pilgrim Wu-K'ung mentions Chinese officials in +the Four Garrisons.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_489_489" id="Footnote_489_489"></a><a href="#FNanchor_489_489"><span class="label">[489]</span></a> See for this part of their history, Grenard's article +in <i>J.A.</i> 1900, I. pp. 1-79.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_490_490" id="Footnote_490_490"></a><a href="#FNanchor_490_490"><span class="label">[490]</span></a> Pelliot also attributes importance to a Sogdian Colony +to the south of Lob Nor, which may have had much to do with the +transmission of Buddhism and Nestorianism to China. See <i>J.A.</i> Jan. +1916, pp. 111-123.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_491_491" id="Footnote_491_491"></a><a href="#FNanchor_491_491"><span class="label">[491]</span></a> These words have been connected with the tribe called +Sacae, Sakas, or Sök.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_492_492" id="Footnote_492_492"></a><a href="#FNanchor_492_492"><span class="label">[492]</span></a> See Klaproth, <i>Tabl. Historique</i>, p. 166, apparently +quoting from Chinese sources. Specht, <i>J.A.</i> 1897, II. p. 187. Franke, +<i>Beitr.-zur Kenntniss Zentral-Asiens</i>, p. 83. The passage quoted by +Specht from the Later Han Annals clearly states that the Yüeh-chih +made a man of their own choosing prince of Kashgar, although, as +Franke points out, it makes no reference to Kanishka or the story of +the hostages related by Hsüan Chuang.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_493_493" id="Footnote_493_493"></a><a href="#FNanchor_493_493"><span class="label">[493]</span></a> Fa-Hsien's Chieh-ch'a has been interpreted as Skardo, +but Chavannes seems to have proved that it is Kashgar.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_494_494" id="Footnote_494_494"></a><a href="#FNanchor_494_494"><span class="label">[494]</span></a> About 643 A.D. He mentions that the inhabitants +tattooed their bodies, flattened their children's heads and had green +eyes. Also that they spoke a peculiar language.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_495_495" id="Footnote_495_495"></a><a href="#FNanchor_495_495"><span class="label">[495]</span></a> At Bamian the monks belonged to the Lokottaravâdin +School.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_496_496" id="Footnote_496_496"></a><a href="#FNanchor_496_496"><span class="label">[496]</span></a> Beal, <i>Records</i>, II. p. 278. The pilgrim is speaking +from hearsay and it is not clear to what part of Persia he refers.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_497_497" id="Footnote_497_497"></a><a href="#FNanchor_497_497"><span class="label">[497]</span></a> See Chavannes, <i>Documents sur les Tou-kiue +Occidentaux</i>, pp. 121, 125. The inhabitants of K'ang (Samarkand or +Sogdiana) are said to honour both religions. <i>Ib</i>. p. 135.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_498_498" id="Footnote_498_498"></a><a href="#FNanchor_498_498"><span class="label">[498]</span></a> Known to the Chinese by several slightly different +names such as Ku-chih, Kiu-tse which are all attempts to represent the +same sound. For Kucha see S. Lévi's most interesting article "Le +'Tokharien B' langue de Koutcha" in <i>J.A.</i> 1913, II. pp. 311 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_499_499" id="Footnote_499_499"></a><a href="#FNanchor_499_499"><span class="label">[499]</span></a> <i>J.A.</i> 1913, ii. p. 326.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_500_500" id="Footnote_500_500"></a><a href="#FNanchor_500_500"><span class="label">[500]</span></a> See Chavannes in Stein's <i>Ancient Khotan</i>, p. 544. The +Western Tsin reigned 265-317.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_501_501" id="Footnote_501_501"></a><a href="#FNanchor_501_501"><span class="label">[501]</span></a> The circumstances which provoked the expedition are not +very clear. It was escorted by the king of Turfan and other small +potentates who were the vassals of the Tsin and also on bad terms with +Kucha. They probably asked Fu-chien for assistance in subduing their +rival which he was delighted to give. Some authorities (<i>e.g.</i> Nanjio +Cat. p. 406) give Karashahr as the name of Kumârajîva's town, but this +seems to be a mistake.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_502_502" id="Footnote_502_502"></a><a href="#FNanchor_502_502"><span class="label">[502]</span></a> S. Lévi, <i>J.A.</i> 1913, ii. p. 348, quoting Hsü Kao Sêng +Chuan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_503_503" id="Footnote_503_503"></a><a href="#FNanchor_503_503"><span class="label">[503]</span></a> Quoted by S. Lévi from the <i>Sung Kao Sêng Chuan</i>. See +<i>J.A.</i> 1913, II. p. 344 and <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, p. 562.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_504_504" id="Footnote_504_504"></a><a href="#FNanchor_504_504"><span class="label">[504]</span></a> As a proof of foreign influence in Chinese culture, it +is interesting to note that there were seven orchestras for the +imperial banquets, including those of Kucha, Bokhara and India and a +mixed one in which were musicians from Samarkand, Kashgar, Camboja and +Japan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_505_505" id="Footnote_505_505"></a><a href="#FNanchor_505_505"><span class="label">[505]</span></a> Quoted by Bretschneider, <i>Mediaeval Researches</i>, ii. +189.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_506_506" id="Footnote_506_506"></a><a href="#FNanchor_506_506"><span class="label">[506]</span></a> Pelliot, <i>J.A.</i> 1912, i. p. 579, suggests that Chotscho +or Qoco is the Turkish equivalent of Kao Ch'ang in T'ang +pronunciation, the nasal being omitted.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_507_507" id="Footnote_507_507"></a><a href="#FNanchor_507_507"><span class="label">[507]</span></a> Chavannes, <i>Tou-kiue Occidentaux</i>, p. 101.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_508_508" id="Footnote_508_508"></a><a href="#FNanchor_508_508"><span class="label">[508]</span></a> For the history of Khotan see Rémusat, <i>Ville de +Khotan</i>, 1820, and Stein's great work <i>Ancient Khotan</i>, especially +chapter vii. For the Tibetan traditions see Rockhill, <i>Life of the +Buddha</i>, pp. 230 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_509_509" id="Footnote_509_509"></a><a href="#FNanchor_509_509"><span class="label">[509]</span></a> Ku-stana seems to have been a learned perversion of the +name, to make it mean breast of the earth.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_510_510" id="Footnote_510_510"></a><a href="#FNanchor_510_510"><span class="label">[510]</span></a> The combination is illustrated by the Sino-Kharoshthî +coins with a legend in Chinese on the obverse and in Prakrit on the +reverse. See Stein, <i>Ancient Khotan</i>, p. 204. But the coins are later +than 73 A.D.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_511_511" id="Footnote_511_511"></a><a href="#FNanchor_511_511"><span class="label">[511]</span></a> The Tibetan text gives the date of conversion as the +reign of King Vijayasambhava, 170 years after the foundation of +Khotan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_512_512" id="Footnote_512_512"></a><a href="#FNanchor_512_512"><span class="label">[512]</span></a> See Sten Konow in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1914, p. 345.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_513_513" id="Footnote_513_513"></a><a href="#FNanchor_513_513"><span class="label">[513]</span></a> See Stein, <i>Ancient Khotan</i>, pp. 170, 456.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_514_514" id="Footnote_514_514"></a><a href="#FNanchor_514_514"><span class="label">[514]</span></a> Chavannes, <i>Tou-kiue</i>, p. 125, cf. pp. 121 and 170. For +Hsien shên see Giles's <i>Chinese Dict.</i> No. 4477.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_515_515" id="Footnote_515_515"></a><a href="#FNanchor_515_515"><span class="label">[515]</span></a> Beal, <i>Life</i>, p. 205.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_516_516" id="Footnote_516_516"></a><a href="#FNanchor_516_516"><span class="label">[516]</span></a> Identified by Stein with Kohmari Hill which is still +revered by Mohammedans as a sacred spot.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_517_517" id="Footnote_517_517"></a><a href="#FNanchor_517_517"><span class="label">[517]</span></a> <i>Desert Cathay</i>, II. p. 114.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_518_518" id="Footnote_518_518"></a><a href="#FNanchor_518_518"><span class="label">[518]</span></a> See Watters, <i>Yüan Chwang</i>, II. p. 296. Beal, <i>Life</i>. +p. 205. Chavannes, "Voyage de Sung Yun." <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1903, 395, and +for the Tibetan sources, Rockhill, <i>Life of the Buddha</i>, chap. VIII. +One of the four Tibetan works is expressly stated to be translated +from Khotanese.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_519_519" id="Footnote_519_519"></a><a href="#FNanchor_519_519"><span class="label">[519]</span></a> The Tibetan Chronicles of Li-Yul say that they +worshipped Vaiśravana and Śrîmahâdevî.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_520_520" id="Footnote_520_520"></a><a href="#FNanchor_520_520"><span class="label">[520]</span></a> A monk from Kashmir called Vairocana was also active in +Tibet about 750 A.D.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_521_521" id="Footnote_521_521"></a><a href="#FNanchor_521_521"><span class="label">[521]</span></a> It is also possible that Buddhism had a bad time in the +fifth and sixth centuries at the hands of the Tanguts, Juan-Juan and +White Huns.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_522_522" id="Footnote_522_522"></a><a href="#FNanchor_522_522"><span class="label">[522]</span></a> The Later Han Annals say that the Hindus are weaker +than the Yüeh-chih and are not accustomed to fight because they are +Buddhists. (See <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1910, p. 192.) This seems to imply that +the Yüeh-chih were not Buddhists. But even this was the real view of +the compiler of the Annals we do not know from what work he took this +statement nor to what date it refers.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_523_523" id="Footnote_523_523"></a><a href="#FNanchor_523_523"><span class="label">[523]</span></a> See Beal, <i>Life</i>, p. 39, Julien, p. 50. The books +mentioned are apparently the Samyuktâbhidharmahṛidaya (Nanjio, +1287), Abhidharma Kosha (Nanjio, 1267), Abhidharma-Vibhâsha (Nanjio, +1264) and Yogâcâryabhûmi (Nanjio, 1170).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_524_524" id="Footnote_524_524"></a><a href="#FNanchor_524_524"><span class="label">[524]</span></a> The importance of the Tarim basin is due to the +excellent preservation of its records and its close connection with +China. The Oxus regions suffered more from Mohammedan iconoclasm, but +they may have been at least equally important for the history of +Buddhism.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_525_525" id="Footnote_525_525"></a><a href="#FNanchor_525_525"><span class="label">[525]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> see the Maitreya inscription of Turfan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_526_526" id="Footnote_526_526"></a><a href="#FNanchor_526_526"><span class="label">[526]</span></a> Or at least is not accessible to me here in Hongkong, +1914.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_527_527" id="Footnote_527_527"></a><a href="#FNanchor_527_527"><span class="label">[527]</span></a> I do not mean to say that all Dhâraṇîs are late.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_528_528" id="Footnote_528_528"></a><a href="#FNanchor_528_528"><span class="label">[528]</span></a> It is even probable that apocryphal Sûtras were +composed in Central Asia. See Pelliot in <i>Mélanges d'Indianisme</i>, +Sylvain Lévi, p. 329.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_529_529" id="Footnote_529_529"></a><a href="#FNanchor_529_529"><span class="label">[529]</span></a> The list of manifestations in Jambudvipa enumerates 56 +kingdoms. All cannot be identified with certainty, but apparently less +than half are within India proper.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_530_530" id="Footnote_530_530"></a><a href="#FNanchor_530_530"><span class="label">[530]</span></a> See <i>Bibl. Budd.</i> XII. pp. 44, 46, XIV. p. 45.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_531_531" id="Footnote_531_531"></a><a href="#FNanchor_531_531"><span class="label">[531]</span></a> The Turkish sutras repeatedly style the Buddha God +(t'angri) or God of Gods. The expression devâtideva is applied to him +in Sanskrit, but the Turkish phrases are more decided and frequent. +The Sanskrit phrase may even be due to Iranian influence.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_532_532" id="Footnote_532_532"></a><a href="#FNanchor_532_532"><span class="label">[532]</span></a> An Chou, the Prince to whose memory the temple was +dedicated, seems to be regarded as a manifestation of Maitreya.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_533_533" id="Footnote_533_533"></a><a href="#FNanchor_533_533"><span class="label">[533]</span></a> <i>J.A.</i> 1913, I. p. 154. The series of three articles by +Chavannes and Pelliot entitled "Un traité Manichéen retrouvé en Chine" +(<i>J.A.</i> 1911, 1913) is a most valuable contribution to our knowledge +of Manichæism in Central Asia and China.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_534_534" id="Footnote_534_534"></a><a href="#FNanchor_534_534"><span class="label">[534]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> see <i>J.A.</i> 1911, pp. 509 and 589. See also Le +Coq, <i>Sitzb. preuss. Akad. der Wiss.</i> 48, 1909, 1202-1218.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_535_535" id="Footnote_535_535"></a><a href="#FNanchor_535_535"><span class="label">[535]</span></a> <i>J.A.</i> 1913, I. pp. 116 and 132.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_536_536" id="Footnote_536_536"></a><a href="#FNanchor_536_536"><span class="label">[536]</span></a> See especially Havret, "La stèle chrétienne de +Si-ngan-fu" in <i>Variétés Sinologues</i>, pp. 7, 12 and 20.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_537_537" id="Footnote_537_537"></a><a href="#FNanchor_537_537"><span class="label">[537]</span></a> See Havret, <i>l.c</i>. III. p. 54, for some interesting +remarks respecting the unwillingness of the Nestorians and also of the +Jesuits to give publicity to the crucifixion.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_538_538" id="Footnote_538_538"></a><a href="#FNanchor_538_538"><span class="label">[538]</span></a> See Takakusu, <i>I-tsing</i>, pp. 169, 223, and <i>T'oung +Pao</i>, 1896, p. 589.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_539_539" id="Footnote_539_539"></a><a href="#FNanchor_539_539"><span class="label">[539]</span></a> Turfan and Kucha are spoken of as being mainly +Hînayânist.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_540_540" id="Footnote_540_540"></a><a href="#FNanchor_540_540"><span class="label">[540]</span></a> See Stein, <i>Zoroastrian deities on Indo-Scythian +coins</i>, 1887.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_541_541" id="Footnote_541_541"></a><a href="#FNanchor_541_541"><span class="label">[541]</span></a> See <i>S.B.E.</i> IV. (Vendîdad) pp. 145, 209; XXIII. p. +184, V. p. III.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_542_542" id="Footnote_542_542"></a><a href="#FNanchor_542_542"><span class="label">[542]</span></a> Chap. VII. The notices in Chaps. XXII. and XXIV. are +rather more detailed but also later.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_543_543" id="Footnote_543_543"></a><a href="#FNanchor_543_543"><span class="label">[543]</span></a> XII. p. 23.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_544_544" id="Footnote_544_544"></a><a href="#FNanchor_544_544"><span class="label">[544]</span></a> Transl. Schiefner, pp. 93, 105 and 303, and Pander's +<i>Pantheon</i>, No. 11. But Târanâtha also says that he was Aryadeva's +pupil.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_545_545" id="Footnote_545_545"></a><a href="#FNanchor_545_545"><span class="label">[545]</span></a> Śara in Sanskrit.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_546_546" id="Footnote_546_546"></a><a href="#FNanchor_546_546"><span class="label">[546]</span></a> The doctrine of salvation by faith alone seems to be +later. The longer and apparently older version of the Sukhâvatî Vyûha +insists on good works as a condition of entry into Paradise.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_547_547" id="Footnote_547_547"></a><a href="#FNanchor_547_547"><span class="label">[547]</span></a> <i>S.B.E.</i> IV. p. 293; <i>ib.</i> XXXIII. pp. 317 and 344.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_548_548" id="Footnote_548_548"></a><a href="#FNanchor_548_548"><span class="label">[548]</span></a> It may also be noticed that Ameretât, the Archangel of +immortality, presides over vegetation and that Amida's paradise is +full of flowers.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_549_549" id="Footnote_549_549"></a><a href="#FNanchor_549_549"><span class="label">[549]</span></a> <i>S.B.E.</i> XXIII. pp. 335-7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_550_550" id="Footnote_550_550"></a><a href="#FNanchor_550_550"><span class="label">[550]</span></a> <i>S.B.E.</i> XXXI. p. 261.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_551_551" id="Footnote_551_551"></a><a href="#FNanchor_551_551"><span class="label">[551]</span></a> <i>S.B.E.</i> XXIII. pp. 21-31 (the Ormasd Yasht).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_552_552" id="Footnote_552_552"></a><a href="#FNanchor_552_552"><span class="label">[552]</span></a> Is it possible that there is any connection between +Sukhâvatî and the land of Saukavastan, governed by an immortal ruler +and located by the Bundehish between Turkistan and Chinistan? I +imagine there is no etymological relationship, but if Saukavastan was +well known as a land of the blessed it may have influenced the choice +of a significant Sanskrit word with a similar sound.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_553_553" id="Footnote_553_553"></a><a href="#FNanchor_553_553"><span class="label">[553]</span></a> <i>E.R.E. sub voce</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_554_554" id="Footnote_554_554"></a><a href="#FNanchor_554_554"><span class="label">[554]</span></a> <i>J.A.</i> 1912, I. p. 622. Unfortunately only a brief +notice of his communication is given with no details. See also S. +Lévi, <i>Le Népâl</i>, pp. 330 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_555_555" id="Footnote_555_555"></a><a href="#FNanchor_555_555"><span class="label">[555]</span></a> Ti-tsang in Chinese, Jizo in Japanese. See for his +history Visser's elaborate articles in <i>Ostasiatische Ztsft.</i> +1913-1915.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_556_556" id="Footnote_556_556"></a><a href="#FNanchor_556_556"><span class="label">[556]</span></a> He was accepted by the Manichæans as one of the Envoys +of Light. <i>J.A.</i> 1911, II. p. 549.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_223" id="Page_3_223"></a>[Pg 223]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLII" id="CHAPTER_XLII"></a>CHAPTER XLII</h2> + +<h3>CHINA</h3> + +<h3><i>Prefatory note.</i></h3> + + +<p>For the transcription of Chinese words I use the modern +Peking pronunciation as represented in Giles's Dictionary. +It may be justly objected that of all dialects Pekingese is +perhaps the furthest removed from ancient Chinese and +therefore unsuited for historical studies and also that +Wade's system of transcription employed by Giles is open to +serious criticism. But, on the other hand, I am not +competent to write according to the pronunciation of Nanking +or Canton all the names which appear in these chapters and, +if I were, it would not be a convenience to my readers. +Almost all English works of reference about China use the +forms registered in Giles's Dictionary or near +approximations to them, and any variation would produce +difficulty and confusion. French and German methods of +transcribing Chinese differ widely from Wade's and +unfortunately there seems to be no prospect of sinologues +agreeing on any international system.</p> + +<h3>INTRODUCTORY.</h3> + + +<p>The study of Chinese Buddhism is interesting but difficult<a name="FNanchor_557_557" id="FNanchor_557_557"></a><a href="#Footnote_557_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a>. Here +more than in other Asiatic countries we feel that the words and +phrases natural to a European language fail to render justly the +elementary forms of thought, the simplest relationships. But Europeans +are prone to exaggerate the mysterious, topsy-turvy character of the +Chinese mind. Such epithets are based on the assumption that human +thought and conduct normally conform to reason and logic, and that +when such conformity is wanting the result must be strange and hardly +human, or at least such as no respectable European could expect or +approve. But the assumption is wrong. In no country with which I am +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_224" id="Page_3_224"></a>[Pg 224]</span>acquainted are logic and co-ordination of ideas more wanting than +in the British Isles. This is not altogether a fault, for human +systems are imperfect and the rigorous application of any one +imperfect system must end in disaster. But the student of Asiatic +psychology must begin his task by recognising that in the West and +East alike, the thoughts of nations, though not always of individuals, +are a confused mosaic where the pattern has been lost and a thousand +fancies esteemed at one time or another as pleasing, useful or +respectable are crowded into the available space. This is especially +true in the matter of religion. An observer fresh to the subject might +find it hard to formulate the relations to one another and to the +Crown of the various forms of Christianity prevalent in our Empire or +to understand how the English Church can be one body, when some +sections of it are hardly distinguishable from Roman Catholicism and +others from non-conformist sects. In the same way Chinese religion +offers startling combinations of incongruous rites and doctrines: the +attitude of the laity and of the government to the different churches +is not to be defined in ordinary European terms and yet if one +examines the practice of Europe, it will often throw light on the +oddities of China.</p> + +<p>The difficulty of finding a satisfactory equivalent in Chinese for the +word God is well known and has caused much discussion among +missionaries. Confucius inherited and handed on a worship of Heaven +which inspired some noble sayings and may be admitted to be +monotheism. But it was a singularly impersonal monotheism and had +little to do with popular religion, being regarded as the prerogative +and special cult of the Emperor. The people selected their deities +from a numerous pantheon of spirits, falling into many classes among +which two stand out clearly, namely, nature spirits and spirits of +ancestors. All these deities, as we must call them for want of a +better word, present odd features, which have had some influence on +Chinese Buddhism. The boundary between the human and the spirit worlds +is slight. Deification and euhemerism are equally natural to the +Chinese. Not only are worthies of every sort made into gods<a name="FNanchor_558_558" id="FNanchor_558_558"></a><a href="#Footnote_558_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a>, but +foreign deities are explained on the same <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_225" id="Page_3_225"></a>[Pg 225]</span>principle. Thus Yen-lo +(Yama), the king of the dead, is said to have been a Chinese official +of the sixth century A.D. But there is little mythology. The deities +are like the figures on porcelain vases: all know their appearance and +some their names, but hardly anyone can give a coherent account of +them. A poly-dæmonism of this kind is even more fluid than Hinduism: +you may invent any god you like and neglect gods that don't concern +you. The habit of mind which produces sects in India, namely the +desire to exalt one's own deity above others and make him the All-God, +does not exist. No Chinese god inspires such feelings.</p> + +<p>The deities of medieval and modern China, including the spirits +recognized by Chinese Buddhism, are curiously mixed and vague +personalities<a name="FNanchor_559_559" id="FNanchor_559_559"></a><a href="#Footnote_559_559" class="fnanchor">[559]</a>. Nature worship is not absent, but it is nature as +seen by the fancy of the alchemist and astrologer. The powers that +control nature are also identified with ancient heroes, but they are +mostly heroes of the type of St. George and the Dragon of whom history +has little to say, and Chinese respect for the public service and +official rank takes the queer form of regarding these spirits as +celestial functionaries. Thus the gods have a Ministry of Thunder +which supervises the weather and a Board of Medicine which looks after +sickness and health.</p> + +<p>The characteristic expression of Chinese popular religion is not +exactly myth or legend but religious romance. A writer starts from +some slender basis of fact and composes an edifying novel. Thus the +well-known story called Hsi-Yu-Chi<a name="FNanchor_560_560" id="FNanchor_560_560"></a><a href="#Footnote_560_560" class="fnanchor">[560]</a> purports to be an account of +Hsüan Chuang's journey to India but, except that it represents the +hero as going there and returning with copies of the scriptures, it is +romance pure and simple, a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_226" id="Page_3_226"></a>[Pg 226]</span>fantastic Pilgrim's Progress, the scene +of which is sometimes on earth and sometimes in the heavens. The +traveller is accompanied by allegorical creatures such as a magic +monkey, a pig, and a dragon horse, who have each their own +significance and may be seen represented in Buddhist and Taoist +temples even to-day. So too another writer, starting from the +tradition that Avalokita (or Kuan-Yin) was once a benevolent human +being, set himself to write the life of Kuan-Yin, represented as a +princess endued with every virtue who cheerfully bears cruel +persecution for her devotion to Buddhism. It would be a mistake to +seek in this story any facts throwing light on the history of +Avalokita and his worship. It is a religious novel, important only +because it still finds numerous readers.</p> + +<p>It is commonly said that the Chinese belong to three religions, +Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, and the saying is not altogether +inaccurate. Popular language speaks of the three creeds and an +ordinary person in the course of his life may take part in rites which +imply a belief in them all<a name="FNanchor_561_561" id="FNanchor_561_561"></a><a href="#Footnote_561_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a>. Indeed the fusion is so complete that +one may justly talk of Chinese religion, meaning the jumble of +ceremonies and beliefs accepted by the average man. Yet at the same +time it is possible to be an enthusiast for any one of the three +without becoming unconventional.</p> + +<p>Of the three religions, Confucianism has a disputable claim to the +title. If the literary classes of China find it sufficient, they do so +only by rejecting the emotional and speculative sides of religion. The +Emperor Wan-li<a name="FNanchor_562_562" id="FNanchor_562_562"></a><a href="#Footnote_562_562" class="fnanchor">[562]</a> made a just epigram when he said that Confucianism +and Buddhism are like the wings of a bird. Each requires the +co-operation of the other. Confucius was an ethical and political +philosopher, not a prophet, hierophant or church founder. As a +moralist he stands in the first rank, and I doubt if either the +Gospels or the Pitakas contain maxims for the life of a good citizen +equal to his sayings. But he ignored that unworldly morality which, +among Buddhists and Christians, is so much admired and so little +practised. In religion he claimed no originality, he brought no +revelation, but <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_227" id="Page_3_227"></a>[Pg 227]</span>he accepted the current ideas of his age and time, +though perhaps he eliminated many popular superstitions. He commended +the worship of Heaven, which, if vague, still connected the deity with +the moral law, and he enjoined sacrifice to ancestors and spirits. But +all this apparently without any theory. His definition of wisdom is +well known: "to devote oneself to human duties and keep aloof from +spirits while still respecting them." This is not the utterance of a +sceptical statesman, equivalent to "remember the political importance +of religion but keep clear of it, so far as you can." The best +commentary is the statement in the <i>Analects</i> that he seldom spoke +about the will of Heaven, yet such of his utterances about it as have +been preserved are full of awe and submission<a name="FNanchor_563_563" id="FNanchor_563_563"></a><a href="#Footnote_563_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a>. A certain delicacy +made him unwilling to define or discuss the things for which he felt +the highest reverence, and a similar detached but respectful attitude +is still a living constituent of Chinese society. The scholar and +gentleman will not engage in theological or metaphysical disputes, but +he respectfully takes part in ceremonies performed in honour of such +venerated names as Heaven, Earth and Confucius himself. Less +willingly, but still without remonstrance, he attends Buddhist or +Taoist celebrations.</p> + +<p>If it is hard to define the religious element in Confucianism, it is +still harder to define Taoism, but for another reason, namely, that +the word has more than one meaning. In one sense it is the old popular +religion of China, of which Confucius selected the scholarly and +gentlemanly features. Taoism, on the contrary, rejected no godlings +and no legends however grotesque: it gave its approval to the most +extravagant and material superstitions, especially to the belief that +physical immortality could be insured by drinking an elixir, which +proved fatal to many illustrious dupes. As an organized body it owes +its origin to Chang-Ling <i>(c.</i> 130 A.D.) and his grandson +Chang-Lu<a name="FNanchor_564_564" id="FNanchor_564_564"></a><a href="#Footnote_564_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a>. The sect received its baptism of blood but made terms +with the Chinese Government, one condition being that a member of the +house of Chang should be recognized as its hereditary <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_228" id="Page_3_228"></a>[Pg 228]</span>Patriarch or +Pope<a name="FNanchor_565_565" id="FNanchor_565_565"></a><a href="#Footnote_565_565" class="fnanchor">[565]</a>. Rivalry with Buddhism also contributed to give Taoism +something of that consistency in doctrine and discipline which we +associate with the word religion, for in their desire to show that +they were as good as their opponents the Taoists copied them in +numerous and important particulars, for instance triads of deities, +sacred books and monastic institutions.</p> + +<p>The power of inventive imitation is characteristic of Taoism<a name="FNanchor_566_566" id="FNanchor_566_566"></a><a href="#Footnote_566_566" class="fnanchor">[566]</a>. In +most countries great gods are children of the popular mind. After long +gestation and infancy they emerge as deities bound to humanity by a +thousand ties of blood and place. But the Taoists, whenever they +thought a new deity needful or ornamental, simply invented him, often +with the sanction of an Imperial Edict. Thus Yü-Ti<a name="FNanchor_567_567" id="FNanchor_567_567"></a><a href="#Footnote_567_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a>, the precious +or jade Emperor, who is esteemed the supreme ruler of the world, was +created or at least brought into notice about 1012 A.D. by the Emperor +Chên Tsung<a name="FNanchor_568_568" id="FNanchor_568_568"></a><a href="#Footnote_568_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a> who pretended to have correspondence with him. He is +probably an adaptation of Indra and is also identified with a prince +of ancient China, but cannot be called a popular hero like Rama or +Krishna, and has not the same hold on the affections of the people.</p> + +<p>But Taoism is also the name commonly given not only to this fanciful +church but also to the philosophic ideas expounded in the Tao-tê-ching +and in the works of Chuang-tzŭ. The Taoist priesthood claim this +philosophy, but the two have no necessary connection. Taoism as +philosophy represents a current of thought opposed to Confucianism, +compared with which it is ascetic, mystic and pantheistic, though +except in comparison it does not deserve such epithets. My use of +pantheistic in particular may raise objection, but it seems to me that +Tao, however hard to define, is analogous to Brahman, the impersonal +Spirit of Hindu philosophy. The universe is the expression of Tao and +in conforming to Tao man finds happiness. For Confucianism, as for +Europe, man is the pivot and centre of things, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_229" id="Page_3_229"></a>[Pg 229]</span>but less so for +Taoism and Buddhism. Philosophic Taoism, being somewhat abstruse and +unpractical, might seem to have little chance of becoming a popular +superstition. But from early times it was opposed to Confucianism, and +as Confucianism became more and more the hall-mark of the official and +learned classes, Taoism tended to become popular, at the expense of +degrading itself. From early times too it dallied with such +fascinating notions as the acquisition of miraculous powers and +longevity. But, as an appeal to the emotional and spiritual sides of +humanity, it was, if superior to Confucianism, inferior to Buddhism.</p> + +<p>Buddhism, unlike Confucianism and Taoism, entered China as a foreign +religion, but, in using this phrase, we must ask how far any system of +belief prevalent there is accepted as what we call a religion. Even in +Ceylon and Burma people follow the observances of two religions or at +least of a religion and a superstition, but they would undoubtedly +call themselves Buddhists. In China the laity use no such designations +and have no sense of exclusive membership. For them a religion is +comparable to a club, which they use for special purposes. You may +frequent both Buddhist and Taoist temples just as you may belong to +both the Geographical and Zoological Societies. Perhaps the position +of spiritualism in England offers the nearest analogy to a Chinese +religion. There are, I believe, some few persons for whom spiritualism +is a definite, sufficient and exclusive creed. These may be compared +to the Buddhist clergy with a small minority of the laity. But the +majority of those who are interested or even believe in spiritualism, +do not identify themselves with it in this way. They attend séances as +their curiosity or affections may prompt, but these beliefs and +practices do not prevent them from also belonging to a Christian +denomination. Imagine spiritualism to be better organized as an +institution and you will have a fairly accurate picture of the average +Chinaman's attitude to Buddhism and Taoism. One may also compare the +way in which English poets use classical mythology. <i>Lycidas</i>, for +instance, is an astounding compound of classical and biblical ideas, +and Milton does not hesitate to call the Supreme Being Jove in a +serious passage. Yet Milton's Christianity has never, so far as I +know, been called in question.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_230" id="Page_3_230"></a>[Pg 230]</span>There is an obvious historical parallel between the religions of +the Chinese and early Roman Empires. In both, the imperial and +official worship was political and indifferent to dogma without being +hostile, provided no sectary refused to call the Emperor Son of Heaven +or sacrifice to his image. In both, ample provision was made outside +the state cult for allaying the fears of superstition, as well as for +satisfying the soul's thirst for knowledge and emotion. A Roman +magistrate of the second century A.D. may have offered official +sacrifices, propitiated local genii, and attended the mysteries of +Mithra, in the same impartial way as Chinese magistrates took part a +few years ago in the ceremonies of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. +In both cases there was entire liberty to combine with the official +religious routine private beliefs and observances incongruous with it +and often with one another: in both there was the same essential +feature that no deity demanded exclusive allegiance. The popular +polytheism of China is indeed closely analogous to the paganism of the +ancient world<a name="FNanchor_569_569" id="FNanchor_569_569"></a><a href="#Footnote_569_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a>. Hinduism contains too much personal religion and +real spiritual feeling to make the resemblance perfect, but in dealing +with Apollo, Mars and Venus a Roman of the early Empire seems to have +shown the mixture of respect and scepticism which is characteristic of +China.</p> + +<p>This attitude implies not only a certain want of conviction but also a +utilitarian view of religion. The Chinese visit a temple much as they +visit a shop or doctor, for definite material purposes, and if it be +asked whether they are a religious people in the better sense of the +word, I am afraid the answer must be in the negative. It is with +regret that I express this opinion and I by no means imply that there +are not many deeply religious persons in China, but whereas in India +the obvious manifestations of superstition are a superficial disease +and the heart of the people is keenly sensitive to questions of +personal salvation and speculative theology, this cannot be said of +the masses in China, where religion, as seen, consists of +superstitious rites and the substratum of thought and feeling is +small.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_231" id="Page_3_231"></a>[Pg 231]</span>This struck me forcibly when visiting Siam some years ago. In +Bangkok there is a large Chinese population and several Buddhist +temples have been made over to them. The temples frequented by Siamese +are not unlike catholic churches in Europe: the decoration is roughly +similar, the standard of decorum much the same. The visitors come to +worship, meditate or hear sermons. But in the temples used by the +Chinese, a lower standard is painfully obvious and the atmosphere is +different. Visitors are there in plenty, but their object is to "get +luck," and the business of religion has become transformed into +divination and spiritual gambling. The worshipper, on entering, goes +to a counter where he buys tapers and incense-sticks, together with +some implements of superstition such as rods or inscribed cards. After +burning incense he draws a card or throws the rods up into the air and +takes an augury from the result. Though the contrast presented in Siam +makes the degradation more glaring, yet these temples in Bangkok are +not worse than many which I have seen in China. I gladly set on the +other side of the account some beautiful and reverent halls of worship +in the larger monasteries, but I fear that the ordinary Chinese +temple, whether Taoist or Buddhist, is a ghostly shop where, in return +for ceremonies which involve neither moral nor intellectual effort, +the customer is promised good luck, offspring, and other material +blessings.</p> + +<p>It can hardly be denied that the populace in China are grossly +superstitious. Superstition is a common failing and were statistics +available to show the number and status of Europeans who believe in +fortune-telling and luck, the result might be startling. But in most +civilized countries such things are furtive and apologetic. In China +the strangest forms of magic and divination enjoy public esteem. The +ideas which underlie popular practice and ritual are worthy of African +savages: there has been a monstrous advance in systematization, yet +the ethics and intellect of China, brilliant as are their +achievements, have not leavened the lump. The average Chinese, though +an excellent citizen, full of common sense and shrewd in business, is +in religious matters a victim of fatuous superstition and completely +divorced from the moral and intellectual standards which he otherwise +employs.</p> + +<p>Conspicuous among these superstitions is Fêng Shui or +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_232" id="Page_3_232"></a>[Pg 232]</span>Geomancy<a name="FNanchor_570_570" id="FNanchor_570_570"></a><a href="#Footnote_570_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a>, a pseudo-science which is treated as seriously as +law or surveying. It is based on the idea that localities have a sort +of spiritual climate which brings prosperity or the reverse and +depends on the influences of stars and nature spirits, such as the +azure dragon and white tiger. But since these agencies find expression +in the contours of a locality, they can be affected if its features +are modified by artificial means, for instance, the construction of +walls and towers. Buddhism did not disdain to patronize these notions. +The principal hall of a monastery is usually erected on a specially +auspicious site and the appeals issued for the repair of sacred +buildings often point out the danger impending if edifices essential +to the good Fêng Shui of a district are allowed to decay. The +scepticism and laughter of the educated does not clear the air, for +superstition can flourish when neither respected nor believed. The +worst feature of religion in China is that the decently educated +public ridicules its external observances, but continues to practise +them, because they are connected with occasions of good fellowship or +because their omission might be a sign of disrespect to departed +relatives or simply because in dealing with uncanny things it is +better to be on the safe side. This is the sum of China's composite +religion as visible in public and private rites. Its ethical value is +far higher than might be supposed, for its most absurd superstitions +also recommend love and respect in family life and a high standard of +civic duty. But China has never admitted that public or private +morality requires the support of a religious creed.</p> + +<p>As might be expected, life and animation are more apparent in sects +than in conventional religion. Since the recent revolution it is no +longer necessary to confute the idea that the Chinese are a stationary +and unemotional race, but its inaccuracy was demonstrated by many +previous movements especially the T'ai-p'ing rebellion, which had at +first a religious tinge. Yet in China such movements, though they may +kindle enthusiasm and provoke persecution, rarely have the religious +value <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_233" id="Page_3_233"></a>[Pg 233]</span>attaching to a sect in Christian, Hindu and Mohammedan +countries. Viewed as an ecclesiastical or spiritual movement, the +T'ai-p'ing is insignificant: it was a secret society permitted by +circumstances to become a formidable rising and in its important +phases the political element was paramount. The same is true of many +sects which have not achieved such notoriety. They are secret +societies which adopt a creed, but it is not in the creed that their +real vitality lies.</p> + +<p>If it is difficult to say how far the Buddhism of China is a religion, +it is equally difficult to define its relation to the State. Students +well acquainted with the literature as well as with the actual +condition of China have expressed diametrically opposite views as to +the religious attitude of the Imperial Government<a name="FNanchor_571_571" id="FNanchor_571_571"></a><a href="#Footnote_571_571" class="fnanchor">[571]</a>, one stating +roundly that it was "the most intolerant, the most persecuting of all +earthly Governments," and another that it "at no period refused +hospitality and consideration to any religion recommended as +such<a name="FNanchor_572_572" id="FNanchor_572_572"></a><a href="#Footnote_572_572" class="fnanchor">[572]</a>."</p> + +<p>In considering such questions I would again emphasize the fact that +Chinese terms have often not the same extension as their apparent +synonyms in European languages, which, of course, means that the +provinces of human life and thought have also different boundaries. +For most countries the word clergy has a definite meaning and, in +spite of great diversities, may be applied to Christian clerics, +Mollahs and Brahmans without serious error. It means a class of men +who are the superintendents of religion, but also more. On the one +side, though they may have serious political differences with the +Government, they are usually in touch with it: on the other, though +they may dislike reformers and movements from below, they patronize +and minister to popular sentiment. They are closely connected with +education and learning and sometimes with the law. But in China there +is no class which unites all these features. Learning, law and +education are represented by the Confucian scholars or literati. +Though no one would think of calling them priests, yet they may offer +official sacrifices, like Roman <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_234" id="Page_3_234"></a>[Pg 234]</span>magistrates. Though they are +contemptuous of popular superstition, yet they embody the popular +ideal. It is the pride of a village to produce a scholar. But the +scholarship of the literati is purely Confucian: Buddhist and Taoist +learning have no part in it.</p> + +<p>The priest, whether Buddhist or Taoist, is not in the mind of the +people the repository of learning and law. He is not in religious +matters the counterpart of the secular arm, but rather a private +practitioner, duly licensed but of no particular standing. But he is +skilful in his own profession: he has access to the powers who help, +pity and console, and even the sceptic seeks his assistance when +confronted with the dangers of this world and the next.</p> + +<p>The student of Chinese history may object that at many periods, +notably under the Yüan dynasty, the Buddhist clergy were officially +recognized as an educational body and even received the title of +Kuo-shih or teacher of the people. This is true. Such recognition by +no means annihilated the literati, but it illustrates the decisive +influence exercised by the Emperor and the court. We have, on the one +side, a learned official class, custodians of the best national ideals +but inclined to reject emotion and speculation as well as +superstition: on the other, two priesthoods, prone to superstition but +legitimately strong in so far as they satisfied the emotional and +speculative instincts. The literati held persistently, though +respectfully, to the view that the Emperor should be a Confucianist +pure and simple, but Buddhism and Taoism had such strong popular +support that it was always safe and often politic for an Emperor to +patronize them. Hence an Emperor of personal convictions was able to +turn the balance, and it must be added that Buddhism often flourished +in the courts of weak and dissolute Emperors who were in the hands of +women and eunuchs. Some of these latter were among its most +distinguished devotees.</p> + +<p>All Chinese religions agreed in accepting the Emperor as head of the +Church, not merely titular but active. He exercised a strange +prerogative of creating, promoting and degrading deities. Even within +the Buddhist sphere he regulated the incarnations of Bodhisattvas in +the persons of Lamas and from time to time re-edited the canon<a name="FNanchor_573_573" id="FNanchor_573_573"></a><a href="#Footnote_573_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a> or +added new works to it. This <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_235" id="Page_3_235"></a>[Pg 235]</span>extreme Erastianism had its roots in +Indian as well as Chinese ideas. The Confucianist, while reminding the +Emperor that he should imitate the sages and rulers of antiquity, +gladly admitted his right to control the worship of all spirits<a name="FNanchor_574_574" id="FNanchor_574_574"></a><a href="#Footnote_574_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a> +and the popular conscience, while probably unable to define what was +meant by the title <i>Son of Heaven</i><a name="FNanchor_575_575" id="FNanchor_575_575"></a><a href="#Footnote_575_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a>, felt that it gave him a +viceregal right to keep the gods in order, so long as he did not +provoke famine or other national calamities by mismanagement. The +Buddhists, though tenacious of freedom in the spiritual life, had no +objection to the patronage of princes. Asoka permitted himself to +regulate the affairs of the Church and the success of Buddhists as +missionaries was due in no small measure to their tact in allowing +other sovereigns to follow his example.</p> + +<p>That Buddhism should have obtained in China a favourable reception and +a permanent status is indeed remarkable, for in two ways it was +repugnant to the sentiments of the governing classes to say nothing of +the differences in temper and outlook which divide Hindus and Chinese. +Firstly, its ideal was asceticism and celibacy; it gave family life +the lower place and ignored the popular Chinese view that to have a +son is not only a duty, but also essential for those sacrifices +without which the departed spirit cannot have peace. Secondly, it was +not merely a doctrine but an ecclesiastical organization, a +congregation of persons who were neither citizens nor subjects, not +exactly an <i>imperium in imperio</i> nor a secret society, but +dangerously capable of becoming either. Such bodies have always +incurred the suspicion and persecution of the Chinese Government. Even +in the fifth century Buddhist monasteries were accused of organizing +armed conspiracies and many later sects suffered from the panic which +they inspired in official bosoms. But both difficulties were overcome +by the suppleness of the clergy. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_236" id="Page_3_236"></a>[Pg 236]</span>If they outraged family sentiment +they managed to make themselves indispensable at funeral +ceremonies<a name="FNanchor_576_576" id="FNanchor_576_576"></a><a href="#Footnote_576_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a>. If they had a dangerous resemblance to an <i>imperium +in imperio</i>, they minimized it by their obvious desire to exercise +influence through the Emperor. Though it is true that the majority of +anti-dynastic political sects had a Buddhist colour, the most +prominent and influential Buddhists never failed in loyalty. To this +adroitness must be added a solid psychological advantage. The success +of Buddhism in China was due to the fact that it presented religious +emotion and speculation in the best form known there, and when it +began to spread the intellectual soil was not unpropitious. The higher +Taoist philosophy had made familiar the ideas of quietism and the +contemplative life: the age was unsettled, harassed alike by foreign +invasion and civil strife. In such times when even active natures tire +of unsuccessful struggles, the asylum of a monastery has attractions +for many.</p> + +<p>We have now some idea of the double position of Buddhism in China and +can understand how it sometimes appears as almost the established +church and sometimes as a persecuted sect. The reader will do well to +remember that in Europe the relations of politics to religion have not +always been simple: many Catholic sovereigns have quarrelled with +Popes and monks. The French Government supports the claims of Catholic +missions in China but does not favour the Church in France. The fact +that Huxley was made a Privy Councillor does not imply that Queen +Victoria approved of his religious views. In China the repeated +restrictive edicts concerning monasteries should not be regarded as +acts of persecution. Every politician can see the loss to the state if +able-bodied men become monks by the thousand. In periods of literary +and missionary zeal, large congregations of such monks may have a +sufficient sphere of activity but in sleepy, decadent periods they are +apt to become a moral or political danger. A devout Buddhist or +Catholic may reasonably hold that though the monastic life is the best +for the elect, yet for the unworthy it is more dangerous than the +temptations of the world. Thus the founder of the Ming dynasty had +himself been a bonze, yet he limited the number <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_237" id="Page_3_237"></a>[Pg 237]</span>and age of those +who might become monks<a name="FNanchor_577_577" id="FNanchor_577_577"></a><a href="#Footnote_577_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a>. On the other hand, he attended Buddhist +services and published an edition of the Tripitaka. In this and in the +conduct of most Emperors there is little that is inconsistent or +mysterious: they regarded religion not in our fashion as a system +deserving either allegiance or rejection, but as a modern Colonial +Governor might regard education. Some Governors are enthusiastic for +education: others mistrust it as a stimulus of disquieting ideas: most +accept it as worthy of occasional patronage, like hospitals and races. +In the same way some Emperors, like Wu-Ti<a name="FNanchor_578_578" id="FNanchor_578_578"></a><a href="#Footnote_578_578" class="fnanchor">[578]</a>, were enthusiasts for +Buddhism and made it practically the state religion: a few others were +definitely hostile either from conviction or political circumstances, +but probably most sovereigns regarded it as the average British +official regards education, as something that one can't help having, +that one must belaud on certain public occasions, that may now and +then be useful, but still emphatically something to be kept within +limits.</p> + +<p>Outbursts against Buddhism are easy to understand. I have pointed out +its un-Chinese features and the persistent opposition of the literati. +These were sufficient reasons for repressive measures whenever the +Emperor was unbuddhist in his sympathies, especially if the +monasteries had enjoyed a period of prosperity and become crowded and +wealthy. What is harder to understand is the occasional favour shown +by apparently anti-Buddhist Emperors.</p> + +<p>The Sacred Edict of the great K'ang Hsi forbids heterodoxy (i tuan) in +which the official explanation clearly includes Buddhism<a name="FNanchor_579_579" id="FNanchor_579_579"></a><a href="#Footnote_579_579" class="fnanchor">[579]</a>. It was +published in his extreme youth, but had his mature approval, and until +recently was read in every prefecture twice a month. But the same +Emperor gave many gifts to monasteries, and in 1705 he issued a +decree to the monks of P'uto in which he said, "we since our boyhood +have been earnest students of Confucian lore and have had no time to +become minutely acquainted with the sacred books of Buddhism, but we +are satisfied that Virtue is the one word <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_238" id="Page_3_238"></a>[Pg 238]</span>which indicates what is +essential in both systems. Let us pray to the compassionate Kuan-yin +that she may of her grace send down upon our people the spiritual rain +and sweet dew of the good Law: that she may grant them bounteous +harvests, seasonable winds and the blessings of peace, harmony and +long life and finally that she may lead them to the salvation which +she offers to all beings in the Universe<a name="FNanchor_580_580" id="FNanchor_580_580"></a><a href="#Footnote_580_580" class="fnanchor">[580]</a>." The two edicts are not +consistent but such inconsistency is no reproach to a statesman nor +wholly illogical. The Emperor reprimands extravagance in doctrine and +ceremonial and commends Confucianism to his subjects as all that is +necessary for good life and good government, but when he finds that +Buddhism conduces to the same end he accords his patronage and +politely admits the existence and power of Kuan-yin.</p> + +<p>But I must pass on to another question, the relation of Chinese to +Indian Buddhism. Chinese Buddhism is often spoken of as a strange and +corrupt degeneration, a commixture of Indian and foreign ideas. Now if +such phrases mean that the pulse of life is feeble and the old lights +dim, we must regretfully admit their truth, but still little is to be +found in Chinese Buddhism except the successive phases of later Indian +Buddhism, introduced into China from the first century A.D. onwards. +In Japan there arose new sects, but in China, when importation ceased, +no period of invention supervened. The T'ien-t'ai school has some +originality, and native and foreign ideas were combined by the +followers of Bodhidharma. But the remaining schools were all founded +by members of Indian sects or by Chinese who aimed at scrupulous +imitation of Indian models. Until the eighth century, when the +formative period came to an end, we have an alternation of Indian or +Central Asian teachers arriving in China to meet with respect and +acceptance, and of Chinese enquirers who visited India in order to +discover the true doctrine and practice and were honoured on their +return in proportion as they were believed to have found it. There is +this distinction between China and such countries as Java, Camboja and +Champa, that whereas in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_239" id="Page_3_239"></a>[Pg 239]</span>them we find a mixture of Hinduism and +Buddhism, in China the traces of Hinduism are slight. The imported +ideas, however corrupt, were those of Indian Buddhist scholars, not +the mixed ideas of the Indian layman<a name="FNanchor_581_581" id="FNanchor_581_581"></a><a href="#Footnote_581_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a>.</p> + +<p>Of course Buddhist theory and practice felt the influence of their new +surroundings. The ornaments and embroidery of the faith are Chinese +and sometimes hide the original material. Thus Kuan-yin, considered +historically, has grown out of the Indian deity Avalokita, but the +goddess worshipped by the populace is the heroine of the Chinese +romance mentioned above. And, since many Chinese are only half +Buddhists, tales about gods and saints are taken only half-seriously; +the Buddha periodically invites the immortals to dine with him in +Heaven and the Eighteen Lohan are described as converted brigands.</p> + +<p>In every monastery the buildings, images and monks obviously bear the +stamp of the country. Yet nearly all the doctrines and most of the +usages have Indian parallels. The ritual has its counterpart in what +I-Ching describes as seen by himself in his Indian travels. China has +added the idea of <i>fêng-shui</i>, and has modified architectural forms. +For instance the many-storeyed pagoda is an elongation of the +stupa<a name="FNanchor_582_582" id="FNanchor_582_582"></a><a href="#Footnote_582_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a>. So, too, in ceremonial, the great prominence given to +funeral rites and many superstitious details are Chinese, yet, as I +have often mentioned in this work, rites on behalf of the dead were +tolerated by early Buddhism. The curious mingling of religious +services with theatrical pagents which Hsüan Chuang witnessed at +Allahabad in the reign of Harsha, has its modest parallel to-day in +many popular festivals.</p> + +<p>The numerous images which crowd a Chinese temple, the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_240" id="Page_3_240"></a>[Pg 240]</span>four kings, +Arhats and Bodhisattvas, though of unfamiliar appearance to the Indian +student, are Indian in origin. A few Taoist deities may have side +chapels, but they are not among the principal objects of worship. The +greater part of the Chinese Tripitaka is a translation from the +Sanskrit and the Chinese works (only 194 against 1467 translations) +are chiefly exegetical. Thus, though Chinese bonzes countenance native +superstitions and gladly undertake to deal with all the gods and +devils of the land, yet in its doctrine, literature, and even in many +externals their Buddhism remains an Indian importation. If we seek in +it for anything truly Chinese, it is to be found not in the +constituents, but in the atmosphere, which, like a breeze from a +mountain monastery sometimes freshens the gilded shrines and libraries +of verbose sutras. It is the native spirit of the Far East which finds +expression in the hill-side hermit's sense of freedom and in dark +sayings such as <i>Buddhism is the oak-tree in my garden</i>. Every free +and pure heart can become a Buddha, but also is one with the life of +birds and flowers. Both the love of nature<a name="FNanchor_583_583" id="FNanchor_583_583"></a><a href="#Footnote_583_583" class="fnanchor">[583]</a> and the belief that +men can become divine can easily be paralleled in Indian texts, but +they were not, I think, imported into China, and joy in natural beauty +and sympathy with wild life are much more prominent in Chinese than in +Indian art.</p> + +<p>Is then Buddhist doctrine, as opposed to the superstitions tolerated +by Buddhism, something exotic and without influence on the national +life? That also is not true. The reader will perceive from what has +gone before that if he asks for statistics of Buddhism in China, the +answer must be, in the Buddha's own phrase, that the question is not +properly put. It is incorrect to describe China as a Buddhist country. +We may say that it contains so many million Mohammedans or Christians, +because these creeds are definite and exclusive. We cannot quote +similar figures for Buddhism or Confucianism. Yet assuredly Buddhism +has been a great power in China, as great perhaps as Christianity in +Europe, if we remember how much is owed by European art, literature, +law and science to non-Christian sources. The Chinese language is full +of Buddhist phraseology<a name="FNanchor_584_584" id="FNanchor_584_584"></a><a href="#Footnote_584_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a>, not only in literature <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_241" id="Page_3_241"></a>[Pg 241]</span>but in +popular songs and proverbs and an inspection of such entries in a +Chinese dictionary as <i>Fo</i> (Buddha), <i>Kuan Yin</i>, <i>Ho Shang</i> +(monk)<a name="FNanchor_585_585" id="FNanchor_585_585"></a><a href="#Footnote_585_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a> will show how large and not altogether flattering a part +they play in popular speech.</p> + +<p>Popular literature bears the same testimony. It is true that in what +are esteemed the higher walks of letters Buddhism has little place. +The quotations and allusions which play there so prominent a part are +taken from the classics and Confucianism can claim as its own the +historical, lexicographical and critical<a name="FNanchor_586_586" id="FNanchor_586_586"></a><a href="#Footnote_586_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a> works which are the +solid and somewhat heavy glory of Chinese literature. But its lighter +and less cultivated blossoms, such as novels, fairy stories and +poetry, are predominantly Buddhist or Taoist in inspiration. This may +be easily verified by a perusal of such works as the <i>Dream of the Red +Chamber</i>, <i>Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio</i>, and Wieger's <i>Folk +Lore Chinois Moderne</i>. The same is true in general of the great +Chinese poets, many of whom did not conceal that (in a poetic and +unascetic fashion) they were attached to Buddhism.</p> + +<p>It may be asked if the inspiration is not Taoist in the main rather +than Buddhist. Side by side with ethics and ceremony, a native stream +of bold and weird imagination has never ceased to flow in China and +there was no need to import tales of the Genii, immortal saints and +vampire beauties. But when any coherency unites these ideas of the +supernatural, that I think is the work of Buddhism and so far as +Taoism itself has any coherency it is an imitation of Buddhism. Thus +the idea of metempsychosis as one of many passing fancies may be +indigenous to China but its prevalence in popular thought and language +is undoubtedly due to Buddhism, for Taoism and Confucianism have +nothing definite to say as to the state of the dead.</p> + +<p>Much the same story of Buddhist influence is told by Chinese art, +especially painting and sculpture. Here too Taoism is by no means +excluded: it may be said to represent the artistic side <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_242" id="Page_3_242"></a>[Pg 242]</span>of the +Chinese mind, as Confucianism represents the political. But it is +impossible to mistake the significance of chronology. As soon as +Buddhism was well established in China, art entered on a new phase +which culminated in the masterpieces of the T'ang and Sung<a name="FNanchor_587_587" id="FNanchor_587_587"></a><a href="#Footnote_587_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a>. +Buddhism did not introduce painting into China or even perfect a +rudimentary art. The celebrated roll of Ku K'ai-chih<a name="FNanchor_588_588" id="FNanchor_588_588"></a><a href="#Footnote_588_588" class="fnanchor">[588]</a> shows no +trace of Indian influence and presupposes a long artistic tradition. +But Mahayanist Buddhism brought across Central Asia new shapes and +motives. Some of its imports were of doubtful artistic value, such as +figures with many limbs and eyes, but with them came ideas which +enriched Chinese art with new dramatic power, passion and solemnity. +Taoism dealt with other worlds but they were gardens of the +Hesperides, inhabited by immortal wizards and fairy queens, not those +disquieting regions where the soul receives the reward of its deeds. +But now the art of Central Asia showed Chinese painters something new; +saints preaching the law with a gesture of authority and deities of +infinite compassion inviting suppliants to approach their thrones. And +with them came the dramatic story of Gotama's life and all the legends +of the Jatakas.</p> + +<p>This clearly is not Taoism, but when the era of great art and +literature begins, any distinction between the two creeds, except for +theological purposes, becomes artificial, for Taoism borrowed many +externals of Buddhism, and Buddhism, while not abandoning its austere +and emaciated saints, also accepted the Taoist ideal of the careless +wandering hermit, friend of mountain pines and deer. Wei Hsieh<a name="FNanchor_589_589" id="FNanchor_589_589"></a><a href="#Footnote_589_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a> +who lived under the Chin dynasty, when the strength of Buddhism was +beginning to be felt, is considered by Chinese critics as the earliest +of the great painters and is said to have excelled in both Buddhist +and Taoist subjects. The same may be said of the most eminent names, +such as Ku K'ai-chih and Wu Tao-tzŭ<a name="FNanchor_590_590" id="FNanchor_590_590"></a><a href="#Footnote_590_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a>, and we may also remember +that Italian artists painted the birth of Venus and the origin of the +milky way as well as Annunciations and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_243" id="Page_3_243"></a>[Pg 243]</span>Assumptions, without any +hint that one incident was less true than another. Buddhism not only +provided subjects like the death of the Buddha and Kuan Yin, the +Goddess of Mercy, which hold in Chinese art the same place as the +Crucifixion and the Madonna in Europe, and generation after generation +have stimulated the noblest efforts of the best painters. It also +offered a creed and ideals suited to the artistic temperament: peace +and beauty reigned in its monasteries: its doctrine that life is one +and continuous is reflected in that love of nature, that sympathetic +understanding of plants and animals, that intimate union of sentiment +with landscape which marks the best Chinese pictures.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_557_557" id="Footnote_557_557"></a><a href="#FNanchor_557_557"><span class="label">[557]</span></a> For Chinese Buddhism see especially Johnston, <i>Chinese +Buddhism</i>, 1913 (cited as Johnston). Much information about the +popular side of Buddhism and Taoism nay be found in <i>Recherches sur +les superstitions en Chine</i> par le Père Henri Doré, 10 vols. +1911-1916, Shanghai (cited as Doré).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_558_558" id="Footnote_558_558"></a><a href="#FNanchor_558_558"><span class="label">[558]</span></a> A curious instance of deification is mentioned in +<i>Muséon</i>, 1914, p. 61. It appears that several deceased Jesuits have +been deified. For a recent instance of deification in 1913 see Doré, +X. p. 753.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_559_559" id="Footnote_559_559"></a><a href="#FNanchor_559_559"><span class="label">[559]</span></a> The spirits called San Kuan <img src="images/230_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="50" height="26" /> or San Yüan + <img src="images/230_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="50" height="24" /> are a good instance of Chinese deities. The words mean +Three Agents or Principles who strictly speaking have no names: (<i>a</i>) +Originally they appear to represent Heaven, Earth and Water. (<i>b</i>) +Then they stand for three periods of the year and the astrological +influences which rule each, (<i>c</i>) As Agents, and more or less +analogous to human personalities, Heaven gives happiness, Earth +pardons sins and Water delivers from misfortune. <i>(d)</i>They are +identified with the ancient Emperors Yao, Shun, Yü. (<i>e</i>) They are +also identified with three Censors under the Emperor Li-Wang, B.C. +878-841.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_560_560" id="Footnote_560_560"></a><a href="#FNanchor_560_560"><span class="label">[560]</span></a> <img src="images/230_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="90" height="30" />Hsüan Chuang's own account of his travels +bears the slightly different title of Hsi-Yü-Chi. <img src="images/230_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="90" height="30" /> The +work noticed here is attributed to Chiu Ch'ang Ch'un, a Taoist priest +of the thirteenth century. It is said to be the Buddhist book most +widely read in Korea where it is printed in the popular script. An +abridged English translation has been published by T. Richard under +the title of <i>A Mission to Heaven</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_561_561" id="Footnote_561_561"></a><a href="#FNanchor_561_561"><span class="label">[561]</span></a> I am writing immediately after the abolition of the +Imperial Government (1912), and what I say naturally refers to a state +of things which is passing away. But it is too soon to say how the new +regime will affect religion. There is an old saying that China is +supported by the three religions as a tripod by three legs.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_562_562" id="Footnote_562_562"></a><a href="#FNanchor_562_562"><span class="label">[562]</span></a> <img src="images/231_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="60" height="29" />strictly speaking the title of his reign +1573-1620.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_563_563" id="Footnote_563_563"></a><a href="#FNanchor_563_563"><span class="label">[563]</span></a> Compare <i>Anal</i>. IX. 1 and xiv. 38. 2. See also +<i>Doctrine of the Mean</i>, chap, xvi, for more positive views about +spirits.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_564_564" id="Footnote_564_564"></a><a href="#FNanchor_564_564"><span class="label">[564]</span></a> <img src="images/232_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="60" height="32" /> and <img src="images/232_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="70" height="32" /> See De Groot, "Origins of +the Taoist Church" in <i>Trans. Third Congress Hist. Relig</i>. 1908.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_565_565" id="Footnote_565_565"></a><a href="#FNanchor_565_565"><span class="label">[565]</span></a> Chang Yüan-hsü, who held office in 1912, was deprived +of his titles by the Republican Government. In 1914 petitions were +presented for their restoration, but I do not know with what result. +See <i>Peking Daily News</i>, September 5th, 1914.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_566_566" id="Footnote_566_566"></a><a href="#FNanchor_566_566"><span class="label">[566]</span></a> Something similar may be seen in Mormonism where +angels and legends have been invented by individual fancy without any +background of tradition.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_567_567" id="Footnote_567_567"></a><a href="#FNanchor_567_567"><span class="label">[567]</span></a> <img src="images/233_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="70" height="31" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_568_568" id="Footnote_568_568"></a><a href="#FNanchor_568_568"><span class="label">[568]</span></a> <img src="images/233_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="70" height="32" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_569_569" id="Footnote_569_569"></a><a href="#FNanchor_569_569"><span class="label">[569]</span></a> The sixth Æneid would seem to a Chinese quite a natural +description of the next world. In it we have Elysium, Tartarus, +transmigration of souls, souls who can find no resting place because +their bodies are unburied, and phantoms showing still the wounds which +their bodies received in life. Nor is there any attempt to harmonize +these discordant ideas.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_570_570" id="Footnote_570_570"></a><a href="#FNanchor_570_570"><span class="label">[570]</span></a> <img src="images/237_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="70" height="36" />A somewhat similar pseudo-science called +vatthu-vijjâ is condemned in the Pali scriptures. <i>E.g.</i> Digha N. I. +21. Astrology also has been a great force in Chinese politics. See +Bland and Backhouse, <i>Ann. and Memoirs, passim</i>. The favour shown at +different times to Buddhist, Manichæan and Catholic priests was often +due to their supposed knowledge of astrology.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_571_571" id="Footnote_571_571"></a><a href="#FNanchor_571_571"><span class="label">[571]</span></a> I may again remind the reader that I am not speaking of +the Chinese Republic but of the Empire. The long history of its +relations to Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism, though it concerns the +past, is of great interest.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_572_572" id="Footnote_572_572"></a><a href="#FNanchor_572_572"><span class="label">[572]</span></a> De Groot and Parker. For an elaboration of the first +thesis see especially De Groot's <i>Sectarianism and Religious +Persecution in China</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_573_573" id="Footnote_573_573"></a><a href="#FNanchor_573_573"><span class="label">[573]</span></a> But it must be remembered that the Chinese canon is not +entirely analogous to the collections of the scriptures current in +India, Ceylon or Europe.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_574_574" id="Footnote_574_574"></a><a href="#FNanchor_574_574"><span class="label">[574]</span></a> The Emperor is the Lord of all spirits and has the +right to sacrifice to all spirits, whereas others should sacrifice +only to such spirits as concern them. For the Emperor's title "Lord of +Spirits," see Shu Ching IV., VI. 2-3, and Shih Ching, III., II. 8, 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_575_575" id="Footnote_575_575"></a><a href="#FNanchor_575_575"><span class="label">[575]</span></a> The title is undoubtedly very ancient and means Son of +Heaven or Son of God. See Hirth, <i>Ancient History of China</i>, pp. +95-96. But the precise force of <i>Son</i> is not clear. The Emperor was +Viceregent of Heaven, high priest and responsible for natural +phenomena, but he could not in historical times be regarded as sprung +(like the Emperor of Japan) from a family of divine descent, because +the dynasties, and with them the imperial family, were subject to +frequent change.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_576_576" id="Footnote_576_576"></a><a href="#FNanchor_576_576"><span class="label">[576]</span></a> Similarly it is a popular tenet that if a man becomes a +monk all his ancestors go to Heaven. See <i>Paraphrase of sacred Edict</i>, +VII.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_577_577" id="Footnote_577_577"></a><a href="#FNanchor_577_577"><span class="label">[577]</span></a> Japanese Emperors did the same, <i>e.g.</i> Kwammū +Tennō in 793.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_578_578" id="Footnote_578_578"></a><a href="#FNanchor_578_578"><span class="label">[578]</span></a> <img src="images/242_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="100" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_579_579" id="Footnote_579_579"></a><a href="#FNanchor_579_579"><span class="label">[579]</span></a> K'ang Hsi is responsible only for the text of the Edict +which merely forbids heterodoxy. But his son Yung Chêng who published +the explanation and paraphrase repaired the Buddhist temples at P'uto +and the Taoist temple at Lung-hu-shan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_580_580" id="Footnote_580_580"></a><a href="#FNanchor_580_580"><span class="label">[580]</span></a> See Johnston, p. 352. I have not seen the Chinese text +of this edict. In Laufer and Francke's <i>Epigraphische Denkmäler aus +China</i> is a long inscription of Kang Hsi's giving the history both +legendary and recent of the celebrated sandal-wood image of the +Buddha.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_581_581" id="Footnote_581_581"></a><a href="#FNanchor_581_581"><span class="label">[581]</span></a> This indicates that the fusion of Buddhism and Hinduism +was less complete than some scholars suppose. Where there was a +general immigration of Hindus, the mixture is found, but the Indian +visitors to China were mostly professional teachers and their teaching +was definitely Buddhist. There are, however, two non-Buddhist books in +the Chinese Tripitaka. Nanjio Cat. Nos. 1295 and 1300.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_582_582" id="Footnote_582_582"></a><a href="#FNanchor_582_582"><span class="label">[582]</span></a> It has been pointed out by Fergusson and others that +there were high towers in China before the Buddhist period. Still, the +numerous specimens extant date from Buddhist times, many were built +over relics, and the accounts of both Fa-hsien and Hsüan Chuang show +that the Stupa built by Kanishka at Peshawar had attracted the +attention of the Chinese. +</p><p> +I regret that de Groot's interesting work <i>Der Thüpa: das heiligste +Heiligtum des Buddhismus in China</i>, 1919, reached me too late for me +to make use of it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_583_583" id="Footnote_583_583"></a><a href="#FNanchor_583_583"><span class="label">[583]</span></a> The love of nature shown in the Pali Pitakas +(particularly the Thera and Therî Gâthâ) has often been noticed, but +it is also strong in Mahâyânist literature. <i>E.g.</i> Bodhicaryâvatâra +VIII. 26-39 and 86-88.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_584_584" id="Footnote_584_584"></a><a href="#FNanchor_584_584"><span class="label">[584]</span></a> See especially Watters, <i>Essays on the Chinese +Language</i>, chaps, VIII and IX, and Clementi, <i>Cantonese Love Songs in +English</i>, pp. 9 to 12</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_585_585" id="Footnote_585_585"></a><a href="#FNanchor_585_585"><span class="label">[585]</span></a> <img src="images/246_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="200" height="31" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_586_586" id="Footnote_586_586"></a><a href="#FNanchor_586_586"><span class="label">[586]</span></a> I cannot refrain from calling attention to the +difference between the Chinese and most other Asiatic peoples +(especially the Hindus) as exhibited in their literature. Quite apart +from European influence the Chinese produced several centuries ago +catalogues of museums and descriptive lists of inscriptions, works +which have no parallel in Hindu India.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_587_587" id="Footnote_587_587"></a><a href="#FNanchor_587_587"><span class="label">[587]</span></a> There are said to have been four great schools of +Buddhist painting under the T'ang. See Kokka 294 and 295.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_588_588" id="Footnote_588_588"></a><a href="#FNanchor_588_588"><span class="label">[588]</span></a> Preserved in the British Museum and published.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_589_589" id="Footnote_589_589"></a><a href="#FNanchor_589_589"><span class="label">[589]</span></a> <img src="images/247_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="60" height="30" />of the <img src="images/247_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="37" height="35" /> dynasty.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_590_590" id="Footnote_590_590"></a><a href="#FNanchor_590_590"><span class="label">[590]</span></a> <img src="images/247_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="220" height="32" /></p> +</div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_244" id="Page_3_244"></a>[Pg 244]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLIII" id="CHAPTER_XLIII"></a>CHAPTER XLIII</h2> + +<h3>CHINA <i>(continued)</i></h3> + +<h3><span class="smcap">History.</span></h3> + + +<p>The traditional date for the introduction of Buddhism is 62 A.D., when +the chronicles tell how the Emperor Ming-Ti of the Later Han Dynasty +dreamt that he saw a golden man fly into his palace<a name="FNanchor_591_591" id="FNanchor_591_591"></a><a href="#Footnote_591_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a> and how his +courtiers suggested that the figure was Fo-t'o<a name="FNanchor_592_592" id="FNanchor_592_592"></a><a href="#Footnote_592_592" class="fnanchor">[592]</a> or Buddha, an +Indian God. Ming-Ti did not let the matter drop and in 65 sent an +embassy to a destination variously described as the kingdom of the Ta +Yüeh Chih<a name="FNanchor_593_593" id="FNanchor_593_593"></a><a href="#Footnote_593_593" class="fnanchor">[593]</a> or India with instructions to bring back Buddhist +scriptures and priests. On its return it was accompanied by a monk +called Kâśyapa Mâtanga<a name="FNanchor_594_594" id="FNanchor_594_594"></a><a href="#Footnote_594_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a>, a native of Central India. A second +called Chu Fa-Lan<a name="FNanchor_595_595" id="FNanchor_595_595"></a><a href="#Footnote_595_595" class="fnanchor">[595]</a>, who came from Central Asia and found some +difficulty in obtaining permission to leave his country, followed +shortly afterwards. Both were installed at Loyang, the capital of the +dynasty, in the White Horse Monastery<a name="FNanchor_596_596" id="FNanchor_596_596"></a><a href="#Footnote_596_596" class="fnanchor">[596]</a>, so called because the +foreign monks rode on white horses or used them for carrying books.</p> + +<p>The story has been criticized as an obvious legend, but I see no +reason why it should not be true to this extent that Ming-Ti sent an +embassy to Central Asia (not India in our sense) with the result that +a monastery was for the first time established under imperial +patronage. The gravest objection is that before the campaigns of Pan +Ch'ao<a name="FNanchor_597_597" id="FNanchor_597_597"></a><a href="#Footnote_597_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a>, which began about 73 A.D., Central Asia was in rebellion +against China. But those <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_245" id="Page_3_245"></a>[Pg 245]</span>campaigns show that the Chinese Court was +occupied with Central Asian questions and to send envoys to enquire +about religion may have been politically advantageous, for they could +obtain information without asserting or abandoning China's claims to +sovereignty. The story does not state that there was no Buddhism in +China before 62 A.D. On the contrary it implies that though it was not +sufficiently conspicuous to be known to the Emperor, yet there was no +difficulty in obtaining information about it and other facts support +the idea that it began to enter China at least half a century earlier. +The negotiations of Chang Ch'ien<a name="FNanchor_598_598" id="FNanchor_598_598"></a><a href="#Footnote_598_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a> with the Yüeh Chih (129-119 +B.C.) and the documents discovered by Stein in the ancient military +posts on the western frontier of Kansu<a name="FNanchor_599_599" id="FNanchor_599_599"></a><a href="#Footnote_599_599" class="fnanchor">[599]</a> prove that China had +communication with Central Asia, but neither the accounts of Chang +Ch'ien's journeys nor the documents contain any allusion to Buddhism. +In 121 B.C. the Annals relate that "a golden man" was captured from +the Hsiung-nu but, even if it was an image of Buddha, the incident had +no consequences. More important is a notice in the Wei-lüeh which +gives a brief account of the Buddha's birth and states that in the +year 2 B.C. an ambassador sent by the Emperor Ai to the court of the +Yüeh Chih was instructed in Buddhism by order of their king<a name="FNanchor_600_600" id="FNanchor_600_600"></a><a href="#Footnote_600_600" class="fnanchor">[600]</a>. Also +the Later Han Annals intimate that in 65 A.D. the Prince of Ch'u<a name="FNanchor_601_601" id="FNanchor_601_601"></a><a href="#Footnote_601_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a> +was a Buddhist and that there were Śramanas and Upâsakas in his +territory.</p> + +<p>The author of the Wei-lüeh comments on the resemblance of Buddhist +writings to the work of Lao-tzŭ, and suggests that the latter left +China in order to teach in India. This theory found many advocates +among the Taoists, but is not likely to commend itself to European +scholars. Less improbable is a view held by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_246" id="Page_3_246"></a>[Pg 246]</span>many Chinese +critics<a name="FNanchor_602_602" id="FNanchor_602_602"></a><a href="#Footnote_602_602" class="fnanchor">[602]</a> and apparently first mentioned in the Sui annals, namely, +that Buddhism was introduced into China at an early date but was +exterminated by the Emperor Shih Huang Ti (221-206) in the course of +his crusade against literature. But this view is not supported by any +details and is open to the general objection that intercourse between +China and India <i>viâ</i> Central Asia before 200 B.C. is not only +unproved but improbable.</p> + +<p>Still the mystical, quietist philosophy of Lao-tzŭ and +Chuang-tzŭ has an undoubted resemblance to Indian thought. No one +who is familiar with the Upanishads can read the Tao-Tê-Ching without +feeling that if Brahman is substituted for Tao the whole would be +intelligible to a Hindu. Its doctrine is not specifically Buddhist, +yet it contains passages which sound like echoes of the Pitakas. +Compare Tao-Tê-Ching, 33. 1, "He who overcomes others is strong: he +who overcomes himself is mighty," with Dhammapada, 103, "If one man +overcome a thousand thousand in battle and another overcome himself, +this last is the greatest of conquerors"; and 46. 2, "There is no +greater sin that to look on what moves desire: there is no greater +evil than discontent: there is no greater disaster than covetousness," +with Dhammapada, 251, "There is no fire like desire, there is no +monster like hatred, there is no snare like folly, there is no torrent +like covetousness." And if it be objected that these are the +coincidences of obvious ethics, I would call attention to 39. 1̣, +"Hence if we enumerate separately each part that goes to form a cart, +we have no cart at all." Here the thought and its illustration cannot +be called obvious and the resemblance to well-known passages in the +Samyutta Nikâya and Questions of Milinda<a name="FNanchor_603_603" id="FNanchor_603_603"></a><a href="#Footnote_603_603" class="fnanchor">[603]</a> is striking.</p> + +<p>Any discussion of the indebtedness of the Tao-Tê-Ching to India is too +complicated for insertion here since it involves the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_247" id="Page_3_247"></a>[Pg 247]</span>question of +its date or the date of particular passages, if we reject the +hypothesis that the work as we have it was composed by Lao-tzŭ in +the sixth century B.C.<a name="FNanchor_604_604" id="FNanchor_604_604"></a><a href="#Footnote_604_604" class="fnanchor">[604]</a> But there is less reason to doubt the +genuineness of the essays of Chuang-tzŭ who lived in the fourth +century B.C. In them we find mention of trances which give superhuman +wisdom and lead to union with the all-pervading spirit, and of magical +powers enjoyed by sages, similar to the Indian <i>iddhi</i>. He approves +the practice of abandoning the world and enunciates the doctrines of +evolution and reincarnation. He knows, as does also the Tao-Tê-Ching, +methods of regulating the breathing which are conducive to mental +culture and long life. He speaks of the six faculties of perception, +which recall the Shaḍâyatana, and of name and real existence +(nâmarûpam) as being the conditions of a thing<a name="FNanchor_605_605" id="FNanchor_605_605"></a><a href="#Footnote_605_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a>. He has also a +remarkable comparison of death to the extinction of a fire: "what we +can point to are the faggots that have been consumed: but the fire is +transmitted and we know not that it is over and ended." Several +Buddhist parallels to this might be cited<a name="FNanchor_606_606" id="FNanchor_606_606"></a><a href="#Footnote_606_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a>.</p> + +<p>The list of such resemblances might be made longer and the explanation +that Indian ideas reached China sporadically, at least as early as the +fourth century B.C., seems natural. I should accept it, if there were +any historical evidence besides these literary parallels. But there +seems to be none and it may be justly urged that the roots of this +quietism lie so deep in the Chinese character, that the plant cannot +have sprung from some chance wind-wafted seed. That character has two +sides, one seen in the Chinese Empire and the classical philosophy, +excellent as ethics but somewhat stiff and formal: the other in +revolutions and rebellions, in the free life of hermits and wanderers, +in poetry and painting. This second side is very like the temper of +Indian Buddhism and easily amalgamated with it<a name="FNanchor_607_607" id="FNanchor_607_607"></a><a href="#Footnote_607_607" class="fnanchor">[607]</a>, but it has a +special note of its own.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_248" id="Page_3_248"></a>[Pg 248]</span>The curiosity of Ming-Ti did not lead to any immediate triumph of +Buddhism. We read that he was zealous in honouring Confucius but not +that he showed devotion to the new faith. Indeed it is possible that +his interest was political rather than religious. Buddhism was also +discredited by its first convert, the Emperor's brother Chu-Ying, who +rebelled unsuccessfully and committed suicide. Still it flourished in +a quiet way and the two foreign monks in the White Horse Monastery +began that long series of translations which assumed gigantic +proportions in the following centuries. To Kâśyapa is ascribed a +collection of extracts known as the Sûtra of forty-two sections which +is still popular<a name="FNanchor_608_608" id="FNanchor_608_608"></a><a href="#Footnote_608_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a>. This little work adheres closely to the +teaching of the Pali Tripitaka and shows hardly any traces of the +Mahâyâna. According to the Chinese annals the chief doctrines preached +by the first Buddhist missionaries were the sanctity of all animal +life, metempsychosis, meditation, asceticism and Karma.</p> + +<p>It is not until the third century<a name="FNanchor_609_609" id="FNanchor_609_609"></a><a href="#Footnote_609_609" class="fnanchor">[609]</a> that we hear much of Buddhism +as a force at Court or among the people, but meanwhile the task of +translation progressed at Lo-yang. The Chinese are a literary race and +these quiet labours prepared the soil for the subsequent +efflorescence. Twelve<a name="FNanchor_610_610" id="FNanchor_610_610"></a><a href="#Footnote_610_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a> translators are named as having worked +before the downfall of the Han Dynasty and about 350 books are +attributed to them. None of them were Chinese. About half came from +India and the rest from Central Asia, the most celebrated of the +latter being An Shih-kao, a prince of An-hsi or Parthia<a name="FNanchor_611_611" id="FNanchor_611_611"></a><a href="#Footnote_611_611" class="fnanchor">[611]</a>. The +Later Han Dynasty was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_249" id="Page_3_249"></a>[Pg 249]</span>followed by the animated and romantic epoch +known as the Three Kingdoms (221-265) when China was divided between +the States of Wei, Wu and Shu. Loyang became the capital of Wei and +the activity of the White Horse Monastery continued. We have the names +of five translators who worked there. One of them was the first to +translate the Pâtimokkha<a name="FNanchor_612_612" id="FNanchor_612_612"></a><a href="#Footnote_612_612" class="fnanchor">[612]</a>, which argues that previously few +followed the monastic life. At Nanking, the capital of Wu, we also +hear of five translators and one was tutor of the Crown Prince. This +implies that Buddhism was spreading in the south and that monks +inspired confidence at Court.</p> + +<p>The Three Kingdoms gave place to the Dynasty known as Western +Tsin<a name="FNanchor_613_613" id="FNanchor_613_613"></a><a href="#Footnote_613_613" class="fnanchor">[613]</a> which, for a short time (A.D. 265-316), claimed to unite the +Empire, and we now reach the period when Buddhism begins to become +prominent. It is also a period of political confusion, of contest +between the north and south, of struggles between Chinese and Tartars. +Chinese histories, with their long lists of legitimate sovereigns, +exaggerate the solidity and continuity of the Empire, for the +territory ruled by those sovereigns was often but a small fraction of +what we call China. Yet the Tartar states were not an alien and +destructive force to the same extent as the conquests made by +Mohammedan Turks at the expense of Byzantium. The Tartars were neither +fanatical, nor prejudiced against Chinese ideals in politics and +religion. On the contrary, they respected the language, literature and +institutions of the Empire: they assumed Chinese names and sometimes +based their claim to the Imperial title on the marriage of their +ancestors with Chinese princesses.</p> + +<p>During the fourth century and the first half of the fifth some twenty +ephemeral states, governed by Tartar chieftains and perpetually +involved in mutual war, rose and fell in northern China. The most +permanent of them was Northern Wei which lasted till 535 A.D. But the +Later Chao and both the Earlier and Later Ts'in are important for our +purpose<a name="FNanchor_614_614" id="FNanchor_614_614"></a><a href="#Footnote_614_614" class="fnanchor">[614]</a>. Some writers make it a reproach to Buddhism that its +progress, which had been <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_250" id="Page_3_250"></a>[Pg 250]</span>slow among the civilized Chinese, became +rapid in the provinces which passed into the hands of these ruder +tribes. But the phenomenon is natural and is illustrated by the fact +that even now the advance of Christianity is more rapid in Africa than +in India. The civilization of China was already old and +self-complacent: not devoid of intellectual curiosity and not +intolerant, but sceptical of foreign importations and of dealings with +the next world. But the Tartars had little of their own in the way of +literature and institutions: it was their custom to assimilate the +arts and ideas of the civilized nations whom they conquered: the more +western tribes had already made the acquaintance of Buddhism in +Central Asia and such native notions of religion as they possessed +disposed them to treat priests, monks and magicians with respect.</p> + +<p>Of the states mentioned, the Later Chao was founded by Shih-Lo<a name="FNanchor_615_615" id="FNanchor_615_615"></a><a href="#Footnote_615_615" class="fnanchor">[615]</a> +(273-332), whose territories extended from the Great Wall to the Han +and Huai in the South. He showed favour to an Indian monk and diviner +called Fo-t'u-ch'êng<a name="FNanchor_616_616" id="FNanchor_616_616"></a><a href="#Footnote_616_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a> who lived at his court and he appears to +have been himself a Buddhist. At any rate the most eminent of his +successors, Shih Chi-lung<a name="FNanchor_617_617" id="FNanchor_617_617"></a><a href="#Footnote_617_617" class="fnanchor">[617]</a>, was an ardent devotee and gave general +permission to the population to enter monasteries, which had not been +granted previously. This permission is noticeable, for it implies, +even at this early date, the theory that a subject of the Emperor has +no right to become a monk without his master's leave.</p> + +<p>In 381 we are told that in north-western China nine-tenths of the +inhabitants were Buddhists. In 372 Buddhism was introduced into Korea +and accepted as the flower of Chinese civilization.</p> + +<p>The state known as the Former Ts'in<a name="FNanchor_618_618" id="FNanchor_618_618"></a><a href="#Footnote_618_618" class="fnanchor">[618]</a> had its nucleus in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_251" id="Page_3_251"></a>[Pg 251]</span>Shensi, but expanded considerably between 351 and 394 A.D. under +the leadership of Fu-Chien<a name="FNanchor_619_619" id="FNanchor_619_619"></a><a href="#Footnote_619_619" class="fnanchor">[619]</a>, who established in it large colonies +of Tartars. At first he favoured Confucianism but in 381 became a +Buddhist. He was evidently in close touch with the western regions and +probably through them with India, for we hear that sixty-two states +of Central Asia sent him tribute.</p> + +<p>The Later Ts'in dynasty (384-417) had its headquarters in Kansu and +was founded by vassals of the Former Ts'in. When the power of Fu-Chien +collapsed, they succeeded to his possessions and established +themselves in Ch'ang-an. Yao-hsing<a name="FNanchor_620_620" id="FNanchor_620_620"></a><a href="#Footnote_620_620" class="fnanchor">[620]</a>, the second monarch of this +line was a devout Buddhist, and deserves mention as the patron of +Kumârajîva<a name="FNanchor_621_621" id="FNanchor_621_621"></a><a href="#Footnote_621_621" class="fnanchor">[621]</a>, the most eminent of the earlier translators.</p> + +<p>Kumârajîva was born of Indian parents in Kucha and, after following +the school of the Sarvâstivâdins for some time, became a Mahayanist. +When Kucha was captured in 383 by the General of Fu-Chien, he was +carried off to China and from 401 onwards he laboured at Ch'ang-an for +about ten years. He was appointed Kuo Shih<a name="FNanchor_622_622" id="FNanchor_622_622"></a><a href="#Footnote_622_622" class="fnanchor">[622]</a>, or Director of Public +Instruction, and lectured in a hall specially built for him. He is +said to have had 3000 disciples and fifty extant translations are +ascribed to him. Probably all the Tartar kingdoms were well disposed +towards Buddhism, though their unsettled condition made them +precarious residences for monks and scholars. This was doubtless true +of Northern Wei, which had been growing during the period described, +but appears as a prominent home of Buddhism somewhat later.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile in the south the Eastern Tsin Dynasty, which represented the +legitimate Empire and ruled at Nanking from 317 to 420, was also +favourable to Buddhism and Hsiao Wu-Ti, the ninth sovereign of this +line, was the first Emperor of China to become a Buddhist.</p> + +<p>The times were troubled, but order was gradually being restored. The +Eastern Tsin Dynasty had been much disturbed by the struggles of rival +princes. These were brought to an end in 420 by a new dynasty known as +Liu Sung which reigned in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_252" id="Page_3_252"></a>[Pg 252]</span>the south some sixty years. The north +was divided among six Tartar kingdoms, which all perished before 440 +except Wei. Wei then split into an Eastern and a Western kingdom which +lasted about a hundred years. In the south, the Liu Sung gave place to +three short dynasties, Ch'i, Liang and Ch'ên, until at last the Sui +(589-605) united China.</p> + +<p>The Liu Sung Emperor Wên-Ti (424-454) was a patron of Confucian +learning, but does not appear to have discouraged Buddhism. The Sung +annals record that several embassies were sent from India and Ceylon +to offer congratulations on the flourishing condition of religion in +his dominions, but they also preserve memorials from Chinese officials +asking for imperial interference to prevent the multiplication of +monasteries and the growing expenditure on superstitious ceremonies. +This marks the beginning of the desire to curb Buddhism by restrictive +legislation which the official class displayed so prominently and +persistently in subsequent centuries. A similar reaction seems to have +been felt in Wei, where the influential statesman Ts'ui Hao<a name="FNanchor_623_623" id="FNanchor_623_623"></a><a href="#Footnote_623_623" class="fnanchor">[623]</a>, a +votary of Taoism, conducted an anti-Buddhist campaign. He was helped +in this crusade by the discovery of arms in a monastery at Ch'ang-an. +The monks were accused of treason and debauchery and in 446 Toba +Tao<a name="FNanchor_624_624" id="FNanchor_624_624"></a><a href="#Footnote_624_624" class="fnanchor">[624]</a>, the sovereign of Wei, issued an edict ordering the +destruction of Buddhist temples and sacred books as well as the +execution of all priests. The Crown Prince, who was a Buddhist, was +able to save many lives, but no monasteries or temples were left +standing. The persecution, however, was of short duration. Toba Tao +was assassinated and almost the first act of his successor was to +re-establish Buddhism and allow his subjects to become monks. From +this period date the sculptured grottoes of Yün-Kang in northern +Shan-si which are probably the oldest specimens of Buddhist art in +China. In 471 another ruler of Wei, Toba Hung, had a gigantic image of +Buddha constructed and subsequently abdicated in order to devote +himself to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_253" id="Page_3_253"></a>[Pg 253]</span>Buddhist studies. His successor marks a reaction, for +he was an ardent Confucianist who changed the family name to Yüan and +tried to introduce the Chinese language and dress. But the tide of +Buddhism was too strong. It secured the favour of the next Emperor in +whose time there are said to have been 13,000 temples in Wei.</p> + +<p>In the Sung dominions a conspiracy was discovered in 458 in which a +monk was implicated, and restrictive, though not prohibitive, +regulations were issued respecting monasteries. The Emperor Ming-Ti, +though a cruel ruler was a devout Buddhist and erected a monastery in +Hu-nan, at the cost of such heavy taxation that his ministers +remonstrated. The fifty-nine years of Liu Sung rule must have been on +the whole favourable to Buddhism, for twenty translators flourished, +partly natives and partly foreigners from Central Asia, India and +Ceylon. In 420 a band of twenty-five Chinese started on a pilgrimage +to India. They had been preceded by the celebrated pilgrim +Fa-Hsien<a name="FNanchor_625_625" id="FNanchor_625_625"></a><a href="#Footnote_625_625" class="fnanchor">[625]</a> who travelled in India from 399 to 414.</p> + +<p>In the reign of Wu-Ti, the first Emperor of the Ch'i dynasty, one of +the imperial princes, named Tzŭ Liang<a name="FNanchor_626_626" id="FNanchor_626_626"></a><a href="#Footnote_626_626" class="fnanchor">[626]</a>, cultivated the society +of eminent monks and enjoyed theological discussions. From the +specimens of these arguments which have been preserved we see that the +explanation of the inequalities of life as the result of Karma had a +great attraction for the popular mind and also that it provoked the +hostile criticism of the Confucian literati.</p> + +<p>The accession of the Liang dynasty and the long reign of its first +emperor Wu-Ti (502-549) were important events in the history of +Buddhism, for this monarch rivalled Asoka in pious enthusiasm if not +in power and prosperity. He obviously set the Church above the state +and it was while he was on the throne that Bodhidharma came to China +and the first edition of the Tripitaka was prepared.</p> + +<p>His reign, though primarily of importance for religion, was not +wanting in political interest, and witnessed a long conflict with Wei. +Wu-Ti was aided by the dissensions which distracted Wei but failed to +achieve his object, probably as a result of his religious +preoccupations, for he seemed unable to estimate the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_254" id="Page_3_254"></a>[Pg 254]</span>power of the +various adventurers who from time to time rose to pre-eminence in the +north and, holding war to be wrong, he was too ready to accept +insincere overtures for peace. Wei split into two states, the Eastern +and Western, and Hou-Ching<a name="FNanchor_627_627" id="FNanchor_627_627"></a><a href="#Footnote_627_627" class="fnanchor">[627]</a>, a powerful general who was not +satisfied with his position in either, offered his services to Wu-Ti, +promising to add a large part of Ho-nan to his dominions. He failed in +his promise but Wu-Ti, instead of punishing him, first gave him a post +as governor and then listened to the proposals made by the ruler of +Eastern Wei for his surrender. On this Hou-Ching conspired with an +adopted son of Wu-Ti, who had been set aside as heir to the throne and +invested Nanking. The city was captured after the horrors of a +prolonged siege and Wu-Ti died miserably.</p> + +<p>Wu-Ti was not originally a Buddhist. In fact until about 510, when he +was well over forty, he was conspicuous as a patron of Confucianism. +The change might be ascribed to personal reasons, but it is noticeable +that the same thing occurred in Wei, where a period of Confucianism +was succeeded by a strong wave of Buddhism which evidently swept over +all China. Hu<a name="FNanchor_628_628" id="FNanchor_628_628"></a><a href="#Footnote_628_628" class="fnanchor">[628]</a>, the Dowager Empress of Wei, was a fervent devotee, +though of indifferent morality in both public and private life since +she is said to have poisoned her own son. In 518 she sent Sung Yün and +Hui Shêng<a name="FNanchor_629_629" id="FNanchor_629_629"></a><a href="#Footnote_629_629" class="fnanchor">[629]</a> to Udyâna in search of Buddhist books of which they +brought back 175.</p> + +<p>Wu-Ti's conversion is connected with a wandering monk and magician +called Pao-Chih<a name="FNanchor_630_630" id="FNanchor_630_630"></a><a href="#Footnote_630_630" class="fnanchor">[630]</a>, who received the privilege of approaching him at +all hours. A monastery was erected in Nanking at great expense and +edicts were issued forbidding not only the sacrifice of animals but +even the representation of living things in embroidery, on the ground +that people might cut up such figures and thus become callous to the +sanctity of life. The emperor expounded sûtras in public and wrote a +work on Buddhist ritual<a name="FNanchor_631_631" id="FNanchor_631_631"></a><a href="#Footnote_631_631" class="fnanchor">[631]</a>. The first Chinese edition of the +Tripitaka, in manuscript and not printed, was collected in 518. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_255" id="Page_3_255"></a>[Pg 255]</span>Although Wu-Ti's edicts, particularly that against animal +sacrifices, gave great dissatisfaction, yet the Buddhist movement +seems to have been popular and not merely an imperial whim, for many +distinguished persons, for instance the authors Liu Hsieh and Yao +Ch'a<a name="FNanchor_632_632" id="FNanchor_632_632"></a><a href="#Footnote_632_632" class="fnanchor">[632]</a>, took part in it.</p> + +<p>In 520 (or according to others, in 525) Bodhidharma (generally called +Ta-mo in Chinese) landed in Canton from India. He is described as the +son of a king of a country called Hsiang-chih in southern India, and +the twenty-eighth Patriarch<a name="FNanchor_633_633" id="FNanchor_633_633"></a><a href="#Footnote_633_633" class="fnanchor">[633]</a>. He taught that merit does not lie in +good works and that knowledge is not gained by reading the scriptures. +The one essential is insight, which comes as illumination after +meditation. Though this doctrine had subsequently much success in the +Far East, it was not at first appreciated and Bodhidharma's +introduction to the devout but literary Emperor in Nanking was a +fiasco. He offended his Majesty by curtly saying that he had acquired +no merit by causing temples to be built and books to be transcribed. +Then, in answer to the question, what is the most important of the +holy doctrines, he replied "where all is emptiness, nothing can be +called holy." "Who," asked the astonished Emperor, "is he who thus +replies to me?" "I do not know," said Bodhidharma.</p> + +<p>Not being able to come to any understanding with Wu-Ti, Bodhidharma +went northwards, and is said to have crossed the Yang-tse standing on +a reed, a subject frequently represented in Chinese art<a name="FNanchor_634_634" id="FNanchor_634_634"></a><a href="#Footnote_634_634" class="fnanchor">[634]</a>. He +retired to Lo-yang where he spent nine years in the Shao-Lin<a name="FNanchor_635_635" id="FNanchor_635_635"></a><a href="#Footnote_635_635" class="fnanchor">[635]</a> +temple gazing silently at a wall, whence he was popularly known as the +wall-gazer. One legend says that he sat so long in contemplation that +his legs fell off, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_256" id="Page_3_256"></a>[Pg 256]</span>a kind of legless doll which is a favourite +plaything in Japan is still called by his name. But according to +another tale he preserved his legs. He wished to return to India but +died in China. When Sung Yün, the traveller mentioned above, was +returning from India, he met him in a mountain pass bare-footed and +carrying one sandal in his hand<a name="FNanchor_636_636" id="FNanchor_636_636"></a><a href="#Footnote_636_636" class="fnanchor">[636]</a>. When this was reported, his +coffin was opened and was found to contain nothing but the other +sandal which was long preserved as a precious relic in the Shao-Lin +temple.</p> + +<p>Wu-Ti adopted many of the habits of a bonze. He was a strict +vegetarian, expounded the scriptures in public and wrote a work on +ritual. He thrice retired into a monastery and wore the dress of a +Bhikkhu. These retirements were apparently of short duration and his +ministers twice redeemed him by heavy payments.</p> + +<p>In 538 a hair of the Buddha was sent by the king of Fu-nan and +received with great ceremony. In the next year a mission was +despatched to Magadha to obtain Sanskrit texts. It returned in 546 +with a large collection of manuscripts and accompanied by the learned +Paramârtha who spent twenty years in translating them<a name="FNanchor_637_637" id="FNanchor_637_637"></a><a href="#Footnote_637_637" class="fnanchor">[637]</a>. Wu-Ti, in +his old age, became stricter. All luxury was suppressed at Court, but +he himself always wore full dress and showed the utmost politeness, +even to the lowest officials. He was so reluctant to inflict the +punishment of death that crime increased. In 547 he became a monk for +the third time and immediately afterwards the events connected with +Hou-Ching (briefly sketched above) began to trouble the peace of his +old age. During the siege of Nanking he was obliged to depart from his +vegetarian diet and eat eggs. When he was told that his capital was +taken he merely said, "I obtained the kingdom through my own efforts +and through me it has been lost. So I need not complain."</p> + +<p>Hou-Ching proceeded to the palace, but<a name="FNanchor_638_638" id="FNanchor_638_638"></a><a href="#Footnote_638_638" class="fnanchor">[638]</a>, overcome with awe, knelt +down before Wu-Ti who merely said, "I am afraid you must be fatigued +by the trouble it has cost you to destroy my kingdom." Hou-Ching was +ashamed and told his officers that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_257" id="Page_3_257"></a>[Pg 257]</span>he had never felt such fear +before and would never dare to see Wu-Ti again. Nevertheless, the aged +Emperor was treated with indignity and soon died of starvation. His +end, though melancholy, was peaceful compared with that in store for +Hou-Ching who, after two years of fighting and murdering, assumed the +imperial title, but immediately afterwards was defeated and slain. The +people ate his body in the streets of Nanking and his own wife is said +to have swallowed mouthfuls of his flesh.</p> + +<p>One of Wu-Ti's sons, Yüan-Ti, who reigned from 552 to 555, inherited +his father's temper and fate with this difference that he was a +Taoist, not a Buddhist. He frequently resided in the temples of that +religion, studied its scriptures and expounded them to his people. A +great scholar, he had accumulated 140,000 volumes, but when it was +announced to him in his library that the troops of Wei were marching +on his capital, he yielded without resistance and burnt his books, +saying that they had proved of no use in this extremity.</p> + +<p>This alternation of imperial patronage in the south may have been the +reason why Wên Hsüan Ti, the ruler of Northern Ch'i<a name="FNanchor_639_639" id="FNanchor_639_639"></a><a href="#Footnote_639_639" class="fnanchor">[639]</a>, and for the +moment perhaps the most important personage in China, summoned +Buddhist and Taoist priests to a discussion in 555. Both religions +could not be true, he said, and one must be superfluous. After hearing +the arguments of both he decided in favour of Buddhism and ordered the +Taoists to become bonzes on pain of death. Only four refused and were +executed.</p> + +<p>Under the short Ch'ên dynasty (557-589) the position of Buddhism +continued favourable. The first Emperor, a mild and intelligent +sovereign, though circumstances obliged him to put a great many people +out of the way, retired to a monastery after reigning for two years. +But in the north there was a temporary reaction. Wu-Ti, of the +Northern Chou dynasty<a name="FNanchor_640_640" id="FNanchor_640_640"></a><a href="#Footnote_640_640" class="fnanchor">[640]</a>, first of all defined the precedence of the +three religions as Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and then, in 575, +prohibited the two latter, ordering temples to be destroyed and +priests to return to the world. But as usual the persecution was not +of long duration. Five years later Wu-Ti's son withdrew his father's +edict and in 582, the founder of the Sui dynasty, gave the population +permission to become monks. He may be said to have used <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_258" id="Page_3_258"></a>[Pg 258]</span>Buddhism +as his basis for restoring the unity of the Empire and in his old age +he became devout. The Sui annals observe that Buddhist books had +become more numerous under this dynasty than those of the +Confucianists, and no less than three collections of the Tripitaka +were made between 594 and 616.</p> + +<p>With the seventh century began the great T'ang dynasty (620-907). +Buddhism had now been known to the rulers of China for about 550 +years. It began as a religion tolerated but still regarded as exotic +and not quite natural for the sons of Han. It had succeeded in +establishing itself as the faith of the majority among both Tartars +and Chinese. The rivalry of Taoism was only an instance of that +imitation which is the sincerest flattery. Though the opposition of +the mandarins assumed serious proportions whenever they could induce +an Emperor to share their views, yet the hostile attitude of the +Government never lasted long and was not shared by the mass of the +people. It is clear that the permissions to practise Buddhism which +invariably followed close on the prohibitions were a national relief. +Though Buddhism tended to mingle with Taoism and other indigenous +ideas, the many translations of Indian works and the increasing +intercourse between Chinese and Hindus had diffused a knowledge of its +true tenets and practice.</p> + +<p>The T'ang dynasty witnessed a triangular war between Confucianism, +Buddhism and Taoism. As a rule Confucianism attacked the other two as +base superstitions but sometimes, as in the reign of Wu Tsung, Taoism +seized a chance of being able to annihilate Buddhism. This war +continued under the Northern Sung, though the character of Chinese +Buddhism changed, for the Contemplative School, which had considerable +affinities to Taoism, became popular at the expense of the T'ien T'ai. +After the Northern Sung (except under the foreign Mongol dynasty) we +feel that, though Buddhism was by no means dead and from time to time +flourished exceedingly, yet Confucianism had established its claim to +be the natural code and creed of the scholar and statesman. The +Chinese Court remained a strange place to the end but scholarship and +good sense had a large measure of success in banishing extravagance +from art and literature. Yet, alas, the intellectual life of China +lost more in fire and brilliancy than it gained in sanity. Probably +the most critical times for literature and indeed for thought were +those <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_259" id="Page_3_259"></a>[Pg 259]</span>brief periods under the Sui and T'ang<a name="FNanchor_641_641" id="FNanchor_641_641"></a><a href="#Footnote_641_641" class="fnanchor">[641]</a> when Buddhist and +Taoist books were accepted as texts for the public examinations and +the last half century of the Northern Sung, when the educational +reforms of Wang An Shih were intermittently in force. The innovations +were cancelled in all cases. Had they lasted, Chinese style and +mentality might have been different.</p> + +<p>The T'ang dynasty, though on the whole favourable to Buddhism, and +indeed the period of its greatest prosperity, opened with a period of +reaction. To the founder, Kao Tsu, is attributed the saying that +Confucianism is as necessary to the Chinese as wings to a bird or +water to a fish. The imperial historiographer Fu I<a name="FNanchor_642_642" id="FNanchor_642_642"></a><a href="#Footnote_642_642" class="fnanchor">[642]</a> presented to +his master a memorial blaming Buddhism because it undervalued natural +relationships and urging that monks and nuns should be compelled to +marry. He was opposed by Hsiao Yü<a name="FNanchor_643_643" id="FNanchor_643_643"></a><a href="#Footnote_643_643" class="fnanchor">[643]</a>, who declared that hell was +made for such people as his opponent—an argument common to many +religions. The Emperor followed on the whole advice of Fu I. +Magistrates were ordered to inquire into the lives of monks and nuns. +Those found pure and sincere were collected in the large +establishments. The rest were ordered to return to the world and the +smaller religious houses were closed. Kao Tsu abdicated in 627 but his +son Tai Tsung continued his religious policy, and the new Empress was +strongly anti-Buddhist, for when mortally ill she forbade her son to +pray for her recovery in Buddhist shrines. Yet the Emperor cannot have +shared these sentiments at any rate towards the end of his reign<a name="FNanchor_644_644" id="FNanchor_644_644"></a><a href="#Footnote_644_644" class="fnanchor">[644]</a>. +He issued an edict allowing every monastery to receive five new monks +and the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_260" id="Page_3_260"></a>[Pg 260]</span>celebrated journey of Hsüan Chuang<a name="FNanchor_645_645" id="FNanchor_645_645"></a><a href="#Footnote_645_645" class="fnanchor">[645]</a> was made in his +reign. When the pilgrim returned from India, he was received with +public honours and a title was conferred on him. Learned monks were +appointed to assist him in translating the library he had brought back +and the account of his travels was presented to the Emperor who also +wrote a laudatory preface to his version of the Prajnâpâramitâ. It was +in this reign also that Nestorian missionaries first appeared in China +and were allowed to settle in the capital. Diplomatic relations were +maintained with India. The Indian Emperor Harsha sent an envoy in 641 +and two Chinese missions were despatched in return. The second, led by +Wang Hsüan-Ts'ê<a name="FNanchor_646_646" id="FNanchor_646_646"></a><a href="#Footnote_646_646" class="fnanchor">[646]</a>, did not arrive until after the death of Harsha +when a usurper had seized the throne. Wang Hsüan-Ts'ê collected a +small army in Tibet, dethroned the usurper and brought him as a +prisoner to China.</p> + +<p>The latter half of the seventh century is dominated by the figure of +the Dowager Empress Wu, the prototype of the celebrated lady who took +charge of China's fate in our own day and, like her, superhuman in +decision and unscrupulousness, yet capable of inspiring loyalty. She +was a concubine of the Emperor Tai Tsung and when he died in 649 lived +for a short time as a Buddhist nun. The eventful life of Wu Hou, who +was at least successful in maintaining order at home and on the +frontiers, belongs to the history of China rather than of Buddhism. +She was not an ornament of the faith nor an example of its principles, +but, mindful of the protection it had once afforded her, she gave it +her patronage even to the extent of making a bonze named Huai I<a name="FNanchor_647_647" id="FNanchor_647_647"></a><a href="#Footnote_647_647" class="fnanchor">[647]</a> +the minister of her mature passions when she was nearly <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_261" id="Page_3_261"></a>[Pg 261]</span>seventy +years old. A magnificent temple, at which 10,000 men worked daily, was +built for him, but the Empress was warned that he was collecting a +body of vigorous monks nominally for its service, but really for +political objects. She ordered these persons to be banished. Huai I +was angry and burnt the temple. The Empress at first merely ordered it +to be rebuilt, but finding that Huai I was growing disrespectful, she +had him assassinated.</p> + +<p>We hear that the Mahâmegha-sûtra<a name="FNanchor_648_648" id="FNanchor_648_648"></a><a href="#Footnote_648_648" class="fnanchor">[648]</a> was presented to her and +circulated among the people with her approval. About 690 she assumed +divine honours and accommodated these pretensions to Buddhism by +allowing herself to be styled Maitreya or Kuan-yin. After her death at +the age of 80, there does not appear to have been any religious +change, for two monks were appointed to high office and orders were +issued that Buddhist and Taoist temples should be built in every +Department. But the earlier part of the reign of Hsüan Tsung<a name="FNanchor_649_649" id="FNanchor_649_649"></a><a href="#Footnote_649_649" class="fnanchor">[649]</a> +marks a temporary reaction. It was represented to him that rich +families wasted their substance on religious edifices and that the +inmates were well-to-do persons desirous of escaping the burdens of +public service. He accordingly forbade the building of monasteries, +making of images and copying of sutras, and 12,000 monks were ordered +to return to the world. In 725 he ordered a building known as "Hall of +the Assembled Spirits" to be renamed "Hall of Assembled Worthies," +because spirits were mere fables.</p> + +<p>In the latter part of his life he became devout though addicted to +Taoism rather than Buddhism. But he must have outgrown his +anti-Buddhist prejudices, for in 730 the seventh collection of the +Tripitaka was made under his auspices. Many poets of this period such +as Su Chin and the somewhat later Liu Tsung Yüan<a name="FNanchor_650_650" id="FNanchor_650_650"></a><a href="#Footnote_650_650" class="fnanchor">[650]</a> were Buddhists +and the paintings of the great Wu Tao-tzŭ and Wang-wei (painter as +well as poet) glowed with the inspiration of the T'ien-t'ai teaching. +In 740 there were in the city of Ch'ang-An alone sixty-four +monasteries and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_262" id="Page_3_262"></a>[Pg 262]</span>twenty-seven nunneries. A curious light is thrown +on the inconsistent and composite character of Chinese religious +sentiment—as noticeable to-day as it was twelve hundred years ago—by +the will of Yao Ch'ung<a name="FNanchor_651_651" id="FNanchor_651_651"></a><a href="#Footnote_651_651" class="fnanchor">[651]</a> a statesman who presented a celebrated +anti-Buddhist memorial to this Emperor. In his will he warns his +children solemnly against the creed which he hated and yet adds the +following direction. "When I am dead, on no account perform for me the +ceremonies of that mean religion. But if you feel unable to follow +orthodoxy in every respect, then yield to popular custom and from the +first seventh day after my death until the last (<i>i.e.</i> seventh) +seventh day, let mass be celebrated by the Buddhist clergy seven +times: and when, as these masses require, you must offer gifts to me, +use the clothes which I wore in life and do not use other valuable +things."</p> + +<p>In 751 a mission was sent to the king of Ki-pin<a name="FNanchor_652_652" id="FNanchor_652_652"></a><a href="#Footnote_652_652" class="fnanchor">[652]</a>. The staff +included Wu-K'ung<a name="FNanchor_653_653" id="FNanchor_653_653"></a><a href="#Footnote_653_653" class="fnanchor">[653]</a>, also known as Dharmadhâtu, who remained some +time in India, took the vows and ultimately returned to China with +many books and relics. It is probable that in this and the following +centuries Hindu influence reached the outlying province of Yünnan +directly through Burma<a name="FNanchor_654_654" id="FNanchor_654_654"></a><a href="#Footnote_654_654" class="fnanchor">[654]</a>.</p> + +<p>Letters, art and pageantry made the Court of Hsüan Tsung brilliant, +but the splendour faded and his reign ended tragically in disaster and +rebellion. The T'ang dynasty seemed in danger of collapse. But it +emerged successfully from these troubles and continued for a century +and a half. During the whole of this period the Emperors with one +exception<a name="FNanchor_655_655" id="FNanchor_655_655"></a><a href="#Footnote_655_655" class="fnanchor">[655]</a> were favourable to Buddhism, and the latter half of the +eighth century marks in Buddhist history an epoch of increased +popularity among the masses but also the spread of ritual and +doctrinal corruption, for it is in these years that its connection +with ceremonies for the repose and honour of the dead became more +intimate.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_263" id="Page_3_263"></a>[Pg 263]</span>These middle and later T'ang Emperors were not exclusive +Buddhists. According to the severe judgment of their own officials, +they were inclined to unworthy and outlandish superstitions. Many of +them were under the influence of eunuchs, magicians and soothsayers, +and many of those who were not assassinated died from taking the +Taoist medicine called Elixir of Immortality. Yet it was not a period +of decadence and dementia. It was for China the age of Augustus, not +of Heliogabalus. Art and literature flourished and against Han-Yü, the +brilliant adversary of Buddhism, may be set Liu Tsung Yüan<a name="FNanchor_656_656" id="FNanchor_656_656"></a><a href="#Footnote_656_656" class="fnanchor">[656]</a>, a +writer of at least equal genius who found in it his inspiration. A +noble school of painting grew up in the Buddhist monasteries and in a +long line of artists may be mentioned the great name of Wu Tao-tzŭ, +whose religious pictures such as Kuan-yin, Purgatory and the death of +the Buddha obtained for him a fame which is still living. Among the +streams which watered this paradise of art and letters should +doubtless be counted the growing importance of Central and Western +Asia in Chinese policy and the consequent influx of their ideas. In +the mid T'ang period Manichæism, Nestorianism and Zoroastrianism all +were prevalent in China. The first was the religion of the Uigurs. So +long as the Chinese had to keep on good terms with this tribe +Manichæism was respected, but when they were defeated by the Kirghiz +and became unimportant, it was abruptly suppressed (843). In this +period, too, Tibet became of great importance for the Chinese. Their +object was to keep open the passes leading to Ferghana and India. But +the Tibetans sometimes combined with the Arabs, who had conquered +Turkestan, to close them and in 763 they actually sacked Chang An. +China endeavoured to defend herself by making treaties with the Indian +border states, but in 175 the Arabs inflicted a disastrous defeat on +her troops. A treaty of peace was subsequently made with Tibet<a name="FNanchor_657_657" id="FNanchor_657_657"></a><a href="#Footnote_657_657" class="fnanchor">[657]</a>.</p> + +<p>When Su-Tsung (756-762), the son of Hsüan-Tsung, was safely +established on the throne, he began to show his devotion to Buddhism. +He installed a chapel in the Palace which was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_264" id="Page_3_264"></a>[Pg 264]</span>served by several +hundred monks and caused his eunuchs and guards to dress up as +Bodhisattvas and Genii. His ministers, who were required to worship +these maskers, vainly remonstrated as also when he accepted a sort of +Sibylline book from a nun who alleged that she had ascended to heaven +and received it there.</p> + +<p>The next Emperor, Tai-Tsung, was converted to Buddhism by his Minister +Wang Chin<a name="FNanchor_658_658" id="FNanchor_658_658"></a><a href="#Footnote_658_658" class="fnanchor">[658]</a>, a man of great abilities who was subsequently +sentenced to death for corruption, though the Emperor commuted the +sentence to banishment. Tai-Tsung expounded the scriptures in public +himself and the sacred books were carried from one temple to another +in state carriages with the same pomp as the sovereign. In 768 the +eunuch Yü Chao-En<a name="FNanchor_659_659" id="FNanchor_659_659"></a><a href="#Footnote_659_659" class="fnanchor">[659]</a> built a great Buddhist temple dedicated to the +memory of the Emperor's deceased mother. In spite of his minister's +remonstrances, His Majesty attended the opening and appointed 1000 +monks and nuns to perform masses for the dead annually on the +fifteenth day of the seventh month. This anniversary became generally +observed as an All Souls' Day, and is still one of the most popular +festivals in China. Priests both Buddhist and Taoist recite prayers +for the departed, rice is scattered abroad to feed hungry ghosts and +clothes are burnt to be used by them in the land of shadows. Large +sheds are constructed in which are figures representing scenes from +the next world and the evening is enlivened by theatricals, music and +fire-works<a name="FNanchor_660_660" id="FNanchor_660_660"></a><a href="#Footnote_660_660" class="fnanchor">[660]</a>.</p> + +<p>The establishment of this festival was due to the celebrated teacher +Amogha (Pu-k'ung), and marks the official recognition by Chinese +Buddhism of those services for the dead which have rendered it popular +at the cost of forgetting its better aspects. Amogha was a native of +Ceylon (or, according to others, of Northern India), who arrived in +China in 719 with his teacher Vajrabodhi. After the latter's death he +revisited India and Ceylon in search of books and came back in 746. He +wished to return to his own country, but permission was refused and +until his death in 774 he was a considerable personage at Court, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_265" id="Page_3_265"></a>[Pg 265]</span>receiving high rank and titles. The Chinese Tripitaka contains 108 +translations<a name="FNanchor_661_661" id="FNanchor_661_661"></a><a href="#Footnote_661_661" class="fnanchor">[661]</a> ascribed to him, mostly of a tantric character, +though to the honour of China it must be said that the erotic +mysticism of some Indian tantras never found favour there. Amogha is a +considerable, though not auspicious, figure in the history of Chinese +Buddhism, and, so far as such changes can be the work of one man, on +him rests the responsibility of making it become in popular estimation +a religion specially concerned with funeral rites<a name="FNanchor_662_662" id="FNanchor_662_662"></a><a href="#Footnote_662_662" class="fnanchor">[662]</a>.</p> + +<p>Some authors<a name="FNanchor_663_663" id="FNanchor_663_663"></a><a href="#Footnote_663_663" class="fnanchor">[663]</a> try to prove that the influx of Nestorianism under +the T'ang dynasty had an important influence on the later development +of Buddhism in China and Japan and in particular that it popularized +these services for the dead. But this hypothesis seems to me unproved +and unnecessary. Such ceremonies were an essential part of Chinese +religion and no faith could hope to spread, if it did not countenance +them: they are prominent in Hinduism and not unknown to Pali +Buddhism<a name="FNanchor_664_664" id="FNanchor_664_664"></a><a href="#Footnote_664_664" class="fnanchor">[664]</a>. Further the ritual used in China and Japan has often +only a superficial resemblance to Christian masses for the departed. +Part of it is magical and part of it consists in acquiring merit by +the recitation of scriptures which have no special reference to the +dead. This merit is then formally transferred to them. Doubtless +Nestorianism, in so far as it was associated with Buddhism, tended to +promote the worship of Bodhisattvas and prayers addressed directly to +them, but this tendency existed independently and the Nestorian +monument indicates not that Nestorianism influenced Buddhism but that +it abandoned the doctrine of the atonement.</p> + +<p>In 819 a celebrated incident occurred. The Emperor Hsien-Tsung had +been informed that at the Fa-mên monastery in Shen-si a bone of the +Buddha was preserved which every thirty years exhibited miraculous +powers. As this was the auspicious year, he ordered the relic to be +brought in state to the capital <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_266" id="Page_3_266"></a>[Pg 266]</span>and lodged in the Imperial Palace, +after which it was to make the round of the monasteries in the city. +This proceeding called forth an animated protest from Han-Yü<a name="FNanchor_665_665" id="FNanchor_665_665"></a><a href="#Footnote_665_665" class="fnanchor">[665]</a>, one +of the best known authors and statesmen then living, who presented a +memorial, still celebrated as a masterpiece. The following extract +will give an idea of its style. "Your Servant is well aware that your +Majesty does not do this (give the bone such a reception) in the vain +hope of deriving advantage therefrom but that in the fulness of our +present plenty there is a desire to comply with the wishes of the +people in the celebration at the capital of this delusive mummery.... +For Buddha was a barbarian. His language was not the language of +China. His clothes were of an alien cut. He did not utter the maxims +of our ancient rulers nor conform to the customs which they have +handed down. He did not appreciate the bond between prince and +minister, the tie between father and son. Had this Buddha come to our +capital in the flesh, your Majesty might have received him with a few +words of admonition, giving him a banquet and a suit of clothes, +before sending him out of the country with an escort of soldiers.</p> + +<p>"But what are the facts? The bone of a man long since dead and +decomposed is to be admitted within the precincts of the Imperial +Palace. Confucius said, 'respect spiritual beings but keep them at a +distance.' And so when princes of old paid visits of condolence, it +was customary to send a magician in advance with a peach-rod in his +hand, to expel all noxious influences before the arrival of his +master. Yet now your Majesty is about to introduce without reason a +disgusting object, personally taking part in the proceedings without +the intervention of the magician or his wand. Of the officials not one +has raised his voice against it: of the Censors<a name="FNanchor_666_666" id="FNanchor_666_666"></a><a href="#Footnote_666_666" class="fnanchor">[666]</a> not one has +pointed out the enormity of such an act. Therefore your servant, +overwhelmed with shame for the Censors, implores your Majesty that +these bones may be handed over for destruction by fire <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_267" id="Page_3_267"></a>[Pg 267]</span>or water, +whereby the root of this great evil may be exterminated for all time +and the people may know how much the wisdom of your Majesty surpasses +that of ordinary men<a name="FNanchor_667_667" id="FNanchor_667_667"></a><a href="#Footnote_667_667" class="fnanchor">[667]</a>."</p> + +<p>The Emperor became furious when he read the memorial and wished to +execute its author on the spot. But Han-Yü's many friends saved him +and the sentence was commuted to honourable banishment as governor of +a distant town. Shortly afterwards the Emperor died, not of Buddhism, +but of the elixir of immortality which made him so irritable that his +eunuchs put him out of the way. Han-Yü was recalled but died the next +year. Among his numerous works was one called Yüan Tao, much of which +was directed against non-Confucian forms of religion. It is still a +thesaurus of arguments for the opponents of Buddhism and, let it be +added, of Christianity.</p> + +<p>It is not surprising that the prosperity of the Buddhist church should +have led to another reaction, but it came not so much from the +literary and sceptical class as from Taoism which continued to enjoy +the favour of the T'ang Emperors, although they died one after another +of drinking the elixir. The Emperor Wu-Tsung was more definitely +Taoist than his predecessors. In 843 he suppressed Manichæism and in +845, at the instigation of his Taoist advisers, he dealt Buddhism the +severest blow which it had yet received. In a trenchant edict<a name="FNanchor_668_668" id="FNanchor_668_668"></a><a href="#Footnote_668_668" class="fnanchor">[668]</a> he +repeated the now familiar arguments that it is an alien and maleficent +superstition, unknown under the ancient and glorious dynasties and +injurious to the customs and morality of the nation. Incidentally he +testifies to its influence and popularity for he complains of the +crowds thronging the temples which eclipse the imperial palaces in +splendour and the innumerable monks and nuns supported by the +contributions of the people. Then, giving figures, he commands that +4600 great temples and 40,000 smaller rural temples be demolished, +that their enormous<a name="FNanchor_669_669" id="FNanchor_669_669"></a><a href="#Footnote_669_669" class="fnanchor">[669]</a> landed property be confiscated, that 260,500 +monks and nuns be secularized and 150,000 temple slaves<a name="FNanchor_670_670" id="FNanchor_670_670"></a><a href="#Footnote_670_670" class="fnanchor">[670]</a> set free. +These statistics are probably exaggerated and in any case the Emperor +had barely time to execute his drastic orders, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_268" id="Page_3_268"></a>[Pg 268]</span>though all despatch +was used on account of the private fortunes which could be amassed +incidentally by the executive.</p> + +<p>As the Confucian chronicler of his doings observes, he suppressed +Buddhism on the ground that it is a superstition but encouraged Taoism +which is no better. Indeed the impartial critic must admit that it is +much worse, at any rate for Emperors. Undeterred by the fate of his +predecessors Wu-Tsung began to take the elixir of immortality. He +suffered first from nervous irritability, then from internal pains, +which were explained as due to the gradual transformation of his +bones, and at the beginning of 846 he became dumb. No further +explanation of his symptoms was then given him and his uncle Hsüan +Tsung was raised to the throne. His first act was to revoke the +anti-Buddhist edict, the Taoist priests who had instigated it were put +to death, the Emperor and his ministers vied in the work of +reconstruction and very soon things became again much as they were +before this great but brief tribulation. Nevertheless, in 852 the +Emperor received favourably a memorial complaining of the Buddhist +reaction and ordered that all monks and nuns must obtain special +permission before taking orders. He was beginning to fall under Taoist +influence and it is hard to repress a smile on reading that seven +years later he died of the elixir. His successor I-Tsung (860-874), +who died at the age of 30, was an ostentatious and dissipated +Buddhist. In spite of the remonstrances of his ministers he again sent +for the sacred bone from Fa-mên and received it with even more respect +than his predecessor had shown, for he met it at the Palace gate and +bowed before it.</p> + +<p>During the remainder of the T'ang dynasty there is little of +importance to recount about Buddhism. It apparently suffered no +reverses, but history is occupied with the struggle against the +Tartars. The later T'ang Emperors entered into alliance with various +frontier tribes, but found it hard to keep them in the position of +vassals. The history of China from the tenth to the thirteenth +centuries is briefly as follows. The T'ang dynasty collapsed chiefly +owing to the incapacity of the later Emperors and was succeeded by a +troubled period in which five short dynasties founded by military +adventurers, three of whom were of Turkish race, rose and fell in 53 +years<a name="FNanchor_671_671" id="FNanchor_671_671"></a><a href="#Footnote_671_671" class="fnanchor">[671]</a>. In 960 the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_269" id="Page_3_269"></a>[Pg 269]</span>Sung dynasty united the Chinese elements in +the Empire, but had to struggle against the Khitan Tartars in the +north-east and against the kingdom of Hsia in the north-west. With the +twelfth century appeared the Kins or Golden Tartars, who demolished +the power of the Khitans in alliance with the Chinese but turned +against their allies and conquered all China north of the Yang-tze and +continually harassed, though they did not capture, the provinces to +the south of it which constituted the reduced empire of the Sungs. But +their power waned in its turn before the Mongols, who, under Chinggiz +Khan and Ogotai, conquered the greater part of northern Asia and +eastern Europe. In 1232 the Sung Emperor entered into alliance with +the Mongols against the Kins, with the ultimate result that though the +Kins were swept away, Khubilai, the Khan of the Mongols, became +Emperor of all China in 1280.</p> + +<p>The dynasties of T'ang and Sung mark two great epochs in the history +of Chinese art, literature and thought, but whereas the virtues and +vices of the T'ang may be summed up as genius and extravagance, those +of the Sung are culture and tameness. But this summary judgment does +not do justice to the painters, particularly the landscape painters, +of the Sung and it is noticeable that many of the greatest masters, +including Li Lung-Mien<a name="FNanchor_672_672" id="FNanchor_672_672"></a><a href="#Footnote_672_672" class="fnanchor">[672]</a>, were obviously inspired by Buddhism. The +school which had the greatest influence on art and literature was the +Ch'an<a name="FNanchor_673_673" id="FNanchor_673_673"></a><a href="#Footnote_673_673" class="fnanchor">[673]</a> or contemplative sect better known by its Japanese name +Zen. Though founded by Bodhidharma it did not win the sympathy and +esteem of the cultivated classes until the Sung period. About this +time the method of block-printing was popularized and there began a +steady output of comprehensive histories, collected works, +encyclopædias and biographies which excelled anything then published +in Europe. Antiquarian research and accessible editions of classical +writers were favourable <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_270" id="Page_3_270"></a>[Pg 270]</span>to Confucianism, which had always been the +religion of the literati.</p> + +<p>It is not surprising that the Emperors of this literary dynasty were +mostly temperate in expressing their religious emotions. T'ai-Tsu, the +founder, forbade cremation and remonstrated with the Prince of T'ang, +who was a fervent Buddhist. Yet he cannot have objected to religion in +moderation, for the first printed edition of the Tripitaka was +published in his reign (972) and with a preface of his own. The early +and thorough application of printing to this gigantic Canon is a +proof—if any were needed—of the popular esteem for Buddhism.</p> + +<p>Nor did this edition close the work of translation: 275 later +translations, made under the Northern Sung, are still extant and +religious intercourse with India continued. The names and writings of +many Hindu monks who settled in China are preserved and Chinese +continued to go to India. Still on the whole there was a decrease in +the volume of religious literature after 900 A.D.<a name="FNanchor_674_674" id="FNanchor_674_674"></a><a href="#Footnote_674_674" class="fnanchor">[674]</a> In the twelfth +century the change was still more remarkable. Nanjio does not record a +single translation made under the Southern Sung and it is the only +great dynasty which did not revise the Tripitaka.</p> + +<p>The second Sung Emperor also, T'ai Tsung, was not hostile, for he +erected in the capital, at enormous expense, a stupa 360 feet high to +contain relics of the Buddha. The fourth Emperor, Jên-tsung, a +distinguished patron of literature, whose reign was ornamented by a +galaxy of scholars, is said to have appointed 50 youths to study +Sanskrit but showed no particular inclination towards Buddhism. +Neither does it appear to have been the motive power in the projects +of the celebrated social reformer, Wang An-Shih. But the dynastic +history says that he wrote a book full of Buddhist and Taoist fancies +and, though there is nothing specifically Buddhist in his political +and economic theories, it is clear from the denunciations against him +that his system of education introduced Buddhist and Taoist subjects +into the public examinations<a name="FNanchor_675_675" id="FNanchor_675_675"></a><a href="#Footnote_675_675" class="fnanchor">[675]</a>. It is also clear that this system +was favoured by those Emperors of the Northern Sung dynasty who were +able to think for themselves. In 1087 it was abolished <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_271" id="Page_3_271"></a>[Pg 271]</span>by the +Empress Dowager acting as regent for the young Chê Tsung, but as soon +as he began to reign in his own right he restored it, and it +apparently remained in force until the collapse of the dynasty in +1127.</p> + +<p>The Emperor Hui-Tsung (1101-1126) fell under the influence of a Taoist +priest named Lin Ling-Su<a name="FNanchor_676_676" id="FNanchor_676_676"></a><a href="#Footnote_676_676" class="fnanchor">[676]</a>. This young man had been a Buddhist +novice in boyhood but, being expelled for misconduct, conceived a +hatred for his old religion. Under his influence the Emperor not only +reorganized Taoism, sanctioning many innovations and granting many new +privileges, but also endeavoured to suppress Buddhism, not by +persecution, but by amalgamation. By imperial decree the Buddha and +his Arhats were enrolled in the Taoist pantheon: temples and +monasteries were allowed to exist only on condition of describing +themselves as Taoist and their inmates had the choice of accepting +that name or of returning to the world.</p> + +<p>But there was hardly time to execute these measures, so rapid was the +reaction. In less than a year the insolence of Lin Ling-Su brought +about his downfall: the Emperor reversed his edict and, having begun +by suppressing Buddhism, ended by oppressing Taoism. He was a painter +of merit and perhaps the most remarkable artist who ever filled a +throne. In art he probably drew no distinction between creeds and +among the pictures ascribed to him and preserved in Japan are some of +Buddhist subjects. But like Hsüan Tsung he came to a tragic end, and +in 1126 was carried into captivity by the Kin Tartars among whom he +died.</p> + +<p>Fear of the Tartars now caused the Chinese to retire south of the +Yang-tse and Hang-chow was made the seat of Government. The century +during which this beautiful city was the capital did not produce the +greatest names in Chinese history, but it witnessed the perfection of +Chinese culture, and the background of impending doom heightens the +brilliancy of this literary and aesthetic life. Such a society was +naturally eclectic in religion but Buddhism of the Ch'an school +enjoyed consideration and contributed many landscape painters to the +roll of fame. But the most eminent and perhaps the most characteristic +thinker of the period was Chu-Hsi (1130-1200), the celebrated +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_272" id="Page_3_272"></a>[Pg 272]</span>commentator on Confucius who reinterpreted the master's writings +to the satisfaction of succeeding ages though in his own life he +aroused opposition as well as enthusiasm. Chu-Hsi studied Buddhism in +his youth and some have detected its influence in his works, although +on most important points he expressly condemned it. I do not see that +there is much definite Buddhism in his philosophy, but if Mahayanism +had never entered China this new Confucianism would probably never +have arisen or would have taken another shape. Though the final result +may be anti-Buddhist yet the topics chosen and the method of treatment +suggest that the author felt it necessary to show that the Classics +could satisfy intellectual curiosity and supply spiritual ideals just +as well as this Indian religion. Much of his expositions is occupied +with cosmology, and he accepts the doctrine of world periods, +recurring in an eternal series of growth and decline: also he teaches +not exactly transmigration but the transformation of matter into +various living forms<a name="FNanchor_677_677" id="FNanchor_677_677"></a><a href="#Footnote_677_677" class="fnanchor">[677]</a>. His accounts of sages and saints point to +ideals which have much in common with Arhats and Buddhas and, in +dealing with the retribution of evil, he seems to admit that when the +universe is working properly there is a natural <i>Karma</i> by which good +or bad actions receive even in this life rewards in kind, but that in +the present period of decline nature has become vitiated so that vice +and virtue no longer produce appropriate results.</p> + +<p>Chu-Hsi had a celebrated controversy with Lu Chiu-Yüan<a name="FNanchor_678_678" id="FNanchor_678_678"></a><a href="#Footnote_678_678" class="fnanchor">[678]</a>, a thinker +of some importance who, like himself, is commemorated in the tablets +of Confucian temples, although he was accused of Buddhist tendencies. +He held that learning was not indispensable and that the mind could in +meditation rise above the senses and attain to a perception of the +truth. Although he strenuously denied the charge of Buddhist leanings, +it is clear that his doctrine is near in spirit to the mysticism of +Bodhidharma and sets no store on the practical ethics and studious +habits which are the essence of Confucianism.</p> + +<p>The attitude of the Yüan or Mongol dynasty (1280-1368) towards +Buddhism was something new. Hitherto, whatever may have been the +religious proclivities of individual Emperors, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_273" id="Page_3_273"></a>[Pg 273]</span>the Empire had been +a Confucian institution. A body of official and literary opinion +always strong and often overwhelmingly strong regarded imperial +patronage of Buddhism or Taoism as a concession to the whims of the +people, as an excrescence on the Son of Heaven's proper faith or even +a perversion of it. But the Mongol Court had not this prejudice and +Khubilai, like other members of his house<a name="FNanchor_679_679" id="FNanchor_679_679"></a><a href="#Footnote_679_679" class="fnanchor">[679]</a> and like Akbar in +India, was the patron of all the religions professed by his subjects. +His real object was to encourage any faith which would humanize his +rude Mongols. Buddhism was more congenial to them than Confucianism +and besides, they had made its acquaintance earlier. Even before +Khubilai became Emperor, one of his most trusted advisers was a +Tibetan lama known as Pagspa, Bashpa or Pa-ssŭ-pa<a name="FNanchor_680_680" id="FNanchor_680_680"></a><a href="#Footnote_680_680" class="fnanchor">[680]</a>. He received +the title of Kuo-Shih, and after his death his brother succeeded to +the same honours.</p> + +<p>Khubilai also showed favour to Mohammedans, Christians, Jews and +Confucianists, but little to Taoists. This prejudice was doubtless due +to the suggestions of his Buddhist advisers, for, as we have seen, +there was often rivalry between the two religions and on two occasions +at least (in the reigns of Hui Tsung and Wu Tsung) the Taoists made +determined, if unsuccessful, attempts to destroy or assimilate +Buddhism. Khubilai received complaints that the Taoists represented +Buddhism as an offshoot of Taoism and that this objectionable +perversion of truth and history was found in many of their books, +particularly the Hua-Hu-Ching<a name="FNanchor_681_681" id="FNanchor_681_681"></a><a href="#Footnote_681_681" class="fnanchor">[681]</a>. An edict was issued ordering all +Taoist books to be burnt with the sole exception of the Tao-Tê-Ching +but it does not appear that the sect was otherwise persecuted.</p> + +<p>The Yüan dynasty was consistently favourable to Buddhism. Enormous +sums were expended on subventions to monasteries, printing books and +performing public ceremonies. Old restrictions were removed and no new +ones were imposed. But the sect which was the special recipient of the +imperial favour was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_274" id="Page_3_274"></a>[Pg 274]</span>not one of the Chinese schools but Lamaism, +the form of Buddhism developed in Tibet, which spread about this time +to northern China, and still exists there. It does not appear that in +the Yüan period Lamaism and other forms of Buddhism were regarded as +different sects<a name="FNanchor_682_682" id="FNanchor_682_682"></a><a href="#Footnote_682_682" class="fnanchor">[682]</a>. A lamaist ecclesiastic was the hierarchical head +of all Buddhists, all other religions being placed under the +supervision of a special board.</p> + +<p>The Mongol Emperors paid attention to religious literature. Khubilai +saw to it that the monasteries in Peking were well supplied with books +and ordered the bonzes to recite them on stated days. A new collection +of the Tripitaka (the ninth) was published 1285-87. In 1312, the +Emperor Jên-tsung ordered further translations to be made into Mongol +and later had the whole Tripitaka copied in letters of gold. It is +noticeable that another Emperor, Chêng Tsung, had the Book of Filial +Piety translated into Mongol and circulated together with a brief +preface by himself.</p> + +<p>It is possible that the Buddhism of the Yüan dynasty was tainted with +Śâktism from which the Lama monasteries of Peking (in contrast to +all other Buddhist sects in China) are not wholly free. The last +Emperor, Shun-ti, is said to have witnessed indecent plays and dances +in the company of Lamas and created a scandal which contributed to the +downfall of the dynasty<a name="FNanchor_683_683" id="FNanchor_683_683"></a><a href="#Footnote_683_683" class="fnanchor">[683]</a>. In its last years we hear of some +opposition to Buddhism and of a reaction in favour of Confucianism, in +consequence of the growing numbers and pretensions of the Lamas.</p> + +<p>Whole provinces were under their control and Chinese historians dwell +bitterly on their lawlessness. It was a common abuse for wealthy +persons to induce a Lama to let their property be registered in his +name and thus avoid all payment of taxes on the ground that priests +were exempt from taxation by law<a name="FNanchor_684_684" id="FNanchor_684_684"></a><a href="#Footnote_684_684" class="fnanchor">[684]</a>.</p> + +<p>The Mongols were driven out by the native Chinese dynasty known as +Ming, which reigned from 1368 to 1644. It is not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_275" id="Page_3_275"></a>[Pg 275]</span>easy to point out +any salient features in religious activity or thought during this +period, but since the Ming claimed to restore Chinese civilization +interrupted by a foreign invasion, it was natural that they should +encourage Confucianism as interpreted by Chu-Hsi. Yet Buddhism, +especially Lamaism, acquired a new political importance. Both for the +Mings and for the earlier Manchu Emperors the Mongols were a serious +and perpetual danger, and it was not until the eighteenth century that +the Chinese Court ceased to be preoccupied by the fear that the tribes +might unite and again overrun the Empire. But the Tibetan and +Mongolian hierarchy had an extraordinary power over these wild +horsemen and the Government of Peking won and used their goodwill by +skilful diplomacy, the favours shown being generally commensurate to +the gravity of the situation. Thus when the Grand Lama visited Peking +in 1652 he was treated as an independent prince: in 1908 he was made +to kneel.</p> + +<p>Few Ming Emperors showed much personal interest in religion and most +of them were obviously guided by political considerations. They wished +on the one hand to conciliate the Church and on the other to prevent +the clergy from becoming too numerous or influential. Hence very +different pictures may be drawn according as we dwell on the +favourable or restrictive edicts which were published from time to +time. Thus T'ai-Tsu, the founder of the dynasty, is described by one +authority as always sympathetic to Buddhists and by another as a +crowned persecutor<a name="FNanchor_685_685" id="FNanchor_685_685"></a><a href="#Footnote_685_685" class="fnanchor">[685]</a>. He had been a bonze himself in his youth but +left the cloister for the adventurous career which conducted him to +the throne. It is probable that he had an affectionate recollection of +the Church which once sheltered him, but also a knowledge of its +weaknesses and this knowledge moved him to publish restrictive edicts +as to the numbers and qualifications of monks. On the other hand he +attended sermons, received monks in audience and appointed them as +tutors to his sons. He revised the hierarchy and gave appropriate +titles to its various grades. He also published a decree ordering that +all monks should study <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_276" id="Page_3_276"></a>[Pg 276]</span>three sutras (Lankâvatâra, Prajnâpâramitâ +and Vajracchedikâ), and that three brief commentaries on these works +should be compiled (see Nanjio's Catalogue, 1613-15).</p> + +<p>It is in this reign that we first hear of the secular clergy, that is +to say, persons who acted as priests but married and did not live in +monasteries. Decrees against them were issued in 1394 and 1412, but +they continued to increase. It is not clear whether their origin +should be sought in a desire to combine the profits of the priesthood +with the comforts of the world or in an attempt to evade restrictions +as to the number of monks. In later times this second motive was +certainly prevalent, but the celibacy of the clergy is not strictly +insisted on by Lamaists and a lax observance of monastic rules<a name="FNanchor_686_686" id="FNanchor_686_686"></a><a href="#Footnote_686_686" class="fnanchor">[686]</a> +was common under the Mongol dynasty.</p> + +<p>The third Ming Emperor, Ch'êng-tsu<a name="FNanchor_687_687" id="FNanchor_687_687"></a><a href="#Footnote_687_687" class="fnanchor">[687]</a>, was educated by a Buddhist +priest of literary tastes named Yao Kuang-Hsiao<a name="FNanchor_688_688" id="FNanchor_688_688"></a><a href="#Footnote_688_688" class="fnanchor">[688]</a>, whom he greatly +respected and promoted to high office. Nevertheless he enacted +restrictions respecting ordination and on one occasion commanded that +1800 young men who presented themselves to take the vows should be +enrolled in the army instead. His prefaces and laudatory verses were +collected in a small volume and included in the eleventh collection of +the Tripitaka<a name="FNanchor_689_689" id="FNanchor_689_689"></a><a href="#Footnote_689_689" class="fnanchor">[689]</a>, called the Northern collection, because it was +printed at Peking. It was published with a preface of his own +composition and he wrote another to the work called the Liturgy of +Kuan-yin<a name="FNanchor_690_690" id="FNanchor_690_690"></a><a href="#Footnote_690_690" class="fnanchor">[690]</a>, and a third introducing selected memoirs of various +remarkable monks<a name="FNanchor_691_691" id="FNanchor_691_691"></a><a href="#Footnote_691_691" class="fnanchor">[691]</a>. His Empress had a vision in which she imagined +a sûtra was revealed to her and published the same with an +introduction. He was also conspicuously favourable to the Tibetan +clergy. In 1403 he sent his head eunuch to Tibet to invite the +presence of Tsoṇ-kha-pa, who refused to come himself <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_277" id="Page_3_277"></a>[Pg 277]</span>but sent a +celebrated Lama called Halima<a name="FNanchor_692_692" id="FNanchor_692_692"></a><a href="#Footnote_692_692" class="fnanchor">[692]</a>. On arriving at the capital Halima +was ordered to say masses for the Emperor's relatives. These +ceremonies were attended by supernatural manifestations and he +received as a recognition of his powers the titles of Prince of the +Great Precious Law and Buddha of the Western Paradise<a name="FNanchor_693_693" id="FNanchor_693_693"></a><a href="#Footnote_693_693" class="fnanchor">[693]</a>. His three +principal disciples were styled Kuo Shih, and, agreeably to the +precedent established under the Yüan dynasty, were made the chief +prelates of the whole Buddhist Church. Since this time the Red or +Tibetan Clergy have been recognized as having precedence over the Grey +or Chinese.</p> + +<p>In this reign the Chinese made a remarkable attempt to assert their +authority in Ceylon. In 1405 a mission was sent with offerings to the +Sacred Tooth and when it was ill received a second mission despatched +in 1407 captured the king of Ceylon and carried him off as a prisoner +to China. Ceylon paid tribute for fifty years, but it does not appear +that these proceedings had much importance for religion<a name="FNanchor_694_694" id="FNanchor_694_694"></a><a href="#Footnote_694_694" class="fnanchor">[694]</a>.</p> + +<p>In the reigns of Ying Tsung and Ching-Ti<a name="FNanchor_695_695" id="FNanchor_695_695"></a><a href="#Footnote_695_695" class="fnanchor">[695]</a> (1436-64) large numbers +of monks were ordained, but, as on previous occasions, the great +increase of candidates led to the imposition of restrictions and in +1458 an edict was issued ordering that ordinations should be held only +once a year. The influence of the Chief Eunuchs during this period was +great, and two successive holders of this post, Wang-Chên and +Hsing-An<a name="FNanchor_696_696" id="FNanchor_696_696"></a><a href="#Footnote_696_696" class="fnanchor">[696]</a>, were both devoted Buddhists and induced the Emperors +whom they served to expend enormous sums on building monasteries and +performing ceremonies at which the Imperial Court were present.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_278" id="Page_3_278"></a>[Pg 278]</span>The end of the fifteenth century is filled by two reigns, Hsien +Tsung and Hsiao Tsung. The former fell under the influence of his +favourite concubine Wan and his eunuchs to such an extent that, in the +latter part of his life, he ceased to see his ministers and the chief +eunuch became the real ruler of China. It is also mentioned both in +1468 and 1483 that he was in the hands of Buddhist priests who +instructed him in secret doctrines and received the title of Kuo-Shih +and other distinctions. His son Hsiao Tsung reformed these abuses: the +Palace was cleansed: the eunuchs and priests were driven out and some +were executed: Taoist books were collected and burnt. The celebrated +writer Wang Yang Ming<a name="FNanchor_697_697" id="FNanchor_697_697"></a><a href="#Footnote_697_697" class="fnanchor">[697]</a> lived in this reign. He defended and +illustrated the doctrine of Lu Chin-Yüan, namely that truth can be +obtained by meditation. To express intuitive knowledge, he used the +expression <i>Liang Chih</i><a name="FNanchor_698_698" id="FNanchor_698_698"></a><a href="#Footnote_698_698" class="fnanchor">[698]</a> (taken from Mencius). <i>Liang Chih</i> is +inherent in all human minds, but in different degrees, and can be +developed or allowed to atrophy. To develop it should be man's +constant object, and in its light when pure all things are understood +and peace is obtained. The phrases of the Great Learning "to complete +knowledge," "investigate things," and "rest in the highest +excellence," are explained as referring to the <i>Liang Chih</i> and the +contemplation of the mind by itself. We cannot here shut our eyes to +the influence of Bodhidharma and his school, however fervently Wang +Yang Ming may have appealed to the Chinese Classics.</p> + +<p>The reign of Wu-tsung (1506-21) was favourable to Buddhism. In 1507 +40,000 men became monks, either Buddhist or Taoist. The Emperor is +said to have been learned in Buddhist literature and to have known +Sanskrit<a name="FNanchor_699_699" id="FNanchor_699_699"></a><a href="#Footnote_699_699" class="fnanchor">[699]</a> as well as Mongol and Arabic, but he was in the hands of +a band of eunuchs, who were known as the eight tigers. In 1515 he sent +an embassy to Tibet with the object of inducing the Grand Lama to +visit Peking, but the invitation was refused and the Tibetans expelled +the mission with force. The next Emperor, Shih-T'sung (1522-66), +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_279" id="Page_3_279"></a>[Pg 279]</span>inclined to Taoism rather than Buddhism. He ordered the images of +Buddha in the Forbidden City to be destroyed, but still appears to +have taken part in Buddhist ceremonies at different periods of his +reign. Wan Li (1573-1620), celebrated in the annals of porcelain +manufacture, showed some favour to Buddhism. He repaired many +buildings at P'u-t'o and distributed copies of the Tripitaka to the +monasteries of his Empire. In his edicts occurs the saying that +Confucianism and Buddhism are like the two wings of a bird: each +requires the co-operation of the other.</p> + +<p>European missionaries first arrived during the sixteenth century, and, +had the Catholic Church been more flexible, China might perhaps have +recognized Christianity, not as the only true religion but as standing +on the same footing as Buddhism and Taoism. The polemics of the early +missionaries imply that they regarded Buddhism as their chief rival. +Thus Ricci had a public controversy with a bonze at Hang-Chou, and his +principal pupil Hsü Kuang-Ch'i<a name="FNanchor_700_700" id="FNanchor_700_700"></a><a href="#Footnote_700_700" class="fnanchor">[700]</a> wrote a tract entitled "The errors +of the Buddhists exposed." Replies to these attacks are preserved in +the writings of the distinguished Buddhist priest Shen Chu-Hung<a name="FNanchor_701_701" id="FNanchor_701_701"></a><a href="#Footnote_701_701" class="fnanchor">[701]</a>.</p> + +<p>In 1644 the Ming dynasty collapsed before the Manchus and China was +again under foreign rule. Unlike the Mongols, the Manchus had little +inclination to Buddhism. Even before they had conquered China, their +prince, T'ai Tsung, ordered an inspection of monasteries and limited +the number of monks. But in this edict he inveighs only against the +abuse of religion and admits that "Buddha's teaching is at bottom pure +and chaste, true and sincere: by serving him with purity and piety, +one can obtain happiness<a name="FNanchor_702_702" id="FNanchor_702_702"></a><a href="#Footnote_702_702" class="fnanchor">[702]</a>." Shun-Chih, the first Manchu Emperor, +wrote some prefaces to Buddhist works and entertained the Dalai Lama +at Peking in 1652<a name="FNanchor_703_703" id="FNanchor_703_703"></a><a href="#Footnote_703_703" class="fnanchor">[703]</a>. His son and successor, commonly known as +K'ang-Hsi (1662-1723), dallied for a while with Christianity, but the +net result of his religious policy was to secure to Confucianism all +that imperial favour can give. I have mentioned above his Sacred Edict +and the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_280" id="Page_3_280"></a>[Pg 280]</span>partial favour which he showed to Buddhism. He gave +donations to the monasteries of P'u-t'o, Hang-chou and elsewhere: he +published the Kanjur with a preface of his own<a name="FNanchor_704_704" id="FNanchor_704_704"></a><a href="#Footnote_704_704" class="fnanchor">[704]</a> and the twelfth +and last collection of the Tripitaka was issued under the auspices of +his son and grandson. The latter, the Emperor Ch'ien Lung, also +received the Teshu Lama not only with honour, but with interest and +sympathy, as is clear from the inscription preserved at Peking, in +which he extols the Lama as a teacher of spiritual religion<a name="FNanchor_705_705" id="FNanchor_705_705"></a><a href="#Footnote_705_705" class="fnanchor">[705]</a>. He +also wrote a preface to a sutra for producing rain<a name="FNanchor_706_706" id="FNanchor_706_706"></a><a href="#Footnote_706_706" class="fnanchor">[706]</a> in which he +says that he has ordered the old editions to be carefully corrected +and prayer and worship to be offered, "so that the old forms which +have been so beneficial during former ages might still be blessed to +the desired end." Even the late Empress Dowager accepted the +ministrations of the present Dalai Lama when he visited Peking in +1908, although, to his great indignation she obliged him to kneel at +Court<a name="FNanchor_707_707" id="FNanchor_707_707"></a><a href="#Footnote_707_707" class="fnanchor">[707]</a>. Her former colleague, the Empress Tzŭ-An was a devout +Buddhist. The statutes of the Manchu dynasty (printed in 1818) contain +regulations for the celebration of Buddhist festivals at Court, for +the periodical reading of sutras to promote the imperial welfare, and +for the performance of funeral rites.</p> + +<p>Still on the whole the Manchu dynasty showed less favour to Buddhism +than any which preceded it and its restrictive edicts limiting the +number of monks and prescribing conditions for ordination were +followed by no periods of reaction. But the vitality of Buddhism is +shown by the fact that these restrictions merely led to an increase of +the secular clergy, not legally ordained, who in their turn claimed +the imperial attention. Ch'ien Lung began in 1735 by giving them the +alternative of becoming ordinary laymen or of entering a monastery but +this drastic measure was considerably modified in the next few years. +Ultimately the secular clergy were allowed to continue as such, if +they could show good reason, and to have one disciple each.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_591_591" id="Footnote_591_591"></a><a href="#FNanchor_591_591"><span class="label">[591]</span></a> See <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1910, Le Songe et l'Ambassade de +l'Empereur Ming Ti, par M. H. Maspéro, where the original texts are +translated and criticized. It is a curious coincidence that Ptolemy +Soter is said to have introduced the worship of Serapis to Egypt from +Sinope in consequence of a dream.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_592_592" id="Footnote_592_592"></a><a href="#FNanchor_592_592"><span class="label">[592]</span></a> <img src="images/249_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="70" height="30" /> No doubt then pronounced something like +Vut-tha.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_593_593" id="Footnote_593_593"></a><a href="#FNanchor_593_593"><span class="label">[593]</span></a> <img src="images/249_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="150" height="33" /> </p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_594_594" id="Footnote_594_594"></a><a href="#FNanchor_594_594"><span class="label">[594]</span></a> <img src="images/249_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="130" height="34" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_595_595" id="Footnote_595_595"></a><a href="#FNanchor_595_595"><span class="label">[595]</span></a> <img src="images/249_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="100" height="34" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_596_596" id="Footnote_596_596"></a><a href="#FNanchor_596_596"><span class="label">[596]</span></a> <img src="images/249_5.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="80" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_597_597" id="Footnote_597_597"></a><a href="#FNanchor_597_597"><span class="label">[597]</span></a> <img src="images/249_6.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="75" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_598_598" id="Footnote_598_598"></a><a href="#FNanchor_598_598"><span class="label">[598]</span></a> <img src="images/250_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="65" height="34" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_599_599" id="Footnote_599_599"></a><a href="#FNanchor_599_599"><span class="label">[599]</span></a> See Chavannes, <i>Les documents Chinois découverts par +Aurel Stein</i>, 1913, Introduction. The earliest documents are of 98 +B.C.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_600_600" id="Footnote_600_600"></a><a href="#FNanchor_600_600"><span class="label">[600]</span></a> The Wei-lüeh or Wei-lio <img src="images/250_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="68" height="35" /> composed between +239 and 265 A.D., no longer exists as a complete work, but a +considerable extract from it dealing with the countries of the West is +incorporated in the San Kuo Chih <img src="images/250_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="90" height="34" /> of P'ei-Sung-Chih +<img src="images/250_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="95" height="34" /> (429 A.D.). See Chavannes, translation and notes in +<i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1905, pp. 519-571.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_601_601" id="Footnote_601_601"></a><a href="#FNanchor_601_601"><span class="label">[601]</span></a> <img src="images/250_5.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="42" height="34" /> See Chavannes, <i>l.c.</i> p. 550.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_602_602" id="Footnote_602_602"></a><a href="#FNanchor_602_602"><span class="label">[602]</span></a> See Francke, <i>Zur Frage der Einführung des Buddhismus +in China</i>, 1910, and Maspéro's review in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1910, p. 629. +Another Taoist legend is that Dipankara Buddha or Jan Têng, described +as the teacher of Śâkyamuni was a Taoist and that Śâkyamuni +visited him in China. Giles quotes extracts from a writer of the +eleventh century called Shên Kua to the effect that Buddhism had been +flourishing before the Ch'in dynasty but disappeared with its advent +and also that eighteen priests were imprisoned in 216 B.C. But the +story adds that they recited the Prajnâpâramitâ which is hardly +possible at that epoch.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_603_603" id="Footnote_603_603"></a><a href="#FNanchor_603_603"><span class="label">[603]</span></a> Sam. Nik. v. 10. 6. Cf. for a similar illustration in +Chuang-tzŭ, <i>S.B.E.</i> XL. p. 126.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_604_604" id="Footnote_604_604"></a><a href="#FNanchor_604_604"><span class="label">[604]</span></a> I may say, however, that I think it is a compilation +containing very ancient sayings amplified by later material which +shows Buddhist influence. This may be true to some extent of the +Essays of Chuang-tzŭ as well.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_605_605" id="Footnote_605_605"></a><a href="#FNanchor_605_605"><span class="label">[605]</span></a> See Legge's translation in <i>S.B.E.</i> Part I. pp. 176, +257, II. 46, 62; <i>ib.</i> I. pp. 171, 192, II. 13; <i>ib.</i> II. p. 13; <i>ib.</i> +II. p. 9, I. p. 249; <i>ib.</i> pp. 45, 95, 100, 364, II. p. 139; <i>ib.</i> II. +p. 139; <i>ib.</i> II. p. 129.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_606_606" id="Footnote_606_606"></a><a href="#FNanchor_606_606"><span class="label">[606]</span></a> <i>Ib.</i> I. p. 202; cf. the Buddha's conversation with +Vaccha in Maj. Nik. 72.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_607_607" id="Footnote_607_607"></a><a href="#FNanchor_607_607"><span class="label">[607]</span></a> Kumârajîva and other Buddhists actually wrote +commentaries on the Tao-Tê-Ching.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_608_608" id="Footnote_608_608"></a><a href="#FNanchor_608_608"><span class="label">[608]</span></a> <img src="images/253_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="150" height="35" />It speaks, however, in section 36 of being +born in the condition or family of a Bodhisattva (P'u-sa-chia), where +the word seems to be used in the late sense of a devout member of the +Buddhist Church.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_609_609" id="Footnote_609_609"></a><a href="#FNanchor_609_609"><span class="label">[609]</span></a> But the Emperor Huan is said to have sacrificed to +Buddha and Lao-tzŭ. See Hou Han Shu in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1907, p. 194. +For early Buddhism see "Communautés et Moines Bouddhistes Chinois au +II et au III siècles," by Maspéro in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1910, p. 222. In the +second century lived Mou-tzŭ <img src="images/253_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="60" height="34" /> a Buddhist author with a +strong spice of Taoism. His work is a collection of questions and +answers, somewhat resembling the Questions of Milinda. See translation +by Pelliot (in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, vol. XIX. 1920) who gives the date +provisionally as 195 A.D.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_610_610" id="Footnote_610_610"></a><a href="#FNanchor_610_610"><span class="label">[610]</span></a> Accounts of these and the later translators are found +in the thirteen catalogues of the Chinese Tripitaka (see Nanjio, p. +xxvii) and other works such as the Kao Sang-Chuan (Nanjio, No. 1490).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_611_611" id="Footnote_611_611"></a><a href="#FNanchor_611_611"><span class="label">[611]</span></a> <img src="images/253_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="172" height="35" /> He worked at translations in Loyang +148-170.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_612_612" id="Footnote_612_612"></a><a href="#FNanchor_612_612"><span class="label">[612]</span></a> Dharmakâla, see Nanjio, p. 386. The Vinaya used in +these early days of Chinese Buddhism was apparently that of the +Dharmagupta school. See <i>J.A.</i> 1916, II. p. 40. An Shih-kao (<i>c</i>. A.D. +150) translated a work called The 3000 Rules for Monks (Nanjio, 1126), +but it is not clear what was the Sanskrit original.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_613_613" id="Footnote_613_613"></a><a href="#FNanchor_613_613"><span class="label">[613]</span></a> <img src="images/254_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="72" height="34" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_614_614" id="Footnote_614_614"></a><a href="#FNanchor_614_614"><span class="label">[614]</span></a> <img src="images/254_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="290" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_615_615" id="Footnote_615_615"></a><a href="#FNanchor_615_615"><span class="label">[615]</span></a> <img src="images/255_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="75" height="34" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_616_616" id="Footnote_616_616"></a><a href="#FNanchor_616_616"><span class="label">[616]</span></a> <img src="images/255_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="100" height="34" /> He was a remarkable man and famous in his +time, for he was credited not only with clairvoyance and producing +rain, but with raising the dead. Rémusat's account of him, based on +the Tsin annals, may still be read with interest. See <i>Nouv. Mélanges +Asiatiques</i>, II. 1829, pp. 179 ff. His biography is contained in chap. +95 of the Tsin <img src="images/255_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="40" height="33" /> annals.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_617_617" id="Footnote_617_617"></a><a href="#FNanchor_617_617"><span class="label">[617]</span></a> <img src="images/255_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="96" height="35" />Died 363 A.D.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_618_618" id="Footnote_618_618"></a><a href="#FNanchor_618_618"><span class="label">[618]</span></a> Ts'in <img src="images/255_5.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="35" height="34" /> must be distinguished from Tsin + <img src="images/255_6.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="41" height="34" /> the name of three short but legitimate dynasties.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_619_619" id="Footnote_619_619"></a><a href="#FNanchor_619_619"><span class="label">[619]</span></a> <img src="images/256_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="70" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_620_620" id="Footnote_620_620"></a><a href="#FNanchor_620_620"><span class="label">[620]</span></a> <img src="images/256_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="68" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_621_621" id="Footnote_621_621"></a><a href="#FNanchor_621_621"><span class="label">[621]</span></a> See Nanjio, Catalogue, p. 406.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_622_622" id="Footnote_622_622"></a><a href="#FNanchor_622_622"><span class="label">[622]</span></a> <img src="images/256_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="72" height="34" /> For this title see Pelliot in <i>T'oung +Pao</i>, 1911, p. 671.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_623_623" id="Footnote_623_623"></a><a href="#FNanchor_623_623"><span class="label">[623]</span></a> <img src="images/257_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="68" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_624_624" id="Footnote_624_624"></a><a href="#FNanchor_624_624"><span class="label">[624]</span></a> <img src="images/257_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="85" height="36" /> He was canonized under the name of Wu +<img src="images/257_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="42" height="35" /> and the three great persecutions of Buddhism are +sometimes described as the disasters of the three Wu, the others being +Wu of the North Chou dynasty (574) and Wu of the T'ang (845).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_625_625" id="Footnote_625_625"></a><a href="#FNanchor_625_625"><span class="label">[625]</span></a> <img src="images/258_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="75" height="36" /> For the 25 pilgrims see Nanjio, p. 417.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_626_626" id="Footnote_626_626"></a><a href="#FNanchor_626_626"><span class="label">[626]</span></a> <img src="images/258_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="68" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_627_627" id="Footnote_627_627"></a><a href="#FNanchor_627_627"><span class="label">[627]</span></a> <img src="images/259_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="73" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_628_628" id="Footnote_628_628"></a><a href="#FNanchor_628_628"><span class="label">[628]</span></a> <img src="images/259_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="43" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_629_629" id="Footnote_629_629"></a><a href="#FNanchor_629_629"><span class="label">[629]</span></a> <img src="images/259_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="146" height="35" /> See Chavannes, "Voyage de Song +Yun dans l'Udyâna et le Gandhâra, 518-522," p. E in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1903, +pp. 379-441. For an interesting account of the Dowager Empress see pp. +384-5.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_630_630" id="Footnote_630_630"></a><a href="#FNanchor_630_630"><span class="label">[630]</span></a> <img src="images/259_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="70" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_631_631" id="Footnote_631_631"></a><a href="#FNanchor_631_631"><span class="label">[631]</span></a> <img src="images/259_5.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="154" height="36" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_632_632" id="Footnote_632_632"></a><a href="#FNanchor_632_632"><span class="label">[632]</span></a> <img src="images/260_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="183" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_633_633" id="Footnote_633_633"></a><a href="#FNanchor_633_633"><span class="label">[633]</span></a> See chap. XXIII. p. 95, and chap. XLV below (on schools +of Chinese Buddhism), for more about Bodhidharma. The earliest Chinese +accounts of him seem to be those contained in the Liang and Wei +annals. But one of the most popular and fullest accounts is to be +found in the Wu Têng Hui Yüan (first volume) printed at Kushan near +Fuchow.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_634_634" id="Footnote_634_634"></a><a href="#FNanchor_634_634"><span class="label">[634]</span></a> His portraits are also frequent both in China and Japan +(see <i>Ostasiat. Ztsft</i> 1912, p. 226) and the strongly marked features +attributed to him may perhaps represent a tradition of his personal +appearance, which is entirely un-Chinese. An elaborate study of +Bodhidharma written in Japanese is noticed in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1911, p. +457.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_635_635" id="Footnote_635_635"></a><a href="#FNanchor_635_635"><span class="label">[635]</span></a> <img src="images/260_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="69" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_636_636" id="Footnote_636_636"></a><a href="#FNanchor_636_636"><span class="label">[636]</span></a> The legend does not fit in well with chronology since +Sung-Yün is said to have returned from India in 522.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_637_637" id="Footnote_637_637"></a><a href="#FNanchor_637_637"><span class="label">[637]</span></a> See Takakusu in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1905, p. 33.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_638_638" id="Footnote_638_638"></a><a href="#FNanchor_638_638"><span class="label">[638]</span></a> Mailla, <i>Hist. Gén. de la Chine</i>, p. 369.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_639_639" id="Footnote_639_639"></a><a href="#FNanchor_639_639"><span class="label">[639]</span></a> <img src="images/262_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="150" height="34" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_640_640" id="Footnote_640_640"></a><a href="#FNanchor_640_640"><span class="label">[640]</span></a> <img src="images/262_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="150" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_641_641" id="Footnote_641_641"></a><a href="#FNanchor_641_641"><span class="label">[641]</span></a> See Biot, <i>Hist, de l'instruction publique en Chine</i>, +pp. 289, 313.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_642_642" id="Footnote_642_642"></a><a href="#FNanchor_642_642"><span class="label">[642]</span></a> <img src="images/264_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="72" height="35" /> Is celebrated in Chinese history as one +of the greatest opponents of Buddhism. He collected all the objections +to it in 10 books and warned his son against it on his death bed. +Giles, <i>Biog. Dict</i>. 589.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_643_643" id="Footnote_643_643"></a><a href="#FNanchor_643_643"><span class="label">[643]</span></a> <img src="images/264_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="74" height="35" /> An important minister and apparently a +man of talent but of ungovernable and changeable temper. In 639 he +obtained the Emperor's leave to become a priest but soon left his +monastery. The Emperor ordered him to be canonized under the name Pure +but Narrow. Giles, <i>Biog. Dict.</i> 722. The monk Fa-Lin <img src="images/264_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="62" height="35" />also attacked the views of Fu I in two treatises which have been +incorporated in the Chinese Tripitaka. See Nanjio, Cat. Nos. 1500, +1501.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_644_644" id="Footnote_644_644"></a><a href="#FNanchor_644_644"><span class="label">[644]</span></a> Subsequently a story grew up that his soul had visited +hell during a prolonged fainting fit after which he recovered and +became a devout Buddhist. See chap. XI of the Romance called +Hsi-yu-chi, a fantastic travesty of Hsüan Chuang's travels, and +Wieger, <i>Textes Historiques</i>, p. 1585.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_645_645" id="Footnote_645_645"></a><a href="#FNanchor_645_645"><span class="label">[645]</span></a> <img src="images/265_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="78" height="35" /> This name has been transliterated in an +extraordinary number of ways. See <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1905, pp. 424-430. +Giles gives Hsüan Chuang in his <i>Chinese Dictionary</i>, but Hsüan Tsang +in his <i>Biographical Dictionary</i>. Probably the latter is more correct. +Not only is the pronunciation of the characters variable, but the +character <img src="images/265_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="42" height="35" /> was tabooed as being part of the Emperor K'ang +Hsi's personal name and <img src="images/265_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="39" height="35" /> substituted for it. Hence the +spelling Yüan Chuang.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_646_646" id="Footnote_646_646"></a><a href="#FNanchor_646_646"><span class="label">[646]</span></a> <img src="images/265_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="98" height="35" /> See Vincent Smith, <i>Early History of +India</i>, pp. 326-327, and Giles, <i>Biog. Dict.</i>, <i>s.v.</i> Wang Hsüan-T'sê. +This worthy appears to have gone to India again in 657 to offer robes +at the holy places.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_647_647" id="Footnote_647_647"></a><a href="#FNanchor_647_647"><span class="label">[647]</span></a> <img src="images/265_5.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="80" height="35" />Some of the principal statues in the caves +of Lung-men were made at her expense, but other parts of these caves +seem to date from at least 500 A.D. Chavannes, <i>Mission Archéol.</i> tome +I, deuxième partie.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_648_648" id="Footnote_648_648"></a><a href="#FNanchor_648_648"><span class="label">[648]</span></a> <img src="images/266_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="98" height="35" /> Ta-Yün-Ching. See <i>J.A.</i> 1913, p. 149. +The late Dowager Empress also was fond of masquerading as Kuan-yin but +it does not appear that the performance was meant to be taken +seriously.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_649_649" id="Footnote_649_649"></a><a href="#FNanchor_649_649"><span class="label">[649]</span></a> "That romantic Chinese reign of Genso (713-756) which +is the real absolute culmination of Chinese genius." Fenollosa, +<i>Epochs of Chinese and Japanese art</i> I. 102.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_650_650" id="Footnote_650_650"></a><a href="#FNanchor_650_650"><span class="label">[650]</span></a> <img src="images/266_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="175" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_651_651" id="Footnote_651_651"></a><a href="#FNanchor_651_651"><span class="label">[651]</span></a> <img src="images/267_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="79" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_652_652" id="Footnote_652_652"></a><a href="#FNanchor_652_652"><span class="label">[652]</span></a> <img src="images/267_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="67" height="38" /> The meaning of this name appears to vary +at different times. At this period it is probably equivalent to Kapisa +or N.E. Afghanistan.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_653_653" id="Footnote_653_653"></a><a href="#FNanchor_653_653"><span class="label">[653]</span></a> <img src="images/267_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="72" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_654_654" id="Footnote_654_654"></a><a href="#FNanchor_654_654"><span class="label">[654]</span></a> See <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, p. 161. This does not exclude +the possibility of an opposite current, <i>viz.</i> Chinese Buddhism +flowing into Burma.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_655_655" id="Footnote_655_655"></a><a href="#FNanchor_655_655"><span class="label">[655]</span></a> Wu-Tsung, 841-847.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_656_656" id="Footnote_656_656"></a><a href="#FNanchor_656_656"><span class="label">[656]</span></a> "Liu-Tsung-Yuan has left behind him much that for +purity of style and felicity of expression has rarely been surpassed," +Giles, <i>Chinese Literature</i>, p. 191.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_657_657" id="Footnote_657_657"></a><a href="#FNanchor_657_657"><span class="label">[657]</span></a> Apparently in 783 A.D. See Waddell's articles on +Ancient Historical Edicts at Lhasa in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1909, 1910, 1911.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_658_658" id="Footnote_658_658"></a><a href="#FNanchor_658_658"><span class="label">[658]</span></a> <img src="images/269_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="82" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_659_659" id="Footnote_659_659"></a><a href="#FNanchor_659_659"><span class="label">[659]</span></a> <img src="images/269_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="103" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_660_660" id="Footnote_660_660"></a><a href="#FNanchor_660_660"><span class="label">[660]</span></a> See Eitel, <i>Handbook of Chinese Buddhism</i>, p. 185 +<i>s.v.</i> Ullambana, a somewhat doubtful word, apparently rendered into +Chinese as Yü-lan-p'ên.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_661_661" id="Footnote_661_661"></a><a href="#FNanchor_661_661"><span class="label">[661]</span></a> Sec Nanjio Catalogue, pp. 445-448.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_662_662" id="Footnote_662_662"></a><a href="#FNanchor_662_662"><span class="label">[662]</span></a> He is also said to have introduced the images of the +Four Kings which are now found in every temple. A portrait of him by +Li Chien is reproduced in Tajima's <i>Masterpieces</i>, vol. viii, plate +ix. The artist was perhaps his contemporary.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_663_663" id="Footnote_663_663"></a><a href="#FNanchor_663_663"><span class="label">[663]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Sacki, <i>The Nestorian Monument in China</i>, 1916. +See also above, p. 217.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_664_664" id="Footnote_664_664"></a><a href="#FNanchor_664_664"><span class="label">[664]</span></a> See Khuddaka-Patha, 7; Peta Vatthu, 1, 5 and the +commentary; Milinda Panha, iv. 8, 29; and for modern practices my +chapter on Siam, and Copleston, <i>Buddhism</i>, p. 445.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_665_665" id="Footnote_665_665"></a><a href="#FNanchor_665_665"><span class="label">[665]</span></a> <img src="images/271_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="65" height="35" />Some native critics, however, have doubted +the authenticity of the received text and the version inserted in the +Official History seems to be a summary. See Wieger, <i>Textes +Historiques</i>, vol. iii. pp. 1726 ff., and Giles, <i>Chinese Literature</i>, +pp. 200 ff.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_666_666" id="Footnote_666_666"></a><a href="#FNanchor_666_666"><span class="label">[666]</span></a> The officials whose duty it was to remonstrate with the +Emperor if he acted wrongly.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_667_667" id="Footnote_667_667"></a><a href="#FNanchor_667_667"><span class="label">[667]</span></a> Giles, <i>Chinese Literature</i>, pp. 201, 202—somewhat +abbreviated.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_668_668" id="Footnote_668_668"></a><a href="#FNanchor_668_668"><span class="label">[668]</span></a> See Wieger, <i>Textes Historiques</i>, vol. III. pp. 1744 +ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_669_669" id="Footnote_669_669"></a><a href="#FNanchor_669_669"><span class="label">[669]</span></a> "Thousands of ten-thousands of Ch'ing." A Ch'ing = +15.13 acres.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_670_670" id="Footnote_670_670"></a><a href="#FNanchor_670_670"><span class="label">[670]</span></a> Presumably similar to the temple slaves of Camboja, +etc.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_671_671" id="Footnote_671_671"></a><a href="#FNanchor_671_671"><span class="label">[671]</span></a> One Emperor of this epoch, Shih-Tsung of the later Chou +dynasty, suppressed monasteries and coined bronze images into +currency, declaring that Buddha, who in so many births had sacrificed +himself for mankind, would have no objection to his statues being made +useful. But in the South Buddhism nourished in the province of Fukien +under the princes of Min <img src="images/274_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="36" height="35" /> and the dynasty which called +itself Southern T'ang.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_672_672" id="Footnote_672_672"></a><a href="#FNanchor_672_672"><span class="label">[672]</span></a> <img src="images/274_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="102" height="35" />See Kokka No. 309, 1916.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_673_673" id="Footnote_673_673"></a><a href="#FNanchor_673_673"><span class="label">[673]</span></a> <img src="images/274_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="40" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_674_674" id="Footnote_674_674"></a><a href="#FNanchor_674_674"><span class="label">[674]</span></a> The decrease in translations is natural for by this +time Chinese versions had been made of most works which had any claim +to be translated.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_675_675" id="Footnote_675_675"></a><a href="#FNanchor_675_675"><span class="label">[675]</span></a> See Biot, <i>L'instruction publique en Chine</i>, p. 350.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_676_676" id="Footnote_676_676"></a><a href="#FNanchor_676_676"><span class="label">[676]</span></a> <img src="images/276_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="92" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_677_677" id="Footnote_677_677"></a><a href="#FNanchor_677_677"><span class="label">[677]</span></a> See Le Gall, <i>Variétés Sinologiques</i>, No. 6 Tchou-Hi: +Sa doctrine Son influence. Shanghai, 1894, pp. 90, 122.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_678_678" id="Footnote_678_678"></a><a href="#FNanchor_678_678"><span class="label">[678]</span></a> <img src="images/277_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="98" height="35" /> Compare the similar doctrines of Wang +Yang-Ming.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_679_679" id="Footnote_679_679"></a><a href="#FNanchor_679_679"><span class="label">[679]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> his elder brother Mangku who showed favour to +Buddhists, Mohammedans and Nestorians alike. He himself wished to +obtain Christian teachers from the Pope, by the help of Marco Polo, +but probably merely from curiosity.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_680_680" id="Footnote_680_680"></a><a href="#FNanchor_680_680"><span class="label">[680]</span></a> More accurately hPhags-pa. It is a title rather than a +name, being the Tibetan equivalent of Arya. Khubilai seems to be the +correct transcription of the Emperor's name. The Tibetan and Chinese +transcriptions are Hvopilai and Hu-pi-lieh.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_681_681" id="Footnote_681_681"></a><a href="#FNanchor_681_681"><span class="label">[681]</span></a> For this curious work see <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1908, p. 515, +and <i>J.A.</i> 1913, I, pp. 116-132. For the destruction of Taoist books +see Chavannes in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1904, p. 366.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_682_682" id="Footnote_682_682"></a><a href="#FNanchor_682_682"><span class="label">[682]</span></a> At the present day an ordinary Chinese regards a Lama +as quite different from a Hoshang or Buddhist monk.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_683_683" id="Footnote_683_683"></a><a href="#FNanchor_683_683"><span class="label">[683]</span></a> The Yüan Emperors were no doubt fond of witnessing +religious theatricals in the Palace. See for extracts from Chinese +authors, <i>New China Review</i>, 1919, pp. 68 ff. Compare the performances +of the T'ang Emperor Su Tsung mentioned above.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_684_684" id="Footnote_684_684"></a><a href="#FNanchor_684_684"><span class="label">[684]</span></a> For the ecclesiastical abuses of the time see Köppen, +II. 103, and de Mailla, <i>Histoire de la Chine</i>, IX. 475, 538.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_685_685" id="Footnote_685_685"></a><a href="#FNanchor_685_685"><span class="label">[685]</span></a> See Wieger, <i>Textes Historiques</i>, III. p. 2013, and De +Groot, <i>Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China</i>, I. p. 82. He +is often called Hung Wu which is strictly speaking the title of his +reign. He was certainly capable of changing his mind, for he degraded +Mencius from his position in Confucian temples one year and restored +him the next.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_686_686" id="Footnote_686_686"></a><a href="#FNanchor_686_686"><span class="label">[686]</span></a> See de Mailla, <i>Histoire de la Chine</i>, IX. p. 470.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_687_687" id="Footnote_687_687"></a><a href="#FNanchor_687_687"><span class="label">[687]</span></a> Often called Yung-Lo which is strictly the title of his +reign.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_688_688" id="Footnote_688_688"></a><a href="#FNanchor_688_688"><span class="label">[688]</span></a> <img src="images/281_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="98" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_689_689" id="Footnote_689_689"></a><a href="#FNanchor_689_689"><span class="label">[689]</span></a> See Nanjio, Cat. 1613-16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_690_690" id="Footnote_690_690"></a><a href="#FNanchor_690_690"><span class="label">[690]</span></a> See Beal, <i>Catena of Buddhist Scriptures</i>, p. 398. The +Emperor says: "So we, the Ruler of the Empire ... do hereby bring +before men a mode for attaining to the condition of supreme Wisdom. We +therefore earnestly exhort all men ... carefully to study the +directions of this work and faithfully to follow them."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_691_691" id="Footnote_691_691"></a><a href="#FNanchor_691_691"><span class="label">[691]</span></a> Nanjio, Cat. 1620. See also <i>ib.</i> 1032 and 1657 for the +Empress's sûtra.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_692_692" id="Footnote_692_692"></a><a href="#FNanchor_692_692"><span class="label">[692]</span></a> Or Kalima <img src="images/282_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="98" height="35" /> In Tibetan Karma de bshin +gshegs-pa. He was the fifth head of the Karma-pa school. See Chandra +Das's dictionary, <i>s.v.</i>, where a reference is given to +kLong-rdol-gsung-hbum. It is noticeable that the Karma-pa is one of +the older and more Tantric sects.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_693_693" id="Footnote_693_693"></a><a href="#FNanchor_693_693"><span class="label">[693]</span></a> <img src="images/282_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="353" height="35" /> Yüan Shih K'ai prefixed to +this latter the four characters <img src="images/282_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="124" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_694_694" id="Footnote_694_694"></a><a href="#FNanchor_694_694"><span class="label">[694]</span></a> See Yule, <i>Cathay and the Way Thither</i>, pp. 75 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_695_695" id="Footnote_695_695"></a><a href="#FNanchor_695_695"><span class="label">[695]</span></a> When Ying Tsung was carried away by the Mongols in 1449 +his brother Ching-Ti was made Emperor. Though Ying Tsung was sent back +in 1450, he was not able to oust Ching-Ti from the throne till 1457.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_696_696" id="Footnote_696_696"></a><a href="#FNanchor_696_696"><span class="label">[696]</span></a> <img src="images/282_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="152" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_697_697" id="Footnote_697_697"></a><a href="#FNanchor_697_697"><span class="label">[697]</span></a> <img src="images/283_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="100" height="35" /> His real name was Wang Shou Jên + <img src="images/283_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="97" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_698_698" id="Footnote_698_698"></a><a href="#FNanchor_698_698"><span class="label">[698]</span></a> <img src="images/283_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="77" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_699_699" id="Footnote_699_699"></a><a href="#FNanchor_699_699"><span class="label">[699]</span></a> Though the ecclesiastical study of Sanskrit decayed +under the Ming dynasty, Yung-lo founded in 1407 a school of language +for training interpreters at which Sanskrit was taught among other +tongues.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_700_700" id="Footnote_700_700"></a><a href="#FNanchor_700_700"><span class="label">[700]</span></a> <img src="images/284_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="102" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_701_701" id="Footnote_701_701"></a><a href="#FNanchor_701_701"><span class="label">[701]</span></a> <img src="images/284_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="102" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_702_702" id="Footnote_702_702"></a><a href="#FNanchor_702_702"><span class="label">[702]</span></a> De Groot, <i>l.c.</i> p. 93.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_703_703" id="Footnote_703_703"></a><a href="#FNanchor_703_703"><span class="label">[703]</span></a> Some authorities say that he became a monk before he +died, but the evidence is not good. See Johnston in <i>New China +Review</i>, Nos. 1 and 2, 1920.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_704_704" id="Footnote_704_704"></a><a href="#FNanchor_704_704"><span class="label">[704]</span></a> See <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1909, p. 533.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_705_705" id="Footnote_705_705"></a><a href="#FNanchor_705_705"><span class="label">[705]</span></a> See E. Ludwig, <i>The visit of the Tcshoo Lama to +Peking</i>, Tien Tsin Press, 1904.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_706_706" id="Footnote_706_706"></a><a href="#FNanchor_706_706"><span class="label">[706]</span></a> The Ta-yün-lung-ch'ing-yü-ching. Nanjio's Catalogue, +Nos. 187-8, 970, and see Beal, <i>Catena of Buddhist Scriptures</i>, pp. +417-9.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_707_707" id="Footnote_707_707"></a><a href="#FNanchor_707_707"><span class="label">[707]</span></a> See for an account of his visit "The Dalai Lamas and +their relations with the Manchu Emperor of China" in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, +1910, p. 774.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_281" id="Page_3_281"></a>[Pg 281]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLIV" id="CHAPTER_XLIV"></a>CHAPTER XLIV</h2> + +<h3>CHINA (<i>continued</i>)</h3> + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Canon</span></h3> + + +<p>The Buddhist scriptures extant in the Chinese language are known +collectively as San Tsang<a name="FNanchor_708_708" id="FNanchor_708_708"></a><a href="#Footnote_708_708" class="fnanchor">[708]</a> or the three store-houses, that is to +say, Tripitaka. Though this usage is justified by both eastern and +European practice, it is not altogether happy, for the Chinese +thesaurus is not analogous to the Pali Canon or to any collection of +sacred literature known in India, being in spite of its name arranged +in four, not in three, divisions. It is a great <i>Corpus Scriptorum +Sanctorum</i>, embracing all ages and schools, wherein translations of +the most diverse Indian works are supplemented by original +compositions in Chinese. Imagine a library comprising Latin +translations of the Old and New Testaments with copious additions from +the Talmud and Apocryphal literature; the writings of the Fathers, +decrees of Councils and Popes, together with the <i>opera omnia</i> of the +principal schoolmen and the early protestant reformers and you will +have some idea of this theological miscellany which has no claim to be +called a canon, except that all the works included have at some time +or other received a certain literary or doctrinal hall-mark.</p> + +<h3>1</h3> + + +<p>The collection is described in the catalogue compiled by Bunyiu +Nanjio<a name="FNanchor_709_709" id="FNanchor_709_709"></a><a href="#Footnote_709_709" class="fnanchor">[709]</a>. It enumerates 1662 works which are classified in four +great divisions, (<i>a</i>) Sûtra, (<i>b</i>) Vinaya, (<i>c</i>) Abhidharma, (<i>d</i>) +Miscellaneous. The first three divisions contain translations only; +the fourth original Chinese works as well.</p> + +<p>The first division called Ching or Sûtras amounts to nearly two-thirds +of the whole, for it comprises no less than 1081 <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_282" id="Page_3_282"></a>[Pg 282]</span>works and is +subdivided as follows: (<i>a</i>) Mahâyâna Sûtras, 541, (<i>b</i>) Hînayâna +Sûtras, 240, (<i>c</i>) Mahâyâna and Hînayâna Sûtras, 300 in number, +admitted into the canon under the Sung and Yüan dynasties, A.D. +960-1368. Thus whereas the first two subdivisions differ in doctrine, +the third is a supplement containing later translations of both +schools. The second subdivision, or Hînayâna Sûtras, which is less +numerous and complicated than that containing the Mahâyâna Sûtras, +shows clearly the character of the whole collection. It is divided +into two classes of which the first is called A-han, that is, +Agama<a name="FNanchor_710_710" id="FNanchor_710_710"></a><a href="#Footnote_710_710" class="fnanchor">[710]</a>. This comprises translations of four works analogous to the +Pali Nikâyas, though not identical with the texts which we possess, +and also numerous alternative translations of detached sûtras. All +four were translated about the beginning of the fifth century whereas +the translations of detached sûtras are for the most part earlier. +This class also contains the celebrated Sûtra of Forty-two Sections, +and works like the Jâtaka-nidâna. The second class is styled Sûtras of +one translation<a name="FNanchor_711_711" id="FNanchor_711_711"></a><a href="#Footnote_711_711" class="fnanchor">[711]</a>. The title is not used rigorously, but the works +bearing it are relatively obscure and it is not always clear to what +Sanskrit texts they correspond. It will be seen from the above that +the Chinese Tripitaka is a literary and bibliographical collection +rather than an ecclesiastical canon. It does not provide an authorized +version for the edification of the faithful, but it presents for the +use of the learned all translations of Indian works belonging to a +particular class which possess a certain age and authority.</p> + +<p>The same characteristic marks the much richer collection of Mahâyâna +Sûtras, which contains the works most esteemed by Chinese Buddhists. +It is divided into seven classes:</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. <img src="images/287_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="65" height="35" /> Pan-jo (Po-jo) or Prajnâpâramitâ<a name="FNanchor_712_712" id="FNanchor_712_712"></a><a href="#Footnote_712_712" class="fnanchor">[712]</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. <img src="images/287_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="72" height="35" /> Pao-chi or Ratnakûṭa.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">3. <img src="images/287_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="70" height="35" /> Ta-chi or Mahâsannipâta.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">4. <img src="images/287_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="70" height="35" /> Hua-yen or Avatamsaka.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">5. <img src="images/288_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="75" height="35" /> Nieh-pan or Parinirvâṇa.</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_283" id="Page_3_283"></a>[Pg 283]</span> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">6. <img src="images/288_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="213" height="35" /> Sûtras in more than one translation +but not falling into any of the above five +classes.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">7. <img src="images/288_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="100" height="35" /> Other sûtras existing in only one translation.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>Each of the first five classes probably represents a collection of +sûtras analogous to a Nikâya and in one sense a single work but +translated into Chinese several times, both in a complete form and in +extracts. Thus the first class opens with the majestic +Mahâprajnâpâramitâ in 600 fasciculi and equivalent to 200,000 stanzas +in Sanskrit. This is followed by several translations of shorter +versions including two of the little sûtras called the Heart of the +Prajnâpâramitâ, which fills only one leaf. There are also six +translations of the celebrated work known as the Diamond-cutter<a name="FNanchor_713_713" id="FNanchor_713_713"></a><a href="#Footnote_713_713" class="fnanchor">[713]</a>, +which is the ninth sûtra in the Mahâprajnâpâramitâ and all the works +classed under the heading Pan-jo seem to be alternative versions of +parts of this great Corpus.</p> + +<p>The second and third classes are collections of sûtras which no longer +exist as collections in Sanskrit, though the Sanskrit text of some +individual sûtras is extant. That called Pao-chi or Ratnakûṭa opens +with a collection of forty-nine sûtras which includes the longer +version of the Sukhâvatîvyûha. This collection is reckoned as one +work, but the other items in the same class are all or nearly all of +them duplicate translations of separate sûtras contained in it. This +is probably true of the third class also. At least seven of the works +included in it are duplicate translations of the first, which is +called Mahâsannipâta, and the sûtras called Candragarbha, Kshitig., +Sumerug., and Akâśag., appear to be merely sections, not separate +compositions, although this is not clear from the remarks of Nanjio +and Wassiljew.</p> + +<p>The principal works in class 4 are two translations, one fuller than +the other, of the Hua-yen or Avatamsaka Sûtra<a name="FNanchor_714_714" id="FNanchor_714_714"></a><a href="#Footnote_714_714" class="fnanchor">[714]</a>, still one of the +most widely read among Buddhist works, and at least sixteen of the +other items are duplicate renderings of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_284" id="Page_3_284"></a>[Pg 284]</span>parts of it. Class 5 +consists of thirteen works dealing with the death of the Buddha and +his last discourses. The first sûtra, sometimes called the northern +text, is imperfect and was revised at Nanking in the form of the +southern text<a name="FNanchor_715_715" id="FNanchor_715_715"></a><a href="#Footnote_715_715" class="fnanchor">[715]</a>. There are two other incomplete versions of the +same text. To judge from a specimen translated by Beal<a name="FNanchor_716_716" id="FNanchor_716_716"></a><a href="#Footnote_716_716" class="fnanchor">[716]</a> it is a +collection of late discourses influenced by Vishnuism and does not +correspond to the Mahâparinibbânasutta of the Pali Canon.</p> + +<p>Class 6 consists of sûtras which exist in several translations, but +still do not, like the works just mentioned, form small libraries in +themselves. It comprises, however, several books highly esteemed and +historically important, such as the Saddharmapuṇḍarîka (six +translations), the Suvarṇaprabhâsa, the Lalitavistara, the +Lankâvatâra, and the Shorter Sukhâvatîvyûha<a name="FNanchor_717_717" id="FNanchor_717_717"></a><a href="#Footnote_717_717" class="fnanchor">[717]</a>, all extant in three +translations. In it are also included many short tracts, the originals +of which are not known. Some of them are Jâtakas, but many<a name="FNanchor_718_718" id="FNanchor_718_718"></a><a href="#Footnote_718_718" class="fnanchor">[718]</a> deal +with the ritual of image worship or with spells. These characteristics +are still more prominent in the seventh class, consisting of sûtras +which exist in a single translation only. The best known among them +are the Śûrângama and the Mahâvairocana (Ta-jih-ching), which is +the chief text of the Shin-gon or Mantra School<a name="FNanchor_719_719" id="FNanchor_719_719"></a><a href="#Footnote_719_719" class="fnanchor">[719]</a>.</p> + +<p>The Lü-tsang or Vinaya-pitaka is divided into Mahâyâna and Hînayâna +texts, neither very numerous. Many of the Mahâyâna texts profess to be +revelations by Maitreya and are extracts of the +Yogâcâryabhûmiśâstra<a name="FNanchor_720_720" id="FNanchor_720_720"></a><a href="#Footnote_720_720" class="fnanchor">[720]</a> or similar to it. For practical purposes +the most important is the Fan-wang-ching<a name="FNanchor_721_721" id="FNanchor_721_721"></a><a href="#Footnote_721_721" class="fnanchor">[721]</a> or net of Brahmâ. The +Indian original of this work is not known, but since the eighth +century it has been accepted in China as the standard manual for the +monastic life<a name="FNanchor_722_722" id="FNanchor_722_722"></a><a href="#Footnote_722_722" class="fnanchor">[722]</a>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_285" id="Page_3_285"></a>[Pg 285]</span>The Hînayâna Vinaya comprises five very substantial recensions of +the whole code, besides extracts, compendiums, and manuals. The five +recensions are: (<i>a</i>) Shih-sung-lü in sixty-five fasciculi, translated +in A.D. 404. This is said to be a Vinaya of the Sarvâstivâdins, but +I-Ching<a name="FNanchor_723_723" id="FNanchor_723_723"></a><a href="#Footnote_723_723" class="fnanchor">[723]</a> expressly says that it does not belong to the +Mûlasarvâstivâdin school, though not unlike it. (<i>b</i>) The Vinaya of +this latter translated by I-Ching who brought it from India. (<i>c</i>) +Shih-fen-lü-tsang in sixty fasciculi, translated in 405 and said to +represent the Dharmagupta school. (<i>d</i>) The Mi-sha-so Wu-fên Lü or +Vinaya of the Mahîśâsakas, said to be similar to the Pali Vinaya, +though not identical with it<a name="FNanchor_724_724" id="FNanchor_724_724"></a><a href="#Footnote_724_724" class="fnanchor">[724]</a>. (<i>e</i>) Mo-ko-sêng-chi Lü or +Mahasanghika Vinaya brought from India by Fa-Hsien and translated 416 +A.D. It is noticeable that all five recensions are classed as +Hinayanist, although (<i>b</i>) is said to be the Vinaya used by the +Tibetan Church. Although Chinese Buddhists frequently speak of the +five-fold Vinaya<a name="FNanchor_725_725" id="FNanchor_725_725"></a><a href="#Footnote_725_725" class="fnanchor">[725]</a>, this expression does not refer to these five +texts, as might be supposed, and I-Ching condemns it, saying that<a name="FNanchor_726_726" id="FNanchor_726_726"></a><a href="#Footnote_726_726" class="fnanchor">[726]</a> +the real number of divisions is four.</p> + +<p>The Abhidharma-Pitaka or Lun-tsang is, like the Sûtra Pitaka, divided +into Mahayanist and Hinayanist texts and texts of both schools +admitted into the Canon after 960 A.D. The Mahayanist texts have no +connection with the Pali Canon and their Sanskrit titles do not +contain the word Abhidharma<a name="FNanchor_727_727" id="FNanchor_727_727"></a><a href="#Footnote_727_727" class="fnanchor">[727]</a>. They are philosophical treatises +ascribed to Aśvaghosha, Nâgârjuna, Asanga, Vasubandhu and others, +including three works supposed to have been revealed by Maitreya to +Asanga<a name="FNanchor_728_728" id="FNanchor_728_728"></a><a href="#Footnote_728_728" class="fnanchor">[728]</a>. The principal of these is the Yogâcârya-bhûmiśâstra, a +scripture of capital importance for the Yogâcârya school. It describes +the career of a Bodhisattva and hence parts of it are treated as +belonging to the Vinaya. Among other important works in this section +may be mentioned the Madhyamaka Śâstra of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_286" id="Page_3_286"></a>[Pg 286]</span>Nâgârjuna, the +Mahâyânasûtrâlankâra of Asanga, and the Awakening of Faith ascribed to +Aśvaghosha<a name="FNanchor_729_729" id="FNanchor_729_729"></a><a href="#Footnote_729_729" class="fnanchor">[729]</a>.</p> + +<p>The Hînayâna texts also show no correspondence with the Pali Pitaka +but are based on the Abhidharma works of the Sarvâstivâdin +school<a name="FNanchor_730_730" id="FNanchor_730_730"></a><a href="#Footnote_730_730" class="fnanchor">[730]</a>. These are seven in number, namely the +Jnânaprasthânasâstra of Kâtyâyanîputra with six accessory treatises or +Pâdas<a name="FNanchor_731_731" id="FNanchor_731_731"></a><a href="#Footnote_731_731" class="fnanchor">[731]</a>. The Mahâvibhâshasâstra, or commentary on the +Jnânaprasthâna, and the Abhidharmakósa<a name="FNanchor_732_732" id="FNanchor_732_732"></a><a href="#Footnote_732_732" class="fnanchor">[732]</a> are also in this section.</p> + +<p>The third division of the Abhidharma is of little importance but +contains two curious items: a manual of Buddhist terminology composed +as late as 1272 by Pagspa for the use of Khubilai's son and the +Sânkhyakârikâbhâshya, which is not a Buddhist work but a compendium of +Sânkhya philosophy<a name="FNanchor_733_733" id="FNanchor_733_733"></a><a href="#Footnote_733_733" class="fnanchor">[733]</a>.</p> + +<p>The fourth division of the whole collection consists of miscellaneous +works, partly translated from Sanskrit and partly composed in Chinese. +Many of the Indian works appear from their title not to differ much +from the later Mahâyâna Sûtras, but it is rather surprising to find in +this section four translations<a name="FNanchor_734_734" id="FNanchor_734_734"></a><a href="#Footnote_734_734" class="fnanchor">[734]</a> of the Dharmapada (or at least of +some similar anthology) which are thus placed outside the Sûtra +Pitaka. Among the works professing to be translated from Sanskrit are +a History of the Patriarchs, the Buddhacarita of Aśvaghosha, a work +similar to the Questions of King Milinda, Lives of Aśvaghosha, +Nâgârjuna, Vasubandhu and others and the Suhrillekha or Friendly +Epistle ascribed to Nâgârjuna.</p> + +<p>The Chinese works included in this Tripitaka consist of nearly two +hundred books, historical, critical, controversial and homiletic, +composed by one hundred and two authors. Excluding late treatises on +ceremonial and doctrine, the more interesting may be classified as +follows:</p> + +<p><i>(a) Historical.</i>—Besides general histories of Buddhism, there +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_287" id="Page_3_287"></a>[Pg 287]</span>are several collections of ecclesiastical biography. The first is +the Kao-sêng-chuan<a name="FNanchor_735_735" id="FNanchor_735_735"></a><a href="#Footnote_735_735" class="fnanchor">[735]</a>, or Memoirs of eminent Monks (not, however, +excluding laymen), giving the lives of about five hundred worthies who +lived between 67 and 519 A.D. The series is continued in other works +dealing with the T'ang and Sung dynasties. For the Contemplative +School there are further supplements carrying the record on to the +Yüan. There are also several histories of the Chinese patriarchs. Of +these the latest and therefore most complete is the +Fo-tsu-t'ung-chi<a name="FNanchor_736_736" id="FNanchor_736_736"></a><a href="#Footnote_736_736" class="fnanchor">[736]</a> composed about 1270 by Chih P'an of the +T'ien-T'ai school. The Ching-tê-ch'uan-têng-lu<a name="FNanchor_737_737" id="FNanchor_737_737"></a><a href="#Footnote_737_737" class="fnanchor">[737]</a> and other +treatises give the succession of patriarchs according to the +Contemplative School. Among historical works may be reckoned the +travels of various pilgrims who visited India.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Critical</i>.—There are thirteen catalogues of the Tripitaka as +it existed at different periods. Several of them contain biographical +accounts of the translators and other notes. The work called +Chên-chêng-lun criticizes several false sûtras and names. There are +also several encyclopædic works containing extracts from the +Tripitaka, arranged according to subjects, such as the +Fa-yüan-chu-lin<a name="FNanchor_738_738" id="FNanchor_738_738"></a><a href="#Footnote_738_738" class="fnanchor">[738]</a> in 100 volumes; concordances of numerical +categories and a dictionary of Sanskrit terms, Fan-i-ming-i-chi<a name="FNanchor_739_739" id="FNanchor_739_739"></a><a href="#Footnote_739_739" class="fnanchor">[739]</a>, +composed in 1151.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) The literature of several Chinese sects is well represented. +Thus there are more than sixty works belonging to the T'ien T'ai +school beginning with the San-ta-pu or three great books attributed to +the founder and ending with the ecclesiastical history of Chih-p'an, +written about 1270. The Hua-yen school is represented by the writings +of four patriarchs and five monks: the Lü or Vinaya school by eight +works attributed to its founder, and the Contemplative School by a +sûtra ascribed to Hui-nêng, the sixth patriarch, by works on the +history of the Patriarchs and by several collections of sayings or +short compositions.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_288" id="Page_3_288"></a>[Pg 288]</span>(<i>d</i>) <i>Controversial</i>.—Under this heading may be mentioned +polemics against Taoism, including two collections of the +controversies which took place between Buddhists and Taoists from A.D. +71 till A.D. 730: replies to the attacks made against Buddhism by +Confucian scholars and refutations of the objections raised by +sceptics or heretics such as the Chê-i-lun and the Yüan-jên-lun, or +Origin of man<a name="FNanchor_740_740" id="FNanchor_740_740"></a><a href="#Footnote_740_740" class="fnanchor">[740]</a>. This latter is a well-known text-book written by +the fifth Patriarch of the Hua-yen school and while criticizing +Confucianism, Taoism, and the Hînâyana, treats them as imperfect +rather than as wholly erroneous<a name="FNanchor_741_741" id="FNanchor_741_741"></a><a href="#Footnote_741_741" class="fnanchor">[741]</a>. Still more conciliatory is the +Treatise on the three religions composed by Liu Mi of the Yüan +dynasty<a name="FNanchor_742_742" id="FNanchor_742_742"></a><a href="#Footnote_742_742" class="fnanchor">[742]</a>, which asserts that all three deserve respect as teaching +the practice of virtue. It attacks, however, anti-Buddhist +Confucianists such as Han-Yü and Chu-Hsi.</p> + +<p>The Chinese section contains three compositions attributed to imperial +personages of the Ming, viz., a collection of the prefaces and +laudatory verses written by the Emperor T'ai-Tsung, the +Shên-Sêng-Chuan or memoirs of remarkable monks with a preface by the +Emperor Ch'êng-tsu, and a curious book by his consort the Empress +Jên-Hsiao, introducing a sûtra which Her Majesty states was +miraculously revealed to her on New Year's day, 1398 (see Nanjio, No. +1657).</p> + +<p>Though the Hindus were careful students and guardians of their sacred +works, their temperament did not dispose them to define and limit the +scriptures. But, as I have mentioned above<a name="FNanchor_743_743" id="FNanchor_743_743"></a><a href="#Footnote_743_743" class="fnanchor">[743]</a>, there is some +evidence that there was a loose Mahayanist canon in India which was +the origin of the arrangement found in the Chinese Tripitaka, in so +far as it (1) accepted Hinayanist as well as Mahayanist works, and (2) +included a great number of relatively late sûtras, arranged in classes +such as Prajnâpâramitâ and Mahâsannipâta.</p> + +<h3>2</h3> + + +<p>The Tripitaka analyzed by Nanjio, which contains works assigned to +dates ranging from 67 to 1622 A.D., is merely the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_289" id="Page_3_289"></a>[Pg 289]</span>best known +survivor among several similar thesauri<a name="FNanchor_744_744" id="FNanchor_744_744"></a><a href="#Footnote_744_744" class="fnanchor">[744]</a>. From 518 A.D. onwards +twelve collections of sacred literature were made by imperial order +and many of these were published in more than one edition. The +validity of this Canon depends entirely on imperial authority, but, +though Emperors occasionally inserted the works of writers whom they +esteemed<a name="FNanchor_745_745" id="FNanchor_745_745"></a><a href="#Footnote_745_745" class="fnanchor">[745]</a>, it does not appear that they aimed at anything but +completeness nor did they favour any school. The Buddhist Church, like +every other department of the Empire, received from them its share of +protection and supervision and its claims were sufficient to induce +the founder, or at least an early Sovereign, of every important +dynasty to publish under his patronage a revised collection of the +scriptures. The list of these collections is as follows<a name="FNanchor_746_746" id="FNanchor_746_746"></a><a href="#Footnote_746_746" class="fnanchor">[746]</a>:</p> +<table summary="Dyanasty dates"> + <tr> + <td>1.</td> + <td>A.D. 518 </td> + <td>in the time of Wu-Ti, founder of the Liang.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>2.</td> + <td> " 533-4 </td> + <td>Hsiao-Wu of the Northern Wei.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>3.</td> + <td> " 594 } </td> + <td>Wan-ti, founder of the Sui.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>4.</td> + <td> " 602 } </td> + <td>Wan-ti, founder of the Sui.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>5.</td> + <td> " 605-16 </td> + <td>Yang-Ti of the Sui.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>6.</td> + <td> " 695 </td> + <td>the Empress Wu of the T'ang.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>7.</td> + <td> " 730 </td> + <td>Hsüan-Tsung of the T'ang.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>8.</td> + <td> " 971 </td> + <td>T'ai-Tsu, founder of the Sung.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>9.</td> + <td> " 1285-7 </td> + <td>Khubilai Khan, founder of the Yüan.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>10.</td> + <td> " 1368-98 </td> + <td>Hung-Wu, founder of the Ming.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>11.</td> + <td> " 1403-24 </td> + <td>Yung-Lo of the Ming.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>12.</td> + <td> " 1735-7 </td> + <td>Yung-Ching and Ch'ien-Lung of the Ch'ing.<a name="FNanchor_747_747" id="FNanchor_747_747"></a><a href="#Footnote_747_747" class="fnanchor">[747]</a>.<br /></td> + </tr> +</table> + + + + +<p>Of these collections, the first seven were in MS. only: the last five +were printed. The last three appear to be substantially the same. The +tenth and eleventh collections are known as <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_290" id="Page_3_290"></a>[Pg 290]</span>southern and +northern<a name="FNanchor_748_748" id="FNanchor_748_748"></a><a href="#Footnote_748_748" class="fnanchor">[748]</a>, because they were printed at Nanking and Peking +respectively. They differ only in the number of Chinese works admitted +and similarly the twelfth collection is merely a revision of the tenth +with the addition of fifty-four Chinese works.</p> + +<p>As mentioned, the Tripitaka contains thirteen catalogues of the +Buddhist scriptures as known at different dates<a name="FNanchor_749_749" id="FNanchor_749_749"></a><a href="#Footnote_749_749" class="fnanchor">[749]</a>. Of these the +most important are (<i>a</i>) the earliest published between 506 and 512 +A.D., (<i>b</i>) three published under the T'ang dynasty and known as +Nei-tien-lu, T'u-chi (both about 664 A.D.), and K'ai-yüan-lu (about +720 A.D.), (<i>c</i>) Chih-Yüan-lu or catalogue of Yüan dynasty, about +1285, which, besides enumerating the Chinese titles, transliterates +the Sanskrit titles and states whether the Indian works translated are +also translated into Tibetan. (<i>d</i>) The catalogue of the first Ming +collection.</p> + +<p>The later collections contain new material and differ from the earlier +by natural accretion, for a great number of translations were produced +under the T'ang and Sung. Thus the seventh catalogue (695 A.D.) +records that 859 new works were admitted to the Canon. But this +expansion was accompanied by a critical and sifting process, so that +whereas the first collection contained 2213 works, the Ming edition +contains only 1622. This compression means not that works of +importance were rejected as heretical or apocryphal, for, as we have +seen, the Tripitaka is most catholic, but that whereas the earlier +collections admitted multitudinous extracts or partial translations of +Indian works, many of these were discarded when complete versions had +been made.</p> + +<p>Nanjio considers that of the 2213 works contained in the first +collection only 276 are extant. Although the catalogues are preserved, +all the earlier collections are lost: copies of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_291" id="Page_3_291"></a>[Pg 291]</span>eighth and +ninth were preserved in the Zō-jō-ji Library of Tokyo<a name="FNanchor_750_750" id="FNanchor_750_750"></a><a href="#Footnote_750_750" class="fnanchor">[750]</a> and +Chinese and Japanese editions of the tenth, eleventh and twelfth are +current. So far as one can judge, when the eighth catalogue, or +K'ai-yüan-lu, was composed (between 713 and 741), the older and major +part of the Canon had been definitively fixed and the later +collections merely add the translations made by Amogha, and by writers +of the Sung and Yüan dynasties.</p> + +<p>The editions of the Chinese Tripitaka must be distinguished from the +collections, for by editions are meant the forms in which each +collection was published, the text being or purporting to be the same +in all the editions of each collection. It is said<a name="FNanchor_751_751" id="FNanchor_751_751"></a><a href="#Footnote_751_751" class="fnanchor">[751]</a> that under the +Sung and Yüan twenty different editions were produced. These earlier +issues were printed on long folding sheets and a nun called +Fa-chên<a name="FNanchor_752_752" id="FNanchor_752_752"></a><a href="#Footnote_752_752" class="fnanchor">[752]</a> is said to have first published an edition in the shape +of ordinary Chinese books. In 1586 a monk named Mi-Tsang<a name="FNanchor_753_753" id="FNanchor_753_753"></a><a href="#Footnote_753_753" class="fnanchor">[753]</a> imitated +this procedure and his edition was widely used. About a century later +a Japanese priest known as Tetsu-yen<a name="FNanchor_754_754" id="FNanchor_754_754"></a><a href="#Footnote_754_754" class="fnanchor">[754]</a> reproduced it and his +publication, which is not uncommon in Japan, is usually called the +Ō-baku edition. There are two modern Japanese editions: (<i>a</i>) that +of Tokyo, begun in 1880, based on a Korean edition<a name="FNanchor_755_755" id="FNanchor_755_755"></a><a href="#Footnote_755_755" class="fnanchor">[755]</a> with various +readings taken from other Chinese editions. (<i>b</i>) That of Kyoto, 1905, +which is a reprint of the Ming collection<a name="FNanchor_756_756" id="FNanchor_756_756"></a><a href="#Footnote_756_756" class="fnanchor">[756]</a>. A Chinese edition has +been published at Shanghai (1913) at the expense of Mrs. Hardoon, a +Chinese lady well known as a munificent patron of the faith, and I +believe another at Nanking, but I do not know if it is complete or +not<a name="FNanchor_757_757" id="FNanchor_757_757"></a><a href="#Footnote_757_757" class="fnanchor">[757]</a>.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_292" id="Page_3_292"></a>[Pg 292]</span></p> + +<h3>3</h3> + + +<p>The translations contained in the Chinese Tripitaka belong to several +periods<a name="FNanchor_758_758" id="FNanchor_758_758"></a><a href="#Footnote_758_758" class="fnanchor">[758]</a>. In the earliest, which extends to the middle of the +fourth century, the works produced were chiefly renderings of detached +sûtras<a name="FNanchor_759_759" id="FNanchor_759_759"></a><a href="#Footnote_759_759" class="fnanchor">[759]</a>. Few treatises classified as Vinaya or Abhidharma were +translated and those few are mostly extracts or compilations. The +sûtras belong to both the Hîna and Mahâyâna. The earliest extant +translation or rather compilation, the Sûtra of Forty-two sections, +belongs to the former school, and so do the majority of the +translations made by An-Shih-Kao (148-170 A.D.), but from the second +century onwards the Prajnâpâramitâ and Amitâbha Sûtras make their +appearance<a name="FNanchor_760_760" id="FNanchor_760_760"></a><a href="#Footnote_760_760" class="fnanchor">[760]</a>. Many of the translations made in this period are +described as incomplete or incorrect and the fact that most of them +were superseded or supplemented by later versions shows that the +Chinese recognized their provisional character. Future research will +probably show that many of them are paraphrases or compendiums rather +than translations in our sense.</p> + +<p>The next period, roughly speaking 375-745 A.D., was extraordinarily +prolific in extensive and authoritative translations. The translators +now attack not detached chapters or discourses but the great monuments +of Indian Buddhist literature. Though it is not easy to make any +chronological bisection in this period, there is a clear difference in +the work done at the beginning and at the end of it. From the end of +the fourth century onwards a desire to have complete translations of +the great canonical works is apparent. Between 385 and 445 A.D. were +translated the four Agamas, analogous to the Nikâyas of the Pali +Canon, three great collections of the Vinaya, and the principal +scriptures of the Abhidharma according to the Sarvâstivâdin school. +For the Mahâyâna were translated the great sûtras known as Avatamsaka, +Lankâvatâra, and many others, as well as works <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_293" id="Page_3_293"></a>[Pg 293]</span>ascribed to +Aśvaghosha and Nâgârjuna. After 645 A.D. a further development of +the critical spirit is perceptible, especially in the labours of Hsüan +Chuang and I-Ching. They attempt to give the religious public not only +complete works in place of extracts and compendiums, but also to +select the most authoritative texts among the many current in India. +Thus, though many translations had appeared under the name of +Prajnâpâramitâ, Hsüan Chuang filled 600 fasciculi with a new rendering +of the gigantic treatise. I-Ching supplemented the already bulky +library of Vinaya works with versions of the Mûlasarvâstivâdin +recension and many auxiliary texts.</p> + +<p>Amogha (Pu-K'ung) whose literary labours extended from 746 to 774 A.D. +is a convenient figure to mark the beginning of the next and last +period, although some of its characteristics appear a little earlier. +They are that no more translations are made from the great Buddhist +classics—partly no doubt because they had all been translated +already, well or ill—but that renderings of works described as +Dhâraṇî or Tantra pullulate and multiply. Though this literature +deserves such epithets as decadent and superstitious, yet it would +appear that Indian Tantras of the worst class were not palatable to +the Chinese.</p> + +<h3>4</h3> + + +<p>The Chinese Tripitaka is of great importance for the literary history +of Buddhism, but the material which it offers for investigation is +superabundant and the work yet done is small. We are confronted by +such questions as, can we accept the dates assigned to the +translators, can we assume that, if the Chinese translations or +transliterations correspond with Indian titles, the works are the +same, and if the works are professedly the same, can we assume that +the Chinese text is a correct presentment of the Indian original?</p> + +<p>The dates assigned to the translators offer little ground for +scepticism. The exactitude of the Chinese in such matters is well +attested, and there is a general agreement between several authorities +such as the Catalogues of the Tripitaka, the memoirs known as +Kao-Sêng Chuan with their continuations, and the chapter on Buddhist +books in the Sui annals. There are no signs <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_294" id="Page_3_294"></a>[Pg 294]</span>of a desire to claim +improbable accuracy or improbable antiquity. Many works are said to be +by unknown translators, doubtful authorship is frankly discussed, and +the movement of literature and thought indicated is what we should +expect. We have first fragmentary and incomplete translations +belonging to both the Mahâ and Hînayâna: then a series of more +complete translations beginning about the fifth century in which the +great Hînayâna texts are conspicuous: then a further series of +improved translations in which the Hînayâna falls into the background +and the works of Asanga and Vasubandhu come to the front. This +evidently reflects the condition of Buddhist India about 500-650 A.D., +just as the translations of the eighth century reflect its later and +tantric phase.</p> + +<p>But can Chinese texts be accepted as reasonably faithful reproductions +of the Indian originals whose names they bear, and some of which have +been lost? This question is really double; firstly, did the +translators reproduce with fair accuracy the Indian text before them, +and secondly, since Indian texts often exist in several recensions, +can we assume that the work which the translators knew under a certain +Sanskrit name is the work known to us by that name? In reply it must +be said that most Chinese translators fall short of our standards of +accuracy. In early times when grammars and dictionaries were unknown +the scholarly rendering of foreign books was a difficult business, +for professional interpreters would usually be incapable of +understanding a philosophic treatise. The method often followed was +that an Indian explained the text to a literary Chinese, who recast +the explanation in his own language. The many translations of the more +important texts and the frequent description of the earlier ones as +imperfect indicate a feeling that the results achieved were not +satisfactory. Several so-called translators, especially Kumârajîva, +gave abstracts of the Indian texts<a name="FNanchor_761_761" id="FNanchor_761_761"></a><a href="#Footnote_761_761" class="fnanchor">[761]</a>. Others, like Dharmaraksha, +who made a Chinese version of Aśvaghosha's Buddhacarita, so +amplified and transposed the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_295" id="Page_3_295"></a>[Pg 295]</span>original that the result can hardly +be called a translation<a name="FNanchor_762_762" id="FNanchor_762_762"></a><a href="#Footnote_762_762" class="fnanchor">[762]</a>. Others combined different texts in one. +Thus the work called Ta-o-mi-to-ching<a name="FNanchor_763_763" id="FNanchor_763_763"></a><a href="#Footnote_763_763" class="fnanchor">[763]</a> consists of extracts taken +from four previous translations of the Sukhâvatîvyûha and rearranged +by the author under the inspiration of Avalokita to whom, as he tells +us, he was wont to pray during the execution of his task. Others +again, like Dharmagupta, anticipated a method afterwards used in +Tibet, and gave a word for word rendering of the Sanskrit which is +hardly intelligible to an educated Chinese. The later versions, <i>e.g.</i> +those of Hsüan Chuang, are more accurate, but still a Chinese +rendering of a lost Indian document cannot be accepted as a faithful +representation of the original without a critical examination<a name="FNanchor_764_764" id="FNanchor_764_764"></a><a href="#Footnote_764_764" class="fnanchor">[764]</a>.</p> + +<p>Often, however, the translator, whatever his weaknesses may have been, +had before him a text differing in bulk and arrangement from the Pali +and Sanskrit texts which we possess. Thus, there are four Chinese +translations of works bearing some relation to the Dhammapada of the +Pali Canon. All of these describe the original text as the compilation +of Dharmatrâta, to whom is also ascribed the compilation of the +Tibetan Udânavarga<a name="FNanchor_765_765" id="FNanchor_765_765"></a><a href="#Footnote_765_765" class="fnanchor">[765]</a>. His name is not mentioned in connection with +the Pali text, yet two of the Chinese translations are closely related +to that text. The Fa-chü-ching<a name="FNanchor_766_766" id="FNanchor_766_766"></a><a href="#Footnote_766_766" class="fnanchor">[766]</a> is a collection of verses +translated in 224 A.D. and said to correspond with the Pali except +that it has nine additional chapters and some additional stanzas. The +Fa-chü-p'i-yü-ching<a name="FNanchor_767_767" id="FNanchor_767_767"></a><a href="#Footnote_767_767" class="fnanchor">[767]</a> represents another edition of the same +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_296" id="Page_3_296"></a>[Pg 296]</span>verses, illustrated by a collection of parables. It was translated +between 290 and 306. The Ch'u-yao-ching<a name="FNanchor_768_768" id="FNanchor_768_768"></a><a href="#Footnote_768_768" class="fnanchor">[768]</a>, translated in 399, is a +similar collection of verses and parables, but founded on another +Indian work of much greater length. A revised translation containing +only the verses was made between 980 and 1001<a name="FNanchor_769_769" id="FNanchor_769_769"></a><a href="#Footnote_769_769" class="fnanchor">[769]</a>. They are said to +be the same as the Tibetan Udâna, and the characteristics of this +book, going back apparently to a Sanskrit original, are that it is +divided into thirty-three chapters, and that though it contains about +300 verses found in Pali, yet it is not merely the Pali text plus +additions, but an anthology arranged on a different principle and only +partly identical in substance<a name="FNanchor_770_770" id="FNanchor_770_770"></a><a href="#Footnote_770_770" class="fnanchor">[770]</a>.</p> + +<p>There can be little doubt that the Pali Dhammapada is one among +several collections of verses, with or without an explanatory +commentary of stories. In all these collections there was much common +matter, both prose and verse, but some were longer, some shorter, some +were in Pali and some in Sanskrit. Whereas the Chinese Dhammapada is +longer than the Indian texts, the Chinese version of Milinda's +Questions<a name="FNanchor_771_771" id="FNanchor_771_771"></a><a href="#Footnote_771_771" class="fnanchor">[771]</a> is much shorter and omits books iv-vii. It was made +between 317 and 420 A.D. and the inference is that the original Indian +text received later additions.</p> + +<p>A more important problem is this: what is the relation to the Pali +Canon of the Chinese texts bearing titles corresponding to Dîrgha, +Madhyama, Samyukta and Ekottara? These collections of sûtras do not +call themselves Nikâya but A-han or Agama: the titles are translated +as Ch'ang (long), Chung (medium), Tsa (miscellaneous) and Tseng-i, +representing Ekottara rather than Anguttara<a name="FNanchor_772_772" id="FNanchor_772_772"></a><a href="#Footnote_772_772" class="fnanchor">[772]</a>. There is hence +<i>prima facie</i> reason <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_297" id="Page_3_297"></a>[Pg 297]</span>to suppose that these works represent not the +Pali Canon, but a somewhat similar Sanskrit collection. That one or +many Sanskrit works may have coexisted with a somewhat similar Pali +work is clearly shown by the Vinaya texts, for here we have the Pali +Canon and Chinese translations of five Sanskrit versions, belonging to +different schools, but apparently covering the same ground and partly +identical. For the Sûtra Pitaka no such body of evidence is +forthcoming, but the Sanskrit fragments of the Samyuktâgama found near +Turfan contain parts of six sûtras which are arranged in the same +order as in the Chinese translation and are apparently the original +from which it was made. It is noticeable that three of the four great +Agamas were translated by monks who came from Tukhara or Kabul. +Guṇabhadra, however, the translator of the Samyuktâgama, came from +Central India and the text which he translated was brought from Ceylon +by Fa-Hsien. It apparently belonged to the Abhayagiri monastery and +not to the Mahâvihâra. Nanjio<a name="FNanchor_773_773" id="FNanchor_773_773"></a><a href="#Footnote_773_773" class="fnanchor">[773]</a>, however, states that about half of +it is repeated in the Chinese versions of the Madhyama and Ekottara +Agamas. It is also certain that though the Chinese Agamas and Pali +Nikâyas contain much common matter, it is differently +distributed<a name="FNanchor_774_774" id="FNanchor_774_774"></a><a href="#Footnote_774_774" class="fnanchor">[774]</a>.</p> + +<p>There was in India a copious collection of sûtras, existing primarily +as oral tradition and varying in diction and arrangement, but codified +from time to time in a written form. One of such codifications is +represented by the Pali Canon, at least one other by the Sanskrit text +which was rendered into Chinese. With rare exceptions the Chinese +translations were from the Sanskrit<a name="FNanchor_775_775" id="FNanchor_775_775"></a><a href="#Footnote_775_775" class="fnanchor">[775]</a>. The Sanskrit codification of +the sûtra literature, while <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_298" id="Page_3_298"></a>[Pg 298]</span>differing from the Pali in language +and arrangement, is identical in doctrine and almost identical in +substance. It is clearly the product of the same or similar schools, +but is it earlier or later than the Pali or contemporary with it? The +Chinese translations merely fix the latest possible date. A portion of +the Samyuktâgama (Nanjio, No. 547) was translated by an unknown author +between 220 and 280. This is probably an extract from the complete +work which was translated about 440, but it would be difficult to +prove that the Indian original was not augmented or rearranged between +these dates. The earliest translation of a complete Agama is that of +the Ekottarâgama, 384 A.D. But the evidence of inscriptions<a name="FNanchor_776_776" id="FNanchor_776_776"></a><a href="#Footnote_776_776" class="fnanchor">[776]</a> shows +that works known as Nikâyas existed in the third century B.C. The +Sanskrit of the Agamas, so far as it is known from the fragments found +in Central Asia, does not suggest that they belong to this epoch, but +is compatible with the theory that they date from the time of Kanishka +of which if we know little, we can at least say that it produced much +Buddhist Sanskrit literature. M. Sylvain Lévi has suggested that the +later appearance of the complete Vinaya in Chinese is due to the late +compilation of the Sanskrit original<a name="FNanchor_777_777" id="FNanchor_777_777"></a><a href="#Footnote_777_777" class="fnanchor">[777]</a>. It seems to me that other +explanations are possible. The early translators were clearly shy of +extensive works and until there was a considerable body of Chinese +monks, to what public would these theological libraries appeal? Still, +if any indication were forthcoming from India or Central Asia that the +Sanskrit Agamas were arranged or rearranged in the early centuries of +our era, the late date of the Chinese translations would certainly +support it. But I am inclined to think that the Nikâyas were rewritten +in Sanskrit about the beginning of our era, when it was felt that +works claiming a certain position ought to be composed in what had +become the general literary language of India<a name="FNanchor_778_778" id="FNanchor_778_778"></a><a href="#Footnote_778_778" class="fnanchor">[778]</a>. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_299" id="Page_3_299"></a>[Pg 299]</span>Perhaps those +who wrote them in Sanskrit were hardly conscious of making a +translation in our sense, but simply wished to publish them in the +best literary form.</p> + +<p>It seems probable that the Hinayanist portion of the Chinese Tripitaka +is in the main a translation of the Canon of the Sarvastivâdins which +must have consisted of:</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1) Four Agamas or Nikâyas only, for the Dhammapada +is placed outside the Sutta Pitaka.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(2) A voluminous Vinaya covering the same ground as the +Pali recension but more copious in legend and anecdote.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(3) An Abhidharma entirely different from the Pali works +bearing this name.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>It might seem to follow from this that the whole Pali Abhidharma and +some important works such as the Thera-Therîgâthâ were unknown to the +Hinayanists of Central Asia and Northern India in the early centuries +of our era. But caution is necessary in drawing such inferences, for +until recently it might have been said that the Sutta Nipâta also was +unknown, whereas fragments of it in a Sanskrit version have now been +discovered in Eastern Turkestan<a name="FNanchor_779_779" id="FNanchor_779_779"></a><a href="#Footnote_779_779" class="fnanchor">[779]</a>. The Chinese editors draw a clear +distinction between Hinayanist and Mahayanist scriptures. They exclude +from the latter works analogous to the Pali Nikâyas and Vinaya, and +also the Abhidharma of the Sarvâstivâdins. But the labours of Hsüan +Chuang and I-Ching show that this does not imply the rejection of all +these works by Mahayanists.</p> + +<h3>5</h3> + + +<p>Buddhist literary activity has an interesting side aspect, namely the +expedients used to transliterate Indian words, which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_300" id="Page_3_300"></a>[Pg 300]</span>almost +provided the Chinese with an alphabet. To some extent Indian names, +particularly proper names possessing an obvious meaning, are +translated. Thus Asoka becomes Wu-yu, without sorrow: Aśvaghosha, +Ma-ming or horse-voice, and Udyâna simply Yüan or park<a name="FNanchor_780_780" id="FNanchor_780_780"></a><a href="#Footnote_780_780" class="fnanchor">[780]</a>. But many +proper names did not lend themselves to such renderings and it was a +delicate business to translate theological terms like Nirvâṇa and +Samâdhi. The Buddhists did not perhaps invent the idea of using the +Chinese characters so as to spell with moderate precision<a name="FNanchor_781_781" id="FNanchor_781_781"></a><a href="#Footnote_781_781" class="fnanchor">[781]</a>, but +they had greater need of this procedure than other writers and they +used it extensively<a name="FNanchor_782_782" id="FNanchor_782_782"></a><a href="#Footnote_782_782" class="fnanchor">[782]</a> and with such variety of detail that though +they invented some fifteen different syllabaries, none of them +obtained general acceptance and Julien<a name="FNanchor_783_783" id="FNanchor_783_783"></a><a href="#Footnote_783_783" class="fnanchor">[783]</a> enumerates 3000 Chinese +characters used to represent the sounds indicated by 47 Indian +letters. Still, they gave currency<a name="FNanchor_784_784" id="FNanchor_784_784"></a><a href="#Footnote_784_784" class="fnanchor">[784]</a> to the system known as +<i>fan-ch'ieh</i> which renders a syllable phonetically by two characters, +the final of the first and the initial of the second not being +pronounced. Thus, in order to indicate the sound Chung, a Chinese +dictionary will use the two characters <i>chu yung</i>, which are to be +read together as <i>Ch ung</i>.</p> + +<p>The transcriptions of Indian words vary in exactitude and the later +are naturally better. Hsüan Chuang was a notable reformer and probably +after his time Indian words were rendered in Chinese characters as +accurately as Chinese words are now transcribed in Latin letters. It +is true that modern pronunciation makes such renderings as Fo seem a +strange distortion of the original. But it is an abbreviation of +Fo-t'o and these syllables were probably once pronounced something +like Vut-tha<a name="FNanchor_785_785" id="FNanchor_785_785"></a><a href="#Footnote_785_785" class="fnanchor">[785]</a>. Similarly Wên-shu-shih-li<a name="FNanchor_786_786" id="FNanchor_786_786"></a><a href="#Footnote_786_786" class="fnanchor">[786]</a> seems a parody of +Manjuśri. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_301" id="Page_3_301"></a>[Pg 301]</span>But the evidence of modern dialects shows that the +first two syllables may have been pronounced as Man-ju. The pupil was +probably taught to eliminate the obscure vowel of <i>shih</i>, and <i>li</i> was +taken as the nearest equivalent of <i>ri</i>, just as European authors +write <i>chih</i> and <i>tzŭ</i> without pretending that they are more than +conventional signs for Chinese sounds unknown to our languages. It was +certainly possible to transcribe not only names but Sanskrit prayers +and formulæ in Chinese characters, and though many writers sneer at +the gibberish chanted by Buddhist priests yet I doubt if this +ecclesiastical pronunciation, which has changed with that of the +spoken language, is further removed from its original than the Latin +of Oxford from the speech of Augustus.</p> + +<p>Sanskrit learning flourished in China for a considerable period. In +the time of the T'ang, the clergy numbered many serious students of +Indian literature and the glossaries included in the Tripitaka show +that they studied the original texts. Under the Sung dynasty (A.D. +1151) was compiled another dictionary of religious terms<a name="FNanchor_787_787" id="FNanchor_787_787"></a><a href="#Footnote_787_787" class="fnanchor">[787]</a> and the +study of Sanskrit was encouraged under the Yüan. But the ecclesiastics +of the Ming produced no new translations and apparently abandoned the +study of the original texts which was no longer kept alive by the +arrival of learned men from India. It has been stated that Sanskrit +manuscripts are still preserved in Chinese monasteries, but no details +respecting such works are known to me. The statement is not improbable +in itself<a name="FNanchor_788_788" id="FNanchor_788_788"></a><a href="#Footnote_788_788" class="fnanchor">[788]</a> as is shown by the Library which Stein discovered at +Tun-huang and by the Japanese palm-leaf manuscripts which came +originally from China. A few copies of Sanskrit sûtras printed in +China in the Lanja variety of the Devanâgari alphabet have been +brought to Europe<a name="FNanchor_789_789" id="FNanchor_789_789"></a><a href="#Footnote_789_789" class="fnanchor">[789]</a>. Max Müller published a facsimile of part of +the Vajracchedikâ obtained at Peking and printed in Sanskrit from +wooden blocks. The place of production is unknown, but the characters +are similar to those used for printing Sanskrit in Tibet, as may be +seen from <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_302" id="Page_3_302"></a>[Pg 302]</span>another facsimile (No. 3) in the same work. Placards and +pamphlets containing short invocations in Sanskrit and Tibetan are +common in Chinese monasteries, particularly where there is any +Lamaistic influence, but they do not imply that the monks who use them +have any literary acquaintance with those languages.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_708_708" id="Footnote_708_708"></a><a href="#FNanchor_708_708"><span class="label">[708]</span></a> <img src="images/286_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="65" height="36" />For an account of some of the scriptures +here mentioned see chap. XX.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_709_709" id="Footnote_709_709"></a><a href="#FNanchor_709_709"><span class="label">[709]</span></a> <i>A catalogue of the Chinese Translation of the Buddhist +Tripitaka</i>. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1893. An index to the Tokyo +edition has been published by Fujii. Meiji XXXI (1898). See too Forke, +<i>Katalog des Pekinger Tripitaka</i>, 1916.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_710_710" id="Footnote_710_710"></a><a href="#FNanchor_710_710"><span class="label">[710]</span></a> <img src="images/287_5.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="70" height="36" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_711_711" id="Footnote_711_711"></a><a href="#FNanchor_711_711"><span class="label">[711]</span></a> Tan-i-ching <img src="images/287_6.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="97" height="35" /> Some of the works classed +under Tan-i-ching appear to exist in more than one form, <i>e.g.</i> +Nanjio, Nos. 674 and 804.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_712_712" id="Footnote_712_712"></a><a href="#FNanchor_712_712"><span class="label">[712]</span></a> These characters are commonly read Pojo by Chinese +Buddhists but the Japanese reading Hanṇya shows that the +pronunciation of the first character was Pan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_713_713" id="Footnote_713_713"></a><a href="#FNanchor_713_713"><span class="label">[713]</span></a> Vajracchedikâ or <img src="images/288_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="60" height="35" /> Chin Kang.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_714_714" id="Footnote_714_714"></a><a href="#FNanchor_714_714"><span class="label">[714]</span></a> Winternitz (<i>Gesch. Ind. Lit</i>. II. i. p. 242) states on +the authority of Takakusu that this work is the same as the +Gaṇḍavyûha. See also Pelliot in <i>J. A</i>. 1914, II. pp. 118-21. The +Gaṇḍavyûha is probably an extract of the Avatamsaka.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_715_715" id="Footnote_715_715"></a><a href="#FNanchor_715_715"><span class="label">[715]</span></a> Nos. 113 and 114 <img src="images/289_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="176" height="35" /> </p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_716_716" id="Footnote_716_716"></a><a href="#FNanchor_716_716"><span class="label">[716]</span></a> <i>Catena of Buddhist Scriptures</i>, pp. 160 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_717_717" id="Footnote_717_717"></a><a href="#FNanchor_717_717"><span class="label">[717]</span></a> The longer Sukhâvatîvyûha is placed in the Ratnakûta +class.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_718_718" id="Footnote_718_718"></a><a href="#FNanchor_718_718"><span class="label">[718]</span></a> The Sûtra of Kuan-yin with the thousand hands and eyes +is very popular and used in most temples. Nanjio, No. 320.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_719_719" id="Footnote_719_719"></a><a href="#FNanchor_719_719"><span class="label">[719]</span></a> No. 399 <img src="images/289_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="95" height="35" /> and 530 <img src="images/289_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="98" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_720_720" id="Footnote_720_720"></a><a href="#FNanchor_720_720"><span class="label">[720]</span></a> Said to have been revealed to Asanga by Maitreya. No. +1170.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_721_721" id="Footnote_721_721"></a><a href="#FNanchor_721_721"><span class="label">[721]</span></a> <img src="images/289_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="103" height="35" /> No. 1087. It has nothing to do with the +Pali Sûtra of the same name. Digha, I.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_722_722" id="Footnote_722_722"></a><a href="#FNanchor_722_722"><span class="label">[722]</span></a> See below for an account of it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_723_723" id="Footnote_723_723"></a><a href="#FNanchor_723_723"><span class="label">[723]</span></a> <i>Record of Buddhist Practices</i>, p. 20.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_724_724" id="Footnote_724_724"></a><a href="#FNanchor_724_724"><span class="label">[724]</span></a> See Oldenberg, <i>Vinaya</i>, vol. I. pp. xxiv-xlvi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_725_725" id="Footnote_725_725"></a><a href="#FNanchor_725_725"><span class="label">[725]</span></a> See Watters, <i>Yüan Chwang</i>, I. p. 227. The five schools +are given as Dharmagupta, Mahîs'âsika, Sarvâstivâdin, Kâ'syapîya and +Mahâsanghika. For the last Vatsiputra or Sthavira is sometimes +substituted.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_726_726" id="Footnote_726_726"></a><a href="#FNanchor_726_726"><span class="label">[726]</span></a> <i>Record of Buddhist Practices</i>, p. 8.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_727_727" id="Footnote_727_727"></a><a href="#FNanchor_727_727"><span class="label">[727]</span></a> The Chinese word lun occurs frequently in them, but +though it is used to translate Abhidharma, it is of much wider +application and means discussion of Śâstra.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_728_728" id="Footnote_728_728"></a><a href="#FNanchor_728_728"><span class="label">[728]</span></a> See Watters, <i>Yüan Chwang</i>, I, pp. 355 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_729_729" id="Footnote_729_729"></a><a href="#FNanchor_729_729"><span class="label">[729]</span></a> Nos. 1179, 1190, 1249.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_730_730" id="Footnote_730_730"></a><a href="#FNanchor_730_730"><span class="label">[730]</span></a> For a discussion of this literature see Takakusu on the +Abhidharma Literature of the Sarvâstivâdins, <i>J. Pali Text Society</i>, +1905, pp. 67 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_731_731" id="Footnote_731_731"></a><a href="#FNanchor_731_731"><span class="label">[731]</span></a> Nanjio, Cat. Nos. 1273, 1275, 1276, 1277, 1292, 1281, +1282, 1296, 1317. This last work was not translated till the eleventh +century.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_732_732" id="Footnote_732_732"></a><a href="#FNanchor_732_732"><span class="label">[732]</span></a> Nanjio, Cat. Nos. 1263, 1267 and 1269.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_733_733" id="Footnote_733_733"></a><a href="#FNanchor_733_733"><span class="label">[733]</span></a> See Takakusu's study of these translations in +<i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, pp. 1 ff. and pp. 978 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_734_734" id="Footnote_734_734"></a><a href="#FNanchor_734_734"><span class="label">[734]</span></a> Nanjio, Cat. Nos. 1321, 1353, 1365, 1439.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_735_735" id="Footnote_735_735"></a><a href="#FNanchor_735_735"><span class="label">[735]</span></a> <img src="images/292_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="103" height="35" /> No. 1490.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_736_736" id="Footnote_736_736"></a><a href="#FNanchor_736_736"><span class="label">[736]</span></a> <img src="images/292_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="209" height="35" /> No. 1661. For more about the Patriarchs see +the next chapter.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_737_737" id="Footnote_737_737"></a><a href="#FNanchor_737_737"><span class="label">[737]</span></a> <img src="images/292_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="171" height="35" />No. 1524, written A.D. 1006.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_738_738" id="Footnote_738_738"></a><a href="#FNanchor_738_738"><span class="label">[738]</span></a> <img src="images/292_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="128" height="35" /> No. 1482.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_739_739" id="Footnote_739_739"></a><a href="#FNanchor_739_739"><span class="label">[739]</span></a> <img src="images/292_5.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="142" height="35" />No. 1640.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_740_740" id="Footnote_740_740"></a><a href="#FNanchor_740_740"><span class="label">[740]</span></a> <img src="images/293_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="208" height="35" /> Nos. 1634 and 1594.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_741_741" id="Footnote_741_741"></a><a href="#FNanchor_741_741"><span class="label">[741]</span></a> See for some account of it Masson-Oursel's article in +<i>J.A.</i> 1915, I. pp. 229-354.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_742_742" id="Footnote_742_742"></a><a href="#FNanchor_742_742"><span class="label">[742]</span></a> <img src="images/293_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="237" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_743_743" id="Footnote_743_743"></a><a href="#FNanchor_743_743"><span class="label">[743]</span></a> See chap. XX on the Mahayanist canon in India.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_744_744" id="Footnote_744_744"></a><a href="#FNanchor_744_744"><span class="label">[744]</span></a> It is described at the beginning as Ta Ming San Tsang, +but strictly speaking it must be No. 12 of the list, as it contains a +work said to have been written about 1622 A.D. (p. 468).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_745_745" id="Footnote_745_745"></a><a href="#FNanchor_745_745"><span class="label">[745]</span></a> Thus the Emperor Jên Tsung ordered the works of Ch'i +Sung <img src="images/294_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="60" height="35" /> to be admitted to the Canton in 1062.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_746_746" id="Footnote_746_746"></a><a href="#FNanchor_746_746"><span class="label">[746]</span></a> Taken from Nanjio's Catalogue, p. xxvii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_747_747" id="Footnote_747_747"></a><a href="#FNanchor_747_747"><span class="label">[747]</span></a> Ch'ien-Lung is said to have printed the Tripitaka in +four languages, Chinese, Tibetan, Mongol and Manchu, the whole +collection filling 1392 vols. See Möllendorf in China Branch, <i>J.A.S.</i> +xxiv. 1890, p. 28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_748_748" id="Footnote_748_748"></a><a href="#FNanchor_748_748"><span class="label">[748]</span></a> But according to another statement the southern +recension was not the imperial collection begun in 1368 but a private +edition now lost. See Nanjio, Cat. p. xxiii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_749_749" id="Footnote_749_749"></a><a href="#FNanchor_749_749"><span class="label">[749]</span></a> See for the complete list Nanjio, Cat. p. xxvii. Those +named above are (<i>a</i>) <img src="images/295_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="268" height="35" /> +Nos. 1483, 1485, 1487, and (<i>b</i>) <img src="images/295_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="69" height="35" /><img src="images/295_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="43" height="35" /> No. 1612. For the date +of the first see Maspéro in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1910, p. 114. There was a +still earlier catalogue composed by Tao-an in 374 of which only +fragments have been preserved. See Pelliot in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, XIX. 1920, +p. 258.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_750_750" id="Footnote_750_750"></a><a href="#FNanchor_750_750"><span class="label">[750]</span></a> For the Korean copy now in Japan, see Courant, +<i>Bibliographie coréenne</i>, vol. III. pp. 215-19.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_751_751" id="Footnote_751_751"></a><a href="#FNanchor_751_751"><span class="label">[751]</span></a> See Nanjio, Cat. p. xxii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_752_752" id="Footnote_752_752"></a><a href="#FNanchor_752_752"><span class="label">[752]</span></a> <img src="images/296_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="75" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_753_753" id="Footnote_753_753"></a><a href="#FNanchor_753_753"><span class="label">[753]</span></a> <img src="images/296_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="71" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_754_754" id="Footnote_754_754"></a><a href="#FNanchor_754_754"><span class="label">[754]</span></a> Also called Do-ko.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_755_755" id="Footnote_755_755"></a><a href="#FNanchor_755_755"><span class="label">[755]</span></a> The earlier collections of the Tripitaka seem to have +been known in Korea and about 1000 A.D. the king procured from China a +copy of the Imperial Edition, presumably the eighth collection (971 +A.D.). He then ordered a commission of scholars to revise the text and +publish an edition of his own. The copy of this edition, on which the +recent Tokyo edition was founded, was brought to Japan in the Bun-mei +period 1469-1486.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_756_756" id="Footnote_756_756"></a><a href="#FNanchor_756_756"><span class="label">[756]</span></a> A supplement to the Tripitaka containing non-canonical +works in 750 volumes (Dai Nippon Zoku-Zōkyō) was published in +1911.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_757_757" id="Footnote_757_757"></a><a href="#FNanchor_757_757"><span class="label">[757]</span></a> The Peking Tripitaka catalogued by Forke appears to be +a set of 1223 works represented by copies taken from four editions +published in 1578, 1592, 1598 and 1735 A.D., all of which are editions +of the collections numbered 11 and 12 above.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_758_758" id="Footnote_758_758"></a><a href="#FNanchor_758_758"><span class="label">[758]</span></a> For two interesting lives of translators see the +<i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1909, p. 199, and 1905, p. 332, where will be found the +biographies of Sêng Hui, a Sogdian who died in 280 and Jinagupta a +native of Gandhâra (528-605).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_759_759" id="Footnote_759_759"></a><a href="#FNanchor_759_759"><span class="label">[759]</span></a> But between 266 and 313 Dharmaraksha translated the +Saddharmapundarîka (including the additional chapters 21-26) and the +Lalitavistara. His translation of the Prajñâpâramitâ is incomplete.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_760_760" id="Footnote_760_760"></a><a href="#FNanchor_760_760"><span class="label">[760]</span></a> In the translations of Lokâkshî 147-186, Chih-Ch'ien +223-243, Dharmaraksha 266-313.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_761_761" id="Footnote_761_761"></a><a href="#FNanchor_761_761"><span class="label">[761]</span></a> But his translation of the Lotus won admiration for its +literary style. See Anesaki Nichiren, p. 17. Wieger (<i>Croyances</i>, p. +367) says that the works of An-shih-kao illustrate the various methods +of translation: absolutely literal renderings which have hardly any +meaning in Chinese: word for word translations to which is added a +paraphrase of each sentence in Chinese idiom: and elegant renderings +by a native in which the original text obviously suffers.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_762_762" id="Footnote_762_762"></a><a href="#FNanchor_762_762"><span class="label">[762]</span></a> Yet it must have been intended as such. The title +expressly describes the work as composed by the Bodhisattva Ma-Ming +(Aśvaghosha) and translated by Dharmaraksha. Though his idea of a +translation was at best an amplified metrical paraphrase, yet he +coincides verbally with the original so often that his work can hardly +be described as an independent poem inspired by it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_763_763" id="Footnote_763_763"></a><a href="#FNanchor_763_763"><span class="label">[763]</span></a> <img src="images/300_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="160" height="35" />No. 203.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_764_764" id="Footnote_764_764"></a><a href="#FNanchor_764_764"><span class="label">[764]</span></a> See Sukhâvatîvyûha, ed. Max Müller and Bunyiu Nanjio, +Oxford, 1883. In the preface, pp. vii-ix, is a detailed comparison of +several translations and in an appendix, pp. 79 ff., a rendering of +Sanghavarman's Chinese version of verses which occur in the work. +Chinese critics say that Tao-an in the third century was the first to +introduce a sound style of translation. He made no translations +himself which have survived but was a scholar and commentator who +influenced others.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_765_765" id="Footnote_765_765"></a><a href="#FNanchor_765_765"><span class="label">[765]</span></a> This is an anthology (edited by Beckh, 1911: translated +by Rockhill, 1892) in which 300 verses are similar to the Pali +Dhammapada.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_766_766" id="Footnote_766_766"></a><a href="#FNanchor_766_766"><span class="label">[766]</span></a> <img src="images/300_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="107" height="35" /> No. 1365.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_767_767" id="Footnote_767_767"></a><a href="#FNanchor_767_767"><span class="label">[767]</span></a> <img src="images/300_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="156" height="35" /> No. 1353.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_768_768" id="Footnote_768_768"></a><a href="#FNanchor_768_768"><span class="label">[768]</span></a> <img src="images/301_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="101" height="35" /> No. 1321.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_769_769" id="Footnote_769_769"></a><a href="#FNanchor_769_769"><span class="label">[769]</span></a> <img src="images/301_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="172" height="35" /> Fa-chi-yao-sung-ching, No. 1439.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_770_770" id="Footnote_770_770"></a><a href="#FNanchor_770_770"><span class="label">[770]</span></a> There seem to be at least two other collections. +Firstly a Prâkrit anthology of which Dutreuil de Rhins discovered a +fragmentary MS. in Khotan and secondly a much amplified collection +preserved in the Korean Tripitaka and reprinted in the Tokyo edition +(xxiv.'g). The relation of these to the other recensions is not +clear.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_771_771" id="Footnote_771_771"></a><a href="#FNanchor_771_771"><span class="label">[771]</span></a> Nanjio, Cat. 1358. See Pelliot, <i>J.A.</i> 1914, II. p. +379.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_772_772" id="Footnote_772_772"></a><a href="#FNanchor_772_772"><span class="label">[772]</span></a> <img src="images/301_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="207" height="35" />For the relations of the Chinese +translations to the Pali Tripitaka, and to a Sanskrit Canon now +preserved only in a fragmentary state, see <i>inter alia</i>, Nanjio, Cat. +pp. 127 ff., especially Nos. 542, 543, 545. Anesaki, <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1901, +p. 895; <i>id</i>. "On some problems of the textual history of the Buddhist +scriptures," in <i>Trans. A. S. Japan</i>, 1908, p. 81, and more especially +his longer article entitled, "The Four Buddhist Agamas in Chinese" in +the same year of the <i>Trans.; id.</i> "Traces of Pali Texts in a Mahâyana +Treatise," <i>Muséon</i>, 1905. S. Lévi, Le Samyuktâgama Sanskrit, <i>T'oung +Pao</i>, 1904, p. 297.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_773_773" id="Footnote_773_773"></a><a href="#FNanchor_773_773"><span class="label">[773]</span></a> No. 544.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_774_774" id="Footnote_774_774"></a><a href="#FNanchor_774_774"><span class="label">[774]</span></a> Thus seventy sûtras of the Pali Anguttara are found in +the Chinese Madhyama and some of them are repeated in the Chinese +Ekottara. The Pali Majjhima contains 125 sûtras, the Chinese +Madhyamâgama 222, of which 98 are common to both. Also twenty-two Pali +Majjhima dialogues are found in the Chinese Ekottara and Samyukta, +seventy Chinese Madhyama dialogues in Pali Anguttara, nine in Digha, +seven in Samyutta and five in Khuddaka. Anesaki, <i>Some Problems of the +textual history of the Buddhist Scriptures</i>. See also Anesaki in +<i>Muséon</i>, 1905, pp. 23 ff. on the Samyutta Nikâya.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_775_775" id="Footnote_775_775"></a><a href="#FNanchor_775_775"><span class="label">[775]</span></a> Anesaki, "Traces of Pali Texts," <i>Muséon</i>, 1905, shows +that the Indian author of the Mahâprajnâpâramitâ Sâstra may have known +Pali texts, but the only certain translation from the Pali appears to +be Nanjio, No. 1125, which is a translation of the Introduction to +Buddhaghosa's Samanta-pâsâdikâ or commentary on the Vinaya. See +Takakusu in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1896, p. 415. Nanjio's restoration of the title +as Sudarśana appears to be incorrect.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_776_776" id="Footnote_776_776"></a><a href="#FNanchor_776_776"><span class="label">[776]</span></a> See <i>Epigraphia Indica</i>, vol. II. p. 93.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_777_777" id="Footnote_777_777"></a><a href="#FNanchor_777_777"><span class="label">[777]</span></a> In support of this it may be mentioned that Fa-Hsien +says that at the time of his visit to India the Vinaya of the +Sarvâstivâdins was preserved orally and not committed to writing.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_778_778" id="Footnote_778_778"></a><a href="#FNanchor_778_778"><span class="label">[778]</span></a> The idea that an important book ought to be in Sanskrit +or deserves to be turned into Sanskrit is not dead in India. See +Grierson, <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1913, p. 133, who in discussing a Sanskrit +version of the Râmâyana of Tulsi Das mentions that translations of +vernacular works into Sanskrit are not uncommon.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_779_779" id="Footnote_779_779"></a><a href="#FNanchor_779_779"><span class="label">[779]</span></a> <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1916, p. 709. Also, the division into five +Nikâyas is ancient. See Bühler in <i>Epig. Indica</i>, II. p. 93. Anesaki +says (<i>Trans. A.S. Japan</i>, 1908, p. 9) that Nanjio, No. 714, Pên Shih +is the Itivuttakam, which could not have been guessed from Nanjio's +entry. Portions of the works composing the fifth Nikâya (<i>e.g.</i> the +Sutta Nipata) occur in the Chinese Tripitaka in the other Nikâyas. For +mentions of the fifth Nikâya in Chinese, see <i>J.A.</i> 1916, II. pp. +32-33, where it is said to be called Tsa-Tsang. This is also the +designation of the last section of the Tripitaka, Nanjio, Nos. 1321 to +1662, and as this section contains the Dharmapada, it might be +supposed to be an enormously distended version of the Kshudraka +Nikâya. But this can hardly be the case, for this Tsa-Tsang is placed +as if it was considered as a fourth Piṭaka rather than as a fifth +Nikâya.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_780_780" id="Footnote_780_780"></a><a href="#FNanchor_780_780"><span class="label">[780]</span></a> <img src="images/305_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="189" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_781_781" id="Footnote_781_781"></a><a href="#FNanchor_781_781"><span class="label">[781]</span></a> See Watters, <i>Essays on the Chinese Language</i>, pp. 36, +51, and, for the whole subject of transcription, Stanislas Julien, +<i>Méthode pour déchiffrer et transcrire les noms Sanscrits qui se +rencontrent dans les livres chinois</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_782_782" id="Footnote_782_782"></a><a href="#FNanchor_782_782"><span class="label">[782]</span></a> Entire Sanskrit compositions were sometimes transcribed +in Chinese characters. See Kien Ch'ui Fan Tsan, <i>Bibl. Budd</i>. XV. and +Max Müller, <i>Buddhist Texts from Japan</i>, III. pp. 35-46.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_783_783" id="Footnote_783_783"></a><a href="#FNanchor_783_783"><span class="label">[783]</span></a> <i>L.c.</i> pp. 83-232.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_784_784" id="Footnote_784_784"></a><a href="#FNanchor_784_784"><span class="label">[784]</span></a> See <i>inter alia</i> the Preface to K'ang Hsi's Dictionary. +The <i>fan-ch'ieh</i> <img src="images/305_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="60" height="35" /> system is used in the well-known +dictionary called Yü-Pien composed 543 A.D.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_785_785" id="Footnote_785_785"></a><a href="#FNanchor_785_785"><span class="label">[785]</span></a> Even in modern Cantonese Fo is pronounced as Fat.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_786_786" id="Footnote_786_786"></a><a href="#FNanchor_786_786"><span class="label">[786]</span></a> <img src="images/305_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="128" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_787_787" id="Footnote_787_787"></a><a href="#FNanchor_787_787"><span class="label">[787]</span></a> Nanjio, Cat. No. 1640.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_788_788" id="Footnote_788_788"></a><a href="#FNanchor_788_788"><span class="label">[788]</span></a> History repeats itself. I have seen many modern Burmese +and Sinhalese MSS. in Chinese monasteries.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_789_789" id="Footnote_789_789"></a><a href="#FNanchor_789_789"><span class="label">[789]</span></a> <i>Buddhist Texts from Japan</i>, ed. Max Müller in +<i>Anecdota Oxoniensia</i>, Aryan Series, I, II and III. For the Lanja +printed text see the last facsimile in I, also III. p. 34 and <i>Bibl. +Budd.</i> XIV (Kuan-si-im Pusar), pp. vi, vii. Another copy of this Lanja +printed text was bought in Kyoto, 1920.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_303" id="Page_3_303"></a>[Pg 303]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLV" id="CHAPTER_XLV"></a>CHAPTER XLV</h2> + +<h3>CHINA (<i>continued</i>)</h3> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Schools<a name="FNanchor_790_790" id="FNanchor_790_790"></a><a href="#Footnote_790_790" class="fnanchor">[790]</a> Of Chinese Buddhism</span></h3> + + +<p>The Schools (Tsung) of Chinese Buddhism are an intricate subject of +little practical importance, for observers agree that at the present +day all salient differences of doctrine and practice have been +obliterated, although the older monasteries may present variations in +details and honour their own line of teachers. A particular +Bodhisattva may be singled out for reverence in one locality or some +religious observance may be specially enjoined, but there is little +aggressiveness or self assertion among the sects, even if they are +conscious of having a definite name: they each tolerate the deities, +rites and books of all and pay attention to as many items as leisure +and inertia permit. There is no clear distinction between Mahâyâna and +Hînayâna.</p> + +<p>The main division is of course into Lamaism on one side and all +remaining sects on the other. Apart from this we find a record of ten +schools which deserve notice for various reasons. Some, though obscure +in modern China, have flourished after transportation to Japan: some, +such as the T'ien-t'ai, are a memorial of a brilliant epoch: some +represent doctrines which, if not now held by separate bodies, at +least indicate different tendencies, such as magical ceremonies, +mystical contemplation, or faith in Amitâbha.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_304" id="Page_3_304"></a>[Pg 304]</span>The more important schools were comparatively late, for they date +from the sixth and seventh centuries. For two or three hundred years +the Buddhists of China were a colony of strangers, mainly occupied in +making translations. By the fifth century the extent and diversity of +Indian literature became apparent and Fa-Hsien went to India to +ascertain which was the most correct Vinaya and to obtain copies of +it. Theology was now sufficiently developed to give rise to two +schools both Indian in origin and merely transported to China, known +as Ch'êng-shih-tsung and San-lun-tsung<a name="FNanchor_791_791" id="FNanchor_791_791"></a><a href="#Footnote_791_791" class="fnanchor">[791]</a>.</p> + +<p>The first is considered as Hinayanist and equivalent to the +Sautrântikas<a name="FNanchor_792_792" id="FNanchor_792_792"></a><a href="#Footnote_792_792" class="fnanchor">[792]</a>. In the seventh century it passed over to Japan +where it is known as Ji-jitsu-shu, but neither there nor in China had +it much importance. The San-lun-tsung recognizes as three authorities +(from which it takes its name) the Mâdhyamikaśâstra and +Dvâdasanikâyaśâstra of Nâgârjuna with the Śataśâstra of his +pupil Deva. It is simply the school of these two doctors and +represents the extreme of Mahayanism. It had some importance in Japan, +where it was called San-Ron-Shu.</p> + +<p>The arrival of Bodhidharma at Canton in 520 (or 526) was a great event +for the history of Buddhist dogma, although his special doctrines did +not become popular until much later. He introduced the contemplative +school and also the institution of the Patriarchate, which for a time +had some importance. He wrote no books himself, but taught that true +knowledge is gained in meditation by intuition<a name="FNanchor_793_793" id="FNanchor_793_793"></a><a href="#Footnote_793_793" class="fnanchor">[793]</a> and communicated +by transference of thought. The best account of his teaching is +contained in the Chinese treatise which reports the sermon preached by +him before the Emperor Wu-Ti in 520<a name="FNanchor_794_794" id="FNanchor_794_794"></a><a href="#Footnote_794_794" class="fnanchor">[794]</a>. The chief thesis of this +discourse is that the only true reality is the Buddha <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_305" id="Page_3_305"></a>[Pg 305]</span>nature<a name="FNanchor_795_795" id="FNanchor_795_795"></a><a href="#Footnote_795_795" class="fnanchor">[795]</a> +in the heart of every man. Prayer, asceticism and good works are vain. +All that man need do is to turn his gaze inward and see the Buddha in +his own heart. This vision, which gives light and deliverance, comes +in a moment. It is a simple, natural act like swallowing or dreaming +which cannot be taught or learnt, for it is not something imparted but +an experience of the soul, and teaching can only prepare the way for +it. Some are impeded by their karma and are physically incapable of +the vision, whatever their merits or piety may be, but for those to +whom it comes it is inevitable and convincing.</p> + +<p>We have only to substitute <i>âtman</i> for Buddha or Buddha nature to see +how closely this teaching resembles certain passages in the +Upanishads, and the resemblance is particularly strong in such +statements as that the Buddha nature reveals itself in dreams, or that +it is so great that it embraces the universe and so small that the +point of a needle cannot prick it. The doctrine of Mâyâ is clearly +indicated, even if the word was not used in the original, for it is +expressly said that all phenomena are unreal. Thus the teaching of +Bodhidharma is an anticipation of Śankara's monism, but it is +formulated in consistently Buddhist language and is in harmony with +the views of the Mâdhyamika school and of the Diamond-cutter. This +Chinese sermon confirms other evidence which indicates that the ideas +of the Advaita philosophy, though Brahmanic in their origin and +severely condemned by Gotama himself, were elaborated in Buddhist +circles before they were approved by orthodox Hindus.</p> + +<p>Bodhidharma's teaching was Indian but it harmonized marvellously with +Taoism and Chinese Buddhists studied Taoist books<a name="FNanchor_796_796" id="FNanchor_796_796"></a><a href="#Footnote_796_796" class="fnanchor">[796]</a>. A current of +Chinese thought which was old and strong, if not the main stream, bade +man abstain from action and look for peace and light within. It was, I +think, the junction of this native tributary with the river of +inflowing Buddhism which gave the Contemplative School its importance. +It lost that importance because it abandoned its special doctrines +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_306" id="Page_3_306"></a>[Pg 306]</span>and adopted the usages of other schools. When Taoism flourished +under the Sung Emperors it was also flourishing and influenced art as +well as thought, but it probably decayed under the Yüan dynasty which +favoured religion of a different stamp. It is remarkable that +Bodhidharma appears to be unknown to both Indian and Tibetan<a name="FNanchor_797_797" id="FNanchor_797_797"></a><a href="#Footnote_797_797" class="fnanchor">[797]</a> +writers but his teaching has imparted a special tone and character to +a section (though not the whole) of Far Eastern Buddhism. It is called +in Chinese Tsung-mên or Ch'an-tsung, but this word Ch'an<a name="FNanchor_798_798" id="FNanchor_798_798"></a><a href="#Footnote_798_798" class="fnanchor">[798]</a> is +perhaps better known to Europe in its Japanese form Zen.</p> + +<p>Bodhidharma is also accounted the twenty-eighth Patriarch, a title +which represents the Chinese Tsu Shih<a name="FNanchor_799_799" id="FNanchor_799_799"></a><a href="#Footnote_799_799" class="fnanchor">[799]</a> rather than any Indian +designation, for though in Pali literature we hear of the succession +of teachers<a name="FNanchor_800_800" id="FNanchor_800_800"></a><a href="#Footnote_800_800" class="fnanchor">[800]</a>, it is not clear that any of them enjoyed a style or +position such as is implied in the word Patriarch. Hindus have always +attached importance to spiritual lineage and every school has a list +of teachers who have transmitted its special lore, but the sense of +hierarchy is so weak that it is misleading to describe these +personages as Popes, Patriarchs or Bishops, and apart from the +personal respect which the talents of individuals may have won, it +does not appear that there was any succession of teachers who could be +correctly termed heads of the Church. Even in China such a title is of +dubious accuracy for whatever position Bodhidharma and his successors +may have claimed for themselves, they were not generally accepted as +being more than the heads of a school and other schools also gave +their chief teachers the title of Tsu-shih. From time to time the +Emperor appointed overseers of religion with the title of +Kuo-shih<a name="FNanchor_801_801" id="FNanchor_801_801"></a><a href="#Footnote_801_801" class="fnanchor">[801]</a>, instructor of the nation, but these were officials +appointed by the Crown, not prelates consecrated by the Church.</p> + +<p>Twenty-eight Patriarchs are supposed to have flourished between the +death of the Buddha and the arrival of Bodhidharma in China. The +Chinese lists<a name="FNanchor_802_802" id="FNanchor_802_802"></a><a href="#Footnote_802_802" class="fnanchor">[802]</a> do not in the earlier part agree with <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_307" id="Page_3_307"></a>[Pg 307]</span>the +Singhalese accounts of the apostolic succession and contain few +eminent names with the exception of Aśvaghosha, Nâgârjuna, Deva and +Vasubandhu.</p> + +<p>According to most schools there were only twenty-four Patriarchs. +These are said to have been foretold by the Buddha and twenty-four is +a usual number in such series<a name="FNanchor_803_803" id="FNanchor_803_803"></a><a href="#Footnote_803_803" class="fnanchor">[803]</a>. The twenty-fourth Patriarch Simha +Bhikshu or Simhâlaputra went to Kashmir and suffered martyrdom there +at the hands of Mihirakula<a name="FNanchor_804_804" id="FNanchor_804_804"></a><a href="#Footnote_804_804" class="fnanchor">[804]</a> without appointing a successor. But +the school of Bodhidharma continues the series, reckoning him as the +twenty-eighth, and the first of the Chinese Patriarchs. Now since the +three Patriarchs between the martyr and Bodhidharma are all described +as living in southern India, whereas such travellers as Fa-Hsien +obviously thought that the true doctrine was to be found in northern +India, and since Bodhidharma left India altogether, it is probable +that the later Patriarchs represent the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_308" id="Page_3_308"></a>[Pg 308]</span>spiritual genealogy of +some school which was not the Church as established at Nâlandâ<a name="FNanchor_805_805" id="FNanchor_805_805"></a><a href="#Footnote_805_805" class="fnanchor">[805]</a>.</p> + +<p>It will be convenient to summarize briefly here the history of +Bodhidharma's school. Finding that his doctrines were not altogether +acceptable to the Emperor Wu-Ti (who did not relish being told that +his pious exertions were vain works of no value) he retired to Lo-yang +and before his death designated as his successor Hui-k'o. It is +related of Hui-k'o that when he first applied for instruction he could +not attract Bodhidharma's attention and therefore stood before the +sage's door during a whole winter night until the snow reached his +knees. Bodhidharma indicated that he did not think this test of +endurance remarkable. Hui-k'o then took a knife, cut off his own arm +and presented it to the teacher who accepted him as a pupil and +ultimately gave him the insignia of the Patriarchate—a robe and bowl. +He taught for thirty-four years and is said to have mixed freely with +the lowest and most debauched reprobates. His successors were +Sêng-ts'an, Tao-hsin, Hung-jên, and Hui-nêng<a name="FNanchor_806_806" id="FNanchor_806_806"></a><a href="#Footnote_806_806" class="fnanchor">[806]</a> who died in 713 and +declined to nominate a successor, saying that the doctrine was well +established. The bowl of Bodhidharma was buried with him. Thus the +Patriarch was not willing to be an Erastian head of the Church and +thought the Church could get on without him. The object of the +Patriarchate was simply to insure the correct transmission from +teacher to scholar of certain doctrines, and this precaution was +especially necessary in sects which rejected scriptural authority and +relied on personal instruction. So soon as there were several +competent teachers handing on the tradition such a safeguard was felt +to be unnecessary.</p> + +<p>That this feeling was just is shown by the fact that the school of +Bodhidharma is still practically one in teaching. But its small regard +for scripture and insistence on oral instruction caused the principal +monasteries to regard themselves as centres with an apostolic +succession of their own and to form divisions which were geographical +rather than doctrinal. They are often <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_309" id="Page_3_309"></a>[Pg 309]</span>called school (tsung), but +the term is not correct, if it implies that the difference is similar +to that which separates the Ch'an-tsung and Lü-tsung or schools of +contemplation and of discipline. Even in the lifetime of Hui-nêng +there seems to have been a division, for he is sometimes called the +Patriarch of the South, Shên-Hsiu<a name="FNanchor_807_807" id="FNanchor_807_807"></a><a href="#Footnote_807_807" class="fnanchor">[807]</a> being recognized as Patriarch +of the North. But all subsequent divisions of the Ch'an-tsung trace +their lineage to Hui-nêng. Two of his disciples founded two schools +called Nan Yüeh and Ch'ing Yüan<a name="FNanchor_808_808" id="FNanchor_808_808"></a><a href="#Footnote_808_808" class="fnanchor">[808]</a> and between the eighth and tenth +centuries these produced respectively two and three subdivisions, +known together as Wu-tsung or five schools. They take their names from +the places where their founders dwelt and are the schools of Wei-Yang, +Lin-Chi, Ts'ao-Tung, Yün-Mên and Fa-Yen<a name="FNanchor_809_809" id="FNanchor_809_809"></a><a href="#Footnote_809_809" class="fnanchor">[809]</a>. This is the +chronological order, but the most important school is the Lin-Chi, +founded by I-Hsüan<a name="FNanchor_810_810" id="FNanchor_810_810"></a><a href="#Footnote_810_810" class="fnanchor">[810]</a>, who resided on the banks of a river<a name="FNanchor_811_811" id="FNanchor_811_811"></a><a href="#Footnote_811_811" class="fnanchor">[811]</a> in +Chih-li and died in 867. It is not easy to discriminate the special +doctrines<a name="FNanchor_812_812" id="FNanchor_812_812"></a><a href="#Footnote_812_812" class="fnanchor">[812]</a> of the Lin-Chi for it became the dominant form of the +school to such an extent that other variants are little more than +names. But it appears to have insisted on the transmission of +spiritual truths not only by oral instruction but by a species of +telepathy between teacher and pupil culminating in sudden +illumination. At the present day the majority of Chinese monasteries +profess to belong to the Ch'an-tsung and it has encroached on other +schools. Thus it is now accepted on the sacred island of P'uto which +originally followed the Lü-tsung.</p> + +<p>Although the Ch'an school did not value the study of scripture as part +of the spiritual life, yet it by no means neglected letters and can +point to a goodly array of ecclesiastical authors, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_310" id="Page_3_310"></a>[Pg 310]</span>extending down +to modern times<a name="FNanchor_813_813" id="FNanchor_813_813"></a><a href="#Footnote_813_813" class="fnanchor">[813]</a>. More than twenty of their treatises have been +admitted into the Tripitaka. Several of these are historical and +discuss the succession of Patriarchs and abbots, but the most +characteristic productions of the sect are collections of aphorisms, +usually compiled by the disciples of a teacher who himself committed +nothing to writing<a name="FNanchor_814_814" id="FNanchor_814_814"></a><a href="#Footnote_814_814" class="fnanchor">[814]</a>.</p> + +<p>In opposition to the Contemplative School or Tsung-mên, all the others +are sometimes classed together as Chiao-mên. This dichotomy perhaps +does no more than justice to the importance of Bodhidharma's school, +but is hardly scientific, for, whatever may be the numerical +proportion, the other schools differ from one another as much as they +differ from it. They all agree in recognizing the authority not only +of a founder but of a special sacred book. We may treat first of one +which, like the Tsung-mên, belongs specially to the Buddhism of the +Far East and is both an offshoot of the Tsung-mên and a protest +against it—there being nothing incompatible in this double +relationship. This is the T'ien-t'ai<a name="FNanchor_815_815" id="FNanchor_815_815"></a><a href="#Footnote_815_815" class="fnanchor">[815]</a> school which takes its name +from a celebrated monastery in the province of Chê-kiang. The founder +of this establishment and of the sect was called Chih-K'ai or +Chih-I<a name="FNanchor_816_816" id="FNanchor_816_816"></a><a href="#Footnote_816_816" class="fnanchor">[816]</a> and followed originally Bodhidharma's teaching, but +ultimately rejected the view that contemplation is all-sufficient, +while still claiming to derive his doctrine from Nâgârjuna. He had a +special veneration for the Lotus Sûtra and paid attention to +ceremonial. He held that although the Buddha-mind is present in all +living beings, yet they do not of themselves come to the knowledge and +use of it, so that instruction is necessary to remove error and +establish true ideas. The phrase Chih-kuan<a name="FNanchor_817_817" id="FNanchor_817_817"></a><a href="#Footnote_817_817" class="fnanchor">[817]</a> is almost the motto of +the school: it is a translation of the two words Samatha and +Vipassanâ, taken to mean calm and insight.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_311" id="Page_3_311"></a>[Pg 311]</span>The T'ien-T'ai is distinguished by its many-sided and almost +encyclopædic character. Chih-I did not like the exclusiveness of the +Contemplative School. He approved impartially of ecstasy, literature, +ceremonial and discipline: he wished to find a place for everything +and a point of view from which every doctrine might be admitted to +have some value. Thus he divided the teaching of the Buddha into five +periods, regarded as progressive not contradictory, and expounded +respectively in (<i>a</i>) the Hua-yen Sûtra; (<i>b</i>) the Hînayâna Sûtras; +(<i>c</i>) the Lêng-yen-ching; (<i>d</i>) the Prajnâ-pâramitâ; (<i>e</i>) the Lotus +Sûtra which is the crown, quintessence and plenitude of all Buddhism. +He also divided religion into eight parts<a name="FNanchor_818_818" id="FNanchor_818_818"></a><a href="#Footnote_818_818" class="fnanchor">[818]</a>, sometimes counted as +four, the latter half of the list being the more important. The names +are collection, progress, distinction and completion. These terms +indicate different ways of looking at religion, all legitimate but not +equally comprehensive or just in perspective. By collection is meant +the Hînayâna, the name being apparently due to the variously +catalogued phenomena which occupy the disciple in the early stages of +his progress: the scriptures, divisions of the universe, states of the +human minds and so on. Progress (T'ung, which might also be rendered +as transition or communication) is applicable to the Hîna and Mahâyanâ +alike and regards the religious life as a series of stages rising from +the state of an unconverted man to that of a Buddha. Pieh, or +distinction, is applicable only to the Mahâyanâ and means the special +excellences of a Bodhisattva. Yüan, completeness or plenitude, is the +doctrine of the Lotus which embraces all aspects of religion. In a +similar spirit of synthesis and conciliation Chih-I uses Nâgârjuna's +view that truth is not of one kind. From the stand-point of absolute +truth all phenomena are void or unreal; on the other hand they are +indubitably real for practical purposes. More just is the middle view +which builds up the religious character. It sees that all phenomena +both exist and do not exist and that thought cannot content itself +with the hypothesis either of their real existence or of the void. +Chih-I's teaching as <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_312" id="Page_3_312"></a>[Pg 312]</span>to the nature of the Buddha is almost +theistic. It regards the fundamental (pên) Buddhahood as not merely +the highest reality but as constant activity exerting itself for the +good of all beings. Distinguished from this fundamental Buddhahood is +the derivative Buddhahood or trace (chi) left by the Buddha among men +to educate them. There has been considerable discussion in the school +as to the relative excellence of the <i>pên</i> and the <i>chi</i><a name="FNanchor_819_819" id="FNanchor_819_819"></a><a href="#Footnote_819_819" class="fnanchor">[819]</a>.</p> + +<p>The T'ien-T'ai school is important, not merely for its doctrines, but +as having produced a great monastic establishment and an illustrious +line of writers. In spite of the orders of the Emperor who wished to +retain him at Nanking, Chih-I retired to the highlands of Chê-Kiang +and twelve monasteries still mark various spots where he is said to +have resided. He had some repute as an author, but more as a preacher. +His words were recorded by his disciple Kuan-Ting<a name="FNanchor_820_820" id="FNanchor_820_820"></a><a href="#Footnote_820_820" class="fnanchor">[820]</a> and in this way +have been preserved two expositions of the Lotus and a treatise on his +favourite doctrine of Chih-Kuan which together are termed the +San-ta-pu, or Three Great Books. Similar spoken expositions of other +sûtras are also preserved. Some smaller treatises on his chief +doctrines seem to be works of his own pen<a name="FNanchor_821_821" id="FNanchor_821_821"></a><a href="#Footnote_821_821" class="fnanchor">[821]</a>. A century later +Chan-Jan<a name="FNanchor_822_822" id="FNanchor_822_822"></a><a href="#Footnote_822_822" class="fnanchor">[822]</a>, who is reckoned the ninth Patriarch of the T'ien-t'ai +school, composed commentaries on the Three Great Books as well as some +short original works. During the troubled period of the Five +Dynasties, the T'ien-t'ai monasteries suffered severely and the sacred +books were almost lost. But the school had a branch in Korea and a +Korean priest called Ti-Kuan<a name="FNanchor_823_823" id="FNanchor_823_823"></a><a href="#Footnote_823_823" class="fnanchor">[823]</a> re-established it in China. It +continued to contribute literature to the Tripitaka until 1270 but +after the tenth century its works, though numerous, lose their +distinctive character and are largely concerned with magical formulæ +and the worship of Amida.</p> + +<p>The latter is the special teaching of the Pure Land school, also +known as the Lotus school, or the Short Cut<a name="FNanchor_824_824" id="FNanchor_824_824"></a><a href="#Footnote_824_824" class="fnanchor">[824]</a>. It is indeed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_313" id="Page_3_313"></a>[Pg 313]</span>a +short cut to salvation, striking unceremoniously across all systems, +for it teaches that simple faith in Amitâbha (Amida) and invocation of +his name can take the place of moral and intellectual endeavour. Its +popularity is in proportion to its facility: its origin is ancient, +its influence universal, but perhaps for this very reason its +existence as a corporation is somewhat indistinct. It is also +remarkable that though the Chinese Tripitaka contains numerous works +dedicated to the honour of Amitâbha, yet they are not described as +composed by members of the Pure Land school but appear to be due to +authors of all schools<a name="FNanchor_825_825" id="FNanchor_825_825"></a><a href="#Footnote_825_825" class="fnanchor">[825]</a>.</p> + +<p>The doctrine, if not the school, was known in China before 186, in +which year there died at Lo-yang, a monk of the Yüeh-chih called +Lokâkshi, who translated the longer Sukhâvatî-vyûha. So far as I know, +there is no reason for doubting these statements<a name="FNanchor_826_826" id="FNanchor_826_826"></a><a href="#Footnote_826_826" class="fnanchor">[826]</a>. The date is +important for the history of doctrine, since it indicates that the +sûtra existed in Sanskrit some time previously. Another translation by +the Parthian An Shih-Kao, whose activity falls between 148 and 170 +A.D. may have been earlier and altogether twelve translations were +made before 1000 A.D. of which five are extant<a name="FNanchor_827_827" id="FNanchor_827_827"></a><a href="#Footnote_827_827" class="fnanchor">[827]</a>. Several of the +earlier translators were natives of Central Asia, so it is permissible +to suppose that the sûtra was esteemed there. The shorter +Sukhâvatî-vyûha was translated by Kumârajîva (<i>c.</i> 402) and later by +Hsüan Chuang. The Amitâyurdhyânasûtra was translated by Kâlayaśas +about 424. These three books<a name="FNanchor_828_828" id="FNanchor_828_828"></a><a href="#Footnote_828_828" class="fnanchor">[828]</a> are the principal scriptures of the +school and copies of the greater Sukhâvatî may still be found in +almost every Chinese monastery, whatever principles it professes.</p> + +<p>Hui Yüan<a name="FNanchor_829_829" id="FNanchor_829_829"></a><a href="#Footnote_829_829" class="fnanchor">[829]</a> who lived from 333 to 416 is considered as the founder +of the school. He was in his youth an enthusiastic <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_314" id="Page_3_314"></a>[Pg 314]</span>Taoist and +after he turned Buddhist is said to have used the writings of +Chuang-tzŭ to elucidate his new faith. He founded a brotherhood, +and near the monastery where he settled was a pond in which lotus +flowers grew, hence the brotherhood was known as the White Lotus +school<a name="FNanchor_830_830" id="FNanchor_830_830"></a><a href="#Footnote_830_830" class="fnanchor">[830]</a>. For several centuries<a name="FNanchor_831_831" id="FNanchor_831_831"></a><a href="#Footnote_831_831" class="fnanchor">[831]</a> it enjoyed general esteem. +Pan-chou, one of its Patriarchs, received the title of Kuo-shih about +770 A.D., and Shan-tao, who nourished about 650 and wrote +commentaries, was one of its principal literary men<a name="FNanchor_832_832" id="FNanchor_832_832"></a><a href="#Footnote_832_832" class="fnanchor">[832]</a>. He +popularized the doctrine of the Pai-tao or White Way, that is, the +narrow bridge leading to Paradise across which Amitâbha will guide the +souls of the faithful. But somehow the name of White Lotus became +connected with conspiracy and rebellion until it was dreaded as the +title of a formidable secret society, and ceased to be applied to the +school as a whole. The teaching and canonical literature of the Pure +Land school did not fall into disrepute but since it was admitted by +other sects to be, if not the most excellent way, at least a +permissible short cut to heaven, it appears in modern times less as a +separate school than as an aspect of most schools<a name="FNanchor_833_833" id="FNanchor_833_833"></a><a href="#Footnote_833_833" class="fnanchor">[833]</a>. The simple and +emotional character of Amidism, the directness of its "Come unto me," +appeal so strongly to the poor and uneducated, that no monastery or +temple could afford to neglect it.</p> + +<p>Two important Indian schools were introduced into China in the sixth +and seventh centuries respectively and flourished until about 900 A.D. +when they began to decay. These are the Chü-shê-tsung and +Fa-hsiang-tsung<a name="FNanchor_834_834" id="FNanchor_834_834"></a><a href="#Footnote_834_834" class="fnanchor">[834]</a>. The first name is merely a Chinese transcription +of the Sanskrit Ko'sa and is due to the fact that the chief authority +of the school is the Abhidharmakośaśâstra <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_315" id="Page_3_315"></a>[Pg 315]</span>of +Vasubandhu<a name="FNanchor_835_835" id="FNanchor_835_835"></a><a href="#Footnote_835_835" class="fnanchor">[835]</a>. This work expounds the doctrine of the +Sarvâstivâdins, but in a liberal spirit and without ignoring other +views. Though the Chü-shê-tsung represented the best scholastic +tradition of India more adequately than any other Chinese sect, yet it +was too technical and arid to become popular and both in China and +Japan (where it is known as Kusha-shu) it was a system of scholastic +philosophy rather than a form of religion. In China it did not last +many centuries.</p> + +<p>The Fa-Hsiang school is similar inasmuch as it represented Indian +scholasticism and remained, though much esteemed, somewhat academic. +The name is a translation of Dharmalakshaṇa and the school is also +known as Tz'ŭ-ên-tsung<a name="FNanchor_836_836" id="FNanchor_836_836"></a><a href="#Footnote_836_836" class="fnanchor">[836]</a>, and also as Wei-shih-hsiang-chiao +because its principal text-book is the Ch'êng-wei-shih-lun<a name="FNanchor_837_837" id="FNanchor_837_837"></a><a href="#Footnote_837_837" class="fnanchor">[837]</a>. This +name, equivalent to Vidyâmâtra, or Vijnânamâtra, is the title of a +work by Hsüan Chuang which appears to be a digest of ten Sanskrit +commentaries on a little tract of thirty verses ascribed to +Vasubandhu. As ultimate authorities the school also recognizes the +revelations made to Asanga by Maitreya<a name="FNanchor_838_838" id="FNanchor_838_838"></a><a href="#Footnote_838_838" class="fnanchor">[838]</a> and probably the +Mahâyânasûtrâlankâra<a name="FNanchor_839_839" id="FNanchor_839_839"></a><a href="#Footnote_839_839" class="fnanchor">[839]</a> expresses its views. It claims as its +founder Śîlabhadra the teacher of Hsüan Chuang, but the latter was +its real parent.</p> + +<p>Closely allied to it but reckoned as distinct is the school called the +Hua-yen-tsung<a name="FNanchor_840_840" id="FNanchor_840_840"></a><a href="#Footnote_840_840" class="fnanchor">[840]</a> because it was based on the Hua-yen-ching or +Avatamsakasûtra. The doctrines of this work and of Nâgârjuna may be +conveniently if not quite correctly contrasted as pantheistic and +nihilistic. The real founder and first patriarch was Tu-Fa-Shun who +died in 640 but the school sometimes bears the name of Hsien-Shou, the +posthumous title of its third Patriarch who contributed seven works to +the Tripitaka<a name="FNanchor_841_841" id="FNanchor_841_841"></a><a href="#Footnote_841_841" class="fnanchor">[841]</a>. It <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_316" id="Page_3_316"></a>[Pg 316]</span>began to wane in the tenth century but has +a distinguished literary record.</p> + +<p>The Lü-tsung or Vinaya school<a name="FNanchor_842_842" id="FNanchor_842_842"></a><a href="#Footnote_842_842" class="fnanchor">[842]</a> was founded by Tao Hsüan (595-667). +It differs from those already mentioned inasmuch as it emphasizes +discipline and asceticism as the essential part of the religious life. +Like the T'ien-t'ai this school arose in China. It bases itself on +Indian authorities, but it does not appear that in thus laying stress +on the Vinaya it imitated any Indian sect, although it caught the +spirit of the early Hînayâna schools. The numerous works of the +founder indicate a practical temperament inclined not to mysticism or +doctrinal subtlety but to biography, literary history and church +government. Thus he continued the series called Memoirs of Eminent +Monks and wrote on the family and country of the Buddha. He compiled a +catalogue of the Tripitaka, as it was in his time, and collections of +extracts, as well as of documents relating to the controversies +between Buddhists and Taoists<a name="FNanchor_843_843" id="FNanchor_843_843"></a><a href="#Footnote_843_843" class="fnanchor">[843]</a>. Although he took as his chief +authority the Dharmagupta Vinaya commonly known as the Code in Four +Sections, he held, like most Chinese Buddhists, that there is a +complete and perfect doctrine which includes and transcends all the +vehicles. But he insisted, probably as a protest against the laxity or +extravagance of many monasteries, that morality and discipline are the +indispensable foundation of the religious life. He was highly esteemed +by his contemporaries and long after his death the Emperor Mu-tsung +(821-5) wrote a poem in his honour. The school is still respected and +it is said that the monks of its principal monastery, Pao-hua-shan in +Kiangsu, are stricter and more learned than any other.</p> + +<p>The school called Chên-yen (in Japanese Shin-gon), true word, or +Mi-chiao<a name="FNanchor_844_844" id="FNanchor_844_844"></a><a href="#Footnote_844_844" class="fnanchor">[844]</a>, secret teaching, equivalent to the Sanskrit Mantrayâna +or Tantrayâna, is the latest among the recognized divisions of Chinese +Buddhism since it first made its appearance in the eighth century. The +date, like that of the translation of the Amida scriptures is +important, for the school was introduced <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_317" id="Page_3_317"></a>[Pg 317]</span>from India and it follows +that its theories and practices were openly advocated at this period +and probably were not of repute much earlier. It is akin to the +Buddhism of Tibet and may be described in its higher aspects as an +elaborate and symbolic pantheism, which represents the one spirit +manifesting himself in a series of emanations and reflexes. In its +popular and unfortunately commoner aspect it is simply polytheism, +fetichism and magic. In many respects it resembles the Pure Land +school. Its principal deity (the word is not inaccurate) is Vairocana, +analogous to Amitâbha, and probably like him a Persian sun god in +origin. It is also a short cut to salvation, for, without denying the +efficiency of more laborious and ascetic methods, it promises to its +followers a similar result by means of formulæ and ceremonies. Like +the Pure Land school it has become in China not so much a separate +corporation as an aspect, and often the most obvious and popular +aspect, of all Buddhist schools.</p> + +<p>It claims Vajrabodhi as its first Patriarch. He was a monk of the +Brahman caste who arrived in China from southern India<a name="FNanchor_845_845" id="FNanchor_845_845"></a><a href="#Footnote_845_845" class="fnanchor">[845]</a> in 719 and +died in 730 after translating several Tantras and spells. His +companion and successor was Amoghavajra of whose career something has +already been said. The fourth Patriarch, Hui Kuo, was the instructor +of the celebrated Japanese monk Kobo Daishi who established the school +in Japan under the name of Shingon<a name="FNanchor_846_846" id="FNanchor_846_846"></a><a href="#Footnote_846_846" class="fnanchor">[846]</a>.</p> + +<p>The principal scripture of this sect is the Ta-jih-ching or sûtra of +the Sun-Buddha<a name="FNanchor_847_847" id="FNanchor_847_847"></a><a href="#Footnote_847_847" class="fnanchor">[847]</a>. A distinction is drawn between exoteric and +esoteric doctrine (the "true word") and the various phases of Buddhist +thought are arranged in ten classes. Of these the first nine are +merely preparatory, but in the last or esoteric phase, the adept +becomes a living Buddha and receives full intuitive knowledge. In this +respect the Tantric school resembles the teaching of Bodhidharma but +not in detail. It teaches that Vairocana is the whole world, which is +divided into Garbhadhâtu (material) and Vajradhâtu (indestructible), +the two together forming Dharmadhâtu. The manifestations of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_318" id="Page_3_318"></a>[Pg 318]</span>Vairocana's body to himself—that is Buddhas and Bodhisattvas—are +represented symbolically by diagrams of several circles<a name="FNanchor_848_848" id="FNanchor_848_848"></a><a href="#Footnote_848_848" class="fnanchor">[848]</a>. But it +would be out of place to dwell further on the dogmatic theology of the +school, for I cannot discover that it was ever of importance in China +whatever may have been its influence in Japan. What appealed only too +powerfully to Chinese superstition was the use of spells, charms and +magical formulæ and the doctrine that since the universe is merely +idea, thoughts and facts are equipollent. This doctrine (which need +not be the outcome of metaphysics, but underlies the magical practices +of many savage tribes) produced surprising results when applied to +funeral ceremonies, which in China have always formed the major part +of religion, for it was held that ceremonial can represent and control +the fortunes of the soul, that is to say that if a ceremony represents +figuratively the rescue of a soul from a pool of blood, then the soul +which is undergoing that punishment will be delivered. It was not +until the latter part of the eighth century that such theories and +ceremonies were accepted by Chinese Buddhism, but they now form a +large part of it.</p> + +<p>Although in Japan Buddhism continued to produce new schools until the +thirteenth century, no movement in China attained this status after +about 730, and Lamaism, though its introduction produced considerable +changes in the north, is not usually reckoned as a Tsung. But numerous +societies and brotherhoods arose especially in connection with the +Pure Land school and are commonly spoken of as sects. They differ from +the schools mentioned above in having more or less the character of +secret societies, sometimes merely brotherhoods like the Freemasons +but sometimes political in their aims. Among those whose tenets are +known that which has most religion and least politics in its +composition appears to be the Wu-wei-chiao<a name="FNanchor_849_849" id="FNanchor_849_849"></a><a href="#Footnote_849_849" class="fnanchor">[849]</a>, founded about 1620 by +one Lo-tsu<a name="FNanchor_850_850" id="FNanchor_850_850"></a><a href="#Footnote_850_850" class="fnanchor">[850]</a> who claimed to have received a revelation contained in +five books. It is strictly vegetarian <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_319" id="Page_3_319"></a>[Pg 319]</span>and antiritualistic, +objecting to the use of images, incense and candles in worship.</p> + +<p>There are many other sects with a political tinge. The proclivity of +the Chinese to guilds, corporations and secret societies is well known +and many of these latter have a religious basis. All such bodies are +under the ban of the Government, for they have always been suspected +with more or less justice of favouring anti-social or anti-dynastic +ideas. But, mingled with such political aspirations, there is often +present the desire for co-operation in leading privately a religious +life which, if made public, would be hampered by official +restrictions. The most celebrated of these sects is the White Lotus. +Under the Yüan dynasty it was anti-Mongol, and prepared the way for +the advent of the Ming. When the Ming dynasty in its turn became +decadent, we hear again of the White Lotus coupled with rebellion, and +similarly after the Manchus had passed their meridian, its beautiful +but ill-omened name frequently appears. It seems clear that it is an +ancient and persistent society with some idea of creating a +millennium, which becomes active when the central government is weak +and corrupt. Not unlike the White Lotus is the secret society commonly +known as the Triad but called by its members the Heaven and Earth +Association. The T'ai-p'ing sect, out of which the celebrated +rebellion arose, was similar but its inspiration seems to have come +from a perversion of Christianity. The Tsai-Li sect<a name="FNanchor_851_851" id="FNanchor_851_851"></a><a href="#Footnote_851_851" class="fnanchor">[851]</a> is still +prevalent in Peking, Tientsin, and the province of Shantung. I should +exceed the scope of my task if I attempted to examine these sects in +detail<a name="FNanchor_852_852" id="FNanchor_852_852"></a><a href="#Footnote_852_852" class="fnanchor">[852]</a>, for their relation to Buddhism is often doubtful. Most of +them combine with it Taoist and other beliefs and some of them expect +a Messiah or King of Righteousness who is usually identified with +Maitreya. It is easy to see how at this point hostility to the +existing Government arises and provokes not unnatural +resentment<a name="FNanchor_853_853" id="FNanchor_853_853"></a><a href="#Footnote_853_853" class="fnanchor">[853]</a>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_320" id="Page_3_320"></a>[Pg 320]</span>Recently several attempts have been made to infuse life and order +into Chinese Buddhism. Japanese influence can be traced in most of +them and though they can hardly be said to represent a new school, +they attempt to go back to Mahayanism as it was when first introduced +into China. The Hinâyâna is considered as a necessary preliminary to +the Mahâyâna and the latter is treated as existing in several schools, +among which are included the Pure Land school, though the +Contemplative and Tantric schools seem not to be regarded with favour. +They are probably mistrusted as leading to negligence and +superstition<a name="FNanchor_854_854" id="FNanchor_854_854"></a><a href="#Footnote_854_854" class="fnanchor">[854]</a>.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_790_790" id="Footnote_790_790"></a><a href="#FNanchor_790_790"><span class="label">[790]</span></a> <img src="images/308_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="42" height="35" /> See especially Hackmann, "Die Schulen +des chinesischen Buddhismus" (in the <i>Mitth. Seminars für +Orientalische Sprachen</i>, Berlin, 1911), which contains the text and +translation of an Essay by a modern Chinese Buddhist, Yang Wên Hui. +Such a review of Chinese sects from the contemporary Buddhist point of +view has great value, but it does not seem to me that Mr. Yang explains +clearly the dogmatic tenets of each sect, the obvious inference being +that such tenets are of little practical importance. Chinese +monasteries often seem to combine several schools. Thus the +Tz'ŭ-Fu-Ssŭ monastery near Peking professes to belong both to +the Lin-Chi and Pure Land schools and its teachers expound the +Diamond-cutter, Lotus and Shou-Lêng-Ching. So also in India. See Rhys +Davids in article Sects Buddhist, <i>E.R.E.</i> Hackmann gives a list of +authorities. Edkins, <i>Chinese Buddhism</i> (chaps. VII and VIII), may +still be consulted, though the account is far from clear.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_791_791" id="Footnote_791_791"></a><a href="#FNanchor_791_791"><span class="label">[791]</span></a> <img src="images/309_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="242" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_792_792" id="Footnote_792_792"></a><a href="#FNanchor_792_792"><span class="label">[792]</span></a> It based itself on the Satyasiddhiśâstra of +Harivarman, Nanjio, Cat. 1274.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_793_793" id="Footnote_793_793"></a><a href="#FNanchor_793_793"><span class="label">[793]</span></a> This meditation however is of a special sort. The six +Pâramitâs are, Dâna, Sîla, Kshanti, Vîrya, Dhyâna and Prajñâ. The +meditation of Bodhidharma is not the Dhyâna of this list, but +meditation on Prajñâ, the highest of the Pâramitâs. See Hackmann's +Chinese text, p. 249.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_794_794" id="Footnote_794_794"></a><a href="#FNanchor_794_794"><span class="label">[794]</span></a> Ta-mo-hsüe-mai-lun, analyzed by Wieger in his <i>Histoire +des Croyances religieuses en Chine</i>, pp. 520 ff. I could wish for more +information about this work, but have not been able to find the +original.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_795_795" id="Footnote_795_795"></a><a href="#FNanchor_795_795"><span class="label">[795]</span></a> Also called Fa-shên or dharmakâya in the discourse. +Bodhidharma said that he preached the <i>seal of the heart</i> (hsinyin). +This probably corresponds to some Sanskrit expression, but I have not +found the Indian equivalent.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_796_796" id="Footnote_796_796"></a><a href="#FNanchor_796_796"><span class="label">[796]</span></a> I-Ching, in his <i>Memoirs of Eminent Monks</i>, mentions +three pilgrims as having studied the works of Chuang-tzŭ and his +own style shows that he was well-read in this author.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_797_797" id="Footnote_797_797"></a><a href="#FNanchor_797_797"><span class="label">[797]</span></a> He is not mentioned by Târanâtha.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_798_798" id="Footnote_798_798"></a><a href="#FNanchor_798_798"><span class="label">[798]</span></a> <img src="images/311_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="43" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_799_799" id="Footnote_799_799"></a><a href="#FNanchor_799_799"><span class="label">[799]</span></a> <img src="images/311_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="81" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_800_800" id="Footnote_800_800"></a><a href="#FNanchor_800_800"><span class="label">[800]</span></a> Acâriyaparamparâ. There is a list of such teachers in +Mahâvaṃsa, V. 95 ff., Dîpavaṃsa, IV. 27 ff. and V. 69.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_801_801" id="Footnote_801_801"></a><a href="#FNanchor_801_801"><span class="label">[801]</span></a> <img src="images/311_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="79" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_802_802" id="Footnote_802_802"></a><a href="#FNanchor_802_802"><span class="label">[802]</span></a> The succession of Patriarchs is the subject of several +works comprised in the Chinese Tripitaka. Of these the +Fu-fa-tsang-yin-yüan-ching (Nanjio, 1340) is the most important, +because it professes to be translated (A.D. 472) from an Indian work, +which, however, is not in the Tibetan Canon and is not known in +Sanskrit. The Chinese text, as we have it, is probably not a +translation from the Sanskrit, but a compilation made in the sixth +century which, however, acquired considerable authority. See Maspéro +in <i>Mélanges d'Indianisme</i>: Sylvain Lévi, pp. 129-149, and +<i>B.E.F.E.O.</i>1911, pp. 344-348. Other works are the Fo-tsu-t'ung-chi +(Nanjio, 1661), of Chih P'an (<i>c.</i> 1270), belonging to the T'ien-t'ai +school, and the Ching-tê-ch'uan-têng-lu together with the +Tsung-mên-t'ung-yao-hsü-chi (Nanjio, 1524, 1526) both belonging to the +school of Bodhidharma. See also Nanjio, 1528, 1529. The common list of +Patriarchs is as follows: 1. Mahâkâśyapa; 2. Ananda; 3. Śanavâsa +or Śanakavâsa; 4. Upagupta; 5. Dhṛitaka; 6. Micchaka. Here the +name of Vasumitra is inserted by some but omitted by others; 7. +Buddhanandi; 8. Buddhamitra; 9. Pârśva; 10. Punyayasas; 11. +Aśvaghosha; 12. Kapimala; 13. Nâgârjuna; 14. Deva (Kâṇadeva); +15. Râhulata; 16. Sanghanandi; 17. Sanghayaśas; 18. Kumârata; 19. +Jayata; 20. Vasubandhu; 21. Manura; 22. Haklena or Padmaratna; 23. +Simha Bhikshu; 24. Basiasita; 25. Putṇomita or Punyamitra; 26. +Prajnâtara; 27 (or 28, if Vasumitra is reckoned) Bodhidharma. Many of +these names are odd and are only conjectural restorations made from +the Chinese transcription, for which see Nanjio, 1340. Other lists of +Patriarchs vary from that given above, partly because they represent +the traditions of other schools. It is not strange, for instance, if +the Sarvâstivâdins did not recognize Nâgârjuna as a Patriarch. Two of +their lists have been preserved by Sêng-yu (Nanjio, 1476) who wrote +about 520. Some notes on the Patriarchs and reproductions of Chinese +pictures representing them will be found in Doré, pp. 244 ff. It is +extremely curious that Aśvaghosha is represented as a woman.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_803_803" id="Footnote_803_803"></a><a href="#FNanchor_803_803"><span class="label">[803]</span></a> It is found, for instance, in the lists of the Jain +Tirthankaras and in some accounts of the Buddhas and of the Avatâras +of Vishnu.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_804_804" id="Footnote_804_804"></a><a href="#FNanchor_804_804"><span class="label">[804]</span></a> See Watters, <i>Yüan Chwang</i>, p. 290. But the dates offer +some difficulty, for Mihirakula, the celebrated Hun chieftain, is +usually supposed to have reigned about 510-540 A.D. Târanâtha +(Schiefner, p. 95) speaks of a martyr called Mâlikabuddhi. See, too, +<i>ib.</i> p. 306.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_805_805" id="Footnote_805_805"></a><a href="#FNanchor_805_805"><span class="label">[805]</span></a> It is clear that the school of Valabhi was to some +extent a rival of Nâlandâ.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_806_806" id="Footnote_806_806"></a><a href="#FNanchor_806_806"><span class="label">[806]</span></a> For a portrait of Hui-nêng see Kokka, No. 297. The +names of Bodhidharma's successors are in Chinese characters <img src="images/313_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="303" height="35" /><img src="images/313_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="71" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_807_807" id="Footnote_807_807"></a><a href="#FNanchor_807_807"><span class="label">[807]</span></a> <img src="images/314_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="75" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_808_808" id="Footnote_808_808"></a><a href="#FNanchor_808_808"><span class="label">[808]</span></a> <img src="images/314_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="158" height="35" />Much biographical information respecting +this and other schools will be found in Doré, vols. VII and VIII. But +there is little to record in the way of events or literary and +doctrinal movements.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_809_809" id="Footnote_809_809"></a><a href="#FNanchor_809_809"><span class="label">[809]</span></a> <img src="images/314_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="380" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_810_810" id="Footnote_810_810"></a><a href="#FNanchor_810_810"><span class="label">[810]</span></a> <img src="images/314_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="64" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_811_811" id="Footnote_811_811"></a><a href="#FNanchor_811_811"><span class="label">[811]</span></a> Lin-Chi means coming to the ford. Is this an allusion +to the Pali expression Sotâpanno? The name appears in Japanese as +Rinzai. Most educated Chinese monks when asked as to their doctrine +say they belong to the Lin-Chi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_812_812" id="Footnote_812_812"></a><a href="#FNanchor_812_812"><span class="label">[812]</span></a> They are generally called the three mysteries (Hsüan) +and the three important points (Yao), but I have not been able to +obtain any clear explanation of what they mean. See Edkins, <i>Chinese +Buddhism</i>, p. 164, and Hackmann, <i>l.c.</i> p. 250.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_813_813" id="Footnote_813_813"></a><a href="#FNanchor_813_813"><span class="label">[813]</span></a> Wieger, <i>Bouddhisme Chinois</i>, p. 108, states that 230 +works belonging to this sect were published under the Manchu dynasty.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_814_814" id="Footnote_814_814"></a><a href="#FNanchor_814_814"><span class="label">[814]</span></a> See <i>e.g.</i> Nanjio, Cat. 1527, 1532.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_815_815" id="Footnote_815_815"></a><a href="#FNanchor_815_815"><span class="label">[815]</span></a> <img src="images/315_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="76" height="35" /> Tendai in Japanese. It is also called in +China <img src="images/315_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="63" height="35" /> Fa-hua.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_816_816" id="Footnote_816_816"></a><a href="#FNanchor_816_816"><span class="label">[816]</span></a> <img src="images/315_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="72" height="35" /> Also often spoken of as Chih-chê-ta-shih + <img src="images/315_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="123" height="35" /> Officially he is often styled the fourth Patriarch of +the school. See Doré, p. 449.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_817_817" id="Footnote_817_817"></a><a href="#FNanchor_817_817"><span class="label">[817]</span></a> <img src="images/315_5.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="71" height="35" /> In Pali Buddhism also, especially in +later works, Samatha and Vipassanâ may be taken as a compendium of the +higher life as they are respectively the results of the two sets of +religious exercises called Adhicitta and Adhipaññâ. (See Ang. Nik. III +88.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_818_818" id="Footnote_818_818"></a><a href="#FNanchor_818_818"><span class="label">[818]</span></a> In Chinese <img src="images/316_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="434" height="35" /> +Tun, Chien, Pi-mi, Pu-ting, Tsang, T'ung, Pieh, Yüan. See Nanjio, +1568, and for very different explanations of these obscure words. +Edkins, <i>Chinese Buddhism</i>, p. 182, and Richard's <i>New Testament of +Higher Buddhism</i>, p. 41. Masson-Oursel in <i>J.A.</i> 1915, I. p. 305.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_819_819" id="Footnote_819_819"></a><a href="#FNanchor_819_819"><span class="label">[819]</span></a> <img src="images/317_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="114" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_820_820" id="Footnote_820_820"></a><a href="#FNanchor_820_820"><span class="label">[820]</span></a> <img src="images/317_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="78" height="35" />The books are Nanjio, Nos. 1534, 1536, +1538.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_821_821" id="Footnote_821_821"></a><a href="#FNanchor_821_821"><span class="label">[821]</span></a> Among them is the compendium for beginners called +Hsiao-chih-kuan, (Nanjio, 1540), partly translated in Beal's <i>Catena</i>, +pp. 251 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_822_822" id="Footnote_822_822"></a><a href="#FNanchor_822_822"><span class="label">[822]</span></a> <img src="images/317_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="76" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_823_823" id="Footnote_823_823"></a><a href="#FNanchor_823_823"><span class="label">[823]</span></a> <img src="images/317_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="75" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_824_824" id="Footnote_824_824"></a><a href="#FNanchor_824_824"><span class="label">[824]</span></a> <img src="images/317_5.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="331" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_825_825" id="Footnote_825_825"></a><a href="#FNanchor_825_825"><span class="label">[825]</span></a> The list of Chinese authors in Nanjio's Catalogue, App. +III, describes many as belonging to the T'ien-t'ai, Avatamsaka or +Dhyâna schools, but none as belonging to the Ching-T'u.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_826_826" id="Footnote_826_826"></a><a href="#FNanchor_826_826"><span class="label">[826]</span></a> For the authorities, see Nanjio, p. 381.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_827_827" id="Footnote_827_827"></a><a href="#FNanchor_827_827"><span class="label">[827]</span></a> Nanjio, p. 10, note.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_828_828" id="Footnote_828_828"></a><a href="#FNanchor_828_828"><span class="label">[828]</span></a> They are all translated in <i>S.B.E.</i> XLIX. The two +former exist in Sanskrit. The Amitâyurdhyâna is known only in the +Chinese translation. They are called in Chinese <br /> +<img src="images/318_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="504" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_829_829" id="Footnote_829_829"></a><a href="#FNanchor_829_829"><span class="label">[829]</span></a> <img src="images/318_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="66" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_830_830" id="Footnote_830_830"></a><a href="#FNanchor_830_830"><span class="label">[830]</span></a> <img src="images/319_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="100" height="35" /> The early history of the school is +related in a work called Lien-shê-kao-hsien-ch'uan, said to date from +the Tsin dynasty. See for some account of the early worthies, Doré, +pp. 280 ff. and 457 ff. Their biographies contain many visions and +miracles.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_831_831" id="Footnote_831_831"></a><a href="#FNanchor_831_831"><span class="label">[831]</span></a> Apparently at least until 1042. See De Groot, +<i>Sectarianism</i>, p. 163. The dated inscriptions in the grottoes of +Lung-mên indicate that the cult of Amitâbha flourished especially from +647 to 715. See Chavannes, <i>Mission. Archéol.</i> Tome I, deuxième +partie, p. 545.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_832_832" id="Footnote_832_832"></a><a href="#FNanchor_832_832"><span class="label">[832]</span></a> <img src="images/319_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="172" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_833_833" id="Footnote_833_833"></a><a href="#FNanchor_833_833"><span class="label">[833]</span></a> See for instance the tract called Hsüan-Fo-P'u + <img src="images/319_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="85" height="35" /> and translated by Richard under the title of <i>A Guide to +Buddhahood</i>, pp. 97 ff.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_834_834" id="Footnote_834_834"></a><a href="#FNanchor_834_834"><span class="label">[834]</span></a> <img src="images/319_4.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="232" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_835_835" id="Footnote_835_835"></a><a href="#FNanchor_835_835"><span class="label">[835]</span></a> See Watters, <i>On Yüan Chwang</i>, I. 210, and also +Takakusu, <i>Journal of the Pali Text Soc</i>. 1905, p. 132.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_836_836" id="Footnote_836_836"></a><a href="#FNanchor_836_836"><span class="label">[836]</span></a> <img src="images/320_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="106" height="35" /> The name refers not to the doctrines of +the school, but to Tz'ŭ-ên-tai-shih, a title given to Kuei-chi the +disciple of Hsüan Chuang who was one of its principal teachers and +taught at a monastery called Tz'ŭ-ên.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_837_837" id="Footnote_837_837"></a><a href="#FNanchor_837_837"><span class="label">[837]</span></a> <img src="images/320_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="134" height="35" />See Nanjio, Cat. Nos. 1197 and 1215.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_838_838" id="Footnote_838_838"></a><a href="#FNanchor_838_838"><span class="label">[838]</span></a> See Watters, <i>On Yüan Chwang</i>, I. pp. 355 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_839_839" id="Footnote_839_839"></a><a href="#FNanchor_839_839"><span class="label">[839]</span></a> Ed. and transl. by Sylvain Lévi, 1911.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_840_840" id="Footnote_840_840"></a><a href="#FNanchor_840_840"><span class="label">[840]</span></a> <img src="images/320_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="99" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_841_841" id="Footnote_841_841"></a><a href="#FNanchor_841_841"><span class="label">[841]</span></a> His name when alive was Fa-tsang. See Nanjio, Cat. p. +462, and Doré, 450. The Empress Wu patronized him.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_842_842" id="Footnote_842_842"></a><a href="#FNanchor_842_842"><span class="label">[842]</span></a> <img src="images/321_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="73" height="35" /> Also called Nan Shan or Southern mountain +school from a locality in Shensi.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_843_843" id="Footnote_843_843"></a><a href="#FNanchor_843_843"><span class="label">[843]</span></a> <img src="images/321_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="75" height="35" /> Nanjio, Cat. 1493, 1469, 1470, 1120, +1481, 1483, 1484, 1471.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_844_844" id="Footnote_844_844"></a><a href="#FNanchor_844_844"><span class="label">[844]</span></a> <img src="images/321_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="142" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_845_845" id="Footnote_845_845"></a><a href="#FNanchor_845_845"><span class="label">[845]</span></a> From Mo-lai-yè, which seems to mean the extreme south +of India. Doré gives some Chinese legends about him, p. 299.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_846_846" id="Footnote_846_846"></a><a href="#FNanchor_846_846"><span class="label">[846]</span></a> For an appreciative criticism of the sect as known in +Japan, see Anesaki's <i>Buddhist Art</i>, chap. III.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_847_847" id="Footnote_847_847"></a><a href="#FNanchor_847_847"><span class="label">[847]</span></a> Nanjio, No. 530. Nos. 533, 534 and 1039 are also +important texts of this sect.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_848_848" id="Footnote_848_848"></a><a href="#FNanchor_848_848"><span class="label">[848]</span></a> In the T'ien-t'ai and Chên-yen schools, and indeed in +Chinese Buddhism generally, Dharma (<i>Fa</i> in Chinese) is regarded as +cosmic law. Buddhas are the visible expression of Dharma. Hence they +are identified with it and the whole process of cosmic evolution is +regarded as the manifestation of Buddhahood.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_849_849" id="Footnote_849_849"></a><a href="#FNanchor_849_849"><span class="label">[849]</span></a> <img src="images/323_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="88" height="35" /> See the account by Edkins, <i>Chinese +Buddhism</i>, pp. 271 ff.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_850_850" id="Footnote_850_850"></a><a href="#FNanchor_850_850"><span class="label">[850]</span></a> <img src="images/323_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="74" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_851_851" id="Footnote_851_851"></a><a href="#FNanchor_851_851"><span class="label">[851]</span></a> <img src="images/324_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="77" height="35" /> See <i>China Mission Year Book</i>, 1896, p. +43.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_852_852" id="Footnote_852_852"></a><a href="#FNanchor_852_852"><span class="label">[852]</span></a> For some account of them, see Stanton, The Triad +Society, White Lotus Society, etc., 1900, reprinted from <i>China +Review</i>, vols. XXI, XXII, and De Groot, <i>Sectarianism and religious +persecution in China</i>, vol. I. pp. 149-259.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_853_853" id="Footnote_853_853"></a><a href="#FNanchor_853_853"><span class="label">[853]</span></a> The Republic of China has not changed much from the +ways of the Empire. The Peking newspapers of June 17, 1914, contain a +Presidential Edict stating that "the invention of heretical religions +by ill-disposed persons is strictly prohibited by law," and that +certain religious societies are to be suppressed.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_854_854" id="Footnote_854_854"></a><a href="#FNanchor_854_854"><span class="label">[854]</span></a> See, for an account of such a reformed sect, O. +Francke, "Ein Buddhistischer Reformversuch in China," <i>T'oung Pao</i>, +1909, p. 567.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_321" id="Page_3_321"></a>[Pg 321]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLVI" id="CHAPTER_XLVI"></a>CHAPTER XLVI</h2> + +<h3>CHINA <i>(continued)</i></h3> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Chinese Buddhism at the Present Day</span></h3> + + +<p>The Buddhism treated of in this chapter does not include Lamaism, +which being identical with the religion of Tibet and Mongolia is more +conveniently described elsewhere. Ordinary Chinese Buddhism and +Lamaism are distinct, but are divided not so much by doctrine as by +the race, language and usages of the priests. Chinese Buddhism has +acquired some local colour, but it is still based on the teaching and +practice imported from India before the Yüan dynasty, whereas Lamaist +tradition is not direct: it represents Buddhism as received not from +India but from Tibet. Some holy places, such as P'uto and Wu-t'ai-shan +are frequented by both Lamas and Chinese monks, and Tibetan prayers +and images may sometimes be seen in Chinese temples, but as a rule the +two divisions do not coalesce.</p> + +<p>Chinese Buddhism has a physiognomy and language of its own. The +Paraphrase of the Sacred Edict in a criticism, which, though +unfriendly, is not altogether inaccurate, says that Buddhists attend +only to the heart, claim that Buddha can be found in the heart, and +aim at becoming Buddhas. This sounds strange to those who are +acquainted only with the Buddhism of Ceylon and Burma, but is +intelligible as a popular statement of Bodhidharma's doctrine. +Heart<a name="FNanchor_855_855" id="FNanchor_855_855"></a><a href="#Footnote_855_855" class="fnanchor">[855]</a> means the spiritual nature of man, essentially identical +with the Buddha nature and capable of purification and growth so that +all beings can become Buddhas. But in the Far East the doctrine became +less pantheistic and more ethical than the corresponding Indian ideas. +The Buddha in the heart is the internal light and monitor rather than +the universal spirit. Amida, Kuan-yin and Ti-tsang with other radiant +and benevolent spirits have risen from humanity and will help man to +rise as they have done. Chinese Buddhists do not regard Amida's vows +as an isolated achievement. All <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_322" id="Page_3_322"></a>[Pg 322]</span>Boddhisattvas have done the same +and carried out their resolution in countless existences. Like the +Madonna these gracious figures appeal directly to the emotions and +artistic senses and their divinity offers no difficulty, for in China +Church and State alike have always recognized deification as a natural +process. One other characteristic of all Far Eastern Buddhism may be +noticed. The Buddha is supposed to have preached many creeds and codes +at different periods of his life and each school supposes its own to +be the last, best and all inclusive.</p> + +<p>As indicated elsewhere, the essential part of the Buddhist Church is +the monkhood and it is often hard to say if a Chinese layman is a +Buddhist or not. It will therefore be best to describe briefly the +organization and life of a monastery, then the services performed +there and to some extent attended by the laity, and thirdly the rites +performed by monks on behalf of the laity, especially funeral +ceremonies.</p> + +<p>The Chinese Tripitaka contains no less than five recensions of the +Vinaya, and the later pilgrims who visited India made it their special +object to obtain copies of the most correct and approved code. But +though the theoretical value of these codes is still admitted, they +have for practical purposes been supplemented by other manuals of +which the best known are the Fan-wang-ching or Net of Brahmâ<a name="FNanchor_856_856" id="FNanchor_856_856"></a><a href="#Footnote_856_856" class="fnanchor">[856]</a> and +the Pai-chang-ts'ung-lin-ch'ing-kuei or Rules of Purity of the +Monasteries of Pai Chang.</p> + +<p>The former is said to have been translated in A.D. 406 by Kumârajîva +and to be one chapter of a larger Sanskrit work. Some passages of it, +particularly the condemnation of legislation which forbids or imposes +conditions on the practice of Buddhism<a name="FNanchor_857_857" id="FNanchor_857_857"></a><a href="#Footnote_857_857" class="fnanchor">[857]</a>, read as if they had been +composed in China rather than India, and its whole attitude towards +the Hinayanist Vinaya as something inadequate and superseded, can +hardly have been usual in India or China even in the time of I-Ching +(700 A.D.). Nothing is known of the Indian original, but it certainly +was not the Brahmajâlasutta of the Pali Canon<a name="FNanchor_858_858" id="FNanchor_858_858"></a><a href="#Footnote_858_858" class="fnanchor">[858]</a>. Though the +translation <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_323" id="Page_3_323"></a>[Pg 323]</span>is ascribed to so early a date, there is no evidence +that the work carried weight as an authority before the eighth +century. Students of the Vinaya, like I-Ching, ignore it. But when the +scholarly endeavour to discover the most authentic edition of the +Vinaya began to flag, this manual superseded the older treatises. +Whatever external evidence there may be for attributing it to +Kumârajîva, its contents suggest a much later date and there is no +guarantee that a popular manual may not have received additions. The +rules are not numbered consecutively but as 1-10 and 1-48, and it may +be that the first class is older than the second. In many respects it +expounds a late and even degenerate form of Buddhism for it +contemplates not only a temple ritual (including the veneration of +images and sacred books), but also burning the head or limbs as a +religious practice. But it makes no allusion to salvation through +faith in Amitâbha and says little about services to be celebrated for +the dead<a name="FNanchor_859_859" id="FNanchor_859_859"></a><a href="#Footnote_859_859" class="fnanchor">[859]</a>.</p> + +<p>Its ethical and disciplinary point of view is dogmatically Mahayanist +and similar to that of the Bodhicaryâvatâra. The Hînayâna is several +times denounced<a name="FNanchor_860_860" id="FNanchor_860_860"></a><a href="#Footnote_860_860" class="fnanchor">[860]</a> and called heretical, but, setting aside a little +intolerance and superstition, the teaching of this manual is truly +admirable and breathes a spirit of active charity—a desire not only +to do no harm but to help and rescue.</p> + +<p>It contains a code of ten primary and forty-eight secondary +commandments, worded as prohibitions, but equivalent to positive +injunctions, inasmuch as they blame the neglect of various active +duties. The ten primary commandments are called Prâtimoksha and he who +breaks them is Pârâjika<a name="FNanchor_861_861" id="FNanchor_861_861"></a><a href="#Footnote_861_861" class="fnanchor">[861]</a>, that is to say, he <i>ipso facto</i> leaves +the road leading to Buddhahood and is condemned to a long series of +inferior births. They prohibit taking life, theft, unchastity, lying, +trading in alcoholic liquors, evil speaking, boasting, avarice, hatred +and blasphemy. Though infraction of the secondary commandments has +less permanently serious consequence, their observance is +indispensable for all monks. Many of them are amplifications of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_324" id="Page_3_324"></a>[Pg 324]</span>ten major commandments and are directed against indirect and +potential sins, such as the possession of weapons. The Bhikshu may not +eat flesh, drink alcohol, set forests on fire or be connected with any +business injurious to others, such as the slave trade. He is warned +against gossip, sins of the eye, foolish practices such as divination +and even momentary forgetfulness of his high calling and duties. But +it is not sufficient that he should be self-concentrated and without +offence. He must labour for the welfare and salvation of others, and +it is a sin to neglect such duties as instructing the ignorant, +tending the sick, hospitality, saving men or animals from death or +slavery, praying<a name="FNanchor_862_862" id="FNanchor_862_862"></a><a href="#Footnote_862_862" class="fnanchor">[862]</a> for all in danger, exhorting to repentance, +sympathy with all living things. A number of disciplinary rules +prescribe a similarly high standard for daily monastic life. The monk +must be strenuous and intelligent; he must yield obedience to his +superiors and set a good example to the laity: he must not teach for +money or be selfish in accepting food and gifts. As for creed he is +strictly bidden to follow and preach the Mahâyâna: it is a sin to +follow or preach the doctrine of the Srâvakas<a name="FNanchor_863_863" id="FNanchor_863_863"></a><a href="#Footnote_863_863" class="fnanchor">[863]</a> or read their books +or not aspire to ultimate Buddhahood. Very remarkable are the +injunctions to burn one's limbs in honour of Buddhas: to show great +respect to copies of the scriptures and to make vows. From another +point of view the first and forty-seventh secondary commandments are +equally remarkable: the first bids officials discharge their duties +with due respect to the Church and the other protests against improper +legislation.</p> + +<p>The Fan-wang-ching is the most important and most authoritative +statement of the general principles regulating monastic life in China. +So far as my own observation goes, it is known and respected in all +monasteries. The Pai-chang-ch'ing-kuei<a name="FNanchor_864_864" id="FNanchor_864_864"></a><a href="#Footnote_864_864" class="fnanchor">[864]</a> deals rather with the +details of organization and ritual and has not the same universal +currency. It received the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_325" id="Page_3_325"></a>[Pg 325]</span>approval of the Yüan dynasty<a name="FNanchor_865_865" id="FNanchor_865_865"></a><a href="#Footnote_865_865" class="fnanchor">[865]</a> and is +still accepted as authoritative in many monasteries and gives a +correct account of their general practice. It was composed by a monk +of Kiang-si, who died in 814 A.D. He belonged to the Ch'an school, but +his rules are approved by others. I will not attempt to summarize +them, but they include most points of ritual and discipline mentioned +below. The author indicates the relations which should prevail between +Church and State by opening his work with an account of the ceremonies +to be performed on the Emperor's birthday, and similar occasions.</p> + +<p>Large Buddhist temples almost always form part of a monastery, but +smaller shrines, especially in towns, are often served by a single +priest. The many-storeyed towers called pagodas which are a +characteristic beauty of Chinese landscapes, are in their origin +stupas erected over relics but at the present day can hardly be called +temples or religious buildings, for they are not places of worship and +generally owe their construction to the dictates of Fêng-shui or +geomancy. Monasteries are usually built outside towns and by +preference on high ground, whence <i>shan</i> or mountain has come to be +the common designation of a convent, whatever its position. The sites +of these establishments show the deep feeling of cultivated Chinese +for nature and their appreciation of the influence of scenery on +temper, an appreciation which connects them spiritually with the +psalms of the monks and nuns preserved in the Pali Canon. The +architecture is not self-assertive. Its aim is not to produce edifices +complete and satisfying in their own proportions but rather to +harmonize buildings with landscape, to adjust courts and pavilions to +the slope of the hillside and diversify the groves of fir and bamboo +with shrines and towers as fantastic and yet as natural as the +mountain boulders. The reader who wishes to know more of them should +consult Johnston's <i>Buddhist China</i>, a work which combines in a rare +degree sound knowledge and literary charm.</p> + +<p>A monastery<a name="FNanchor_866_866" id="FNanchor_866_866"></a><a href="#Footnote_866_866" class="fnanchor">[866]</a> is usually a quadrangle surrounded by a wall. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_326" id="Page_3_326"></a>[Pg 326]</span>Before the great gate, which faces south, or in the first court is +a tank, spanned by a bridge, wherein grows the red lotus and tame fish +await doles of biscuit. The sides of the quadrangle contain dwelling +rooms, refectories, guest chambers, store houses, a library, printing +press and other premises suitable to a learned and pious foundation. +The interior space is divided into two or three courts, bordered by a +veranda. In each court is a hall of worship or temple, containing a +shelf or alcove on which are set the sacred images: in front of them +stands a table, usually of massive wood, bearing vases of flowers, +bowls for incense sticks and other vessels. The first temple is called +the Hall of the Four Great Kings and the figures in it represent +beings who are still in the world of transmigration and have not yet +attained Buddhahood. They include gigantic images of the Four Kings, +Maitreya, the Buddha designate of the future, and Wei-to<a name="FNanchor_867_867" id="FNanchor_867_867"></a><a href="#Footnote_867_867" class="fnanchor">[867]</a>, a +military Bodhisattva sometimes identified with Indra. Kuan-ti, the +Chinese God of War, is often represented in this building. The chief +temple, called the Precious Hall of the Great Hero<a name="FNanchor_868_868" id="FNanchor_868_868"></a><a href="#Footnote_868_868" class="fnanchor">[868]</a>, is in the +second court and contains the principal images. Very commonly there +are nine figures on either side representing eighteen disciples of the +Buddha and known as the Eighteen Lohan or Arhats<a name="FNanchor_869_869" id="FNanchor_869_869"></a><a href="#Footnote_869_869" class="fnanchor">[869]</a>. Above the altar +are one or more large gilt <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_327" id="Page_3_327"></a>[Pg 327]</span>images. When there is only one it is +usually Śâkya-muni, but more often there are three. Such triads are +variously composed and the monks often speak of them vaguely as the +"three precious ones," without seeming to attach much importance to +their identity<a name="FNanchor_870_870" id="FNanchor_870_870"></a><a href="#Footnote_870_870" class="fnanchor">[870]</a>. The triad is loosely connected with the idea of +the three bodies of Buddha but this explanation does not always apply +and the central figure is sometimes O-mi-to or Kuan-yin, who are the +principal recipients of the worship offered by the laity. The latter +deity has usually a special shrine at the back of the main altar and +facing the north door of the hall, in which her merciful activity as +the saviour of mankind is represented in a series of statuettes or +reliefs. Other Bodhisattvas such as Ta-shih-chi (Mahâsthâmaprâpta) and +Ti-tsang also have separate shrines in or at the side of the great +hall<a name="FNanchor_871_871" id="FNanchor_871_871"></a><a href="#Footnote_871_871" class="fnanchor">[871]</a>. The third hall contains as a rule only small images. It is +used for expounding the scriptures and for sermons, if the monastery +has a preacher, but is set apart for the religious exercises of the +monks rather than the devotions of the laity. In very large +monasteries there is a fourth hall for meditation.</p> + +<p>Monasteries are of various sizes and the number of monks is not +constant, for the peripatetic habit of early Buddhism is not extinct: +at one time many inmates may be absent on their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_328" id="Page_3_328"></a>[Pg 328]</span>travels, at +another there may be an influx of strangers. There are also wandering +monks who have ceased to belong to a particular monastery and spend +their time in travelling. A large monastery usually contains from +thirty to fifty monks, but a very large one may have as many as three +hundred. The majority are dedicated by their parents as children, but +some embrace the career from conviction in their maturity and these, +if few, are the more interesting. Children who are brought up to be +monks receive a religious education in the monastery, wear monastic +clothes and have their heads shaved. At the age of about seventeen +they are formally admitted as members of the order and undergo three +ceremonies of ordination, which in their origin represented stages of +the religious life, but are now performed by accumulation in the +course of a few days. One reason for this is that only monasteries +possessing a licence from the Government<a name="FNanchor_872_872" id="FNanchor_872_872"></a><a href="#Footnote_872_872" class="fnanchor">[872]</a> are allowed to hold +ordinations and that consequently postulants have to go some distance +to be received as full brethren and are anxious to complete the +reception expeditiously. At the first ordination the candidates are +accepted as novices: at the second, which follows a day or two +afterwards and corresponds to the upasampadâ, they accept the robes +and bowl and promise obedience to the rules of the Prâtimoksha. But +these ceremonies are of no importance compared with the third, called +Shou Pu-sa-chieh<a name="FNanchor_873_873" id="FNanchor_873_873"></a><a href="#Footnote_873_873" class="fnanchor">[873]</a> or acceptance of the Bodhisattva precepts, that +is to say the fifty-eight precepts enunciated in the Fan-wang-ching. +The essential part of this ordination is the burning of the +candidate's head in from three to eighteen places. The operation +involves considerable pain and is performed by lighting pieces of +charcoal set in a paste which is spread over the shaven skull.</p> + +<p>Although the Fan-wang-ching does not mention this burning of the head +as part of ordination, yet it emphatically enjoins the practice of +burning the body or limbs, affirming that those who neglect it are not +true Bodhisattvas<a name="FNanchor_874_874" id="FNanchor_874_874"></a><a href="#Footnote_874_874" class="fnanchor">[874]</a>. The prescription is founded on the +twenty-second chapter of the Lotus<a name="FNanchor_875_875" id="FNanchor_875_875"></a><a href="#Footnote_875_875" class="fnanchor">[875]</a> which, though a later +addition, is found in the Chinese translation <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_329" id="Page_3_329"></a>[Pg 329]</span>made between 265 and +316 A.D.<a name="FNanchor_876_876" id="FNanchor_876_876"></a><a href="#Footnote_876_876" class="fnanchor">[876]</a> I-Ching discusses and reprobates such practices. Clearly +they were known in India when he visited it, but not esteemed by the +better Buddhists, and the fact that they form no part of the ordinary +Tibetan ritual indicates that they had no place in the decadent Indian +Buddhism which in various stages of degeneration was introduced into +Tibet<a name="FNanchor_877_877" id="FNanchor_877_877"></a><a href="#Footnote_877_877" class="fnanchor">[877]</a>. In Korea and Japan branding is practised but on the breast +and arms rather than on the head.</p> + +<p>It would appear then that burning and branding as part of initiation +were known in India in the early centuries of our era but not commonly +approved and that their general acceptance in China was subsequent to +the death of I-Ching in A.D. 713<a name="FNanchor_878_878" id="FNanchor_878_878"></a><a href="#Footnote_878_878" class="fnanchor">[878]</a>. This author clearly approved of +nothing but the double ordination as novice and full monk. The third +ordination as Bodhisattva must be part of the later phase inaugurated +by Amogha about 750<a name="FNanchor_879_879" id="FNanchor_879_879"></a><a href="#Footnote_879_879" class="fnanchor">[879]</a>.</p> + +<p>This practice is defended as a trial of endurance, but the earlier and +better monks were right in rejecting it, for in itself it is an +unedifying spectacle and it points to the logical conclusion that, if +it is meritorious to cauterize the head, it is still more meritorious +to burn the whole body. Cases of suicide by burning appear to have +occurred in recent years, especially in the province of +Che-Kiang<a name="FNanchor_880_880" id="FNanchor_880_880"></a><a href="#Footnote_880_880" class="fnanchor">[880]</a>. The true doctrine of the Mahâyâna is that everyone +should strive for the happiness and salvation of all beings, but this +beautiful truth may be sadly perverted <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_330" id="Page_3_330"></a>[Pg 330]</span>if it is held that the +endurance of pain is in itself meritorious and that such acquired +merit can be transferred to others. Self-torture, seems not to be +unknown in the popular forms of Chinese Buddhism<a name="FNanchor_881_881" id="FNanchor_881_881"></a><a href="#Footnote_881_881" class="fnanchor">[881]</a>.</p> + +<p>The postulant, after receiving these three ordinations, becomes a full +monk or Ho-shang<a name="FNanchor_882_882" id="FNanchor_882_882"></a><a href="#Footnote_882_882" class="fnanchor">[882]</a> and takes a new name. The inmates of every +monastery owe obedience to the abbot and some abbots have an official +position, being recognized by the Government as representing the +clergy of a prefecture, should there be any business to be transacted +with the secular authorities. But there is no real hierarchy outside +the monasteries, each of which is an isolated administrative unit. +Within each monastery due provision is made for discipline and +administration. The monks are divided into two classes, the Western +who are concerned with ritual and other purely religious duties and +the Eastern who are relatively secular and superintend the business of +the establishment<a name="FNanchor_883_883" id="FNanchor_883_883"></a><a href="#Footnote_883_883" class="fnanchor">[883]</a>. This is often considerable for the income is +usually derived from estates, in managing which the monks are assisted +by a committee of laymen. Other laymen of humbler status<a name="FNanchor_884_884" id="FNanchor_884_884"></a><a href="#Footnote_884_884" class="fnanchor">[884]</a> live +around the monastery and furnish the labour necessary for agriculture, +forestry and whatever industries the character of the property calls +into being. As a rule there is a considerable library. Even a +sympathetic stranger will often find that the monks deny its +existence, because many books have been destroyed in political +troubles, but most monasteries possess copies of the principal +scriptures and a complete Tripitaka, usually the edition of 1737, is +not rare. Whether the books are much read I do not know, but I have +observed that after the existence of the library has been +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_331" id="Page_3_331"></a>[Pg 331]</span>admitted, it often proves difficult to find the key. There is also +a printing press, where are prepared notices and prayers, as well as +copies of popular sûtras.</p> + +<p>The food of the monks is strictly vegetarian, but they do not go round +with the begging bowl nor, except in a few monasteries, is it +forbidden to eat after midday. As a rule there are three meals, the +last about 6 p.m., and all must be eaten in silence. The three +garments prescribed by Indian Buddhism are still worn, but beneath +them are trousers, stockings, and shoes which are necessary in the +Chinese climate. There is no idea that it is wrong to sleep on a bed, +to receive presents or own property.</p> + +<p>Two or three services are performed daily in the principal temple, +early in the morning, about 4 p.m., and sometimes in the middle of the +day. A specimen of this ritual may be seen in the service called by +Beal the Liturgy of Kuan Yin<a name="FNanchor_885_885" id="FNanchor_885_885"></a><a href="#Footnote_885_885" class="fnanchor">[885]</a>. It consists of versicles, responses +and canticles, and, though strangely reminiscent both in structure and +externals (such as the wearing of vestments) of the offices of the +Roman Church<a name="FNanchor_886_886" id="FNanchor_886_886"></a><a href="#Footnote_886_886" class="fnanchor">[886]</a>, appears to be Indian in origin. I-Ching describes +the choral services which he attended in Nalanda and elsewhere—the +chanting, bowing, processions—and the Chinese ritual is, I think, +only the amplification of these ceremonies. It includes the +presentation of offerings, such as tea, rice and other vegetables. The +Chinese pilgrims testify that in India flowers, lights and incense +were offered to relics and images (as in Christian churches), and the +Bodhicaryâvatâra<a name="FNanchor_887_887" id="FNanchor_887_887"></a><a href="#Footnote_887_887" class="fnanchor">[887]</a>, one of the most spiritual of later Mahayanist +works, mentions offerings of food and drink as part of worship. Many +things in Buddhism lent themselves to such a transformation or parody +of earlier teaching. Offerings of food to hungry ghosts were +countenanced, and it was easy to include among the recipients other +spirits. It was meritorious to present food, raiment and property to +living saints: oriental, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_332" id="Page_3_332"></a>[Pg 332]</span>and especially Chinese, symbolism found +it natural to express the same devotion by offerings made before +images.</p> + +<p>In the course of most ceremonies, the monks make vows on behalf of all +beings and take oath to work for their salvation. They are also +expected to deliver and hear sermons and to engage in meditation. Some +of them superintend the education of novices which consists chiefly in +learning to read and repeat religious works. Quite recently elementary +schools for the instruction of the laity have been instituted in some +monasteries<a name="FNanchor_888_888" id="FNanchor_888_888"></a><a href="#Footnote_888_888" class="fnanchor">[888]</a>.</p> + +<p>The regularity of convent life is broken by many festivals. The year +is divided into two periods of wandering, two of meditation and one of +repose corresponding to the old Vassa. Though this division has become +somewhat theoretical, it is usual for monks to set out on excursions +in the spring and autumn. In each month there are six fasts, including +the two uposatha days. On these latter the 250 rules of the +Prâtimoksha are recited in a refectory or side hall and subsequently +the fifty-eight rules of the Fan-wang-ching are recited with greater +ceremony in the main temple.</p> + +<p>Another class of holy days includes the birthdays<a name="FNanchor_889_889" id="FNanchor_889_889"></a><a href="#Footnote_889_889" class="fnanchor">[889]</a> not only of +Sâkya-muni, but of other Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, the anniversaries +of events in Sâkya-muni's life and the deaths of Bodhidharma and other +Saints, among whom the founder or patron of each monastery has a +prominent place. Another important and popular festival is called +Yü-lan-pên or All Souls' day, which is an adaptation of Buddhist +usages to Chinese ancestral worship. Of many other festivals it may be +said that they are purely Chinese but countenanced by Buddhism: such +are the days which mark the changes of the seasons, those sacred to +Kuan-ti and other native deities, and (before the revolution) imperial +birthdays.</p> + +<p>The daily services are primarily for the monks, but the laity may +attend them, if they please. More frequently they pay their devotions +at other hours, light a few tapers and too often have recourse to some +form of divination before the images. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_333" id="Page_3_333"></a>[Pg 333]</span>Sometimes they defray the +cost of more elaborate ceremonies to expiate sins or ensure +prosperity. But the lay attendance in temples is specially large at +seasons of pilgrimage. For an account of this interesting side of +Chinese religious life I cannot do better than refer the reader to Mr. +Johnston's volume already cited.</p> + +<p>Though the services of the priesthood may be invoked at every crisis +of life, they are most in requisition for funeral ceremonies. A +detailed description of these as practised at Amoy has been given by +De Groot<a name="FNanchor_890_890" id="FNanchor_890_890"></a><a href="#Footnote_890_890" class="fnanchor">[890]</a> which is probably true in essentials for all parts of +China. These rites unite in incongruous confusion several orders of +ideas. Pre-Buddhist Chinese notions of the life after death seem not +to have included the idea of hell. The disembodied soul is honoured +and comforted but without any clear definition of its status. Some +representative—a person, figure, or tablet—is thought capable of +giving it a temporary residence and at funeral ceremonies offerings +are made to such a representative and plays performed before it. +Though Buddhist language may be introduced into this ritual, its +spirit is alien to even the most corrupt Buddhism.</p> + +<p>Buddhism familiarized China with the idea that the average man stands +in danger of purgatory and this doctrine cannot be described as late +or Mahayanist<a name="FNanchor_891_891" id="FNanchor_891_891"></a><a href="#Footnote_891_891" class="fnanchor">[891]</a>. Those epithets are, however, merited by the +subsidiary doctrine that such punishment can be abridged by vicarious +acts of worship which may take the form of simple prayer addressed to +benevolent beings who can release the tortured soul. More often the +idea underlying it is that the recitation of certain formulæ acquires +merit for the reciter who can then divert this merit to any +purpose<a name="FNanchor_892_892" id="FNanchor_892_892"></a><a href="#Footnote_892_892" class="fnanchor">[892]</a>. This is really a theological refinement of the ancient +and widespread notion that words have magic force. Equally ancient and +unBuddhist in origin is the theory of sympathetic magic. Just as by +sticking pins into a wax figure you may kill the person represented, +so by imitating physical operations of rescue, you may deliver a soul +from the furnaces and morasses of hell. Thus <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_334" id="Page_3_334"></a>[Pg 334]</span>a paper model of +hades is made which is knocked to pieces and finally burnt: the spirit +is escorted with music and other precautions over a mock bridge, and, +most singular of all, the priests place over a receptacle of water a +special machine consisting of a cylinder containing a revolving +apparatus which might help a creature immersed in the fluid to climb +up. This strange mummery is supposed to release those souls who are +condemned to sojourn in a pool of blood<a name="FNanchor_893_893" id="FNanchor_893_893"></a><a href="#Footnote_893_893" class="fnanchor">[893]</a>. This, too, is a +superstition countenanced only by Chinese Buddhism, for the punishment +is incurred not so much by sinners as by those dying of illnesses +which defile with blood. Many other rites are based on the notion that +objects—or their paper images—ceremonially burnt are transmitted to +the other world for the use of the dead. Thus representations in paper +of servants, clothes, furniture, money and all manner of things are +burned together with the effigy of the deceased and sometimes also +certificates and passports giving him a clean bill of health for the +Kingdom of Heaven.</p> + +<p>As in funeral rites, so in matters of daily life, Buddhism gives its +countenance and help to popular superstition, to every kind of charm +for reading the future, securing happiness and driving away evil +spirits. In its praise may be said that this patronage, though far too +easy going, is not extended to cruel or immoral customs. But the +reader will ask, is there no brighter side? I believe that there is, +but it is not conspicuous and, as in India, public worship and temple +ritual display the lower aspects of religion. But in China a devout +Buddhist is generally a good man and the objects of Buddhist +associations are praiseworthy and philanthropic. They often include +vegetarianism and abstinence from alcohol and drugs. The weakness of +the religion to-day is no doubt the want of intelligence and energy +among the clergy. There are not a few learned and devout monks, but +even devotion is not a characteristic of the majority. On the other +hand, those of the laity who take their religion seriously generally +attain a high standard of piety and there have been <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_335" id="Page_3_335"></a>[Pg 335]</span>attempts to +reform Buddhism, to connect it with education and to spread a +knowledge of the more authentic scriptures<a name="FNanchor_894_894" id="FNanchor_894_894"></a><a href="#Footnote_894_894" class="fnanchor">[894]</a>.</p> + +<p>When one begins to study Buddhism in China, one fears it may be +typified by the neglected temples on the outskirts of Peking, sullen +and mouldering memorials of dynasties that have passed away. But later +one learns not only that there are great and nourishing monasteries in +the south, but that even in Peking one may often step through an +archway into courtyards of which the prosaic streets outside give no +hint and find there refreshment for the eye and soul, flower gardens +and well-kept shrines tended by pious and learned guardians.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_855_855" id="Footnote_855_855"></a><a href="#FNanchor_855_855"><span class="label">[855]</span></a> <img src="images/326_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="45" height="35" /> For a specimen of devotional literature +about the heart see the little tract translated in China Branch, +<i>R.A.S.</i> XXIII. pp. 9-22.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_856_856" id="Footnote_856_856"></a><a href="#FNanchor_856_856"><span class="label">[856]</span></a> <img src="images/327_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="96" height="35" /> For text translation and commentary, see +De Groot, <i>Code du Mahâyâna en Chine</i>, 1893, see also Nanjio, No. +1087.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_857_857" id="Footnote_857_857"></a><a href="#FNanchor_857_857"><span class="label">[857]</span></a> De Groot, p. 81.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_858_858" id="Footnote_858_858"></a><a href="#FNanchor_858_858"><span class="label">[858]</span></a> The identity of name seems due to a similarity of +metaphor. The Brahmajâla sutta is a net of many meshes to catch all +forms of error. The Fan-wang-ching compares the varieties of Buddhist +opinion to the meshes of a net (De Groot, <i>l.c.</i> p. 26), but the net +is the all-inclusive common body of truth.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_859_859" id="Footnote_859_859"></a><a href="#FNanchor_859_859"><span class="label">[859]</span></a> See, however, sections 20 and 39.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_860_860" id="Footnote_860_860"></a><a href="#FNanchor_860_860"><span class="label">[860]</span></a> See especially De Groot, <i>l.c.</i> p. 58, where the +reading of the Abhidharma is forbidden. Though this name is not +confined to the Hînayâna, A-pi-t'an in Chinese seems to be rarely used +as a title of Mahayanist books.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_861_861" id="Footnote_861_861"></a><a href="#FNanchor_861_861"><span class="label">[861]</span></a> The Indian words are transliterated in the Chinese +text.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_862_862" id="Footnote_862_862"></a><a href="#FNanchor_862_862"><span class="label">[862]</span></a> More accurately reading the sûtras on their behalf, but +this exercise is practically equivalent to intercessory prayer.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_863_863" id="Footnote_863_863"></a><a href="#FNanchor_863_863"><span class="label">[863]</span></a> <img src="images/329_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="71" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_864_864" id="Footnote_864_864"></a><a href="#FNanchor_864_864"><span class="label">[864]</span></a> The full title is <img src="images/329_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="164" height="35" /> Pai Chang is apparently +to be taken as the name of the author, but it is the designation of a +monastery used as a personal name. See Hackmann in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1908, +pp. 651-662. It is No. 1642 in Nanjio's Catalogue. He says that it has +been revised and altered.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_865_865" id="Footnote_865_865"></a><a href="#FNanchor_865_865"><span class="label">[865]</span></a> See <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1904, pp. 437 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_866_866" id="Footnote_866_866"></a><a href="#FNanchor_866_866"><span class="label">[866]</span></a> It is probable that the older Chinese monasteries +attempted to reproduce the arrangement of Nâlanda and other Indian +establishments. Unfortunately Hsüan Chuang and the other pilgrims give +us few details as to the appearance of Indian monasteries: they tell +us, however, that they were surrounded by a wall, that the monks' +quarters were near this wall, that there were halls where choral +services were performed and that there were triads of images. But the +Indian buildings had three stories. See Chavannes, <i>Mémoire sur les +Religieux Eminents</i>, 1894, p. 85.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_867_867" id="Footnote_867_867"></a><a href="#FNanchor_867_867"><span class="label">[867]</span></a> <img src="images/331_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="132" height="35" />For this personage see the +article in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1916. No. 3, by Péri who identifies him with +Wei, the general of the Heavenly Kings who appeared to Tao Hsüan the +founder of the Vinaya school and became popular as a protecting deity +of Buddhism. The name is possibly a mistaken transcription of +Skandha.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_868_868" id="Footnote_868_868"></a><a href="#FNanchor_868_868"><span class="label">[868]</span></a> <img src="images/331_2.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="131" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_869_869" id="Footnote_869_869"></a><a href="#FNanchor_869_869"><span class="label">[869]</span></a> <img src="images/331_3.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="68" height="35" /> See Lévi and Chavannes' two articles in +<i>J.A.</i> 1916, I and II, and Watters in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1898, p. 329, for an +account of these personages. The original number, still found in a few +Chinese temples as well as in Korea, Japan and Tibet was sixteen. +Several late sûtras contain the idea that the Buddha entrusted the +protection of his religion to four or sixteen disciples and bade them +not enter Nirvana but tarry until the advent of Maitreya. The +Ta-A-lo-han-nan-t'i-mi-to-lo-so-shuo-fa-chu-chi (Nanjio, 1466) is an +account of these sixteen disciples and of their spheres of influence. +The Buddha assigned to each a region within which it is his duty to +guard the faith. They will not pass from this life before the next +Buddha comes. Piṇḍola is the chief of them. Nothing is known of +the work cited except that it was translated in 654 by Hsüan Chuang, +who, according to Watters, used an earlier translation. As the Arhats +are Indian personalities, and their spheres are mapped out from the +point of view of Indian geography, there can be no doubt that we have +to do with an Indian idea, imported into Tibet as well as into China +where it became far more popular than it had ever been in India. The +two additional Arhats (who vary in different temples, whereas the +sixteen are fixed) appear to have been added during the T'ang dynasty +and, according to Watters, in imitation of a very select order of +merit instituted by the Emperor T'ai Tsung and comprising eighteen +persons. Chavannes and Lévi see in them spirits borrowed from the +popular pantheon. +</p> +<p> +Chinese ideas about the Lohans at the present day are very vague. +Their Indian origin has been forgotten and some of them have been +provided with Chinese biographies. (See Doré, p. 216.) One popular +story says that they were eighteen converted brigands. +</p><p> +In several large temples there are halls containing 500 images of +Arhats, which include many Chinese Emperors and one of them is often +pointed out as being Marco Polo. But this is very doubtful. See, +however, Hackmann, <i>Buddhismus</i>, p. 212.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_870_870" id="Footnote_870_870"></a><a href="#FNanchor_870_870"><span class="label">[870]</span></a> Generally they consist of Śâkya-muni and two +superhuman Buddhas or Bodhisattvas, such as O-mi-to (Amitâbha) and +Yo-shih-fo (Vaidûrya): Pi-lu-fo (Vairocana) and Lo-shih-fo (Lochana): +Wên-shu (Manjuś-ri) and P'u-hsien (Śamantabhadra). The common +European explanation that they are the Buddhas of the past, present +and future is not correct.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_871_871" id="Footnote_871_871"></a><a href="#FNanchor_871_871"><span class="label">[871]</span></a> <img src="images/332_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="220" height="35" /> For the importance of +Ti-tsang in popular Buddhism, which has perhaps been underestimated, +see Johnston, chap. VII.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_872_872" id="Footnote_872_872"></a><a href="#FNanchor_872_872"><span class="label">[872]</span></a> I speak of the Old Imperial Government which came to an +end in 1911.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_873_873" id="Footnote_873_873"></a><a href="#FNanchor_873_873"><span class="label">[873]</span></a> <img src="images/333_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="132" height="35" /></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_874_874" id="Footnote_874_874"></a><a href="#FNanchor_874_874"><span class="label">[874]</span></a> De Groot, <i>l.c.</i> p.51.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_875_875" id="Footnote_875_875"></a><a href="#FNanchor_875_875"><span class="label">[875]</span></a> See Kern's translation, especially pp. 379 and 385.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_876_876" id="Footnote_876_876"></a><a href="#FNanchor_876_876"><span class="label">[876]</span></a> See Nanjio, Nos. 138 and 139. The practice is not +entirely unknown in the legends of Pali Buddhism. In the Lokapaññatti, +a work existing in Burma but perhaps translated from the Sanskrit, +Asoka burns himself in honour of the Buddha, but is miraculously +preserved. See <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1904, pp. 421 and 427.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_877_877" id="Footnote_877_877"></a><a href="#FNanchor_877_877"><span class="label">[877]</span></a> See I-Tsing, <i>Records of the Buddhist Religion</i>, trans. +Takakusu, pp. 195 ff., and for Tibet, Waddell, <i>Buddhism of Tibet</i>, p. +178, note 3, from which it appears that it is only in Eastern Tibet +and probably under Chinese influence that branding is in vogue. For +apparent instances in Central Asian art, see Grünwedel, <i>Budd. +Kultst.</i> p. 23, note 1.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_878_878" id="Footnote_878_878"></a><a href="#FNanchor_878_878"><span class="label">[878]</span></a> Branding is common in many Hindu sects, especially the +Mâdhvas, but is reprobated by others.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_879_879" id="Footnote_879_879"></a><a href="#FNanchor_879_879"><span class="label">[879]</span></a> It is condemned as part of the superstition of Buddhism +in a memorial of Han Yü, 819 A.D.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_880_880" id="Footnote_880_880"></a><a href="#FNanchor_880_880"><span class="label">[880]</span></a> See those cited by De Groot, <i>l.c</i>. p. 228, and the +article of MacGowan (<i>Chinese Recorder</i>, 1888) there referred to. See +also Hackmann, <i>Buddhism as a Religion</i>, p. 228. Chinese sentiment +often approves suicide, for instance, if committed by widows or the +adherents of defeated princes. For a Confucian instance, see Johnston, +p. 341.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_881_881" id="Footnote_881_881"></a><a href="#FNanchor_881_881"><span class="label">[881]</span></a> See <i>e.g.</i> Du Bose, <i>The Dragon, Image and Demon</i>, p. +265. I have never seen such practices myself. See also <i>Paraphrase of +the Sacred Edict</i>, VII. 8.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_882_882" id="Footnote_882_882"></a><a href="#FNanchor_882_882"><span class="label">[882]</span></a> <img src="images/335_1.jpg" alt="Chinese" width="77" height="35" /> This word, which has no derivation in +Chinese, is thought to be a corruption of some vernacular form of the +Sanskrit Upâdhyâya current in Central Asia. See I-tsing, transl. +Takakusu, p. 118. Upâdhyâya became Vajjha (as is shown by the modern +Indian forms Ojha or Jha and Tamil Vâddyar). See Bloch in +<i>Indo-Germanischen Forschungen</i>, vol. XXV. 1909, p. 239. Vajjha might +become in Chinese Ho-sho or Ho-shang for Ho sometimes represents the +Indian syllable <i>va</i>. See Julien, <i>Méthode</i>, p. 109, and Eitel, +<i>Handbook of Chinese Buddhism</i>, p. 195.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_883_883" id="Footnote_883_883"></a><a href="#FNanchor_883_883"><span class="label">[883]</span></a> For details see Hackmann in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1908.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_884_884" id="Footnote_884_884"></a><a href="#FNanchor_884_884"><span class="label">[884]</span></a> They apparently correspond to the monastic lay servants +or "pure men" described by I-Ching, chap. XXXII, as living as +Nâlanda.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_885_885" id="Footnote_885_885"></a><a href="#FNanchor_885_885"><span class="label">[885]</span></a> <i>A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese</i>, pp. +339 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_886_886" id="Footnote_886_886"></a><a href="#FNanchor_886_886"><span class="label">[886]</span></a> The abbot and several upper priests wear robes, which +are generally red and gold, during the service. The abbot also carries +a sort of sceptre. The vestments of the clergy are said to be derived +from the robes of honour which used to be given to them when they +appeared at Court.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_887_887" id="Footnote_887_887"></a><a href="#FNanchor_887_887"><span class="label">[887]</span></a> II. 16. Cf. the rituals in De la Vallée Poussin's +<i>Bouddhisme et Matériaux</i>, pp. 214 ff. Târanâtha frequently mentions +burnt offerings as part of worship in medieval Magadha.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_888_888" id="Footnote_888_888"></a><a href="#FNanchor_888_888"><span class="label">[888]</span></a> I do not refer to the practice of turning disused +temples into schools which is frequent. In some monasteries the monks, +while retaining possession, have themselves opened schools.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_889_889" id="Footnote_889_889"></a><a href="#FNanchor_889_889"><span class="label">[889]</span></a> It is not clear to me what is really meant by the +<i>birthdays</i> of beings like Maitreya and Amitâbha.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_890_890" id="Footnote_890_890"></a><a href="#FNanchor_890_890"><span class="label">[890]</span></a> <i>Actes du Sixième Congres des Orientalistes</i>, Leide, +1883, sec. IV. pp. 1-120.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_891_891" id="Footnote_891_891"></a><a href="#FNanchor_891_891"><span class="label">[891]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> in Dipavamsa, XIII; Mahâv. XIV. Mahinda is +represented as converting Ceylon by accounts of the terrors of the +next world.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_892_892" id="Footnote_892_892"></a><a href="#FNanchor_892_892"><span class="label">[892]</span></a> The merit of good deeds can be similarly utilized. The +surviving relatives feed the poor or buy and maintain for the rest of +its life an animal destined to slaughter. The merit then goes to the +deceased.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_893_893" id="Footnote_893_893"></a><a href="#FNanchor_893_893"><span class="label">[893]</span></a> It may possibly be traceable to Manichæism which taught +that souls are transferred from one sphere to another by a sort of +cosmic water wheel. See Cumont's article, "La roue à puiser les âmes +du Manichéisme" in <i>Rev. de l'Hist, des Religions</i>, 1915, p. 384. +Chavannes and Pelliot have shown that traces of Manichæism lingered +long in Fu-Kien. The metaphor of the endless chain of buckets is also +found in the Yüan Jên Lun.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_894_894" id="Footnote_894_894"></a><a href="#FNanchor_894_894"><span class="label">[894]</span></a> See Francke, "Ein Buddhistischer Reformversuch in +China," <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1909, pp. 567-602.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_336" id="Page_3_336"></a>[Pg 336]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLVII" id="CHAPTER_XLVII"></a>CHAPTER XLVII</h2> + +<h3>KOREA<a name="FNanchor_895_895" id="FNanchor_895_895"></a><a href="#Footnote_895_895" class="fnanchor">[895]</a></h3> + + +<p>The Buddhism of Korea cannot be sharply distinguished from the +Buddhism of China and Japan. Its secluded mountain monasteries have +some local colour, and contain halls dedicated to the seven stars and +the mountain gods of the land. And travellers are impressed by the +columns of rock projecting from the soil and carved into images +(miriok), by the painted walls of the temples and by the huge +rolled-up pictures which are painted and displayed on festival days. +But there is little real originality in art: in literature and +doctrine none at all. Buddhism started in Korea with the same +advantages as in China and Japan but it lost in moral influence +because the monks continually engaged in politics and it did not win +temporal power because they were continually on the wrong side. Yet +Korea is not without importance in the annals of far-eastern Buddhism +for, during the wanderings and vicissitudes of the faith, it served as +a rest-house and depot. It was from Korea that Buddhism first entered +Japan: when, during the wars of the five dynasties the T'ien-t'ai +school was nearly annihilated in China, it was revived by a Korean +priest and the earliest extant edition of the Chinese Tripitaka is +known only by a single copy preserved in Korea and taken thence to +Japan.</p> + +<p>For our purposes Korean history may be divided into four periods:</p> + +<table summary="reign dates"> + <tr> + <td>I.</td> + <td>The three States.</td> + <td>(B.C. 57-A.D. 668).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>II.</td> + <td>The Kingdom of Silla.</td> + <td>(668-918). </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>III.</td> + <td>The Kingdom of Korye.</td> + <td>(918-1392).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>IV.</td> + <td>The Kingdom of Chosen.</td> + <td>(1392-1910).</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<p>The three states were Koguryu in the north, Pakche in the south-west +and Silla in the south-east<a name="FNanchor_896_896" id="FNanchor_896_896"></a><a href="#Footnote_896_896" class="fnanchor">[896]</a>. Buddhism, together <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_337" id="Page_3_337"></a>[Pg 337]</span>with Chinese +writing, entered Koguryu from the north in 372 and Pakche from the +south a few years later. Silla being more distant and at war with the +other states did not receive it till about 424. In 552 both Japan and +Pakche were at war with Silla and the king of Pakche, wishing to make +an alliance with the Emperor of Japan sent him presents which included +Buddhist books and images. Thus Korea was the intermediary for +introducing Buddhism, writing, and Chinese culture into Japan, and +Korean monks played an important part there both in art and religion. +But the influence of Korea must not be exaggerated. The Japanese +submitted to it believing that they were acquiring the culture of +China and as soon as circumstances permitted they went straight to the +fountain head. The principal early sects were all imported direct from +China.</p> + +<p>The kingdom of Silla, which became predominant in the seventh century, +had adopted Buddhism in 528, and maintained friendly intercourse with +the T'ang dynasty. As in Japan Chinese civilization was imitated +wholesale. This tendency strengthened Buddhism at the time, but its +formidable rival Confucianism was also introduced early in the eighth +century, although it did not become predominant until the +thirteenth<a name="FNanchor_897_897" id="FNanchor_897_897"></a><a href="#Footnote_897_897" class="fnanchor">[897]</a>.</p> + +<p>In the seventh century the capital of Silla was a centre of Buddhist +culture and also of trade. Merchants from India, Tibet and Persia are +said to have frequented its markets and several Korean pilgrims +visited India.</p> + +<p>In 918 the Wang dynasty, originating in a northern family of humble +extraction, overthrew the kingdom of Silla and with it the old Korean +aristocracy. This was replaced by an official nobility modelled on +that of China: the Chinese system of examinations was adopted and a +class of scholars grew up. But with this attempt to reconstruct +society many abuses appeared. The number of slaves greatly +increased<a name="FNanchor_898_898" id="FNanchor_898_898"></a><a href="#Footnote_898_898" class="fnanchor">[898]</a>, and there were many <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_338" id="Page_3_338"></a>[Pg 338]</span>hereditary low castes, the +members of which were little better than slaves. Only the higher +castes could compete in examinations or hold office and there were +continual struggles and quarrels between the military and civil +classes. Buddhism flourished much as it flourished in the Hei-an +period of Japan, but its comparative sterility reflected the inferior +social conditions of Korea. Festivals were celebrated by the Court +with great splendour: magnificent monasteries were founded: the bonzes +kept troops and entered the capital armed: the tutor of the heir +apparent and the chancellor of the kingdom were often ecclesiastics, +and a law is said to have been enacted to the effect that if a man had +three sons one of them must become a monk. But about 1250 the +influence of the Sung Confucianists began to be felt. The bonzes were +held responsible for the evils of the time, for the continual feuds, +exactions and massacres, and the civil nobility tended to become +Confucianist and to side against the church and the military. The +inevitable outburst was delayed but also rendered more disastrous when +it came by the action of the Mongols who, as in China, were patrons of +Buddhism. The Yüan dynasty invaded Korea, placed regents in the +principal towns and forced the Korean princes to marry Mongol wives. +It was from Korea that Khubilai despatched his expeditions against +Japan, and in revenge the Japanese harried the Korean coast throughout +the fourteenth century. But so long as the Yüan dynasty lasted the +Korean Court which had become Mongol remained faithful to it and to +Buddhism; when it was ousted by the Ming, a similar movement soon +followed in Korea. The Mongolized dynasty of Korye was deposed and +another, which professed to trace its lineage back to Silla, mounted +the throne and gave the country the name of Chosen.</p> + +<p>This revolution was mainly the work of the Confucianist party in the +nobility and it was not unnatural that patriots and reformers should +see in Buddhism nothing but the religion of the corrupt old regime of +the Mongols. During the next century and a half a series of +restrictive measures, sometimes amounting to persecution, were applied +to it. Two kings who dared to build monasteries and favour bonzes were +deposed. Statues were melted down, Buddhist learning was forbidden: +marriages and burials were performed according to the rules of +Chu-hsi. About the beginning of the sixteenth century (the date is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_339" id="Page_3_339"></a>[Pg 339]</span>variously given as 1472 and 1512 and perhaps there was more than +one edict) the monasteries in the capital and all cities were closed +and this is why Korean monasteries are all in the country and often in +almost inaccessible mountains. It is only since the Japanese +occupation that temples have been built in towns.</p> + +<p>At first the results of the revolution were beneficial. The great +families were compelled to discharge their body-guards whose +collisions had been a frequent cause of bloodshed. The public finances +and military forces were put into order. Printing with moveable type +and a phonetic alphabet were brought into use and vernacular +literature began to flourish. But in time the Confucian literati +formed a sort of corporation and became as troublesome as the bonzes +had been. The aristocracy split into two hostile camps and Korean +politics became again a confused struggle between families and +districts in which progress and even public order became impossible. +For a moment, however, there was a national cause. This was when +Hideyoshi invaded Korea in 1592 as part of his attack on China. The +people rose against the Japanese troops and, thanks to the death of +Hideyoshi rather than to their own valour, got rid of them. It is said +that in this struggle the bonzes took part as soldiers fighting under +their abbots and that the treaty of peace was negotiated by a Korean +and a Japanese monk<a name="FNanchor_899_899" id="FNanchor_899_899"></a><a href="#Footnote_899_899" class="fnanchor">[899]</a>.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless it does not appear that Buddhism enjoyed much +consideration in the next three centuries. The Hermit Kingdom, as it +has been called, became completely isolated and stagnant nor was there +any literary or intellectual life except the mechanical study of the +Chinese classics. Since the annexation by Japan (1910) conditions have +changed and Buddhism is encouraged. Much good work has been done in +collecting and reprinting old books, preserving monuments and copying +inscriptions. The monasteries were formerly under the control of +thirty head establishments or sees, with somewhat conflicting +interests. But about 1912 these thirty sees formed a union under a +president who resides in Seoul and holds office for a year. A +theological seminary also has been founded and a Buddhist magazine is +published.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_895_895" id="Footnote_895_895"></a><a href="#FNanchor_895_895"><span class="label">[895]</span></a> See various articles in the <i>Trans. of the Korean +Branch of the R.A.S.</i>, and F. Starr, <i>Korean Buddhism</i>. Also M. +Courant, <i>Bibliographie coréenne</i>, especially vol. III. chap. 2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_896_896" id="Footnote_896_896"></a><a href="#FNanchor_896_896"><span class="label">[896]</span></a> The orthography of these three names varies +considerably. The Japanese equivalents are Koma, Kudara and Shiragi. +There are also slight variations in the dates given for the +introduction of Buddhism into various states. It seems probable that +Mârânanda and Mukocha, the first missionaries to Pakche and Silla were +Hindus or natives of Central Asia who came from China and some of the +early art of Silla is distinctly Indian in style. See Starr, <i>l.c.</i> +plates VIII and IX.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_897_897" id="Footnote_897_897"></a><a href="#FNanchor_897_897"><span class="label">[897]</span></a> These dates are interesting, as reflecting the changes +of thought in China. In the sixth century Chinese influence meant +Buddhism. It is not until the latter part of the Southern Sung, when +the philosophy of Chu-hsi had received official approval, that +Chinese influence meant Confucianism.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_898_898" id="Footnote_898_898"></a><a href="#FNanchor_898_898"><span class="label">[898]</span></a> The reasons were many, but the upper classes were +evidently ready to oppress the lower. Poor men became the slaves of +the rich to obtain a livelihood. All children of slave women were +declared hereditary slaves and so were the families of criminals.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_899_899" id="Footnote_899_899"></a><a href="#FNanchor_899_899"><span class="label">[899]</span></a> These statements are taken from Maurice Courant's +Epitome of Korean History in Madrolle's <i>Guide to North China</i>, p. +428. I have not been successful in verifying them in Chinese or +Japanese texts. See, however, Starr, <i>Korean Buddhism</i>, pp. 29-30.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_340" id="Page_3_340"></a>[Pg 340]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLVIII" id="CHAPTER_XLVIII"></a>CHAPTER XLVIII</h2> + +<h3>ANNAM</h3> + + +<p>The modern territory called Annam includes the ancient Champa, and it +falls within the French political sphere which includes Camboja. Of +Champa I have treated elsewhere in connection with Camboja, but Annam +cannot be regarded as the heir of this ancient culture. It represents +a southward extension of Chinese influence, though it is possible that +Buddhism may have entered it in the early centuries of our era either +by sea or from Burma.</p> + +<p>At the present day that part of the French possessions which occupies +the eastern coast of Asia is divided into Tonkin, Annam and Cochin +China. The Annamites are predominant in all three provinces and the +language and religion of all are the same, except that Cochin China +has felt the influence of Europe more strongly than the others. But +before the sixteenth century the name Annam meant rather Tonkin and +the northern portion of modern Annam, the southern portion being the +now vanished kingdom of Champa.</p> + +<p>Until the tenth century A.D.<a name="FNanchor_900_900" id="FNanchor_900_900"></a><a href="#Footnote_900_900" class="fnanchor">[900]</a> Annam in this sense was a part of +the Chinese Empire, although it was occasionally successful in +asserting its temporary independence. In the troubled period which +followed the downfall of the T'ang dynasty this independence became +more permanent. An Annamite prince founded a kingdom called +Dai-cô-viêt<a name="FNanchor_901_901" id="FNanchor_901_901"></a><a href="#Footnote_901_901" class="fnanchor">[901]</a> and after a turbulent interval there arose the Li +dynasty which reigned for more than two centuries (1009-1226 A.D.). It +was under this dynasty that the country was first styled An-nam: +previously the official designation of the land or its inhabitants was +Giao-Chi<a name="FNanchor_902_902" id="FNanchor_902_902"></a><a href="#Footnote_902_902" class="fnanchor">[902]</a>. The Annamites were at this period a considerable +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_341" id="Page_3_341"></a>[Pg 341]</span> +military power, though their internal administration appears to have +been chaotic. They were occasionally at war with China, but as a rule +were ready to send complimentary embassies to the Emperor. With +Champa, which was still a formidable antagonist, there was a continual +struggle. Under the Tran dynasty (1225-1400) the foreign policy of +Annam followed much the same lines. A serious crisis was created by +the expedition of Khubilai Khan in 1285, but though the Annamites +suffered severely at the beginning of the invasion, they did not lose +their independence and their recognition of Chinese suzerainty +remained nominal. In the south the Chams continued hostilities and, +after the loss of some territory, invoked the aid of China with the +result that the Chinese occupied Annam. They held it, however, only +for five years (1414-1418).</p> + +<p>In 1428 the Li dynasty came to the throne and ruled Annam at least in +name until the end of the eighteenth century. At first they proved +vigorous and capable; they organized the kingdom in provinces and +crushed the power of Champa. But after the fifteenth century the kings +became merely titular sovereigns and Annamite history is occupied +entirely with the rivalry of the two great families, Trinh and Nguyen, +who founded practically independent kingdoms in Tonkin and +Cochin-China respectively. In 1802 a member of the Nguyen family made +himself Emperor of all Annam but both he and his successors were +careful to profess themselves vassals of China.</p> + +<p>Thus it will be seen that Annam was at no time really detached from +China. In spite of political independence it always looked towards the +Chinese Court and though complimentary missions and nominal vassalage +seem unimportant, yet they are significant as indicating admiration +for Chinese institutions. Between Champa and Annam on the other hand +there was perpetual war: in the later phases of the contest the +Annamites appear as invaders and destroyers. They seem to have +disliked the Chams and were not disposed to imitate them. Hence it is +natural that Champa, so long as it existed as an independent kingdom, +should mark the limit of <i>direct</i> Indian influence on the mainland of +Eastern Asia, though afterwards Camboja became the limit. By direct, I +do not mean to exclude the possibility of transmission through Java or +elsewhere, but by whatever route Indian civilization came to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_342" id="Page_3_342"></a>[Pg 342]</span> +Champa, it brought its own art, alphabet and language, such +institutions as caste and forms of Hinduism and Buddhism which had +borrowed practically nothing from non-Indian sources. In Annam, on the +other hand, Chinese writing and, for literary purposes, a form of the +Chinese language were in use: the arts, customs and institutions were +mainly Chinese: whatever Buddhism can be found was imported from China +and is imperfectly distinguished from Taoism: of Hinduism there are +hardly any traces<a name="FNanchor_903_903" id="FNanchor_903_903"></a><a href="#Footnote_903_903" class="fnanchor">[903]</a>.</p> + +<p>The Buddhism of Annam is often described as corrupt and decadent. +Certainly it would be vain to claim for it that its doctrine and +worship are even moderately pure or primitive, but it cannot be said +to be moribund. The temples are better kept and more numerously +attended than in China and there are also some considerable +monasteries. As in China very few except the monks are exclusive +Buddhists and even the monks have no notion that the doctrines of +Lao-tzŭ and Confucius are different from Buddhism. The religion of +the ordinary layman is a selection made according to taste from a mass +of beliefs and observances traceable to several distinct sources, +though no Annamite is conscious that there is anything incongruous in +this heterogeneous combination. This fusion of religions, which is +more complete even than in China, is illustrated by the temples of +Annam which are of various kinds<a name="FNanchor_904_904" id="FNanchor_904_904"></a><a href="#Footnote_904_904" class="fnanchor">[904]</a>. First we have the Chua or +Buddhist temples, always served by bonzes or nuns. They consist of +several buildings of which the principal contains an altar bearing a +series of images arranged on five or six steps, which rise like the +tiers of a theatre. In the front row there is usually an image of the +infant Śâkyamuni and near him stand figures of At-nan (Ănanda) +and Muc-Lien (Maudgalyâyana). On the next stage are Taoist deities +(the Jade Emperor, the Polar Star, and the Southern Star) and on the +higher stages are images representing (<i>a</i>) three Buddhas<a name="FNanchor_905_905" id="FNanchor_905_905"></a><a href="#Footnote_905_905" class="fnanchor">[905]</a> with +attendants, (<i>b</i>) the Buddhist Triratna and (<i>c</i>) the three +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_343" id="Page_3_343"></a>[Pg 343]</span> +religions, Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. But the arrangement of +the images is subject to much variation and the laity hardly know who +are the personages represented. At side altars there are generally +statues of Quan-Am, guardian deities, eminent bonzes and other +worthies. Representations of hell are also common. Part of the temple +is generally set apart for women who frequent it in the hope of +obtaining children by praying to Quan-Am and other goddesses. Buddhist +literature is sometimes printed in these Chua and such works as the +Amitâyurdhyânasûtra and collections of Dhâraṇîs are commonly placed +on the altars.</p> + +<p>Quan-Am (Kuan-Yin) is a popular deity and the name seems to be given +to several goddesses. They would probably be described as incarnations +of Avalokita, if any Annamite were to define his beliefs (which is not +usual), but they are really legendary heroines who have left a +reputation for superhuman virtue. One was a daughter of the Emperor +Chuang of the Chou dynasty. Another (Quan-Am-Thi-Kinh), represented as +sitting on a rock and carrying a child in her arms, was a much +persecuted lady who passed part of her life disguised as a bonze. A +third form, Quan-Am-Toa-Son, she who dwells on the mountains, has an +altar in nearly every temple and is specially worshipped by women who +wish for sons. At Hanoi there is a small temple, rising on one column +out of the water near the shore of a lake, like a lotus in a tank, +and containing a brass image of Quan-Am with eight arms, which is +evidently of Indian origin. Sometimes popular heroines such as Cao +Tien, a princess who was drowned, are worshipped without (it would +seem) being identified with Quan-Am.</p> + +<p>But besides the Chua there are at least three other kinds of religious +edifices: (i) Dinh. These are municipal temples dedicated to beings +commonly called genii by Europeans, that is to say, superhuman +personages, often, but not always, departed local worthies, who for +one reason or another are supposed to protect and supervise a +particular town or village. The Dinh contains a council room as well +as a shrine and is served by laymen. The genius is often represented +by an empty chair and his name must not be pronounced within the +temple. (ii) Taoist deities are sometimes worshipped in special +temples, but the Annamites do not seem to think that such worship is +antagonistic to Buddhism or even distinct from it. (iii) Temples + +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_344" id="Page_3_344"></a>[Pg 344]</span> +dedicated to Confucius (Van mien) are to be found in the towns, but +are generally open only on certain feast days, when they are visited +by officials. Sometimes altars dedicated to the sage may be found in +natural grottoes or other picturesque situations. Besides these +numerous elements, Annamite religion also includes the veneration of +ancestors and ceremonies such as the worship of Heaven and Earth +performed in imitation of the Court of Peking. To this must be added +many local superstitions in which the worship of animals, especially +the tiger, is prominent. But a further analysis of this composite +religion does not fall within my province.</p> + +<p>There is little to be said about the history of Buddhism in Annam, but +native tradition places its introduction as late as the tenth +century<a name="FNanchor_906_906" id="FNanchor_906_906"></a><a href="#Footnote_906_906" class="fnanchor">[906]</a>. Buddhist temples usually contain a statue of Phat +To<a name="FNanchor_907_907" id="FNanchor_907_907"></a><a href="#Footnote_907_907" class="fnanchor">[907]</a> who is reported to have been the first adherent of the faith +and to have built the first pagoda. He was the tutor of the Emperor +Li-Thai-To who came to the throne in 1009. Phat-To may therefore have +been active in the middle of the tenth century and this agrees with +the statement that the Emperor Dinh Tien-Hoang Dê (968-979) was a +fervent Buddhist who built temples and did his best to make +converts<a name="FNanchor_908_908" id="FNanchor_908_908"></a><a href="#Footnote_908_908" class="fnanchor">[908]</a>. One Emperor, Li Hué-Ton, abdicated and retired to a +monastery.</p> + +<p>The Annals of Annam<a name="FNanchor_909_909" id="FNanchor_909_909"></a><a href="#Footnote_909_909" class="fnanchor">[909]</a> record a discussion which took place before +the Emperor Thai-Tôn (1433-1442) between a Buddhist and a sorcerer. +Both held singularly mixed beliefs but recognized the Buddha as a +deity. The king said that he could not decide between the two sects, +but gave precedence to the Buddhists.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_900_900" id="Footnote_900_900"></a><a href="#FNanchor_900_900"><span class="label">[900]</span></a> The dates given are 111 B.C.-939 A.D.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_901_901" id="Footnote_901_901"></a><a href="#FNanchor_901_901"><span class="label">[901]</span></a> French scholars use a great number of accents and even +new forms of letters to transcribe Annamite, but since this language +has nothing to do with the history of Buddhism or Hinduism and the +accurate orthography is very difficult to read, I have contented +myself with a rough transcription.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_902_902" id="Footnote_902_902"></a><a href="#FNanchor_902_902"><span class="label">[902]</span></a> This is the common orthography, but Chiao Chih would be +the spelling according to the system of transliterating Chinese +adopted in this book.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_903_903" id="Footnote_903_903"></a><a href="#FNanchor_903_903"><span class="label">[903]</span></a> It is said that the story of the Râmâyana is found in +Annamite legends (<i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1905, p. 77), and in one or two places +the Annamites reverence statues of Indian deities.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_904_904" id="Footnote_904_904"></a><a href="#FNanchor_904_904"><span class="label">[904]</span></a> The most trustworthy account of Annamite religion is +perhaps Dumoutier, <i>Les Cultes Annamites</i>, Hanoi, 1907. It was +published after the author's death and consists of a series of notes +rather than a general description. See also Diguet, <i>Les Annamites</i>, +1906, especially chap. VI.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_905_905" id="Footnote_905_905"></a><a href="#FNanchor_905_905"><span class="label">[905]</span></a> Maitreya is called Ri-lac = Chinese Mi-le. The +equivalence of the syllables <i>ri</i> and <i>mi</i> seems strange, but certain. +Cf. A-ri-da = Amida or O-mi-to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_906_906" id="Footnote_906_906"></a><a href="#FNanchor_906_906"><span class="label">[906]</span></a> Pelliot (Meou-Tseu, traduit et annoté, in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, +vol. XIX. p. 1920) gives reasons for thinking that Buddhism was +prevalent in Tonkin in the early centuries of our era, but, if so, it +appears to have decayed and been reintroduced. Also at this time +Chiao-Chih may have meant Kuang-tung.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_907_907" id="Footnote_907_907"></a><a href="#FNanchor_907_907"><span class="label">[907]</span></a> Diguet, <i>Les Annamites</i>, p. 303.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_908_908" id="Footnote_908_908"></a><a href="#FNanchor_908_908"><span class="label">[908]</span></a> Maybon et Russier, <i>L'Histoire d'Annam</i>, p. 45.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_909_909" id="Footnote_909_909"></a><a href="#FNanchor_909_909"><span class="label">[909]</span></a> Dumoutier, <i>Les Cultes Annamites</i>, p. 58.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_345" id="Page_3_345"></a>[Pg 345]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLIX" id="CHAPTER_XLIX"></a>CHAPTER XLIX</h2> + +<h3>TIBET</h3> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Introductory</span></h3> + + +<p>The religion of Tibet and Mongolia, often called Lamaism, is probably +the most singular form of Buddhism in existence and has long attracted +attention in Europe on account of its connection with politics and its +curious resemblance to the Roman Church in ritual as well as in +statecraft. The pontiffs and curia of Lhasa emulated the authority of +the medieval papacy, so that the Mings and Manchus in China as well as +the British in India had to recognize them as a considerable power.</p> + +<p>Tibet had early relations with Kashmir, Central Asia and China which +may all have contributed something to its peculiar civilization, but +its religion is in the main tantric Buddhism imported from Bengal and +invigorated from time to time by both native and Indian reformers. But +though almost every feature of Lamaism finds a parallel somewhere in +India, yet too great insistence on its source and historical +development hardly does justice to the originality of the Tibetans. +They borrowed a foreign faith wholesale, but still the relative +emphasis which they laid on its different aspects was something new. +They had only a moderate aptitude for asceticism, meditation and +metaphysics, although they manfully translated huge tomes of Sanskrit +philosophy, but they had a genius for hierarchy, discipline and +ecclesiastical polity unknown to the Hindus. Thus taking the common +Asiatic idea that great and holy men are somehow divine, they made it +the principle of civil and sacerdotal government by declaring the +prelates of the church to be deities incarnate. Yet in strange +contrast to these practical talents, a certain innate devilry made +them exaggerate all the magical, terrifying and demoniac elements to +be found in Indian Tantrism.</p> + +<p>The extraordinary figures of raging fiends which fill Tibetan shrines +suggest at first that the artists simply borrowed and made more +horrible the least civilized fancies of Indian sculpture, yet the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_346" id="Page_3_346"></a>[Pg 346]</span> +majesty of Tibetan architecture (for, judging by the photographs of +Lhasa and Tashilhumpo, it deserves no less a name) gives another +impression. The simplicity of its lines and the solid, spacious walls +unadorned by carving recall Egypt rather than India and harmonize not +with the many-limbed demons but with the calm and dignified features +of the deified priests who are also portrayed in these halls.</p> + +<p>An atmosphere of mystery and sorcery has long hung about the +mountainous regions which lie to the north of India. Hindus and +Chinese alike saw in them the home of spirits and wizards, and the +grand but uncanny scenery of these high plateaux has influenced the +art and ideas of the natives. The climate made it natural that priests +should congregate in roomy strongholds, able to defy the cold and +contain the stores necessary for a long winter, and the massive walls +seem to imitate the outline of the rocks out of which they grow. But +the strange shapes assumed by mists and clouds, often dyed many +colours by the rising or setting sun, suggest to the least imaginative +mind an aerial world peopled by monstrous and magical figures. At +other times, when there is no fog, distant objects seem in the still, +clear atmosphere to be very near, until the discovery that they are +really far away produces a strange feeling that they are unreal and +unattainable.</p> + +<p>In discussing this interesting faith, I shall first treat of its +history and then of the sacred books on which it professes to be +based. In the light of this information it will be easier to +understand the doctrines of Lamaism and I shall finally say something +about its different sects, particularly as there is reason to think +that the strength of the Established Church, of which the Grand Lama +is head, has been exaggerated.</p> + + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_347" id="Page_3_347"></a>[Pg 347]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_L" id="CHAPTER_L"></a>CHAPTER L</h2> + +<h3>TIBET (<i>continued</i>)</h3> + +<h3><span class="smcap">History</span></h3> + + +<p>It is generally stated that Buddhism was first preached in Tibet at +the instance of King Srong-tsan-gam-po<a name="FNanchor_910_910" id="FNanchor_910_910"></a><a href="#Footnote_910_910" class="fnanchor">[910]</a> who came to the throne in +629 A.D. Some legendary notices of its earlier appearance<a name="FNanchor_911_911" id="FNanchor_911_911"></a><a href="#Footnote_911_911" class="fnanchor">[911]</a> will +bear the natural interpretation that the Tibetans (like the Chinese) +had heard something about it from either India or Khotan before they +invited instructors to visit them<a name="FNanchor_912_912" id="FNanchor_912_912"></a><a href="#Footnote_912_912" class="fnanchor">[912]</a>.</p> + +<p>At this time Tibet played some part in the politics of China and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_348" id="Page_3_348"></a>[Pg 348]</span> +northern India. The Emperor Harsha and the T'ang Emperor T'ai Tsung +exchanged embassies but a second embassy sent from China arrived after +Harsha's death and a usurper who had seized the throne refused to +receive it. The Chinese with the assistance of the kings of Tibet and +Nepal dethroned him and carried him off captive. There is therefore +nothing improbable in the story that Srong-tsan-gam-po had two wives, +who were princesses of Nepal and China respectively. He was an active +ruler, warlike but progressive, and was persuaded by these two ladies +that Buddhism was a necessary part of civilization. According to +tradition he sent to India a messenger called Thonmi Sanbhota, who +studied there for several years, adapted a form of Indian writing to +the use of his native language and translated the Karaṇḍa Vyûha. +Recent investigators however have advanced the theory that the Tibetan +letters are derived from the alphabet of Indian origin used in Khotan +and that Sanbhota made its acquaintance in Kashmir<a name="FNanchor_913_913" id="FNanchor_913_913"></a><a href="#Footnote_913_913" class="fnanchor">[913]</a>. Though the +king and his two wives are now regarded as the first patrons of +Lamaism and worshipped as incarnations of Avalokita and Târâ, it does +not appear that his direct religious activity was great or that he +built monasteries. But his reign established the foundations of +civilization without which Buddhism could hardly have flourished, he +to some extent unified Central Tibet, he chose the site of Lhasa as +the capital and introduced the rudiments of literature and art. But +after his death in 650 we hear little more of Buddhism for some +decades.</p> + +<p>About 705 King Khri-gtsug-lde-btsan is said to have built monasteries, +caused translations to be made, and summoned monks from Khotan. His +efforts bore little fruit, for no Tibetans were willing to take the +vows, but the edict of 783 preserved in Lhasa mentions his zeal for +religion, and he prepared the way for Khri-sroṇ-lde-btsan in whose +reign Padma-Sambhava, the real founder of Lamaism, arrived in +Tibet<a name="FNanchor_914_914" id="FNanchor_914_914"></a><a href="#Footnote_914_914" class="fnanchor">[914]</a>.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_349" id="Page_3_349"></a>[Pg 349]</span></p> +<p>This event is said to have occurred in 747 and the epoch is +noticeable for two reasons. Firstly Tibet, which had become an +important military power, was now brought into contact both in peace +and war with China and Central Asia. It was predominant in the Tarim +Basin and ruled over parts of Ssŭ-chuan and Yunnan. China was +obliged to pay tribute and when it was subsequently refused the +Tibetans sacked the capital, Chang-an. In 783 China made a treaty of +peace with Tibet. The king was the son of a Chinese princess and thus +blood as well as wide experience disposed him to open Tibet to foreign +ideas. But in 747 relations with China were bad, so he turned towards +India and invited to his Court a celebrated Pandit named +Śântarakshita, who advised him to send for Padma-Sambhava.</p> + +<p>Secondly this was the epoch when Amogha flourished in China and +introduced the Mantrayâna system or Chên Yen. This was the same form +of corrupt Buddhism which was brought to Tibet and was obviously the +dominant sect in India in the eighth century. It was pliant and +amalgamated easily with local observances, in China with funeral +rites, in Tibet with demonolatry.</p> + +<p>At this time Padma-Sambhava was one of the most celebrated exponents +of Tantric Buddhism, and in Tibet is often called simply the Teacher +(Guru or Mahâcârya). His portraits represent him as a man of strongly +marked and rather angry features, totally unlike a conventional monk. +A popular account of his life<a name="FNanchor_915_915" id="FNanchor_915_915"></a><a href="#Footnote_915_915" class="fnanchor">[915]</a> is still widely read and may +contain some grains of history, though the narrative as a whole is +fantastic. It describes him as born miraculously in Udyâna but as +having studied at Bodhgaya and travelled in many regions with the +intention of converting all the world. According to his plan, the +conversion of his native land was to be his last labour, and when he +had finished his work in Tibet he vanished thither miraculously. Thus +Udyâna is not represented as the source and home of Tantric Buddhism +but as being like Tibet a land of magic and mystery but, like +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_350" id="Page_3_350"></a>[Pg 350]</span> +Tibet, needing conversion: both are disposed to welcome Tantric ideas +but those ideas are elaborated by Padma-Sambhava not in Udyâna but in +Bengal which from other sources we know to have been a centre of +Tantrism.</p> + +<p>Some other points of interest in these legends may be noticed. +Padma-Sambhava is not celibate but is accompanied by female +companions. He visits many countries which worship various deities and +for each he has a new teaching suited to its needs. Thus in Tibet, +where the older religion consisted of defensive warfare against the +attacks of evil spirits<a name="FNanchor_916_916" id="FNanchor_916_916"></a><a href="#Footnote_916_916" class="fnanchor">[916]</a>, he assumes the congenial character of a +victorious exorcist, and in his triumphant progress subdues local +demons as methodically as if he were suppressing the guerilla warfare +of native tribes. He has new revelations called Terma which he hides +in caves to be discovered by his successors. These revelations are +said to have been in an unknown language<a name="FNanchor_917_917" id="FNanchor_917_917"></a><a href="#Footnote_917_917" class="fnanchor">[917]</a>. Those at present +existing are in Tibetan but differ from the canonical scriptures in +certain orthographical peculiarities. The legend thus admits that +Padma-Sambhava preached a non-celibate and magical form of Buddhism, +ready to amalgamate with local superstitions and needing new +revelations for its justification.</p> + +<p>He built the monastery of Samye<a name="FNanchor_918_918" id="FNanchor_918_918"></a><a href="#Footnote_918_918" class="fnanchor">[918]</a> about thirty miles from Lhasa on +the model of Odantapuri in Bengal. Śântarakshita became abbot and +from this period dates the foundation of the order of Lamas<a name="FNanchor_919_919" id="FNanchor_919_919"></a><a href="#Footnote_919_919" class="fnanchor">[919]</a>. Mara +(Thse Ma-ra) was worshipped as well as the Buddhas, but however +corrupt the cultus may have been, Samye was a literary centre where +many translations were made. Among the best known translators was a +monk from Kashmir named Vairocana<a name="FNanchor_920_920" id="FNanchor_920_920"></a><a href="#Footnote_920_920" class="fnanchor">[920]</a>. It would appear however that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_351" id="Page_3_351"></a>[Pg 351]</span> +there was considerable opposition to the new school not only from +the priests of the old native religion but from Chinese +Buddhists<a name="FNanchor_921_921" id="FNanchor_921_921"></a><a href="#Footnote_921_921" class="fnanchor">[921]</a>.</p> + +<p>Numerous Tibetan documents discovered in the Tarim basin<a name="FNanchor_922_922" id="FNanchor_922_922"></a><a href="#Footnote_922_922" class="fnanchor">[922]</a> date +from this period. The absence in them of Buddhist personal names and +the rarity of direct references to Buddhism indicate that though known +in Tibet it was not yet predominant. Buddhist priests (ban-de) are +occasionally mentioned but the title Lama has not been found. The +usages of the Bonpo religion seem familiar to the writers and there +are allusions to religious struggles.</p> + +<p>When Padma-Sambhava vanished from Tibet, the legend says that he left +behind him twenty-five disciples, all of them magicians, who +propagated his teaching. At any rate it flourished in the reign of +Ralpachan (the grandson of Khri-sroṇ-lde-btsan). Monasteries +multiplied and received land and the right to collect tithes. To each +monk was assigned a small revenue derived from five tenants and the +hierarchy was reorganized<a name="FNanchor_923_923" id="FNanchor_923_923"></a><a href="#Footnote_923_923" class="fnanchor">[923]</a>. Many translators were at work in this +period and a considerable part of the present canon was then rendered +into Tibetan. The king's devotion to Buddhism was however unpopular +and he was murdered<a name="FNanchor_924_924" id="FNanchor_924_924"></a><a href="#Footnote_924_924" class="fnanchor">[924]</a> apparently at the instigation of his brother +and successor Lang-dar-ma<a name="FNanchor_925_925" id="FNanchor_925_925"></a><a href="#Footnote_925_925" class="fnanchor">[925]</a>, who endeavoured to extirpate Lamaism. +Monasteries were destroyed, books burnt, Indian monks were driven out +of the country and many Lamas were compelled to become hunters or +butchers. But the persecution only lasted three years<a name="FNanchor_926_926" id="FNanchor_926_926"></a><a href="#Footnote_926_926" class="fnanchor">[926]</a>, for the +wicked king was assassinated by a Lama who has since been canonized by +the Church and the incident of his murder or punishment is still acted +in the mystery plays performed at Himis and other monasteries.</p> + +<p>After the death of Lang-dar-ma Tibet ceased to exist as a united +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_352" id="Page_3_352"></a>[Pg 352]</span> +kingdom and was divided among clans and chieftains. This was +doubtless connected with the collapse of Tibetan power in the Tarim +basin, but whether as effect or cause it is hard to say. The +persecution may have had a political motive: Lang-dar-ma may have +thought that the rise of monastic corporations, and their right to own +land and levy taxes were a menace to unity and military efficiency. +But the political confusion which followed on his death was not due to +the triumphant restoration of Lamaism. Its recovery was slow. The +interval during which Buddhism almost disappeared is estimated by +native authorities as from 73 to 108 years, and its subsequent revival +is treated as a separate period called phyi-dar or later diffusion in +contrast to the sṇa-dar or earlier diffusion. The silence of +ecclesiastical history during the tenth century confirms the gravity +of the catastrophe<a name="FNanchor_927_927" id="FNanchor_927_927"></a><a href="#Footnote_927_927" class="fnanchor">[927]</a>. On the other hand the numerous translations +made in the ninth century were not lost and this indicates that there +were monasteries to preserve them, for instance Samye.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the eleventh century we hear of foreign monks +arriving from various countries. The chronicles<a name="FNanchor_928_928" id="FNanchor_928_928"></a><a href="#Footnote_928_928" class="fnanchor">[928]</a> say that the +chief workers in the new diffusion were La-chen, Lo-chen, the royal +Lama Yeśes Ḥod and Atîśa. The first appears to have been a +Tibetan but the pupil of a teacher who had studied in Nepal. Lo-chen +was a Kashmiri and several other Kashmiri Lamas are mentioned as +working in Tibet. Yeśes Ḥod was a king or chieftain of +mṄ̇̇̇̇̇̇̇̇̇a-ris in western Tibet who is said to have been disgusted with +the debased Tantrism which passed as Buddhism. He therefore sent young +Lamas to study in India and also invited thence learned monks. The +eminent Dharmapâla, a monk of Magadha who was on a pilgrimage in +Nepal, became his tutor. Yeśes Ḥod came to an unfortunate end. +He was taken captive by the Raja of Garlog, an enemy of Buddhism, and +died in prison. It is possible that this Raja was the ruler of Garhwal +and a Mohammedan. The political history of the period is far from +clear, but evidently there were numerous Buddhist schools in Bengal, +Kashmir and Nepal and numerous learned monks ready to take up their +residence in Tibet. This readiness has been explained as due to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_353" id="Page_3_353"></a>[Pg 353]</span> +fear of the rising tide of Islam, but was more probably the result of +the revival of Buddhism in Bengal during the eleventh century. The +most illustrious of these pandits was Atîśa<a name="FNanchor_929_929" id="FNanchor_929_929"></a><a href="#Footnote_929_929" class="fnanchor">[929]</a> (980-1053), a +native of Bengal, who was ordained at Odontapuri and studied in +Burma<a name="FNanchor_930_930" id="FNanchor_930_930"></a><a href="#Footnote_930_930" class="fnanchor">[930]</a>. Subsequently he was appointed head of the monastery of +Vikramaśîla and was induced to visit Tibet in 1038<a name="FNanchor_931_931" id="FNanchor_931_931"></a><a href="#Footnote_931_931" class="fnanchor">[931]</a>. He +remained there until his death fifteen years later; introduced a new +calendar and inaugurated the second period of Tibetan Buddhism which +is marked by the rise of successive sects described as reforms. It may +seem a jest to call the teaching of Atîśa a reform, for he +professed the Kâlacakra, the latest and most corrupt form of Indian +Buddhism, but it was doubtless superior in discipline and coherency to +the native superstitions mixed with debased tantrism, which it +replaced.</p> + +<p>As in Japan during the eleventh and twelfth centuries many monasteries +were founded and grew in importance, and what might have happened in +Japan but for the somewhat unscrupulous prescience of Japanese +statesmen actually did happen in Tibet. Among the numerous contending +chiefs none was pre-eminent: the people were pugnacious but +superstitious. They were ready to build and respect when built the +substantial structures required to house monastic communities during +the rigorous winter. Hence the monasteries became the largest and +safest buildings in the land, possessing the double strength of walls +and inviolability. The most important was the Sakya monastery. Its +abbots were of royal blood and not celibate, and this dynasty of +ecclesiastical statesmen practically ruled Tibet at a critical period +in the history of eastern Asia and indeed of the world, namely, the +conquests of Chinggiz<a name="FNanchor_932_932" id="FNanchor_932_932"></a><a href="#Footnote_932_932" class="fnanchor">[932]</a> and the rise of the Mongol Empire.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_354" id="Page_3_354"></a>[Pg 354]</span></p> +<p>There is no evidence that Chinggiz was specially favourable to +Buddhism. His principle was one King and one God<a name="FNanchor_933_933" id="FNanchor_933_933"></a><a href="#Footnote_933_933" class="fnanchor">[933]</a> and like other +princes of his race he thought of religions not as incompatible +systems but as different methods of worship of no more importance than +the different languages used in prayer. The destruction wrought by the +Mongol conquerors has often been noticed, but they had also an ample, +unifying temper which deserves recognition. China, Russia and Persia +all achieved a unity after the Mongol conquest which they did not +possess before, and though this unification may be described as a +protest and reaction, yet but for the Mongols and their treatment of +large areas as units it would not have been possible. The Mings could +not have united China before the Yüan dynasty as they did after it.</p> + +<p>In spite of some statements to the contrary there is no proof that the +early Mongols invaded or conquered central Tibet, but Khubilai subdued +the eastern provinces and through the Lamaist hierarchy established a +special connection between Tibet and his dynasty. This connection +began even in the time of his predecessor, for the head Lama of the +Sakya monastery commonly known as Sakya Pandita (or Sa-skya-pan-cen) +was summoned to the Mongol Court in 1246-8, and cured the Emperor of +an illness<a name="FNanchor_934_934" id="FNanchor_934_934"></a><a href="#Footnote_934_934" class="fnanchor">[934]</a>. This Lama was a man of great learning and influence. +He had received a double education both secular and religious, and was +acquainted with foreign languages. The favourable impression which he +created no doubt facilitated the brilliant achievements of his nephew +and successor, who is commonly known as Bashpa or Pagspa<a name="FNanchor_935_935" id="FNanchor_935_935"></a><a href="#Footnote_935_935" class="fnanchor">[935]</a>.</p> + +<p>Khubilai Khan was not content with the vague theism of Central Asia +and wished to give his rude Mongols a definite religion with some +accessories of literature and manners. Confucianism was clearly too +scholastic for a fighting race and we may surmise that he rejected +Christianity as distant and unimportant, Mohammedanism as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_355" id="Page_3_355"></a>[Pg 355]</span> +inconveniently mixed with politics. But why did he prefer Lamaism to +Chinese Buddhism? The latter can hardly have been too austerely pure +to suit his ends, and Tibetan was as strange as Chinese to the +Mongols. But the Mongol Court had already been favourably impressed by +Tibetan Lamas and the Emperor probably had a just feeling that the +intellectual calibre of the Mongols and Tibetans was similar and also +that it was politic to conciliate the uncanny spiritual potentates who +ruled in a land which it was difficult to invade. At any rate he +summoned the abbot of Sakya to China in 1261 and was initiated by him +into the mysteries of Lamaism<a name="FNanchor_936_936" id="FNanchor_936_936"></a><a href="#Footnote_936_936" class="fnanchor">[936]</a>.</p> + +<p>It is said that before Pagspa's birth the God Ganeśa showed his +father all the land of Tibet and told him that it would be the kingdom +of his son. In later life when he had difficulties at the Chinese +Court Mahâkâla appeared and helped him, and the mystery which he +imparted to Khubilai is called the Hevajravaśîtâ<a name="FNanchor_937_937" id="FNanchor_937_937"></a><a href="#Footnote_937_937" class="fnanchor">[937]</a>. These +legends indicate that there was a large proportion of Sivaism in the +religion first taught to the Mongols, larger perhaps than in the +present Lamaism of Lhasa.</p> + +<p>The Mongol historian Sanang Setsen relates<a name="FNanchor_938_938" id="FNanchor_938_938"></a><a href="#Footnote_938_938" class="fnanchor">[938]</a> that Pagspa took a +higher seat than the Emperor when instructing him and on other +occasions sat on the same level. This sounds improbable, but it is +clear that he enjoyed great power and dignity. In China he received +the title of Kuo-Shih or instructor of the nation and was made the +head of all Buddhists, Lamaists and other. In Tibet he was recognized +as head of the Church and tributary sovereign, though it would appear +that the Emperor named a lay council to assist him in the government +and also had a commissioner in each of the three provinces. This was a +good political bargain and laid the foundations of Chinese influence +in a country which he could hardly have subdued by force.</p> + +<p>Pagspa was charged by the Emperor to provide the Mongols with an +alphabet as well as a religion. For this purpose he used a square +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_356" id="Page_3_356"></a>[Pg 356]</span> +form of the Tibetan letters<a name="FNanchor_939_939" id="FNanchor_939_939"></a><a href="#Footnote_939_939" class="fnanchor">[939]</a>, written not in horizontal but in +vertical lines. But the experiment was not successful. The characters +were neither easy to write nor graceful, and after Pagspa's death his +invention fell into disuse and was replaced by an enlarged and +modified form of the Uigur alphabet. This had already been employed +for writing Mongol by Sakya Pandita and its definitive form for that +purpose was elaborated by the Lama Chos-kyi-ḥod-zer in the reign of +Khubilai's successor. This alphabet is of Aramaic origin, and had +already been utilized by Buddhists for writing religious works, so its +application to Mongol was merely an extension of its general currency +in Asia<a name="FNanchor_940_940" id="FNanchor_940_940"></a><a href="#Footnote_940_940" class="fnanchor">[940]</a>.</p> + +<p>Pagspa also superintended the preparation of a new edition of the +Tripitaka, not in Mongol but in Chinese. Among the learned editors +were persons acquainted with Sanskrit, Chinese, Tibetan and Uigur. An +interesting but natural feature of this edition is that it notes +whether the various Chinese texts are found in the Tibetan Canon or +not.</p> + +<p>Khubilai further instituted a bureau of fine arts, the head of which +was a Lama called Aniko, skilled in both sculpture and painting. He +and his Chinese pupil Liu Yüan introduced into Peking various branches +of Tibetan art such as Buddhist images of a special type, ornamental +ironwork and gold tapestry. The Chinese at this period appear to have +regarded Tibetan art as a direct importation from India<a name="FNanchor_941_941" id="FNanchor_941_941"></a><a href="#Footnote_941_941" class="fnanchor">[941]</a>. And no +doubt Tibetan art was founded on that of Nepal which in its turn came +from Bengal. Miniature painting is a characteristic of both. But in +later times the individuality of Tibet, shown alike in its monstrous +deities and its life-like portraits of Lamas, imposed itself on Nepal. +Indian and Tibetan temples are not alike. In the former there is +little painting but the walls and pillars are covered with a +superabundance of figures carved in relief: in Tibet pictures and +painted banners are the first thing to strike the eye, but carvings in +relief are rare.</p> + +<p>It is hard to say to what extent the Mongols beyond such parts of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_357" id="Page_3_357"></a>[Pg 357]</span> +northern China as felt the direct influence of the imperial court were +converted to Lamaism. At any rate their conversion was only temporary +for, as will be related below, a reconversion was necessary in the +sixteenth century. It looks as if the first growth of Mongolian +Buddhism was part of a political system and collapsed together with +it. But so long as the Yüan dynasty reigned, Lamaist influence was +strong and the downfall of the Yüan was partly caused by their +subservience to the clergy and extravagant expenditure on religious +buildings and ceremonies. After the departure of Pagspa, other Lamas +held a high position at the Court of Peking such as Chos-kyi-hod-zer +and gYuṇ-ston rDo-rje-dpal. The latter was a distinguished exponent +of the Kâlacakra system and the teacher of the historian Bu-ston who +is said to have arranged the Tibetan Canon.</p> + +<p>Although the Yüan dynasty heaped favours upon priests and monasteries, +it does not appear that religion flourished in Tibet during the +fourteenth century for at the end of that period the grave abuses +prevalent provoked the reforming zeal of Tsong-kha-pa. Prom 1270 to +1340 the abbots of Sakya were rulers of both Church and State, and we +hear that in 1320 they burned the rival monastery of Dikung. The +language of Sanang Setsen implies that each abbot was appointed or +invested by the Emperor<a name="FNanchor_942_942" id="FNanchor_942_942"></a><a href="#Footnote_942_942" class="fnanchor">[942]</a> and their power declined with the Yüan +dynasty. Other monasteries increased in importance and a chief known +as Phagmodu<a name="FNanchor_943_943" id="FNanchor_943_943"></a><a href="#Footnote_943_943" class="fnanchor">[943]</a> succeeded, after many years of fighting, in founding +a lay dynasty which ruled parts of Tibet until the seventeenth +century.</p> + +<p>In 1368 the Ming superseded the Yüan. They were not professed +Buddhists to the same extent and they had no preference for Lamaism +but they were anxious to maintain good relations with Tibet and to +treat it as a friendly but vassal state. They accorded imperial +recognition (with an implication of suzerainty) to the dynasty of +Phagmodu and also to the abbots of eight monasteries. Though they were +doubtless glad to see Tibet a divided and contentious house, it does +not appear that they interfered actively in its affairs or did more +than recognize the <i>status quo</i>. In the time of Khubilai the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_358" id="Page_3_358"></a>[Pg 358]</span> +primacy of Sakya was a reality: seventy years later Sakya was only one +among several great monasteries.</p> + +<p>The advent of the Ming dynasty coincided with the birth of +Tsong-kha-pa<a name="FNanchor_944_944" id="FNanchor_944_944"></a><a href="#Footnote_944_944" class="fnanchor">[944]</a>, the last reformer of Lamaism and organizer of the +Church as it at present exists. The name means the man of the +onion-bank, a valley near the monastery of Kumbum in the district of +Amdo, which lies on the western frontiers of the Chinese province of +Kansu. He became a monk at the age of seven and from the hair cut off +when he received the tonsure is said to have sprung the celebrated +tree of Kumbum which bears on its leaves wondrous markings<a name="FNanchor_945_945" id="FNanchor_945_945"></a><a href="#Footnote_945_945" class="fnanchor">[945]</a>. +According to the legend, his birth and infancy were attended by +miracles. He absorbed instruction from many teachers and it has been +conjectured that among them were Roman Catholic missionaries<a name="FNanchor_946_946" id="FNanchor_946_946"></a><a href="#Footnote_946_946" class="fnanchor">[946]</a>. In +early manhood he proceeded to Tibet and studied at Sakya, Dikung and +finally at Lhasa. His reading convinced him that Lamaism as he found +it was not in harmony with the scriptures, so with the patronage of +the secular rulers and the support of the more earnest clergy he +successfully executed a thorough and permanent work of reform. This +took visible shape in the Gelugpa, the sect presided over by the Grand +Lama, which acquired such paramount importance in both ecclesiastical +and secular matters that it is justly termed the Established Church of +Tibet. It may also be conveniently termed the Yellow Church, yellow +being its special colour particularly for hats and girdles, in +opposition to the red or unreformed sects which use red for the same +purpose. Tsong-kha-pa's reforms took two principal lines. Firstly he +made monastic discipline stricter, insisting on celibacy and frequent +services of prayer: secondly he greatly reduced, although he did not +annihilate, the tantric and magical element in Lamaism. These +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_359" id="Page_3_359"></a>[Pg 359]</span> +principles were perpetuated by an effective organization. He himself +founded the great monastery of Gandan near Lhasa and became its first +abbot. During his lifetime or shortly afterwards were founded three +others, Sera and Depung both near Lhasa and Tashilhunpo<a name="FNanchor_947_947" id="FNanchor_947_947"></a><a href="#Footnote_947_947" class="fnanchor">[947]</a>. He +himself seems to have ruled simply in virtue of his personal authority +as founder, but his nephew and successor Geden-dub<a name="FNanchor_948_948" id="FNanchor_948_948"></a><a href="#Footnote_948_948" class="fnanchor">[948]</a> claimed the +same right as an incarnation of the divine head of the Church, and +this claim was supported by a hierarchy which became overwhelmingly +powerful.</p> + +<p>Tsong-kha-pa died in 1417 and is said to have been transfigured and +carried up into heaven while predicting to a great crowd the future +glories of his church. His mortal remains, however, preserved in a +magnificent mausoleum within the Gandan monastery, still receive great +veneration.</p> + +<p>Among his more eminent disciples were Byams-chen-chos-rje and +mKhas-grub-rje who in Tibetan art are often represented as +accompanying him. The first played a considerable part in China. The +Emperor Yung-Lo sent an embassy to invite Tsong-kha-pa to his capital. +Tsong-kha-pa felt unable to go himself but sent his pupil to represent +him. Byams-chen-chos-rje was received with great honour<a name="FNanchor_949_949" id="FNanchor_949_949"></a><a href="#Footnote_949_949" class="fnanchor">[949]</a>. The main +object of the Ming Emperors was to obtain political influence in Tibet +through the Lamas but in return the Lamas gained considerable +prestige. The Kanjur was printed in China (1410) and +Byams-chen-chos-rje and his disciples were recognized as prelates of +the whole Buddhist Church within the Empire. He returned to Tibet +laden with presents and titles and founded the monastery of Serra in +1417. Afterwards he went back to China and died there at the age of +eighty-four.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_360" id="Page_3_360"></a>[Pg 360]</span></p> +<p>mKhas-grub-rje founded the monastery of Tashilhunpo and became its +abbot, being accepted as an incarnation of the Buddha Amitâbha. He was +eighth in the series of incarnations, which henceforth were localized +at Tashilhunpo, but the first is said to have been Subhûti, a disciple +of Gotama, and the second Mañjuśrîkirti, king of the country of +Śambhala<a name="FNanchor_950_950" id="FNanchor_950_950"></a><a href="#Footnote_950_950" class="fnanchor">[950]</a>.</p> + +<p>The abbot of Tashilhunpo became the second personage in the +ecclesiastical and political hierarchy. The head of it was the prelate +commonly known as the Grand Lama and resident at Lhasa. +Geden-dub<a name="FNanchor_951_951" id="FNanchor_951_951"></a><a href="#Footnote_951_951" class="fnanchor">[951]</a>, the nephew of Tsong-kha-pa, is reckoned by common +consent as the first Grand Lama (though he seems not to have borne the +title) and the first incarnation of Avalokita as head of the Tibetan +Church<a name="FNanchor_952_952" id="FNanchor_952_952"></a><a href="#Footnote_952_952" class="fnanchor">[952]</a>. The Emperor Ch'êng Hua (1365-1488) who had occasion to +fight on the borders of Tibet confirmed the position of these two sees +as superior to the eight previously recognized and gave the occupants +a patent and seal. From this time they bore the title of rGyal-po or +king.</p> + +<p>It was about this time that the theory of successive incarnations<a name="FNanchor_953_953" id="FNanchor_953_953"></a><a href="#Footnote_953_953" class="fnanchor">[953]</a> +which is characteristic of Lamaism was developed and defined. At least +two ideas are combined in it. The first is that divine persons appear +in human form. This is common in Asia from India to Japan, especially +among the peoples who have accepted some form of Hindu religion. The +second is that in a school, sect or church there is real continuity of +life. In the unreformed sects of Tibet this was accomplished by the +simple principle of heredity so that celibacy, though undeniably +correct, seemed to snap the thread. But it was reunited by the theory +that a great teacher is reborn in the successive occupants of his +chair. Thus the historian Târanâtha is supposed to be reborn in the +hierarchs of Urga. But frequently the hereditary soul is identified +with a Buddha or Bodhisattva, as in the great incarnations of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_361" id="Page_3_361"></a>[Pg 361]</span> +Lhasa and Tashilhunpo. This dogma has obvious advantages. It imparts +to a Lamaist see a dignity which the papacy cannot rival but it is to +the advantage of the Curia rather than of the Pope for the incarnate +deity of necessity succeeds to his high office as an infant, is in +the hands of regents and not unfrequently dies when about twenty years +of age. These incarnations are not confined to the great sees of +Tibet. The heads of most large monasteries in Mongolia claim to be +living Buddhas and even in Peking there are said to be six.</p> + +<p>The second Grand Lama<a name="FNanchor_954_954" id="FNanchor_954_954"></a><a href="#Footnote_954_954" class="fnanchor">[954]</a> enjoyed a long reign, and set the hierarchy +in good order, for he distinguished strictly clerical posts, filled by +incarnations, from administrative posts. He was summoned to Peking by +the Emperor, but declined to go and the somewhat imperative embassy +sent to invite him was roughly handled. His successor, the third Grand +Lama bSod-nams<a name="FNanchor_955_955" id="FNanchor_955_955"></a><a href="#Footnote_955_955" class="fnanchor">[955]</a>, although less noticed by historians than the +fifth, perhaps did more solid work for the holy see of Lhasa than any +other of his line for he obtained, or at least received, the +allegiance of the Mongols who since the time of Khubilai had woefully +backslidden from the true faith.</p> + +<p>As mentioned above, the conversion of the Mongols to Buddhism took +place when their capital was at Peking and chiefly affected those +resident in China. But when the Yüan dynasty had been dethroned and +the Mongols, driven back into their wilds, were frequently at war with +China, they soon relapsed into their original superstitions. About +1570 Altan<a name="FNanchor_956_956" id="FNanchor_956_956"></a><a href="#Footnote_956_956" class="fnanchor">[956]</a> Khagan, the powerful chief of the Tümed, became +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_362" id="Page_3_362"></a>[Pg 362]</span> +more nearly acquainted with Tibet, since some Lamas captured in a +border fray had been taken to his Court. After causing China much loss +and trouble he made an advantageous peace and probably formed the idea +(which the Manchus subsequently proved to be reasonable) that if the +Mongols were stronger they might repeat the conquests of Khubilai. The +Ming dynasty was clearly decadent and these mysterious priests of +Tibet appeared to be on the upward grade<a name="FNanchor_957_957" id="FNanchor_957_957"></a><a href="#Footnote_957_957" class="fnanchor">[957]</a>. They might help him +both to become the undisputed chief of all the Mongol tribes and also +to reconquer Peking. So he sent an embassy to invite the Grand Lama's +presence, and when it was not successful he followed it with a second.</p> + +<p>The Grand Lama then accepted and set out on his travels with great +pomp. According to the story he appeared to the astonished Mongols in +the guise of Avalokita with four arms (of which two remained folded on +his breast) and the imprint of his horse's hoofs showed the six mystic +syllables <i>om mani padme hum</i>. These wonders are so easily explicable +that they may be historical.</p> + +<p>A great congregation was held near Lake Kokonor and Sanang Setsen +records an interesting speech made there by one of his ancestors +respecting the relations of Church and State, which he compared with +the sun and moon. The Lama bestowed on the Khagan high sounding titles +and received himself the epithet Dalai or Talai, the Mongol word for +sea, signifying metaphorically vast extent and profundity<a name="FNanchor_958_958" id="FNanchor_958_958"></a><a href="#Footnote_958_958" class="fnanchor">[958]</a>. This +is the origin of the name Dalai Lama by which the Tibetan pontiff is +commonly known to Europeans. The hierarchy was divided into four +classes parallel to the four ranks of Mongol nobles: the use of meat +was restricted and the custom of killing men and horses at funerals +forbidden. The observance of Buddhist festivals was made compulsory +and native idols were destroyed, but the deities which they +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_363" id="Page_3_363"></a>[Pg 363]</span> +represented were probably identified with others in the new pantheon. +The Grand Lama specially recommended to the Mongols the worship of the +Blue Mahâkâla, a six armed representation of Śiva standing on a +figure of Ganeśa, and he left with them a priest who was esteemed +an incarnation of Mañjuśrî, and for whom a temple and monastery +were built in Kuku-khoto.</p> + +<p>His Holiness then returned to Tibet, but when Altan Khagan died in +1583 he made a second tour in Mongolia in order to make sure of the +allegiance of the new chiefs. He also received an embassy from the +Chinese Emperor Wan-Li, who conferred on him the same titles that +Khubilai had given to Pagspa. The alliance between the Tibetans and +Mongols was naturally disquieting to the Ming dynasty and they sought +to minimize it by showing extreme civility to the Lamas.</p> + +<p>This Grand Lama died at the age of forty-seven, and it is significant +that the next incarnation appeared in the Mongol royal house, being a +great-grandson of Altan Khagan. Until he was fourteen he lived in +Mongolia and when he moved to Lhasa a Lama was appointed to be his +vicar and Primate of all Mongolia with residence at Kuren or +Urga<a name="FNanchor_959_959" id="FNanchor_959_959"></a><a href="#Footnote_959_959" class="fnanchor">[959]</a>. The prelates of this line are considered as incarnations of +the historian Târanâtha<a name="FNanchor_960_960" id="FNanchor_960_960"></a><a href="#Footnote_960_960" class="fnanchor">[960]</a>. In common language they bear the name of +rJe-btsun-dam-pa but are also called Maidari Khutuktu, that is +incarnation of Maitreya. About this time the Emperor of China issued a +decree, which has since been respected, that these hierarchs must be +reborn in Tibet, or in other words that they must not reappear in a +Mongol family for fear of uniting religion and patriotism too closely.</p> + +<p>Lozang<a name="FNanchor_961_961" id="FNanchor_961_961"></a><a href="#Footnote_961_961" class="fnanchor">[961]</a>, the fifth Grand Lama, is by common consent the most +remarkable of the pontifical line. He established the right of himself +and his successors—or, as he might have said, of himself in his +successive births—to the temporal and ecclesiastical sovereignty of +Tibet: he built the Potala and his dealings with the Mongols and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_364" id="Page_3_364"></a>[Pg 364]</span> +the Emperor of China are of importance for general Asiatic history.</p> + +<p>From the seventeenth century onwards there were four factors in +Tibetan politics.</p> + +<p>1. The Gelugpa or Yellow Church, very strong but anxious to become +stronger both by increasing its temporal power and by suppressing +other sects. Its attitude towards Chinese and Mongols showed no +prejudice and was dictated by policy.</p> + +<p>2. The Tibetan chiefs and people, on the whole respectful to the +Yellow Church but not single-hearted nor forgetful of older sects: +averse to Chinese and prone to side with Mongols.</p> + +<p>3. The Mongols, conscious of their imperfect civilization and anxious +to improve themselves by contact with the Lamas. As a nation they +wished to repeat their past victories over China, and individual +chiefs wished to make themselves the head of the nation. People and +princes alike respected all Lamas.</p> + +<p>4. The Chinese, apprehensive of the Mongols and desirous to keep them +tranquil, caring little for Lamaism in itself but patiently determined +to have a decisive voice in ecclesiastical matters, since the Church +of Lhasa had become a political power in their border lands.</p> + +<p>Lo-zang was born as the son of a high Tibetan official about 1616 and +was educated in the Depung monastery under the supervision of +Chos-kyi-Gyal-tsan, abbot of Tashilhunpo and a man of political +weight. The country was then divided into Khamdo, Wu and Tsang, or +Eastern, Central and Western Tibet, and in each province there ruled a +king of the Phagmodu dynasty. In Central Tibet, and specially at +Lhasa, the Gelugpa was the established church and accepted by the king +but in the other provinces there was much religious strife and the +older sects were still predominant. About 1630 the regent of Tsang +captured Lhasa and made himself sovereign of all Tibet. He was a +follower of the Sakya sect and his rule was a menace to the authority +and even to the existence of the Yellow Church, which for some years +suffered much tribulation. When the young Grand Lama grew up, he and +his preceptor determined to seek foreign aid and appealed to Gushi +Khan<a name="FNanchor_962_962" id="FNanchor_962_962"></a><a href="#Footnote_962_962" class="fnanchor">[962]</a>. This prince was a former pupil of Chos-kyi-Gyal-tsan +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_365" id="Page_3_365"></a>[Pg 365]</span> +and chief of the Oelöt, the ancestors of the Kalmuks and other western +tribes, but then living near Kokonor. He was a staunch member of the +Yellow Church and had already made it paramount in Khamdo which he +invaded in 1638. He promptly responded to the appeal, invaded Tibet, +took the regent prisoner, and, after making himself master of the +whole country, handed over his authority to the Grand Lama, retaining +only the command of his Mongol garrisons. This arrangement was +advantageous to both parties. The Grand Lama not only greatly +increased his ecclesiastical prestige but became a temporal sovereign +of considerable importance. Gushi, who had probably no desire to +reside permanently in the Snow Land, received all the favours which a +grateful Pope could bestow on a king and among the superstitious +Mongols these had a real value. Further the Oelöt garrisons which +continued to occupy various points in Tibet gave him a decisive voice +in the affairs of the country, if there was ever a question of using +force.</p> + +<p>The Grand Lamas had hitherto resided in the Depung monastery but +Lo-zang now moved to the hill of Marpori, the former royal residence +and began to build on it the Potala<a name="FNanchor_963_963" id="FNanchor_963_963"></a><a href="#Footnote_963_963" class="fnanchor">[963]</a> palace which, judging from +photographs, must be one of the most striking edifices in the world, +for its stately walls continue the curves of the mountain side and +seem to grow out of the living rock. His old teacher was given the +title of Panchen Rinpoche, which has since been borne by the abbots of +Tashilhunpo, and the doctrine that the Grand Lamas of Lhasa and +Tashilhunpo are respectively incarnations of Avalokita and Amitâbha +was definitely promulgated<a name="FNanchor_964_964" id="FNanchor_964_964"></a><a href="#Footnote_964_964" class="fnanchor">[964]</a>.</p> + +<p>The establishment of the Grand Lama as temporal ruler of Tibet +coincided with the advent of the Manchu dynasty (1644). The Emperor +and the Lama had everything to gain from friendly relations and their +negotiations culminated in a visit which Lo-zang paid to Peking in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_366" id="Page_3_366"></a>[Pg 366]</span> +1652-3. He was treated as an independent sovereign and received from +the Emperor a long title containing the phrase "Self-existent Buddha, +Universal Ruler of the Buddhist faith." In return he probably +undertook to use his influence with the Mongols to preserve peace and +prevent raids on China.</p> + +<p>After his return to Tibet, he appears to have been a real as well as a +nominal autocrat for his preceptor and Gushi Khan both died, and the +new Manchu dynasty had its hands full. His chief adviser was the +Desi<a name="FNanchor_965_965" id="FNanchor_965_965"></a><a href="#Footnote_965_965" class="fnanchor">[965]</a> or Prime Minister, supposed to be his natural son. In 1666 +the great Emperor K'ang-hsi succeeded to the throne: and shortly +afterwards the restlessness of the Mongol Princes began to inspire the +Chinese Court with apprehension. In 1680 Lo-zang died but his death +was a state secret. It was apparently known in Tibet and an infant +successor was selected but the Desi continued to rule in Lo-zang's +name and even the Emperor of China had no certain knowledge of his +suspected demise but probably thought that the fiction of his +existence was the best means of keeping the Mongols in order. It was +not until 1696 that his death and the accession of a youth named +Thsang-yang Gya-thso were made public.</p> + +<p>But the young Grand Lama, who owing to the fiction that his +predecessor was still alive had probably been brought up less strictly +than usual, soon began to inspire alarm at Peking for he showed +himself wilful and intelligent. He wrote love songs which are still +popular and his licentious behaviour was quite out of harmony with the +traditions of the holy see. In 1701, under joint pressure from the +Chinese and Mongols, he resigned his ecclesiastical rights and handed +over the care of the Church to the abbot of Tashilhunpo, while +retaining his position as temporal ruler. But the Chinese still felt +uneasy and in 1705 succeeded in inducing him to undertake a journey to +Peking. When he got as far as Mongolia he died of either dropsy or +assassination. The commander of the Oelöt garrisons in Tibet was a +friend of the Chinese, and at once produced a new Grand Lama called +Yeśes, a man of about twenty-five, who claimed to be the true +reincarnation of the fifth Grand Lama, the pretensions of the +dissolute youth who had just died being thus set aside. It suited the +Chinese to deal with an adult, who could be made to understand +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_367" id="Page_3_367"></a>[Pg 367]</span> +that he had received and held his office only through their good will, +but the Tibetans would have none of this arrangement. They clung to +the memory of the dissolute youth and welcomed with enthusiasm the +news that he had reappeared in Li-t'ang as a new-born child, who was +ultimately recognized as the seventh Grand Lama named Kalzang. The +Chinese imprisoned the infant with his parents in the monastery of +Kumbum in Kansu and gave all their support to Yeśes. For the better +control of affairs in Lhasa two Chinese Agents were appointed to +reside there with the Manchu title of Amban<a name="FNanchor_966_966" id="FNanchor_966_966"></a><a href="#Footnote_966_966" class="fnanchor">[966]</a>.</p> + +<p>But the Tibetans would not accept the rule of Yeśes and in 1717 the +revolutionary party conspired with the Oelöt tribes of Ili to put +Kalzang on the throne by force. The troops sent to take the holy child +were defeated by the Chinese but those which attacked Lhasa were +completely successful. Yeśes abdicated and the city passed into the +possession of the Mongols. The Chinese Government were greatly alarmed +and determined to subdue Tibet. Their first expedition was a failure +but in 1720 they sent a second and larger, and also decided to install +the youthful Kalzang as Grand Lama, thus conciliating the religious +feelings of the Tibetans. The expedition met with little difficulty +and the result of it was that China became suzerain of the whole +country. By imperial edict the young Grand Lama was recognized as +temporal ruler, the four ministers or Kalön were given Chinese titles, +and garrisons were posted to keep open the road from China. But the +Tibetans were still discontented. In 1727 a rebellion, instigated it +was said by the family of the Grand Lama, broke out, and the Prime +Minister was killed. This rising was not permanently successful and +the Chinese removed the Grand Lama to the neighbourhood of their +frontier. They felt however that it was unsafe to give ground for +suspicion that they were ill-treating him and in 1734 he was +reinstated in the Potala. But the dislike of the Tibetans for Chinese +supervision was plain. In 1747 there was another rebellion. The +population of Lhasa rose and were assisted by Oelöt troops who +suddenly arrived on the scene. Chinese rule was saved only by the +heroism of the two Chinese Agents, who invited the chief conspirators +to a meeting and engaged them in personal combat. They lost their +own lives but killed the principal rebels. The Chinese then +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_368" id="Page_3_368"></a>[Pg 368]</span> +abolished the office of Prime Minister, increased their garrison and +gave the Agents larger powers.</p> + +<p>About 1758 the Grand Lama died and was succeeded by an infant called +Jambal. The real authority was wielded by the Panchen Lama who acted +as regent and was so influential that the Emperor Ch'ien-Lung insisted +on his visiting Peking<a name="FNanchor_967_967" id="FNanchor_967_967"></a><a href="#Footnote_967_967" class="fnanchor">[967]</a>. He had a good reception and probably +obtained some promise that the government of Tibet would be left more +in the hands of the Church but he died of smallpox in Peking and +nothing came of his visit except a beautiful tomb and an epitaph +written by the Emperor. After his death a new complication appeared. +The prelates of the Red Church encouraged an invasion of the Gurkhas +of Nepal in the hope of crushing the Yellow Church. The upshot was +that the Chinese drove out the Gurkhas but determined to establish a +more direct control. The powers of the Agents were greatly increased +and not even the Grand Lama was allowed the right of memorializing the +throne, but had to report to the Agents and ask their orders.</p> + +<p>In 1793 Ch'ien-Lung issued a remarkable edict regulating the +appearance of incarnations which, as he observed, had become simply +the hereditary perquisites of certain noble Mongol families. He +therefore ordered that when there was any question of an incarnation +the names of the claimants to the distinction should be written on +slips of paper and placed in a golden bowl: that a religious service +should be held and at its close a name be drawn from the bowl in the +presence of the Chinese Agents and the public. The child whose name +should be drawn was to be recognized as the true incarnation but +required investiture by an imperial patent.</p> + +<p>A period of calm followed, and when the Grand Lama died in 1804 the +Tibetans totally neglected this edict and selected a child born in +eastern Tibet. The Chinese Court, desirous of avoiding unnecessary +trouble, approved<a name="FNanchor_968_968" id="FNanchor_968_968"></a><a href="#Footnote_968_968" class="fnanchor">[968]</a> the choice on the ground that the infant's +precocious ability established his divine character but when he +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_369" id="Page_3_369"></a>[Pg 369]</span> +died in 1815 and an attempt was made to repeat this irregularity, a +second edict was published, insisting that the names of at least three +candidates must be placed in the golden urn and that he whose name +should be first drawn must be Grand Lama. This procedure was followed +but the child elected by the oracle of the urn died before he was +twenty and another infant was chosen as his successor in 1838. As a +result the Lama who was regent acquired great power and also +unpopularity. His tyranny caused the Tibetans to petition the Emperor; +and His Majesty sent a new Agent to investigate his conduct. Good +reason was shown for holding him responsible for the death of the +Grand Lama in 1838 and for other misdeeds. The Emperor then degraded +and banished him and, what is more singular, forbade him to reappear +in a human reincarnation.</p> + +<p>The reigns of Grand Lamas in the nineteenth century have mostly been +short. Two others were selected in 1858 and 1877 respectively. The +latter who is the present occupant of the post was the son of a +Tibetan peasant: he was duly chosen by the oracle of the urn and +invested by the Emperor. In 1893 he assumed personal control of the +administration and terminated a regency which seems to have been +oppressive and unpopular. The British Government were anxious to +negotiate with him about Sikhim and other matters, but finding it +impossible to obtain answers to their communications sent an +expedition to Lhasa in 1904. The Grand Lama then fled to Urga, in +which region he remained until 1907. In the autumn of 1908 he was +induced to visit Peking where he was received with great ceremony but, +contrary to the precedent established when the fifth Grand Lama +attended Court, he was obliged to kneel and kotow before the Empress +Dowager. Neither could he obtain the right to memorialize the throne, +but was ordered to report to the Agents. The Court duly recognized his +religious position. On the birthday of the Empress he performed a +service for her long life, at which Her Majesty was present. It was +not wholly successful, for a week or two later he officiated at her +funeral. At the end of 1908 he left for Lhasa. He visited India in +1910 but this created dissatisfaction at Peking. In the same year<a name="FNanchor_969_969" id="FNanchor_969_969"></a><a href="#Footnote_969_969" class="fnanchor">[969]</a> +a decree was issued deposing him from his spiritual as well as his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_370" id="Page_3_370"></a>[Pg 370]</span> +temporal powers and ordering the Agents to seek out a new child by +drawing lots from the golden urn. This decree was probably <i>ultra +vires</i> and certainly illogical, for if the Chinese Government +recognized the Lama as an incarnation, they could not, according to +the accepted theory, replace him by another incarnation before his +death. And if they regarded him as a false incarnation, they should +have ordered the Agents to seek out not a child but a man born about +the time that the last Grand Lama died. At any rate the Tibetans paid +no attention to the decree.</p> + +<p>The early deaths of Grand Lamas in the nineteenth century have +naturally created a presumption that they were put out of the way and +contemporary suspicion accused the regent in 1838. There is no +evidence that the deaths of the other three were regarded as unnatural +but the earlier Grand Lamas as well as the abbots of Tashilhunpo lived +to a good age. On the other hand the Grand Lamas of Urga are said to +die young. If the pontiffs of some lines live long and those of others +die early, the inference is not that the life of a god incarnate is +unhealthy but that in special cases special circumstances interfere +with it, and on the whole there are good grounds for suspecting foul +play. But it is interesting to note that most Europeans who have made +the acquaintance of high Lamas speak in praise of their character and +intelligence. So Manning (the friend of Charles Lamb) of the ninth +Grand Lama (1811), Bogle of the Tashi Lama about 1778, Sven Hedin of +his successor in 1907, and Waddell of the Lama Regent in 1904.</p> + +<p>The above pages refer to the history of Lamaism in Tibet and Mongolia. +It also spread to China, European Russia, Ladak, Sikhim and Bhutan. In +China it is confined to the north and its presence is easily +explicable by the genuine enthusiasm of Khubilai and the encouragement +given on political grounds by the Ming and Manchu dynasties. Further, +several Mongol towns such as Kalgan and Kuku-khoto are within the +limits of the eighteen provinces.</p> + +<p>The Kalmuks who live in European Russia are the descendants of tribes +who moved westwards from Dzungaria in the seventeenth century. Many of +them left Russia and returned to the east in 1771, but a considerable +number remained behind, chiefly between the Volga and the Don, and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_371" id="Page_3_371"></a>[Pg 371]</span> +the population professing Lamaism there is now reckoned at about +100,000.</p> + +<p>Buddhist influences may have been at work in Ladak from an early +period. In later times it can be regarded as a dependency of Tibet, at +any rate for ecclesiastical purposes, for it formed part of Tibet +until the disruption of the kingdom in the tenth century and it +subsequently accepted the sovereignty of Lhasa in religious and +sometimes in political matters. Concerning the history of Bhutan, I +have been able to discover but little. The earliest known inhabitants +are called Tephu and the Tibetans are said to have conquered them +about 1670. Lamaism probably entered the country at this time, if not +earlier<a name="FNanchor_970_970" id="FNanchor_970_970"></a><a href="#Footnote_970_970" class="fnanchor">[970]</a>. At any rate it must have been predominant in 1774 when +the Tashi Lama used his good offices to conclude peace between the +Bhutiyas and the East India Company. The established church however is +not the Gelugpa but the Dugpa, which is a subdivision of the +Kar-gyu-pa. There are two rulers in Bhutan, the Dharmarâja or +spiritual and the Debrâja or temporal. The former is regarded as an +incarnation of the first class, though it is not clear of what +deity<a name="FNanchor_971_971" id="FNanchor_971_971"></a><a href="#Footnote_971_971" class="fnanchor">[971]</a>.</p> + +<p>The conversion of Sikhim is ascribed to a saint named Latsün Ch'embo, +who visited it about 1650 with two other Lamas. They associated with +themselves a native chief whom they ordained as a Lama and made king. +All four then governed Sikhim. Though Latsün Ch'embo is represented as +a friend of the fifth Grand Lama, the two sects at present found in +Sikhim are the Nying-ma-pa, the old unreformed style of Lamaism, and +the Karmapa, a branch of the Kar-gyu-pa, analogous to the Dugpa of +Bhutan. The principal monasteries are at Pemiongchi (Peme-yang-tse) +and Tashiding<a name="FNanchor_972_972" id="FNanchor_972_972"></a><a href="#Footnote_972_972" class="fnanchor">[972]</a>.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_910_910" id="Footnote_910_910"></a><a href="#FNanchor_910_910"><span class="label">[910]</span></a> Tibetan orthography Sroṇ-btsan-sgam-po. It is hard +to decide what is the best method of representing Tibetan words in +Latin letters: +</p><p> +(<i>a</i>) The orthography differs from the modern pronunciation more than +in any other language, except perhaps English, but it apparently +represents an older pronunciation and therefore has historical value. +Also, a word can be found in a Tibetan dictionary only if the native +spelling is faithfully reproduced. On the other hand readers +interested in oriental matters know many words in a spelling which is +a rough representation of the modern pronunciation. It seems pedantic +to write bKaẖ-ẖgyur and ẖBras-spuṇs when the best known +authorities speak of Kanjur and Debung. On the whole, I have decided +to represent the commoner words by the popular orthography as given by +Rockhill, Waddell and others while giving the Tibetan spelling in a +foot-note. But when a word cannot be said to be well known even among +Orientalists I have reproduced the Tibetan spelling. +</p><p> +(<i>b</i>) But it is not easy to reproduce this spelling clearly and +consistently. On the whole I have followed the system used by Sarat +Chandra Das in his Dictionary. It is open to some objections, as, for +instance, that the sign h has more than one value, but the more +accurate method used by Grünwedel in his <i>Mythologie</i> is extremely +hard to read. My transcription is as follows in the order of the +Tibetan consonants. +</p> +<p><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">k, kh, g, ṇ, c, oh, j, ny.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">t, th, d, n, p, ph, b, m.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ts, ths, ds, w.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">zh, z, ḥ, y.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">r, l, ś, s, h.</span><br /> +</p> +<p>Although tsh is in some respects preferable to represent an aspirated +ts, yet it is liable to be pronounced as in the English words <i>hat +shop</i>, and perhaps ths is on the whole better.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_911_911" id="Footnote_911_911"></a><a href="#FNanchor_911_911"><span class="label">[911]</span></a> See Waddell, <i>Buddhism of Tibet</i>, p. 19.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_912_912" id="Footnote_912_912"></a><a href="#FNanchor_912_912"><span class="label">[912]</span></a> It has been argued (<i>e.g., J.R.A.S.</i>, 1903, p. 11) that +discoveries in Central Asia indicate that Tibetan civilization and +therefore Tibetan Buddhism are older than is generally supposed. But +recent research shows that Central Asian MSS. of even the eighth +century say little about Buddhism, whatever testimony they may bear to +civilization.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_913_913" id="Footnote_913_913"></a><a href="#FNanchor_913_913"><span class="label">[913]</span></a> See Hoernle MS. <i>Remains found in E. Turkestan</i>, 1916, +pp. xvii ff., and Francke, <i>Epig. Ind</i>. XI. 266 ff., and on the other +side Laufer in <i>J.A.O.S.</i> 1918, pp. 34 ff. There is a considerable +difference between the printed and cursive forms of the Tibetan +alphabet. Is it possible that they have different origins and that the +former came from Bengal, the latter from Khotan?</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_914_914" id="Footnote_914_914"></a><a href="#FNanchor_914_914"><span class="label">[914]</span></a> There were some other streams of Buddhism, for the king +had a teacher called Sântarakshita who advised him to send for +Padma-Sambhava and Padma-Sambhava was opposed by Chinese bonzes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_915_915" id="Footnote_915_915"></a><a href="#FNanchor_915_915"><span class="label">[915]</span></a> The Pad-ma-than-yig. It indicates some acquaintance +with Islam and mentions Hulugu Khan. See <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1896, pp. 526 +ff. See for a further account Grünwedel, <i>Mythologie</i>, p. 47, Waddell, +<i>Buddhism</i>, p. 380, and the Tibetan text edited and translated by +Laufer under the title <i>Der Roman einer tibetischen Königin</i>, +especially pp. 250 ff. Also E. Schlagintweit, "Die Lebensbeschreibung +von Padma-Sambhava," <i>Abhand. k. bayer. Akad.</i> I. CL. xxi. Bd. ii. +Abth. 419-444, and <i>ib.</i> I. CL. xxii. Bd. iii. Abth. 519-576.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_916_916" id="Footnote_916_916"></a><a href="#FNanchor_916_916"><span class="label">[916]</span></a> Much of Chinese popular religion has the same +character. See De Groot, <i>Religious System of China</i>, vol. VI. pp. +929, 1187. "The War against Spectres."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_917_917" id="Footnote_917_917"></a><a href="#FNanchor_917_917"><span class="label">[917]</span></a> Both he and the much later Saskya Pandita are said to +have understood the Bruzha language, for which see <i>T'oung Pao</i>, +1908, pp. 1-47.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_918_918" id="Footnote_918_918"></a><a href="#FNanchor_918_918"><span class="label">[918]</span></a> Or bSam-yas. See Waddell, <i>Buddhism</i>, p. 266, for an +account of this monastery at the present day.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_919_919" id="Footnote_919_919"></a><a href="#FNanchor_919_919"><span class="label">[919]</span></a> The Tibetan word bLama means upper and is properly +applicable to the higher clergy only though commonly used of all.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_920_920" id="Footnote_920_920"></a><a href="#FNanchor_920_920"><span class="label">[920]</span></a> He was temporarily banished owing to the intrigues of +the Queen, who acted the part of Potiphar's wife, but he was +triumphantly restored. A monk called Vairocana is also said to have +introduced Buddhism into Khotan from Kashmir, but at a date which +though uncertain must be considerably earlier than this.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_921_921" id="Footnote_921_921"></a><a href="#FNanchor_921_921"><span class="label">[921]</span></a> See <i>Journal of Buddhist Text Society</i>, 1893, p. 5. I +imagine that by Hoshang Mahâyâna the followers of Bodhidharma are +meant.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_922_922" id="Footnote_922_922"></a><a href="#FNanchor_922_922"><span class="label">[922]</span></a> <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1914, pp. 37-59.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_923_923" id="Footnote_923_923"></a><a href="#FNanchor_923_923"><span class="label">[923]</span></a> See Rockhill, <i>Life of the Buddha</i>, p. 225.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_924_924" id="Footnote_924_924"></a><a href="#FNanchor_924_924"><span class="label">[924]</span></a> Various dates are given for his death, ranging from 838 +to 902. See Rockhill (<i>Life of the Buddha</i>), p. 225, and Bushell in +<i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1880, pp. 440 ff. But the treaty of 822 was made in his +reign.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_925_925" id="Footnote_925_925"></a><a href="#FNanchor_925_925"><span class="label">[925]</span></a> g Lan-dar-ma.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_926_926" id="Footnote_926_926"></a><a href="#FNanchor_926_926"><span class="label">[926]</span></a> But see for other accounts Rockhill (<i>Life of the +Buddha</i>), p. 226. According to Csoma de Körös's tables the date of the +persecution was 899.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_927_927" id="Footnote_927_927"></a><a href="#FNanchor_927_927"><span class="label">[927]</span></a> See the chronological table in Waddell's <i>Buddhism</i>, p. +576. Not a single Tibetan event is mentioned between 899 and 1002.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_928_928" id="Footnote_928_928"></a><a href="#FNanchor_928_928"><span class="label">[928]</span></a> Pag Som Jon Zang. Ed. Sarat Chandra Das, p. 183.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_929_929" id="Footnote_929_929"></a><a href="#FNanchor_929_929"><span class="label">[929]</span></a> Or Dîpaṇkara Śrîjñâna. See for a life of him +<i>Journal of Buddhist Text Society</i>, 1893, "Indian Pandits in Tibet," +pp. 7 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_930_930" id="Footnote_930_930"></a><a href="#FNanchor_930_930"><span class="label">[930]</span></a> Suvarṇadvîpa, where he studied, must be Thaton and +it is curious to find that it was a centre of tantric learning.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_931_931" id="Footnote_931_931"></a><a href="#FNanchor_931_931"><span class="label">[931]</span></a> From 1026 onwards see the chronological tables of +Sum-pa translated by Sarat Chandra Das in <i>J.A.S.B.</i> 1889, pp. 40-82. +They contain many details, especially of ecclesiastical biography. The +Tibetan system of computing time is based on cycles of sixty years +beginning it would seem not in 1026 but 1027, so that in many dates +there is an error of a year. See Pelliot, <i>J.A.</i> 1913, I. 633, and +Laufer, <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1913, 569.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_932_932" id="Footnote_932_932"></a><a href="#FNanchor_932_932"><span class="label">[932]</span></a> Or Jenghiz Khan. The form in the text seems to be the +more correct.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_933_933" id="Footnote_933_933"></a><a href="#FNanchor_933_933"><span class="label">[933]</span></a> Tegri or Heaven. This monotheism common to the ancient +Chinese, Turks and Mongols did not of course exclude the worship of +spirits.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_934_934" id="Footnote_934_934"></a><a href="#FNanchor_934_934"><span class="label">[934]</span></a> Guyuk was Khagan at this time but the <i>Mongol History +of Sanang Setsen</i> (Schmidt, p. 3) says that the Lama was summoned by +the Khagan Godan. It seems that Godan was never Khagan, but as an +influential prince he may have sent the summons.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_935_935" id="Footnote_935_935"></a><a href="#FNanchor_935_935"><span class="label">[935]</span></a> ḥPhagspa (corrupted in Mongol to Bashpa) is merely a +title equivalent to Ayra in Sanskrit. His full style was ḥPhagspa +bLo-gros-rgyal-mthsan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_936_936" id="Footnote_936_936"></a><a href="#FNanchor_936_936"><span class="label">[936]</span></a> By abhiśekha or sprinkling with water.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_937_937" id="Footnote_937_937"></a><a href="#FNanchor_937_937"><span class="label">[937]</span></a> Vaśitâ is a magical formula which compels the +obedience of spirits or natural forces. Hevajra (apparently the same +as Heruka) is one of the fantastic beings conceived as manifestations +of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas made for a special purpose, closely +corresponding, as Grünwedel points out, to the manifestations of +Śiva.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_938_938" id="Footnote_938_938"></a><a href="#FNanchor_938_938"><span class="label">[938]</span></a> Schmidt's edition, p. 115.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_939_939" id="Footnote_939_939"></a><a href="#FNanchor_939_939"><span class="label">[939]</span></a> It is given in Isaac Taylor's <i>The Alphabet</i>, vol. II. +p. 336. See also <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1910, pp. 1208-1214.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_940_940" id="Footnote_940_940"></a><a href="#FNanchor_940_940"><span class="label">[940]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> see the Tisastvustik, a sûtra in a Turkish +dialect and Uigur characters found at Turfan and published in +<i>Bibliotheca Buddhica</i>, XII.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_941_941" id="Footnote_941_941"></a><a href="#FNanchor_941_941"><span class="label">[941]</span></a> See Kokka, No. 311, 1916, <i>Tibetan Art in China</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_942_942" id="Footnote_942_942"></a><a href="#FNanchor_942_942"><span class="label">[942]</span></a> <i>Sanang Setsen</i>, p. 121. The succession of the Sakya +abbots is not clear but the primacy continued in the family. See +Köppen, II. p. 105.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_943_943" id="Footnote_943_943"></a><a href="#FNanchor_943_943"><span class="label">[943]</span></a> Strictly speaking a place-name.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_944_944" id="Footnote_944_944"></a><a href="#FNanchor_944_944"><span class="label">[944]</span></a> The Tibetan orthography is bTsoṇ (or +Tsoṇ)-kha-pa. He was called rJe-rin-po-che bLo-bzaṇ-grags-pa in +Tibetan and Arya-mahâratna Sumatikîrti in Sanskrit. The Tibetan +orthography of the monastery is sKu-ḥbum or hundred thousand +pictures. See, for accounts of his life, Sarat Chandra Das in +<i>J.A.S.B.</i> 1882, pp. 53-57 and 127. Huth, <i>Buddhismus in der +Mongolei</i>, ii. pp. 175 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_945_945" id="Footnote_945_945"></a><a href="#FNanchor_945_945"><span class="label">[945]</span></a> There is some difference of statement as to whether +these markings are images of Tsong-kha-pa or Tibetan characters. Hue, +though no Buddhist, thought them miraculous. See his <i>Travels in +Tartary</i>, vol. ii. chap. ii. See also Rockhill, <i>Land of the Lamas</i>, +p. 67, and Filchner, <i>Das Kloster Kumbum</i>, chap. vi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_946_946" id="Footnote_946_946"></a><a href="#FNanchor_946_946"><span class="label">[946]</span></a> But the tradition mentioned by Hue that he was +instructed by a long-nosed stranger from the west, has not been found +in any Tibetan biography.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_947_947" id="Footnote_947_947"></a><a href="#FNanchor_947_947"><span class="label">[947]</span></a> Tibetan orthography writes dGaḥ-ldan, Se-ra, +hBras-spuns and bKra-śis-Lhun-po. dGaḥ-ldan, the happy, is a +translation of the Sanskrit Tushita or Paradise. Tsong-kha-pa's +reformed sect was originally called dGaḥ-lugs-pa or those who +follow the way of dGȧ-ldan. But this possibly suggested those who +pursue pleasure and the name was changed to dGe-lugs-pa or those of +the virtuous order.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_948_948" id="Footnote_948_948"></a><a href="#FNanchor_948_948"><span class="label">[948]</span></a> dGe-'dun grub.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_949_949" id="Footnote_949_949"></a><a href="#FNanchor_949_949"><span class="label">[949]</span></a> He was not the same as Ha-li-ma (see p. 277) of whom +more is heard in Chinese accounts. Ha-li-ma or Karma was fifth head of +the Karma-pa school and was invited on his own merits to China where +he died in 1426 or 1414. See Huth, <i>l.c.</i> vol. I. p. 109 and vol. II. +p. 171. Also Köppen, <i>die Rel. des Buddha</i>, II. 107. +Byams-chen-chos-rje was invited as the representative of Tsong-ka-pa. +See Huth, <i>l.c.</i> vol. I. p. 120, vol. II. p. 129.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_950_950" id="Footnote_950_950"></a><a href="#FNanchor_950_950"><span class="label">[950]</span></a> See for a list of the Lamas of Tashilhunpo and their +lives <i>J.A.S.B.</i> 1882, pp. 15-52. The third incarnation was Abhayakara +Gupta, a celebrated Bengali Pandit who flourished in the reign of +Râmapâla. This appears to have been about 1075-1115, but there is +considerable discrepancy in the dates given.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_951_951" id="Footnote_951_951"></a><a href="#FNanchor_951_951"><span class="label">[951]</span></a> See for his life <i>J.A.S.B.</i> 1882, p. 24.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_952_952" id="Footnote_952_952"></a><a href="#FNanchor_952_952"><span class="label">[952]</span></a> Tsong-kha-pa is not reckoned in this series of +incarnations, for firstly he was regarded as an incarnation of +Mañjuśrî and secondly Geden-dub was born before his death and +hence could not represent the spirit which dwelt in him.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_953_953" id="Footnote_953_953"></a><a href="#FNanchor_953_953"><span class="label">[953]</span></a> Tibetan sPrul-pa, Mongol Khubilghan. Both are +translations of the Sanskrit Nirmâna and the root idea is not +incarnation but transformation in an illusive form.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_954_954" id="Footnote_954_954"></a><a href="#FNanchor_954_954"><span class="label">[954]</span></a> The following list of Grand Lamas is taken from +Grünwedel's <i>Mythologie</i>, p. 206. Their names are followed by the +title rGya-mThso and in many cases the first part of the name is a +title. +</p> + <table summary="List of GrandLamas" > + <tr> + <td>1. </td> + <td>dGe-ḥdun-dub, 1391-1478. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>2. </td> + <td>dGe-ḥdun, 1479-1541. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>3. </td> + <td>bSod-nams, 1543-1586. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>4. </td> + <td>Yon-tan, 1587-1614. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>5. </td> + <td>Ṅag-dbaṇ bLo-bzaṇ, 1617-1680. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>6. </td> + <td>Rin-chen Thsaṇs-dbyaṇs, 1693-1703. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>7. </td> + <td>bLo-bzaṇ sKal-dan, 1705-1758. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>8. </td> + <td>bLo-bzaṇ ḥJam-dpal, 1759-1805. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>9. </td> + <td>bLo-bzaṇ Luṇ-rtogs, 1806-1815. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>10. </td> + <td>bLo-bzaṇ Thsul-khrims, 1817-1837. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>11. </td> + <td>bLo-bzaṇ dGe-dmu, 1838-1855. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>12. </td> + <td>bLo-bzaṇ Phrin-las, 1856-1874. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>13. </td> + <td>Ṅag-dbaṇ bLo-bzaṇ Thub-ldam, 1875. </td> + </tr> + </table> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_955_955" id="Footnote_955_955"></a><a href="#FNanchor_955_955"><span class="label">[955]</span></a> See for an account of his doings Sanang Setsen, chap. +IX. Huth, <i>Geschichte</i>, II. pp. 200 ff. Köppen, II. pp. 134 ff. It +would appear that about 1545 northwestern Tibet was devastated by +Mohammedans from Kashgar. See Waddell, <i>Buddhism</i>, p. 583.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_956_956" id="Footnote_956_956"></a><a href="#FNanchor_956_956"><span class="label">[956]</span></a> Also known as Yenta or Anda. See, for some particulars +about him, Parker in N. China Branch of <i>R.A.S.</i> 1913, pp. 92 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_957_957" id="Footnote_957_957"></a><a href="#FNanchor_957_957"><span class="label">[957]</span></a> Naturally the narrative is not told without miraculous +embellishment, including the singular story that Altan who suffered +from the gout used to put his feet every month into the ripped up body +of a man or horse and bathe them in the warm blood. Avalokita appeared +to him when engaged in this inhuman cure and bade him desist and atone +for his sins.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_958_958" id="Footnote_958_958"></a><a href="#FNanchor_958_958"><span class="label">[958]</span></a> In Tibetan rGya-mThso. Compare the Chinese expression +hai liang (sea measure) meaning capacious or broad minded. The Khagan +received the title of lHai thsaṇs-pa chen-po equivalent to +Divyamahâbrahmâ.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_959_959" id="Footnote_959_959"></a><a href="#FNanchor_959_959"><span class="label">[959]</span></a> The correct Mongol names of this place seem to be Örgö +and Kürä. The Lama's name was bSam-pa rGya-mThso.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_960_960" id="Footnote_960_960"></a><a href="#FNanchor_960_960"><span class="label">[960]</span></a> He finished his history in 1608 and lived some time +longer so that bSam-pa rGya-mThso cannot have been an incarnation of +him.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_961_961" id="Footnote_961_961"></a><a href="#FNanchor_961_961"><span class="label">[961]</span></a> This is an accepted abbreviation of his full name +Ṅag-dbaṇ bLo-zaṇ rGya-mThso. Ṅag-dbaṇ is an epithet +meaning eloquent.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_962_962" id="Footnote_962_962"></a><a href="#FNanchor_962_962"><span class="label">[962]</span></a> The name is variously written Gushi, Gushri, Gus'ri, +etc., and is said to stand for Guruśrî. The name of the tribe also +varies: Oirad and Oegeled are both found.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_963_963" id="Footnote_963_963"></a><a href="#FNanchor_963_963"><span class="label">[963]</span></a> So called from the sacred hill in India on which +Avalokita lives. The origin of the name is doubtful but before the +time of Hsüan Chuang it had come to be applied to a mountain in South +India.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_964_964" id="Footnote_964_964"></a><a href="#FNanchor_964_964"><span class="label">[964]</span></a> Some European authorities consider that Lo-zang +invented this system of incarnations. Native evidence seems to me to +point the other way, but it must be admitted that if he was the first +to claim for himself this dignity it would be natural for him to claim +it for his predecessors also and cause ecclesiastical history to be +written accordingly.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_965_965" id="Footnote_965_965"></a><a href="#FNanchor_965_965"><span class="label">[965]</span></a> sDe-srid.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_966_966" id="Footnote_966_966"></a><a href="#FNanchor_966_966"><span class="label">[966]</span></a> It is said that all Ambans were Manchus.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_967_967" id="Footnote_967_967"></a><a href="#FNanchor_967_967"><span class="label">[967]</span></a> See E. Ludwig, <i>The visit of the Teshoo Lama to +Peking</i>, Tientsin Press, 1904. See also <i>J.A.S.B.</i> 1882, pp. 29-52.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_968_968" id="Footnote_968_968"></a><a href="#FNanchor_968_968"><span class="label">[968]</span></a> See the curious edict of Chia Ch'ing translated by +Waddell in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1910, pp. 69 ff. The Chinese Government were +disposed to discredit the sixth, seventh and eighth incarnations and +to pass straight from the fifth Grand Lama to the ninth.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_969_969" id="Footnote_969_969"></a><a href="#FNanchor_969_969"><span class="label">[969]</span></a> See for a translation of this curious decree, <i>North +China Herald</i> of March 4th, 1910.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_970_970" id="Footnote_970_970"></a><a href="#FNanchor_970_970"><span class="label">[970]</span></a> In the List of the Bhutan Hierarchs given by Waddell +(<i>Buddhism</i>, p. 242) it is said that the first was contemporary with +the third Grand Lama, 1543-1580.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_971_971" id="Footnote_971_971"></a><a href="#FNanchor_971_971"><span class="label">[971]</span></a> According to Waddell (<i>Buddhism</i>, p. 242) he appears to +be a rebirth of Dupgani Sheptun, a Lama greatly respected by the +Tibetan invaders of Bhutan. For some account of the religion of Bhutan +in the early 19th century, see the article by Davis in <i>T.R.A.S.</i> vol. +II. 1830, p. 491.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_972_972" id="Footnote_972_972"></a><a href="#FNanchor_972_972"><span class="label">[972]</span></a> The fullest account of Sikhimese Buddhism is given by +Waddell in the <i>Gazetteer of Sikhim</i>, 1894. See also Rémy, <i>Pèlerinage +au Monastère de Pemmiontsi</i>, 1880; Silacara "Buddhism in Sikkim," +<i>Buddhist Review</i>, 1916, p. 97.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_372" id="Page_3_372"></a>[Pg 372]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_LI" id="CHAPTER_LI"></a>CHAPTER LI</h2> + +<h3>TIBET <i>(continued)</i></h3> + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Canon</span></h3> + + +<p>Tibet is so remote and rude a land that it is a surprise to learn that +it has a voluminous literature and further that much of this +literature, though not all, is learned and scholastic. The explanation +is that the national life was most vigorous in the great monasteries +which were in close touch with Indian learning. Moreover Tibetan +became to some extent the Latin of the surrounding countries, the +language of learning and religion.</p> + +<p>For our purpose the principal works are the two great collections of +sacred and edifying literature translated into Tibetan and known as +the Kanjur and Tanjur<a name="FNanchor_973_973" id="FNanchor_973_973"></a><a href="#Footnote_973_973" class="fnanchor">[973]</a>. The first contains works esteemed as +canonical, including Tantras. The second is composed of exegetical +literature and also of many treatises on such subjects as medicine, +astronomy and grammar<a name="FNanchor_974_974" id="FNanchor_974_974"></a><a href="#Footnote_974_974" class="fnanchor">[974]</a>. The two together correspond roughly +speaking to the Chinese Tripitaka, but are more bulky. The canonical +part is smaller but the commentaries and miscellaneous writings more +numerous. There are also other differences due to the fact that the +great literary epoch of Tibet was in the ninth century, whereas nearly +three-quarters of the Chinese Tripitaka had been translated before +that date. Thus the Kanjur appears to contain none<a name="FNanchor_975_975" id="FNanchor_975_975"></a><a href="#Footnote_975_975" class="fnanchor">[975]</a> of the +Abhidhamma works of the Hînayâna and none of the great Nikâyas as +such, though single sûtras are entered in the catalogues as separate +books. Further there is only one version of the Vinaya whereas the +Chinese Tripitaka has five, but there are several important +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_373" id="Page_3_373"></a>[Pg 373]</span> +Tantras which are wanting in Chinese. The Tibetan scriptures reflect +the late Buddhism of Magadha when the great books of the Hinayanist +Canon were neglected, though not wholly unknown, and a new tantric +literature was flourishing exuberantly.</p> + +<p>The contents of the Kanjur and Tanjur are chiefly known by analyses +and indices<a name="FNanchor_976_976" id="FNanchor_976_976"></a><a href="#Footnote_976_976" class="fnanchor">[976]</a>, although several editions and translations of short +treatises have been published<a name="FNanchor_977_977" id="FNanchor_977_977"></a><a href="#Footnote_977_977" class="fnanchor">[977]</a>. The information obtained may be +briefly summarized as follows.</p> + +<p>The Kanjur in its different editions consists of one hundred or one +hundred and eight volumes, most of which contain several treatises, +although sometimes one work, for instance the Vinaya, may fill many +volumes. The whole collection is commonly divided into seven +parts<a name="FNanchor_978_978" id="FNanchor_978_978"></a><a href="#Footnote_978_978" class="fnanchor">[978]</a>.</p> + +<p>I. The Dulva<a name="FNanchor_979_979" id="FNanchor_979_979"></a><a href="#Footnote_979_979" class="fnanchor">[979]</a>, equivalent to the Vinaya. It is stated to be the +Mûla-sarvâstivâda Vinaya, and so far as any opinion can be formed from +the small portions available for comparison, it agrees with the +Chinese translation of Kumârajîva and also (though with some +difference in the order of paragraphs) with the Sanskrit Prâtimoksha +found at Kucha<a name="FNanchor_980_980" id="FNanchor_980_980"></a><a href="#Footnote_980_980" class="fnanchor">[980]</a>. It is longer and more mixed with narrative than +the corresponding Pali code.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_374" id="Page_3_374"></a>[Pg 374]</span></p> +<p>II. The second division is known as Śer-chin<a name="FNanchor_981_981" id="FNanchor_981_981"></a><a href="#Footnote_981_981" class="fnanchor">[981]</a>, +corresponding to the Prajñâ-pâramitâ and in the estimation of the +Tibetans to the Abhidharma. It is said to have been first collected by +Kâśyapa and to represent the teaching delivered by the Buddha in +his fifty-first year. This section appears to contain nothing but +versions, longer or shorter, of the Prajñâpâramitâ, the limit of +concentration being reached by a text in which the Buddha explains +that the whole of this teaching is comprised in the letter A. As in +China and Japan, the Vajracchedikâ (rDo-rJe-gCod-pa) is very popular +and has been printed in many editions.</p> + +<p>III. The third division is called Phal-chen, equivalent to +Avataṃsaka. Beckh treats it as one work in six volumes with out +subdivisions. Feer gives forty-five subdivisions, some of which appear +as separate treatises in the section of the Chinese Tripitaka called +Hua Yen<a name="FNanchor_982_982" id="FNanchor_982_982"></a><a href="#Footnote_982_982" class="fnanchor">[982]</a>.</p> + +<p>IV. The fourth division called dKon-brtsegs or Ratnakûṭa agrees +closely with the similar section of the Chinese Tripitaka but consists +of only forty-eight or forty-five sûtras, according to the +edition<a name="FNanchor_983_983" id="FNanchor_983_983"></a><a href="#Footnote_983_983" class="fnanchor">[983]</a>.</p> + +<p>V. The fifth section is called mDo, equivalent to Sûtra. In its +narrower sense mDo means sûtras which are miscellaneous in so far as +they do not fall into special classes, but it also comprises such +important works as the Lalita-vistara, Lankâvatâra and +Saddharma-puṇḍarîka. Of the 270 works contained in this section +about 90 are <i>prima facie</i> identical with works in the Ching division +of the Chinese Tripitaka and probably the identity of many others is +obscured by slight changes of title. An interesting point in the mDo +is that it contains several sûtras translated from the Pali<a name="FNanchor_984_984" id="FNanchor_984_984"></a><a href="#Footnote_984_984" class="fnanchor">[984]</a>, viz. +Nos. 13-25 of vol. XXX, nine of which are taken from the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_375" id="Page_3_375"></a>[Pg 375]</span> +collection known as Paritta. The names and dates of the translators +are not given but the existence of these translations probably +indicates that a knowledge of Pali lingered on in Magadha later than +is generally supposed. It will also be remembered that about A.D. +1000, Atîśa though a Tantrist, studied in Burma and presumably came +in contact with Pali literature. Rockhill notes that the Tanjur +contains a commentary on the Lotus Sûtra written by Prithivibandhu, a +monk from Ceylon, and Pali manuscripts have been found in Nepal<a name="FNanchor_985_985" id="FNanchor_985_985"></a><a href="#Footnote_985_985" class="fnanchor">[985]</a>. +It is possible that Sinhalese may have brought Pali books to northern +India and given them to Tibetans whom they met there.</p> + +<p>VI. The sixth division is called Myaṇg-ḥdas or Nirvâṇa, +meaning the description of the death of the Buddha which also forms a +special section in the Chinese Tripitaka. Here it consists of only one +work, apparently corresponding to Nanjio 113<a name="FNanchor_986_986" id="FNanchor_986_986"></a><a href="#Footnote_986_986" class="fnanchor">[986]</a>.</p> + +<p>VII. The seventh and last section is called rGyud<a name="FNanchor_987_987" id="FNanchor_987_987"></a><a href="#Footnote_987_987" class="fnanchor">[987]</a> or Tantra. It +consists of twenty-two volumes containing about 300 treatises. Between +thirty and forty are <i>prima facie</i> identical with treatises comprised +in the Chinese Tripitaka and perhaps further examination might greatly +increase the number, for the titles of these books are often long and +capable of modification. Still it is probable that the major part of +this literature was either deliberately rejected by the Chinese or was +composed at a period when religious intercourse had become languid +between India and China but was still active between India and Tibet. +From the titles it appears that many of these works are Brahmanic in +spirit rather than Buddhist; thus we have the Mahâgaṇapati-tantra, +the Mahâkâla-tantra, and many others. Among the better known Tantras +may be mentioned the Arya-mañjuśrî-mûla-tantra and the Śrî-Guhya +Samaja<a name="FNanchor_988_988" id="FNanchor_988_988"></a><a href="#Footnote_988_988" class="fnanchor">[988]</a>, both highly praised by Csoma de Körös: but perhaps more +important is the Tantra on which the Kâlacakra system is founded. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_376" id="Page_3_376"></a>[Pg 376]</span> +It is styled Paramâdibuddha-uddhṛita-śrî-kâlacakra and there is +also a compendium giving its essence or Hṛidaya.</p> + +<p>The Tanjur is a considerably larger collection than the Kanjur for it +consists of 225 volumes but its contents are imperfectly known. A +portion has been catalogued by Palmyr Cordier. It is known to contain +a great deal of relatively late Indian theology such as the works of +Aśvaghosha, Nâgârjuna, Asanga, Vasubandhu, and other Mahayanist +doctors, and also secular literature such as the Meghadûta of +Kâlidâsa, together with a multitude of works on logic, rhetoric, +grammar and medicine<a name="FNanchor_989_989" id="FNanchor_989_989"></a><a href="#Footnote_989_989" class="fnanchor">[989]</a>. Some treatises, such as the Udâna<a name="FNanchor_990_990" id="FNanchor_990_990"></a><a href="#Footnote_990_990" class="fnanchor">[990]</a> +occur in both collections but on the whole the Tanjur is clearly +intended as a thesaurus of exegetical and scientific literature, +science being considered, as in the middle ages of Europe, to be the +handmaid of the Church. Grammar and lexicography help the +understanding of scripture: medicine has been of great use in +establishing the influence of the Lamas: secular law is or should be +an amplification of the Church's code: history compiled by sound +theologians shows how the true faith is progressive and triumphant: +art and ritual are so near together that their boundaries can hardly +be delimitated. Taking this view of the world, we find in the Tanjur +all that a learned man need know<a name="FNanchor_991_991" id="FNanchor_991_991"></a><a href="#Footnote_991_991" class="fnanchor">[991]</a>.</p> + +<p>It is divided into two parts, mDo (Sûtra) and rGyud (Tantra), besides +a volume of hymns and an index. The same method of division is really +applicable to the Kanjur, for the Tibetan Dulva is little more than a +combination of Sûtras and Jâtakas and sections two, three, four and +six of the Kanjur are collections of special sûtras. In both +compilations the tantric section appears to consist of later books +expounding ideas which are further from the teaching of Gotama than +the Mahayanist sûtras.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_377" id="Page_3_377"></a>[Pg 377]</span></p> +<p>To the great majority of works in both collections is prefixed a +title which gives the Sanskrit name first in transcription and then in +translation, for instance "In Sanskrit Citralakshana: in Tibetan +Ri-moi-mthsan-ñid<a name="FNanchor_992_992" id="FNanchor_992_992"></a><a href="#Footnote_992_992" class="fnanchor">[992]</a>." Hence there is usually no doubt as to what +the Tibetan translations profess to be. Sometimes however the headings +are regrettably brief. The Vinaya for instance appears to be +introduced with that simple superscription and with no indication of +the school or locality to which the text belonged.</p> + +<p>Although the titles of books are given in Sanskrit, yet all Indian +proper names which have a meaning (as most have) are translated. Thus +the name Drona (signifying a measure and roughly equivalent to such an +English name as Dr. Bushell) is rendered by Bre-bo, a similar measure +in Tibetan. This habit greatly increases the difficulty of reading +Tibetan texts. The translators apparently desired to give a Tibetan +equivalent for every word and even for every part of a word, so as to +make clear the etymology as well as the meaning of the sacred +original. The learned language thus produced must have varied greatly +from the vernacular of every period but its slavish fidelity makes it +possible to reconstruct the original Sanskrit with tolerable +certainty.</p> + +<p>I have already mentioned the presence of translations from the Pali. +There are also a few from the Chinese<a name="FNanchor_993_993" id="FNanchor_993_993"></a><a href="#Footnote_993_993" class="fnanchor">[993]</a> which appear to be of no +special importance. One work is translated from the Bruza language +which was perhaps spoken in the modern Gilgit<a name="FNanchor_994_994" id="FNanchor_994_994"></a><a href="#Footnote_994_994" class="fnanchor">[994]</a> and another from +the language of Khotan<a name="FNanchor_995_995" id="FNanchor_995_995"></a><a href="#Footnote_995_995" class="fnanchor">[995]</a>. Some works in the Kanjur have no Sanskrit +titles and are perhaps original compositions in Tibetan. The Tanjur +appears to contain many such.</p> + +<p>But the Kanjur and Tanjur as a whole represent the literature +approved by the late Buddhism of Bengal and certain resemblances to +the arrangement of the Chinese Tripitaka suggest that not only new +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_378" id="Page_3_378"></a>[Pg 378]</span> +sûtras but new classifications of sûtras had replaced the old Pitakas +and Agamas. The Tibetan Canon being later than the Chinese has lost +the Abhidharma and added a large section of Tantras. But both canons +recognize the divisions known as Prajñâ-pâramitâ, Ratnakuṭa, +Avatamsaka, and Mahâparinirvâṇa as separate sections. The Ratnakûta +is clearly a collection of sûtras equivalent to a small Nikâya<a name="FNanchor_996_996" id="FNanchor_996_996"></a><a href="#Footnote_996_996" class="fnanchor">[996]</a>. +This is probably also true of the voluminous Prajñâ-pâramitâ in its +various editions, but the divisions are not commonly treated as +separate works except the Vajracchedikâ. The imperfectly known +Avatamsaka Sûtra appears to be a similar collection, since it is +described as discourses of the Buddha pronounced at eight +assemblies. The Mahâparinirvâṇa Sûtra though not nominally a +collection of sûtras (at least in its Pali form) is unique both in +subject and structure, and it is easy to understand why it was put in +a class by itself.</p> + +<p>The translation of all this literature falls into three periods, (i) +from the seventh century until the reign of Ralpachan in the ninth, +(ii) the reign of Ralpachan, and (in) some decades following the +arrival of Atîśa in 1038. In the first period work was sporadic and +the translations made were not always those preserved in the Kanjur. +Thonmi Sanbhota, the envoy sent to India in 616 is said to have made +renderings of the Karaṇḍa Vyûha and other works (but not those +now extant) and three items in the Tanjur are attributed to him<a name="FNanchor_997_997" id="FNanchor_997_997"></a><a href="#Footnote_997_997" class="fnanchor">[997]</a>. +The existence of early translations has been confirmed by Stein who +discovered at Endere a Tibetan manuscript of the Śalistambhasûtra +which is said not to be later than about 740 A.D.<a name="FNanchor_998_998" id="FNanchor_998_998"></a><a href="#Footnote_998_998" class="fnanchor">[998]</a> The version now +found in the Kanjur appears to be a revision and expansion of this +earlier text.</p> + +<p>A few translations from Chinese texts are attributed to the reign of +Khri-gtsug-lde-btsan (705-755) and Rockhill calls attention to the +interesting statement that he sent envoys to India who learned +Sanskrit books by heart and on their return reproduced them in +Tibetan. If this was a common habit, it may be one of the reasons why +Tibetan translations sometimes show differences in length, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_379" id="Page_3_379"></a>[Pg 379]</span> +arrangement and even subject matter when compared with Sanskrit and +Chinese versions bearing the same name. During the reign of +Khri-sroṇ-lde-btsan and the visit of Padma-Sambhava (which began in +A.D. 747 according to the traditional chronology) the number of +translations began to increase. Two works ascribed to the king and one +to the saint are included in the canon, but the most prolific writer +and translator of this period was Kamalaśîla. Seventeen of his +original works are preserved in the Tanjur and he translated part of +the Ratnakûta. The great period of translation—the Augustan age of +Tibet as it is often called—was beginning and a solid foundation was +laid by composing two dictionaries containing a collection of Sanskrit +Buddhist terms<a name="FNanchor_999_999" id="FNanchor_999_999"></a><a href="#Footnote_999_999" class="fnanchor">[999]</a>.</p> + +<p>The Augustus of Tibet was Ralpachan who ruled in the ninth century, +though Tibetan and Chinese chronicles are not in accord as to his +exact date. He summoned from Kashmir and India many celebrated doctors +who with the help of native assistants took seriously in hand the +business of rendering the canon into Tibetan. They revised the +existing translations and added many more of their own. It is probable +that at least half of the works now contained in the Kanjur and Tanjur +were translated or revised at this time and that the additions made +later were chiefly Tantras (rGyud). On the other hand it is also +probable that many tantric translations ascribed to this epoch are +really later<a name="FNanchor_1000_1000" id="FNanchor_1000_1000"></a><a href="#Footnote_1000_1000" class="fnanchor">[1000]</a>. The most prolific of Ralpachan's translators was +Jinamitra, a pandit of Kashmir described as belonging to the +Vaibhâshika school, who translated a large part of the Vinaya and many +sûtras<a name="FNanchor_1001_1001" id="FNanchor_1001_1001"></a><a href="#Footnote_1001_1001" class="fnanchor">[1001]</a>. Among the many Tibetan assistants Ye'ses-sde and +Dpal-brTsegs are perhaps those most frequently mentioned. These +Tibetan translators are commonly described by the title of Lo-tsa-va. +As in China the usual procedure seems to have been that an Indian +pandit explained the sacred text to a native. The latter then wrote it +down, but whereas in China he generally paraphrased whatever he +understood, in Tibet he endeavoured to reproduce it with laborious +fidelity.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_380" id="Page_3_380"></a>[Pg 380]</span></p> +<p>The language of the translations, which is now the accepted form +of literary Tibetan, appears to have been an archaic and classical +dialect even in the early days of Tibetan Buddhism, for it is not the +same as the language of the secular documents dating from the eighth +century, which have been found in Turkestan, and it remains unchanged +in the earliest and later translations. It may possibly have been the +sacred language of the Bonpo<a name="FNanchor_1002_1002" id="FNanchor_1002_1002"></a><a href="#Footnote_1002_1002" class="fnanchor">[1002]</a> priests.</p> + +<p>As narrated in the historical section Buddhism suffered a severe +reverse with the death of Ralpachan and it was nearly a century before +a revival began. This revival was distinctly tantric and the most +celebrated name connected with it is Atîśa. According to Csoma de +Körös's chronology the Kâlacakra system was introduced in 1025 and the +eminent translator bLo-ldan-shes-rab<a name="FNanchor_1003_1003" id="FNanchor_1003_1003"></a><a href="#Footnote_1003_1003" class="fnanchor">[1003]</a>, a follower of Atîśa, +was born in 1057. It is thus easy to understand how during the +eleventh century a great number of tantric works were translated and +the published catalogues of the Kanjur and Tanjur confirm the fact, +although the authors of the translations are not mentioned so often as +in the other divisions. To Atîśa is ascribed the revision of many +works in the Tantra section of the Kanjur and twenty others composed +by him are found in the Tanjur<a name="FNanchor_1004_1004" id="FNanchor_1004_1004"></a><a href="#Footnote_1004_1004" class="fnanchor">[1004]</a>. It is said that the definitive +arrangement of the two collections as we know them was made by Bu-ston +early in the thirteenth century<a name="FNanchor_1005_1005" id="FNanchor_1005_1005"></a><a href="#Footnote_1005_1005" class="fnanchor">[1005]</a>. The Kanjur (but not the Tanjur) +was translated into Mongol by order of Khutuktu Khagan (1604-1634) +the last prince of the Chakhar Mongols but a printed edition was +first published by the Emperor K'ang-Hsi. Though it is said that the +Tanjur was translated and printed by order of Ch'ien-Lung, the +statement is doubtful. If such a translation was made it was probably +partial and in manuscript<a name="FNanchor_1006_1006" id="FNanchor_1006_1006"></a><a href="#Footnote_1006_1006" class="fnanchor">[1006]</a>.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_381" id="Page_3_381"></a>[Pg 381]</span></p> +<p>Manuscripts are still extensively copied and used in Tibet but the +Kanjur has been printed from wooden blocks for the last 200 years. +There are said to be two printing presses, the older at Narthang near +Tashilhunpo where an edition in 100 volumes is produced and another at +Derge in the eastern province. This edition is in 108 volumes. An +edition was also printed at Peking by order of K'ang-Hsi in red type +and with a preface by the Emperor himself<a name="FNanchor_1007_1007" id="FNanchor_1007_1007"></a><a href="#Footnote_1007_1007" class="fnanchor">[1007]</a>.</p> + +<p>Besides the canon the Tibetans possess many religious or edifying +works composed in their own language<a name="FNanchor_1008_1008" id="FNanchor_1008_1008"></a><a href="#Footnote_1008_1008" class="fnanchor">[1008]</a>. Such are the +Padma-than-yig, or life of Padma-Sambhava, the works of Tsong-kha-pa, +and several histories such as those of Bu-ston, Târanâtha, Sum-pa, and +hJigs-med-nam-mkha<a name="FNanchor_1009_1009" id="FNanchor_1009_1009"></a><a href="#Footnote_1009_1009" class="fnanchor">[1009]</a>, biographies of Lamas without number, +accounts of holy places, works of private devotion, medical treatises +and grammars.</p> + +<p>There are also numerous works called Terma which profess to be +revelations composed by Padma-Sambhava. They are said to be popular, +though apparently not accepted by the Yellow Church.</p> + +<p>Although it hardly comes within the scope of the present study, I may +mention that there is also some non-Buddhist literature in Tibet, +sometimes described as scriptures of the Bön religion and sometimes as +folklore. As samples may be cited Laufer's edition and translation of +the <i>Hundred Thousand Nâgas</i><a name="FNanchor_1010_1010" id="FNanchor_1010_1010"></a><a href="#Footnote_1010_1010" class="fnanchor">[1010]</a> and Francke's of parts of the +<i>Kesar-saga</i><a name="FNanchor_1011_1011" id="FNanchor_1011_1011"></a><a href="#Footnote_1011_1011" class="fnanchor">[1011]</a>.</p> + + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_973_973" id="Footnote_973_973"></a><a href="#FNanchor_973_973"><span class="label">[973]</span></a> The Tibetan orthography is bKah-hgyur (the translated +command) and bsTan-ḥgyur (the translated explanation). Various +spellings are used by European writers such as Kah-gyur, Kandjour, +Bkahgyur, etc. Waddell writes Kah-gyur and Tän-gyur.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_974_974" id="Footnote_974_974"></a><a href="#FNanchor_974_974"><span class="label">[974]</span></a> Though this distinction seems to hold good on the +whole, yet it is not strictly observed. Thus the work called Udâna and +corresponding to the Dhammapada is found in both the Kanjur and +Tanjur.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_975_975" id="Footnote_975_975"></a><a href="#FNanchor_975_975"><span class="label">[975]</span></a> Nanjio's catalogue states that a great many +Abhidhaṛma works in Chinese agree with Tibetan, but their titles +are not to be found in Csoma's analysis of the Kanjur. They may +however be in the Tanjur, which is less fully analyzed.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_976_976" id="Footnote_976_976"></a><a href="#FNanchor_976_976"><span class="label">[976]</span></a> Analysis of the Dulva, etc., four parts in <i>Asiatic +Researches</i>, vol. XX. 1836, by A. Csoma Körösi. Translated into French +by Feer, <i>Annales du Musée Guimet</i>, tome 2me, 1881. <i>Index des +Kanjur</i>, herausgegeben von I.J. Schmidt (in Tibetan), 1845. Huth, +<i>Verzeichnis der in Tibetischen Tanjur, Abtheilung mDo, erhaltenen +Werke</i> in <i>Sitzungsber. Berlin. Akad.</i> 1895. P. Cordier, <i>Catalogue du +fonds Tibétain de la Bibliothèque Nationale</i>. Beckh, <i>Verzeichnis der +tibetischen Handscriften der K. Bibliothek zu Berlin</i>, 1 Abth., +Kanjur, 1914. This is an analysis of the edition in 108 volumes, +whereas Csoma de Körösi and Feer analyzed the edition in 100 volumes. +The arrangement of the two editions is not quite the same. See too +Pelliot's review of Beckh's catalogue in <i>J.A.</i> 1914, II. pp. 111 ff. +See also Waddell, "Tibetan Manuscripts and Books" in <i>Asiatic +Quarterly</i>, July, 1912, pp. 80-113, which, though not an analysis of +the Canon, incidentally gives much information.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_977_977" id="Footnote_977_977"></a><a href="#FNanchor_977_977"><span class="label">[977]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Udâna ( = Dhammapada) by Rockhill, 1892 +(transl.), and Beckh (text 1911) Madhyamakâvatâra: de la Vallée +Poussin, 1912, Madyamika-śâstra: Max Walleser, 1911 (transl.), +Citralakshana, ed. and trans. Laufer, 1913; Feer, <i>Fragments extraits +du Kanjur, Annales du Musée Guimet</i>, tome 5me, 1883.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_978_978" id="Footnote_978_978"></a><a href="#FNanchor_978_978"><span class="label">[978]</span></a> It is also sometimes divided into three Pitakas. When +this is done, the Dulva is the Vinaya P., the Śer-chin is the +Abhidharma P., and all the other works whether Sûtras or Tantras are +classed together as the Sûtra P.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_979_979" id="Footnote_979_979"></a><a href="#FNanchor_979_979"><span class="label">[979]</span></a> hDul-ba.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_980_980" id="Footnote_980_980"></a><a href="#FNanchor_980_980"><span class="label">[980]</span></a> See Nanjio, Nos. 1115-1119, 1122, 1132-4. Rockhill, +<i>Prâtimoksha Sûtra selon la version Tibétaine</i>, 1884. Huth, +<i>Tibetische Version der Naihsargikaprâyaccittikadharmâs</i>, 1891. Finot +and Hüber, "Le Prâtimoksa des Sarvâstivadins," <i>J.A.</i> 1913, II. p. +465.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_981_981" id="Footnote_981_981"></a><a href="#FNanchor_981_981"><span class="label">[981]</span></a> Strictly Śer-phyin.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_982_982" id="Footnote_982_982"></a><a href="#FNanchor_982_982"><span class="label">[982]</span></a> Waddell in <i>Asiatic Quarterly</i>, 1912, XXXIV. p. 98, +renders the title as Vata sangha, which probably represents +Avataṃsaka. Sarat Chandra Das, <i>sub voce</i>, says +Phal-chen-sde-pa = Mahâsanghika.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_983_983" id="Footnote_983_983"></a><a href="#FNanchor_983_983"><span class="label">[983]</span></a> The statements of Nanjio as to "deest in Tibetan" are +not quite accurate as regards the edition in 108 volumes. Compare his +catalogue with Beckh's.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_984_984" id="Footnote_984_984"></a><a href="#FNanchor_984_984"><span class="label">[984]</span></a> This statement made by such scholars as Feer (<i>Anal. du +Kanjour</i>, p. 288) and Rockhill (<i>Udâna</i>, p. x) is of great weight, +but I have not found in their works any quotation from the Tibetan +translation saying that the original language was not Sanskrit and the +titles given by Peer are in Sanskrit not in Pali. I presume it is not +meant that the Tibetan text is a translation from a Sanskrit text +which corresponds with the Pali text known to us. In Beckh's catalogue +of the edition in 108 volumes the same titles occur in the +Prajñâ-pâramitâ section, but without any statement that the works are +translated from Pali. See Beckh, p. 12, and Feer, pp. 288 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_985_985" id="Footnote_985_985"></a><a href="#FNanchor_985_985"><span class="label">[985]</span></a> <i>Life of the Buddha</i>, p. 224, and <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1899, p. +422.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_986_986" id="Footnote_986_986"></a><a href="#FNanchor_986_986"><span class="label">[986]</span></a> There is another shorter sûtra on the same subject in +the mDo section of the Kanjur. Feer, p. 247. In the edition of 108 +volumes, the whole section is incorporated in the mDo, Beckh, p. 33.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_987_987" id="Footnote_987_987"></a><a href="#FNanchor_987_987"><span class="label">[987]</span></a> The word seems originally to mean string or chain.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_988_988" id="Footnote_988_988"></a><a href="#FNanchor_988_988"><span class="label">[988]</span></a> Apparently not the same as the Tathâgata-Guhyaka +<i>alias</i> Guhya Samagha described by R. Mitra, <i>Sk. Bud. Lit</i>. p. 261.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_989_989" id="Footnote_989_989"></a><a href="#FNanchor_989_989"><span class="label">[989]</span></a> See notices of these in four articles by Satiścandra +Vidyâbhûshana in <i>J.A.S. Beng.</i> 1907.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_990_990" id="Footnote_990_990"></a><a href="#FNanchor_990_990"><span class="label">[990]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i> the Dhammapada.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_991_991" id="Footnote_991_991"></a><a href="#FNanchor_991_991"><span class="label">[991]</span></a> Huth's analysis of vols. 117-124 of the Tanjur +(<i>Sitzungsber. Kōn. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin</i>, 1895) shows that +they contain <i>inter alia</i>, eight works on Sanskrit literature and +philology besides the Meghadûta, nine on medicine and alchemy with +commentaries, fourteen on astrology and divination, three on chemistry +(the composition of incense), eight on gnomic poetry and ethics, one +encyclopædia, six lives of the Saints, six works on the Tibetan +language and five on painting and fine art. Cordier gives further +particulars of the medical works in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1903, p. 604. They +include a veterinary treatise.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_992_992" id="Footnote_992_992"></a><a href="#FNanchor_992_992"><span class="label">[992]</span></a> See title in Laufer's edition.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_993_993" id="Footnote_993_993"></a><a href="#FNanchor_993_993"><span class="label">[993]</span></a> See Feer, <i>l.c.</i> for instance, pp. 287, 248.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_994_994" id="Footnote_994_994"></a><a href="#FNanchor_994_994"><span class="label">[994]</span></a> See Feer, <i>l.c.</i> p. 344, and Laufer, "Die Bruza +Sprache" in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1908. It is said that King Ru-che-tsan of +Brusha or Dusha translated (? what date) the Mûla-Tantra and +Vyâkhyâ-Tantra into the language of his country. See <i>J.A.S.B.</i> 1882, +p. 12. Beckh states that four works have titles in Chinese, one in +Bruža and one in Tartar (Hor-gyi-skad-du).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_995_995" id="Footnote_995_995"></a><a href="#FNanchor_995_995"><span class="label">[995]</span></a> Laufer, <i>ibid</i>. p. 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_996_996" id="Footnote_996_996"></a><a href="#FNanchor_996_996"><span class="label">[996]</span></a> See Nanjio, No. 87, and Feer, <i>l.c.</i> pp. 208-212, but +the two works may not be the same. The Tibetan seems to be a +collection of 45 sûtras.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_997_997" id="Footnote_997_997"></a><a href="#FNanchor_997_997"><span class="label">[997]</span></a> Rockhill, <i>l.c.</i> p. 212.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_998_998" id="Footnote_998_998"></a><a href="#FNanchor_998_998"><span class="label">[998]</span></a> Stein, <i>Ancient Khotan</i>, pp. 426-9 and App. B. See also +Pelliot in <i>B.E.F.E.O.</i> 1908, pp. 507 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_999_999" id="Footnote_999_999"></a><a href="#FNanchor_999_999"><span class="label">[999]</span></a> The Mahâvyutpatti edited by Minayeff in <i>Bibl. +Buddhica</i> and an abridgement.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1000_1000" id="Footnote_1000_1000"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1000_1000"><span class="label">[1000]</span></a> According to Feer (<i>Analyse</i>, p. 325) Tibetan +historians state that at this epoch kings prohibited the translation +of more than a few tantric works.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1001_1001" id="Footnote_1001_1001"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1001_1001"><span class="label">[1001]</span></a> Numerous works are also ascribed to Sarvajñâdeva and +Dharmaka, both of Kashmir, and to the Indian Vidyâkaraprabhâ and +Surendrabodhi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1002_1002" id="Footnote_1002_1002"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1002_1002"><span class="label">[1002]</span></a> See Francke in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1914, pp. 56-7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1003_1003" id="Footnote_1003_1003"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1003_1003"><span class="label">[1003]</span></a> See Pander, <i>Pantheon</i>, No. 30.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1004_1004" id="Footnote_1004_1004"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1004_1004"><span class="label">[1004]</span></a> Waddell, <i>Buddhism</i>, p. 36, gives a list of them.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1005_1005" id="Footnote_1005_1005"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1005_1005"><span class="label">[1005]</span></a> It appears to me that there is some confusion between +Brom-ston, a disciple of Atîśa, who must have flourished about 1060 +and Bu-ston, who was born in 1288. Grünwedel says that the latter is +credited with the compilations of the Kanjur and Tanjur, but Rockhill +(<i>Life of the Buddha</i>, p. 227) describes Bu-ston as a disciple of +Atîśa.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1006_1006" id="Footnote_1006_1006"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1006_1006"><span class="label">[1006]</span></a> See Huth, <i>Geschichte des Budd. in der Mongolei</i>, 291, +and Laufer, "Skizze der Mongolischen Literatur" (in <i>Keleti Szemle</i>, +1907), p. 219. Also Pelliot in <i>J.A.</i> 1914, II. pp. 112-3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1007_1007" id="Footnote_1007_1007"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1007_1007"><span class="label">[1007]</span></a> See Laufer in <i>Bull. de l'Acad. de S. Pétersbourg</i>, +1909, pp. 567-574. There are some differences in the editions. That of +Narthang is said to contain a series of sûtras translated from the +Pali and wanting in the Red Edition, but not to contain two +translations from Chinese which are found in the Red Edition. See the +preface to Beckh's catalogue. The MS. analyzed by him was obtained at +Peking, but it is not known whence it came. An edition by Ch'ien Lung +is mentioned by some authors. It is also said that an edition is +printed at Punakha in Bhutan, and another in Mongolian at Kumbum.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1008_1008" id="Footnote_1008_1008"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1008_1008"><span class="label">[1008]</span></a> Some of these are probably included in the Tanjur, +which has not been fully catalogued. See <i>J.A.S. Beng</i>. 1904, for a +list of 85 printed books bought in Lhasa, 1902, and Waddell's article +in <i>Asiatic Quarterly</i>, July, 1912, already referred to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1009_1009" id="Footnote_1009_1009"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1009_1009"><span class="label">[1009]</span></a> Edited and translated by Huth as <i>Geschichte des +Buddhismus in der Mongolei</i>, 1892.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1010_1010" id="Footnote_1010_1010"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1010_1010"><span class="label">[1010]</span></a> Finno Ugrian Society of Helsingfors, 1898.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1011_1011" id="Footnote_1011_1011"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1011_1011"><span class="label">[1011]</span></a> Same Society, 1900 and 1902, and <i>J.A.S.B.</i> 1906-7.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_382" id="Page_3_382"></a>[Pg 382]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_LII" id="CHAPTER_LII"></a>CHAPTER LII</h2> + +<h3>TIBET (<i>continued</i>)</h3> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Doctrines of Lamaism</span></h3> + + +<p>Lamaism may be defined as a mixture of late Indian Buddhism (which is +itself a mixture of Buddhism and Hinduism) with various Tibetan +practices and beliefs. The principal of these are demonophobia and the +worship of human beings as incarnate deities. Demonophobia is a +compendious expression for an obsession which victimizes Chinese and +Hindus to some extent as well as Tibetans, namely, the conviction that +they are at all times surrounded by fierce and terrible beings against +whom they must protect themselves by all the methods that religion and +magic can supply. This is merely an acute form of the world-wide +belief that all nature is animated by good and bad spirits, of which +the latter being more aggressive require more attention, but it +assumes startlingly conspicuous forms in Tibet because the Church has +enlisted all the forces of art, theology and philosophy to aid in this +war against demons. The externals of Tibetan worship suffer much from +the idea that benevolent deities assume a terrible guise in order to +strike fear into the hosts of evil<a name="FNanchor_1012_1012" id="FNanchor_1012_1012"></a><a href="#Footnote_1012_1012" class="fnanchor">[1012]</a>. The helpers and saviours of +mankind such as Avalokita and Târâ are often depicted in the shape of +raging fiends, as hideous and revolting as a fanciful brush and +distorted brain can paint them. The idea inspiring these monstrous +images is not the worship of cruelty and terror, but the hope that +evil spirits may be kept away when they see how awful are the powers +which the Church can summon. Nevertheless the result is that a Lama +temple often looks like a pandemonium and meeting house for +devil-worship, an Olympus tenanted by Gorgons, Hydras and Furies. It +is only fair to say that Tibetan art sometimes represents with success +gods and saints in attitudes of repose and authority, and has produced +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_383" id="Page_3_383"></a>[Pg 383]</span> +some striking portraits<a name="FNanchor_1013_1013" id="FNanchor_1013_1013"></a><a href="#Footnote_1013_1013" class="fnanchor">[1013]</a>, but its most marked feature (which +it shares with literature) is a morbid love of the monstrous and +terrible, a perpetual endeavour to portray fiends surrounded with +every circumstance of horror, and still more appalling deities, all +eyes, heads and limbs, wreathed with fire, drinking blood from skulls +and trampling prostrate creatures to death beneath their feet. +Probably the wild and fantastic landscapes of Tibet, the awful +suggestions of the spectral mists, the real terrors of precipice, +desert and storm have wrought for ages upon the minds of those who +live among them.</p> + +<p>Like demonophobia, the worship of incarnate deities is common in +eastern Asia but here it acquires an extent and intensity unknown +elsewhere. The Tibetans show a strange power of organization in +dealing with the supernatural. In India incarnations have usually been +recognized post-mortem and as incalculable manifestations of the +spirit<a name="FNanchor_1014_1014" id="FNanchor_1014_1014"></a><a href="#Footnote_1014_1014" class="fnanchor">[1014]</a>. But at least since the seventeenth century, the Lamas +have accepted them as part of the Church's daily round and +administrative work. The practices of Shamanism probably prepared the +way, for in his mystic frenzies the Shaman is temporarily inhabited by +a god and the extreme ease with which distinguished persons are turned +into gods or Bodhisattvas in China and Japan is another manifestation +of the same spirit. An ancient inscription<a name="FNanchor_1015_1015" id="FNanchor_1015_1015"></a><a href="#Footnote_1015_1015" class="fnanchor">[1015]</a> applies to the kings +of Tibet the word <i>ḥphrul</i> which is also used of the Grand Lamas +and means that a deity is transformed, or as we say, incarnate in a +human person. The Yellow Church officially recognized<a name="FNanchor_1016_1016" id="FNanchor_1016_1016"></a><a href="#Footnote_1016_1016" class="fnanchor">[1016]</a> the +Emperor of China as an incarnation of Mañjuśrî and the Mongols +believed the Tsar of Russia to be an incarnation of the White Târâ.</p> + +<p>The admixtures received by Buddhism in Tibet are not alien to Indian +thought. They received an unusual emphasis but India provided terrible +deities, like Kâlî with her attendant fiends, and also the idea that +the divine embodies itself in human personalities or special +manifestations. Thus Tibetan Buddhism is not so much an amalgam, as a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_384" id="Page_3_384"></a>[Pg 384]</span> +phase of medieval Hindu religion disproportionately developed in +some directions. The Lamas have acquired much the same status as the +Brahmans. If they could not make themselves a hereditary caste, they +at least enforced the principle that they are the necessary +intermediaries between gods and men. Though they adopted the monastic +system of Buddhism, they are not so much monks as priests and ghostly +warriors who understand the art of fighting with demons.</p> + +<p>Yet Tibet like Japan could assimilate and transform as well as borrow. +The national and original element in Lamaism becomes plain when we +compare Tibet with the neighbouring land of Nepal. There late Indian +Buddhism simply decayed under an overgrowth of Brahmanism. In Tibet it +acquired more life and character than it had in its native Bengal. +This new character has something monstrous and fantastic in government +as well as art: the magic fortresses of the Snowland, peopled by +priests and demons, seem uncanny homes for plain mortals, yet Lamaism +has the strength belonging to all genuine expressions of national +character and it clearly suits the Tibetans and Mongols. The oldest +known form of Tibetan religion had some of the same characteristics. +It is called Bön or Pön. It would be outside my province to discuss it +here, but even when first heard of it was more than a rude form of +animism. In the eighth century its hierarchy was sufficiently strong +to oppose the introduction of Buddhism and it possibly contained a +pre-buddhist stratum of Iranian ideas<a name="FNanchor_1017_1017" id="FNanchor_1017_1017"></a><a href="#Footnote_1017_1017" class="fnanchor">[1017]</a>. In later times it adopted +or travestied Buddhist dogma, ritual and literature, much as Taoism +did in China, but still remained a repository of necromancy, magic, +animal sacrifices, devil-dancing, and such like practices, which have +in all ages corrupted Tibetan Buddhism though theoretically +disapproved.</p> + +<p>Of Tibetan Buddhism anterior to 747 there is little to be said. It +consisted in the sporadic introduction of books and images from India +and did not assume any national character, for it is clear that in +this period Tibet was not regarded as a Buddhist country. The first +phase deserving the name of Lamaism begins with the arrival of +Padma-Sambhava in 747. The Nying-ma-pa or Old School claims to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_385" id="Page_3_385"></a>[Pg 385]</span> +represent his teaching, but, as already mentioned, the various sects +have interacted on one another so much that their tenets are hardly +distinctive. Still it is pretty clear that what Padma-Sambhava brought +with him was the late form of India Buddhism called Mantrayâna, +closely allied to the Chên Yen of China, and transported to Japan +under the name of Shingon and also to the Buddhism of Java as +represented in the sculptures of Boroboedoer. The Far East felt shy of +the tantric element in this teaching, whereas the Tibetans exaggerated +it, but the doctrinal basis is everywhere the same, namely, that there +are five celestial Buddhas, of whom Vairocana is the principal and in +some sense the origin. These give rise to celestial emanations, female +as well as male, and to terrestrial reflexes such as Śâkyamuni. +Among the other features of Padma-Sambhava's teaching the following +may be enumerated with more or less certainty: (<i>a</i>) A readiness to +tolerate and incorporate the local cults of the countries where he +preached. (<i>b</i>) A free use of spells (dhâraṇî) and magical figures +(maṇḍala) for the purpose of subduing demons and acquiring +supernatural powers. (<i>c</i>) The belief that by such methods an adept +can not only summon a deity but assume his form and in fact become the +deity. (<i>d</i>) The worship of Amitâbha, among other deities, and a +belief in his paradise. (<i>e</i>) The presentation of offerings, though +not of flesh, in sacrifice<a name="FNanchor_1018_1018" id="FNanchor_1018_1018"></a><a href="#Footnote_1018_1018" class="fnanchor">[1018]</a> and the performance of ceremonies on +behalf of departed souls. (<i>f</i>) The worship of departed and perhaps of +living teachers. His image is a conspicuous object of veneration in +the Nying-ma-pa sect but he does not appear to have taught the +doctrine of hierarchical succession by incarnation. Grünwedel<a name="FNanchor_1019_1019" id="FNanchor_1019_1019"></a><a href="#Footnote_1019_1019" class="fnanchor">[1019]</a> +has pointed out that the later corruptions of Buddhism in northern +India, Tibet and Central Asia are connected with the personages known +as the eighty-four Mahâsiddhas, or great magicians. Their appearance +as shown in pictures is that of Brahmanic ascetics rather than of +Buddhist Bhikshus, but many of them bear names which are not Indian. +Their dates cannot be fixed at present and appear to cover a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_386" id="Page_3_386"></a>[Pg 386]</span> +period from the early centuries of our era up to about 1200, so that +they represent not a special movement but a continuous tendency to +import into Buddhism very various currents of thought, north Indian, +Iranian, Central Asian and even Mohammedan.</p> + +<p>The visit of Padma-Sambhava was followed by a period of religious +activity which culminated in the ninth century under King Ralpachan, +but it does not appear that the numerous translations from Indian +works made in this reign did more than supplement and amplify the +doctrine already preached. But when after a lengthy eclipse Buddhism +was reinstated in the eleventh century under the auspices of Atîśa +and other foreign teachers we hear of something new, called the +Kâlacakra<a name="FNanchor_1020_1020" id="FNanchor_1020_1020"></a><a href="#Footnote_1020_1020" class="fnanchor">[1020]</a> system also known as the Vajrayâna. Pending the +publication of the Kâlacakra Tantra<a name="FNanchor_1021_1021" id="FNanchor_1021_1021"></a><a href="#Footnote_1021_1021" class="fnanchor">[1021]</a>, it is not easy to make +definite statements about this school which presumably marks the +extreme point of development or degeneration in Buddhism, but a +persistent tradition connects it with a country called Śambhala or +Zhambhala, translated in Tibetan as bDe-ḥbyuṇ or source of +happiness. This country is seen only through a haze of myth: it may +have been in India or it may have been somewhere in Central Asia, +where Buddhism mingled with Turkish ideas<a name="FNanchor_1022_1022" id="FNanchor_1022_1022"></a><a href="#Footnote_1022_1022" class="fnanchor">[1022]</a>. Its kings were called +Kulika and the Tibetan calendar introduced by Atîśa is said to have +come from it. This fact and the meaning of the word Kâlacakra (wheel +of time) suggest that the system has some connection with the Turkish +cycle of twelve animals used for expressing dates<a name="FNanchor_1023_1023" id="FNanchor_1023_1023"></a><a href="#Footnote_1023_1023" class="fnanchor">[1023]</a>. A +legend<a name="FNanchor_1024_1024" id="FNanchor_1024_1024"></a><a href="#Footnote_1024_1024" class="fnanchor">[1024]</a> states that Śâkyamuni promulgated the Kâlacakra system +in Orissa (Dhânyakaṭaka) and that Sucandra, king of Śambhala, +having miraculously received this teaching wrote the Kâlacakra Tantra +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_387" id="Page_3_387"></a>[Pg 387]</span> +in a prophetic spirit, although it was not published until 965 +A.D. This is really the approximate date of its compilation and I can +only add the following disjointed data<a name="FNanchor_1025_1025" id="FNanchor_1025_1025"></a><a href="#Footnote_1025_1025" class="fnanchor">[1025]</a>.</p> + +<p>Tibetan authorities state that it was introduced into Nâlandâ by a +Pandit called Tsilu or Chilu and accepted by Narotapa who was then +head of the University. From Nâlandâ it spread to Tibet. +Manjuśrîkîrti, king of Śambhala, is said to have been an +exponent of it and to have begun his reign 674 years after the death +of the Buddha. But since he is also the second incarnation of the +Panchen Lama and since the fourth (Abhayakara) lived about 1075, he +may really have been a historical character in the latter part of the +tenth century. Its promulgation is also ascribed to a personage called +Siddha Pito. It must be late for it is said to mention Islam and +Mohammed. It is perhaps connected with anti-mohammedan movements which +looked to Kalkî, the future incarnation of Vishnu, as their Messiah, +for Hindu tradition says that Kalkî will be born in +Śambhalagrâma<a name="FNanchor_1026_1026" id="FNanchor_1026_1026"></a><a href="#Footnote_1026_1026" class="fnanchor">[1026]</a>. We hear also of a Siddha called Telopa or +Tailopa, who was a vigorous opponent of Islam. The mythology of the +school is Vishnuite, not Sivaitic, and it is noticeable that the +Pâncarâtra system which had some connection with Kashmir lays stress +on the wheel or discus (<i>cakra</i> or <i>sudarśana</i>) of Vishnu which is +said to be the support of the Universe and the manifestation of +Creative will. The Kâlacakra is mentioned as a special form of this +cosmic wheel having six spokes<a name="FNanchor_1027_1027" id="FNanchor_1027_1027"></a><a href="#Footnote_1027_1027" class="fnanchor">[1027]</a>.</p> + +<p>The peculiar doctrine of the Buddhist Kâlacakra is that there is an +Adi-Buddha<a name="FNanchor_1028_1028" id="FNanchor_1028_1028"></a><a href="#Footnote_1028_1028" class="fnanchor">[1028]</a>, or primordial Buddha God, from whom all other +Buddhas are derived. It is possible that it represents a last effort +of Central Asian Buddhism to contend with Moslims, which instead of +denying the bases of Mohammed's teaching tried to show that monotheism +(like everything else) could be found in Buddhism—a method of +argument frequent in India. The doctrine of the Adi-Buddha was not +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_388" id="Page_3_388"></a>[Pg 388]</span> +however new or really important. For the Indian mind it is implied +in the dogma of the three bodies of Buddha, for the Sambhogakâya is +practically an Indian Deva and the Dharmakâya is the pantheos or +Brahmâ. Under the influence of the Kâlacakra the Lamas did not become +theists in the sense of worshipping one supreme God but they +identified with the Adi-Buddha some particular deity, varying +according to the sects. Thus Samantabhadra, who usually ranks as a +Bodhisattva—that is as inferior to a Buddha—was selected by some for +the honour. The logic of this is hard to explain but it is clearly +analogous to the procedure, common to the oldest and newest phases of +Hindu religion, by which a special deity is declared to be not only +all the other gods but also the universal spirit<a name="FNanchor_1029_1029" id="FNanchor_1029_1029"></a><a href="#Footnote_1029_1029" class="fnanchor">[1029]</a>. It does not +appear that the Kâlacakra Tantra met with general acceptance. It is +unknown in China and Japan and not well known in Nepal<a name="FNanchor_1030_1030" id="FNanchor_1030_1030"></a><a href="#Footnote_1030_1030" class="fnanchor">[1030]</a>.</p> + +<p>The Kâlacakra adopted all the extravagances of the Tantras and +provided the principal Buddhas and Bodhisattvas with spouses, even +giving one to the Adi-Buddha himself<a name="FNanchor_1031_1031" id="FNanchor_1031_1031"></a><a href="#Footnote_1031_1031" class="fnanchor">[1031]</a>. Extraordinary as this is +from a Buddhist point of view, it is little more than the Hindu idea +that the Supreme Being became male and female for the purpose of +producing the universe. But the general effect of the system on +monastic and religious life was bad. Celibacy was not observed; +morals, discipline and doctrine alike deteriorated. A striking +instance is afforded by the ceremonies used by Pagspa when receiving +Kublai into the Church. The Tibetan prelate presumably wished to give +the Emperor what was best and most important in his creed and selected +a formula for invoking a demoniac Buddha.</p> + +<p>The latest phase of Lamaism was inaugurated by Tsong-kha-pa's +reformation and is still vigorous. Politically and socially it was of +capital importance, for it disciplined the priesthood and enabled +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_389" id="Page_3_389"></a>[Pg 389]</span> +the heads of the Church to rule Tibet. In doctrine it was not marked +by the importation of new ideas, but it emphasized the worship of +Avalokita as the patron of Tibet, it systematized the existing beliefs +about reincarnation, thereby creating a powerful hierarchy, and it +restricted Tantrism, without abolishing it. But many monasteries +persistently refused to accept these reforms.</p> + +<p>Tibetan mythology and ceremonial have been described in detail by +Grünwedel, Waddell and others. The pantheon is probably the largest in +the world. All heaven and hell seem to meet in it. The originals of +the deities are nearly all to be found in Nepalese Buddhism<a name="FNanchor_1032_1032" id="FNanchor_1032_1032"></a><a href="#Footnote_1032_1032" class="fnanchor">[1032]</a> and +the perplexing multiplicity of Tibet is chiefly due to the habit of +representing one deity in many forms and aspects, thus making him a +dozen or more personages both for art and for popular worship. The +adoration of saints and their images is also more developed than in +Nepal and forms some counterpoise to the prevalent demonolatry.</p> + +<p>I will not attempt to catalogue this fantastic host but will merely +notice the principal elements in it.</p> + +<p>The first of these may be called early Buddhist. The figure of +Śâkyamuni is frequent in poses which illustrate the familiar story +of his life and the statue in the cathedral of Lhasa representing him +as a young man is the most venerated image in all Tibet. The human +Buddhas anterior to him also receive recognition together with +Maitreya. The Pratimoksha is still known, the Uposatha days are +observed and the details of the ordination services recall the +prescriptions of the Pali Vinaya; formulæ such as the four truths, the +eightfold path and the chain of causation are still in use and form +the basis of ethics.</p> + +<p>The later (but still not tantric) doctrines of Indian Mahayanism are +naturally prominent. The three bodies of Buddha are well known and +also the series of five Celestial Buddhas with corresponding +Bodhisattvas and other manifestations. I feel doubtful whether the +table given by Waddell<a name="FNanchor_1033_1033" id="FNanchor_1033_1033"></a><a href="#Footnote_1033_1033" class="fnanchor">[1033]</a> can be accepted as a compendium of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_390" id="Page_3_390"></a>[Pg 390]</span> +the Lamaist creed. The symmetry is spoiled by the existence of other +groups such as the Thirty Buddhas, the Thousand Buddhas, and the +Buddhas of Healing, and also by the habit just mentioned of +representing deities in various forms. For instance Amoghapâśa, +theoretically a form of Avalokita, is in practice distinct. The fact +is that Lamaism accepted the whole host of Indian Buddhas and +Bodhisattvas, with additions of its own. The classifications made by +various sûtras and tantras were not sufficiently dogmatic to become +articles of faith: chance and fancy determined the prominence and +popularity of a given figure. Among the Buddhas those most worshipped +are Amitâbha, Śâkya and Bhaishajyaguru or the Buddha of Healing: +among the Bodhisattvas, Avalokita, Maitreya and Mañjuśrî.</p> + +<p>There is nothing in the above differing materially from Chinese or +Japanese Buddhism. The peculiarities of Tibet are brought out by the +tantric phase which those countries eschewed. Three characteristics of +Tibetan Tantrism, which are all more or less Indian, may be mentioned. +Firstly, all deities, even the most august, become familiar spirits, +who are not so much worshipped as coerced by spells. The neophyte is +initiated into their mysteries by a special ceremonial<a name="FNanchor_1034_1034" id="FNanchor_1034_1034"></a><a href="#Footnote_1034_1034" class="fnanchor">[1034]</a>: the +adept can summon them, assume their attributes and attain union with +them. Secondly, great prominence is given to goddesses, either as the +counterparts of male deities or as independent. Thirdly, deities +appear in various forms, described as mild, angry or fiendish. It is +specially characteristic of Lamaism that naturally benevolent deities +are represented as raging in furious frenzy.</p> + +<p>Whether the superhuman beings of Tantrism are Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, +or Hindu gods like Mahâkala, it is correct to describe them as +deities, for they behave and are treated like Indian Devas. Besides +the relatively old and simple forms of the various Buddhas and +Bodhisattvas, there are many others which are usually accommodated to +the system by being described as protecting spirits, that is virtuous +and religious fiends who expend their ferocity on the enemies of the +Church.</p> + +<p>Of these Protectors there are two classes, which are not mutually +exclusive, namely, the tutelary deities of individuals, and the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_391" id="Page_3_391"></a>[Pg 391]</span> +defenders of the faith or tutelaries of the whole Church. The former, +who are extremely important in the religious life of the Lamas, are +called Yi-dam and may be compared with the Ishṭa-devatâs of the +Hindus: the latter or Chos Skyoṇ correspond to the Dharmapâlas. +Every Lama selects a Yi-dam either for life or for a period. His +choice must remain a secret but he himself has no doubts, as after +fasting and meditation the deity will appear to him<a name="FNanchor_1035_1035" id="FNanchor_1035_1035"></a><a href="#Footnote_1035_1035" class="fnanchor">[1035]</a>. Henceforth +he every morning repeats formulæ which are supposed to give him the +appearance of his tutelary and thus scare away hostile demons. The +most efficacious tutelaries are tantric forms of the Dhyâni Buddhas, +especially Vajrasattva, Vajradhara and Amitâyus. The deity is +represented not in the guise of a Buddha but crowned, robed, and +holding a thunderbolt, and his attributes appear to be derived from +those of Indra<a name="FNanchor_1036_1036" id="FNanchor_1036_1036"></a><a href="#Footnote_1036_1036" class="fnanchor">[1036]</a>. In his arms he always clasps a Śakti.</p> + +<p>A second class of tutelaries is composed of so-called Buddhas, +accompanied by Śaktis and terrific in aspect, who are +manifestations of the Buddhahood for special purposes. I do not know +if this description is theologically correct, for these fantastic +figures have no relation to anything deserving the name of Buddhism, +but Grünwedel<a name="FNanchor_1037_1037" id="FNanchor_1037_1037"></a><a href="#Footnote_1037_1037" class="fnanchor">[1037]</a> has shown that they are comparable with the +various forms of Śiva. This god does not become incarnate like +Vishnu but manifests himself from time to time in many shapes +accompanied by a retinue who are sometimes merely attendants and +sometimes alternative forms of the Lord. Vîrabhadra, the terrible +being created by Śiva from himself in order to confound Daksha's +sacrifice, is a close parallel to the demoniac Buddhas of Lamaism. +Some of them, such as Mahâkâla and Samvara, show their origin in their +names and the rest, such as Hevajra, Buddhakapâla and Yamântaka, are +similar. This last is a common subject for art, a many headed and many +limbed minotaur, convulsed by a paroxysm of devilish passion. Among +his heads the most conspicuous is the face of an ox, yet this +grotesque demon is regarded as a manifestation of the benign and +intellectual Mañjuśri whose images in other lands are among the +most gracious products of Buddhist sculpture.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_392" id="Page_3_392"></a>[Pg 392]</span></p> +<p>Most tutelary deities of this class act as defenders of the faith +and each sect has one or two as its special guardians<a name="FNanchor_1038_1038" id="FNanchor_1038_1038"></a><a href="#Footnote_1038_1038" class="fnanchor">[1038]</a>. The idea +is ancient for even in the Pitakas, Sakka and other spirits +respectfully protect the Buddha's disciples, and the Dharmapâlas of +Gandharan art are the ancestors of the Chos Skyoṇ. But in Tibet +these assume monstrous and manifold disguises. The oldest is +Vajrapâṇi and nearly all the others are forms of Śiva (such as +Acala or Mi-gyo-ba who reappears in Japan as Fudo) or personages of +his retinue. Eight of them are often adored collectively under the +name of the Eight Terrible Ones. Several of these are well-known +figures in Hindu mythology, for though the Lamas usually give Buddhist +titles to their principal deities, yet they also venerate Hindu gods, +without any explanation of their status. Thus hJigs-med-nam-mkha says +that he composed his history with the help of Śiva<a name="FNanchor_1039_1039" id="FNanchor_1039_1039"></a><a href="#Footnote_1039_1039" class="fnanchor">[1039]</a>. The +members of this group vary in different enumerations but the following +usually form part of it.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Hayagrîva<a name="FNanchor_1040_1040" id="FNanchor_1040_1040"></a><a href="#Footnote_1040_1040" class="fnanchor">[1040]</a>, the horse-necked god. In India he appears to be +connected with Vishnu rather than Śiva. The magic dagger with which +Lamas believe they can stab demons is said to be a form of him. The +Mongols regard him as the protector of horses. (<i>b</i>) Yama, the Indian +god of the dead, accompanied by a hellish retinue including living +skeletons. (<i>c</i>) Mahâkâla, the form of Śiva already mentioned. It +was by his inspiration that Pagspa was able to convert Khubilai Khan. +(<i>d</i>) Lha-mo, the goddess, that is Devî, the spouse of Śiva. (<i>e</i>) +lCam-sraṇ, a war god of somewhat uncertain origin but perhaps a +Tibetan form of Kârtikeya. Other deities frequently included in this +group are Yamântaka, mentioned above, Kubera or Vaiśravana, the +Hindu god of wealth, and a deity called the White Brahmâ (Thsangspa +dKarpo). This last is an ordinary human figure riding on a white horse +and brandishing a sword. He wears white clothes and a crown or turban. +He is perhaps Kalkî who, as suggested above, had some connection with +the Kâlacakra. The Eight Terrible Ones and their attendants are +represented by grotesquely masked figures in the dances and mystery +plays enacted by Lamas. These performances are said to be still +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_393" id="Page_3_393"></a>[Pg 393]</span> +known among the vulgar as dances of the Red Tiger Devil, but in +the hands of the Yellow Church have become a historical drama +representing the persecution of Buddhism under King Lang-dar-ma and +its ultimate triumph after he has been slain by the help of these +ghostly champions.</p> + +<p>Lamaist books mention numerous other Indian divinities, such as +Brahmâ, the thirty-three Devas, the Kings of the four quarters, etc. +These have no particular place in the system but their appearance in +art and literature is natural, since they are decorative though not +essential parts of early Buddhism. The same may be said of all the +host of Nâgas, Yakshas, Rakshasas, etc. But though these multitudinous +spirits have been rearranged and classified in conformity with Hindu +ideas they are not an importation but rather part of the old folklore +of Tibet, in many ways identical with the same stratum of thought in +India. Thus the snake demigods or Nâgas<a name="FNanchor_1041_1041" id="FNanchor_1041_1041"></a><a href="#Footnote_1041_1041" class="fnanchor">[1041]</a> occupy in both countries +a large place in the popular imagination. In the higher ranks of the +Lamaist pantheon all the figures seem to be imported, but some +indigenous godlings have retained a place in the lower classes. Such +are rDo-rje-legs, at first an opponent of Buddhism as preached by +Padma-Sambhava but honoured as a deity after making due submission, +and the Five Kings<a name="FNanchor_1042_1042" id="FNanchor_1042_1042"></a><a href="#Footnote_1042_1042" class="fnanchor">[1042]</a>, a group of fierce spirits, under the +presidency of dPe-dkar.</p> + +<p>It remains to say a word of the numerous goddesses who play an +important part in Tibetan Buddhism, as in Hindu Tantrism. They are +usually represented as the female counterparts or better halves of +male deities, but some are self-sufficient. The greatest of these +goddesses is Târâ<a name="FNanchor_1043_1043" id="FNanchor_1043_1043"></a><a href="#Footnote_1043_1043" class="fnanchor">[1043]</a>. Though Lamaist theology describes her as the +spouse of Avalokita she is not a single personality but a generic name +applied to a whole class of female deities and, as in many other +cases, no clear distinction is drawn between her attendants and the +forms which she herself assumes. Originally benevolent and depicted +with the attributes of Lakshmî she is transformed by a turn of Tibetan +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_394" id="Page_3_394"></a>[Pg 394]</span> +imagination, with which the reader is now familiar, into various +terrible shapes and is practically the same as the spouse of Śiva, +celebrated in the Tantras under countless names. Twenty-one Târâs are +often enumerated in a list said to be well known even to the +laity<a name="FNanchor_1044_1044" id="FNanchor_1044_1044"></a><a href="#Footnote_1044_1044" class="fnanchor">[1044]</a> and there are others. Among them are (<i>a</i>) the Green Târâ, +the commonest form in Tibet. (<i>b</i>) The White Târâ, much worshipped by +Mongols and supposed to be incarnate in the Tsar of Russia, (<i>c</i>) +Bhrikutî, a dark blue, angry, frowning form, (<i>d</i>) +Ushṇîshavijayâ<a name="FNanchor_1045_1045" id="FNanchor_1045_1045"></a><a href="#Footnote_1045_1045" class="fnanchor">[1045]</a>, a graceful and benevolent form known to the +Japanese. She is mentioned in the Horiuji palm-leaf manuscript which +dates from at least 609 A.D. (<i>e</i>) Parṇaśavarî, represented as +wearing a girdle of leaves and also called Gandhârî, Piśâcî and +Sarva-Śavarâṇâm Bhagavatî<a name="FNanchor_1046_1046" id="FNanchor_1046_1046"></a><a href="#Footnote_1046_1046" class="fnanchor">[1046]</a>. She is apparently the goddess +of an aboriginal tribe in India. (<i>f</i>) Kurukullâ, a goddess of riches, +inhabiting caves. She is said to have given great wealth to the fifth +Grand Lama, and though she might be suspected of being a native deity +was known in Nepal and India<a name="FNanchor_1047_1047" id="FNanchor_1047_1047"></a><a href="#Footnote_1047_1047" class="fnanchor">[1047]</a>.</p> + +<p>The Goddess Marîcî, often depicted with Târâ, appears to be distinct +and in one form is represented with a sow's head and known as +Vajravarâhî. As such she is incarnate in the abbesses of several +monasteries, particularly Samding on lake Yamdok<a name="FNanchor_1048_1048" id="FNanchor_1048_1048"></a><a href="#Footnote_1048_1048" class="fnanchor">[1048]</a>.</p> +<p>A notice of Tibetan Buddhism can hardly avoid referring to the use of +praying wheels and the celebrated formula Om maṇi padme hum. Though +these are among the most conspicuous and ubiquitous features of +Lamaism their origin is strangely obscure<a name="FNanchor_1049_1049" id="FNanchor_1049_1049"></a><a href="#Footnote_1049_1049" class="fnanchor">[1049]</a>. Attempts to connect +the praying wheel with the wheel of the law, the cakravartin and other +uses of the wheel in Indian symbolism, are irrelevant, for the object +to be explained is not really a wheel but a barrel, large or small, +containing written prayers, or even a whole library. Those who turn +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_395" id="Page_3_395"></a>[Pg 395]</span> +the barrel acquire all the merit arising from repeating the +prayers or reading the books. In Tibet this form of devotion is a +national mania. People carry small prayer wheels in their hands as +they walk and place large ones in rivers to be turned by the current. +In China, Japan and Korea we find revolving libraries and occasional +praying machines, though not of quite the same form as in Tibet<a name="FNanchor_1050_1050" id="FNanchor_1050_1050"></a><a href="#Footnote_1050_1050" class="fnanchor">[1050]</a>, +but, so far as I know, there is nothing to show that these were not +introduced from Tibet into China and thence found their way further +East. The hypothesis that they were known in India and thence exported +to Tibet on one side and China on the other naturally suggests itself, +but the total absence of praying machines in India as well as in the +ruined cities of Central Asia and the general Hindu habit of regarding +scriptures and spells as words rather than written documents lend it +no support. It may be that when the illiterate Tibetans first became +acquainted with written prayers, they invented this singular method of +utilizing them without reading them.</p> + +<p>Equally obscure is the origin of the formula Om maṇi padme<a name="FNanchor_1051_1051" id="FNanchor_1051_1051"></a><a href="#Footnote_1051_1051" class="fnanchor">[1051]</a> +hum, which permeates Tibet, uttered by every human voice, revolved in +countless machines, graven on the rocks, printed on flags. It is +obviously a Dhâraṇî<a name="FNanchor_1052_1052" id="FNanchor_1052_1052"></a><a href="#Footnote_1052_1052" class="fnanchor">[1052]</a> and there is no reason to doubt that it +came to Tibet with the first introduction of Buddhism, but also no +record. The earliest passage hitherto quoted for its occurrence is a +Chinese translation made between 980 and 1001 A.D.<a name="FNanchor_1053_1053" id="FNanchor_1053_1053"></a><a href="#Footnote_1053_1053" class="fnanchor">[1053]</a> and said to +correspond with the Kanjur and the earliest historical mention of its +use is found in Willelm de Rubruk (1254) and in the writings of +Bu-ston<a name="FNanchor_1054_1054" id="FNanchor_1054_1054"></a><a href="#Footnote_1054_1054" class="fnanchor">[1054]</a>. The first legend of its origin is contained in the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_396" id="Page_3_396"></a>[Pg 396]</span> +Manikambum, a work of doubtful age and authorship but perhaps as +old as the fifteenth century<a name="FNanchor_1055_1055" id="FNanchor_1055_1055"></a><a href="#Footnote_1055_1055" class="fnanchor">[1055]</a>. The popularity of the prayer may +date from the time when the pontiffs of Lhasa were recognized as +incarnations of Avalokita. The first and last words are mystic +syllables such as often occur in these formulæ. Maṇi padme is +generally interpreted to mean the jewel in the lotus<a name="FNanchor_1056_1056" id="FNanchor_1056_1056"></a><a href="#Footnote_1056_1056" class="fnanchor">[1056]</a>, but Thomas +has pointed out that it is more consonant with grammar and usage to +regard the syllables as one word and the vocative of a feminine title +similar to Padmapâṇi, one of Avalokita's many names. The analogy of +similar spells supports this interpretation and it seems probable that +the formula was originally an invocation of the Śakti under the +title of Maṇipadmâ, although so far as I know it is now regarded by +the Tibetans as an address to the male Avalokita. It has also been +suggested that the prominence of this prayer may be due to Manichæan +influence and the idea that it contained the name of Mani. The +suggestion is not absurd for in many instances Manichæism and Buddhism +were mixed together, but if it were true we should expect to find the +formula frequently used in the Tarim basin, but of such use there is +no proof.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1012_1012" id="Footnote_1012_1012"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1012_1012"><span class="label">[1012]</span></a> The Shingon sect in Japan depict benevolent deities in +a raging form, Funnu. See Kokka, No. 292, p. 58. The idea goes back to +India where the canons of sacred art recognize that deities can be +represented in a pacific (śânta or saumya) or in a terrific (ugra +or raudra) form. See Gopinath Rao, <i>Hindu Iconography</i>, vol. I. p. 19, +and vol. II of the same for a lengthy description of the aspects of +Śiva.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1013_1013" id="Footnote_1013_1013"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1013_1013"><span class="label">[1013]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Grünwedel, <i>Buddhist art in India</i>, fig. 149, +<i>id. Mythologie</i>, fig. 54.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1014_1014" id="Footnote_1014_1014"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1014_1014"><span class="label">[1014]</span></a> But there is still a hereditary incarnation of +Ganeśa near Poona, which began in the seventeenth century. See +<i>Asiatic Researches</i>, VII. 381.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1015_1015" id="Footnote_1015_1015"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1015_1015"><span class="label">[1015]</span></a> See Waddell in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1909, p. 941.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1016_1016" id="Footnote_1016_1016"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1016_1016"><span class="label">[1016]</span></a> See <i>e.g. J.A.S.B.</i> 1882, p. 41. The Svayambhû Purâna +also states that Mañjuśrî lives in China. See <i>J. Buddhist Text +Society</i>, 1894, vol. II. part II. p. 33.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1017_1017" id="Footnote_1017_1017"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1017_1017"><span class="label">[1017]</span></a> See <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1908, p. 13. For the Bön generally +see also <i>J.A.S. Bengal</i>, 1881, p. 187; Rockhill, <i>Land of the Lamas</i>, +pp. 217-218; and <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1901, pp. 24-44.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1018_1018" id="Footnote_1018_1018"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1018_1018"><span class="label">[1018]</span></a> The Lamas offer burnt sacrifices but it is not quite +clear whether these are derived from the Indian <i>homa</i> adopted by +Tantric Buddhism or from Tibetan and Mongol ceremonies. See, for a +description of this ceremony, <i>My Life in Mongolia</i>, by the Bishop of +Norwich, pp. 108-114.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1019_1019" id="Footnote_1019_1019"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1019_1019"><span class="label">[1019]</span></a> <i>Mythologie des Buddhismus</i>, p. 40.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1020_1020" id="Footnote_1020_1020"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1020_1020"><span class="label">[1020]</span></a> In Tibetan Dus-kyi-hkhor-lo. Mongol, Tsagun kürdün.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1021_1021" id="Footnote_1021_1021"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1021_1021"><span class="label">[1021]</span></a> Announced in the <i>Bibliotheca Buddhica</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1022_1022" id="Footnote_1022_1022"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1022_1022"><span class="label">[1022]</span></a> See Pelliot, <i>Quelques transcriptions apparentées à +Cambhala dans les textes Chinois</i> (in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, vol. XX. 1920, p. +73) for some conjectures. Kulika is translated into Tibetan as +Rigs-Ldan. Tibetan texts speak of books coming from Śambhala, see +Laufer in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1913, p. 596.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1023_1023" id="Footnote_1023_1023"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1023_1023"><span class="label">[1023]</span></a> See Laufer in <i>T'oung Pao</i>, 1907, p. 402. In Sumpa's +chronology, <i>J.A.S. Beng.</i> p. 46, the reign of a Kulika Emperor seems +to be simply a designation for a century.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1024_1024" id="Footnote_1024_1024"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1024_1024"><span class="label">[1024]</span></a> See <i>J.A.S.B.</i> 82, p. 225. The king is also (but +apparently incorrectly) called Candra-Bhadra.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1025_1025" id="Footnote_1025_1025"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1025_1025"><span class="label">[1025]</span></a> See Grünwedel, <i>Mythologie</i>, p. 41. Sarat Chandra Das +in <i>J.A.S. Beng</i>. 1882, p. 15, and <i>J.A.S. Beng</i>. 1912, p. 21, being +reprints of earlier articles by Csoma de Körös.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_1026_1026" id="Footnote_1026_1026"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1026_1026"><span class="label">[1026]</span></a> See Kalkî Purâna. Vishnu Purâna, IV. XXIV, Bhâg. Pur. +XII. ii. 18, and Norman in <i>Trans. III, Int. Congress Religions</i>, vol. +II. p. 85. Also Aufrecht, <i>Cat. Cod. Sansk.</i> 73A, 84B.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1027_1027" id="Footnote_1027_1027"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1027_1027"><span class="label">[1027]</span></a> See Schrader, <i>Introd. to the Pâncarâtra</i>, pp. 100-106 +and 96.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1028_1028" id="Footnote_1028_1028"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1028_1028"><span class="label">[1028]</span></a> See the article "Adi Buddha" by De la Vallée Poussin +in Hastings' <i>Encyc. of Religion and Ethics</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1029_1029" id="Footnote_1029_1029"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1029_1029"><span class="label">[1029]</span></a> See, for a modern example of this, the +Ganeśâtharvaśirshopanishad (Anândâ srama edition, pp. 11 and 16) +Tvam eva sarvam khalvidam Brahmâsi ... Tvam Brahmâ Tvam Vishnus Tvam +Rudras Tvam Indras Tvam Agnis Tvam Vâyus Tvam Sûryas Tvam Candramâs +Tvam <i>Brahma</i>. Here Gaṇeśa includes all the deities and the +Pantheos. There is also a book called Gaṇeśadarśanam in which +the Vedanta sûtras are rewritten and Gaṇeśa made equivalent to +Brahma. See Madras, <i>Cat. of Sk. MSS</i>. 1910-1913, p. 1030.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1030_1030" id="Footnote_1030_1030"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1030_1030"><span class="label">[1030]</span></a> It is just mentioned in S. Lévi's <i>Nepal II</i>, p. 385, +but is not in Rajendralal Mitra's <i>Catalogue</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1031_1031" id="Footnote_1031_1031"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1031_1031"><span class="label">[1031]</span></a> Waddell, <i>Buddhism</i>, p. 131. Pander, <i>Pantheon</i>, p. +59, No. 56.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1032_1032" id="Footnote_1032_1032"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1032_1032"><span class="label">[1032]</span></a> Nepalese Buddhism knows not only the Dhyâni Buddhas, +Śaktis and Bodhisattvas including Vajrasattva and Vajradhara, but +also deities like Hayagrîva, Yamântaka, Bhrikutî, Marîcî, Kurukullâ. +In both Nepal and Tibet are found pictures called Thsogs-śiṇ in +which the deities of the Pantheon (or at least the principal of them) +are grouped according to rank. See for an example containing 138 +deities the frontispiece of Getty's <i>Gods of Northern Buddhism</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1033_1033" id="Footnote_1033_1033"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1033_1033"><span class="label">[1033]</span></a> <i>Buddhism</i>, pp. 350-1.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1034_1034" id="Footnote_1034_1034"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1034_1034"><span class="label">[1034]</span></a> For an outline of the method followed by Tibetans in +studying the Tantras, see <i>Journal Buddhist Text Society</i>, 1893, vol. +I. part III. pp. 25-6.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1035_1035" id="Footnote_1035_1035"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1035_1035"><span class="label">[1035]</span></a> The deity may appear in an unusual form, so the +worshipper can easily persuade himself that he has received the +desired revelation.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1036_1036" id="Footnote_1036_1036"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1036_1036"><span class="label">[1036]</span></a> A figure identified with Indra or Vajrapâni is found +in Gandhara sculptures.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1037_1037" id="Footnote_1037_1037"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1037_1037"><span class="label">[1037]</span></a> <i>Mythologie</i>, p. 97.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1038_1038" id="Footnote_1038_1038"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1038_1038"><span class="label">[1038]</span></a> The Dhyâni Buddhas however seem to be the Yi-dam of +individuals only.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1039_1039" id="Footnote_1039_1039"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1039_1039"><span class="label">[1039]</span></a> Huth's edition, p. 1.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1040_1040" id="Footnote_1040_1040"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1040_1040"><span class="label">[1040]</span></a> See <i>Buddhist Text Society</i>, vol. II. part II. +appendix II. 1904, p. 6.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1041_1041" id="Footnote_1041_1041"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1041_1041"><span class="label">[1041]</span></a> See Laufer, "Hundert Tausend Nâgas" in <i>Memoirs of +Finno-Ugrian Society</i>, 1898.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1042_1042" id="Footnote_1042_1042"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1042_1042"><span class="label">[1042]</span></a> Or Five Bodies, sKu-Lṇa. dPe-dKar or Pe-har is by +some authorities identified with the Chinese deity Wei-to. This latter +is represented in the outer court of most Chinese temples.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1043_1043" id="Footnote_1043_1043"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1043_1043"><span class="label">[1043]</span></a> In Tibetan sGrol-ma, in Mongol Dara äkä. For the early +history of Târâ see Blonay, <i>Matériaux pour servir à l'histoire de ... +Târâ</i>, 1895.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1044_1044" id="Footnote_1044_1044"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1044_1044"><span class="label">[1044]</span></a> Waddell, <i>Buddhism</i>, p. 360.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1045_1045" id="Footnote_1045_1045"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1045_1045"><span class="label">[1045]</span></a> Tibetan gTsug-tor-rnam-par-rgyal-ma.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1046_1046" id="Footnote_1046_1046"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1046_1046"><span class="label">[1046]</span></a> Cf. Whitehead's statement (<i>Village Gods of S. India</i>, +p. 79) that women worshipping certain goddesses are clad only in the +twigs of the mimosa tree.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1047_1047" id="Footnote_1047_1047"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1047_1047"><span class="label">[1047]</span></a> See Foucher, <i>Icon. Bouddhique</i>, 1900, p. 142, and +Târanâtha tr. Schiefner, p. 102.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1048_1048" id="Footnote_1048_1048"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1048_1048"><span class="label">[1048]</span></a> See Waddell. Grünwedel seems to regard Vajra-Varâhî as +distinct from Marîcî.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1049_1049" id="Footnote_1049_1049"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1049_1049"><span class="label">[1049]</span></a> As for instance is also the origin of Linga worship in +India.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1050_1050" id="Footnote_1050_1050"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1050_1050"><span class="label">[1050]</span></a> See Steiner in <i>Mitth. der Deutsch. Gesellsch. +Natur-u. Völkerkunde Ost-Asiens</i>, 1909-10, p. 35.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1051_1051" id="Footnote_1051_1051"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1051_1051"><span class="label">[1051]</span></a> Padme is said to be commonly pronounced peme.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1052_1052" id="Footnote_1052_1052"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1052_1052"><span class="label">[1052]</span></a> Waddell quotes a similar spell known in both Tibet and +Japan, but addressed to Vairocana. Om Amogha Vairocanamahâmudra mani +padma jvalapravarthtaya hūm. <i>Buddhism</i>, p. 149.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1053_1053" id="Footnote_1053_1053"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1053_1053"><span class="label">[1053]</span></a> <i>Divyâvadâna</i> (Cowell and Neil), pp. 613-4, and Raj. +Mitra, <i>Nepalese Bud. Lit.</i> p. 98. See also the learned note of +Chavannes and Pelliot, based on Japanese sources in <i>J.A.</i> 1913, I. +314. The text referred to is Nanjio, No. 782. It is not plain if it is +the same as earlier translations with similar titles. A mantra of six +syllables not further defined is extolled in the Divyâvadâna and the +Guṇakâraṇḍavyûha.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1054_1054" id="Footnote_1054_1054"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1054_1054"><span class="label">[1054]</span></a> Bu-ston was born in 1288 and the summary of his +writings contained in the <i>Journal of the Buddhist Text Society</i>, vol. +I. 1893, represents the formula as used in the times of Atîśa, <i>c</i>. +1030.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1055_1055" id="Footnote_1055_1055"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1055_1055"><span class="label">[1055]</span></a> See for this legend, which is long but not very +illuminating, Rockhill's <i>Land of the Lamas</i>, pp. 326-334.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1056_1056" id="Footnote_1056_1056"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1056_1056"><span class="label">[1056]</span></a> <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1906, p. 464, and Francke, <i>ib</i>. 1915, pp. +397-404. He points out the parallel between the three formulae: <i>Om +vagîśvari mum: Om maṇipadme hum: Om vajrapâṇi hum</i>. The hymn +to Durgâ in Mahâbhâr. Bhîshmapar, 796 (like many other hymns) contains +a long string of feminine vocatives ending in <i>e</i> or <i>i</i>.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_397" id="Page_3_397"></a>[Pg 397]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_LIII" id="CHAPTER_LIII"></a>CHAPTER LIII</h2> + +<h3>TIBET <i>(continued)</i></h3> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Sects</span></h3> + + +<p>Lamaism is divided into various sects, which concern the clergy rather +than the laity. The differences in doctrine are not very important. +Each sect has special tutelary deities, scriptures and practices of +its own but they all tend to borrow from one another whatever inspires +respect or attracts worshippers. The baser sort try to maintain their +dignity by imitating the institutions of the superior sects, but the +superior cannot afford to neglect popular superstitions. So the +general level is much the same. Nevertheless, these sectarian +differences are not without practical importance for each sect has +monasteries and a hierarchy of its own and is outwardly distinguished +by peculiarities of costume, especially by the hat. Further, though +the subject has received little investigation, it is probable that +different sects possess different editions of the Kanjur or at any +rate respect different books<a name="FNanchor_1057_1057" id="FNanchor_1057_1057"></a><a href="#Footnote_1057_1057" class="fnanchor">[1057]</a>. Since the seventeenth century the +Gelugpa has been recognized as the established church and the divinity +of the Grand Lama is not disputed, but in earlier times there were +many monastic quarrels and forced conversions. In the eighteenth +century the Red clergy intrigued with the Gurkhas in the hope of +supplanting their Yellow brethren and even now they are so powerful in +eastern Tibet that this hope may not be unreasonable, should political +troubles shake the hierarchy of Lhasa. In spite of the tendency to +borrow both what is good and what is bad, some sects are on a higher +grade intellectually and morally than others. Thus the older sects do +not insist on celibacy or abstinence from alcohol, and Tantrism and +magic form the major part of religion, whereas the Gelugpa or +established church maintains strict discipline, and tantric and +magical rites, though by no means prohibited, are at least practised +in moderation.</p> + +<p>Setting aside the earliest period, the history of Buddhism in Tibet is +briefly that it was established by Padma-Sambhava about 750, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_398" id="Page_3_398"></a>[Pg 398]</span> +reformed by Atîśa about 1040 and again reformed by Tsong-kha-pa +about 1400. The sects correspond to these epochs. The oldest claims to +preserve the teaching of Padma-Sambhava, those of middle date are +offshoots of the movement started by Atîśa, and the newest +represents Atîśa's principal sect corrected by the second +reformation. The oldest sect is known as Nying-ma-pa or +rNyiṇ-ma-pa, signifying the old ones, and also as the Red Church +from the colour of the hats worn by the clergy. Among its subdivisions +one called the sect of Udyâna<a name="FNanchor_1058_1058" id="FNanchor_1058_1058"></a><a href="#Footnote_1058_1058" class="fnanchor">[1058]</a>, in reference to Padma-Sambhava's +birthplace, appears to be the most ancient and still exists in the +Himalayas and eastern Tibet. The Nying-ma Lamas are said to have kept +the necromancy of the old Tibetan religion more fully than any of the +reformed sects. They pay special worship to Padma-Sambhava and accept +the revelations ascribed to him. Celibacy and abstinence are rarely +observed in their monasteries but these are by no means of low repute. +Among the more celebrated are Dorje-dag and Mindolling: the great +monastery of Pemiongchi<a name="FNanchor_1059_1059" id="FNanchor_1059_1059"></a><a href="#Footnote_1059_1059" class="fnanchor">[1059]</a> in Sikhim is a branch establishment of +the latter.</p> + +<p>Of the sects originating in Atîśa's reformation the principal was +the Kadampa<a name="FNanchor_1060_1060" id="FNanchor_1060_1060"></a><a href="#Footnote_1060_1060" class="fnanchor">[1060]</a>, but it has lost much of its importance because it +was remodelled by Tsong-kha-pa and hence hardly exists to-day as an +independent body. The Sakya sect is connected with the great monastery +of the same name situated about fifty miles to the north of Mount +Everest and founded in 1071 by Sakya, a royal prince. It acquired +great political importance, for from 1270 to 1340 its abbots were the +rulers of Tibet. The historian Târanâtha belonged to one of its +sub-sects, and about 1600 settled in Mongolia where he founded the +monastery of Urga and established the line of reincarnate Lamas which +still rules there. But shortly after his death this monastery was +forcibly taken over by the Yellow Church and is still the centre of +its influence in Mongolia. In theology the Sakya offers nothing +specially distinctive but it mixes the Tantras of the old and new +sects and according to Waddell<a name="FNanchor_1061_1061" id="FNanchor_1061_1061"></a><a href="#Footnote_1061_1061" class="fnanchor">[1061]</a> is practically indistinguishable +from the Nying-ma-pa. The same is probably true of the +Kar-gyu-pa<a name="FNanchor_1062_1062" id="FNanchor_1062_1062"></a><a href="#Footnote_1062_1062" class="fnanchor">[1062]</a> said to have been founded by Marpa and his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_399" id="Page_3_399"></a>[Pg 399]</span> +follower Milaräpa, who set an example of solitary and wandering lives. +It is sometimes described as a Nying-ma sect<a name="FNanchor_1063_1063" id="FNanchor_1063_1063"></a><a href="#Footnote_1063_1063" class="fnanchor">[1063]</a> but appears to date +from after Atîśa's reforms, although it has a strong tendency to +revert to older practices. It has several important sub-sects, such as +the Karmapa found in Sikhim and Darjiling, as well as in Tibet, the +Dugpa which is predominant in Bhotan and perhaps in Ladak<a name="FNanchor_1064_1064" id="FNanchor_1064_1064"></a><a href="#Footnote_1064_1064" class="fnanchor">[1064]</a>, and +the Dikung-pa, which owns a large monastery one hundred miles +north-east of Lhasa. Milaräpa (or Mila), the cotton-clad saint who +wandered over the Snow-land in the light garments of an Indian +ascetic, is perhaps the post picturesque figure in Lamaism and in some +ways reminds us of St. Francis of Assisi<a name="FNanchor_1065_1065" id="FNanchor_1065_1065"></a><a href="#Footnote_1065_1065" class="fnanchor">[1065]</a>. He was a worker of +miracles and, what is rarer in Tibet, a poet. His compositions known +as the Hundred Thousand Songs are still popular and show the same +delicately sensitive love of nature as the Psalms of the Theragâthâ.</p> + +<p>The main distinction is between the Gelugpa or Yellow Church and all +the other sects. This is merely another way of saying that Atîśa +reformed the corrupt superstitions which he found but that his +reformed church in its turn became corrupt and required correction. +This was given by Tsong-kha-pa who belonged originally to the Kadampa. +He collected the scattered members of this sect, remodelled its +discipline, and laid the foundations of the system which made the +Grand Lamas rulers of Tibet. In externals the Gelugpa is characterized +by the use of the yellow cap and the veneration paid to Tsong-kha-pa's +image. Its Lamas are all celibate and hereditary succession is not +recognized. Among the many great establishments which belong to it are +the four royal monasteries or Ling in Lhasa; Gandan, Depung and Serra +near Lhasa; and Tashilhunpo.</p> + +<p>It has often been noticed that the services performed by the +Gelugpa<a name="FNanchor_1066_1066" id="FNanchor_1066_1066"></a><a href="#Footnote_1066_1066" class="fnanchor">[1066]</a> and by the Roman Catholic Church are strangely +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_400" id="Page_3_400"></a>[Pg 400]</span> +similar in appearance. Is this an instance of borrowing or of +convergence? On the one hand it is stated that there were Roman +missions in Amdo in Tsong-kha-pa's youth, and the resemblances are +such as would be natural if he had seen great celebrations of the mass +and taken hints. In essentials the similarity is small but in +externals such as the vestments and head-dresses of the officiants, +the arrangement of the choir, and the general <i>mise-en-scène</i>, it is +striking. On the other hand many points of resemblance in ceremonial, +though not all, are also found in the older Japanese sects, where +there can hardly be any question of imitating Christianity, and it +would seem that a ritual common to Tibet and Japan can be explained +only as borrowed from India. Further, although Tsong-kha-pa may have +come in contact with missionaries, is it likely that he had an +opportunity of seeing Roman rites performed with any pomp? It is in +the great choral services of the two religions that the resemblance is +visible, not in their simpler ritual. For these reasons, I think that +the debt of Lamaism to the Catholic Church must be regarded as not +proven, while admitting the resemblance to be so striking that we +should be justified in concluding that Tsong-kha-pa copied Roman +ceremonial, could it be shown that he was acquainted with it.</p> + +<p>The life and ritual of the Lamas have often been described, and I need +not do more than refer the reader to the detailed account given by +Waddell in his <i>Buddhism of Tibet</i> <a name="FNanchor_1067_1067" id="FNanchor_1067_1067"></a><a href="#Footnote_1067_1067" class="fnanchor">[1067]</a>, but it is noticeable that +the monastic system is organized on a larger scale and inspired by +more energy than in any other country. The monasteries of Tibet, if +inferior to those of Japan in the middle ages, are the greatest +Buddhist establishments now existing. For instance Depung has 7000 +monks, Serra 5500 and Tashilhunpo 3800: at Urga in Mongolia there are +said to be 14,000. One is not surprised to hear that these +institutions are veritable towns with their own police and doubtless +the spirit of discipline learned in managing such large bodies of +monks has helped the Lamaist Church in the government of the country. +Also these monasteries are universities. Candidates for ordination +study a course of theology and are not received as novices or full +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_401" id="Page_3_401"></a>[Pg 401]</span> +monks unless they pass successive examinations. In every monastery +there is a central temple in which the monks assemble several times a +day to chant lengthy choral offices. Of these there are at least five, +the first before dawn and the last at 7 p.m. Though the value of +Lamas' learning and ritual may be questioned, it is clear that many of +them lead strenuous lives in the service of a religion which, if +fantastic, still expresses with peculiar intensity the beliefs and +emotions of the Tibetans and Mongols and has forced men of violence to +believe that a power higher than their own is wielded by intellect and +asceticism.</p> + +<p>There seems to be no difference between Tibetan and Mongolian Lamaism +in deities, doctrines or observances<a name="FNanchor_1068_1068" id="FNanchor_1068_1068"></a><a href="#Footnote_1068_1068" class="fnanchor">[1068]</a>. Mongolian Lamas imitate +the usages of Tibet, study there when they can and recite their +services in Tibetan, although they have translations of the scriptures +in their own language. Well read priests in Peking have told me that +it is better to study the canon in Tibetan than in Mongol, because +complete copies in Mongol, if extant, are practically unobtainable.</p> + +<p>The political and military decadence of the Mongols has been ascribed +by some authors to Lamaism and to the substitution of priestly for +warlike ideals. But such a substitution is not likely to have taken +place except in minds prepared for it by other causes and it does not +appear that the Moslims of Central Asia are more virile and vigorous +than the Buddhists. The collapse of the Mongols can be easily +illustrated if not explained by the fate of Turks and Tartars in the +Balkan Peninsula and Russia. Wherever the Turks are the ruling race +they endeavour to assert their superiority over all Christians, often +by violent methods. But when the positions are reversed and the +Christians become rulers as in Bulgaria, the Turks make no resistance +but either retire or acquiesce meekly in the new regime.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1057_1057" id="Footnote_1057_1057"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1057_1057"><span class="label">[1057]</span></a> See for instance the particulars given as to various +branches of the Nying-ma pa sect in <i>J.A.S.B.</i> 1882, pp. 6-14.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1058_1058" id="Footnote_1058_1058"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1058_1058"><span class="label">[1058]</span></a> Urgyen-pa or Dzok-chen-pa.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1059_1059" id="Footnote_1059_1059"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1059_1059"><span class="label">[1059]</span></a> Or Pemayangtse.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1060_1060" id="Footnote_1060_1060"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1060_1060"><span class="label">[1060]</span></a> bKah-gDams-pa.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1061_1061" id="Footnote_1061_1061"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1061_1061"><span class="label">[1061]</span></a> <i>Buddhism</i>, p. 70.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1062_1062" id="Footnote_1062_1062"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1062_1062"><span class="label">[1062]</span></a> bKah-brGyud-pa.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1063_1063" id="Footnote_1063_1063"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1063_1063"><span class="label">[1063]</span></a> Sandberg, <i>Handbook of Tibetan</i>, p. 207.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1064_1064" id="Footnote_1064_1064"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1064_1064"><span class="label">[1064]</span></a> Authorities differ as to the name of the sect which +owns Himis and other monasteries in Ladak.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1065_1065" id="Footnote_1065_1065"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1065_1065"><span class="label">[1065]</span></a> See for some account of him and specimens of his +poems, Sandberg, <i>Tibet and the Tibetans</i>, chap. XIII.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1066_1066" id="Footnote_1066_1066"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1066_1066"><span class="label">[1066]</span></a> I do not know whether the ceremonies of the other +sects offer the same resemblance. Probably they have all imitated the +Gelugpa. Some authors attribute the resemblance to contact with +Nestorian Christianity in early times but the resemblance is +definitely to Roman costumes and ceremonies not to those of the +Eastern church. Is there any reason to believe that the Nestorian +ritual resembled that of western catholics?</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1067_1067" id="Footnote_1067_1067"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1067_1067"><span class="label">[1067]</span></a> See also Filchner, <i>Das Kloster Kumbum</i>, 1906.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1068_1068" id="Footnote_1068_1068"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1068_1068"><span class="label">[1068]</span></a> Almost the only difference that I have noticed is that +whereas Tibetans habitually translate Indian proper names, Mongols +frequently use Sanskrit words, such as Manjuśrî, or slightly +modified forms such as Dara, Maidari ( = Târâ, Maitreya). The same +practice is found in the old Uigur translations. See <i>Bibl. Buddh.</i> +XII. Tisastvustik. For an interesting account of contemporary Lamaism +in Mongolia see Binstead, "Life in a Khalkha Steppe Monastery," +<i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1914, 847-900.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_402" id="Page_3_402"></a>[Pg 402]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_LIV" id="CHAPTER_LIV"></a>CHAPTER LIV</h2> + +<h3>JAPAN</h3> + + +<p>This work as originally planned contained a section on Japanese +Buddhism consisting of three chapters, but after it had been sent to +the publishers I was appointed H.M. Ambassador in Tokyo and I decided +to omit this section. Let not any Japanese suppose that it contained +disparaging criticism of his country or its religions. It would, I +hope, have given no offence to either Buddhists or Shintoists, but an +ambassador had better err on the side of discretion and refrain from +public comments on the institutions of the country to which he is +accredited.</p> + +<p>The omission is regrettable in so far as it prevents me from noticing +some of the most interesting and beautiful developments of Buddhism, +but for historical purposes and the investigation of the past the loss +is not great, for Japanese Buddhism throws little light on ancient +India or even on ancient China. It has not influenced other countries. +Its interest lies not in the relics of antiquity which it has +preserved but in the new shape and setting which a race at once +assimilative and inventive has given to old ideas.</p> + +<p>Though the doctrine of the Buddha reached Japan from China through +Korea<a name="FNanchor_1069_1069" id="FNanchor_1069_1069"></a><a href="#Footnote_1069_1069" class="fnanchor">[1069]</a>, Chinese and Japanese Buddhism differ in several respects. +Lamaism never gained a footing in Japan, probably because it was the +religion of the hated Mongols. There was hardly any direct intercourse +with India. Whereas the state religion of China was frequently hostile +to Buddhism, in Japan such relations were generally friendly and from +the seventh century until the Meiji era an arrangement known as +Ryō-bu Shintō or two-fold Shintō was in force, by which +Shintō shrines were with few exceptions handed over to the custody +of Buddhist priests, native deities and historical personages being +declared to be manifestations of various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. +Again, Buddhism in Japan has had a more intimate connection with +social, political and even military matters in various periods than in +China. This is one reason for its chief characteristic, namely, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_403" id="Page_3_403"></a>[Pg 403]</span> +the large number and distinct character of its sects. They are not +merely schools like the religious divisions of India and China, but +real sects with divergent doctrines and sometimes antagonistic to one +another.</p> + +<p>It became the fashion in Japan to talk of the twelve sects, but the +names given are not always the same.</p> + +<p>One of the commonest lists is as follows<a name="FNanchor_1070_1070" id="FNanchor_1070_1070"></a><a href="#Footnote_1070_1070" class="fnanchor">[1070]</a>:</p> + + + +<table summary="Sects_1"> + <tr> + <td>1.</td> + <td>Kusha.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>5.</td> + <td>Hossō.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>9.</td> + <td>Jōdo.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>2.</td> + <td>Jo-jitsu.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>6.</td> + <td>Kegon.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>10.</td> + <td>Zen.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>3.</td> + <td>Ritsu-shu or Risshu.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>7.</td> + <td>Tendai.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>11.</td> + <td>Shin.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>4.</td> + <td>Sanron.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>8.</td> + <td>Shingon.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>12.</td> + <td>Nichiren.</td> + </tr> +</table> + + + + +<p>This list is historically correct, but Nos. 1-4 are almost or quite +extinct, and the number twelve is therefore sometimes made up as +follows:</p> + +<table summary="Sects_2"> + <tr> + <td>1.</td> + <td>Hossō.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>5.</td> + <td>Yūzū Nembutsu.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>9.</td> + <td>Ōbaku.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>2.</td> + <td>Kegon.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>6.</td> + <td>Jōdo.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>10.</td> + <td>Shin.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>3.</td> + <td>Tendai.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>7.</td> + <td>Rinzai.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>11.</td> + <td>Nichiren.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>4.</td> + <td>Shingon.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>8.</td> + <td>Sōdō.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>12.</td> + <td>Ji.</td> + </tr> +</table> + + + + + + +<p>Here Nos. 7, 8, 9 are subdivisions of the Zen and 5 and 12 are two +small sects.</p> + +<p>Taking the first list, we may easily distinguish two classes. The +first eight, called by the Japanese Hasshū, are all old and all +imported from China. They represent the Buddhism of the Nara and +Hei-an periods. The other four all arose after 1170 and were all +remodelled, if not created, in Japan. Chronologically the sects may be +arranged as follows, the dates marking the foundation or introduction +of each:</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(i) Seventh century: Sanron, 625; Jo-jitsu, 625; Hossō, 657; Kusha, 660.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(ii) Eighth century: Kegon, 735; Ritsu, 745.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(iii) Ninth century: Tendai, 805; Shingon, 806.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(iv) Twelfth and thirteenth centuries: Yūzū Nembutsu,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">1123; Jōdo, 1174; Zen, 1202; Shin, 1224; Nichiren,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">1253; Ji, 1275.</span><br /> +</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_404" id="Page_3_404"></a>[Pg 404]</span></p> +<p>All Japanese sects of importance are Mahayanist. The Hinayana is +represented only by the Kusha, Jo-jitsu and Risshu. The two former are +both extinct: the third still numbers a few adherents, but is not +anti-Mahayanist. It merely insists on the importance of discipline.</p> + +<p>Though the Hossō and Kegon sects are not extinct, their survival is +due to their monastic possessions rather than to the vitality of their +doctrines, but the great sects of the ninth century, the Tendai and +Shingon, are still flourishing. For some seven hundred years, +especially in the Fujiwara period, they had great influence not only +in art and literature, but in political and even in military matters, +for they maintained large bodies of troops consisting of soldier monks +or mercenaries and were a considerable menace to the secular +authority. So serious was the danger felt to be that in the sixteenth +century Nobunaga and Hideyoshi destroyed the great monasteries of +Hieizan and Negoro and the pretensions of the Buddhist Church to +temporal power were brought to an end.</p> + +<p>But apart from this political activity, new sects which appeared in +the twelfth and thirteenth centuries suited the popular needs of the +time and were a sign of true religious life. Two of these sects, the +Jōdo and Shinshū<a name="FNanchor_1071_1071" id="FNanchor_1071_1071"></a><a href="#Footnote_1071_1071" class="fnanchor">[1071]</a>, are Amidist—that is to say they teach +that the only or at least the best way of winning salvation is to +appeal to the mercy of Amida, who will give his worshippers a place in +his paradise after death. The Jōdo is relatively old fashioned, and +does not differ much in practice from the worship of Amida as seen in +China, but the Shinshū has no exact parallel elsewhere. Though it +has not introduced many innovations in theology, its abandonment of +monastic discipline, its progressive and popular spirit and its +conspicuous success make it a distinct and remarkable type. Its +priests marry and eat meat: it has no endowments and relies on +voluntary subscription, yet its temples are among the largest and most +conspicuous in Japan. But the hierarchical spirit is not absent and +since Shinshū priests can marry, there arose the institution of +hereditary abbots who were even more like barons than the celibate +prelates of the older sects.</p> + +<p>The Nichiren sect is a purely Japanese growth, without any prototype +in China, and is a protest against Amidism and an attempt to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_405" id="Page_3_405"></a>[Pg 405]</span> +restore Shaka—the historical Buddha—to his proper position from +which he has been ousted. Nichiren, the founder, is one of the most +picturesque figures of Japanese history. His teaching, which was based +on the Lotus Sûtra, was remarkable for its combative spirit and he +himself played a considerable part in the politics of his age. His +followers form one of the most influential and conspicuous sects at +the present day, although not so numerous as the Amidists.</p> + +<p>Zen is the Japanese equivalent of Ch'an or Dhyâna and is the name +given to the sect founded in China by Bodhidharma. It is said to have +been introduced into Japan in the seventh century, but died out. +Later, under the Hōjō Regents, and especially during the +Ashikaga period, it flourished exceedingly. Zen ecclesiastics managed +politics like the French cardinals of the seventeenth century and +profoundly influenced art and literature, since they produced a long +line of painters and writers. But the most interesting feature in the +history of this sect in Japan is that, though it preserves the +teaching of Bodhidharma without much change, yet it underwent a +curious social metamorphosis, for it became the chosen creed of the +military class and contributed not a little to the Bushido or code of +chivalry. It is strange that this mystical doctrine should have spread +among warriors, but its insistence on simplicity of life, discipline +of mind and body, and concentration of thought harmonized with their +ideals.</p> + +<p>Apart from differences of doctrine such as divide the Shinshu, +Nichiren and Zen, Japanese sects show a remarkable tendency to +multiply subdivisions, due chiefly to disputes as to the proper +succession of abbots. Thus the Jōdo sect has four subsects, and the +first and second of these are again subdivided into six and four +respectively. And so with many others. Even the little Ji sect, which +is credited with only 509 temples in all Japan, includes thirteen +subdivisions.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1069_1069" id="Footnote_1069_1069"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1069_1069"><span class="label">[1069]</span></a> The accepted date is A.D. 552.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1070_1070" id="Footnote_1070_1070"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1070_1070"><span class="label">[1070]</span></a> These names are mostly borrowed from the Chinese and +represent: 1. Chü-shê; 2. Ch'êng-shih; 3. Lü; 4. San-lun; 5. +Fa-hsiang; 6. Hua-yen; 7. T'ien-t'ai; 8. Chên-yen; 9. Ching-t'u; 10. +Ch'an. See my remarks on these sects in the section on Chinese +Buddhism. See Haas, <i>Die Sekten dea Japanischen Buddhismus</i>, 1905: +many notices in the same author's <i>Annalen des Jap. Bud.</i> cited +above and Ryauon Fujishima, <i>Le Buddhisme Japonais</i>, 1889.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1071_1071" id="Footnote_1071_1071"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1071_1071"><span class="label">[1071]</span></a> As well as the smaller sects called Ji and +Yūzūnembutsu.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<h2><a name="BOOK_VII" id="BOOK_VII"></a></h2> +<h2> </h2> +<h2> </h2> +<h2>BOOK VII</h2> +<h2> </h2> +<h2> </h2> +<h2>MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF EASTERN AND WESTERN RELIGIONS</h2> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_409" id="Page_3_409"></a>[Pg 409]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_LV" id="CHAPTER_LV"></a></h2> +<h2> </h2> +<h2> </h2> +<h2>CHAPTER LV</h2> +<h3>INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA</h3> + + +<p>In phrases like the above title, the word influence is easy and +convenient. When we hesitate to describe a belief or usage as borrowed +or derived, it comes pat to say that it shows traces of external +influence. But in what circumstances is such influence exercised? It +is not the necessary result of contact, for in the east of Europe the +Christian Church has not become mohammedanized nor in Poland and +Roumania has it contracted any taint of Judaism. In these cases there +is difference of race as well as of religion. In business the Turk and +Jew have some common ground with the oriental Christian: in social +life but little and in religion none at all. Europe has sometimes +shown an interest in Asiatic religions, but on the whole an antipathy +to them. Christianity originated in Palestine, which is a +Mediterranean rather than an Asiatic country, and its most important +forms, particularly the Roman Catholic Church, took shape on European +soil. Such cults as the worship of Isis and Mithra were prevalent in +Europe but they gained their first footing among Asiatic slaves and +soldiers and would perhaps not have maintained themselves among +European converts only. And Buddhism, though it may have attracted +individual minds, has never produced any general impression west of +India. Both in Spain and in south-eastern Europe Islam was the +religion of invaders and made surprisingly few converts. Christian +heretics, such as the Nestorians and Monophysites, who were expelled +from Constantinople and had their home in Asia, left the west alone +and proselytized in the east. The peculiar detestation felt by the +Church for the doctrines of the Manichæans was perhaps partly due to +the fact that they were in spirit Asiatic. And the converse of this +antipathy is also true: the progress of Christianity in Asia has been +insignificant.</p> + +<p>But when people of the same race profess different creeds, these +creeds do influence one another and tend to approximate. This is +specially remarkable in India, where Islam, in theory the +uncompromising opponent of image worship and polytheism, is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_410" id="Page_3_410"></a>[Pg 410]</span> +sometimes in practice undistinguishable from the lower superstitions +of Hinduism. In the middle ages Buddhism and Hinduism converged until +they coincided so completely that Buddhism disappeared. In China it +often needs an expert to distinguish the manifestations of Taoism and +Buddhism: in Japan Buddhism and the old national religion were +combined in the mixed worship known as Ryōbu Shintō. In the +British Isles an impartial observer would probably notice that +Anglicans and English Roman Catholics (not Irish perhaps) have more in +common than they think.</p> + +<p>There are clearly two sets of causes which may divide a race between +religions: internal movements, such as the rise of Buddhism, and +external impulses, such as missions or conquest. Conquest pure and +simple is best illustrated by the history of Islam, also by the +conversion of Mexico and South America to Roman Catholicism. But even +when conversion is pacific, it will generally be found that, if it is +successful on a large scale, it means the introduction of more than a +creed. The religious leader in his own country can trust to his +eloquence and power over his hearers. The real support of the +missionary, however little he may like the idea, is usually that he +represents a superior type of civilization. At one time in their +career Buddhism and Christianity were the greatest agencies for +spreading civilization in Asia and Europe respectively. They brought +with them art and literature: they had the encouragement of the most +enlightened princes: those who did not accept them in many cases +remained obviously on a lower level. Much the same thing happens in +Africa to-day. The natives who accept Mohammedanism or Christianity +are moved, not by the arguments of the Koran or Bible, but by the idea +that it is a fine thing to be like an Arab or a European. A pagan in +Uganda is literally a pagan; an uninstructed rustic from a distant +village.</p> + +<p>Now if we consider the relations of India with the west, we find on +neither side the conditions which usually render propaganda +successful. Before the Mohammedan invasions and the Portuguese +conquest of Goa, no faith can have presented itself to the Hindus with +anything like the prestige which marked the advent of Buddhism in +China and Japan. Alexander opened a road to India for Hellenic culture +and with it came some religious ideas, but the Greeks had no +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_411" id="Page_3_411"></a>[Pg 411]</span> +missionary spirit and if there were any early Christian missions they +must have been on a small scale. The same is true of the west: if +Asoka's missions reached their destination, they failed to inspire any +record of their doings. Still there was traffic by land and sea. The +Hindus, if self-complacent, were not averse to new ideas, and before +the establishment of Christianity there was not much bigotry in the +west, for organized religion was unknown in Europe: practices might be +forbidden as immoral or anti-social but such expressions as contrary +to the Bible or Koran had no equivalent. Old worships were felt to be +unsatisfying: new ones were freely adopted: mysteries were +relished. There was no invasion, nothing that suggested foreign +conquest or alarmed national jealousy, but the way was open to ideas, +though they ran some risk of suffering transformation on their long +journey.</p> + +<p>As I have repeatedly pointed out, Hinduism and Buddhism are +essentially religions of central and eastern, not of western Asia, but +they came in contact with the west in several regions and an enquiry +into the influence which they exercised or felt can be subdivided. +There is the question whether they owe anything to Christianity in +their later developments and also the question whether Christianity +has borrowed anything from them<a name="FNanchor_1072_1072" id="FNanchor_1072_1072"></a><a href="#Footnote_1072_1072" class="fnanchor">[1072]</a>. Other questions to be +considered are the relations of Indian religions to Zoroastrianism in +ancient and to Islam in more recent times, which, if of less general +interest than problems involving Christianity, are easier to +investigate and of considerable importance.</p> + +<p>Let us begin with the influence of Christianity on Indian religion. +For earlier periods the record of contact between Hindus and +Christians is fragmentary, but the evidence of the last two centuries +may give a significant indication as to the effect of early Christian +influence. In these two centuries Christianity has been presented to +the Hindus in the most favourable circumstances: it has come as the +religion of the governing power and associated with European +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_412" id="Page_3_412"></a>[Pg 412]</span> +civilization: it has not, like Mohammedanism, been propagated by force +or accompanied by any intolerance which could awaken repugnance, but +its doctrines have been preached and expounded by private +missionaries, if not always with skill and sympathy, at least with +zeal and a desire to persuade. The result is that according to the +census of 1911 there are now 3,876,000 Christians including Europeans, +that is to say, a sect a little stronger than the Sikhs as against +more than sixty-six million Mohammedans. Of these 3,876,000 many are +drawn from the lowest castes or from tribes that are hardly considered +as Hindus. Some religious associations, generally known as Somaj, have +been founded under the influence of European philosophy as much as of +Christianity: imitation of European civilization (which is quite a +different thing from Christianity) is visible in the objects and +methods of religious and philanthropic institutions: some curious +mixed sects of small numerical strength have been formed by the fusion +of Christian with Hindu or Mohammedan elements or of all three +together. Yet the religious thought and customs of India in general +seem hardly conscious of contact with Christianity: there is no sign +that they have felt any fancy for the theology of the Athanasian +Creed or the ceremonies of the Roman Catholic Church which might have +interested speculative and ritualistic minds. Similarly, though +intellectual intercourse between India and China was long and fairly +intimate and though the influence of Indian thought on China was very +great, yet the influence of China on Indian thought is negligible. +This being so, it would be rash to believe without good evidence that, +in the past, doctrines which have penetrated Indian literature during +centuries and have found acceptance with untold millions owe their +origin to obscure foreign colonists or missions.</p> + +<p>Writers who wish to prove that Indian religions are indebted to +Christianity often approach their task with a certain misconception. +They assume that if at some remote epoch a few stray Christians +reached India, they could overcome without difficulty the barriers of +language and social usage and further that their doctrine would be +accepted as something new and striking which would straightway +influence popular superstition and philosophic thought. But Lyall +gives a juster perspective in his poem about the Meditations of a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_413" id="Page_3_413"></a>[Pg 413]</span> +Hindu Prince who, grown sceptical in the quest of truth, listens to +the "word of the English," and finds it:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Naught but the world wide story how the earth and the heavens began,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">How the gods were glad and angry and a deity once was man."</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>Many doctrines preached by Christianity such as the love of God, +salvation by faith, and the incarnation, had been thought out in India +before the Christian era, and when Christian missionaries preached +them they probably seemed to thoughtful Hindus a new and not very +adequate version of a very old tale. On the other hand the central and +peculiar doctrine of dogmatic Christianity is that the world has been +saved by the death of Christ. If this doctrine of the atonement or the +sacrifice of a divine being had appeared in India as an importation +from the west, we might justly talk of the influence of Christianity +on Indian religion. But it is unknown in Hinduism and Buddhism or +(since it is rash to make absolute statements about these vast and +multifarious growths of speculation) it is at any rate exceedingly +rare. These facts create a presumption that the resemblances between +Christianity and Indian religion are due to coincidence rather than +borrowing, unless borrowing can be clearly proved, and this +conclusion, though it may seem tame, is surely a source of +satisfaction. The divagations of human thought are manifold and its +conclusions often contradictory, but if there is anything that can be +called truth it is but natural that logic, intuition, philosophy, +poetry, learning and saintship should in different countries sometimes +attain similar results.</p> + +<p>Christianity, like other western ideas, may have reached India both by +land and by sea. After the conquests of Alexander had once opened the +route to the Indus and established Hellenistic kingdoms in its +vicinity, the ideas and art of Greece and Rome journeyed without +difficulty to the Panjab, arriving perhaps as somewhat wayworn and +cosmopolitan travellers but still clearly European. A certain amount +of Christianity <i>may</i> have come along this track, but for any +historical investigation clearly the first question is, what is the +earliest period at which we have any record of its presence in India? +It would appear<a name="FNanchor_1073_1073" id="FNanchor_1073_1073"></a><a href="#Footnote_1073_1073" class="fnanchor">[1073]</a> that the first allusions to the presence of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_414" id="Page_3_414"></a>[Pg 414]</span> +Christians in Parthia, Bactria and the border lands of India date from +the third century and that the oldest account<a name="FNanchor_1074_1074" id="FNanchor_1074_1074"></a><a href="#Footnote_1074_1074" class="fnanchor">[1074]</a> of Christian +communities in southern India is the narrative of Cosmas +Indicopleustes (<i>c.</i> 525 A.D.). These latter Christians probably came +to India by sea from Persia in consequence of the persecutions which +raged there in 343 and 414, exactly as at a later date the Parsees +escaped the violence of the Moslims by emigrating to Gujarat and +Bombay.</p> + +<p>The story that the Apostle Thomas preached in some part of India has +often been used as an argument for the early introduction and +influence of Christianity, but recent authorities agree in thinking +that it is legendary or at best not provable. The tale occurs first in +the Acts of St. Thomas<a name="FNanchor_1075_1075" id="FNanchor_1075_1075"></a><a href="#Footnote_1075_1075" class="fnanchor">[1075]</a>, the Syriac text of which is considered to +date from about 250. It relates how the apostle was sold as a slave +skilled in architecture and coming to the Court of Gundaphar, king of +India, undertook to build, a palace but expended the moneys given to +him in charity and, when called to account, explained that he was +building for the king a palace in heaven, not made with hands. This +sounds more like an echo of some Buddhist Jâtaka written in praise of +liberality than an embellishment of any real biography. Other legends +make southern India the sphere of Thomas's activity, though he can +hardly have taught in both Madras and Parthia, and a similar +uncertainty is indicated by the tradition that his relics were +transported to Edessa, which doubtless means that according to other +accounts he died there. Tradition connects Thomas with Parthians quite +as much as with Indians, and, if he really contributed to the +diffusion of Christianity, it is more likely that he laboured in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_415" id="Page_3_415"></a>[Pg 415]</span> +the western part of Parthia than on its extreme eastern frontiers. The +fact that there really was an Indo-Parthian king with a name something +like Gondophares no more makes the legend of St. Thomas historical than +the fact that there was a Bohemian king with a name something like +Wenceslas makes the Christmas carol containing that name historical.</p> + +<p>On the other hand it is clear that during the early centuries of our +era no definite frontier in the religious and intellectual sphere can +be drawn between India and Persia. Christianity reached Persia early: +it formed part of the composite creed of Mani, who was born about 216, +and Christians were persecuted in 343. From at least the third century +onwards Christian ideas <i>may</i> have entered India, but this does not +authorize the assumption that they came with sufficient prestige and +following to exercise any lively influence, or in sufficient purity to +be clearly distinguished from Zoroastrianism and Manichæism.</p> + +<p>By water there was an ancient connection between the west coast of +India and both the Red Sea and Persian Gulf. Traffic by the former +route was specially active, from the time of Augustus to that of Nero. +Pliny<a name="FNanchor_1076_1076" id="FNanchor_1076_1076"></a><a href="#Footnote_1076_1076" class="fnanchor">[1076]</a> complains that every year India and the East took from +Italy a hundred million sesterces in return for spices, perfumes and +ornaments. Strabo<a name="FNanchor_1077_1077" id="FNanchor_1077_1077"></a><a href="#Footnote_1077_1077" class="fnanchor">[1077]</a> who visited Egypt tells how 120 ships sailed +from Myos Hormos (on the Red Sea) to India "although in the time of +the Ptolemies scarcely any one would undertake this voyage." Muziris +(Cranganore) was the chief depot of western trade and even seems to +have been the seat of a Roman commercial colony. Roman coins have been +found in northern and even more abundantly in southern India, and +Hindu mints used Roman models. But only rarely can any one except +sailors and merchants, who made a speciality of eastern trade, have +undertaken the long and arduous journey. Certainly ideas travel with +mysterious rapidity. The debt of Indian astronomy to Greece is +undeniable<a name="FNanchor_1078_1078" id="FNanchor_1078_1078"></a><a href="#Footnote_1078_1078" class="fnanchor">[1078]</a> and if the same cannot be affirmed of Indian +mathematics and medicine yet the resemblance between Greek and Indian +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_416" id="Page_3_416"></a>[Pg 416]</span> +treatises on these sciences is remarkable. Early Tamil poems<a name="FNanchor_1079_1079" id="FNanchor_1079_1079"></a><a href="#Footnote_1079_1079" class="fnanchor">[1079]</a> +speak of Greek wines and dumb (that is unintelligible) Roman soldiers +in the service of Indian kings, but do not mention philosophers, +teachers or missionaries. After 70 A.D. this trade declined, perhaps +because the Flavian Emperors and their successors were averse to the +oriental luxuries which formed its staple, and in 215 the massacre +ordered by Caracalla dealt a blow to the commercial importance of +Alexandria from which it did not recover for a long time. Thus the +period when intercourse between Egypt and India was most active is +anterior to the period when Christianity began to spread: it is hardly +likely that in 70 or 80 A.D. there were many Christians in Egypt.</p> + +<p>As already mentioned, colonies of Christians from Persia settled on +the west coast of India, where there are also Jewish colonies of +considerable antiquity. The story that this Church was founded by St. +Thomas and that his relics are preserved in south India has not been +found in any work older than Marco Polo<a name="FNanchor_1080_1080" id="FNanchor_1080_1080"></a><a href="#Footnote_1080_1080" class="fnanchor">[1080]</a>. Cosmas Indicopleustes +states that the Bishop of Kalliana was appointed from Persia, and this +explains the connection of Nestorianism with southern India, for at +that time the Nestorian Catholicos of Ctesiphon was the only Christian +prelate tolerated by the Persian Government.</p> + +<p>This Church may have had a considerable number of adherents for it was +not confined to Malabar, its home and centre, but had branches on the +east coast near Madras. But it was isolated and became corrupt. It is +said that in 660 it had no regular ministry and in the fourteenth +century even baptism had fallen into disuse. Like the popular forms of +Mohammedanism it adopted many Hindu doctrines and rites. This implies +on the one hand a considerable exchange of ideas: on the other hand, +if such reformers as Râmânuja and Râmânanda were in touch with these +Nestorians we may doubt if they would have imbibed from them the +teaching of the New Testament. There is evidence that Roman Catholic +missions on their way to or from China landed in Malabar during the +thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and made some converts. In 1330 +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_417" id="Page_3_417"></a>[Pg 417]</span> +the Pope sent a Bishop to Quilon with the object of bringing the +Nestorians into communion with the see of Rome. But the definite +establishment of Roman Catholicism dates from the Portuguese conquest +of Goa in 1510, followed by the appointment of an Archbishop and the +introduction of the Inquisition. Henceforth there is no difficulty in +accounting for Christian influence, but it is generally admitted that +the intolerance of the Portuguese made them and their religion +distasteful to Hindus and Moslims alike. We hear, however, that Akbar, +desiring to hear Christian doctrines represented in a disputation held +at his Court, sent for Christian priests from Goa, and his Minister +Abul Fazl is quoted as having written poetry in which mosques, +churches and temples are classed together as places where people seek +for God<a name="FNanchor_1081_1081" id="FNanchor_1081_1081"></a><a href="#Footnote_1081_1081" class="fnanchor">[1081]</a>.</p> + +<p>Such being the opportunities and approximate dates for Christian +influence in India, we may now examine the features in Hinduism which +have been attributed to it. They may be classified under three +principal heads, (i) The monotheistic Sivaism of the south. (ii) +Various doctrines of Vaishnavism such as <i>bhakti</i>, grace, the love and +fatherhood of God, the Word, and incarnation. (iii) Particular +ceremonies or traditions such as the sacred meal known as Prasâda and +the stories of Krishna's infancy.</p> + +<p>In southern India we have a seaboard in communication with Egypt, +Arabia and the Persian Gulf. The reality of intercourse with the west +is attested by Roman, Jewish, Nestorian and Mohammedan settlements, +but on the other hand the Brahmans of Malabar are remarkable even +according to Hindu standards for their strictness and aloofness. As I +have pointed out elsewhere, the want of chronology in south Indian +literature makes it difficult to sketch with any precision even the +outlines of its religious history, but it is probable that Aryan +religion came first in the form of Buddhism and Jainism and that +Sivaism made its appearance only when the ground had been prepared by +them. They were less exposed than the Buddhism of the north to the +influences which created the Mahâyâna, but they no doubt mingled with +the indigenous beliefs of the Dravidians. There is no record of what +these may have been before contact with Hindu civilization; in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_418" id="Page_3_418"></a>[Pg 418]</span> +historical times they comprise the propitiation of spirits, mostly +malignant and hence often called devils, but also a strong tendency to +monotheism and ethical poetry of a high moral standard. These latter +characteristics are noticeable in most, if not all, Dravidian races, +even those which are in the lower stages of civilization<a name="FNanchor_1082_1082" id="FNanchor_1082_1082"></a><a href="#Footnote_1082_1082" class="fnanchor">[1082]</a>. This +temperament, educated by Buddhism and finally selecting Sivaism, might +spontaneously produce such poems as the Tiruvâçagam. Such ideas as +God's love for human souls and the soul's struggle to be worthy of +that love are found in other Indian religions besides Tamil Sivaism +and in their earlier forms cannot be ascribed to Christian influence, +but it must be admitted that the poems of the Sittars show an +extraordinary approximation to the language of devotional literature +in Europe. If, as Caldwell thinks, these compositions are as recent as +the sixteenth or seventeenth century, there is no chronological +difficulty in supposing their contents to be inspired by Christian +ideas. But the question rather is, would Portuguese Catholicism or +corrupt Nestorianism have inspired poems denouncing idolatry and +inculcating the purest theism? Scepticism on this point is +permissible. I am inclined to think that the influence of +Christianity as well as the much greater influence of Mohammedanism +was mostly indirect. They imported little in the way of custom and +dogma but they strengthened the idea which naturally accompanies +sectarianism, namely, that it is reasonable and proper for a religion +to inculcate the worship of one all-sufficient power. But that this +idea can flourish in surroundings repugnant to both Christianity and +Islam is shown by the sect of Lingâyats.</p> + +<p>The resemblances to Christianity in Vishnuism are on a larger scale +than the corresponding phenomena in Sivaism. In most parts of India, +from Assam to Madras, the worship of Vishnu and his incarnations has +assumed the form of a monotheism which, if frequently turning into +pantheism, still persistently inculcates loving devotion to a deity +who is himself moved by love for mankind. The corresponding phase of +Sivaism is restricted to certain periods and districts of southern +India. The doctrine of <i>bhakti</i>, or devotional faith, is common to +Vishnuites and Sivaites, but is more prominent among the former. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_419" id="Page_3_419"></a>[Pg 419]</span> +It has often been conjectured to be due to Christian influence but the +conjecture is, I think, wrong, for the doctrine is probably +pre-Christian. Pâṇini<a name="FNanchor_1083_1083" id="FNanchor_1083_1083"></a><a href="#Footnote_1083_1083" class="fnanchor">[1083]</a> appears to allude to it, and the idea +of loving devotion to God is fully developed in the Śvetâśvatara +Upanishad and the Bhagavad-gîtâ, works of doubtful date it is true, +but in my opinion anterior to the Christian era and on any hypothesis +not much posterior to it. Some time must have elapsed after the death +of Christ before Christianity could present itself in India as an +influential doctrine. Also <i>bhakti</i> does not make its first appearance +as something new and full grown. The seed, the young plant and the +flower can all be found on Indian soil. So, too, the idea that God +became man for the sake of mankind is a gradual Indian growth. In the +Veda Vishnu takes three steps for the good of men. It is probable that +his avatâras were recognized some centuries before Christ and, if this +is regarded as not demonstrable, it cannot be denied that the +analogous conception of Buddhas who visit the world to save and +instruct mankind is pre-Christian<a name="FNanchor_1084_1084" id="FNanchor_1084_1084"></a><a href="#Footnote_1084_1084" class="fnanchor">[1084]</a>. Similarly though passages may +be found in the writings of Kabir and others in which the doctrine of +Śabda or the Word is stated in language recalling the fourth +Gospel, and though in this case the hypothesis of imitation offers no +chronological difficulties, yet it is unnecessary. For Śabda, in +the sense of the Veda conceived as an eternal self-existent sound, is +an old Indian notion and when stated in these terms does not appear +very Christian. It is found in Zoroastrianism, where Manthra Spenta +the holy word is said to be the very soul of God<a name="FNanchor_1085_1085" id="FNanchor_1085_1085"></a><a href="#Footnote_1085_1085" class="fnanchor">[1085]</a>, and it is +perhaps connected with the still more primitive notion that words and +names have a mysterious potency and are in themselves spells. But even +if the idea of Śabda were derived from the idea of Logos it need +not be an instance of specifically Christian influence, for this Logos +idea was only utilized by Christianity and was part of the common +stock of religious thought prevalent about the time of Christ in +Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor, and it is even possible that its earlier +forms may owe something to India. And were it proved that the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_420" id="Page_3_420"></a>[Pg 420]</span> +teaching of Kabir, which clearly owes much to Islam, also owes much to +Christianity, the fact would not be very important, for the followers +of Kabir form a small and eccentric though interesting sect, in no way +typical of Hinduism as a whole.</p> + +<p>The form of Vishnuism known as Pancarâtra appears to have had its +origin, or at least to have flourished very early, in Kashmir and the +extreme north-west, and perhaps a direct connection may be traced +between central Asia and some aspects of the worship of Krishna at +Muttra. The passage of Greek and Persian influence through the +frontier districts is attested by statuary and coins, but no such +memorials of Christianity have been discovered. But the leaders of the +Vishnuite movement in the twelfth and subsequent centuries were mostly +Brahmans of southern extraction who migrated to Hindustan. Stress is +sometimes laid on the fact that they lived in the neighbourhood of +ancient Nestorian churches and even Garbe thinks that Râmânuja, who +studied for some time at Conjevaram, was in touch with the Christians +of Mailapur near Madras. I find it hard to believe that such contact +can have had much result. For Râmânuja was a Brahman of the straitest +sect who probably thought it contamination to be within speaking +distance of a Christian<a name="FNanchor_1086_1086" id="FNanchor_1086_1086"></a><a href="#Footnote_1086_1086" class="fnanchor">[1086]</a>. He was undoubtedly a remarkable scholar +and knew by heart all the principal Hindu scriptures, including those +that teach <i>bhakti</i>. Why then suppose that he took his ideas not from +works like the Bhagavad-gîtâ on which he wrote a commentary or from +the Pancarâtra which he eulogizes, but from persons whom he must have +regarded as obscure heretics? And lastly is there any proof that such +ideas as the love of God and salvation by faith flourished among the +Christians of Mailapur? In remote branches of the oriental Church +Christianity is generally reduced to legends and superstitions, and +this Church was so corrupt that it had even lost the rite of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_421" id="Page_3_421"></a>[Pg 421]</span> +baptism and is said to have held that the third person of the +Trinity was the Madonna<a name="FNanchor_1087_1087" id="FNanchor_1087_1087"></a><a href="#Footnote_1087_1087" class="fnanchor">[1087]</a> and not the Holy Ghost. Surely this +doctrine is an extraordinary heresy in Christianity and far from +having inspired Hindu theories as to the position of Vishnu's spouse +is borrowed from those theories or from some of the innumerable Indian +doctrines about the Śakti.</p> + +<p>It is clear that the Advaita philosophy of Śankara was influential +in India from the ninth century to the twelfth and then lost some of +its prestige owing to the rise of a more personal theism. It does not +seem to me that any introduction or reinforcement of Christianity, to +which this theistic movement might be attributed, can be proved to +have taken place about 1100, and it is not always safe to seek for a +political or social explanation of such movements. But if we must have +an external explanation, the obvious one is the progress of +Mohammedanism. One may even suggest a parallel between the epochs of +Śankara and of Râmânuja. The former, though the avowed enemy of +Buddhism, introduced into Hinduism the doctrine of Mâyâ described by +Indian critics as crypto-Buddhism. Râmânuja probably did not come into +direct contact with Islam<a name="FNanchor_1088_1088" id="FNanchor_1088_1088"></a><a href="#Footnote_1088_1088" class="fnanchor">[1088]</a>, which was the chief enemy of Hinduism +in his time, but his theism (which, however, was semi-pantheistic) may +have been similarly due to the impression produced by that enemy on +Indian thought<a name="FNanchor_1089_1089" id="FNanchor_1089_1089"></a><a href="#Footnote_1089_1089" class="fnanchor">[1089]</a>.</p> + +<p>It is easy to see superficial parallels between Hindu and Christian +ceremonies, but on examination they are generally not found to prove +that there has been direct borrowing from Christianity. For instance, +the superior castes are commonly styled twice born in virtue of +certain initiatory ceremonies performed on them in youth, and it is +natural to compare this second birth with baptismal regeneration. But, +though there is here a real similarity of ideas, it would be hard to +deny that these ideas as well as the practices which express them have +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_422" id="Page_3_422"></a>[Pg 422]</span> +arisen independently<a name="FNanchor_1090_1090" id="FNanchor_1090_1090"></a><a href="#Footnote_1090_1090" class="fnanchor">[1090]</a>. And though a practice of sprinkling +the forehead with water similar to baptism is in use among Hindus, it +is only a variety of the world-wide ceremony of purification with +sacred water. Several authors have seen a resemblance between the +communion and a sacred meal often eaten in Hindu temples and called +<i>prasâd</i> (favour) or mahâprasâd. The usual forms of this observance do +not resemble the Mass in externals (as do certain ceremonies in +Lamaism) and the analogy, if any, resides in the eating of a common +religious meal. Such a meal in Indian temples has its origin in the +necessity and advantage of disposing of sacrificial food. It cannot be +maintained that the deities eat the substance of it and, if it is not +consumed by fire, the obvious method of disposal is for mankind to eat +it. The practice is probably world-wide and the consumers may be +either the priests or the worshippers. Both varieties of the rite are +found in India. In the ancient Soma sacrifices the officiants drank +the residue of the sacred drink: in modern temples, where ample meals +are set before the god more than once a day, it is the custom, perhaps +because it is more advantageous, to sell them to the devout. From this +point of view the <i>prasâd</i> is by no means the equivalent of the Lord's +Supper, but rather of the things offered to idols which many early +Christians scrupled to eat. It has, however, another and special +significance due to the regulations imposed by caste. As a rule a +Hindu of respectable social status cannot eat with his inferiors +without incurring defilement. But in many temples members of all +castes can eat the <i>prasâd</i> together as a sign that before the deity +all his worshippers are equal. From this point of view the <i>prasâd</i> is +really analogous to the communion inasmuch as it is the sign of +religious community, but it is clearly distinct in origin and though +the sacred food may be eaten with great reverence, we are not told +that it is associated with the ideas of commemoration, sacrifice or +transubstantiation which cling to the Christian sacrament<a name="FNanchor_1091_1091" id="FNanchor_1091_1091"></a><a href="#Footnote_1091_1091" class="fnanchor">[1091]</a>.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_423" id="Page_3_423"></a>[Pg 423]</span></p> +<p>The most curious coincidences between Indian and Christian legend +are afforded by the stories and representations of the birth and +infancy of Krishna. These have been elaborately discussed by Weber in +a well-known monograph<a name="FNanchor_1092_1092" id="FNanchor_1092_1092"></a><a href="#Footnote_1092_1092" class="fnanchor">[1092]</a>. Krishna is represented with his mother, +much as the infant Christ with the Madonna; he is born in a +stable<a name="FNanchor_1093_1093" id="FNanchor_1093_1093"></a><a href="#Footnote_1093_1093" class="fnanchor">[1093]</a>, and other well-known incidents such as the appearance of +a star are reproduced. Two things strike us in these resemblances. +Firstly, they are not found in the usual literary version of the +Indian legend<a name="FNanchor_1094_1094" id="FNanchor_1094_1094"></a><a href="#Footnote_1094_1094" class="fnanchor">[1094]</a>, and it is therefore probable that they represent +an independent and borrowed story: secondly, they are almost entirely +concerned with the mythological aspects of Christianity. Many +Christians would admit that the adoration of the Virgin and Child is +unscriptural and borrowed from the worship of pagan goddesses who were +represented as holding their divine offspring in their arms. If this +is admitted, it is possible that Devakî and her son may be a replica +not of the Madonna but of a pagan prototype. But there is no +difficulty in admitting that Christian legends and Christian art may +have entered northern India from Bactria and Persia, and have found a +home in Muttra. Only it does not follow from this that any penetrating +influence transformed Hindu thought and is responsible for Krishna's +divinity, for the idea of <i>bhakti</i>, or for the theology of the +Bhagavad-gîtâ. The borrowed features in the Krishna story are +superficial and also late. They do not occur in the Mahâbhârata and +the earliest authority cited by Weber is Hemâdri, a writer of the +thirteenth century. Allowing that what he describes may have existed +several centuries before his own date, we have still no ground for +tracing the main ideas of Vaishnavism to Christianity and the later +vagaries of Krishnaism are precisely the aspects of Indian religion +which most outrage Christian sentiment.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_424" id="Page_3_424"></a>[Pg 424]</span></p> +<p>One edition of the Bhavishya Purana contains a summary of the book +of Genesis from Adam to Abraham<a name="FNanchor_1095_1095" id="FNanchor_1095_1095"></a><a href="#Footnote_1095_1095" class="fnanchor">[1095]</a>. Though it is a late +interpolation, it shows conclusively that the editors of Puranas had +no objection to borrowing from Christian sources and it maybe that +some incidents in the life of Krishna as related by the Vishnu, +Bhâgavata and other Puranas are borrowed from the Gospels, such as +Kamsa's orders to massacre all male infants when Krishna is born, the +journey of Nanda, Krishna's foster-father, to Mathurâ in order to pay +taxes and the presentation of a pot of ointment to Krishna by a +hunchback woman whom he miraculously makes straight. In estimating the +importance of such coincidences we must remember that they are merely +casual details in a long story of adventures which, in their general +outline, bear no relation to the life of Christ. The most striking of +these is the "massacre of the Innocents." The Harivaṃsa, which is +not later than the fifth century A.D., relates that Kamsa killed all +the other children of Devakî, though it does not mention a general +massacre, and Pâtanjali (<i>c.</i> 150 B.C.) knew the legend of the +hostility between Krishna and Kamsa and the latter's death<a name="FNanchor_1096_1096" id="FNanchor_1096_1096"></a><a href="#Footnote_1096_1096" class="fnanchor">[1096]</a>. So +if anything has been borrowed from the Gospel account it is only the +general slaughter of children. The mention of a pot of ointment +strikes Europeans because such an object is not familiar to us, but it +was an ordinary form of luxury in India and Judæa alike, and the fact +that a woman honoured both Krishna and Christ in the same way but in +totally different circumstances is hardly more than a chance +coincidence. The fact that both Nanda and Joseph leave their homes in +order to pay their taxes is certainly curious and I will leave the +reader to form his own opinion about it. The instance of the Bhavishya +Purana shows that Hindus had no scruples about borrowing from the +Bible and in some Indian dialects the name Krishna appears as Krishto +or Kushto. On the other hand, whatever borrowing there may have been +is concerned exclusively with trivial details: the principal episodes +of the Krishna legend were known before the Christian era.</p> + +<p>This is perhaps the place to examine a curious episode of the +Mahâbhârata which narrates the visit of certain sages to a region +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_425" id="Page_3_425"></a>[Pg 425]</span> +called Śvetadvîpa, the white island or continent, identified by +some with Alexandria or a Christian settlement in central Asia. The +episode occurs in the Śantiparvan<a name="FNanchor_1097_1097" id="FNanchor_1097_1097"></a><a href="#Footnote_1097_1097" class="fnanchor">[1097]</a> of the Mahâbhârata and is +introduced by the story of a royal sacrifice, at which most of the +gods appeared in visible shape but Hari (Vishnu or Krishna) took his +offerings unseen. The king and his priests were angry, but three sages +called Ekata, Dvita and Trita, who are described as the miraculous +offspring of Brahmâ, interposed explaining that none of those present +were worthy to see Hari. They related how they had once desired to +behold him in his own form and after protracted austerities repaired +under divine guidance to an island called Śvetadvîpa on the +northern shores of the Sea of Milk<a name="FNanchor_1098_1098" id="FNanchor_1098_1098"></a><a href="#Footnote_1098_1098" class="fnanchor">[1098]</a>. It was inhabited by beings +white and shining like the moon who followed the rules of the +Pancarâtra, took no food and were continually engaged in silent +prayer. So great was the effulgence that at first the visitors were +blinded. It was only after another century of penance that they began +to have hopes of beholding the deity. Then there suddenly arose a +great light. The inhabitants of the island ran towards it with joined +hands and, as if they were making an offering, cried, "Victory to +thee, O thou of the lotus eyes, reverence to thee, producer of all +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_426" id="Page_3_426"></a>[Pg 426]</span> +things: reverence to thee, Hṛishikeśa, great Purusha, the +first-born." The three sages saw nothing but were conscious that a +wind laden with perfumes blew past them. They were convinced, however, +that the deity had appeared to his worshippers. A voice from heaven +told them that this was so and that no one without faith (abhakta) +could see Nârâyaṇa.</p> + +<p>A subsequent section of the same book tells us that Nârada visited +Śvetadvîpa and received from Nârâyaṇa the Pancarâtra, which is +thus definitely associated with the locality.</p> + +<p>Some writers have seen in this legend a poetical account of contact +with Christianity, but wrongly, as I think. We have here no mythicized +version of a real journey but a voyage of the imagination. The sea of +milk, the white land and its white shining inhabitants are an attempt +to express the pure radiance proper to the courts of God, much as the +Book of Revelation tells of a sea of glass, elders in white raiment +and a deity whose head and hair were white like wool and snow. Nor +need we suppose, as some have done, that the worship of the white +sages is an attempt to describe the Mass. The story does not say that +whenever the White Islanders held a religious service the deity +appeared, but that on a particular occasion when the deity appeared +they ran to meet him and saluted him with a hymn. The idea that prayer +and meditation are the sacrifice to be offered by perfected saints is +thoroughly Indian and ancient. The account testifies to the +non-Brahmanic character of this worship of Vishnu, which was +patronized by the Brahmans though not originated by them, but there is +nothing exotic in the hymn to Nârâyaṇa and the epithet first-born +(pûrvaja), in which some have detected a Christian flavour, is as old +as the Rig Veda. The reason for laying the scene of the story in the +north (if indeed the points of the compass have any place in this +mythical geography) is no doubt the early connection of the Pancarâtra +with Kashmir and north-western India<a name="FNanchor_1099_1099" id="FNanchor_1099_1099"></a><a href="#Footnote_1099_1099" class="fnanchor">[1099]</a>. The facts that some +Puranas people the regions near Śvetadvîpa with Iranian +sun-worshippers<a name="FNanchor_1100_1100" id="FNanchor_1100_1100"></a><a href="#Footnote_1100_1100" class="fnanchor">[1100]</a> and that some details of the Pancarâtra (though +not the system as a whole) show a resemblance to Zoroastrianism +suggest interesting hypotheses as to origin of this form of Vishnuism, +but more facts are needed to confirm them. Chronology gives us little +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_427" id="Page_3_427"></a>[Pg 427]</span> +help, for though the Mahâbhârata was substantially complete in the +fourth century, it cannot be denied that additions may have been made +to it later and that the story of Śvetadvîpa may be one of them. +There were Nestorian Bishops at Merv and Herat in the fifth century, +but there appears to be no evidence that Christianity reached +Transoxiana before the fall of the Sassanids in the first half of the +seventh century.</p> + +<p>Thus there is little reason to regard Christianity as an important +factor in the evolution of Hinduism, because (<i>a</i>) there is no +evidence that it appeared in an influential form before the sixteenth +century and (<i>b</i>) there is strong evidence that most of the doctrines +and practices resembling Christianity have an Indian origin. On the +other hand abundant instances show that the Hindus had no objection to +borrowing from a foreign religion anything great or small which took +their fancy. But the interesting point is that the principal Christian +doctrines were either indigenous in India—such as <i>bhakti</i> and +<i>avatâras</i>—or repugnant to the vast majority of Hindus, such as the +crucifixion and atonement. I do not think that Nestorianism had any +appreciable effect on the history of religious thought in southern +India. Hellenic and Zoroastrian ideas undoubtedly entered +north-western India, but, though Christian ideas may have come with +them, few of the instances cited seem even probable except some +details in the life of Krishna which affect neither the legend as a +whole nor the doctrines associated with it. Some later sects, such as +the Kabirpanthis, show remarkable resemblances to Christianity, but +then the teaching of Kabir was admittedly a blend of Hinduism and +Islam, and since Islam accepted many Christian doctrines, it remains +to be proved that any further explanation is needed. Barth observed +that criticism is generally on the look out for the least trace of +Christian influence on Hinduism but does not pay sufficient attention +to the extent of Moslim influence. Every student of Indian religion +should bear in mind this dictum of the great French savant. After the +sixteenth century there is no difficulty in supposing direct contact +with Roman Catholicism. Tukaram, the Maratha poet who lived +comparatively near to Goa, may have imitated the diction of the +Gospels.</p> + +<p>Some authors<a name="FNanchor_1101_1101" id="FNanchor_1101_1101"></a><a href="#Footnote_1101_1101" class="fnanchor">[1101]</a> are disposed to see Christian influence in Chinese +and Japanese Buddhism, particularly in the Amidist sects. I have +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_428" id="Page_3_428"></a>[Pg 428]</span> +touched on this subject in several places but it may be well to +summarize my conclusions here.</p> + +<p>The chief Amidist doctrines are clearly defined in the Sukhâ +vatî-vyûha which was translated from Sanskrit into Chinese in the +latter half of the second century A.D. It must therefore have existed +in Sanskrit at least in the first century of our era, at which period +dogmatic Christianity could hardly have penetrated to India or any +part of Central Asia where a Sanskrit treatise was likely to be +written. Its doctrines must therefore be independent of Christianity +and indeed their resemblance to Christianity is often exaggerated, for +though salvation by faith in Amida is remarkably like justification by +faith, yet Amida is not a Saviour who died for the world and faith in +him is coupled with the use of certain invocations. The whole theory +has close parallels in Zoroastrianism and is also a natural +development of ideas already existing in India.</p> + +<p>Nor can I think that the common use of rites on behalf of the dead in +Buddhist China is traceable to Christianity. In this case too the +parallel is superficial, for the rites are in most cases not prayers +<i>for</i> the dead: the officiants recite formulae by which they acquire +merit and they then formally transfer this merit to the dead. Seeing +how great was the importance assigned to the cult of the dead in +China, it is not necessary to seek for explanations why a religion +trying to win its way in those countries invented ceremonies to +satisfy the popular craving, and Buddhism had no need to imitate +Christianity, for from an early period it had countenanced offerings +intended to comfort and help the departed.</p> + +<p>Under the T'ang dynasty Manichæism, Nestorianism and new streams of +Buddhism all entered China. These religions had some similarity to one +another, their clergy may have co-operated and Manichæism certainly +adopted Buddhist ideas. There is no reason why Buddhism should not +have adopted Nestorian ideas and, in so far as the Nestorians +familiarized China with the idea of salvation by faith in a divine +personage, they may have helped the spread of Amidism. But the +evidence that we possess seems to show not that the Nestorians +introduced the story of Christ's life and sacrifice into Buddhism but +that they suppressed the idea of atonement by his death, possibly +under Buddhist influence.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1072_1072" id="Footnote_1072_1072"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1072_1072"><span class="label">[1072]</span></a> The most learned and lucid discussion of these +questions, which includes an account of earlier literature on the +subject, is to be found in Garbe's <i>Indien und das Christentum</i>, 1914. +But I am not able to accept all his conclusions. The work, to which I +am much indebted, is cited below as Garbe. See also Carpenter, <i>Theism +in Medieval India</i>, 1921, pp. 521-524.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1073_1073" id="Footnote_1073_1073"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1073_1073"><span class="label">[1073]</span></a> See Garbe and Harnack, <i>Mission und Ausbreitung des +Christentums</i>, ii. Chrysostom (Hom. in Joh. 2. 2) writing at the end +of the fourth century speaks of Syrians, Egyptians, Persians and ten +thousand other nations learning Christianity from translations into +their languages, but one cannot expect geographical accuracy in so +rhetorical a passage.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1074_1074" id="Footnote_1074_1074"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1074_1074"><span class="label">[1074]</span></a> Eusebius (<i>Ecc. Hist</i>. v. 10), supported by notices in +Jerome and others, states that Pantænus went from Alexandria to preach +in India and found there Christians using the Gospel according to +Matthew written in Hebrew characters. It had been left there by the +Apostle Bartholomew. But many scholars are of opinion that by India in +this passage is meant southern Arabia. In these early notices India is +used vaguely for Eastern Parthia, Southern Arabia and even Ethiopia. +It requires considerable evidence to make it probable that at the time +of Pantænus (second century A.D.) any one in India used the Gospel in +a Semitic language.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1075_1075" id="Footnote_1075_1075"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1075_1075"><span class="label">[1075]</span></a> See, for the Thomas legend, Garbe, Vincent Smith, +<i>Early History of India</i>, 3rd ed. pp. 231 ff., and Philipps in <i>I.A.</i>. +1903, pp. 1-15 and 145-160.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1076_1076" id="Footnote_1076_1076"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1076_1076"><span class="label">[1076]</span></a> <i>Nat. Hist</i>. xii. 18 (41).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1077_1077" id="Footnote_1077_1077"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1077_1077"><span class="label">[1077]</span></a> II. iv. 12. Strabo died soon after 21 A.D.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1078_1078" id="Footnote_1078_1078"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1078_1078"><span class="label">[1078]</span></a> It is seen even in borrowed words, <i>e.g.</i> hora = +ὢρα: Jyau = Ζεὺς: Heli = ἢλιος: </p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1079_1079" id="Footnote_1079_1079"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1079_1079"><span class="label">[1079]</span></a> See Kanakasabhai's book, <i>The Tamils 1800 years ago</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1080_1080" id="Footnote_1080_1080"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1080_1080"><span class="label">[1080]</span></a> Harnack (<i>Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums</i>, +II. 126) says "Dass die Thomas-Christen welche man im 16 Jahrhundert +in Indien wieder entdeckte bis ins 3 Jahrhundert hinaufgehen lässt +sich nicht erweisen."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1081_1081" id="Footnote_1081_1081"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1081_1081"><span class="label">[1081]</span></a> For Akbar and Christianity, see <i>Cathay and the Way +Thither</i> (Hakluyt Society), vol. IV. 172-3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1082_1082" id="Footnote_1082_1082"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1082_1082"><span class="label">[1082]</span></a> See Gover, <i>Folk Songs of Southern India</i>, 1871.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1083_1083" id="Footnote_1083_1083"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1083_1083"><span class="label">[1083]</span></a> iv. 3. 95, 98.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1084_1084" id="Footnote_1084_1084"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1084_1084"><span class="label">[1084]</span></a> Cf. the Pali verses in the Therîgâthâ, 157: "Hail to +thee, Buddha, who savest me and many others from suffering."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1085_1085" id="Footnote_1085_1085"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1085_1085"><span class="label">[1085]</span></a> See Yasht, 13. 81 and Vendidad, 19. 14.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1086_1086" id="Footnote_1086_1086"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1086_1086"><span class="label">[1086]</span></a> The liberal ideas as to caste held by some Vishnuites +are due to Râmânand (c. 1400) who was excommunicated by his +coreligionists. I find it hard to agree with Garbe that Râmânuja +admitted the theoretical equality of all castes. He says himself +(Srî-Bhâshya, II. 3. 46, 47) that souls are of the same nature in so +far as they are all parts of Brahman (a proposition which follows from +his fundamental principles and is not at all due to Christian +influence), but that some men are entitled to read the Veda while +others are debarred from the privilege. All fire, he adds, is of the +same nature, but fire taken from the house of a Brahman is pure, +whereas fire taken from a cremation ground is impure. Even so the soul +is defiled by being associated with a low-caste body.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1087_1087" id="Footnote_1087_1087"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1087_1087"><span class="label">[1087]</span></a> See Grieson and Garbe. But I have not found a +quotation from any original authority. Mohammed, however, had the same +notion of the Trinity.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1088_1088" id="Footnote_1088_1088"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1088_1088"><span class="label">[1088]</span></a> But the Mappilahs or Moplahs appear to have settled on +the Malabar coast about 900 A.D.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1089_1089" id="Footnote_1089_1089"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1089_1089"><span class="label">[1089]</span></a> Similarly the neo-Confucianism of the Sung dynasty was +influenced by Mahâyânist Buddhism. Chu-hsi and his disciples condemned +Buddhism, but the new problems and new solutions which they brought +forward would not have been heard of but for Buddhism.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1090_1090" id="Footnote_1090_1090"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1090_1090"><span class="label">[1090]</span></a> The idea of the second birth is found in the Majjhima +Nikâya, where in Sutta 86 the converted brigand Angulimala speaks of +his regenerate life as <i>Yato aham ariyâya jâtiyâ jâto</i>, "Since I was +born by this noble (or holy) birth." Brahmanic parallels are numerous, +<i>e.g.</i> Manu, 2. 146.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1091_1091" id="Footnote_1091_1091"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1091_1091"><span class="label">[1091]</span></a> It is said, however, that the celebration of the +Prasâd by the Kabirpanthis bears an extraordinary resemblance to the +Holy Communion of Christians. This may be so, but, as already +mentioned, this late and admittedly composite sect is not typical of +Hinduism as a whole.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1092_1092" id="Footnote_1092_1092"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1092_1092"><span class="label">[1092]</span></a> Krishṇajanmâshṭamî, <i>Memoirs of Academy of +Berlin</i>, 1867.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1093_1093" id="Footnote_1093_1093"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1093_1093"><span class="label">[1093]</span></a> In spite of making enquiry I have never seen or heard +of these representations of a stable myself. As Senart points out +(<i>Légende</i>, p. 336) all the personages who play a part in Krishna's +early life are shown in these tableaux in one group, but this does not +imply that shepherds and their flocks are supposed to be present at +his birth.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1094_1094" id="Footnote_1094_1094"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1094_1094"><span class="label">[1094]</span></a> Though the ordinary legend does not say that Krishna +was born in a stable yet it does associate him with cattle.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1095_1095" id="Footnote_1095_1095"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1095_1095"><span class="label">[1095]</span></a> Pargiter, <i>Dynasties of the Kali age</i>, p. xviii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1096_1096" id="Footnote_1096_1096"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1096_1096"><span class="label">[1096]</span></a> Commentary on Pânini, 2. 3. 36, 3. 1. 36 and 3. 2. +111. It seems probable that Pâtanjali knew the story of Krishna and +Kamsa substantially as it is recounted in the Harivaṃsa.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1097_1097" id="Footnote_1097_1097"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1097_1097"><span class="label">[1097]</span></a> Section 337. A journey to Śvetadvîpa is also +related in the Kathâsarit sâgara, LIV.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1098_1098" id="Footnote_1098_1098"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1098_1098"><span class="label">[1098]</span></a> The most accessible statement of the geographical +fancies here referred to is in Vishnu Purâna, Book II, chap. IV. The +Sea of Milk is the sixth of the seven concentric seas which surround +Jambudvîpa and Mt. Meru. It divides the sixth of the concentric +continents or Śâkadvîpa from the seventh or Pushkara-dvîpa. The +inhabitants of Śâkadvîpa worship Vishnu as the Sun and have this +much reality that at any rate, according to the Vishnu and Bhavishya +Purânas, they are clearly Iranian Sun-worshippers whose priests are +called Magas or Mṛigas. Pushkara-dvîpa is a terrestrial paradise: +the inhabitants live a thousand years, are of the same nature as the +gods and free from sorrow and sin. "The three Vedas, the Purânas, +Ethics and Polity are unknown" among them and "there are no +distinctions of caste or order: there are no fixed institutes." The +turn of fancy which located this non-Brahmanic Utopia in the north +seems akin to that which led the Greeks to talk of Hyperboreans. +Fairly early in the history of India it must have been discovered that +the western, southern, and eastern coasts were washed by the sea so +that the earthly paradise was naturally placed in the north. Thus we +hear of an abode of the blessed called the country of the holy Uttara +Kurus or northern Kurus. Here nothing can be perceived with human +senses (Mahâbh. Sabhâ, 1045), and it is mentioned in the same breath +as Heaven and the city of Indra (<i>ib.</i> Anusâs. 2841). +</p><p> +It is not quite clear (neither is it of much moment), whether the +Mahâbhârata intends by Śvetadvîpa one of these concentric world +divisions or a separate island. The Kûrma and Padma Purânas also +mention it as the shining abode of Vishnu and his saintly servants.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1099_1099" id="Footnote_1099_1099"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1099_1099"><span class="label">[1099]</span></a> Garbe thinks that the Sea of Milk is Lake Balkash. For +the Pancarâtra see book v. iii. 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1100_1100" id="Footnote_1100_1100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1100_1100"><span class="label">[1100]</span></a> See note 2 on last page.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1101_1101" id="Footnote_1101_1101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1101_1101"><span class="label">[1101]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> several works of Lloyd and Saeki, <i>The +Nestorian Monument in China</i>.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_429" id="Page_3_429"></a>[Pg 429]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_LVI" id="CHAPTER_LVI"></a>CHAPTER LVI</h2> + +<h3>INDIAN INFLUENCE IN THE WESTERN WORLD</h3> + + +<p>The influence of Indian religion on Christianity is part of the wider +question of its influence on the west generally. It is clear that from +200 B.C. until 300 A.D. oriental religion played a considerable part +in the countries round the Mediterranean. The worship of the Magna +Mater was known in Rome by 200 B.C. and that of Isis and Serapis in +the time of Sulla. In the early centuries of the Christian era the +cultus of Mithra prevailed not only in Rome but in most parts of +Europe where there were Roman legions, even in Britain. These +religions may be appropriately labelled with the vague word oriental, +for they are not so much the special creeds of Egypt and Persia +transplanted into Roman soil as fragments, combinations and +adaptations of the most various eastern beliefs. They differed from +the forms of worship indigenous to Greece and Italy in being personal, +not national: they were often emotional and professed to reveal the +nature and destinies of the soul. If we ask whether there are any +definitely Indian elements in all this orientalism, the answer must be +that there is no clear case of direct borrowing, nothing Indian +analogous to the migrations of Isis and Mithra. If Indian thought had +any influence on the Mediterranean it was not immediate, but through +Persia, Babylonia and Egypt. But it is possible that the doctrine of +metempsychosis and the ideal of the ascetic life are echoes of India. +Though the former is found in an incomplete shape among savages in +many parts of the world, there is no indication that it was indigenous +in Egypt, Syria, Babylonia, Asia Minor, Greece or Italy. It crops up +now and again as a tenet held by philosophers or communities of +cosmopolitan tastes such as the Orphic Societies, but usually in +circumstances which suggest a foreign origin. It is said, however, to +have formed part of the doctrines taught by the Druids in Gaul. +Similarly though occasional fasts and other mortifications may have +been usual in the worship of various deities and though the rigorous +Spartan discipline was a sort of military asceticism, still the idea +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_430" id="Page_3_430"></a>[Pg 430]</span> +that the religious life consists in suppressing the passions, +which plays such a large part in Christian monasticism, can be traced +not to any Jewish or European institution but to Egypt. Although +monasticism spread quickly thence to Syria, it is admitted that the +first Christian hermits and monasteries were Egyptian and there is +some evidence for the existence there of pagan hermits<a name="FNanchor_1102_1102" id="FNanchor_1102_1102"></a><a href="#Footnote_1102_1102" class="fnanchor">[1102]</a>. Egypt +was a most religious country, but it does not appear that asceticism, +celibacy or meditation formed part of its older religious life, and +their appearance in Hellenistic times may be due to a wave of Asiatic +influence starting originally from India.</p> + +<p>Looking westwards from India and considering what were the +circumstances favouring the diffusion of Indian ideas, we must note +first that Hindus have not only been in all ages preoccupied by +religious questions but have also had a larger portion of the +missionary spirit than is generally supposed. It is true that in wide +tracts and long periods this spirit has been suppressed by Brahmanic +exclusiveness, but phenomena like the spread of Buddhism and the +establishment of Hinduism in Indo-China and Java speak for themselves. +The spiritual tide flowed eastwards rather than westwards; still it is +probable that its movement was felt, though on a smaller scale, in the +accessible parts of the west. By land, our record tells us mainly of +what came into India from Persia and Bactria, but something must have +gone out. By water we know that at least after about 700 B.C. there +was communication with the Persian Gulf, Arabia and probably the Red +Sea. Semitic alphabets were borrowed: in the Jâtakas we hear of +merchants going to Baveru or Babylon: Solomon's commercial ventures +brought him Indian products. But the strongest testimony to the +dissemination of religious ideas is found in Asoka's celebrated edict +(probably 256 B.C.) in which he claims to have spread the Dhamma as +far as the dominions of Antiochus "and beyond that Antiochus to where +dwell the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas and Alexander." +The kings mentioned are identified as the rulers of Syria, Egypt, +Macedonia, Cyrene and Epirus. Asoka compares his missionary triumphs +to the military conquests of other monarchs. It may be that the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_431" id="Page_3_431"></a>[Pg 431]</span> +comparison is only too just and that like them he claimed to have +extended his law to regions where his name was unknown. No record of +the arrival of Buddhist missions in any Hellenistic kingdom has +reached us and the language of the edict, if examined critically, is +not precise. On the other hand, however vague it may be, it testifies +to two things. Firstly, Egypt, Syria and the other Hellenistic states +were realities to the Indians of this period, distant but not fabulous +regions. Secondly, the king desired to spread the knowledge of the law +in these countries and this desire was shared, or inspired, by the +monks whom he patronized. It is therefore probable that, though the +difficulties of travelling were great and the linguistic difficulties +of preaching an Indian religion even greater, missionaries set out for +the west and reached if not Macedonia and Epirus, at least Babylon and +Alexandria. We may imagine that they would frequent the temples and +the company of the priests and not show much talent for public +preaching. If no record of them remains, it is not more wonderful than +the corresponding silence in the east about Greek visitors to India.</p> + +<p>It is only after the Christian era that we find Apollonius and +Plotinus looking towards India as the home of wisdom. In earlier +periods the definite instances of connection with India are few. +Indian figures found at Memphis perhaps indicate the existence there +of an Indian colony<a name="FNanchor_1103_1103" id="FNanchor_1103_1103"></a><a href="#Footnote_1103_1103" class="fnanchor">[1103]</a>, and a Ptolemaic grave-stone has been +discovered bearing the signs of the wheel and trident<a name="FNanchor_1104_1104" id="FNanchor_1104_1104"></a><a href="#Footnote_1104_1104" class="fnanchor">[1104]</a>. The +infant deity Horus is represented in Indian attitudes and as sitting +on a lotus. Some fragments of the Kanarese language have been found on +a papyrus, but it appears not to be earlier than the second century +A.D.<a name="FNanchor_1105_1105" id="FNanchor_1105_1105"></a><a href="#Footnote_1105_1105" class="fnanchor">[1105]</a> In 21 A.D. Augustus while at Athens received an embassy +from India which came <i>viâ</i> Antioch.</p> + +<p>It was accompanied by a person described as Zarmanochegas, an Indian +from Bargosa who astonished the Athenians by publicly burning himself +alive<a name="FNanchor_1106_1106" id="FNanchor_1106_1106"></a><a href="#Footnote_1106_1106" class="fnanchor">[1106]</a>. We also hear of the movement of an Indian tribe from the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_432" id="Page_3_432"></a>[Pg 432]</span> +Panjab to Parthia and thence to Armenia (149-127 B.C.)<a name="FNanchor_1107_1107" id="FNanchor_1107_1107"></a><a href="#Footnote_1107_1107" class="fnanchor">[1107]</a>, and +of an Indian colony at Alexandria in the time of Trajan. Doubtless +there were other tribal movements and other mercantile colonies which +have left no record, but they were all on a small scale and there was +no general outpouring of India westwards.</p> + +<p>The early relations of India were with Babylon rather than with Egypt, +but if Indian ideas reached Babylon they may easily have spread +further. Communication between Egypt and Babylon existed from an early +period and the tablets of Tel-el-Amarna testify to the antiquity and +intimacy of this intercourse. At a later date Necho invaded Babylonia +but was repulsed. The Jews returned from the Babylonian captivity (538 +B.C.) with their religious horizon enlarged and modified. They were +chiefly affected by Zoroastrian ideas but they may have become +acquainted with any views and practices then known in Babylon, and not +necessarily with those identified with the state worship, for the +exiles may have been led to associate with other strangers. After +about 535 B.C. the Persian empire extended from the valley of the +Indus to the valley of the Nile and from Macedonia to Babylon. We hear +that in the army which Xerxes led against Greece there were Indian +soldiers, which is interesting as showing how the Persians transported +subject races from one end of their empire to the other. After the +career of Alexander, Hellenistic kingdoms took the place of this +empire and, apart from inroads on the north-west frontier of India, +maintained friendly relations with her. Seleucus Nicator sent +Megasthenes as envoy about 300 B.C. and Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 +B.C.) a representative named Dionysius. Bindusâra, the father of +Asoka, exchanged missions with Antiochus, and, according to a +well-known anecdote<a name="FNanchor_1108_1108" id="FNanchor_1108_1108"></a><a href="#Footnote_1108_1108" class="fnanchor">[1108]</a>, expressed a wish to buy a professor +(σοφιστήν). But Antiochus replied that Greek professors +were not for sale.</p> + +<p>Egyptologists consider that metempsychosis is not part of the earlier +strata of Egyptian religion but appears first about 500 B.C., and +Flinders Petrie refers to this period the originals of the earliest +Hermetic literature. But other authorities regard these works as being +both in substance and language considerably posterior to the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_433" id="Page_3_433"></a>[Pg 433]</span> +Christian era and as presenting a jumble of Christianity, Neoplatonism +and Egyptian ideas.</p> + +<p>I have neither space nor competence to discuss the date of the +Hermetic writings, but it is of importance for the question which we +are considering. They contain addresses to the deity like I am Thou +and Thou art I (<i> +ἐγώ εἰμι σὺ καὶ σὺ ἐγώ +</i>). If such words +could be used in Egypt several centuries before Christ, the +probability of Indian influence seems to me strong, for they would not +grow naturally out of Egyptian or Hellenistic religion. Five hundred +years later they would be less remarkable. Whatever may be the date of +the Hermetic literature, it is certain that the Book of Wisdom and the +writings of Philo are pre-Christian and show a mixture of ideas drawn +from many sources, Jewish, Neoplatonic and Neopythagorean. If these +hospitable systems made the acquaintance of Indian philosophy, we may +be sure that they gave it an unprejudiced and even friendly hearing. +In the centuries just before the Christian era Egypt was a centre of +growth for personal and private religious ideas<a name="FNanchor_1109_1109" id="FNanchor_1109_1109"></a><a href="#Footnote_1109_1109" class="fnanchor">[1109]</a>, hardly +possessing sufficient organization to form what we call a religion, +yet still, inasmuch as they aspired to teach individual souls right +conduct as well as true knowledge, implicitly containing the same +scheme of teaching as the Buddhist and Christian Churches. But it is +characteristic of all this movement that it never attempted to form a +national or universal religion and remained in all its manifestations +individual and personal, connected neither with the secular government +nor with any national cultus. Among these religious ideas were +monotheism mingled with pantheism to the extent of saying that God is +all and all is one: the idea of the Logos or Divine Wisdom, which +ultimately assumes the form that the Word is an emanation or Son of +God; asceticism, or at least the desire to free the soul from the +bondage of the senses; metempsychosis and the doctrine of conversion +or the new birth of the soul, which fits in well with metempsychosis, +though it frequently exists apart from it. I doubt if there is +sufficient reason for attributing the doctrine of the Logos<a name="FNanchor_1110_1110" id="FNanchor_1110_1110"></a><a href="#Footnote_1110_1110" class="fnanchor">[1110]</a> to +India, but it is possible that asceticism and the belief in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_434" id="Page_3_434"></a>[Pg 434]</span> +metempsychosis received their first impulse thence. They appear +late and, like the phraseology of the Hermetic books, they do not grow +naturally out of antecedent ideas and practices in Egypt and +Palestine. The life followed by such communities as the Therapeutæ and +Essenes is just such as might have been evolved by seekers after truth +who were trying to put into practice in another country the religious +ideals of India. There are differences: for instance these communities +laboured with their hands and observed the seventh day, but their main +ideas, retirement from the world and suppression of the passions, are +those of Indian monks and foreign to Egyptian and Jewish thought.</p> + +<p>The character of Pythagoras's teaching and its relation to Egypt have +been much discussed and the name of the master was clearly extended by +later (and perhaps also by early) disciples to doctrines which he +never held. But it seems indisputable that there were widely spread +both in Greece and Italy societies called Pythagorean or Orphic which +inculcated a common rule of life and believed in metempsychosis. The +rule of life did not as a rule amount to asceticism in the Indian +sense, which was most uncongenial to Hellenic ideas, but it comprised +great self-restraint. The belief in metempsychosis finds remarkably +clear expression: we hear in the Orphic fragments of the circle of +birth and of escape from it, language strikingly parallel to many +Indian utterances and strikingly unlike the usual turns of Greek +speech and thought. Thus the soul is addressed as "Hail thou who hast +suffered the suffering" and is made to declare "I have flown out of +the sorrowful weary wheel<a name="FNanchor_1111_1111" id="FNanchor_1111_1111"></a><a href="#Footnote_1111_1111" class="fnanchor">[1111]</a>." I see no reason for discrediting the +story that Pythagoras visited Egypt<a name="FNanchor_1112_1112" id="FNanchor_1112_1112"></a><a href="#Footnote_1112_1112" class="fnanchor">[1112]</a>. He is said to have been a +Samian and during his life (<i>c.</i> 500 B.C.) Samos had a special +connection with Egypt, for Polycrates was the ally of Amasis and +assisted him with troops. The date, if somewhat early, is not far +removed from the time when metempsychosis became part of Egyptian +religion. The general opinion of antiquity connected the Orphic +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_435" id="Page_3_435"></a>[Pg 435]</span> +doctrines with Thrace but so little is known of the Thracians and +their origin that this connection does not carry us much further. They +appear, however, to have had relations with Asia Minor and that region +must have been in touch with India<a name="FNanchor_1113_1113" id="FNanchor_1113_1113"></a><a href="#Footnote_1113_1113" class="fnanchor">[1113]</a>. But Orphism was also +connected with Crete, and Cretan civilization had oriental +affinities<a name="FNanchor_1114_1114" id="FNanchor_1114_1114"></a><a href="#Footnote_1114_1114" class="fnanchor">[1114]</a>.</p> + +<p>The point of greatest interest naturally is to determine what were the +religious influences among which Christ grew up. Whatever they may +have been, his originality is not called in question. Mohammed was an +enquirer: in estimating his work we have often to ask what he had +heard about Christianity and Judaism and how far he had understood it +correctly. But neither the Buddha nor Christ were enquirers in this +sense: they accepted the best thought of their time and country: with +a genius which transcends comparison and eludes definition they gave +it an expression which has become immortal. Neither the substance nor +the form of their teaching can reasonably be regarded as identical, +for the Buddha did not treat of God or the divine government of the +world, whereas Christ's chief thesis is that God loves the world and +that therefore man should love God and his fellow men. But though +their basic principles differ, the two doctrines agree in maintaining +that happiness is obtainable not by pleasure or success or philosophy +or rites but by an unselfish life, culminating in the state called +Nirvana or the kingdom of heaven. "The kingdom of heaven is within +you."</p> + +<p>In the Gospels Christ teaches neither asceticism nor metempsychosis. +The absence of the former is remarkable: he eats flesh and allows +himself to be anointed: he drinks wine, prescribes its use in religion +and is credited with producing it miraculously when human cellars run +short. But he praises poverty and the poor: the Sermon on the Mount +and the instructions to the Seventy can be put in practice only by +those who, like the members of a religious community, have severed all +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_436" id="Page_3_436"></a>[Pg 436]</span> +worldly ties and though the extirpation of desire is not in the +Gospels held up as an end, the detachment, the freedom from care, lust +and enmity prescribed by the law of the Buddha find their nearest +counterpart in the lives of the Essenes and Therapeutæ. Though we have +no record of Christ being brought into contact with these communities +(for John the Baptist appears to have been a solitary and erratic +preacher) it is probable that their ideals were known to him and +influenced his own. Their rule of life may have been a faint reflex of +Indian monasticism. But the debt to India must not be exaggerated: +much of the oriental element in the Essenes, such as their frequent +purifications and their prayers uttered towards the sun, may be due to +Persian influence. They seem to have believed in the pre-existence of +the soul and to have held that it was imprisoned in the body, but this +hardly amounts to metempsychosis, and metempsychosis cannot be found +in the New Testament<a name="FNanchor_1115_1115" id="FNanchor_1115_1115"></a><a href="#Footnote_1115_1115" class="fnanchor">[1115]</a>. The old Jewish outlook, preserved by the +Sadducees, appears not to have included a belief in any life after +death, and the supplements to this materialistic view admitted by the +Pharisees hardly amounted to the doctrine of the natural immortality +of the soul but rather to a belief that the just would somehow acquire +new bodies and live again. Thus people were ready to accept John the +Baptist as being Elias in a new form. Perhaps these rather fragmentary +ideas of the Jews are traceable to Egyptian and ultimately to Indian +teaching about transmigration. That belief is said to crop up +occasionally in rabbinical writings but was given no place in orthodox +Christianity<a name="FNanchor_1116_1116" id="FNanchor_1116_1116"></a><a href="#Footnote_1116_1116" class="fnanchor">[1116]</a>.</p> + +<p>With regard to the teaching of Christ then, the conclusion must be +that it owes no direct debt to Indian, Egyptian, Persian or other +oriental sources. But inasmuch as he was in sympathy with the more +spiritual elements of Judaism, largely borrowed during the Babylonian +captivity, and with the unworldly and self-denying lives of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_437" id="Page_3_437"></a>[Pg 437]</span> +Essenes, the tone of his teaching is nearer to these newer and +imported doctrines than to the old law of Israel<a name="FNanchor_1117_1117" id="FNanchor_1117_1117"></a><a href="#Footnote_1117_1117" class="fnanchor">[1117]</a>.</p> + +<p>Some striking parallels have been pointed out between the Gospels and +Indian texts of such undoubted antiquity that if imitation is +admitted, the Evangelists must have been the imitators. Before +considering these instances I invite the reader's attention to two +parallel passages from Shakespeare and the Indian poet Bhartrihari. +The latter is thus translated by Monier Williams<a name="FNanchor_1118_1118" id="FNanchor_1118_1118"></a><a href="#Footnote_1118_1118" class="fnanchor">[1118]</a>:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Now for a little while a child, and now</span><br /> +<span class="i0">An amorous youth; then for a season turned</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Into the wealthy householder: then stripped</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Of all his riches, with decrepit limbs</span><br /> +<span class="i0">And wrinkled frame man creeps towards the end</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Of life's erratic course and like an actor</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Passes behind Death's curtain out of view.</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>The resemblance of this to the well-known lines in <i>As You Like It</i>, +"All the world's a stage," etc., is obvious, and it is a real +resemblance, although the point emphasized by Bhartrihari is that man +leaves the world like an actor who at the end of the piece slips +behind the curtain, which formed the background of an Indian stage. +But, great as is the resemblance, I imagine that no one would maintain +that it has any other origin than that a fairly obvious thought +occurred to two writers in different times and countries and +suggested similar expressions.</p> + +<p>Now many parallels between the Buddhist and Christian scriptures—the +majority as it seems to me of those collected by Edmunds and +Anesaki—belong to this class<a name="FNanchor_1119_1119" id="FNanchor_1119_1119"></a><a href="#Footnote_1119_1119" class="fnanchor">[1119]</a>. One of the most striking is the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_438" id="Page_3_438"></a>[Pg 438]</span> +passage in the Vinaya relating how the Buddha himself cared for a +sick monk who was neglected by his colleagues and said to these +latter, "Whosoever would wait upon me let him wait on the sick<a name="FNanchor_1120_1120" id="FNanchor_1120_1120"></a><a href="#Footnote_1120_1120" class="fnanchor">[1120]</a>." +Here the resemblance to Matthew xxv. 40 and 45 is remarkable, but I do +not imagine that the writer of the Gospel had ever heard or read of +the Buddha's words. The sentiment which prompted them, if none too +common, is at least widespread and is the same that made Confucius +show respect and courtesy to the blind. The setting of the saying in +the Vinaya and in the Gospel is quite different: the common point is +that one whom all are anxious to honour sees that those around him +show no consideration to the sick and unhappy and reproves them in the +words of the text, words which admit of many interpretations, the +simplest perhaps being "I bid you care for the sick: you neglect me if +you neglect those whom I bid you to cherish."</p> + +<p>But many passages in Buddhist and Christian writings have been +compared where there is no real parallel but only some word or detail +which catches the attention and receives an importance which it does +not possess. An instance of this is the so-called parable of the +prodigal son in the Lotus Sûtra, Chapter iv, which has often been +compared with Luke xv. 11 ff. But neither in moral nor in plot are the +two parables really similar. The Lotus maintains that there are many +varieties of doctrine of which the less profound are not necessarily +wrong, and it attempts to illustrate this by not very convincing +stories of how a father may withhold the whole truth from his children +for their good. In one story a father and son are separated for fifty +years and <i>both</i> move about: the father becomes very rich, the son +poor. The son in his wanderings comes upon his father's palace and +recognizes no one. The father, now a very old man, knows his son, but +instead of welcoming him at once as his heir puts him through a +gradual discipline and explains the real position only on his +deathbed. These incidents have nothing in common with the parable +related in the Gospel except that a son is lost and found, an event +which occurs in a hundred oriental tales. What is much more +remarkable, though hardly a case of borrowing, is that in both +versions the chief personage, that is Buddha or God, is likened to a +father as he also is in the parable of the carriages<a name="FNanchor_1121_1121" id="FNanchor_1121_1121"></a><a href="#Footnote_1121_1121" class="fnanchor">[1121]</a>.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_439" id="Page_3_439"></a>[Pg 439]</span></p> +<p>One of the Jain scriptures called Uttarâdyayana<a name="FNanchor_1122_1122" id="FNanchor_1122_1122"></a><a href="#Footnote_1122_1122" class="fnanchor">[1122]</a> contains the +following remarkable passage, "Three merchants set out on their +travels each with his capital; one of them gained much, the second +returned with his capital and the third merchant came home after +having lost his capital; The parable is taken from common life; learn +to apply it to the Law. The capital is human life, the gain is +heaven," etc. It is impossible to fix the date of this passage: the +Jain Canon in which it occurs was edited in 454 A.D. but the component +parts of it are much older. It clearly gives a rough sketch of the +idea which is elaborated in the parable of the talents. Need we +suppose that there has been borrowing on either side? Only in a very +restricted sense, I think, if at all. The parable is taken from common +life, as the Indian text truly says. It occurred to some teacher, +perhaps to many teachers independently, that the spiritual life may be +represented as a matter of profit and loss and illustrated by the +conduct of those who employ their money profitably or not. The idea is +natural and probably far older than the Gospels, but the parable of +the talents is an original and detailed treatment of a metaphor which +may have been known to the theological schools of both India and +Palestine. The parable of the sower bears the same relation to the +much older Buddhist comparison of instruction to agriculture<a name="FNanchor_1123_1123" id="FNanchor_1123_1123"></a><a href="#Footnote_1123_1123" class="fnanchor">[1123]</a> in +which different classes of hearers correspond to different classes of +fields.</p> + +<p>I feel considerable hesitation about two other parallels. What +relation does the story of the girl who gives two copper coins to the +Sangha bear to the parable of the widow's mite? It occurs in +Aśvaghosa's Sûtrâlankâra, but though he was a learned poet, it is +very unlikely that he had seen the Gospels, Although his poem ends +like a fairy tale, for the poor girl marries the king's son as the +reward of her piety, yet there is an extraordinary resemblance in the +moral and the detail of the <i>two</i> mites. Can the origin be some +proverb which was current in many countries and worked up differently?</p> + +<p>The other parallel is between Christ's meeting with the woman of +Samaria and a story in the Divyâvadâna<a name="FNanchor_1124_1124" id="FNanchor_1124_1124"></a><a href="#Footnote_1124_1124" class="fnanchor">[1124]</a> telling how Ananda asked +an outcast maiden for water. Here the Indian work, which is probably +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_440" id="Page_3_440"></a>[Pg 440]</span> +not earlier than the third century A.D., might well be the +borrower. Yet the incident is thoroughly Indian. The resemblance is +not in the conversation but in the fact that both in India and +Palestine water given by the impure is held to defile and that in both +countries spiritual teachers rise above such rules. Perhaps Europeans, +to whom such notions of defilement are unknown, exaggerate the +similarity of the narratives, because the similarity of customs on +which it depends seems remarkable.</p> + +<p>There are, however, some incidents in the Gospels which bear so great +a likeness to earlier stories found in the Pitakas that the two +narratives can hardly be wholly independent. These are (<i>a</i>) the +testimony of Asita and Simeon to the future careers of the infant +Buddha and Christ: (<i>b</i>) the temptation of Buddha and Christ: (<i>c</i>) +their transfiguration: (<i>d</i>) the miracle of walking on the water and +its dependence on faith: (<i>e</i>) the miracle of feeding a multitude with +a little bread. The first three parallels relate to events directly +concerning the life of a superhuman teacher, Buddha or Christ. In +saying that the two narratives can hardly be independent, I do not +mean that one is necessarily unhistorical or that the writers of the +Gospels had read the Pitakas. That a great man should have a mental +crisis in his early life and feel that the powers of evil are trying +to divert him from his high destiny is eminently likely. But in the +East superhuman teachers were many and there grew up a tradition, +fluctuating indeed but still not entirely without consistency, as to +what they may be expected to do. Angelic voices at their birth and +earthquakes at their death are coincidences in embellishment on which +no stress can be laid, but when we find that Zoroaster, the Buddha and +Christ were all tempted by the Evil One and all at the same period of +their careers, it is impossible to avoid the suspicion that some of +their biographers were influenced by the idea that such an incident +was to be expected at that point, unless indeed we regard these +so-called temptations as mental crises natural in the development of a +religious genius. Similarly it is most remarkable that all accounts of +the transfiguration of the Buddha and of Christ agree not only in +describing the shining body but in adding a reference to impending +death. The resemblance between the stories of Asita and Simeon seems +to me less striking but I think that they owe their place in both +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_441" id="Page_3_441"></a>[Pg 441]</span> +biographies to the tradition that the superman is recognized and +saluted by an aged Saint soon after birth.</p> + +<p>The two stories about miracles are of less importance in substance but +the curious coincidences in detail suggest that they are pieces of +folklore which circulated in Asia and Eastern Europe. The Buddhist +versions occur in the introductions to Jatakas 190 and 78, which are +of uncertain date, though they may be very ancient<a name="FNanchor_1125_1125" id="FNanchor_1125_1125"></a><a href="#Footnote_1125_1125" class="fnanchor">[1125]</a>. The idea +that saints can walk on the water is found in the +Majjhima-nikâya<a name="FNanchor_1126_1126" id="FNanchor_1126_1126"></a><a href="#Footnote_1126_1126" class="fnanchor">[1126]</a>, but the Jâtaka adds the following particulars. +A disciple desirous of seeing the Buddha begins to walk across a river +in an ecstasy of faith. In the middle, his ecstasy fails and he feels +himself sinking but by an effort of will he regains his former +confidence and meets the Buddha safely on the further bank. In Jâtaka +90 the Buddha miraculously feeds 500 disciples with a single cake and +it is expressly mentioned that, after all had been satisfied, the +remnants were so numerous that they had to be collected and disposed +of.</p> + +<p>Still all the parallels cited amount to little more than this, that +there was a vague and fluid tradition about the super man's life of +which fragments have received a consecration in literature. The +Canonical Gospels show great caution in drawing on this fund of +tradition, but a number of Buddhist legends make their appearance in +the Apocryphal Gospels and are so obviously Indian in character that +it can hardly be maintained that they were invented in Palestine or +Egypt and spread thence eastwards. Trees bend down before the young +Christ and dragons (nâgas) adore him: when he goes to school to learn +the alphabet he convicts his teacher of ignorance and the good man +faints<a name="FNanchor_1127_1127" id="FNanchor_1127_1127"></a><a href="#Footnote_1127_1127" class="fnanchor">[1127]</a>. When he enters a temple in Egypt the images prostrate +themselves before him just as they do before the young Gotama in the +temple of Kapilavastu<a name="FNanchor_1128_1128" id="FNanchor_1128_1128"></a><a href="#Footnote_1128_1128" class="fnanchor">[1128]</a>. Mary is luminous before the birth of +Christ which takes place without pain or impurity<a name="FNanchor_1129_1129" id="FNanchor_1129_1129"></a><a href="#Footnote_1129_1129" class="fnanchor">[1129]</a>. But the +parallel which is most curious, because the incident related is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_442" id="Page_3_442"></a>[Pg 442]</span> +unusual in both Indian and European literature, is the detailed +narrative in the Gospel of James, and also in the Lalita-vistara +relating how all activity of mankind and nature was suddenly +interrupted at the moment of the nativity<a name="FNanchor_1130_1130" id="FNanchor_1130_1130"></a><a href="#Footnote_1130_1130" class="fnanchor">[1130]</a>. Winds, stars and +rivers stayed their motion and labourers stood still in the attitude +in which each was surprised. The same Gospel of James also relates +that Mary when six months old took seven steps, which must surely be +an echo of the legend which attributes the same feat to the infant +Buddha.</p> + +<p>Several learned authors have discussed the debt of medieval Christian +legend to India. The most remarkable instance of this is the +canonization by both the Eastern and the Western Church of St. Joasaph +or Josaphat. It seems to be established that this name is merely a +corruption of Bodhisat and that the story in its Christian form goes +back to the religious romance called Barlaam and Joasaph which appears +to date from the seventh century<a name="FNanchor_1131_1131" id="FNanchor_1131_1131"></a><a href="#Footnote_1131_1131" class="fnanchor">[1131]</a>. It contains the history of an +Indian prince who was converted by the preaching of Barlaam and became +a hermit, and it introduces some of the well-known stories of Gotama's +early life, such as the attempt to hide from him the existence of +sickness and old age, and his meetings with a cripple and an old man. +The legends of St. Placidus (or Hubert) and St. Christopher have also +been identified with the Nigrodha and Sutasoma Jâtakas<a name="FNanchor_1132_1132" id="FNanchor_1132_1132"></a><a href="#Footnote_1132_1132" class="fnanchor">[1132]</a>. The +identification is not to my mind conclusive nor, if it is admitted, of +much importance. For who doubts that Indian fables reappear in Aesop +or Kalilah and Dimnah? Little is added to this fact if they also +appear in legends which may have some connection with the Church but +which most Christians feel no obligation to believe.</p> + +<p>But the occurrence of Indian legends in the Apocryphal Gospels is more +important for it shows that, though in the early centuries of +Christianity the Church was shy of this oriental exuberance, yet the +materials were at hand for those who chose to use them. Many wonders +attending the superman's birth were deliberately rejected but some +were accepted and oriental practices, such as asceticism, appear with +a suddenness that makes the suspicion of foreign influence legitimate.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_443" id="Page_3_443"></a>[Pg 443]</span></p> +<p>Not only was monasticism adopted by Christianity but many +practices common to Indian and to Christian worship obtained the +approval of the Church at about the same time. Some of these, such as +incense and the tonsure, may have been legacies from the Jewish and +Egyptian priesthoods. Many coincidences also are due to the fact that +both Buddhism and Christianity, while abolishing animal sacrifices, +were ready to sanction old religious customs: both countenanced the +performance before an image or altar of a ritual including incense, +flowers, lights and singing. This recognition of old and widespread +rites goes far to explain the extraordinary similarity of Buddhist +services in Tibet and Japan (both of which derived their ritual +ultimately from India) to Roman Catholic ceremonial. Yet when all +allowance is made for similar causes and coincidences, it is hard to +believe that a collection of such practices as clerical celibacy, +confession, the veneration of relics, the use of the rosary and bells +can have originated independently in both religions. The difficulty no +doubt is to point out any occasion in the third and fourth centuries +A.D. when oriental Christians other than casual travellers had an +opportunity of becoming acquainted with Buddhist institutions. But the +number of resemblances remains remarkable and some of them—such as +clerical celibacy, relics, and confession—are old institutions in +Buddhism but appear to have no parallels in Jewish, Syrian, or +Egyptian antiquity. Up to a certain point, it is a sound principle +not to admit that resemblances prove borrowing, unless it can be shown +that there was contact between two nations, but it is also certain +that all record of such contact may disappear. For instance, it is +indisputable that Hindu civilization was introduced into Camboja, but +there is hardly any evidence as to how or when Hindu colonists arrived +there, and none whatever as to how or when they left India.</p> + +<p>It is in Christian or quasi-Christian heresies—that is, the sects +which were rejected by the majority—that Indian influence is +plainest. This is natural, for if there is one thing obvious in the +history of religion it is that Indian speculation and the Indian view +of life were not congenial to the people of Europe and western Asia. +But some spirits, from the time of Pythagoras onwards, had a greater +affinity for oriental ways of thinking, and such sympathy was +specially common among the Gnostics. Gnosticism consisted in the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_444" id="Page_3_444"></a>[Pg 444]</span> +combination of Christianity with the already mixed religion which +prevailed in Alexandria, Antioch and other centres, and which was an +uncertain and varying compound of Judaism, Hellenistic thought and the +ideas of oriental countries such as Egypt, Persia and Babylonia. Its +fundamental idea, the knowledge of God or Gnosis, is clearly similar +to the Jñânakâṇḍa of the Hindus<a name="FNanchor_1133_1133" id="FNanchor_1133_1133"></a><a href="#Footnote_1133_1133" class="fnanchor">[1133]</a>, but the emphasis laid on +dualism and redemption is not Indian and the resemblances suggest +little more than that hints may have been taken and worked up +independently. Thus the idea of the Demiurgus is related to the idea +of Iśvara in so far as both imply a distinction not generally +recognized in Europe between the creator of the world and the Highest +Deity, but the Gnostic developments of the Demiurgus idea are +independent. Similarly though the Aeons or emanations of the Gnostics +have to some extent a parallel in the beings produced by Brahmâ, +Prajâpati or Vâsudeva, yet these latter are not characteristic of +Hinduism and still less of Buddhism, for the celestial Buddhas and +Bodhisattvas of the Mahâyâna are justly suspected of being additions +due to Persian influence.</p> + +<p>Bardesanes, one of the latest Gnostic teachers (155-233), wrote a book +on Indian religion, quoted by Porphyry. This is important for it shows +that he turned towards India for truth, but though his teaching +included the pre-existence of the soul and some doctrine of Karma, it +was not specially impregnated with Indian ideas. This, however, may be +said without exaggeration of Carpocrates and Basilides who both taught +at Alexandria about 120-130 A.D. Unfortunately we know the views of +these interesting men only from the accounts of their opponents. +Carpocrates<a name="FNanchor_1134_1134" id="FNanchor_1134_1134"></a><a href="#Footnote_1134_1134" class="fnanchor">[1134]</a> is said to have claimed the power of coercing by +magic the spirits who rule the world and to have taught metempsychosis +in the form that the soul is imprisoned in the body again and again +until it has performed all possible actions, good and evil. Therefore +the only way to escape reincarnation (which is the object of religion) +and to rise to a superior sphere of peace is to perform as much action +as possible, good and evil, for the distinction between the two +depends on intention, not on the nature of deeds. It is only through +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_445" id="Page_3_445"></a>[Pg 445]</span> +faith and love that a man can obtain blessedness. Much of the +above sounds like a caricature, but it may be a misrepresentation of +something analogous to the Indian doctrine that the acts of a Yogi are +neither black nor white and that a Yogi in order to get rid of his +Karma creates and animates many bodies to work it off for him.</p> + +<p>In Basilides we find the doctrines not only of reincarnation, which +seems to have been common in Gnostic schools<a name="FNanchor_1135_1135" id="FNanchor_1135_1135"></a><a href="#Footnote_1135_1135" class="fnanchor">[1135]</a>, but of Karma, of +the suffering inherent in existence and perhaps the composite nature +of the soul. He is said to have taught that the martyrs suffered for +their sins, that is to say that souls came into the world tainted with +the guilt of evil deeds done in another existence. This guilt must be +expiated by commonplace misfortune or, for the nobler sort, by +martyrdom. He considered the world process to consist in sorting out +confused things and the gradual establishment of order. This is to +some extent true of the soul as well: it is not an entity but a +compound (compare the Buddhist doctrine of the Skandhas) and the +passions are appendages. He called God οὐκ ὢν θεός which +seems an attempt to express the same idea as Brahman devoid of all +qualities and attributes (nirguṇa). It is significant that the +system of Basilides died out<a name="FNanchor_1136_1136" id="FNanchor_1136_1136"></a><a href="#Footnote_1136_1136" class="fnanchor">[1136]</a>.</p> + +<p>A more important sect of decidedly oriental affinities was Manichæism, +or rather it was a truly oriental religion which succeeded in +penetrating to Europe and there took on considerably more Christianity +than it had possessed in its original form. Mani himself (215-276) is +said to have been a native of Ecbatana but visited Afghanistan, +Bactria and India, and his followers carried his faith across Asia to +China, while in the west it was the parent inspiration of the Bogomils +and Albigenses. The nature and sources of his creed have been the +subject of considerable discussion but new light is now pouring in +from the Manichæan manuscripts discovered in Central Asia, some of +which have already been published. These show that about the seventh +century and probably considerably earlier the Manichæism of those +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_446" id="Page_3_446"></a>[Pg 446]</span> +regions had much in common with Buddhism. A Manichæan treatise +discovered at Tun-huang<a name="FNanchor_1137_1137" id="FNanchor_1137_1137"></a><a href="#Footnote_1137_1137" class="fnanchor">[1137]</a> has the form of a Buddhist Sûtra: it +speaks of Mani as the Tathâgata, it mentions Buddhas of Transformation +(Hua-fo) and the Bodhisattva Ti-tsang. Even more important is the +confessional formula called Khuastuanift<a name="FNanchor_1138_1138" id="FNanchor_1138_1138"></a><a href="#Footnote_1138_1138" class="fnanchor">[1138]</a> found in the same +locality. It is clearly similar to the Pâtimokkha and besides using +much Buddhist terminology it reckons killing or injuring animals as a +serious sin. It is true that many of these resemblances may be due to +association with Buddhism and not to the original teaching of Mani, +which was strongly dualistic and contained many Zoroastrian and +Babylonian ideas. But it was eclectic and held up an ascetic ideal of +celibacy, poverty and fasting unknown to Persia and Babylon. To take +life was counted a sin and the adepts formed an order apart who lived +on the food given to them by the laity. The more western accounts of +the Manichæans testify to these features as strongly as do the records +from Central Asia and China. Cyril of Jerusalem in his polemic against +them<a name="FNanchor_1139_1139" id="FNanchor_1139_1139"></a><a href="#Footnote_1139_1139" class="fnanchor">[1139]</a> charges them with believing in retributive metempsychosis, +he who kills an animal being changed into that animal after death. The +Persian king Hormizd is said to have accused Mani of bidding people +destroy the world, that is, to retire from social life and not have +children. Alberuni<a name="FNanchor_1140_1140" id="FNanchor_1140_1140"></a><a href="#Footnote_1140_1140" class="fnanchor">[1140]</a> states definitely that Mani wrote a book +called Shâburkân in which he said that God sent different messengers +to mankind in different ages, Buddha to India, Zarâdusht to Persia +and Jesus to the west. According to Cyril the Manichæan scriptures +were written by one Scythianus and revised by his disciple Terebinthus +who changed his name to Boddas. This may be a jumble, but it is hard +to stifle the suspicion that it contains some allusion to the Buddha, +Śâkya-muni and the Bo tree.</p> + +<p>I think therefore that primitive Manichæism, though it contained less +Buddhism than did its later and eastern forms, still owed to India its +asceticism, its order of celibate adepts and its regard for animal +life. When it spread to Africa and Europe it became more +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_447" id="Page_3_447"></a>[Pg 447]</span> +Christian, just as it became more Buddhist in China, but it is +exceedingly curious to see how this Asiatic religion, like the widely +different religion of Mohammed, was even in its latest phrases the +subject of bitter hatred and persistent misrepresentation.</p> + +<p>Finally, do the Neoplatonists, Neopythagoreans and other pagan +philosophers of the early centuries after Christ owe any debt to +India? Many of them were consciously endeavouring to arrest the +progress of Christianity by transforming philosophy into a +non-Christian religion. They gladly welcomed every proof that the +higher life was not to be found exclusively or most perfectly in +Christianity. Hence bias, if not accurate knowledge, led them to +respect all forms of eastern mysticism. Apollonius is said to have +travelled in India<a name="FNanchor_1141_1141" id="FNanchor_1141_1141"></a><a href="#Footnote_1141_1141" class="fnanchor">[1141]</a>: in the hope of so doing Plotinus accompanied +the unfortunate expedition of Gordian but turned back when it failed. +We may surmise that for Plotinus the Indian origin of an idea would +have been a point in its favour, although his writings show no special +hostility to Christianity<a name="FNanchor_1142_1142" id="FNanchor_1142_1142"></a><a href="#Footnote_1142_1142" class="fnanchor">[1142]</a>. So far as I can judge, his system +presents those features which might be expected to come from sympathy +with the Indian temperament, aided perhaps not by reading but by +conversation with thoughtful orientals at Alexandria and elsewhere. +The direct parallels are not striking. Plato himself had entertained +the idea of metempsychosis and much that seems oriental in Plotinus +may be not a new importation but the elaboration of Plato's views in a +form congenial to the age<a name="FNanchor_1143_1143" id="FNanchor_1143_1143"></a><a href="#Footnote_1143_1143" class="fnanchor">[1143]</a>. Affirmations that God is τὸ ὄυ and τὸ ἕυ are not so much borrowings from the Vedânta +philosophy as a re-statement of Hellenic ideas in a mystic and +quietist spirit, which may owe something to India. But Plotinus seems +to me nearer to India than were the Gnostics and Manichæans, because +his teaching is not dualistic to the same extent. He finds the world +unsatisfying not because it is the creation of the Evil One, but +because it is transitory, imperfect and unreal.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_448" id="Page_3_448"></a>[Pg 448]</span></p> +<p>His system has been called dynamic pantheism and this description +applies also to much Indian theology which regards God in himself as +devoid of all qualities and yet the source of the forces which move +the universe. He held that there are four stages of being: primæval +being, the ideal world, the soul and phenomena. This, if not exactly +parallel to anything in Indian philosophy, is similar in idea to the +evolutionary theories of the Sânkhya and the phases of conditioned +spirit taught by many Vishnuite sects.</p> + +<p>For Plotinus neither moral good nor evil is ultimate: the highest +principle, like Brahman, transcends both and is beyond good (ὑπεράγαθον). The highest morality is a morality of inaction and +detachment: fasting and abstinence from pleasure are good and so is +meditation, but happiness comes in the form of ecstasy and union with +God. In human life such union cannot be permanent, though while the +ecstasy lasts it affords a resting place on the weary journey, but +after death it can be permanent: the divine within us can then return +to the universal divine. In these ideas there is the real spirit of +India.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1102_1102" id="Footnote_1102_1102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1102_1102"><span class="label">[1102]</span></a> See Scott Moncrieff, <i>Paganism and Christianity in +Egypt</i>, p. 199. Petrie, <i>Personal Religion in Egypt</i>, p. 62. But for a +contrary view see Preuschen, <i>Mönchtum und Serapiskult</i>, 1903.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1103_1103" id="Footnote_1103_1103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1103_1103"><span class="label">[1103]</span></a> Flinders Petrie, <i>Man</i>, 1908, p. 129.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1104_1104" id="Footnote_1104_1104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1104_1104"><span class="label">[1104]</span></a> <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1898, p. 875.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1105_1105" id="Footnote_1105_1105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1105_1105"><span class="label">[1105]</span></a> Hultzsch, <i>Hermas</i>, xxxix. p. 307, and <i>J.R.A.S.</i> +1904, p. 399.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1106_1106" id="Footnote_1106_1106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1106_1106"><span class="label">[1106]</span></a> Nicolaus Damascenus, quoted by Strabo, xv. 73. See +also Dion Caasius, ix. 58, who calls the Indian Zarmaros. +Zarmanochegas perhaps contains the two words Śramana and Acârya.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1107_1107" id="Footnote_1107_1107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1107_1107"><span class="label">[1107]</span></a> <i>See J.R.A.S.</i> 1907, p. 968.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1108_1108" id="Footnote_1108_1108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1108_1108"><span class="label">[1108]</span></a> See Vincent Smith, <i>Early History of India</i>, edition +III. p. 147. The original source of the anecdote is Hegesandros in +Athenæus, 14. 652.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1109_1109" id="Footnote_1109_1109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1109_1109"><span class="label">[1109]</span></a> See Flinders Petrie, <i>Personal Religion in Egypt +before Christianity</i>, 1909.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1110_1110" id="Footnote_1110_1110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1110_1110"><span class="label">[1110]</span></a> As I have pointed out elsewhere there is little real +analogy between the ideas of Logos and Śabda.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_1111_1111" id="Footnote_1111_1111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1111_1111"><span class="label">[1111]</span></a><i> +Κύκλου δ᾽ ἔξεπταν βαθυπένθεος ἀργαλέοιο</i>. +From the tablet found at Compagno. Cf. Proclus in Plat. <i>Tim.</i> V. 330, +<i>ἧς καὶ οἳ παρ᾽ Ὄρφει τῷ Διονύσῳ καὶ τῇ κόρῃ τελούμενοι τυχεῖν εὔχονται Κύκλου τ᾽ αὖ λῆξαι καὶ ἀναπνεῦσαι κακότητος</i>. See +J.E. Harrison, <i>Proleg. to the study of Greek Religion</i>, 1908, chap. +XI. and appendix.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1112_1112" id="Footnote_1112_1112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1112_1112"><span class="label">[1112]</span></a> Burnet, <i>Early Greek Philosophy</i>, p. 94, says that it +first occurs in the Busiris of Isocrates and does not believe that the +account in Herodotus implies that Pythagoras visited Egypt.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1113_1113" id="Footnote_1113_1113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1113_1113"><span class="label">[1113]</span></a> Whatever may have been the true character and history +of the enigmatic people of Mitanni it appears certain that they adored +deities with Indian names about 1400 B.C. But they may have been +Iranians, and it may be doubted if the Aryan Indians of this date +believed in metempsychosis.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1114_1114" id="Footnote_1114_1114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1114_1114"><span class="label">[1114]</span></a> J.E. Harrison, <i>l.c.</i> pp. 459 and 564, seems to think +that Orphism migrated from Crete to Thrace.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1115_1115" id="Footnote_1115_1115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1115_1115"><span class="label">[1115]</span></a> The question of the Disciples in John ix. 2. Who did +sin, this man or his parents, that he was born blind? must if taken +strictly imply some form of pre-existence. But it is a popular +question, not a theological statement, and I doubt if severely logical +deductions from it are warranted.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1116_1116" id="Footnote_1116_1116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1116_1116"><span class="label">[1116]</span></a> The pre-existence of the soul seems to be implied in +the Book of Wisdom viii. 20. The remarkable expression in the Epistle +of James iii. 6 τρόχος τἣς γενήσεως suggests a comparison +with the Orphic expressions quoted above and Samsâra, but it is +difficult to believe it can mean more than "the course of nature."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1117_1117" id="Footnote_1117_1117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1117_1117"><span class="label">[1117]</span></a> As in their legends, so in their doctrines, the +uncanonical writings are more oriental than the canonical and contain +more pantheistic and ascetic sayings. <i>E.g.</i> "Where there is one +alone, I am with him. Raise the stone and thou shalt find me: cleave +the wood and I am there" (<i>Oxyrhynchus Logia</i>). "I am thou and thou +art I and wheresoever thou art I am also: and in all things I am +distributed and wheresoever thou wilt thou gatherest me and in +gathering me thou gatherest thyself" (Gospel of Eve in Epiph. <i>Haer</i>. +xxvi. 3). "When the Lord was asked, when should his kingdom come, he +said: When two shall be one and the without as the within and the male +with the female, neither male nor female" (<i>Logia</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1118_1118" id="Footnote_1118_1118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1118_1118"><span class="label">[1118]</span></a> <i>Hinduism</i>, p. 549. The original is to be found in +Bhartrihari's Vairogyaśatakam, 112.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1119_1119" id="Footnote_1119_1119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1119_1119"><span class="label">[1119]</span></a> <i>The Buddhist and Christian Gospels</i>, 4th ed. 1909.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1120_1120" id="Footnote_1120_1120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1120_1120"><span class="label">[1120]</span></a> Mahâvagga, VIII. 26.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1121_1121" id="Footnote_1121_1121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1121_1121"><span class="label">[1121]</span></a> <i>Lotus</i>, chap. V.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1122_1122" id="Footnote_1122_1122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1122_1122"><span class="label">[1122]</span></a> VII. 15-21 in <i>S.B.E.</i> XLV. p. 29.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1123_1123" id="Footnote_1123_1123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1123_1123"><span class="label">[1123]</span></a> Sam. Nik. XLII. VII.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1124_1124" id="Footnote_1124_1124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1124_1124"><span class="label">[1124]</span></a> Ed. Cowell, p. 611.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1125_1125" id="Footnote_1125_1125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1125_1125"><span class="label">[1125]</span></a> See Rhys Davids, <i>Buddhist India</i>, p. 206, and +Winternitz, <i>Ges. Ind. Lit</i>. II. 91.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1126_1126" id="Footnote_1126_1126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1126_1126"><span class="label">[1126]</span></a> Maj. Nik. VI.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1127_1127" id="Footnote_1127_1127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1127_1127"><span class="label">[1127]</span></a> Gospel of Thomas: longer version, chaps, VI. XIV. See +also the Arabic and Syriac Gospels of the Infancy, cf. Lalita-vistara, +chap. X.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1128_1128" id="Footnote_1128_1128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1128_1128"><span class="label">[1128]</span></a> Pseudo-Matthew, chap, XXII.-XXIV. and Lal. Vist. chap. +VIII.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1129_1129" id="Footnote_1129_1129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1129_1129"><span class="label">[1129]</span></a> Pseudo-Matthew, XIII. Cf. Dig. Nik. 14 and Maj. Nik. +123. Neumann's notes on the latter give many curious medieval +parallels.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1130_1130" id="Footnote_1130_1130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1130_1130"><span class="label">[1130]</span></a> See Gospel of James, XVIII. and Lal. Vist. VII. <i>ad +init</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1131_1131" id="Footnote_1131_1131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1131_1131"><span class="label">[1131]</span></a> See Rhys Davids, <i>Buddhist Birth stories</i>, 1880, +introduction; and Joseph Jacobs, <i>Barlaam and Josaphat</i>, 1896.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1132_1132" id="Footnote_1132_1132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1132_1132"><span class="label">[1132]</span></a> Nos. 12 and 537.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1133_1133" id="Footnote_1133_1133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1133_1133"><span class="label">[1133]</span></a> As is also the idea that γνὣσις implies a +special ascetic mode of life, the βίος γνωστικός.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1134_1134" id="Footnote_1134_1134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1134_1134"><span class="label">[1134]</span></a> Irenæus, I. XXV.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1135_1135" id="Footnote_1135_1135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1135_1135"><span class="label">[1135]</span></a> It appears in the Pistis Sophia which perhaps +represents the school of Valentinus. Basilides taught that "unto the +third and fourth generation" refers to transmigration (see Clem. Al. +fragm. sect. 28 Op., ed. Klotz, IV. 14), and Paul's saying "I was +alive without the law once" (Rom. vii. 9), to former life as an animal +(Orig. in Ep. ad Rom. V. Op. iv. 549).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1136_1136" id="Footnote_1136_1136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1136_1136"><span class="label">[1136]</span></a> For Gnosticism, see <i>Buddhist Gnosticism</i>, J. Kennedy +in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1902, and Mead, <i>Fragments of a faith Forgotten</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1137_1137" id="Footnote_1137_1137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1137_1137"><span class="label">[1137]</span></a> Chavannes et Pelliot, "Un traité Manichéen retrouvé en +Chine," <i>J.A.</i> 1911, I, and 1913, II.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1138_1138" id="Footnote_1138_1138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1138_1138"><span class="label">[1138]</span></a> Le Coq in <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1911, p. 277.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1139_1139" id="Footnote_1139_1139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1139_1139"><span class="label">[1139]</span></a> Catechetic Lectures, VI. 20 ff. The whole polemic is +curious and worth reading.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1140_1140" id="Footnote_1140_1140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1140_1140"><span class="label">[1140]</span></a> Alberuni, <i>Chronology of ancient nations</i>, trans. +Sachau, p. 190.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1141_1141" id="Footnote_1141_1141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1141_1141"><span class="label">[1141]</span></a> The account in Philostratus (books II. and III.) reads +like a romance and hardly proves that Apollonius went to India, but +still there is no reason why he should not have done so.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1142_1142" id="Footnote_1142_1142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1142_1142"><span class="label">[1142]</span></a> He wrote, however, against certain Gnostics.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1143_1143" id="Footnote_1143_1143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1143_1143"><span class="label">[1143]</span></a> Similarly Sallustius (<i>c.</i> 360 A.D.), whose object was +to revive Hellenism, includes metempsychosis in his creed and thinks +it can be proved. See translation in Murray, <i>Four Stages of Greek +Religion</i>, p. 213.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_449" id="Page_3_449"></a>[Pg 449]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_LVII" id="CHAPTER_LVII"></a>CHAPTER LVII</h2> + +<h3>PERSIAN INFLUENCE IN INDIA</h3> + + +<p>Our geographical and political phraseology about India and Persia +obscures the fact that in many periods the frontier between the two +countries was uncertain or not drawn as now. North-western India and +eastern Persia must not be regarded as water-tight or even merely +leaky compartments. Even now there are more Zoroastrians in India than +in Persia and the Persian sect of Shiite Mohammedans is powerful and +conspicuous there. In former times it is probable that there was often +not more difference between Indian and Iranian religion than between +different Indian sects.</p> + +<p>Yet the religious temperaments of India and Iran are not the same. +Zoroastrianism has little sympathy for pantheism or asceticism: it +does not teach metempsychosis or the sinfulness of taking life. Images +are not used in worship<a name="FNanchor_1144_1144" id="FNanchor_1144_1144"></a><a href="#Footnote_1144_1144" class="fnanchor">[1144]</a>, God and his angels being thought of as +pure and shining spirits. The foundation of the system is an +uncompromising dualism of good and evil, purity and impurity, light +and darkness. Good and evil are different in origin and duality will +be abolished only by the ultimate and complete victory of the good. In +the next world the distinction between heaven and hell is equally +sharp but hell is not eternal<a name="FNanchor_1145_1145" id="FNanchor_1145_1145"></a><a href="#Footnote_1145_1145" class="fnanchor">[1145]</a>.</p> + +<p>The pantheon and even the ritual of the early Iranians resembled those +of the Veda and we can only suppose that the two peoples once lived +and worshipped together. Subsequently came the reform of Zoroaster +which substituted theism and dualism for this nature worship. For +about two centuries, from 530 B.C. onwards, Gandhara and other parts +of north-western India were a Persian province. Between the time of +Zoroaster (whatever that may be) and this period we cannot say what +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_450" id="Page_3_450"></a>[Pg 450]</span> +were the relations of Indian and Iranian religions, but after the +seventh century they must have flourished in the same region. +Aristobulus<a name="FNanchor_1146_1146" id="FNanchor_1146_1146"></a><a href="#Footnote_1146_1146" class="fnanchor">[1146]</a>, speaking of Taxila in the time of Alexander the +Great, describes a marriage market and how the dead were devoured by +vultures. These are Babylonian and Persian customs, and doubtless were +accompanied by many others less striking to a foreign tourist. Some +hold that the Zoroastrian scriptures allude to disputes with +Buddhists<a name="FNanchor_1147_1147" id="FNanchor_1147_1147"></a><a href="#Footnote_1147_1147" class="fnanchor">[1147]</a>.</p> + +<p>Experts on the whole agree that the most ancient Indian architecture +which has been preserved—that of the Maurya dynasty—has no known +antecedents in India, but both in structure (especially the pillars) +and in decoration is reminiscent of Persepolis, just as Asoka's habit +of lecturing his subjects in stone sermons and the very turns of his +phrases recall the inscriptions of Darius<a name="FNanchor_1148_1148" id="FNanchor_1148_1148"></a><a href="#Footnote_1148_1148" class="fnanchor">[1148]</a>. And though the king's +creed is in some respects—such as his tenderness for animal +life—thoroughly Indian, yet this cannot be said of his style and +choice of themes as a whole. His marked avoidance of theology and +philosophy, his insistence on ethical principles such as truth, and +his frank argument that men should do good in order that they may fare +happily in the next world, suggest that he may have become familiar +with the simple and practical Zoroastrian outlook<a name="FNanchor_1149_1149" id="FNanchor_1149_1149"></a><a href="#Footnote_1149_1149" class="fnanchor">[1149]</a>, perhaps when +he was viceroy of Taxila in his youth. But still he shows no trace of +theism or dualism: morality is his one concern, but it means for him +doing good rather than suppressing evil.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_451" id="Page_3_451"></a>[Pg 451]</span></p> +<p>After the death of Asoka his Empire broke up and races who were +Iranian in culture, if not always in blood, advanced at its expense. +Dependencies of the Persian or Parthian empire extended into India or +like the Satrapies of Mathurâ and Saurâshṭra lay wholly within it. +The mixed civilization which the Kushans brought with them included +Zoroastrianism, as is shown by the coins of Kanishka, and late Kushan +coins indicate that Sassanian influence had become very strong in +northern India when the dynasty collapsed in the third century A.D.</p> + +<p>I see no reason to suppose that Gotama himself was influenced by +Iranian thought. His fundamental ideas, his view of life and his +scheme of salvation are truly Hindu and not Iranian. But if the +childhood of Buddhism was Indian, it grew to adolescence in a motley +bazaar where Persians and their ways were familiar. Though the +Buddhism exported to Ceylon escaped this phase, not merely Mahayanism +but schools like the Sarvâstivadins must have passed through it. The +share of Zoroastrianism must not be exaggerated. The metaphysical and +ritualistic tendencies of Indian Buddhism are purely Hindu, and if its +free use of images was due to any foreign stimulus, that stimulus was +perhaps Hellenistic. But the altruistic morality of Mahayanism, though +not borrowed from Zoroastrianism, marks a change and this change may +well have occurred among races accustomed to the preaching of active +charity and dissatisfied with the ideals of self-training and lonely +perfection. And Zoroastrian influence is I think indubitable in the +figures of the great Bodhisattvas, even Maitreya<a name="FNanchor_1150_1150" id="FNanchor_1150_1150"></a><a href="#Footnote_1150_1150" class="fnanchor">[1150]</a>, and above all +in Amitâbha and his paradise. These personalities have been adroitly +fitted into Indian theology but they have no Indian lineage and, in +spite of all explanations, Amitâbha and the salvation which he offers +remain in strange contradiction with the teaching of Gotama. I have +shown elsewhere<a name="FNanchor_1151_1151" id="FNanchor_1151_1151"></a><a href="#Footnote_1151_1151" class="fnanchor">[1151]</a> what close parallels may be found in the Avesta +to these radiant and benevolent genii and to the heaven of boundless +light which is entered by those who repeat the name of its master. +Also there is good evidence to connect the early worship of Amitâbha +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_452" id="Page_3_452"></a>[Pg 452]</span> +with Central Asia. Later Iranian influence may have meant +Mithraism and Manichæism as well as Zoroastrianism and the school of +Asanga perhaps owes something to these systems<a name="FNanchor_1152_1152" id="FNanchor_1152_1152"></a><a href="#Footnote_1152_1152" class="fnanchor">[1152]</a>. They may have +brought with them fragments of Christianity or doctrines similar to +Christianity but I think that all attempts to derive Amitâbhist +teaching from Christianity are fanciful. The only point which the two +have in common is salvation by faith, and that doctrine is certainly +older than Christianity. Otherwise the efforts of Amitâbha to save +humanity have no resemblance to the Christian atonement. Nor do the +relations between the various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas recall the +Trinity but rather the Persian Fravashis.</p> + +<p>Persian influences worked more strongly on Buddhism than on Hinduism, +for Buddhism not only flourished in the frontier districts but +penetrated into the Tarim basin and the region of the Oxus which lay +outside the Indian and within the Iranian sphere. But they affected +Hinduism also, especially in the matter of sun-worship. This of course +is part of the oldest Vedic religion, but a special form of it, +introduced about the beginning of our era, was a new importation and +not a descendant of the ancient Indian cult<a name="FNanchor_1153_1153" id="FNanchor_1153_1153"></a><a href="#Footnote_1153_1153" class="fnanchor">[1153]</a>.</p> + +<p>The Brihatsaṃhita<a name="FNanchor_1154_1154" id="FNanchor_1154_1154"></a><a href="#Footnote_1154_1154" class="fnanchor">[1154]</a> says that the Magas, that is Magi, are the +priests of the sun and the proper persons to superintend the +consecration of temples and images dedicated to that deity, but the +clearest statements about this foreign cult are to be found in the +Bhavishya Purana<a name="FNanchor_1155_1155" id="FNanchor_1155_1155"></a><a href="#Footnote_1155_1155" class="fnanchor">[1155]</a> which contains a legend as to its introduction +obviously based upon history. Sâmba, the son of Krishna, desiring to +be cured of leprosy from which he suffered owing to his father's +curse, dedicated a temple to the sun on the river Candrabhâgâ, but +could find no Brahmans willing to officiate in it. By the advice of +Gauramukha, priest of King Ugrasena, confirmed by the sun himself, he +imported some Magas from Śâkadvîpa<a name="FNanchor_1156_1156" id="FNanchor_1156_1156"></a><a href="#Footnote_1156_1156" class="fnanchor">[1156]</a>, whither he flew on the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_453" id="Page_3_453"></a>[Pg 453]</span> +bird Garuda<a name="FNanchor_1157_1157" id="FNanchor_1157_1157"></a><a href="#Footnote_1157_1157" class="fnanchor">[1157]</a>. That this refers to the importation of +Zoroastrian priests from the country of the Śâkas (Persia or the +Oxus regions) is made clear by the account of their customs—such as +the wearing of a girdle called Avyanga<a name="FNanchor_1158_1158" id="FNanchor_1158_1158"></a><a href="#Footnote_1158_1158" class="fnanchor">[1158]</a>—given by the Purana. It +also says that they were descended from a child of the sun called +Jaraśabda or Jaraśasta, which no doubt represents Zarathustra.</p> + +<p>The river Candrabhâgâ is the modern Chenab and the town founded by +Samba is Mûlasthana or Multan, called Mu-la-san-pu-lu by the Chinese +pilgrim Hsüan Chuang. The Bhavishya Purana calls the place Sâmbapuri +and the Chinese name is an attempt to represent Mûlasâmba-puri. Hsüan +Chuang speaks enthusiastically of the magnificent temple<a name="FNanchor_1159_1159" id="FNanchor_1159_1159"></a><a href="#Footnote_1159_1159" class="fnanchor">[1159]</a>, which +was also seen by Alberuni but was destroyed by Aurungzeb. +Târanâtha<a name="FNanchor_1160_1160" id="FNanchor_1160_1160"></a><a href="#Footnote_1160_1160" class="fnanchor">[1160]</a> relates how in earlier times a king called Śrî +Harsha burnt alive near Multan 12,000 adherents of the Mleccha sect +with their books and thereby greatly weakened the religion of Persians +and Sakas for a century. This legend offers difficulties but it shows +that Multan was regarded as a centre of Zoroastrianism.</p> + +<p>Multan is in the extreme west Of India, but sun temples are found in +many other parts, such as Gujarat, Gwalior and the district of Gaya, +where an inscription has been discovered at Govindapur referring to +the legend of Sâmba. This same legend is also related in the Kapila +Saṃhita, a religious guide-book for Orissa, in connection with the +great Sun temple of Konarak<a name="FNanchor_1161_1161" id="FNanchor_1161_1161"></a><a href="#Footnote_1161_1161" class="fnanchor">[1161]</a>.</p> + +<p>In these temples the sun was represented by images, Hindu convention +thus getting the better of Zoroastrian prejudices, but the costume of +the images shows their origin, for the Brihatsaṃhitâ<a name="FNanchor_1162_1162" id="FNanchor_1162_1162"></a><a href="#Footnote_1162_1162" class="fnanchor">[1162]</a> directs +that Sûrya is to be represented in the dress of the northerners, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_454" id="Page_3_454"></a>[Pg 454]</span> +covered from the feet upwards and wearing the girdle called avyaṇga +or viyaṇga. In Rajputana I have seen several statues of him in high +boots and they are probably to be found elsewhere.</p> + +<p>Fortuitously or otherwise, the cult of the sun was often associated +with Buddhism, as is indicated by these temples in Gaya and Orissa and +by the fact that the Emperor Harsha styles his father, grandfather and +great-grandfather <i>paramâdityabhakta</i>, great devotees of the +sun<a name="FNanchor_1163_1163" id="FNanchor_1163_1163"></a><a href="#Footnote_1163_1163" class="fnanchor">[1163]</a>. He himself, though a devout Buddhist, also showed honour to +the image of Sûrya, as we hear from Hsüang Chuang.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1144_1144" id="Footnote_1144_1144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1144_1144"><span class="label">[1144]</span></a> They are forbidden by strict theology, but in practice +there are exceptions, for instance, the winged figure believed to +represent Ahura Mazda, found on Achæmenian reliefs.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1145_1145" id="Footnote_1145_1145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1145_1145"><span class="label">[1145]</span></a> Though the principles of Zoroastrianism sound +excellent to Europeans, I cannot discover that ancient Persia was +socially or politically superior to India.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1146_1146" id="Footnote_1146_1146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1146_1146"><span class="label">[1146]</span></a> See Strabo, XV. 62. So, too, the Pitakas seem to +regard cemeteries as places where ordinary corpses are thrown away +rather than buried or burnt. In Dig. Nik. III, the Buddha says that +the ancient Sakyas married their sisters. Such marriages are said to +have been permitted in Persia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1147_1147" id="Footnote_1147_1147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1147_1147"><span class="label">[1147]</span></a> "He who returns victorious from discussions with +Gaotama the heretic," Farvadin Yasht in <i>S.B.E.</i> XXIII. p. 184. The +reference of this passage to Buddhism has been much disputed and I am +quite incompetent to express any opinion about it. But who is Gaotama +if not the Buddha? It is true that there were many other Gautamas of +moderate eminence in India, but would any of them have been known in +Persia?</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1148_1148" id="Footnote_1148_1148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1148_1148"><span class="label">[1148]</span></a> The inscriptions near the tomb of Darius at +Nakshi-Rustam appear to be hortatory like those of Asoka. See Williams +Jackson, <i>Persia</i>, p. 298 and references. The use of the Kharoshtri +script and of the word <i>dipi</i> has also been noted as indicating +connection with Persia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1149_1149" id="Footnote_1149_1149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1149_1149"><span class="label">[1149]</span></a> Perhaps the marked absence of figures representing the +Buddha in the oldest Indian sculptures, which seems to imply that the +holiest things must not be represented, is due to Persian sentiment.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1150_1150" id="Footnote_1150_1150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1150_1150"><span class="label">[1150]</span></a> Strictly speaking there is nothing final about +Maitreya who is merely the next in an infinite series of Buddhas, but +practically his figure has many analogies to Soshyos or Saoshant, the +Parsi saviour and renovator of the world.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1151_1151" id="Footnote_1151_1151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1151_1151"><span class="label">[1151]</span></a> See chap. XLI. p. 220.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1152_1152" id="Footnote_1152_1152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1152_1152"><span class="label">[1152]</span></a> See chap, on Mahâyâna, VI.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1153_1153" id="Footnote_1153_1153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1153_1153"><span class="label">[1153]</span></a> A convenient statement of what is known about this +cult will be found in Bhandarkar, <i>Vaishnavism and Saivism</i>, part II. +chap. XVI.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1154_1154" id="Footnote_1154_1154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1154_1154"><span class="label">[1154]</span></a> Chap. 60. 19. The work probably dates from about 650 +A.D.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1155_1155" id="Footnote_1155_1155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1155_1155"><span class="label">[1155]</span></a> Chap. 139. See, for extracts from the text, Aufrecht. +Cat. Cod. Sansc. p. 30.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1156_1156" id="Footnote_1156_1156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1156_1156"><span class="label">[1156]</span></a> For Śâkadvîpa see Vishnu, p. II. IV. where it is +said that Brahmans are called there Mṛiga or Maga and Kshattriyas +Mâgadha. The name clearly means the country of the Śâkas who were +regarded as Zoroastrians, whether they were Iranian by race or not. +But the topography is imaginary, for in this fanciful geography India +is the central continent and Śakadvîpa the sixth, whereas if it +means Persia or the countries of the Oxus it ought to be near India.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1157_1157" id="Footnote_1157_1157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1157_1157"><span class="label">[1157]</span></a> The Garuḍa may itself be of Persian provenance, for +birds play a considerable part in Persian mythology.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1158_1158" id="Footnote_1158_1158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1158_1158"><span class="label">[1158]</span></a> The Aivyâonghen of the Avesta.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1159_1159" id="Footnote_1159_1159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1159_1159"><span class="label">[1159]</span></a> Watters, vol. II. 254, and <i>Life</i>, chap. IV.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1160_1160" id="Footnote_1160_1160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1160_1160"><span class="label">[1160]</span></a> Târanâtha, tr. Schiefner, p. 128, and Vincent Smith's +remarks in <i>Early History</i>, p. 347, note 2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1161_1161" id="Footnote_1161_1161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1161_1161"><span class="label">[1161]</span></a> See Râjendralâla Mitra, <i>Antiquities of Orissa</i>, vol. +n. p. 145. He also quotes the Sâmba Purâna. The temple is said to have +been built between 1240 and 1280 but the beauty of its architecture +suggests an earlier date.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1162_1162" id="Footnote_1162_1162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1162_1162"><span class="label">[1162]</span></a> 58. 47.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1163_1163" id="Footnote_1163_1163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1163_1163"><span class="label">[1163]</span></a> See Epig. Ind. 72-73.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_455" id="Page_3_455"></a>[Pg 455]</span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_LVIII" id="CHAPTER_LVIII"></a>CHAPTER LVIII</h2> + +<h3>MOHAMMEDANISM IN INDIA</h3> + + +<p>Let us now turn to Mohammedanism. This is different from the cases +which we have been considering and we need not trouble ourselves with +any enquiry into opportunities and possibilities. The presence and +strength of the Prophet's religion in India are patent facts and it is +surprising that the result has not been greater.</p> + +<p>The chief and most obvious method by which Islam influenced India was +the series of invasions, culminating in the Mughal conquest, which +poured through the mountain passes of the north-west frontier. But +there was also long established communication and to some extent +intermigration between the west coast and Mohammedan countries such as +Arabia and Persia. Compared with the enormous political and social +changes wrought by the land invasions, the results of this maritime +intercourse may seem unworthy of mention. Yet for the interchange of +ideas it was not without importance, the more so as it was +unaccompanied by violence and hostility. Thus the Mappilas or Moplahs +of Malabar appear to be the descendants of Arab immigrants who arrived +by sea about 900 A.D., and the sects known as Khojas and Bohras owe +their conversion to the zeal of Arab and Persian missionaries who +preached in the eleventh century. Apart from Mohammedan conquests +there must have been at this time in Gujarat, Bombay, and on the west +coast generally some knowledge of the teaching of Islam.</p> + +<p>In the annals of invasions and conquests several stages can be +distinguished. First we have the Arab conquest of Sind in 712, which +had little effect. In 1021 Mahmud of Ghazni annexed the Panjab. He +conducted three campaigns against other kingdoms of India but, though +he sacked Muttra, Somnath and other religious centres, he did not +attempt to conquer these regions, still less to convert them to Islam. +The period of conquests as distinguished from raids did not begin +until the end of the twelfth century when Muhammad Ghori began his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_456" id="Page_3_456"></a>[Pg 456]</span> +campaigns and succeeded in making himself master of northern +India, which from 1193 to 1526 was ruled by Mohammedan dynasties, +mostly of Afghan or Turki descent. In the south the frontiers of +Vijayanagar marked the limits of Islam. To the north of them Rajputana +and Orissa still remained Hindu states, but with these exceptions the +Government was Mohammedan. In 1526 came the Mughal invasion, after +which all northern India was united under one Mohammedan Emperor for +about two centuries. Aurungzeb (1659-1707) was a fanatical Mohammedan: +his intolerant reign marked the beginning of disintegration in the +Empire and aroused the opposition of the Mahrattas and Sikhs. But +until this period Mohammedan rule was not marked by special bigotry or +by any persistent attempt to proselytize. A woeful chronicle of +selected outrages can indeed be drawn up. In the great towns of the +north hardly a temple remained unsacked and most were utterly +destroyed. At different periods individuals, such as Sikander Lodi of +Delhi and Jelaluddin (1414-1430) in Bengal, raged against Hinduism and +made converts by force. But such acts are scattered over a long period +and a great area; they are not characteristic of Islam in India. +Neither the earlier Mughal Emperors nor the preceding Sultans were of +irreproachable orthodoxy. Two of them at least, Ala-ud-Din and Akbar, +contemplated founding new religions of their own. Many of them were +connected with Hindu sovereigns by marriage or political alliances.</p> + +<p>The works of Alberuni and Mohsin Fani show that educated Mohammedans +felt an interest not only in Indian science but in Indian religion. In +the Panjab and Hindustan Islam was strengthened by immigrations of +Mohammedan tribes from the north-west extending over many centuries. +Mohammedan sultans and governors held their court in the chief cities, +which thus tended to become Mohammedan not only by natural attraction +but because high caste Hindus preferred to live in the country and +would not frequent the company of those whom they considered as +outcasts. Still, Hindus were often employed as accountants and revenue +officers. All non-Moslims had to pay the jiziya or poll tax, and the +remission of this impost accorded to converts was naturally a powerful +incentive to change of faith. Yet Mohammedanism cannot record any +wholesale triumph in India such as it has won in Persia, Egypt and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_457" id="Page_3_457"></a>[Pg 457]</span> +Java. At the present day about one-fifth of the population are Moslim. +The strength of Islam in the Panjab is due to immigration as well as +conversion<a name="FNanchor_1164_1164" id="FNanchor_1164_1164"></a><a href="#Footnote_1164_1164" class="fnanchor">[1164]</a>, but it was embraced by large numbers in Kashmir and +made rapid progress in Oudh and Eastern Bengal. The number of +Mohammedans in Bengal (twenty-five millions out of a total of +sixty-two in all India) is striking, seeing that the province is out +of touch with the chief Mohammedan centres, but is explicable by the +fact that Islam had to deal here not with an educated and organized +Hindu community but with imperfectly hinduized aboriginal races, who +welcomed a creed with no caste distinctions. Yet, apart from the +districts named, which lie on the natural line of march from the +Panjab down the Ganges to the sea, it made little progress. It has not +even conquered the slopes of the Himalayas or the country south of the +Jumna. If we deduct from the Mohammedan population the descendants of +Mohammedan immigrants and of those who, like the inhabitants of +Eastern Bengal, were not Hindus when they embraced the faith, the +impression produced by Islam on the religious thought of India is not +great, considering that for at least five centuries its temporal +supremacy was hardly contested.</p> + +<p>It is not until the time of Kabir that we meet with a sect in which +Hindu and Mohammedan ideas are clearly blended, but it may be that the +theology of Râmânuja and Madhva, of the Lingayats and Sivaite sects of +the south, owes something to Islam. Its insistence on the unity and +personality of God may have vivified similar ideas existing within +Hinduism, but the expression which they found for themselves is not +Moslim in tone, just as nowadays the Arya Samaj is not European in +tone. Yet I think that the Arya Samaj would never have come into being +had not Hindus become conscious of certain strong points in European +religion. In the north it is natural that Moslim influence should not +have made itself felt at once. Islam came first as an enemy and a +raider and was no more sympathetic to the Brahmans than it was to the +Greek Church in Europe. Though Indian theism may sometimes seem +practically equivalent to Islam, yet it has a different and gentler +tone, and it often rests on the idea that God, the soul and matter are +all separate and eternal, an idea foreign to Mohammed's doctrine of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_458" id="Page_3_458"></a>[Pg 458]</span> +creation. But from the fifteenth century onwards we find a series +of sects which are obviously compromises and blends. Advances are made +from both sides. Thoughtful Mohammedans see the profundity of Hindu +theology: liberal Hindus declare that no caste or condition, including +birth in a Moslim family, disqualifies man for access to God.</p> + +<p>The fusion of Islam with Hinduism exhibited in these sects has for its +basis the unity and omnipresence of God in the light of which minor +differences have no existence. But fusion also arises from an opposite +tendency, namely the toleration by Indian Moslims of Hindu ideas and +practices, especially respect for religious teachers and their +deification after death. While known by some such title as saint, +which does not shock unitarian susceptibility, they are in practice +honoured as godlings. The bare simplicity of the Arabian faith has not +proved satisfying to other nations, and Turks, Persians and Indians, +even when professing orthodoxy, have allowed embellishments and +accretions. Such supplementary beliefs thrive with special luxuriance +in India, where a considerable portion of the Moslim population are +descended from persons who accepted the new faith unwillingly or from +interested motives. They brought with them a plentiful baggage of +superstitions and did not attempt to sever the ties which bound them +to their Hindu neighbours. In the last century the efforts of the +Wahabis and other reformers are said to have been partly successful in +purifying Islam from Hindu observances, but even now the mixture is +noticeable, especially in the lower classes. Brahmans are employed to +cast horoscopes, Hindu ceremonies are observed in connection with +marriages and funerals, and the idea of pollution by eating with +unbelievers is derived from caste rules, for Mohammedans in other +countries have no objection to eating with Christians. Numerous sacred +sites, such as the shrine of Sheikh Chisti at Ajmere and of Bhairav +Nath at Muttra<a name="FNanchor_1165_1165" id="FNanchor_1165_1165"></a><a href="#Footnote_1165_1165" class="fnanchor">[1165]</a>, are frequented by both Moslims and Hindus, and +it is an interesting parallel to find that the chief Moslim shrines of +Turkestan are erected on spots which were once Buddhist sanctuaries. +Sometimes the opposite happens: even Brahmans are known to adopt the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_459" id="Page_3_459"></a>[Pg 459]</span> +observances of Shiahs<a name="FNanchor_1166_1166" id="FNanchor_1166_1166"></a><a href="#Footnote_1166_1166" class="fnanchor">[1166]</a>. But on the whole it is chiefly the +Mohammedans who borrow, not the main doctrines of Hinduism, but +popular magic and demonology. Ignorant Mohammedans in Bengal worship +Sitalâ, Kâlî, Dharmarâj, Baidyanath and other Hindu deities and also +respect certain mythical beings who seem to have a Moslim origin, but +to have acquired strange characters in the course of time. Such are +Khwaja Khizr who lives in rivers, Zindah Ghazi who rides on a tiger in +the Sandarbans, and Sultan Shahid who is said to be the bodyguard and +lover of Devî. But it is in the adoration of Pirs that this fusion of +the two religions is most apparent. A Pir is the Moslim equivalent of +a Guru and distinct from the Mollahs or official hierarchy. Just as +Hindus receive initiation from their Guru so most Moslims, except the +Wahabis and other purists, make a profession of faith before their +Pir, accept his guidance and promise him obedience. When an eminent +Pir dies his tomb becomes a place of prayer and pilgrimage. Even +educated Mohammedans admit that Pirs can intercede with the Almighty +and the uneducated offer to them not only direct supplications but +even sacrifices. The Shrine of an important Pir, such as Hazrat +Moin-ud-Din Chisti at Ajmere, is an edifice dedicated to a superhuman +being as much as any Hindu temple.</p> + +<p>This veneration of saints attains its strangest development in the +sect of the Panchpiriyas or worshippers of the five Pirs. They are +treated by the last census of India as "Hindus whose religion has a +strong Mohammedan flavour<a name="FNanchor_1167_1167" id="FNanchor_1167_1167"></a><a href="#Footnote_1167_1167" class="fnanchor">[1167]</a>." There is no agreement as to who the +five saints or deities are, but though the names vary from place to +place they usually comprise five of the best known semi-mythical +Pirs<a name="FNanchor_1168_1168" id="FNanchor_1168_1168"></a><a href="#Footnote_1168_1168" class="fnanchor">[1168]</a>. Whoever they may be, they are worshipped under the form of +a small tomb with five domes or of a simple mound of clay set in the +corner of a room. Every Wednesday the mound is washed and offerings of +flowers and incense are made. A somewhat similar sect are the Mâlkânas +of the Panjab. These appear to be Hindus formerly converted to Islam +and now in process of reverting to Hinduism.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_460" id="Page_3_460"></a>[Pg 460]</span></p> +<p>The influence of Hinduism on Indian Mohammedanism is thus obvious. +It is responsible for the addition to the Prophet's creed of much +superstition but also for rendering it less arid and more human. It is +harder to say how far Moslim mysticism and Sufiism are due to the same +influence. History and geography raise no difficulties to such an +origin. Arabia was in touch with the western coast of India for +centuries before the time of Mohammed: the same is true of the Persian +Gulf and Bagdad, and of Balkh and other districts near the frontiers +of India. But recent writers on Sufiism<a name="FNanchor_1169_1169" id="FNanchor_1169_1169"></a><a href="#Footnote_1169_1169" class="fnanchor">[1169]</a> have shown a disposition +to seek its origin in Neoplatonism rather than in the east. This +hypothesis, like the other, presents no geographical difficulties. +Many Arab authors, such as Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Averroes (Ibn +Rushd) were influenced by Greek Philosophy: Neoplatonists are said to +have taken refuge in Persia at the Court of Nushirwan (<i>c.</i> A.D. 532): +the Fihrist (<i>c.</i> 988) mentions Porphyry and Plotinus. If, therefore, +Sufiism, early or late, presents distinct resemblances to +Neoplatonism, we need not hesitate to ascribe them to direct +borrowing, remembering that Neoplatonism itself contains echoes of +India. But, admitting that much in the doctrine of the Sufis can be +found to the west as well as to the east of the countries where they +flourished, can it be said that their general tone is Neoplatonic? +Amongst their characteristics are pantheism; the institution of +religious orders and monasteries; the conception of the religious +life as a path or journey; a bold use of language in which metaphors +drawn from love, wine and music are freely used in speaking of divine +things and, although the doctrine of metempsychosis may be repudiated +as too obviously repugnant to Islam, a tendency to believe in +successive existences or states of the soul. Some of these features, +such as the use of erotic language, may be paralleled in other ancient +religions as well as Hinduism but the pantheism which, not content +with speaking of the soul's union with God, boldly identifies the soul +with the divinity and says I am God, does not seem traceable in +Neoplatonism. And though a distinction may justly be drawn between +early and later Sufiism and Indian influence be admitted as stronger +in the later developments, still an early Sufi, Al-Hallaj, was +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_461" id="Page_3_461"></a>[Pg 461]</span> +executed in 922 A.D. for saying Ana 'l-Haqq, I am the Truth or +God, and we are expressly told that he visited India to study magic. +Many important Sufis made the same journey or at least came within the +geographical sphere of Indian influence. Faridu-'d-Din Attar travelled +in India and Turkestan; Jalalu-'d-Din er-Rumi was born at Balkh, once +a centre of Buddhism: Sa'di visited Balkh, Ghazna, the Panjab, and +Gujarat, and investigated Hindu temples<a name="FNanchor_1170_1170" id="FNanchor_1170_1170"></a><a href="#Footnote_1170_1170" class="fnanchor">[1170]</a>. Hafiz was invited to +the Deccan by Sultan Muhammad Bahmani and, though shipwreck prevented +the completion of the visit, he was probably in touch with Indian +ideas. These journeys indicate that there was a prevalent notion that +wisdom was to be found in India and those who could not go there must +have had open ears for such Indian doctrines as might reach them by +oral teaching or in books. After the establishment of the Caliphate at +Bagdad in the eighth century translations of Indian authors became +accessible. Arabic versions were made of many works on astronomy, +mathematics and medicine and the example of Alberuni shows how easily +such treatises might be flavoured with a relish of theology. His book +and still more the Fihrist testify to the existence among Moslims, +especially in Bagdad and Persia, of an interest in all forms of +thought very different from the self-satisfied bigotry which too often +characterizes them. The Caliph Ma'mun was so fond of religious +speculation and discussion that he was suspected of being a Manichee +and nicknamed Amiru-'l-Kafirin, Commander of the Unbelievers. +Everything warrants the supposition that in the centuries preceding +Mohammed, Indian ideas were widely disseminated in western Asia, +partly as a direct overflow from India, for instance in Turkestan and +Afghanistan, and partly as entering, together with much other matter, +into the doctrines of Neoplatonists and Manichæans. Amid the +intolerant victories of early Islam such ideas would naturally +retreat, but they soon recovered and effected an entrance into the +later phases of the faith and were strengthened by the visits of Sufi +pilgrims to Turkestan and India.</p> + +<p>The form of Jewish mysticism known as Kabbala, which in Indian +terminology might be described as Jewish Tantrism, has a historical +connection with Sufiism and a real analogy to it, for both arise +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_462" id="Page_3_462"></a>[Pg 462]</span> +from the desire to temper an austere and regal deism with concessions +to the common human craving for the interesting and picturesque, such +as mysticism and magic. If the accent of India can sometimes be heard +in the poems of the Sufis we may also admit that the Kabbala is its +last echo.</p> + +<p>Experts do not assign any one region as the origin of the Kabbala but +it grew on parallel lines in both Egypt and Babylonia, in both of +which it was naturally in touch with the various oriental influences +which we have been discussing. It is said to have been introduced to +Europe about 900 A.D. but received important additions and +modifications at the hands of Isaac Luria (1534-72) who lived in +Palestine, although his disciples soon spread his doctrines among the +European Jews.</p> + +<p>Many features of the Kabbala, such as the marvellous powers assigned +to letters, the use of charms and amulets, the emanations or phases of +the deity and the theory of the correspondence between macrocosm and +microcosm, are amazingly like Indian Tantrism but no doubt are more +justly regarded as belonging to the religious ideas common to most of +Asia<a name="FNanchor_1171_1171" id="FNanchor_1171_1171"></a><a href="#Footnote_1171_1171" class="fnanchor">[1171]</a>. But in two points we seem able to discern definite Hindu +influence. These are metempsychosis and pantheism, which we have so +often found to have some connection with India when they exist in an +extreme form. Their presence here is specially remarkable because they +are alien to the spirit of orthodox Judaism. Yet the pre-existence and +repeated embodiment of the soul is taught in the Zohar and even more +systematically by Luria, in whose school were composed works called +Gilgûlim, or lists of transmigrations. The ultimate Godhead is called +En soph or the infinite and is declared to be unknowable, not to be +described by positive epithets, and therefore in a sense non-existent, +since nothing which is predicated of existing beings can be truly +predicated of it. These are crumbs from the table of Plotinus and the +Upanishads.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1164_1164" id="Footnote_1164_1164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1164_1164"><span class="label">[1164]</span></a> But see on this point <i>Census of India</i>, 1911, vol. I. +part I. p. 128.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1165_1165" id="Footnote_1165_1165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1165_1165"><span class="label">[1165]</span></a> Another instance is the shrine of Saiyad Salar Masud +at Bahraich. He was a nephew of Mahmud of Ghazni and was slain by +Hindus, but is now worshipped by them. See Grierson, <i>J.R.A.S.</i> 1911, +p. 195.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1166_1166" id="Footnote_1166_1166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1166_1166"><span class="label">[1166]</span></a> See for examples, <i>Census of India</i>, 1901, Panjab, p. +151, <i>e.g.</i> the Brahmans of a village near Rawal Pindi are said to be +Murids of Abdul-Kadir-Jilani.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1167_1167" id="Footnote_1167_1167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1167_1167"><span class="label">[1167]</span></a> <i>Census of India</i>, 1911, vol. I. part I. p. 195. The +Mâlkânas are described on the same page.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1168_1168" id="Footnote_1168_1168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1168_1168"><span class="label">[1168]</span></a> Such as Ghazi Miyan, Pir Badar, Zindha Ghazi, Sheikh +Farid, Sheikh Sadu and Khwaja Khizr.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1169_1169" id="Footnote_1169_1169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1169_1169"><span class="label">[1169]</span></a> E.G. Browne, <i>Literary History of Persia</i>: R.A. +Nicholson, <i>Selected Poems from the Divan of Shems-i-Tabriz</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1170_1170" id="Footnote_1170_1170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1170_1170"><span class="label">[1170]</span></a> He describes how he discovered the mechanism by which +the priests made miraculous images move. See Browne, <i>Lit. Hist. +Persia</i>, II. 529.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1171_1171" id="Footnote_1171_1171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1171_1171"><span class="label">[1171]</span></a> But there is something very Indian in the reluctance +of the Kabbalists to accept creation <i>ex nihilo</i> and to explain it +away by emanations, or by the doctrine of limitation, that is God's +self-withdrawal in order that the world might be created, or even by +the eternity of matter.</p></div> + + + + +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_463" id="Page_3_463"></a>[Pg 463]</span></p> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + +<div class="index"> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Abbot. <i>See</i> <a href="#Monasteries">Monasteries</a>, and <a href="#Organisations">Organisation—ecclesiastical</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Abdul Kadir Jilani, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +<li>Abhakta, III. <a href="#Page_3_426">426</a><br /></li> +<li>Abhayagiri, I. 292, 293; III. <a href="#Page_3_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_3_19">19,</a> <a href="#Page_3_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Abhayakara, II. 112; III. <a href="#Page_3_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Abhaya Râjâ, II. 113<br /></li> +<li>Abhidhamma, I. 208, 256, 258, 276 <i>sq.</i>, 280, 289, 291, 299, 300; II. 47 <i>sq.</i>, 80, 82, 102; III. <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_3_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_3_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_3_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Abhidhammattha-sangaha, III. <a href="#Page_3_71">71</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>sangraha, III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a><br /> + +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Abhidharma, III. <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_299">299</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Kośâ, II. 89; III. <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pitaka, II. 59, 81; III. <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a><br /> +</li> +<li>vibhâshaśâstra, II. 78, 81; III. <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a><br /></li> +<li>vyâkhyâ, II. 89<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Abhimukhi, II. 11<br /></li> +<li>Abhinava Gupta, II. 223, 224<br /></li> +<li>Abhiñña, I. 317<br /></li> +<li>Abhirâjâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Abhîras, II. 156<br /></li> +<li>Abhisheka, II. 122, 275; III. <a href="#Page_3_355">355</a><br /></li> +<li>Ablur inscription, II. 225<br /></li> +<li><a name="Aboriginal_deities" id="Aboriginal_deities"></a>Aboriginal deities, I. xxxvi, 6; II. 126, 127, 138, 285; III. <a href="#Page_3_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_3_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_3_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_3_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Absolute Godhead. <i>See</i> <a href="#Brahman">Brahman</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Abu (Mount), I. 115, 120; II. 203<br /></li> +<li>Abul Fazl, III. <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a><br /></li> +<li>Acala, II. 11; III. <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /></li> +<li>Açaranga, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Acâriyaparamparâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_306">306</a><br /></li> +<li>Acârya, II. 114, 221, 257; III. <a href="#Page_3_121">121</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>bhimâna, II. 237<br /></li> +<li>Pâśupata, III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /></li> +<li>Śaiva, III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /></li> +<li>vada, I. 262<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Achæmenian reliefs, III. <a href="#Page_3_449">449</a><br /></li> +<li>Aciravati, I. 150<br /></li> +<li>Acit, II. 316<br /></li> +<li>Acts of the Apostles, I. 255<br /></li> +<li>Acyuta, III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /></li> +<li>Acyutânanda Dâsa, II. 115<br /></li> +<li>Adam, III. <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a><br /></li> +<li>Adam's Bridge, II. 150<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Peak, I. 7; III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_3_43">43</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Adhâra Kârikâs, II. 224<br /></li> +<li>Adharma, I. 106<br /></li> +<li>Adhicitta, I. 313, 315; III. <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a><br /></li> +<li>Adhipañña, I. 313; III. <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a><br /></li> +<li>Adhyâtma Râmâyaṇa, II. 152, 187, 194<br /></li> +<li>Adi-Buddha, II. 13, 26, 31, 57, 117, 118, 119, 129; III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Adi-granth, II. 263, 268<br /></li> +<li>Adityas, I. 61; II. 146<br /></li> +<li>Adityavarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_163">163</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Adonis, Attis and Osiris</i>, II. 285<br /></li> +<li><a name="Advaita" id="Advaita"></a>Advaita (philosophy), I. cii, 74, 82, 235; II. 40, 74, 204, 225, 238, 258, 289, 307, 312 <i>sq</i>.; III. <a href="#Page_3_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_3_421">421</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>(P. N.), II. 254<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Advaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173-181</a><br /></li> +<li>Adyar Library, II. 195, 210, 270, 322<br /></li> +<li><i>Aeltere vedanta</i>, II. 315<br /></li> +<li>Aeons, III. <a href="#Page_3_444">444</a><br /></li> +<li>Afghanistan, I. 19, 24, 28, 29, 31, 264; II. 272; III. <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a><br /> +</li> +<li>âgamana, II. 43, 92<br /></li> +<li>Agama prâmânya, II. 232<br /></li> +<li>Agamas, II. 128, 188, 189, 190, 204, 216, 222, 282; III. <a href="#Page_3_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_3_299">299</a><br /> +</li> +<li>ἁγἁπη, I. 184, 216, 253<br /></li> +<li>Agarwals, II. 177<br /></li> +<li>Agastya, II. 213<br /></li> +<li>Aggabodhi, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_33">33</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Aggañña Sûtra, I. 336<br /></li> +<li>Aghora, II. 198, 234<br /></li> +<li>Aghoris, II. 203, 289<br /></li> +<li>Agiśala, II. 77<br /></li> +<li>Agni, I. 56, 62<br /></li> +<li>Agnihotri, I. 90<br /></li> +<li>Agni Purâna, II. 130, 281<br /></li> +<li>Agnishtoma, I. 66; II. 170<br /></li> +<li>Agnostic teachers, I. 98<br /></li> +<li>Agra, I. 87<br /></li> +<li>Agrayâna, II. 3<br /></li> +<li>Agriculture forbidden, I. 113<br /></li> +<li>Ahamkâra, I. lxxvii; II. 299<br /></li> +<li>Ahan, III. <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ahar, III. <a href="#Page_3_116">116</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Ahimsa" id="Ahimsa"></a>Ahimsâ, I. lvi; II. 114, 170 <i>sq</i>., 200; III. <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a><br /></li> +<li>Ahinas, I. 69<br /></li> +<li>Ahirbudhnya Samhitâ, II. 147, 194, 195<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>of the Pañcarâtra Agama, II. 188<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Ahirs, II. 158<br /></li> +<li>Ahmadabad, I. 115, 119; II. 175, 252, 266<br /></li> +<li>Ahmadnagar, I. 29<br /></li> +<li>Ahoms (kingdom, etc.), II. 259, 280, 288; III. <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ahriman, I. 336<br /></li> +<li>Ahuna-vairya, III. <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Mazda, I. 60, 64; II. 198; III. <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_3_449">449</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Ai (emperor), III. <a href="#Page_3_245">245</a><br /></li> +<li>Aihole, II. 172; III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a><br /></li> +<li>Aisvarya, II. 196<br /></li> +<li>Aitareya Brahmâna, I. 67<br /></li> +<li>Aivyâonghen, III. <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /></li> +<li>Aiyar Sesha, II. 219<br /></li> +<li>Aiyengar, Krishna Swâmi, II. 233, 238<br /></li> +<li><a name="Ajanta" id="Ajanta"></a>Ajanta, I. 26, 212; II. 108; III. <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a><br /></li> +<li>Ajâta Śatru, king (Ajâta Sattu), I. 36, 74, 77, 87, 111, 131, 132, 153, 156, 157, 158, 161, 169, 172, 221, 298; III. <a href="#Page_3_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_3_24">24</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ajayadeva, I. 114<br /></li> +<li>Ajita, I. 99; II. 21<br /></li> +<li>Ajîva, I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Ajîvikas, I. 49, 99, 123, 241, 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ajmer, I. 29; III. <a href="#Page_3_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Akâlis, II. 272, 273<br /></li> +<li>Akâśagarbha, II. 24; III. <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Akbar, I. 30, 31, 115; II. 242, 266, 269; III. <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Akiñcaññâyatanam, I. 135<br /></li> +<li>Akriyavâdins, I. 99<br /></li> +<li>Akshobhya (Buddha), II. 26, 27; III. <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Alabaster, III. <a href="#Page_3_98">98</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Alâra Kâlâma, I. 135, 136, 303, 316<br /></li> +<li>Alasanda, III. <a href="#Page_3_18">18</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ala-ud-din, I. 29, 30; III. <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a><br /></li> +<li>Alavandâr, II. 232<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>stotram, II. 232<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Alayavijñâna, I. xxxix; II. 43, 44, 84, 87<br /></li> +<li>Alberuni, II. 187, 189, 228; III. <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Albigenses, III. <a href="#Page_3_445">445</a><br /></li> +<li>Alexander, king, I. 268<br /></li> +<li>Alexander of Macedon, I. xxx, xxxi, 21, 50, 177; III. <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_3_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Alexandria, III. <a href="#Page_3_414">414</a><br /></li> +<li>Al Hallaj, III. <a href="#Page_3_460">460</a><br /></li> +<li>Alkondavilli Govindacârya, I. 40; II. 233<br /></li> +<li>Allah, I. 8; II. 216, 270. <i>See also</i> <a href="#God">God</a> and <a href="#Islam">Islam</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Allahabad, II. 99<br /></li> +<li>Allakappa, I. 169<br /></li> +<li>Allopanishad, II. 270<br /></li> +<li>All Souls' Day, III. <a href="#Page_3_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_3_332">332</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Alompra, III. <a href="#Page_3_47">47 </a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a><br /> +</li> +<li>A-lo-pen, III. <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Alphabets" id="Alphabets"></a>Alphabets, I. 61; III. <a href="#Page_3_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_3_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_3_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_3_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_3_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Altan, III. <a href="#Page_3_361">361</a><br /></li> +<li>Älterer vedanta, II. 74<br /></li> +<li>Alvar. <i>See</i> <a href="#Arvar">Arvar</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Amarakosha, II. 280; III. <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a><br /></li> +<li>Amarapura, III. <a href="#Page_3_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_3_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_3_49">49</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Amâravati stupa, II. 85, 108, 143<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>(Quãngnam), III. <a href="#Page_3_137">137</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Amardas Guru, II. 268<br /></li> +<li>Amar Mul, II. 266<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Singh, II. 147<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Amasis, III. <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a><br /></li> +<li>Ambaherana Salamevan, III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ambalatthika, I. 288<br /></li> +<li>Amban, III. <a href="#Page_3_367">367</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Ambapâlâ, I. 163<br /></li> +<li>Ambatthasutta, I. 87, 131; II. 175<br /></li> +<li>Ambhojanetra, III. <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a><br /></li> +<li>Ambikâ, II. 277<br /></li> +<li>Amdo, III. <a href="#Page_3_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_3_400">400</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ameretat, III. <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a><br /></li> +<li>American Lectures, I. 151, 212<br /></li> +<li>Amesha Spenta, II. 12, 120, 198<br /></li> +<li>Amida, I. 182, 215; III. <a href="#Page_3_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_3_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_3_418">418</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Amidism" id="Amidism"></a>Amidism, I. xlix; III. <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Amiru-'l-Kafirin, III. <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /></li> +<li>Amitâbha (Buddha), I. xxix, xxxii; II. 6, 13, 23, 26, 28, 33, 60, 66, 72, 86, 88, 181, 182; +III. <a href="#Page_3_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_3_219">219 </a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_3_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_3_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Amitâyurdhyânasûtra, II. 23, 29, 30; III. <a href="#Page_3_313">313</a><br /></li> +<li>Amitâyus, II. 28, 30, 33, 103; III. <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a><br /></li> +<li>Amittaranpapâtikad, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Amogha, III. 39, <a href="#Page_3_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_3_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_3_349">349</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Amoghapâsa, III. <a href="#Page_3_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_3_390">390</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Amoghasiddhi, II. 26; III. <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Amoghavajra, III. <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a><br /></li> +<li>Amoghavarsha, I. 314<br /></li> +<li>Amoy, III. <a href="#Page_3_333">333</a><br /></li> +<li>Ampel, III. <a href="#Page_3_161">161</a><br /></li> +<li>Amritsar, II. 268, 272<br /></li> +<li>amsa, II. 239<br /></li> +<li>Amulets, I. 109. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Magic">Magic</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Anachronistic practices, II. 168<br /></li> +<li>Anâgâmin, I. 227<br /></li> +<li>Anâgata-vamsa, II. 22<br /></li> +<li>Anahit, II. 276<br /></li> +<li>Analecta, I. 177; III. <a href="#Page_3_227">227</a><br /></li> +<li>Ananda, I. 133, 151, 153, 155, 156, 160, 162, 163 <i>sq.</i>, 170, 174, 207, 209, 247, +256, 261, 288, 343, 344; II. 9, 29, 56; III. <a href="#Page_3_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_3_439">439</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Garbha, II. 128<br /></li> +<li>Giri, II. 110<br /></li> +<li>Kâya, II. 32<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Anandam, I. 84<br /></li> +<li>Ananda Pagoda, III. <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Anandasrama Press, II. 195<br /></li> +<li>Ananda Temple, II. 55, 56<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Tirtha, II. 237<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Anantavarman Colaganga, I. 30<br /></li> +<li>ananuvejjo, I. 235<br /></li> +<li>anariyam, I. 241<br /></li> +<li>Anatta, I. 191, 194, 219<br /></li> +<li>anatthapindeka, I. 151, 180<br /></li> +<li>Anawrata (king), I. xxv; III. <a href="#Page_3_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_3_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_3_47">47</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Ancestor_worship" id="Ancestor_worship"></a>Ancestor-worship, I. 3, 9, 10, 12, 33; III. 68, <a href="#Page_3_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_3_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_3_344">344</a><br /> +</li> +<li>An-Chou, III. <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Ancient Ceylon</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li><i>India</i>, II. 153, 159<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Anda, III. <a href="#Page_3_361">361</a><br /></li> +<li>Andal, II. 231<br /></li> +<li>Andhakas, I. 261<br /></li> +<li>Andhra (kingdom, etc.), I. 22; II. 85, 100, 108; III. <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a><br /></li> +<li>Andras, I. 268<br /></li> +<li><i>Anecdota Oxoniensia</i>, II. 52<br /></li> +<li>Anekantavâda, I. 108<br /></li> +<li>Anesaki, I. 293; III. <a href="#Page_3_294">294</a> <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_3_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Angada Guru, II. 268<br /></li> +<li>Angas, I. 116, 149, 281; II. 279<br /></li> +<li>Ang Chan (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_111">111</a><br /></li> +<li>Ang Duong (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_112">112</a><br /></li> +<li>Angela (St.) of Foligno, I. 160<br /></li> +<li>Angirâsas, I. 54; II. 152<br /></li> +<li>Angkor Wat (Thom), III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_132">132</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Angulimâla Pitaka, I. 180, 293, 317; III. <a href="#Page_3_422">422</a><br /></li> +<li>Angulimâlija Sutra, II. 103<br /></li> +<li><a name="Anguttara" id="Anguttara"></a>Anguttara Nikâya, I. lxxiii, 134, 212, 223, 278, 288, 289, 295; II. 48, 49; III. <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /> +</li> +<li>an-had, II. 262<br /></li> +<li>An-hsi (Parthia), III. <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a><br /></li> +<li>aniccam, I. 219<br /></li> +<li>Aniko Lama, III. <a href="#Page_3_356">356</a><br /></li> +<li>Animals, I. lvi, xcix, 68, 115, 267; II. 131, 167; III. <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_3_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_3_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_3_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a>. +<i>See also</i> <a href="#Ahimsa">Ahimsâ</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Animism" id="Animism"></a>Animism, I. 104, 332; II. 167; III. <a href="#Page_3_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_3_98">98</a>. +<i>See also</i> <a href="#Aboriginal_deities">Aboriginal deities</a>, <a href="#Nats">Nats</a>, <a href="#Nature_worship">Nature worship</a>, <a href="#Phis">Phis</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Aniruddha, II. 196, 235<br /></li> +<li><i>Annales du Musée Guimet</i>, II. 122, 275<br /></li> +<li>Annals (various), III. <a href="#Page_3_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_3_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_3_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_3_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_3_344">344</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Annam (Champa), I. xxiv, xxvi; II. 25; III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_3_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_3_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_3_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_3_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_3_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_3_340">340 </a><i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Anomâ, I. 175<br /></li> +<li>An-shih Kao, II. 64; III. <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a> <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a> 313<br /></li> +<li>Antagadasao, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Antakritad, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>antarâtman, III. <a href="#Page_3_175">175</a><br /></li> +<li>antarâya, I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Antaryâmin, II. 46, 235, 317<br /></li> +<li>Antigonus, I. 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a><br /></li> +<li>Antioch, I. 255<br /></li> +<li>Antiochus, king, I. 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a><br /></li> +<li>Anu, II. 223, 292<br /></li> +<li>Anugîtâ, II. 187<br /></li> +<li>Anugraha, II. 180<br /></li> +<li>Anukramani, II. 152<br /></li> +<li>Anula (Princess), III. <a href="#Page_3_17">17</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Anumâna, II. 293<br /></li> +<li>an-upadi-seśa-nibbanam, I. 223<br /></li> +<li>Anurâdhapura, I. 143, 276; III. <a href="#Page_3_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_3_23">23</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Anuruddha, I. 134, 155, 168; III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Anusâsana purâna, II. 194<br /></li> +<li>Anuttara Yoga, II. 128, 189<br /></li> +<li>Anuttarovavâidasâo, I. 116<br /></li> +<li><i>Any Saint</i>, II. 162, 183<br /></li> +<li>Apabhramsa, I. 299<br /></li> +<li>Apah, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Apântaratamas, II. 202<br /></li> +<li>Aparantaka, III. <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Apararâjagirika, I. 259<br /></li> +<li>Aparaselikas, I. 259<br /></li> +<li>Aparimitâyus Sûtras, III. <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a><br /></li> +<li>Apocryphal Gospels, III. <a href="#Page_3_441">441</a><br /></li> +<li>Apollo, II. 139<br /></li> +<li>Apollonius, III. <a href="#Page_3_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_3_447">447</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Appar, II. 215<br /></li> +<li>Apratishṭhita, I. 323<br /></li> +<li>Apsus (Ephesus) (Chotscho), III. <a href="#Page_3_205">205</a><br /></li> +<li>apûrva, II. 311<br /></li> +<li>Apvâ, I. 102<br /></li> +<li>Arabia (Arabs, etc.), I. 28; II. 109; III. <a href="#Page_3_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_3_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Aracosia, I. 23<br /></li> +<li>Arahanta School, III. <a href="#Page_3_59">59</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Thera, III. <a href="#Page_3_55">55</a> <i>sq</i>.<br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Arahattam, I. xxi<br /></li> +<li>Arakan, II. 105; III. <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_3_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_3_47">47</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Aramaic Alphabet, III. <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a><br /></li> +<li>Araṇyakas, I. 53; III. <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Arâti, I. 102<br /></li> +<li>Arcâ (image), I. lxx; III. <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Archæological Survey of Mayurabhanj</i>, II. 114, 126<br /></li> +<li>Archbishop (R.C.), III. <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a><br /></li> +<li>Architecture, I. lxvi, 92, 119; II. 109, 211; III. <a href="#Page_3_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_3_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_3_132">132</a> <i>sq</i>., <a href="#Page_3_143">143</a><i>sq</i>., <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a> <i>sq</i>., <a href="#Page_3_184">184</a> <i>sq</i>., <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_3_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /> +</li> +<li>arcismati, II. 11<br /></li> +<li>Arcot, II. 113<br /></li> +<li>Ardhanareśvara, II. 145<br /></li> +<li>ardhanarî image, III. <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a><br /></li> +<li>Arhat, I. 110, 145, 146, 166, 214, 223, 227, 232, 260; II. 6, 8; III. <a href="#Page_3_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Ariobalo, II. 14<br /></li> +<li>Aris, III. <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Aristobulus, III. <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /></li> +<li>Aristocratic republics. <i>See</i> <a href="#Mallas">Mallas</a>, <a href="#Sakyas">Sakyas</a>, <a href="#Vajjians">Vajjians</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ariyapariyesana sutta, I. 135, 152<br /></li> +<li>Ariya saccâni, I. 200<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>vaṃsa, III. <a href="#Page_3_61">61</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Arjun (Guru), II. 268, 269<br /></li> +<li>Arjuna, II. 156, 200, 253<br /></li> +<li>Arjunavijaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Armenians, I. 122; III. <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a><br /></li> +<li>Arnold, Matthew, I. xcvi, 328<br /></li> +<li>arogya, I. 201<br /></li> +<li>Arrows in rite, I. 100; III. <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a><br /></li> +<li>Arsacidae, I. 22; III. <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a><br /></li> +<li>Arsha (Ardha) Magadha, I. 116<br /></li> +<li><a name="Art" id="Art"></a>Art, I. xiii, xxix, xxxi, xxxiv, lxvi, xc, 22, 92, 137, 173, 212; II. 169, 211; III. <a href="#Page_3_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_3_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a> + +<a href="#Page_3_194">194</a> <i>sq</i>., <a href="#Page_3_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_3_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_3_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_3_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_3_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_3_405">405</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>l'Art Gréco-Bouddhique du Gandhara</i>, II. 76<br /></li> +<li>Artaxerxes Longimanus, I. 341<br /></li> +<li>Artha pancaka, II. 237<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>purâna śâstra, III. <a href="#Page_3_142">142</a><br /></li> +<li>śâstra, I. 18<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Artjeh, III. <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a><br /></li> +<li>Arul, II. 217<br /></li> +<li>Arunandi, II. 221<br /></li> +<li>Arûparâgo, I. 227<br /></li> +<li><a name="Arvar" id="Arvar"></a>Arvars, II. 231, 233, 236<br /></li> +<li>Arya (religion, people), I. xv, 3, 7, 15, 19, 20, 54, 55, 59, 200; II. 177; III. <a href="#Page_3_273">273</a><br /></li> +<li>Aryabhaṭa, III. <a href="#Page_3_152">152</a><br /></li> +<li>Aryadeva, I. xxxiii; II. 85, 86; III. <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a><br /></li> +<li>Aryamahâsanghika, II. 59<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>nikâya, II. 101<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Arya-mañjuśrî-mûla-tantra, III. <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a><br /></li> +<li>Arya-mûla-sarvâstivâda-nikâya, II. 91, 102<br /></li> +<li>Arya Samaj, I. xlvii; III. <a href="#Page_3_457">457</a><br /></li> +<li>Arya-sammiti, III. <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a><br /></li> +<li>Arya-sammitika-nikâya, II. 102<br /></li> +<li>Arya sarvâstivâdin, III. <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a><br /></li> +<li>Aryasthavira nikâya, II. 102; III. <a href="#Page_3_20">20</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Asâlha, I. 245<br /></li> +<li>Asanam, I. 305<br /></li> +<li><a name="Asanga" id="Asanga"></a>Asanga, I. xxxviii, 193, 293, 305; II. 11, 22, 31, 48, 57, 59, 82 <i>sq.</i>, 102, 125, 306; +III. <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_214">214</a>,<a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_3_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_3_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_3_452">452</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Asankhadhâtu, I. 225<br /></li> +<li>asankhato, I. 225, 260<br /></li> +<li>asankhyakalpa, II. 103<br /></li> +<li>Aśâpati, I, 102<br /></li> +<li>Asava, I. 139<br /></li> +<li><a name="Asceticism" id="Asceticism"></a>Asceticism (also Celibacy), I. xvi, lxi, lxv, 42, 49, 71, 84, 96, 105, 107, 110, 119, 123, +138, 240; II. 207, 320; III. <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_3_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_3_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_3_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_3_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_3_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_3_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Asclepiadae, I. 69<br /></li> +<li>Asgiri, III. <a href="#Page_3_37">37</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ashikaga period, III. <a href="#Page_3_405">405</a><br /></li> +<li>Asi, II. 245<br /></li> +<li>Asita, I. 133, 174; III. <a href="#Page_3_440">440</a><br /></li> +<li>Asoka, I. xxii, c, 16, 18, 21, 50, 99, 103, 113, 127, 132, 248, 254, 274; II. 65, 80, 93, 108, +116, 214; III. <a href="#Page_3_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_3_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_3_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Asramas, I. 89, 90; II. 203; III. <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a><br /></li> +<li>Asrava, I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Aṣrua, III. <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a><br /></li> +<li>Assam, I. xxxvi, lxxv, lxxxvii, 14, 25, 104; II. 126, 127, 143, 175, 185, 191, 244, 259 +<i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Astarte, I. 63; II. 275<br /></li> +<li>Astarte Syriaca, I. lxxxvii<br /></li> +<li>Astral body, I. 317<br /></li> +<li>Astrology, I. xxv; III. <a href="#Page_3_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_3_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_3_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_3_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_3_232">232</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Astronomy, I. 335; III. <a href="#Page_3_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_3_415">415</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Asuras, I. 61, 335<br /></li> +<li>Asuri, II. 296<br /></li> +<li>Aśvaghosha, I. xxx, 300; II. 5, 49, 59, 65, 68, 79, 82 <i>sq.</i>, 104, 169, 176; III. +<a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a>,<a href="#Page_3_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_3_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_3_439">439</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Asvamedha, I. 68<br /></li> +<li>Asvapati Kaikeya, I. 74<br /></li> +<li>Asvavarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_164">164</a><br /></li> +<li>Asvins, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Aṭânâṭiya sutta, I. 278; III. <a href="#Page_3_42">42</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Atharvans, I. 54, 63<br /></li> +<li>Atharva Veda, I. 54, 55, 98, 101; II. 50, 142, 270, 275; III. <a href="#Page_3_67">67<br /> +</a></li> +<li>Athenaeus, II. 432<br /></li> +<li>Atîśa, I. xxvii; II. 19, 112; III. <a href="#Page_3_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_3_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_3_352">352</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_3_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Atiths, II. 177<br /></li> +<li><a name="Atman" id="Atman"></a>Atman, I. lii, lxiii, lxiv, 45, 62, 79, 81, 84, 98, 188, 191, 218, 220; II. 75, 124, 180, 266, +296, 308, 309; III. <a href="#Page_3_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_3_305">305</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Atmâ Râm, II. 266<br /></li> +<li>Atnan, III. <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /></li> +<li>Atomic theory, I. 109<br /></li> +<li>Atonement, I. xiv, 69; III. <a href="#Page_3_427">427</a><br /></li> +<li>Atta, I. 188, 191, 218, 220; II. 101<br /></li> +<li>atthakam, I. 150<br /></li> +<li>Atthakathâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Atthasâlini, III. <a href="#Page_3_28">28</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Atula, III. <a href="#Page_3_63">63</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Aufrecht, II. 148; III. <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a> 452<br /></li> +<li>Auguries, II. 105<br /></li> +<li>Augustus, I. 26; III. <a href="#Page_3_431">431</a><br /></li> +<li>Aulieata, III. <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a><br /></li> +<li>Aung, S.Z., I. 189, 259; III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_3_71">71</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Aurora, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Aurungzeb, I. xlv, 30, 31; II. 252, 261, 270, 271; III. <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Ausgewählte Erzählungen</i>, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Ava, III. <a href="#Page_3_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_3_61">61</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Avadânas, II. 58 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Avadhûtas, II. 243<br /></li> +<li>Avalokita, I. xxix; II. 12, 13, 23, 30, 57, 60, 73, 86, 103, 105, 122, 125, 128; III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_3_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_3_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_3_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_3_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_3_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_3_393">393</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Avalokiteśvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a><br /></li> +<li>Avalon, I. 67, 311; II. 121, 188, 190, 274, 281, 282, 320; III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Avanti, I. 282<br /></li> +<li>Avasarpini, I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Avataṃsakasûtra, II. 10, 54, 60; III. <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_3_378">378</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Avataras" id="Avataras"></a>Avatâras, I. lxx, 48; II. 73, 130, 197; III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_3_419">419</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Averroes, III. <a href="#Page_3_460">460</a><br /></li> +<li>Avesta, I. 19, 60, 63; II. 28; III. <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /> +</li> +<li>avibhâga, II. 312<br /></li> +<li>Avicenna, III. <a href="#Page_3_460">460</a><br /></li> +<li>Avîci, I. 338<br /></li> +<li>avijja, I. 227<br /></li> +<li>avyâkatâni, I. 228, 233<br /></li> +<li>avyanga, III. <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_3_454">454</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Awakening of Faith, xxxii; II. 34, 42, 44, 83, 84, 87; III. <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ayârângasutta, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>âyatanam, I. 226<br /></li> +<li>Ayenar, II, 164<br /></li> +<li>Aymonier, III. <a href="#Page_3_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_3_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_3_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_3_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ayodhya, I. 20, 25; II. 87, 100, 149<br /></li> +<li>Ayushka, I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Ayuthia, III. <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Azhvar, <i>see</i> <a href="#Arvar">Arvar</a><br /> +</li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Ba, I. 218<br /></li> +<li>Baber, I. 28, 30<br /></li> +<li>Babylon, I. 61, 204; III. <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_3_432">432</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bacchic groups, II. 159<br /></li> +<li>Bactria, I. 22, 24; II. 139, 276; III. <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_3_414">414</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Badakshan, I. xxvi; III. <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a><br /></li> +<li>Badami, I. 26; II. 164, 172; III. <a href="#Page_3_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_3_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bâdarâyana, II. 211, 311, 316<br /></li> +<li>Badarî, II. 238<br /></li> +<li>Badrinath, I. 17; II. 207, 208<br /></li> +<li>Badulla, III. <a href="#Page_3_43">43</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bagdad, III. <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /></li> +<li>Bagyidaw, III. <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bahmani dynasty, I. 29, 30<br /></li> +<li>Bahraich, III. <a href="#Page_3_458">458</a><br /></li> +<li>bâhyayâga, II. 152<br /></li> +<li>Baidyanath, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +<li>Baishnabs, II. 177<br /></li> +<li>Bajra, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Bajrapâni, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +<li>Bako, III. <a href="#Page_3_115">115</a><br /></li> +<li>Bakus, III. <a href="#Page_3_129">129</a><br /></li> +<li>bala, II. 196<br /></li> +<li>Balabhi, II. 105<br /></li> +<li>Baladeva, II. 153, 255<br /></li> +<li>Bâla Gopâla, II. 249<br /></li> +<li>Balambangan, III. <a href="#Page_3_160">160</a><br /></li> +<li>Balarâma, II. 154<br /></li> +<li>Bale Agoeng, III. <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a><br /></li> +<li>Bali, II. 148; III. <a href="#Page_3_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_3_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_3_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_3_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_3_183">183 </a><i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Bali-Agas, III. <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a><br /></li> +<li>Balkh, I. 25; III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ballantyne, II. 296<br /></li> +<li>Bambino, II. 160<br /></li> +<li>Bamian, II. 102, 177; III. <a href="#Page_3_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bamunias, II. 260<br /></li> +<li>Bamyin, I. 25<br /></li> +<li>Bâṇa, I. xxxix, 15; II. 97, 187, 206, 280<br /></li> +<li>bana, III. <a href="#Page_3_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_3_42">42</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Banda, II. 271<br /></li> +<li>ban-de, III. <a href="#Page_3_351">351</a><br /></li> +<li>Bandha, I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Bandyas, II. 119<br /></li> +<li>Bangkok, III. <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_3_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_3_93">93</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Baniyas, I. 115<br /></li> +<li>Banon, III. <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a><br /></li> +<li>Banyan grove, I, 148<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Tree, I. 82<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Bâp, II. 206<br /></li> +<li>Ba-phuong, III. <a href="#Page_3_132">132</a><br /></li> +<li>Baptism, III. <a href="#Page_3_422">422</a> cf. abhiśekha<br /></li> +<li>Barabar, III. 53<br /></li> +<li>Baramba, II. 114<br /></li> +<li>Bardesanes, III. <a href="#Page_3_444">444</a><br /></li> +<li>Bargosa, III. <a href="#Page_3_431">431</a><br /></li> +<li>Barlaam and Joasaph, III. <a href="#Page_3_442">442</a><br /></li> +<li>Barna Brahmans, II. 173<br /></li> +<li>Barnett, II. 222, 224<br /></li> +<li>Baroda, I. 31, 116; II. 202, 252<br /></li> +<li>Barom Recha, II. 259<br /></li> +<li>Barpeta, II. 259<br /></li> +<li>Barth, II. 143, 169, 238; III. 23, <a href="#Page_3_427">427</a><br /></li> +<li>Bartholomew (Apostle), III. <a href="#Page_3_414">414</a><br /></li> +<li>Basaih, III. <a href="#Page_3_127">127</a><br /></li> +<li>Båså Kawi, III. <a href="#Page_3_170">170</a><br /></li> +<li>Basava, II. 176, 225<br /></li> +<li>Bashpa, III. <a href="#Page_3_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_3_354">354</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Basiasita, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Basidides, III. <a href="#Page_3_444">444</a> 445<br /></li> +<li>Bassêt Simâdamataka, III. <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a><br /></li> +<li>Basti, I. 120<br /></li> +<li>Basuli, II. 277<br /></li> +<li>Batavia, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a><br /></li> +<li>Bat Cum, III. <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a><br /></li> +<li>Bathuris, II. 115<br /></li> +<li>Battambang, III. <a href="#Page_3_112">112</a><br /></li> +<li>Bauddham, III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Baudhâyana, II. 279<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>dharma sûtra, III. <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Bauras, II. 119<br /></li> +<li>Bauris, II. 115<br /></li> +<li>Baveru, III. <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a> 430<br /></li> +<li>Bayin Naung, III. <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_3_47">47</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Bayon, III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_3_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_3_134">134</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bäzäklik, III. <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a><br /></li> +<li>Beal, I. 173, 275; II. 3, 56; III. <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_3_331">331</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Beames, II. 244<br /></li> +<li><i>Beatae Angelae de Fulginio Visionum et Instructionum Liber</i>, I. 160<br /></li> +<li>Beatitudes, I. 184, 213<br /></li> +<li>Beckh, III. <a href="#Page_3_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bednur, II. 226<br /></li> +<li>Belattha, I. 98<br /></li> +<li>Belgami, II. 108<br /></li> +<li>Beluva, I. 163<br /></li> +<li>Benares, I. xlvi, 20, 87, 89, 132, 140; II. 112, 171, 189, 194, 208, 227, 243, 254, 263; +III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bendall, II. 56, 116, 121, 123, 220<br /></li> +<li>Bendall and Haraprasad, II. 18<br /></li> +<li>Bengal, I. xxxvi, lxxxvii, 19, 25, 29, 31, 87, 114, 121; II. 32, 92, 100, 102, 108, 109, 111, +113, 173, 190, 230, 242, 253, 277, 278, 279, 349 <i>sq.</i>, 356<br /></li> +<li>Bengali literature, I. xlv, 299; II. 187, 244, 255<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Vaishnavas, II. 245<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Beng Mealea, III. <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a><br /></li> +<li>Berar, I. 31; II. 85<br /></li> +<li>Bergaigne, III. <a href="#Page_3_137">137</a><br /></li> +<li>Bergson, I. cii<br /></li> +<li>Berlin Museum, II. 20<br /></li> +<li>Bernheim, I. 318<br /></li> +<li>Bernier, II. 320<br /></li> +<li>Bertholet, I. iv<br /></li> +<li>Besant, Mrs., I. xlvii<br /></li> +<li>Besnagar column, II. 153, 197<br /></li> +<li>Bettu, I. 120<br /></li> +<li>Beveridge, I. 90<br /></li> +<li>de Beylié III. <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bhabajanas, II. 261<br /></li> +<li>Bhabru Edict, I. 264, 270, 290, 295<br /></li> +<li>Bhaddiya, I. 131, 224<br /></li> +<li>Bhadrabâhu, I. 114, 116; II. 214<br /></li> +<li>Bhadratittha, III. <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bhadravarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_3_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_3_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bhadresvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_115">115</a> <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bhaga, I. 57, 63<br /></li> +<li>Bhagava, I. 152<br /></li> +<li><a name="Bhagavad_Gita" id="Bhagavad_Gita"></a>Bhagavad Gîtâ, I. xxx, xliv, xlv, lxxiv, +lxxx, 218, 333; II. 31, 72, 162, 180, +186, 195, 200, 201, 208, 219, 225, +228, 229, 231, 233, 234, 238, 239, +257, 293, 296, 306, 317; III. <a href="#Page_3_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_3_420">420</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_423">423</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bhagavân, II. 255; III. <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bhagavat, II. 156, 195<br /></li> +<li>Bhagavata Purâna, I. lxxiv; II. 130, 147, +148, 157, 187, 188, 193, 195, 198, +219, 231, 251, 281<br /></li> +<li>Bhagavatas, II. 97, 153, 156, 194, 195, +197, 209, 211, 234, 280<br /></li> +<li>Bhagavâta Tika subodhini, II. 249<br /></li> +<li>Bhaga vatî, I. 116; III. <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_3_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bhagavatîśvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a><br /></li> +<li>Bhagawanis, II. 261<br /></li> +<li>bhairabi, II. 286<br /></li> +<li>Bhairava, II. 145<br /></li> +<li>Bhairavi, II. 277, 288<br /></li> +<li>Bhairav Nath, III. <a href="#Page_3_458">458</a><br /></li> +<li>Bhaisajja, I. 201<br /></li> +<li>Bhaishajya guru, III. <a href="#Page_3_390">390</a><br /></li> +<li>Bhakats (Bhaktas), II. 260<br /></li> +<li>Bhakta-mâla, II. 147, 191, 199, 245<br /></li> +<li><a name="Bhakti" id="Bhakti"></a>Bhakti, I. 49; II. 153, 174, 180-183, 228, +255; III. <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a> <i>sq. See also</i> <a href="#Salvation">Salvation</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bhallika, III. <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bhandagâma, I. 162, 164<br /></li> +<li>Bhandarkar, II. 152, 153, 157, 202, 230, +231, 233, 238, 242, 248, 256, 257, 262, +320, 452<br /></li> +<li>Bhante, I. 152<br /></li> +<li>Bhâratâ, II. 169<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Samhitâ, II. 189<br /></li> +<li>yuddha, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_3_171">171</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Bharat Dharma Mahamandala, I. xlvii<br /></li> +<li>Bharati, III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /></li> +<li>Bhârgavîya, III. <a href="#Page_3_142">142</a><br /></li> +<li>Bhartrihari, II. 97; III. <a href="#Page_3_437">437</a><br /></li> +<li>Bharukaccha (Broach), III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bhâshya, II. 89; III. <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a><br /></li> +<li>Bhaskara Varma, II. 127<br /></li> +<li>Bhatâra, III. <a href="#Page_3_184">184</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Guru, III. <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a><br /></li> +<li>Viśesha, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Bhattacarya (Jogendranath), II. 163, 173, 177, 209, 210, 244, 261<br /></li> +<li>Bhava, I. 208; II. 146<br /></li> +<li>Bhâvâdvaita, II. 322<br /></li> +<li>bhâvanâs, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +<li>Bhavavarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_3_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bhavaviveka, II. 74, 94<br /></li> +<li>Bhâvishya Purâna, I. lxxiv; III. <a href="#Page_3_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_3_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /> +</li> +<li>bhedabheda prakâśa II. 255<br /></li> +<li>Bhikkhu (Bhikshu, Bhikku), I. 96, 157, 182, 237-253; II. 104, 119, 210; III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_3_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_3_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_3_256">256</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bhils, II. 155<br /></li> +<li>Bhima, II. 239; III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Bhoi, II. 115, 116<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Bhoja, I. 27, 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_162">162</a><br /></li> +<li>Bhrikutî, III. <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bhringi, II. 278<br /></li> +<li>Bhû, II. 145<br /></li> +<li>Bhubanesvar, I. xlvi; II. 114, 173, 174, 206<br /></li> +<li>bhukti, I. lxxvi<br /></li> +<li>bhûmi, II. 9, 11<br /></li> +<li>Bhutan, III. <a href="#Page_3_370">370</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Bhutas" id="Bhutas"></a>Bhutas, I. 6; III. <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a> (boetas)<br /></li> +<li>Bhûtatathatâ, I. 220; II. 34, 43, 67, 84<br /></li> +<li>bhûtiśakti (matter), II. 196, 197<br /></li> +<li>Bible, The, I. 255<br /></li> +<li><i>Bibliotheca Buddhica</i>, II. 57, 85<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li><i>Indica</i>, II. 9, 51, 195, 202<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Bidar, I. 29<br /></li> +<li>Bigandet, I. 173; III. <a href="#Page_3_49">49</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bihar, I. xix, 20, 95, 113; II. 111, 112, 127<br /></li> +<li>bîja, II. 122<br /></li> +<li>Bijah, II. 263<br /></li> +<li>Bijapur, I. 26, 29, 114, 225; II. 251; III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a><br /></li> +<li>Bijjala, I. 28, 114; II. 225<br /></li> +<li>Bimbisâra (king), I. 111, 132, 135, 147, 157, 174, 242, 244; II. 30<br /></li> +<li>Bindu, II. 319<br /></li> +<li>Bindusâra, III. <a href="#Page_3_432">432</a><br /></li> +<li>Bing Dinh, III. <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a><br /></li> +<li>Binh Thuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_137">137</a> 138<br /></li> +<li>Binstead, III. <a href="#Page_3_401">401</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Biographies of Eminent Monks</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_156">156</a><br /></li> +<li>Biot, III. <a href="#Page_3_259">259</a> 270<br /></li> +<li>Bir-va-pa, II. 126<br /></li> +<li>Bishnupad, II. 130<br /></li> +<li>Bishwa Singh, II. 280<br /></li> +<li>Blagden, III. <a href="#Page_3_47">47</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Blake, II. 286<br /></li> +<li>Bland and Backhouse, III. <a href="#Page_3_232">232</a><br /></li> +<li>Bloch, III. <a href="#Page_3_330">330</a><br /></li> +<li>de Blonay, II. 16, 18<br /></li> +<li>Blue Mahâkâla, The, III. <a href="#Page_3_363">363</a><br /></li> +<li>Boar (incarnation), II. 147<br /></li> +<li>Bodawpaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_49">49</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Boddas, III. <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /></li> +<li>Boddhâyana, II. 233<br /></li> +<li>Bode, Mrs., I. 248; II. 49, 56, 66, 67<br /></li> +<li>Bodhâyana, II. 234, 316<br /></li> +<li>Bodh Gaya, I. 120, 136, 143, 272; II. 94, 112, 113, 129, 130; III. <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_3_349">349</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bodhi, I. xxxviii; II. 32, 44; III. <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Prince, I. 152<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Bodhibhadra, II. 128<br /></li> +<li>Bodhicaryâvatâra, II. 9; III. <a href="#Page_3_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_3_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_3_331">331</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bodhicitta, II. 45; III. <a href="#Page_3_174">174</a><br /></li> +<li>Bodhidharma, I. xxvi; II. 46, 95, 316; III. <a href="#Page_3_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_3_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_3_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_3_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_3_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_3_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_3_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_3_305">305</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_3_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_3_405">405</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bodhi-rajâkumâra sutta, I. 135<br /></li> +<li>Bodhisattva, I. xxix, xxxi, xxxii, xl, 11, 174, 261, 343, 344; II. 6, 25, 66, 68, 87, 105, 118, +122, 123, 170; III. <a href="#Page_3_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_3_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_3_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_3_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_3_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_3_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_3_318">318</a> <a href="#Page_3_325">325 </a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_3_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bodhi-sattva-bhûmi, II. 87<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Pitaka, II. 61<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Bodhi tree, I. 142, 143, 175; II. 22<br /></li> +<li>Bodopaya (king), III, <a href="#Page_3_63">63</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Boehme (Jacob), I. 315<br /></li> +<li>Boehtlingk and Rien, II. 153<br /> +<ul class="IX"> + <li>Roth, III. <a href="#Page_3_118">118</a><br /></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Boeleling, III. <a href="#Page_3_184">184</a><br /></li> +<li>Bog, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Bogomils, III. <a href="#Page_3_445">445</a><br /></li> +<li>Bohras, III. <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a><br /></li> +<li>Bokhara, III. <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a><br /></li> +<li>Bombay, I. 115, 116; III. <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a><br /></li> +<li>Bongard (Mgr), II. 161<br /></li> +<li>Bonpo, III. <a href="#Page_3_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_3_384">384</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bön religion, III. <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>scriptures, III. <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li><a name="Bonze" id="Bonze"></a>Bonzes, III. <a href="#Page_3_240">240</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Book of Wisdom, III. <a href="#Page_3_433">433</a><br /></li> +<li>Borel, H., II. 42<br /></li> +<li>Borneo, I. xii, 16; III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_3_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_3_163">163</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Boroboedoer, III. <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_3_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_3_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bosanquet, I. lxvii, ciii; II. 317<br /></li> +<li>Bo Tree, I. 206; II. 96, 130; III. <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_3_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_3_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_3_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_3_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bôt, III. <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Bouddhisme (le)</i>, II. 9<br /></li> +<li><i>Bouddhisme, Etudes et Matériaux</i>, II. 121, 122<br /></li> +<li>Bowden, III. <a href="#Page_3_41">41</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bowl (Buddha's), III. <a href="#Page_3_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_3_24">24</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Bradley, I. liv, lxiv, xcv, cii, ciii, 85; III. 80, 82<br /></li> +<li>Brahma, I. xviii, 46, 62, 72, 227, 331, 333; II. 122, 137, 199, 228, 266, 284; III. <a href="#Page_3_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_388">388</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Brahmacârin, I. 88<br /></li> +<li>Brahmadutta, I. 289<br /></li> +<li>Brahmajâla sutta, I. 97, 103; II. 28; III. <a href="#Page_3_322">322</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Brahman" id="Brahman"></a>Brahman (Absolute Godhead, Pantheos), I. xviii, lxxx, 9, 47, 78, 80, 83, 84, 85; II. 40, +75, 234, 238, 289, 292, 308, 309 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_228">228</a> <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a> <a href="#Page_3_445">445</a> <a href="#Page_3_448">448</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>(Brahmin, caste and system), I. xvii, xviii, xxii, xxv, xxviii, xli, lxxxii, 34, 35, 37, 41, +74, 87, 88, 89, 91, 95, 104, 131, 133, 146, 158, 169, 184, 252, 268, 306; II. 99, 115, 116, +117, 118, 169, 171, 173, 176, 191, 192, 193, 210, 235; III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_3_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_3_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_3_93">93</a> <i>sq.</i>, +<a href="#Page_3_112">112</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_3_458">458</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Brâhmaṇas, I. xxxiii, lxxiii, 20, 48, 51, 53, 62, 66, 69, 77, 87<br /></li> +<li>Brâhmaṇâsrama, III. <a href="#Page_3_121">121</a><br /></li> +<li>Brâhmandapurâna, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Brahma Paripriccha, II. 62<br /></li> +<li>Brahmapurâna, III. <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a><br /></li> +<li>Brahmaputra (river), II. 288<br /></li> +<li>Brahmarakshas, III. <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a><br /></li> +<li>Brahma Sahampati, I. 102, 140, 142, 334<br /></li> +<li>Brahma-sambandha-karaṇât, II. 249, 250<br /></li> +<li>Brahma Saṃhitâ, II. 195<br /></li> +<li>Brahma-sampradâya, II. 239, 255<br /></li> +<li>Brahma Sûtras, I. xliii; II. 293, 314, 318<br /></li> +<li>Brahmatantra-svatantra-swâmi, II. 232<br /></li> +<li>Brahmâvaivarta Purâna, II. 158, 164<br /></li> +<li>Brahmâvihâra, I. 315; II. 122<br /></li> +<li>Brahmayoni (yoen), I. 147<br /></li> +<li>Brahmi (inscriptions), II. 214; III. <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a><br /></li> +<li>Brahminism and Hinduism, II. 207 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Brahmo Somaj, I. xlvii<br /></li> +<li>Brah Sugandha, III. <a href="#Page_3_131">131</a><br /></li> +<li>Brahui (affinities), I. 20<br /></li> +<li>Braj, II. 158, 161, 244, 245, 255<br /></li> +<li>Brandes, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Branding, III. <a href="#Page_3_324">324</a> <a href="#Page_3_328">328</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Brantas River, III. <a href="#Page_3_159">159</a><br /></li> +<li>Breath (as self), I. 77, 306<br /></li> +<li>Brihad Araṇyaka Upanishad, I. lxxiii, 76, 79, 82, 83, 84, 94, 298; II. 124, 235, 238, +239, 240, 308<br /></li> +<li>Brihadbrahma Saṃhitâ, II. 195<br /></li> +<li>Brihaspati, II. 320<br /></li> +<li>Brihatsamhita, III. <a href="#Page_3_452">452</a><br /></li> +<li>Brihatsannyâsa Upanishad, II. 198<br /></li> +<li>Brindaban, II. 249, 254<br /></li> +<li>Broach, III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Brom-ston, III. <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a><br /></li> +<li>Browne, E.G., III. <a href="#Page_3_460">460</a><br /></li> +<li>Bruno (Giordano), I. lv<br /></li> +<li>Bruzha, III. <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_3_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_3_377">377</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Buddha (Jain term), I. 110<br /></li> +<li><a name="Buddha" id="Buddha"></a>Buddha, the, I. xix <i>sq.</i>, xxix, xlix, lii, lviii, lxxiii, lxxviii, 20, 27, 48, 49, 64, 72, +97, 103, 111, 129 <i>sq.</i>, 133 <i>sq.</i>, 143, 146-176, 180, 297; II. 97, 99, +105, 113, 115, 130, 148, 224, 305; III. <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Buddha-bhadra, II. 85<br /></li> +<li>Buddha Cârita, I. 173, 176; II. 53, 68, 83, 113; III. <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_3_294">294</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Buddha-dâsa, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_31">31</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Buddha-deva, II. 114<br /></li> +<li>Buddhâgama, III. <a href="#Page_3_180">180</a><br /></li> +<li>Buddhaghosa, I. 151, 190, 205, 209, 212, 255, 270, 281, 293, 312, 321; III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_3_15">15</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_3_28">28</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_3_298">298</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Buddhaghosuppatti, III. <a href="#Page_3_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_3_31">31</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Buddhagupta, II. 115<br /></li> +<li>Buddhakapâla, III. <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a><br /></li> +<li>Buddhakshetra, II. 12<br /></li> +<li>Buddhamitra, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Buddhanandi, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Buddhanirvâna, III. <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a><br /></li> +<li>Buddhapamutus, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Buddhas, I. xix, xxix, 46, 129, 342; II. 6, 123; III. <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_3_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Buddhasammayoga, II. 128<br /></li> +<li>Buddhasanti, II. 126<br /></li> +<li><i>Buddha und Mâra</i>, I. 143<br /></li> +<li>Buddha-vaṃsa, I. 280, 343, 344<br /></li> +<li>Buddhavataṃsaka-sûtra, II. 61<br /></li> +<li>Buddhâvatâri, II. 114<br /></li> +<li>buddhi, II. 299<br /></li> +<li><i>Buddhism in Tibet</i>, I. 336<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li><i>in translations</i>, I. 190, 252, 320<br /></li> +<li><i>of Tibet</i>, II. 128<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li><i>Buddhist Art in India</i>, II. 20, 143; III. <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a><br /> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><i>Birth Stories</i>, I. 171<br /></li> +<li><i>China</i>, II. 18; III. <a href="#Page_3_325">325</a><br /></li> +<li><i>India</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>legends of Asoka and his time</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_23">23</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Literature, I. lxxiii, 95, 275-301 (Pali Canon); II. 47-62 (Mahayanist), 71 (Burma); +III. <a href="#Page_3_281">281-302</a> (Chinese Canon), <a href="#Page_3_372">372-381</a> (Tibetan). <i>See</i> <a href="#Nikaya">Nikâya</a>, <a href="#Pitakas">Pitakas</a>,<a href="#Suttas"> Sûtras</a>(Suttas), <a href="#Vinaya">Vinaya</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>psychology</i>, I. 190, 193, 213<br /></li> +<li><i>Records of the Western World</i>, I. 258<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Budge, II. 122<br /></li> +<li>Bühler, I. 105, 113; II. 109, 126, 127; III. <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Buitenzorg, III. <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a><br /></li> +<li>Buiti, III. <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a><br /></li> +<li>Bukka, I. 30<br /></li> +<li>Bulis, I. 169<br /></li> +<li>Bundehish, III. <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a><br /></li> +<li>Bundelkhand, I. 27; II. 261<br /></li> +<li>Bunmei period, III. <a href="#Page_3_291">291</a><br /></li> +<li>Bunrak, III. <a href="#Page_3_84">84</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Burma, I. xii, xix, xxiv, xxv, lxxxii, xciv, 120, 241, 248, 276; II. 80; III. 7, 34, 46-77, 81, +262, 353<br /></li> +<li>Burnet, III. <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a><br /></li> +<li>Burnouf, II. 53<br /></li> +<li>Burnt offerings, II. 128<br /></li> +<li>Bushell, III. <a href="#Page_3_351">351</a><br /></li> +<li>Bushido, III. <a href="#Page_3_405">405</a><br /></li> +<li>Busiris, III. <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a><br /></li> +<li>Bu-ston, III. <a href="#Page_3_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_3_395">395</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Byamma Nat, III. <a href="#Page_3_69">69</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Byams-chen-chos-nje, III. <a href="#Page_3_359">359</a><br /></li> +<li>Byamspa (Jampa), II. 21<br /></li> +<li>Byzantine Empire, I. 39<br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +<li>Cæsar, I. 177<br /></li> +<li>Caitanya, II. 113, 147, 176, 230, 234, 244, 245, 248, 253 <i>sq.</i>, 268<br /></li> +<li>Caitanya-carit-amrita, II. 113<br /></li> +<li>Caitanya Dâsa, II. 115<br /></li> +<li>Cakkavâlas, I. 336<br /></li> +<li>Cakra, II. 198, 284; III. <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a><br /></li> +<li>Cakravartin, I. 36; II. 89; III. <a href="#Page_3_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_3_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Caland and Henri, I. 66<br /></li> +<li>Calcutta, II. 116, 286<br /></li> +<li>Caldwell, II. 219, 220; III. <a href="#Page_3_418">418</a><br /></li> +<li>Calicut, I. 31<br /></li> +<li>Caliphate, III. <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /></li> +<li>Caliph Ma'mum, III. <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /></li> +<li>Câlukya, I. 25, 27, 114<br /></li> +<li>Calvary, I. 66<br /></li> +<li>Camboja, I. 241, 276; II. 143, 159, 164, 169, 203; III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_3_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_3_100">100</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Camboja school, III. <a href="#Page_3_59">59</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Campa, I. 150<br /></li> +<li>lCam-sran, III. <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /></li> +<li>Camunda, II. 278<br /></li> +<li>Câṇakya, I. 18<br /></li> +<li>Canda, II. 125, 278<br /></li> +<li>Candels, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Candi, II. 277<br /></li> +<li>Candrabhâga River, III. <a href="#Page_3_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Candragarbha Sûtra, II. 58; III. <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a><br /></li> +<li>Candragomin, II. 95<br /></li> +<li>Candraguhyatilaka, II. 128<br /></li> +<li>Candragupta (I), II. 87, 88<br /></li> +<li>Candragupta, Maurya, I. 18, 21, 24, 114, 127; II. 214<br /></li> +<li>Candrakirti, II. 85<br /></li> +<li>Candraprabha, II. 55<br /></li> +<li>Candrapradîpa-sûtra, II. 55<br /></li> +<li>Candravajji, I. 286<br /></li> +<li>Cangalarâjâ, II. 113<br /></li> +<li>Canton, I. xxvi; II. 95; III. <a href="#Page_3_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Cao Tien, III. <a href="#Page_3_343">343</a><br /></li> +<li>Capua, II. 287<br /></li> +<li>Caracalla, III. <a href="#Page_3_416">416</a><br /></li> +<li>Caran Das, II. 253, 262<br /></li> +<li>Car festival, I. lxx; III. <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a><br /></li> +<li>Cariya Pitaka, I. 280, 344<br /></li> +<li>Carpenter, III. <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Carpocrates, III. <a href="#Page_3_444">444</a><br /></li> +<li>Cârvakas, II. 320<br /></li> +<li>Carya, II. 128, 189<br /></li> +<li>Caste, I. xxii, xliv, xlvi, xlvii, 34; +II. 120, 175-178, 243, 254, 257, 260, 285; III. <a href="#Page_3_145">145</a> <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_3_420">420</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Castes and Tribes of S. India</i>, I. 20; II. 171, 225<br /></li> +<li>Cataleptic trance, I. 306<br /></li> +<li><i>Catalogue of Adyar Library</i>, II. 270<br /></li> +<li><i>Catalogue of the Buddhist Tripitaka</i>, I. 258<br /></li> +<li>Catalogues (Chinese) of Buddhist Literature, III. <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_3_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_3_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_3_316">316</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Catechism of Saiva religion</i>, II. 140, 215, 218, 289<br /></li> +<li><i>Catena of Buddhist Scriptures</i>, II. 56<br /></li> +<li>Cattle-worship, II. 159<br /></li> +<li>Caturbhuja, III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /></li> +<li>Caturtha, I. lxiii, 83<br /></li> +<li>Causation, I. xxi, 194, 198, 212<br /></li> +<li>Cave of the Seven Sleepers, III. <a href="#Page_3_205">205</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Caves" id="Caves"></a>Cave temples, III. <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Ajanta">Ajanta</a>, <a href="#Ellora">Ellora</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Cedi<a name="Cedi" id="Cedi"></a>, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Celebes, III. <a href="#Page_3_151">151</a><br /></li> +<li>Celibacy, I. 237-248; II. 256; III. <a href="#Page_3_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a>. Cf. Asceticism, Monasteries<br /> +</li> +<li>Censors, III. <a href="#Page_3_266">266</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Census of Assam</i>, I. xxxviii<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li><i>of Bengal</i>, II. 276<br /></li> +<li><i>of India</i>, I. xxxviii, xl, xlvii, xci; II. 114, 147, 259, 261, 273<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Central Asia, I. xxiv, xxvi, 262; II. 4, 81, 129; III. <a href="#Page_3_188">188</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215 </a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_345">345</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Asian Gupta, III. <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a><br /></li> +<li>India, I. 115, 116; II. 100, 108<br /></li> +<li>Provinces, I. 27<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Cera, I. 26<br /></li> +<li>Cetanâ, I. 209<br /></li> +<li>Cetanâtman, III. <a href="#Page_3_175">175</a><br /></li> +<li>Cetiyas, II. 171<br /></li> +<li>Ceylon, I. xii, xxiii, xxiv, xlviii, l, lxxxii, xcv, 113, 248, 292, 293; II. 53, 61, 80, 87, 116, +214; III. <a href="#Page_3_4">4</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_3_83">83</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Antiquary, III. <a href="#Page_3_35">35</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Chabbaggiyas, I. 156<br /></li> +<li>Chain of causation, I. 49, 139, 144, 186, 206, 207, 212, 213, 230, 267<br /></li> +<li><a name="Chaitanya" id="Chaitanya"></a>Chaitanya, I. xlv; II. 157<br /></li> +<li><i>Chaitanya's Pilgrimage and teachings from the Caitanya Carit âmrita of Krishna Das</i>, II. 253<br /></li> +<li>Chaityas, III. <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chakhar Mongols, III. <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a><br /></li> +<li>Chalukyas, II. 225; III. <a href="#Page_3_170">170</a><br /></li> +<li>Chambal river, I. 25<br /></li> +<li>Champa (Annam), I. xii, xxiv, xxvii, xxviii, 16; II. 143, 159; III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_137">137-150</a>, <a href="#Page_3_340">340</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Chams, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_3_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_3_150">150</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ch'an, I. 322; III. <a href="#Page_3_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_3_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_3_405">405</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chandîdâs, II. 253<br /></li> +<li>Chândogya Upanishad, I. liv, lxxviii, 66, 76, 81; II. 27, 152, 156, 182, 195, 238, 239<br /></li> +<li>Chandragarbha sûtra, III. <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a><br /></li> +<li>Chang An, III. <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_3_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Ch'ien, III. <a href="#Page_3_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_3_245">245</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Chang-Ling, III. <a href="#Page_3_227">227</a><br /></li> +<li>Ch'ang (long), III. <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a><br /></li> +<li>Chang Lu, III. <a href="#Page_3_227">227</a><br /></li> +<li>Channa, I. 167, 175<br /></li> +<li>Channabasava, II. 225<br /></li> +<li>Chantaboun, III. <a href="#Page_3_111">111</a><br /></li> +<li>Ch'an-tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chao (later), III. <a href="#Page_3_249">249</a><br /></li> +<li>Chao Phăya Chakkri, III. <a href="#Page_3_86">86</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Phi, III. <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Chapata, III. <a href="#Page_3_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_3_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_3_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_3_60">60</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chariar, T. Râjâgôpala, II. 232, 237<br /></li> +<li>Ch'a-ti-li, II. 95<br /></li> +<li>Chatterji, II. 204, 224<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Babu Rasik Mohan, II. 281<br /></li> +<li>Bunkim Chandra, II. 287<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Chatterji, J.C., II. 291<br /></li> +<li>Châvâ, III. 80, <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a><br /></li> +<li>Chavannes, III. <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_3_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_3_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_3_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chavannes et Pelliot, II. 199; III. <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_3_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_3_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_3_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Che-i-lun, III. <a href="#Page_3_288">288</a><br /></li> +<li>Chê-kiang, III. <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a><br /></li> +<li>Chenab, III. <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /></li> +<li>Ch'en dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_3_257">257</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chêng-Chi, III. <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a><br /></li> +<li>Ch'êng Hua (Emperor), III. <a href="#Page_3_360">360</a><br /></li> +<li>Chêng-shih-tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /></li> +<li>Ch'êng-tsu (Emperor), III. <a href="#Page_3_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_3_288">288</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ch'êng Tsung (Emperor), III. <a href="#Page_3_274">274</a><br /></li> +<li>Cheng-wei-shih-lun, III. <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /></li> +<li>Chên-la, III. <a href="#Page_3_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chen Tsung (Emperor), III. <a href="#Page_3_228">228</a><br /></li> +<li>Chen-yen, II. 58, 87, 275; III. <a href="#Page_3_316">316</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chet Râmis, I. xlvi<br /></li> +<li>Chê Tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_271">271</a><br /></li> +<li>Chezarla, III. <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a><br /></li> +<li>Chi, III. <a href="#Page_3_312">312</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>(dynasty), III. <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_3_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_3_257">257</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Chia Ch'ing, III. <a href="#Page_3_368">368</a><br /></li> +<li>Chiao-ch'ên-ju, III. <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a><br /></li> +<li>Chiao-mên, III, 310<br /></li> +<li>Ch'ia-sha (Chieh-ch'a-Kashgar), III. <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a><br /></li> +<li>Chidambaram, II. 171, 183, 207, 222<br /></li> +<li>Chief of the World, I. 340<br /></li> +<li>Chieh-ch'a, III. <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a><br /></li> +<li>Ch'ien Lung, III. <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_3_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_3_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chih-chê-ta-shih, III. <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a><br /></li> +<li>Chih-Chien, III. <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a><br /></li> +<li>Chih-I, III. <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a><br /></li> +<li>Chih-K'ai, III. <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a><br /></li> +<li>Chih-Kuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_3_312">312</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chih Li, III. <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Pan, III. <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a><br /></li> +<li>Yüan-lu, III. <a href="#Page_3_290">290</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Child marriages, I. lxxxix<br /></li> +<li>Childers, II. 10<br /></li> +<li>Ch'in dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a><br /></li> +<li>China, I. xiii, xix, xxiv, xxvi, lxxv, lxxxiii, 101, 248, 249, 252, 259, 265, 267; II. 4, 5, 19, +20; III. <a href="#Page_3_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_3_223">223-335</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chinese Annals, II. 64; III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_3_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_3_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_3_245">245</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Canon, I. 275; II. 47, 48, 57, 59; III. <a href="#Page_3_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>deities, III. <a href="#Page_3_225">225</a><br /></li> +<li>and Sanskrit, III. <a href="#Page_3_301">301</a><br /></li> +<li>translations, I. 130, 133, 173, 258; II. 51, 71, 74, 89, 125 (Tantras), 259, 296; III. <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_251">251-270</a>, <a href="#Page_3_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Chinese_Tripitaka" id="Chinese_Tripitaka"></a>Tripitaka, I. 299; II. 54, 61, 71, 81, 84, 304; III. <a href="#Page_3_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_3_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_3_253">253</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_3_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_3_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_3_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_3_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_3_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_3_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_3_288">288</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_3_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_3_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_3_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_3_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Ch'ing (dynasty), III. <a href="#Page_3_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ching (sûtras), III. <a href="#Page_3_281">281</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chinggiz, III. <a href="#Page_3_353">353</a><br /></li> +<li>Ching-tê-ch'uan-têng-lu, III. <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ching-ti, III. <a href="#Page_3_277">277</a><br /></li> +<li>Ching-tu, II. 28<br /></li> +<li>Ch'ing Yüan, III. <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a><br /></li> +<li>Chinnamastaka, II. 277<br /></li> +<li>Ch'i Sung, III. <a href="#Page_3_288">288</a><br /></li> +<li>Chitore, I. 120; II. 244<br /></li> +<li>Chiu dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Hua, II. 25<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Chlas, I. 268<br /></li> +<li>Chohan dynasty, I. 29<br /></li> +<li>Chola, II. 233<br /></li> +<li>Cho-mukhi, I. 120<br /></li> +<li>Chos-kyi-Gyal-tsan, III. <a href="#Page_3_364">364</a><br /></li> +<li>Chos-kyi-hod-zer, III. <a href="#Page_3_356">356</a><br /></li> +<li>Chos-skyon, III. <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a><br /></li> +<li>Chotscho, III. <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_3_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chou dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_3_343">343</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chou Ta-kuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_3_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_125">125 </a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Chowkhamba Sanskrit series</i>, II. 249<br /></li> +<li>Christ, I. 66, 143, 165, 171, 177, 178-184, 213, 214, 215, 224, 226, 228, 330; III. <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_3_435">435</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Christianity, I. xiv, xlix, l, xcviii, ci, 14, 65, 204, 238; II. 107, 140, 158, 161, 180, 218, +219, 266, 275, 285; III. <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_214">214 </a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_409">409</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Christian mystics, I. 306 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Chronology, I. 46, 50; II. 63 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_353">353</a><br /></li> +<li>Chu, III. <a href="#Page_3_245">245</a><br /></li> +<li>Chua, III. <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /></li> +<li>Chuang (Emperor), III. <a href="#Page_3_343">343</a><br /></li> +<li>Chuang Tsu, III. <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_3_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_3_305">305</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chü-ch'ü, III. <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a><br /></li> +<li>Chu Fa Tan, III. <a href="#Page_3_244">244</a><br /></li> +<li>Chu Hsi, III. <a href="#Page_3_272">272</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_3_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_3_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_3_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_3_421">421</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ch'u Ku, III. <a href="#Page_3_125">125</a><br /></li> +<li>Chulalongkorn (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_88">88</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Chung (medium), III. <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a><br /></li> +<li>Churels, II. 276<br /></li> +<li>Chü Shé, III. <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a><br /></li> +<li>Chü-shé-tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a><br /></li> +<li>Chutiyas, II. 279<br /></li> +<li>Ch'u-yao-ching, III. <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a><br /></li> +<li>Chu-ying, III. <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a><br /></li> +<li>cit, II. 316<br /></li> +<li>citralakshana, III. <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Citrasena, III. <a href="#Page_3_101">101</a> <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a><br /> +</li> +<li>citta, I. 210, 303; II. 43; III. <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a><br /></li> +<li>Civappa, II. 141<br /></li> +<li>Clemens of Alexandria, II. 159<br /></li> +<li>Clementi, III. <a href="#Page_3_240">240</a><br /></li> +<li>Cloud of Unknowing, I. 307<br /></li> +<li><i>Cochin Tribes and Castes</i>, II. 171, 191<br /></li> +<li>Coedès, I. xii; III. <a href="#Page_3_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_3_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_3_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_3_134">134</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Colas, I. 26, 27, 114; II. 100, 214; III. <a href="#Page_3_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Commentaries, II. 310 <i>sq.</i> (Indian); III. <a href="#Page_3_29">29</a> <i>sq.</i> (Buddhaghosa), <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a>(Dharmapâla), <a href="#Page_3_272">272</a> (Chu Hsi)<br /> +</li> +<li><i>Commentary on Dhammapada</i>, II. 73<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>on Tattva-sangraha, III. <a href="#Page_3_23">23</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Communion, III. <a href="#Page_3_422">422</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Prasad">prasâd</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Compagno, III. <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian languages</i>, II. 219<br /></li> +<li><i>Compendium of Philosophy</i>, I. 189<br /></li> +<li><a name="Confession" id="Confession"></a>Confession, II. 443. Cf. pâtimokkha<br /></li> +<li>Confraternities, I. 95, 237. <i>See</i> <a href="#Sangha">Sangha</a> and <a href="#Monasteries">Monasteries</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Confucius, I. xix, xxii, lxxxiii, 12, 13, 177, 217, 341; III. <a href="#Page_3_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_3_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_3_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_3_226">226</a> <i>sq.</i>, + <a href="#Page_3_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_3_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_3_275">275 </a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_337">337</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Conjevaram, I. xxv, 26, 114; II. 95, 101, 233, 237; III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Conquests of the Dhamma, I. 16<br /></li> +<li>Consciousness, I. lxiii, lxxviii, 209, 210, 230<br /></li> +<li>Constantine, I. 273; II. 77<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Phaulcon, III. <a href="#Page_3_86">86</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Contemplative school, III. <a href="#Page_3_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_3_305">305</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li><i>(De) Contemptu Mundi</i>, I. 202<br /></li> +<li>Conventions (art), I. 120<br /></li> +<li>Convents. <i>See</i> <a href="#Monasteries">Monasteries</a>, <a href="#Nuns">Nuns</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Coomaraswamy, II. 244; III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Cooper-Irving, S., I. lviii<br /></li> +<li>Copleston, III. <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a><br /></li> +<li>Copper-plate inscriptions, III. <a href="#Page_3_157">157</a><br /></li> +<li>Cordier, III. <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_3_376">376</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Cosmas Indicopleustes, III. <a href="#Page_3_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_3_416">416</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Cosmogonies" id="Cosmogonies"></a>Cosmogonies, I. lxviii, 43, 46, 332, 335; III. <a href="#Page_3_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_3_272">272</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Cotta, III. <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Councils (Buddhist), I. 254 <i>sq.</i>, 290; II. 78 <i>sq.</i>, 224; III. <a href="#Page_3_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_3_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_3_86">86</a>(Siam), <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a> (Kanishka)<br /> +</li> +<li>Courant, III. <a href="#Page_3_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_3_336">336</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Cowell and Neil, II. 59; III. <a href="#Page_3_395">395</a><br /></li> +<li>Cranganore, I. 26; III. <a href="#Page_3_415">415</a><br /></li> +<li>Crashaw, II. 162<br /></li> +<li>Creation, I. lxxxi, 67; II. 298 <i>sq.</i>, 313<br /></li> +<li>Crete, III. <a href="#Page_3_435">435</a><br /></li> +<li>Crooke, I. 103, 104, 145, 147; II. 277<br /></li> +<li>Crucifixion, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_427">427</a><br /></li> +<li>Crypto Buddhists, II. 73, 115, 211, 315; III. <a href="#Page_3_421">421</a><br /></li> +<li>Ctesiphon, III. <a href="#Page_3_416">416</a><br /></li> +<li>Cûlaganthipada, III. <a href="#Page_3_64">64</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Cûlavaṃsa, III. <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Cullavagga, I. 131, 156, 255, 257, 258, 277, 288, 290; II. 49<br /></li> +<li>Cunda, I. 164<br /></li> +<li>Cunningham, Sir. A., I. 143<br /></li> +<li>Curzon, Lord, III. <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Cutch, II. 251<br /></li> +<li>Cuttack, II. 114<br /></li> +<li>Cybele, I. 62; II. 275<br /></li> +<li>Cyrene, I. 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a><br /></li> +<li>Cyril of Jerusalem, III. <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Dabistan, II. 321<br /></li> +<li>Da Cunha, III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dâdu, II. 263, 266<br /></li> +<li>Dâdupanthis, II. 266<br /></li> +<li><a name="Dagobas" id="Dagobas"></a>Dagoba, II. 172; III. <a href="#Page_3_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Daha, III. <a href="#Page_3_159">159</a><br /></li> +<li>Dai-cô-viêt, III. <a href="#Page_3_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_3_340">340</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dai-jo, II. 3<br /></li> +<li>Dai-Nippon Zoku Zōkyō, III. <a href="#Page_3_291">291</a><br /></li> +<li>Daityas, II. 321<br /></li> +<li>Ḍâkînîs, II. 286<br /></li> +<li>Daksha, II. 142, 193, 203, 286; III. <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a><br /></li> +<li>Dakshinâcârins, II. 283<br /></li> +<li>Daladapujavali, III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dalai Lāma, III. <a href="#Page_3_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_3_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_3_362">362</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dâmaras, II. 282<br /></li> +<li>Dambal, II. 109<br /></li> +<li>Damdama, II. 271<br /></li> +<li>dânam, II. 10; III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dances of the Red Tiger Devil, III. <a href="#Page_3_393">393</a><br /></li> +<li>Danta, III. <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dântepura, III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Darawati, III. <a href="#Page_3_141">141</a><br /></li> +<li>Darbhanga, Maharaja of, I. xlvii<br /></li> +<li>Darius (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /></li> +<li>Darjiling, III. <a href="#Page_3_399">399</a><br /></li> +<li>darśana, II. 291; III. <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a><br /></li> +<li>darśana-varanîya. I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Das, Sarat Chandra, II. 129; III. <a href="#Page_3_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_3_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_3_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_3_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Daśabhûmika, II. 59<br /></li> +<li>Daśabhûmîśvara, II. 55<br /></li> +<li>Dasaka, I. 256, 257<br /></li> +<li>Dasakutas, II. 241<br /></li> +<li>Dasama, I. 150<br /></li> +<li>Daśama Pâdshâh ka Granth, II. 271<br /></li> +<li>Daśanâmís, II. 209<br /></li> +<li>Daśaratha (king), II. 149<br /></li> +<li>Daśaśloki, II. 230<br /></li> +<li>Dasa Srîmalis, II. 177<br /></li> +<li>Das (Chaṇḍî), II. 244<br /></li> +<li>Das (Sur), II. 245<br /></li> +<li>dâsya, II. 255<br /></li> +<li>Dasyus, I. 59<br /></li> +<li>Dathavaṃsa, III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Datia, I. 121<br /></li> +<li>Daulatabad, I. 29, 30<br /></li> +<li>Davis, III. <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a><br /></li> +<li>Dead, spirits of, I. 339; III. <a href="#Page_3_116">116</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Ancestor_worship">Ancestor-worship</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Death's messengers, I. 338<br /></li> +<li>Debrâja, III. <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a><br /></li> +<li>Deb (Sankar), II. 244<br /></li> +<li>Decalogue, I. 213, 215, 250<br /></li> +<li>Deccan, I. 19, 25, 27, 115; II. 92, 98, 100, 108, 113, 164; III. <a href="#Page_3_107">107</a>. <i>See also</i> + <a href="#Southern_India">Southern India</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Deceiver, the, II. 184. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Mara">Mâra</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Deer Park, I. 140, 141, 143<br /></li> +<li>De Groot, III. <a href="#Page_3_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_3_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_3_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_3_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_3_350">350</a><br /> +</li> +<li>De Groot and Parker, III. <a href="#Page_3_233">233</a><br /></li> +<li>bDe-hbyun, III. <a href="#Page_3_386">386</a><br /></li> +<li>Deification of man, I. 48; II. 147, 150, 157, 170, 184, 196, 251, 255; III. <a href="#Page_3_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_3_224">224</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Deism, I. xlvi<br /></li> +<li>Deities, invention of, III. <a href="#Page_3_228">228</a><br /></li> +<li>Delhi, I. 20, 28, 29, 89; II. 272<br /></li> +<li>Demetrius, I. 22<br /></li> +<li>Demiurgus, III. <a href="#Page_3_444">444</a><br /></li> +<li>Demonophobia, III. <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a><br /></li> +<li><i>De profundis</i>, II. 236<br /></li> +<li>Depung, III. <a href="#Page_3_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_3_399">399</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Derje (Bers), III. <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a><br /></li> +<li>Dervishes (howling), II. 284<br /></li> +<li>Desi, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_366">366</a><br /></li> +<li>Deus, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Deussen, I. lv, 86; II. 187, 306, 309<br /></li> +<li>Deva, I. 47, 48, 63, 103, 330, 340; II. 73, 86; III. <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Devabhaga, I. 88<br /></li> +<li>Devadatta, I. 133, 156, 157, 158, 181, 240, 320, 342; II. 93<br /></li> +<li>Devadutavagga, I. 134<br /></li> +<li>Devakî, II. 152 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_423">423</a><br /></li> +<li>Devakula, III. <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a><br /></li> +<li>Devanâgari, II. 269; III. <a href="#Page_3_301">301</a><br /></li> +<li>Devanâmpiya Tissa, III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_3_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_3_17">17</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Devapâla, III. <a href="#Page_3_111">111</a><br /></li> +<li>Devarâjâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_117">117</a><br /></li> +<li>Devaram, II. 191, 215, 219, 220, 244<br /></li> +<li>Devâtideva, I. 340<br /></li> +<li>Deva-worship, II. 100; III. <a href="#Page_3_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Devayâma, I. 88<br /></li> +<li>Devi, II. 274; III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Devil, I. lxxix, 143, 337<br /></li> +<li>Devil dancers, I. xli; III. <a href="#Page_3_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_3_393">393</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Devi Mâhâtmya, II. 279<br /></li> +<li>Devotion, I. xvii, xxix; II. 72. <i>See</i> <a href="#Amidism">Amidism</a>, <a href="#Bhakti">bhakti</a>, <a href="#Salvation">Salvation</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dewa, III. <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a><br /></li> +<li>Dhalla, II. 275<br /></li> +<li>Dhâmis, II. 266<br /></li> +<li>Dhamma, I. xxiii, 16, 135, 192, 211, 256, 258, 266, 267; II. 34<br /></li> +<li>Dhamma-cakhu, I. 320<br /></li> +<li>Dhammacakka, III. <a href="#Page_3_42">26</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhammaceti, III. <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhammachando, I. 216<br /></li> +<li>Dhammaguttikas, I. 298<br /></li> +<li>Dhammakathi, III. <a href="#Page_3_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_3_31">31</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhammakitti, III. <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhamma-mahâmâtâ, I. 268<br /></li> +<li>Dhammapada, I. 117, 139, 205, 279, 296; II. 181; III. <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_3_299">299</a>,,<a href="#Page_3_372">372</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhammaruci, III. <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhammasangaṇi, I. 188, 192, 209, 225, 314; III. <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhammasenapati, III. <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhammathat, III. <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhammavilâsa, III. <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhammavitasa, III. <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhammayut, III. <a href="#Page_3_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_3_131">131</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhammika (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_36">36</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhaniya, I. 288<br /></li> +<li>Dhânyakaṭaka, III. <a href="#Page_3_386">386</a><br /></li> +<li>Dhâraṇâ, I. 307<br /></li> +<li><a name="Dharanis" id="Dharanis"></a>dhâraṇis, I. 258, 332; II. 50, 51, 125; III. <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_3_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_3_395"> 395</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dharma, I. 49, 106, 192; II. 59, 115, 119, 200; III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dharma-cakra-mudra, II. 20<br /></li> +<li>Dharmadhâtu, II. 34, 43; III. <a href="#Page_3_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dharmagîtâ, II. 115<br /></li> +<li>Dharmagupta, I. 291; III. <a href="#Page_3_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_3_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dharma-gupta vinaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_316">316</a><br /></li> +<li>Dharmaka, III. <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a><br /></li> +<li>Dharmakâla, III. <a href="#Page_3_249">249</a><br /></li> +<li>Dharmâkara, II. 29<br /></li> +<li>Dharmakâya, II. 30, 32, 33-42, 55, 73; III. <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_3_305">305</a> ,<a href="#Page_3_388">388</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dharmakirti, II. 95<br /></li> +<li>Dharmalakshana, III. <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /></li> +<li>Dharmamegha, I. 307; II. 11<br /></li> +<li>Dharmapada, III. <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_3_299">299</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dharmapâla, I. 27; II. 111, 129; III. <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_3_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_3_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dharmaparyâya, II. 56<br /></li> +<li>Dharma Râjâ, II. 116; III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dharmaraksha, II. 32; III. <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dharma-sangraha, II. 17, 23, 86<br /></li> +<li>Dharmaśâstras, III. <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_3_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_3_142">142</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dharmâsokarâja, III. <a href="#Page_3_84">84</a><br /> +</li> +<li>dharmatah, II. 193<br /></li> +<li>Dharma Thakur, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Dharmatrâta, II. 86; III. <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a><br /></li> +<li>Dharmayâna, III. <a href="#Page_3_83">83</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dharm Das, II. 265<br /></li> +<li>Dhâtu, I. 225<br /></li> +<li>Dhatu Senu, III. <a href="#Page_3_32">32</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhatuvansaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dhâtvisvari, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +<li>Dhingkota, III. <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a><br /></li> +<li>Dhṛitaka, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Dhṛitarashtrâ (sons of), II. 154<br /></li> +<li>Dhundias, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Dhûtângas, I. 73, 240, 257<br /></li> +<li>Dhyâna, I. 307; II. 79, 116; III. <a href="#Page_3_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_3_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_3_405">405</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Jhana">Jhâna</a> and + <a href="#Meditation">Meditation</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Dhyanis" id="Dhyanis"></a>Dhyâni Buddhas, II. 26, 115, 118; III. <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dialogues of the Buddha, I. 97, 104, 161; II. 320<br /></li> +<li>Diamond-cutter, the, I. 130; II. 5, 41, 50, 52, 60; III. <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_3_305">305</a><br /> +</li> +<li>dibba-cakkhu, I. 320<br /></li> +<li>dibya-carita, II. 233<br /></li> +<li>Dieng (Dihyang), III. <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Digambara, I. 99, 112, 117, 119, 120<br /></li> +<li><a name="Digha_Nikaya" id="Digha_Nikaya"></a>Dîgha Nikâya, I. 98, 131, 142, 186, 278, 289, 295, 344; II. 137, 153; III. <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_3_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dignâga, III. <a href="#Page_3_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Diguet, III. <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /></li> +<li>Dikung, III. <a href="#Page_3_357">357</a><br /></li> +<li>Dikungpa, III. <a href="#Page_3_399">399</a><br /></li> +<li>Dinh, III. <a href="#Page_3_343">343</a><br /></li> +<li>Dinh Tien Hoang Dê, III. <a href="#Page_3_344">344</a><br /></li> +<li>Din-i-ilahi, II. 270<br /></li> +<li>Dinnaga, II. 94, 95<br /></li> +<li>Dion Cassius, III. <a href="#Page_3_431">431</a><br /></li> +<li>Dionysius, III. <a href="#Page_3_422">422</a><br /></li> +<li>Dionysus (Krishṇa), II. 137, 193<br /></li> +<li>Dioscuri, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Dîpaṇkara (Buddha), I. 343; III. <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a><br /></li> +<li>Dîpankara Srijñâna, III. <a href="#Page_3_353">353</a><br /></li> +<li>Dîpavaṃsa, I. 255 <i>sq.</i>, 262, 269; III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13 </a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_3_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_3_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_3_333">333</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dîrgha, III. <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Discovery of living Buddhism in Bengal</i>, II. 113<br /></li> +<li>Divakara, III. <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a><br /></li> +<li>Divakarapandita, III. <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a><br /></li> +<li>Divarûpa, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Divination, I. 103<br /></li> +<li>Divyâvadâna, I. 299; II. 22, 58, 168; III. <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_3_439">439</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Djajabaja, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_3_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Djajakatong, III. <a href="#Page_3_159">159</a><br /></li> +<li>mDo, III. <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Doko, III. <a href="#Page_3_291">291</a><br /></li> +<li>Dolgorouki, I. 341<br /></li> +<li>Dom Constantino de Braganza, III. <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dona, I. 169<br /></li> +<li>Dong Duong, III. <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Don Juan Dharmapala, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Doré, I. 341; II. 18; III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dorje, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Dorje-dag, III. <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a><br /></li> +<li>rDo-rJe-gCod-pa, III. <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a><br /></li> +<li>rDor-je-legs, III. <a href="#Page_3_393">393</a><br /></li> +<li>Doshabhogya, II. 236<br /></li> +<li>Douie, II. 273<br /></li> +<li>Dpal-brTsegs, III. <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a><br /></li> +<li>Dramida, II. 233<br /></li> +<li>Dravida, II. 100<br /></li> +<li>Dravidians, I. xli, xv, xxxiii, 19, 118; II. 86, 141, 182, 195, 211, 220, 279; III. <a href="#Page_3_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_3_132">132</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a> <i>sq.</i> <i>See also</i> <a href="#Tamils">Tamils</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dṛishtiguru, II. 13<br /></li> +<li>Droṇa Purâna, II. 194<br /></li> +<li>Druids, I. iv; III. <a href="#Page_3_429">429</a><br /></li> +<li>Dualism, I. xliv, lxxx; II. 230, 237, 316, 318; III. <a href="#Page_3_449">449</a><br /></li> +<li>Du Bose, III. <a href="#Page_3_330">330</a><br /></li> +<li>Dugpa, III. <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_3_399">399</a><br /> +</li> +<li>dukkha, I. 44, 200, 203, 219<br /></li> +<li>dukkhakkhanda, I. 205<br /></li> +<li>Dulva, III. <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a><br /></li> +<li>Dumoutier (<i>Les Cultes Annamites</i>), III. <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /></li> +<li>Dundhâbhinossa, I. 269<br /></li> +<li>Dundhubhissara, I. 269<br /></li> +<li>Duperron (Anquetil), II. 270<br /></li> +<li>Duration of the Law, the, II. 61<br /></li> +<li>Durbhanga, II. 253<br /></li> +<li>Durga, I. xv, 63; II. 118, 122, 126, 146, 228, 274 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Durgapuja, I. lxx; II. 286<br /></li> +<li>durjaya, II. 11<br /></li> +<li>Duroiselle, III. <a href="#Page_3_49">49</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dusit, III. <a href="#Page_3_94">94</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dutch (the), III. <a href="#Page_3_34">34</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dutreuil du Rhins Mission, III. <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Duṭṭhagâmani, III. <a href="#Page_3_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_3_17">17</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dvâdasanikâyaśâstra, III. <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /></li> +<li>Dvaita, II. 237, 318<br /></li> +<li>dvaitâdvaitamata, II. 230, 318<br /></li> +<li>Dvâpara age, III. <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a><br /></li> +<li>Dvârakâ, II. 153 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Dvâravatî, II. 153; III. <a href="#Page_3_85">85</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Dvita, III. <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a><br /></li> +<li>Dwarf incarnation, II. 147<br /></li> +<li>Dyans, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Dynasties of the Kali Age, I. 15; II. 187<br /></li> +<li>Dzungaria, III. <a href="#Page_3_370">370</a><br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li><i>Early History of India</i>, I. 15; II. 76, 87, 187<br /></li> +<li>Earth (goddess), II. 275, 285<br /></li> +<li>Earthquake, I. 164, 168, 175; III. <a href="#Page_3_440">440</a><br /></li> +<li>East Bengal, II. 101, 102; III. <a href="#Page_3_457">457</a><br /></li> +<li>Easter Island, III. <a href="#Page_3_151">151</a><br /></li> +<li>Eastern Ganga dynasty, I. 30<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Han dynasty, II. 27<br /></li> +<li>Monachism, I. 315<br /></li> +<li>Tsin dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_251">251</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Ecbatana, III. <a href="#Page_3_445">445</a><br /></li> +<li>Ecclesiastes, I. 94, 132, 203<br /></li> +<li>Edessa, III. <a href="#Page_3_414">414</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Edicts_of_Asoka" id="Edicts_of_Asoka"></a>Edicts of Asoka, I. xxiii, 113, 264, 265, 270; III. <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a><br /></li> +<li>Edkins, III. <a href="#Page_3_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_3_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_3_311">311</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Edmunds and Anesaki, III. <a href="#Page_3_437">437</a><br /></li> +<li>Education (Brahmans), I. 89; Buddhist, III. <a href="#Page_3_70">70</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ego, I. 230. <i>See</i> <a href="#Atman">Atman</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Egypt (Egyptians), I. lv, 218, 268; II. 174, 275; III. <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_3_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_457">457</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Eighteen Lohans, the, III, <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Eight-fold path, I. 144, 200, 213, 214, 261<br /></li> +<li>Eight Terrible ones, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /></li> +<li>Eitel, II. 88; III. <a href="#Page_3_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_3_330">330</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ekâkshapingalâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_145">145</a><br /></li> +<li>Ekaṃsika, III. <a href="#Page_3_62">62</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ekanâtha, II. 152<br /></li> +<li>Ekântikadharma, II. 195<br /></li> +<li>ekârtha, II. 43<br /></li> +<li>Ekata, III. <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a><br /></li> +<li>ekâtmapratyayasâra, I. 83<br /></li> +<li>ekâyma, II. 195<br /></li> +<li>Ekottara Agama, I. 300; II. 48; III. <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Elâra, III. <a href="#Page_3_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_3_17">17</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Elements of Hindu Iconography</i>, II. 190<br /></li> +<li>Elephanta, II. 165<br /></li> +<li>Elias (Prophet), I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Elichpur, I. 29<br /></li> +<li>Eliot, II. 259<br /></li> +<li>Elixir of Immortality, III. <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_3_268">268</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Ellora" id="Ellora"></a>Ellora, I. xlii, 28; II. 206, 223; III. <a href="#Page_3_178">178</a><br /></li> +<li>Emanations, II. 196<br /></li> +<li>Emotional theism, I. xxxiv, xli, c. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Bhagavad_Gita">Bhagavâd Gîta</a>, <a href="#Chaitanya">Chaitanya</a>, <a href="#Krishna">Krishna</a>, <a href="#Rama">Rama</a>, <a href="#Vallabha">Vallabha</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Empedocles, I. xix<br /></li> +<li>Emperor (Chinese, functions of), III. <a href="#Page_3_234">234</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Endere, III. <a href="#Page_3_210">210</a><br /></li> +<li>Enlightenment, the, I. 136, 164, 165, 176<br /></li> +<li>En sof, III. <a href="#Page_3_462">462</a><br /></li> +<li>Ἡὡς, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Ephthalites. <i>See</i> <a href="#Huns">Huns</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Epics (Indian), I. lxxiv, 53. <i>See</i> <a href="#Maha_Bharata">Mahâ Bhârata</a> and <a href="#Ramayana">Ramâyana</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Epigraphia Indica</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_298">298</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Epigraphia Zeylanica</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_3_41">41</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Epirus, I. 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a><br /></li> +<li>Epistles of St. Paul, I. lxxiv<br /></li> +<li><i>Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art</i>, II. 18<br /></li> +<li>Eran, II. 206<br /></li> +<li>Erlangga, III. <a href="#Page_3_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a><br /> +</li> +<li>ἑρος, I. 184; II. 253<br /></li> +<li>Eroticism. <i>See</i> <a href="#Sakti_worship">Sakti worship</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Essai de Bibliographie Jaina</i>, I. 105<br /></li> +<li><i>Essays on the language, literature and religion of Nepal and Tibet</i>, II. 116<br /></li> +<li><i>Essays on the Religion of the Hindus</i>, II. 262<br /></li> +<li>Essenes, III. <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_3_436">436</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ettinghausen, II. 97; III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Euhemerism, III. <a href="#Page_3_224">224</a><br /></li> +<li>Eukratides, I. 22<br /></li> +<li>European culture, I. xii, xlvi, lviii, lxi, lxiii, lxv <i>sq.</i>, lxxvii, lxxix, xcvi <i>sq.</i>; +III. <a href="#Page_3_428">428</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Euthydemus, I. 22<br /></li> +<li>Everest (Mt.), III. <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a><br /></li> +<li>Evil, I. lxxix. +<i>See</i> <a href="#Mara">Mâra</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Evolution of Man, I. 336<br /></li> +<li>Exposure of dead, III. <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /></li> +<li>Eye of Truth, the, I. 185, 186<br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Fa-chen, III. <a href="#Page_3_291">291</a><br /></li> +<li>Fa-chi-yao-sung-chung, III. <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a><br /></li> +<li>Fa-chü-ching, III. <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a><br /></li> +<li>Fa-chü-pi-yü-ching, III. <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a><br /></li> +<li>Fa Hsiang-tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a><br /></li> +<li>Fa Hsien, I. 157, 258, 259, 293, 342; II. 15, 19, 22, 56, 65, 76, 92 <i>sq.</i>, 125, 158; +III. <a href="#Page_3_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_3_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_3_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_3_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_3_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a>,<a href="#Page_3_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_3_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_3_303">303</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Fa-hua, III. <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a><br /></li> +<li>Fa-Lin, III. <a href="#Page_3_259">259</a><br /></li> +<li>Faljur, II. 286<br /></li> +<li>Fall of Man, I. lxxx<br /></li> +<li>Fa-men, III. <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_3_268">268</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Fan-Chan (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a><br /></li> +<li>Fan Chieh, III. <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a><br /></li> +<li>Fan-hu-ta, III. <a href="#Page_3_139">139</a><br /></li> +<li>Fan-i-ming-i-chi, III. <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a><br /></li> +<li>Fanwang-ching, III. <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_3_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_3_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_3_332">332</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Fan-yi (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_139">139</a><br /></li> +<li>Faridu-'d-Din Attar, III. <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /></li> +<li>Farquhar, II. 242<br /></li> +<li>Farukhsiyar (Emperor), II. 271<br /></li> +<li>Farvadin Yasht, III. <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /></li> +<li>Fa-Shên, II. 33; III. <a href="#Page_3_305">305</a><br /></li> +<li>Fatalism, I. lxxvii, 99, 212<br /></li> +<li>Fa-tsang, III. <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /></li> +<li>Fa-yen, III. <a href="#Page_3_319">319</a><br /></li> +<li>Fa-yüan-chu-lin, III. <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a><br /></li> +<li>Feer, III. <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a><br /></li> +<li>Female Gurus, II. 185<br /></li> +<li>Fengshri, II. 282; III. <a href="#Page_3_231">231</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_3_325">325</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Fenollosa, II. 18; III. <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a><br /></li> +<li>Ferghana, I. 28; III. <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Fergusson, III. <a href="#Page_3_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Fernando, I. 293<br /></li> +<li>Festivals (Siam), III. <a href="#Page_3_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_3_332">332</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ficus Religiosa, I. 142<br /></li> +<li>Fifth Buddhist Council, III. <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Fihrist (the), III. <a href="#Page_3_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Filchner, III. <a href="#Page_3_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_3_400">400</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Filial Piety (Book of), III. <a href="#Page_3_274">274</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Fine Art in India</i>, II. 159<br /></li> +<li>Finot, J.A., I. xxv; II. 57, 100; III. <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a> , <a href="#Page_3_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_3_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_3_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_3_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_3_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_3_143">143</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Finot and Hüber, III. <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a><br /></li> +<li>Fins (Finland), II. 9, 20, 67<br /></li> +<li>Fire, I. 90, 100, 220, 231, 232; III. <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>sermon, I. 146<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Fish Incarnation, II. 147<br /></li> +<li>Five Kings, III. <a href="#Page_3_393">393</a><br /></li> +<li>Five Monks, I. 171<br /></li> +<li>Fleet, I. 24; II. 202; III. <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Fo (Buddha), III. <a href="#Page_3_240">240</a><br /></li> +<li>Folklore, I. liv, 101. +<i>See</i> <a href="#Animism">Animism</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>element in Hindu culture, II. 32, 111, 114, 116; III. <a href="#Page_3_441">441</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Foo-chow, III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Forchhammer, III. <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_3_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Formless worlds, I. 3, 6<br /></li> +<li>Formosa, III. <a href="#Page_3_151">151</a><br /></li> +<li>Formulæ. <i>See</i> <a href="#Dhyanis">Dhyânis</a>, <a href="#Magic">Magic</a>, <a href="#Mantras">Mantras</a>, <a href="#Tantras">Tantras</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Fortune, III. <a href="#Page_3_27">27</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Fo-shih, III. <a href="#Page_3_162">162</a><br /></li> +<li>Fo-t'o, III. <a href="#Page_3_244">244</a><br /></li> +<li>Fo-ton-t'ung-chi, III. <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Fo-t'u-ch'êng, III. <a href="#Page_3_250">250</a><br /></li> +<li>Foucher, I. 173; II. 15, 31, 76, 83, 122; III. <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Foulkes, II. 140, 215, 219<br /></li> +<li>Four Garrisons, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_3_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Four Great Kings, the, I. 102; III. <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Four Truths, the, I. 49, 200, 211, 261<br /></li> +<li>Fournereau, III. <a href="#Page_3_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_3_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_3_85">85</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Franke, I. 24, 254, 278, 282; III. <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_3_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_3_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_3_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_3_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_3_396">396</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Frankfürter, III. <a href="#Page_3_95">95</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Fravashis, II. 198; III. <a href="#Page_3_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Frazer, Sir. J.G., II. 285, 289<br /></li> +<li>Freewill, I. lxxvii<br /></li> +<li>French (the), I. 31; III. <a href="#Page_3_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_3_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_3_236">236</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Frescoes, III. <a href="#Page_3_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_3_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_3_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>. +<i>See</i> <a href="#Ajanta">Ajanta</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Friar Gabriel, III. <a href="#Page_3_150">150</a><br /></li> +<li>Fu-chien, III. <a href="#Page_3_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_3_250">250</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Fu-do, III. <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /></li> +<li>Fu-fa-tsang-yin-yüan-ching, III. <a href="#Page_3_306">306</a><br /></li> +<li>Fu I, III. <a href="#Page_3_259">259</a><br /></li> +<li>Fujiwara period, III. <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /></li> +<li>Fu-kien, III. <a href="#Page_3_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_3_269">269</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Funan, III. <a href="#Page_3_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_3_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_3_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_3_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Funeral rites, III. <a href="#Page_3_333">333</a><br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul><ul class="IX"> +<li>Gabled Hall, the, I. 150<br /></li> +<li>Gadadhar Singh, II. 260<br /></li> +<li>Gadaveri River, I. 263<br /></li> +<li>Gaggara Lake, I. 150<br /></li> +<li>Gaharwar dynasty, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Gaing-Ok, III. <a href="#Page_3_72">72</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Galilee, I. 181<br /></li> +<li>Gandak River, I. 132<br /></li> +<li>Gandan, III. <a href="#Page_3_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_3_399">399</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gaṇḍavyûha, II. 54; III. <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a><br /></li> +<li>Gandhabbas, I. 102<br /></li> +<li>Gandhakuti, I. 150<br /></li> +<li>Gândhâra, I. xxx, xlix, 20, 87, 263, 282, +330; II. 16, 22, 53, 59, 70, 81, 83, 90, 93, 96, 100, 159, 172; III. <a href="#Page_3_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_3_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_3_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_3_449">449</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gandhârî, III. <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /></li> +<li>Ganeṣa, I. 58; II. 118, 144, 222, 253; III. <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_3_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_3_383">383</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ganga, I. 121<br /></li> +<li>Ganga Râjâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_139">139</a><br /></li> +<li>Ganges, I. 135, 163; II. 145<br /></li> +<li>Ganthâkara Vihâra, III. <a href="#Page_3_29">29</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gantho, II. 79<br /></li> +<li>Gaotema, III. <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a><br /></li> +<li>Garbe, II. 200, 296, 299, 303; III. <a href="#Page_3_411">411</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Garbhadhâtu, III. <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a><br /></li> +<li>Garbha Upanishad, III. <a href="#Page_3_175">175</a><br /></li> +<li>Gargi, I. 74, 84, 94<br /></li> +<li>Garlog, III. <a href="#Page_3_352">352</a><br /></li> +<li>Garnier, III. <a href="#Page_3_111">111</a><br /></li> +<li>Garuda, II. 228; III. <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_3_452">452</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Gathas" id="Gathas"></a>Gathas, I. 19, 51, 282<br /></li> +<li>Gauḍapâda, I. cii; II. 74, 208, 316<br /></li> +<li>Gaudapalin, III. <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gauramukha, III. <a href="#Page_3_452">452</a><br /></li> +<li>Gauri, II. 97<br /></li> +<li>Gautamîya Tantra, II. 190<br /></li> +<li>Gawilgarh, I. 121<br /></li> +<li>Gaya, I. 24, 120; II. 101, 105, 125; III. <a href="#Page_3_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gazetteer of Bombay Presidency, II. 225<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>of Burma, III. <a href="#Page_3_48">48</a><br /> +</li> +<li>of India, II. 233<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Geden-dub, III. <a href="#Page_3_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_3_360">360</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Geiger, I. 259; III, <a href="#Page_3_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_3_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_3_31">31</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gelugpa, III. <a href="#Page_3_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_3_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_3_397">397</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Generative forces, worship, I. lxxxvi. +<i>See</i> <a href="#Saktism">Saktism</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Genesis, I. lxxiv; III. <a href="#Page_3_424">424</a><br /></li> +<li>Geography, I. 335. +<i>See also</i> <a href="#Cosmogonies">Cosmogonies</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Geomancy (Fêng-shin), III. <a href="#Page_3_322">322</a><br /></li> +<li>Gerini, III. <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_3_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_3_96">96</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Getty, II. 26; III. <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a><br /></li> +<li>Ghanta, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Ghata Jâtaka, II. 153<br /></li> +<li>Ghats (western), I. 31<br /></li> +<li>Ghazi Miyan, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +<li>Ghazna, III. <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /></li> +<li>Ghazni, I. 16<br /></li> +<li>Ghor, I. 28<br /></li> +<li>Ghora, II. 152<br /></li> +<li>Ghost-worship, I. 10; III. <a href="#Page_3_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_3_331">331</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ghotamukha, I. 150<br /></li> +<li>Giao-Chi, III. <a href="#Page_3_340">340</a><br /></li> +<li>Gifford Lectures, I. lxvii, ciii<br /></li> +<li><i>Giles's Chinese Dict.</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_3_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_3_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_3_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_3_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_3_267">267</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gîlgit, II. 93; III. <a href="#Page_3_377">377</a><br /></li> +<li>Giribbaja, I. 147<br /></li> +<li>Girnar, I. 114, 121; II. 69, 203; III. <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a><br /></li> +<li>Gîtâ Govinda, II. 157, 161, 219, 230, 242, 248<br /></li> +<li>Gitâvali, II. 245<br /></li> +<li>Glaihomor, II. 159<br /></li> +<li><i>Gleanings from the Bhaktamala</i>, II. 191, 245<br /></li> +<li>Gnosticism, I. xii; III. <a href="#Page_3_443">443</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Goa, I. 31; III. <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gobind Raut, II. 147<br /></li> +<li>Goburdhan, II. 159<br /></li> +<li><a name="God" id="God"></a>God, I. 8, 47, 340; II. 73, 155; III. <a href="#Page_3_224">224</a><br /></li> +<li>God, the Invisible King, I. ciii<br /></li> +<li>Godan, III. <a href="#Page_3_354">354</a><br /></li> +<li>Godavery River, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Goddess-worship, I. lxxxvi; II. 127, 145, 189, 275 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_3_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_3_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_3_393">393</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Godhika, I. 197, 205<br /></li> +<li><i>Gods of Northern Buddhism</i>, II. 26<br /></li> +<li>Goethe, I. lv<br /></li> +<li>Gokul (shrine), I. lxxxvii<br /></li> +<li>Gokul, II. 251, 290<br /></li> +<li>Gokula, II. 154<br /></li> +<li>Gokul Gosainji, II. 251<br /></li> +<li>Gokulnathji, II. 251<br /></li> +<li><i>Golden Bough</i>, the, II. 285<br /></li> +<li>Golden Temple, II. 268<br /></li> +<li>Golkonda, I. 29<br /></li> +<li>Gomateśvara, I. 120<br /></li> +<li>Gondophores, I. 23; III. <a href="#Page_3_415">415</a><br /></li> +<li>Gonds, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Gopî, II. 154, 161, 229<br /></li> +<li>Gopi Nath, II. 147<br /></li> +<li>Gopurams, II. 207; III. <a href="#Page_3_132">132</a><br /></li> +<li>Gorakhpur, II. 263<br /></li> +<li>Gor Baba, II. 145<br /></li> +<li>Gordian, III. <a href="#Page_3_447">447</a><br /></li> +<li>Goreśvara, II, 145<br /></li> +<li>Gosain, II. 184, 255<br /></li> +<li>Gosâla, I. 105, 112<br /></li> +<li>Gosirsha, Mt., III. <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a><br /></li> +<li>Gospels, I. lxxiv, 180, 183; III. <a href="#Page_3_440">440</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Gośringa, Mt., III. <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gosvami, II. 185, 251<br /></li> +<li>Gotama (the Buddha), I. xix, xx, xxvii, xxix, 119, 120, 123, 129-252; II. 39, 130; III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_3_177">177</a>. +<i>See</i> <a href="#Buddha">Buddha, the</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gothâbhaya (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gotiputta, I. 269<br /></li> +<li>Gotra, I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Govardhana, Mt., III. <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a><br /></li> +<li>Goveiya, II. 147<br /></li> +<li>Govinda, II. 208, 232<br /></li> +<li>Govindacaryasvâmi, II. 188<br /></li> +<li>Govindapur, III. <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /></li> +<li>Govind Singh Guru, II. 268 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Graeco-Bactrians, II. 20<br /></li> +<li>Graeco-Buddhist sculpture, II. 172<br /></li> +<li>Grand Lāma, I. xxvii; III. <a href="#Page_3_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_3_358">358</a> <i>sq.</i> (list on p. <a href="#Page_3_361">361</a>)<br /> +</li> +<li>Granth, I. lxxii; II. 243 <i>sq.</i>, 262, 268<br /></li> +<li>Grantha, II. 79<br /></li> +<li>Great Epic of India, II. 169<br /></li> +<li>Great Hero, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a><br /></li> +<li>Great King of Glory, the, I. 172<br /></li> +<li>Great Mother, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Great Satrapy, I. 23<br /></li> +<li><a name="Greece" id="Greece"></a>Greece (Greeks), I. xix, xxxi, xli, 19, 22, 65, 171; II. 70, 139; III. <a href="#Page_3_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_415">415</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Green Târâ, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /></li> +<li>Grenard, III. <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a><br /></li> +<li>Grey Clergy, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_277">277</a><br /></li> +<li>Grierson, I. xc, 282; II. 187, 191, 230, 237, 242, 244, 248, 253, 269; III. <a href="#Page_3_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_3_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_3_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_3_458">458</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Grihastha, I. 89<br /></li> +<li>Grihya Sûtras, I. 101; III. <a href="#Page_3_94">94</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Groeneveldt, III. <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Growse, I. xc; II. 246 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Grünwedel, II. 20, 29, 84, 86, 87, 88, 126, 129, 143; III. <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_3_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_3_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_3_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_3_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_3_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gûḍha Vinaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Guerinot, I. 105, 113, 114, 115<br /></li> +<li>Guhasiva, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Guhyasamâja, II. 128<br /></li> +<li>Gujarat, I. 19, 29, 114, 117, 118, 120, 121; II. 105, 108, 109, 113, 128, 154, 242, 248, +252, 276; III. <a href="#Page_3_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_3_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gujars (Gurjars), I. 25<br /></li> +<li>guṇa, I. 218, 304; II. 165, 196, 283, 298<br /></li> +<li>Guṇabhadra, I. 114, 293; III. <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /></li> +<li>Guṇa-kâranda-vyûha, II. 57; III. <a href="#Page_3_395">395</a><br /></li> +<li>Guṇamati, II. 94<br /></li> +<li>Gunavarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_3_177">177</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gundaphar, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_414">414</a><br /></li> +<li>Gunning, III. <a href="#Page_3_171">171</a><br /></li> +<li>Guptas (dynasty), I. xxxiii, 19, 24; II. 54, 65, 69, 87, 187, 206<br /></li> +<li>Gurbhârjus, II. 119<br /></li> +<li>Gurkhas, II. 117; III. <a href="#Page_3_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_3_397">397</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Gurmukhi, II. 269<br /></li> +<li>Guru, I. 226; II. 184, 267, 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_3_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Guru-paramparâ-prabhâvam, II. 232<br /></li> +<li>Gushi Khan, III. <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /></li> +<li>Guyuk, III. <a href="#Page_3_354">354</a><br /></li> +<li>Gwalior, I. 31; III. <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /></li> +<li>Gyālpo, III. <a href="#Page_3_365">365</a><br /></li> +<li>rGyud, III. <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_3_376">376</a><br /> +</li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Hachiman, II. 25<br /></li> +<li>Hackin, I. 173<br /></li> +<li>Hackmann, III. <a href="#Page_3_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_3_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_3_330">330</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hafiz, III. <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /></li> +<li>Haklena, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Halebid, I. 30, 115<br /></li> +<li>Halima, III. <a href="#Page_3_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_3_359">359</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hami, III. <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a><br /></li> +<li>Hampi, I. 30<br /></li> +<li>Hamsavatî, III. <a href="#Page_3_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_3_80">80</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Han dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_3_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_3_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hang Chou, III. <a href="#Page_3_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_3_280">280</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Han-mo, III. <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a><br /></li> +<li>Hanuman, II. 149, 253; III. <a href="#Page_3_152">152</a><br /></li> +<li>Hanumat, II. 239<br /></li> +<li>Han-Yu, III. <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_3_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_3_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_3_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Haoma. <i>See</i> <a href="#Soma">Soma</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Happiness, I. lxxvi, 136, 214, 225<br /></li> +<li>Happy Land Sûtra, III. <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a><br /></li> +<li>Hara, II. 145; III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /></li> +<li>Hardoon, Mrs., III. <a href="#Page_3_291">291</a><br /></li> +<li>Hardy, I. 173, 314; II. 170; III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Har Govind, II. 268<br /></li> +<li>Hari, II. 115, 162, 200, 255, 257, 264, 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Haridas, II. 254<br /></li> +<li>Harihara, I. 30; II. 164; III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hariharâlaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a><br /></li> +<li>Harirayaji, II. 250<br /></li> +<li>Hariti, II. 17<br /></li> +<li>Harivaṃsa, II. 158, 164, 230, 251, 279; III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_424">424</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Harivarman, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_141">141</a> <a href="#Page_3_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Harivarmeśvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /></li> +<li>Harkisan Guru, II. 268<br /></li> +<li>Har-rai Guru, II. 268<br /></li> +<li>Harrison, Miss J.E., III. <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a><br /></li> +<li>Harsha (Emperor), I. xxxix, 19, 25, 114; II. 77, 97 <i>sq.</i>, 108, 127, 206; III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_3_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_3_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_3_454">454</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Harshacarita, I. 15; II. 97<br /></li> +<li>Hartmann, I. 211<br /></li> +<li>Haṭhayoga, I. 304<br /></li> +<li>Hathi Singh, I. 119<br /></li> +<li>Haug, I. 69<br /></li> +<li>Havret, III. <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a><br /></li> +<li>Hayagrîva, III. <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hazrat Môin-ud-Din Chisti, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +<li>Heart of Jainism, I. 105<br /></li> +<li>Heaven and Earth Association, III. <a href="#Page_3_319">319</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Heaven" id="Heaven"></a>Heavens. <i>See</i> <a href="#Tusita">Tusita</a> and <a href="#Paradise">Paradise</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hegesandros, III. <a href="#Page_3_432">432</a><br /></li> +<li>Hei-an period, III. <a href="#Page_3_403">403</a><br /></li> +<li>Heliodorus, II. 197<br /></li> +<li>Hellenistic kingdoms, I. xxx, 22. <i>See</i> <a href="#Greece">Greece</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hells, I. 337; II. 24; III. <a href="#Page_3_343">343</a><br /></li> +<li>von Helmont, I. lv<br /></li> +<li>Helmund river, III. <a href="#Page_3_3">3</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hemacandra, I. 117; III. <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Abhidhânacintâmani, II. 153<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Hemâdri, III. <a href="#Page_3_423">423</a><br /></li> +<li>Hemavatikas, I. 259<br /></li> +<li>Hephthalites. <i>See</i> <a href="#Huns">Huns</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Herakles (Siva), II. 137, 159<br /></li> +<li>Herat, III. <a href="#Page_3_427">427</a><br /></li> +<li>Herder, I. lv.<br /></li> +<li>Hermetic Literature, III. <a href="#Page_3_432">432</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Herodotus, III. <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a><br /></li> +<li>Heruka, II. 129; III. <a href="#Page_3_150">150</a><br /></li> +<li>hetu (cause), I. 207<br /></li> +<li>Hevajra, II. 140; III. <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a><br /></li> +<li>Hevajravaśitâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_355">355</a><br /></li> +<li>Hideyoshi, III. <a href="#Page_3_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_3_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hieizan, I. lxxxii; III. <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /></li> +<li>Himalayas, I. 25, 103. <i>See</i> <a href="#Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="#Tibet">Tibet</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Himis, III. <a href="#Page_3_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_3_397">397</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hînayâna, I. xxiv, xxx, xxxii, lxxv, 260, 333; II. 11, 80, 82, 101; III. <a href="#Page_3_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_3_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_3_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_3_112">112</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_3_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_3_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_3_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_3_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_3_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Pali_Canon">Pali Canon</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Sûtras, III. <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a><br /></li> +<li>Vinaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Hindi, II. 188, 256, 269<br /></li> +<li><i>Hindu Castes and Sects</i>, II. 163, 173, 177, 209, 210, 244, 261<br /></li> +<li><i>Hindu Iconography</i>, I. xxxv, 58; II. 110, 165, 202; III. <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a><br /></li> +<li>Hinduism (Indian religion: social order), I. xi-civ <i>passim</i>, 5, 13, 17, 33, 34, 37,<br /></li> +<li>38, 39, 40, 41, 45, 48, 49, 64, 67, 127, 129; II. 107-322; III. <a href="#Page_3_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_3_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_3_112">112</a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_145">145</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_150">150</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_188">188</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_411">411</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_3_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_3_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_3_457">457</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Hindu Kush, III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hindustan, II. 92<br /></li> +<li>Hiranyadâma, III. <a href="#Page_3_117">117</a><br /></li> +<li>Hiraṇyagarbha, II. 165, 202<br /></li> +<li>Hirth, III. <a href="#Page_3_235">235</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Histoire de la Bienheureuse Marguérite Marie</i>, II. 161<br /></li> +<li><i>Histoire de la Littérature Hindoue</i>, II. 262<br /></li> +<li><i>Histoire des Croyances Religieuses en Chine</i>, II. 284, 320<br /></li> +<li><i>Historical Relation of the Island of Ceylon</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_35">35</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>History of the Bengali Language and Literature</i>, II. 114, 187, 213, 245, 279<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li><i>of Fine Art</i>, II. 172<br /></li> +<li><i>of Indian Architecture</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>of Indian Buddhism</i>, II. 63<br /></li> +<li><i>of Indian Shipping</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a><br /></li> +<li><i>of Manikka-Vacagar</i>, II. 183<br /></li> +<li><i>of Nepal</i>, II. 116<br /></li> +<li><i>of Sect of the Maharâjâs</i>, II. 250<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Hodgson, B.H., II. 50, 116, 117<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Shadworth, II. 39<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Hoernle, I. 99, 105; II. 56; III. <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_348">348</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hoernle and Barnett, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Hōjō Regents, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_405">405</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Holy Lives of the Azhvars</i>, I. 40<br /></li> +<li><i>Home of Pali</i>, I. 282<br /></li> +<li>Ho-nan, III. <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_254">254</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hopkins, II. 157, 169<br /></li> +<li>Horapathaka, II. 59<br /></li> +<li>Hor-gyi-skad-du, III. <a href="#Page_3_377">377</a><br /></li> +<li>Horiuji palm-leaf manuscript, III. <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /></li> +<li>Hormizd, III. <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /></li> +<li>Hormuzd, III. <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a><br /></li> +<li>Horse sacrifice, I. xxxviii, 68; III. <a href="#Page_3_145">145</a><br /></li> +<li>Horus, III. <a href="#Page_3_431">431</a><br /></li> +<li>Hose and McDougall, III. <a href="#Page_3_163">163</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Hoshang" id="Hoshang"></a>Ho-Shang (monk), II. 241, 330, 351<br /></li> +<li>Hospitals, I. 115; III. <a href="#Page_3_124">124</a><br /></li> +<li>Hossho, III. <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Hotri" id="Hotri"></a>Hotri (priests), I. 52, 69, 100; III. <a href="#Page_3_118">118</a><br /></li> +<li>Hou-Ching, III. <a href="#Page_3_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_3_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_3_257">257</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hou-Han-Shu, III. <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a><br /></li> +<li>Hou-Liang, III. <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a><br /></li> +<li>Hoysalas, I. 30, 114<br /></li> +<li>hphrul, III. <a href="#Page_3_383">383</a><br /></li> +<li>Hridaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_376">376</a><br /></li> +<li>Hṛishikeṣa, III. <a href="#Page_3_426">426</a><br /></li> +<li>Hsia, III. <a href="#Page_3_269">269</a><br /></li> +<li>Hsian Chou, III. <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /></li> +<li>Hsiang-Chih, II. 95; III. <a href="#Page_3_255">255</a><br /></li> +<li>Hsiao-Cheng, II. 3<br /></li> +<li>Hsiao-Chih Kuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_312">312</a><br /></li> +<li>Hsiao Tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_278">278</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Wu, III. <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a><br /></li> +<li>Wu Ti, III. <a href="#Page_3_251">251</a><br /></li> +<li>Yü, III. <a href="#Page_3_259">259</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Hsien Shên, III. <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_3_278">278</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Hsin-byu-shin, II. 7; III. <a href="#Page_3_63">63</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hsing-An, III. <a href="#Page_3_277">277</a><br /></li> +<li>Hsin-yin, III. <a href="#Page_3_306">306</a><br /></li> +<li>Hsiung-nu, III. <a href="#Page_3_197">197</a><br /></li> +<li>Hsi-Yu-Chi, III. <a href="#Page_3_225">225</a><br /></li> +<li>Hsi-yu-ki, III. <a href="#Page_3_225">225</a><br /></li> +<li>Hsüan Chuang, I. xxxix, 25, 258, 275, 332; II. 3, 5, 14, 15, 17, 18, 22, 33, 51, 61, 65, 72, +74, 77 <i>sq.</i>, 125, 126, 127, 158, 206, 244, 280, 286; III. <a href="#Page_3_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_3_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_3_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_3_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_3_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_3_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_3_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_3_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hsuan-Fo-pu, III. <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a><br /></li> +<li>Hsuan Ti, III. <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a><br /></li> +<li>Hsüan Tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_3_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_3_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hsu-Kuang-Ch'i, III. <a href="#Page_3_279">279</a><br /></li> +<li>Hsung-nu, III. <a href="#Page_3_245">245</a><br /></li> +<li>hti, III. <a href="#Page_3_72">72</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hu, III. <a href="#Page_3_104">104</a> <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_3_254">254</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hua-fo, III. <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /></li> +<li>Hua-Hu Ching, III. <a href="#Page_3_273">273</a><br /></li> +<li>Huai, III. <a href="#Page_3_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Huan, Emperor, III. <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a><br /></li> +<li>Huang-wang, III. <a href="#Page_3_140">140</a><br /></li> +<li>Hua-yên, II. 54, 60; III. <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a> <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a> <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a> <a href="#Page_3_311">311</a> (sûtra), <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hua-yen-Ching, III. <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /></li> +<li>Hua-yen-tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /></li> +<li>Huc, III. <a href="#Page_3_358">358</a><br /></li> +<li>Hué, I. xxvii<br /></li> +<li>Hugli, I. 25<br /></li> +<li>Hu-hua-ching, III. <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a><br /></li> +<li>Hui-k'o, III. <a href="#Page_3_308">308</a><br /></li> +<li>Hui Kuo, III. <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a><br /></li> +<li>Huinêng, III. <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_3_308">308</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Hui-shêng, II. 96; III. <a href="#Page_3_254">254</a><br /></li> +<li>Hui Tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_273">273</a><br /></li> +<li>Hui Yuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_313">313</a><br /></li> +<li>Hultzsch, II. 278; III. <a href="#Page_3_431">431</a><br /></li> +<li>Hulugu Khan, III. <a href="#Page_3_349">349</a><br /></li> +<li>Human sacrifice, I. xxxvi, 68; II. 168, 174, 193, 276, 288, 289<br /></li> +<li>Hume, I. lv<br /></li> +<li>Humour (Buddha's), I. 172<br /></li> +<li>Hunan, III. <a href="#Page_3_253">253</a><br /></li> +<li>Hundred Thousand Nâgas, III. <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a><br /></li> +<li>Hundred Thousand Songs, III. <a href="#Page_3_399">399</a><br /></li> +<li>Hungarian affinities, I. 20<br /></li> +<li>Hungjen, III. <a href="#Page_3_308">308</a><br /></li> +<li>Hung Wu, III. <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a><br /></li> +<li>Hun-Hui (Hun T'ien), III. <a href="#Page_3_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_3_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_3_139">139</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Huns" id="Huns"></a>Huns (Ephthalites, Hephthalites), I. xxxix, xli, 16, 19, 25; II. 54, 65, 95, 119; III. <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Huo-chou (Kara-Khojo), III. <a href="#Page_3_207">207</a><br /></li> +<li>Huth, II. 16, 32; III. <a href="#Page_3_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_3_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Huvishka, I. 24, 113; II. 64<br /></li> +<li>Huxley, T.H., I. lv, xciv, cii<br /></li> +<li>Hwa-Shang-Zat-mo, III. <a href="#Page_3_351">351</a><br /></li> +<li>Hyderabad, I. 22, 266<br /></li> +<li>hymns, II. 104. <i>See</i> <a href="#Arvar">Arvars</a>, <a href="#Gathas">gathas</a><br /> +</li> +<li>hypnotization, I. 319. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Meditation">Meditation</a>, <a href="#Yoga">Yoga</a><br /> +</li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Ibsen, I. lv<br /></li> +<li>I-Ching, I. 260; II. 3, 5, 18, 20, 22, 65, 82, 85, 90 <i>sq.</i>, 125, 207; III. <a href="#Page_3_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_3_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_3_62">62</a>, + + <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_3_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_3_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_3_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_3_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_3_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_3_330">330</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Iconographie bouddhique</i>, II. 15, 31, 122<br /></li> +<li>Iddhi, I. 317; III. <a href="#Page_3_247">247</a><br /></li> +<li>identification (union), II. 122<br /></li> +<li>Idiqutshähri, III. <a href="#Page_3_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Idolatry. <i>See</i> <a href="#Images">Images</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Igatpuri, II. 203<br /></li> +<li>Ignorance, I. lxxx, 186, 207, 211<br /></li> +<li>I-Hsüan, III. <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a><br /></li> +<li>Ikhtiyar-ud-din Muhammad, II. 112<br /></li> +<li>Ikken, II. 226<br /></li> +<li>Ili river, I. 23<br /></li> +<li>Illusion (<i>see</i> <a href="#Maya">Maya</a>), I. xliii, 45; II. 40, 264<br /> +</li> +<li>'Ilm, III. <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Images" id="Images"></a>Images, I. lxx, 119, 120, 121, 139, 171; II. 6, 17, 104, 105, 260; III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_3_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_3_83">83</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_3_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_3_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a> <i>sq. See also</i> <a href="#Art">Art</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>(de) Imitatione Christi</i>, II. 9<br /></li> +<li>Immortality, I. li, lv, 66<br /></li> +<li><a name="Incarnations" id="Incarnations"></a>Incarnations (<i>also</i> avatâras), I. xv, 11, 39, 343; II. 147, 170, 218, 235, 239, 243,<br /></li> +<li>251, 261; III. <a href="#Page_3_359">359</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_3_383">383</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>India, Old and New</i>, II. 157<br /></li> +<li>Indian Buddhism, II. 90 <i>sq.</i><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>literature, I. xiii, xiv, xvi, xix, lxxii <i>sq.</i>, 15, 50, 130, 329; II. 136-322 <i>passim</i><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li><i>Indische Religionsgeschichte</i>, II. 170<br /></li> +<li><i>Indische Studien</i>, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Indore, I. 31<br /></li> +<li>Indra, I. 59, 63, 333; II. 23, 99, 137, 158, 181, 270; III. <a href="#Page_3_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_3_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_3_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_3_228">228</a>, + + <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Indrabhadreśvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /></li> +<li>Indragiri, III. <a href="#Page_3_161">161</a><br /></li> +<li>Indrapura, III. <a href="#Page_3_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Indravarman, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_3_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Indra Vishnu, I. 57<br /></li> +<li>Indriya, III. <a href="#Page_3_175">175</a><br /></li> +<li>Infanticide, II. 269<br /></li> +<li>Inquisition, I. xcii; III. <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Inscriptions" id="Inscriptions"></a>Inscriptions, I. xii, xxiii, xxviii, xxix, 16, 27, 99, 103, 113, 114, 263 <i>sq.</i>; II. 69, +113, 214, 225; III. <a href="#Page_3_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_3_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_3_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_3_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_3_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_3_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_3_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_3_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_3_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_3_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_3_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_3_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_3_85">85</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_3_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_3_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_3_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_3_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Inscriptions Sanscrites de Camboge</i>, II. 169<br /></li> +<li><i>International Congress of Religions</i>, II. 148<br /></li> +<li><i>Introduction to Mysticism</i>, I. 136<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li><i>to Pancarâtra</i>, II. 128, 188, 189, 197<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li><a name="Intuition" id="Intuition"></a>Intuition, I. xcix; III. <a href="#Page_3_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Iranians, I. 52, 54, 61, 63, 64; II. 68, 195; III. <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_3_409">409</a> <i>sq.</i> +<i>See also</i> <a href="#Persia">Persia</a>, <a href="#Zoroaster">Zoroaster</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Iranien Oriental</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a><br /></li> +<li>Irenaeus, III. <a href="#Page_3_444">444</a><br /></li> +<li>Irrawaddy, I. 120; III. <a href="#Page_3_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_3_48">48</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Isaac Luria, III. <a href="#Page_3_462">462</a><br /></li> +<li>Isâna, II. 137, 198; III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /></li> +<li>Iśânavarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Isapur, II. 69<br /></li> +<li>Ishta-devata, III. <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a><br /></li> +<li>Isipatana, I. 140<br /></li> +<li>Isis, II. 287; III. <a href="#Page_3_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_3_429">429</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Islam" id="Islam"></a>Islam, I. xxiii, xlii, xlvi, xlix, 17, 28, 115, 178, 238; II. 107, 240; III. <a href="#Page_3_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_3_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a><i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Isocrates, III. <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a><br /></li> +<li>Iśvara, I. 85; II. 16, 304, 313, 316; III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_444">444</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Saṇhita, II. 195<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Itivuttaka, I. 216; III. <a href="#Page_3_299">299</a><br /></li> +<li>I-tsing, I. 258; III. <a href="#Page_3_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Iyarpa, II. 232<br /></li> +<li>Iyengar, Srinivas, II. 316, 320<br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Jackson, III. <a href="#Page_3_156">156</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>(Williams), III. <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Jacobi, I. 105, 116, 303; II. 74, 306, 311<br /></li> +<li>Jade Emperor, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /></li> +<li>Jaffna, III. <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Jagadguru, II. 210<br /></li> +<li>Jagannath, I. 30; II. 114, 176, 238, 254, 267; III. <a href="#Page_3_134">134</a><br /></li> +<li>Jagat Gauri, II. 276<br /></li> +<li>Jagatpati, III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /></li> +<li>Jag-jivan-das, II. 266<br /></li> +<li>Jag-manderlal Jaini, I. 105, 106, 117<br /></li> +<li>Jahn, II. 238<br /></li> +<li>Jaimini, II. 291, 310<br /></li> +<li>Jain (Jainism), I. xix, xli, 28, 35, 49, 72, 95, 105, 106-123, 158, 225, 241, 252, 268, 302; +II. 69, 94, 97, 100, 110, 123, 128, 162, 212, 214, 215, 230, 242; III. <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_3_178">178</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Jain Literature, I. 95, 116, 286<br /></li> +<li>Jaintia Parganas, II. 286<br /></li> +<li>Jaipur, II. 266<br /></li> +<li>Jalalu-'d-din er-Rumi, III. <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /></li> +<li>Jalandhara, II. 78<br /></li> +<li>Jambal, II. 368<br /></li> +<li>Jambudvîpa, III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a><br /> +</li> +<li>James, Gospel of, III. <a href="#Page_3_442">442</a><br /></li> +<li>James, William, I. lxix, cii, 190, 309; II. 161<br /></li> +<li>hJam-pahi-dbyans (Jamyang), II. 19<br /></li> +<li>Janaka, king, I. 36, 87, 94<br /></li> +<li>Janapada, III. <a href="#Page_3_118">118</a><br /></li> +<li>Jangams, II. 227<br /></li> +<li>Jan Teng, III. <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a><br /></li> +<li>Jânussoni, I. 223<br /></li> +<li>Japan, I. xiii, lxxxii, lxxxiii, 7, 202, 212, 238, 248, 259; II. 19, 128; III. <a href="#Page_3_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_3_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_3_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_402">402 </a><i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Japanese Tripitaka, III. <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_3_291">291</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Japji, II. 267<br /></li> +<li>Jaras, II. 154<br /></li> +<li>Jarasâbda (Jaraśastra), III. <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /></li> +<li>Jarâsandha, II. 193<br /></li> +<li>Jâtaka, I. xxx, 157, 271, 279, 333; II. 97; III. <a href="#Page_3_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_3_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_3_441">441</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Nidâna, III. <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Jâti, I. 208; II. 178<br /></li> +<li>Jaṭilas, I. 146<br /></li> +<li>Jats, II. 271<br /></li> +<li>Jaunpur, I. 29, 30<br /></li> +<li>Java, I. xi, xiii, xxvii, xxix; II. 4, 19, 27, 32, 118; III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_3_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_3_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_3_151">151</a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_457">457</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Javakumâra, II. 153<br /></li> +<li>Jayadeva, II. 230, 253<br /></li> +<li>Jaya Hari Varman, III. <a href="#Page_3_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Indravarmadeva, III. <a href="#Page_3_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Jayâ Khya, II. 196<br /></li> +<li>Jaya Samhitâ, II. 195<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Simhavarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_141">141</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Jayasthiti, II. 117<br /></li> +<li>Jayaswal, II. 148<br /></li> +<li>Jayata, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Jayavarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_3_109">109 </a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a><br /> +</li> +<li>rJe-btsun-dam-pa, III, <a href="#Page_3_363">363</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Jehangir, I. 30, 31, 90; II. 270<br /></li> +<li>Jehol, II. 15<br /></li> +<li>Jehovah, I. 8, 62, 183<br /></li> +<li>Jejâkabhukti, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Jelaluddin, III. <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a><br /></li> +<li>Jenghiz Khan, III. <a href="#Page_3_353">353</a><br /></li> +<li>Jen Hsiao, III. <a href="#Page_3_288">288</a><br /></li> +<li>Jên Tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_3_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Jerome, III. <a href="#Page_3_414">414</a><br /></li> +<li>Jerusalem, I. 181; II. 107<br /></li> +<li>Jetaka, II. 85<br /></li> +<li>Jetavana, I. 151, 343; II. 56; III. <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_3_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_3_41">41</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Jews" id="Jews"></a>Jews, I. ci, 122, 181, 238; III. <a href="#Page_3_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_3_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_3_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a> <i>sq.</i> <i>See also</i> + <a href="#Kabbala">Kabbala</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Jeyyapura, III. <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Jhana" id="Jhana"></a>Jhâna, I. 307, 311 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Ji, III. <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /></li> +<li>hJigs-med-nam-mká, III. <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ji-jitsu-shu, III. <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /></li> +<li>Jina, I. 46, 110, 122; II. 26, 198; III. <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Jinagupta, III. <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a><br /></li> +<li>Jinamitra, III. <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a><br /></li> +<li>Jinaputra, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +<li>Jinasena, I. 114<br /></li> +<li>Jinendra, III. <a href="#Page_3_142">142</a><br /></li> +<li>Jîva, I. 107, 188, 197; II. 239, 312<br /></li> +<li>Jîvaka, I. 153<br /></li> +<li>Jîvaka Cintâmani, I. 118<br /></li> +<li>Jiziya, III. <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a><br /></li> +<li>Jizo, II. 24; III. <a href="#Page_3_221">221</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Jnana" id="Jnana"></a>Jñâna, II. 128, 189, 196; III. <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a><br /></li> +<li>Jñâna-bhramsa, I. lxxix<br /></li> +<li>Jñâna-kanda, III. <a href="#Page_3_444">444</a><br /></li> +<li>Jñânâmritasâra, II. 195<br /></li> +<li>Jñânâpada, II. 205<br /></li> +<li>Jñânâprasthânaśâstra, I. 299; II. 79, 81, 89; III. <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a><br /></li> +<li>Jñânâvaranîya, I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Jñânâvarishtha, II. 152<br /></li> +<li>Jñâneśvara, II. 257<br /></li> +<li>Jñânodaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_28">28</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Jñâta, I. 111<br /></li> +<li>Jñâtadharma Kathâ, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Jodo, II. 28, 60; III. <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /></li> +<li>Johnston, II. 18; III. <a href="#Page_3_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_3_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_3_333">333</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Jolly, III. <a href="#Page_3_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Jones, Rufus, II. 313<br /></li> +<li>Josaphat, III. <a href="#Page_3_442">442</a><br /></li> +<li>Juan-Juan Huns, III. <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Judaism. <i>See</i> <a href="#Jews">Jews</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Judgment, the, I. 228<br /></li> +<li>Ju-lai, I. 133; III. <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a><br /></li> +<li>Julian, II. 287<br /></li> +<li>Julien, I. 275; II. 3, 56; III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a> <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_3_330">330</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Jumna, I. 25<br /></li> +<li>Jupiter, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Jus primæ noctis, III. <a href="#Page_3_127">127</a><br /></li> +<li>Juynboll, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_3_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a><br /> +</li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Ka, I. 218<br /></li> +<li>Kaaba, II. 267<br /></li> +<li><a name="Kabbala" id="Kabbala"></a>Kabbala, I. lv, ci; III. <a href="#Page_3_401">401</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Kabir, I. lxxii, xc, 226; II. 162, 243, 244, <i>262 sq.</i>, 274; III. <a href="#Page_3_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_3_457">457</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kabir Panthis, I. xliv; II. 151, 185, 212; III. <a href="#Page_3_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_3_427">427</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kabul, I. 24; III. <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kaccâyana, III. <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kachiyappa, II. 220, 221<br /></li> +<li>Kadamba dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kadampa, III. <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a><br /></li> +<li>Kâdanbarî, II. 97<br /></li> +<li>Kadianis, I. xlvi<br /></li> +<li>Kadphises, I. 23, 24<br /></li> +<li>Kadur, II. 227<br /></li> +<li><a name="Kailas" id="Kailas"></a>Kailasa, I. xcii, 27; II. 145, 206, 223; III. <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kaing Za, III. <a href="#Page_3_67">67</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kaivalya, I. 304; II. 302<br /></li> +<li>Kakusandha, I. 342; III. <a href="#Page_3_177">177</a><br /></li> +<li>Kakuttha, I. 164<br /></li> +<li>Kâla, II. 204<br /></li> +<li>Kâlacakra, II. 32, 118, 129, 198; III. <a href="#Page_3_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_3_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_3_386">386</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kalacuris, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Kaladi, II. 207<br /></li> +<li>Kâlamukhas, II. 203<br /></li> +<li>Kalan, III. <a href="#Page_3_142">142</a><br /></li> +<li>Kalanjar, II. 123<br /></li> +<li>Kâ-'lan-ta, II. 79<br /></li> +<li>Kalasan, III. <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_3_177">177</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kâlavâda, I. 98<br /></li> +<li>Kâlayaśas, III. <a href="#Page_3_313">313</a><br /></li> +<li>Kalevala, I. 67<br /></li> +<li>Kalgan, III. <a href="#Page_3_390">390</a><br /></li> +<li>Kâlî, I. lxxxix; II. 19, 115, 126, 146, 174, 274 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_3_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kâlidâsa, I. 56; II. 95; III. <a href="#Page_3_376">376</a><br /></li> +<li>Kâlighât, II. 286<br /></li> +<li>Kâlika Purâna, II. 276, 285, 289<br /></li> +<li>Kâliki, III. <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a><br /></li> +<li>Kalima, III. <a href="#Page_3_277">277</a><br /></li> +<li>Kaling, queen of, III. <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a><br /></li> +<li>Kalinga, I. 25, 263, 266, 268; II. 100, 108; III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_3_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kalki (vishnu), I. 47; II. 148; III. <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kallata, II. 223<br /></li> +<li>Kalliana (bishop of), III. <a href="#Page_3_416">416</a><br /></li> +<li>Kalmuks, I. 5; III. <a href="#Page_3_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_3_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_3_370">370</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kalön, III. <a href="#Page_3_367">367</a><br /></li> +<li>Kalpa, I. 46, 334; II. 103<br /></li> +<li>Kalpa Sûtra, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Kalvar, II. 184<br /></li> +<li>Kalyan, II. 225<br /></li> +<li>Kalyani, I. 28; III. <a href="#Page_3_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_3_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_3_59">59</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kalzang, III. <a href="#Page_3_367">367</a><br /></li> +<li>Kâma, II. 253; III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /></li> +<li>Kâmacâra, I. lxxviii<br /></li> +<li>Kâmachando, I. 216<br /></li> +<li>Kamado, II. 24<br /></li> +<li>Kamahâyânikan, III. <a href="#Page_3_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_180">180</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kâmâkhyâ, I. lxxxvii; II. 286, 288, 290<br /></li> +<li>Kamalabari, II. 260<br /></li> +<li>Kamalaśila, III. <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a><br /></li> +<li>Kâmarâgo, I. 227<br /></li> +<li>Kâmarûpa, II. 127<br /></li> +<li>Kâma Śâstras, III. <a href="#Page_3_67">67</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kamban, II. 152<br /></li> +<li>Kambojas, I. 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kambuja (Kamvuja), III. <a href="#Page_3_101">101</a><br /></li> +<li>Kambu Svayambhuva, III. <a href="#Page_3_101">101</a><br /></li> +<li>Kami, I. 6<br /></li> +<li>Kâmika Agama, II. 205<br /></li> +<li>Kammathâna, III. <a href="#Page_3_131">131</a><br /></li> +<li>Kampang Pet, III. <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kaṃsa, II. 153, 154, 157, 158; III. <a href="#Page_3_424">424</a><br /></li> +<li>Kaṇâda, I. 109; II. 97, 292<br /></li> +<li>Kânadeva, II. 86; III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Kanara (south), II. 222; III. <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kanarese, I. 118; II. 225, 233, 241; III. <a href="#Page_3_431">431</a><br /></li> +<li>Kanauj, I. 25, 27; II. 99, 100, 108, 109; III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kan-chih-pu-lo, III. <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kancipura, III. <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kancukas, II. 204<br /></li> +<li>Kanculiyas, II. 279<br /></li> +<li>Kandahar, I. 23; III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kandali, III. <a href="#Page_3_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_3_162">162</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kanda Purâna, II. 220<br /></li> +<li>Kandy, I. 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_3_41">41</a><br /> +</li> +<li>K'ang, III. <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a><br /></li> +<li>K'ang Hsi (emperor), I. 267; III. <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_3_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_3_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_3_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kaṇha, II. 153<br /></li> +<li>Kaṇhayâra, II. 153<br /></li> +<li>Kanheri, II. 109<br /></li> +<li>Kanh hoa, III. <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a><br /></li> +<li>Kanishka, I. xxvi, xxxi, 24, 113, 263, 273, 299, 300, 301; II. 5, 47, 64 <i>sq.</i>, 224; +III. <a href="#Page_3_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a> <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Kanjur" id="Kanjur"></a>Kanjur, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_3_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_3_372">372</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_397">397</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kansu, III. <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_3_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_3_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_3_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_3_367">367</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kant, I. lv, lxxvii, 47; II. 5<br /></li> +<li>Kanthaka, I. 175<br /></li> +<li>Kantu, II. 79<br /></li> +<li>Kanva dynasty, II. 79<br /></li> +<li>Kao-ch'ang, III. <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a><br /></li> +<li>Kao-Sang-Chuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a><br /></li> +<li>Kao-Sêng-Chuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_3_293">293</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kao-Tsu, III. <a href="#Page_3_259">259</a><br /></li> +<li>Kapaleśvara, II. 203<br /></li> +<li>Kâpâlikas, II. 203<br /></li> +<li>Kapila, II. 97, 148, 202, 296; III. <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Saṃhitâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Kapilar, II. 219<br /></li> +<li>Kapilavatthu (vastu), I. 131, 132, 148, 150, 161, 162, 169; II. 93<br /></li> +<li>Kapimala, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Kapiśa, III. <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kapota, II. 15<br /></li> +<li>Kapuralas, III. <a href="#Page_3_42">42</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Karalâ, II. 278<br /></li> +<li>Kâraṇa Śarîra, II. 32<br /></li> +<li>Kâraṇavastha, II. 316<br /></li> +<li>Kâraṇḍavyûha, II. 13, 57, 72, 118; III. <a href="#Page_3_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_3_378">378</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Karashahr, III. <a href="#Page_3_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_204">204</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kar-gya-pa, III. <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Karika, II. 74, 87, 300; III. <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Karikh, II. 147<br /></li> +<li>Karkal, I. 121<br /></li> +<li>Karma, I. xviii, xxi, xlviii, lix, lxxvii, 44, 94, 107, 123, 139, 188, 194, 195, 208, 210, 212, +215, 230, 307; II. 10, 36, 37, 40, 221, 225, 247, 294, 303; III. <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_3_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_3_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_3_444">444</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Karma-pa, III. <a href="#Page_3_277">277</a> <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_3_399">399</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Karmapundarika, II. 58<br /></li> +<li>Karpura Mañjari, II. 282<br /></li> +<li>Kârshua, II. 187<br /></li> +<li>Karta, II. 261<br /></li> +<li>Kartabhajjas, II. 261<br /></li> +<li>Kartâ purukh, II. 268<br /></li> +<li>Kârtikeya, II. 142, 145; III. <a href="#Page_3_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /> +</li> +<li>karunâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +<li>Kâryâvasthâ, II. 316<br /></li> +<li>kâsâva, I. 241<br /></li> +<li>Kashgar, I. xxvi, 24; II. 76; III. <a href="#Page_3_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_3_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_361">361</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kashgarian manuscripts, I. 261; II. 48<br /></li> +<li>Kashmir, I. xxxv, 15, 24, 262, 263, 269; II. 76, 78, 79 (Kipin), 80, 81, 90, 91, 93, 95, 100, +109, 126, 127, 196, 204, 222-225; III. <a href="#Page_3_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_3_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_3_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_3_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_3_457">457</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kasi, I. 36, 74, 87, 88<br /></li> +<li>Kâśikâ (vṛitti), III. <a href="#Page_3_142">142</a><br /></li> +<li>Kasina, I. 314, 315<br /></li> +<li>Kassapa (Buddha), I. 342; III. <a href="#Page_3_177">177</a><br /></li> +<li>Kasyapa (Kassapa), I. 146, 168, 196, 239, 240, 255, 256, 257, 269, 288; II. 12; III. <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a><br /></li> +<li>Kasyapa Matanga, II. 71; II. 244, 248<br /></li> +<li>Kasyapa parivarta, II. 60<br /></li> +<li>Kat, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Katâha, II. 15<br /></li> +<li>Kathâsarit Sâgara, III. <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a><br /></li> +<li>Kathâ Upanishad, II. 180, 305<br /></li> +<li>Kathâvattu, I. 259, 260, 261, 262, 271, 338, 339; II. 48, 66, 81, 101, 124; III. <a href="#Page_3_20">20</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kathiawar, I. 23<br /></li> +<li>Kathina, I. 246; III. <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_3_93">93</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Katmandu, II. 118<br /></li> +<li>Kâtyâputra, II. 79<br /></li> +<li>Kâtyâyanî, I. 79, 299; II. 53; III. <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a><br /></li> +<li>Kaulacâra, II. 284<br /></li> +<li>Kaundhiya, III. <a href="#Page_3_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_3_164">164</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kauravas, I. 55; II. 155<br /></li> +<li>Kausambi, I. 25<br /></li> +<li>Kaushîtaka Brâhmana, II. 152<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Upanishad, I. lxxvii, 76; II. 181<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Kauthâra, III. <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_3_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kautilya Arthaśâstra, II. 197; III. <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a><br /></li> +<li>Kaveri, II. 231<br /></li> +<li>Kavi, III. <a href="#Page_3_170">170</a><br /></li> +<li>Kavindrarimathana, III. <a href="#Page_3_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kavittâvali, II. 245<br /></li> +<li>Kâvya, II. 83; III. <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a><br /></li> +<li>Kawi, III. <a href="#Page_3_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Râmâyaṇa, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_3_171">171</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Kâya, III. <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a>. See <a href="#Trikaya">Trikâya</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kâyârôhana (Kârôvân), II. 202<br /></li> +<li>Keats, II. 317<br /></li> +<li>Kedah, III. <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kedarnath, II. 227<br /></li> +<li>Kediri, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_3_171">171</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kedoe, III. <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a><br /></li> +<li>Kegon, II. 54; III. <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /></li> +<li>Keith, Prof., I. 286; II. 187, 296, 311; III. <a href="#Page_3_94">94</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kelani Sangha, III. <a href="#Page_3_37">37</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kelts, I. 54; II. 276; III. <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a><br /></li> +<li>Kena Upanishad, II. 277<br /></li> +<li>Kennedy, J., III. <a href="#Page_3_445">445</a><br /></li> +<li>Kerala, I. 26; III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kerman, I. 69<br /></li> +<li>Kern, I. 261; II. 13, 32, 48, 53, 91; III. <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_3_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_3_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_3_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_3_328">328</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kertanagara, III. <a href="#Page_3_159">159</a><br /></li> +<li>Kesai Khati, II. 279<br /></li> +<li>Kesar Sagar, III. <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a><br /></li> +<li>Kevaddha Sutta, I. 320, 331<br /></li> +<li>Kevalin, I. 110, 120<br /></li> +<li>Kevalom, I. 107, 108<br /></li> +<li>Khagan, III. <a href="#Page_3_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_3_362">362</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Khajarao Temple, I. xlii, 27; III. <a href="#Page_3_178">178</a><br /></li> +<li>Khalsa, II. 271<br /></li> +<li>Khamdo, III. <a href="#Page_3_364">364</a><br /></li> +<li>Khanda. <i>See</i> <a href="#Skandha">Skandha</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Khandagiri, II. 114<br /></li> +<li>Khandakas, I. 277<br /></li> +<li>Khande Rao, II. 145<br /></li> +<li>Khandelwals, II. 177<br /></li> +<li>Khandesh, I. 29<br /></li> +<li>Khandoba, II. 145<br /></li> +<li>Kharavela, king, I. 113<br /></li> +<li>Kharosthi, III. <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a>,<a href="#Page_3_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Khasis, I. 14; III. <a href="#Page_3_100">100</a><br /></li> +<li>mKhas-grub-rje, III. <a href="#Page_3_359">359</a><br /></li> +<li>Khecharî, I. 306<br /></li> +<li>Khema (sage), III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kher-heb, II. 122<br /></li> +<li>Khilji Sultans, I. 29<br /></li> +<li>khînâsavo, I. 229<br /></li> +<li>Khitan Tartars, III. <a href="#Page_3_269">269</a><br /></li> +<li>Khmers, III. <a href="#Page_3_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_3_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_3_100">100</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_3_140">140</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Khojas, III. <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a><br /></li> +<li>Khonds, II. 285, 289<br /></li> +<li>Khotan, I. xxv, 24; II. 19, 52, 76, 93; III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, 197 <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_207">207</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_348">348</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_377">377</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Khri-gtsug-lde-btsan, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_3_378">378</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Khri-sron-lde-btsan, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Khuastanift, III. <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /></li> +<li>Khubilai (Khan), I. xxvi; II. 8, 48, 55, 141, 159, 200, 269, 273, 274, 289, 338, 341, 354, +392<br /></li> +<li>Khubilghan, III. <a href="#Page_3_360">360</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Khuddaka_Nikaya" id="Khuddaka_Nikaya"></a>Khuddaka Nikâya, I. 279, 289; III. 56, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /></li> +<li>Khuddakapatha, I. 11, 339, 340; III. <a href="#Page_3_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Khusru, I. 26<br /></li> +<li>Khutuktu Khagan, III. <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a><br /></li> +<li>Khwaja Khizr, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +<li>Kiangsi, III. <a href="#Page_3_325">325</a><br /></li> +<li>Kiangsu, III. <a href="#Page_3_316">316</a><br /></li> +<li>Kia Tan, III. <a href="#Page_3_48">48</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kien Chin Fan Tsan, III. <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a><br /></li> +<li>Kingdom of Heaven, I. 224, 228<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>of Righteousness, I. 140<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>King Maha Vijitâ's sacrifice, I. 172<br /></li> +<li>Kings, status of, I. 36<br /></li> +<li>King-Tsing, III. <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a><br /></li> +<li>Kins (Golden Tartars), III. <a href="#Page_3_269">269</a><br /></li> +<li>Kipin (Kashmir), II. 79; III. <a href="#Page_3_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_3_262">262</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kirghiz, III. <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_3_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kirtans, II. 254<br /></li> +<li>Kirtipandita, III. <a href="#Page_3_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kîrti varman Chandel, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Kisori Bhajan, II. 185<br /></li> +<li>Kistna, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Kittel, II. 143<br /></li> +<li>Kittisiri Râjasiha, III. <a href="#Page_3_36">36</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Klaproth, III. <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a><br /></li> +<li>Kleśa, II. 88<br /></li> +<li>Knebel, III. <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Knowledge" id="Knowledge"></a>Knowledge, I. xvi, xvii, lxxii, 74, 75, 78, 220. <i>See</i> <a href="#Jnana">Jñâna</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Knox (Robert), III. <a href="#Page_3_35">35</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Koch, II. 280<br /></li> +<li>Kobo Daishi, III. <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a><br /></li> +<li>Kofu kaji, II. 88<br /></li> +<li>Koguryu, III. <a href="#Page_3_336">336</a><br /></li> +<li>Kohmari hill, III. <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a><br /></li> +<li>Koki, III. 52, <a href="#Page_3_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_3_156">156</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kokka, III. <a href="#Page_3_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_3_356">356</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kokonor lake, III. <a href="#Page_3_362">362</a><br /></li> +<li>Koliyas, I. 149, 169<br /></li> +<li>Konâgamana, I. 342; III. <a href="#Page_3_177">177</a><br /></li> +<li>Konârak, II. 114; III. <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /></li> +<li>dKon-brtsegs, III. <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a><br /></li> +<li>Kôn Chũ̏k, III. <a href="#Page_3_70">95</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Konkan, II. 108<br /></li> +<li>Konow (Sten), I. xxxi; II. 52<br /></li> +<li>Köppen, II. 90; III. <a href="#Page_3_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_3_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_3_361">361</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Koran, I. lxxiv, 255; II. 263, 268, 293<br /></li> +<li>Korea, I. xxiv, xxvi; III. <a href="#Page_3_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_3_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_3_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_3_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_3_336">336</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_402">402</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Korean Tripitaka, III. <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a><br /></li> +<li>Kormusta, III. <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a><br /></li> +<li>de Körös (Csoma), II. 15; III. <a href="#Page_3_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kosala, I. 20, 95, 131, 148, 149, 150, 157, 161, 162; II. 93<br /></li> +<li>Koṣha, III. <a href="#Page_3_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Koṭihoma, III. <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a><br /></li> +<li>Kottavai, goddess, II. 276<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>(victorious), II. 213<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Kovat, III. <a href="#Page_3_111">111</a><br /></li> +<li>Kra (Isthmus), III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Krat, III. <a href="#Page_3_112">112</a><br /></li> +<li>Kraton, III. <a href="#Page_3_160">160</a><br /></li> +<li>Kretanagara, III. <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Krishna" id="Krishna"></a>Kṛishṇa, I. xv, xxxv, xlv, 48, 100, 169, +333; II. 33, 72, 73, 115, 119, 137, +147, 149 <i>sq.</i>, 190 <i>sq.</i>, 195, 200, 229 <i>sq.</i>, +243; III. <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_3_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_3_423">423</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Krishna I, king, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Kṛishṇa das, II. 113<br /></li> +<li>Krishna deva, I. 30<br /></li> +<li>Kṛishṇaite literature, II. 244 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Krishts, III. <a href="#Page_3_424">424</a><br /></li> +<li>Krittivasa, II. 245<br /></li> +<li>Kriya, II. 128, 189<br /></li> +<li>Kriya Sakti (force), II. 196<br /></li> +<li>Kriyayoga, I. 304, 307<br /></li> +<li>Krom, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Kshanti, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kshatriya, I. 34, 35, 36, 87, 88, 92, 134, +169, 252, 272, 341; II. 148, 227; +III. <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kshemarâjâ, II. 223<br /></li> +<li>Kshemendra, II. 130<br /></li> +<li>Kshetrapati, I. 102<br /></li> +<li>Kshitigarbha, II. 13, 18, 24; III. <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kshudraka Nikâya, III. <a href="#Page_3_299">299</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Khuddaka_Nikaya">Khuddaka Nikâya</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kuan Shiyin, II. 14<br /></li> +<li>Kuan Ti, III. <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_3_332">332</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kuan-Ting, III. <a href="#Page_3_312">312</a><br /></li> +<li>Kuan-tzu-tsai, II. 14, 17<br /></li> +<li>Kuan-Yin, I. lxxxvii; II. 14, 17, 18, 24; +III. <a href="#Page_3_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_3_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_3_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_3_343">343</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kubera, III. <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /></li> +<li>Kublai Khan, III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_3_388">388</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kucha, I. xxvi; III. <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_203">203-205</a>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_3_372">372</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kuchanese, I. 276<br /></li> +<li>Kuei-Chi, III. <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /></li> +<li>Ku K'ai-Chih, III. <a href="#Page_3_242">242</a><br /></li> +<li>Ku Kang, III. <a href="#Page_3_163">163</a><br /></li> +<li>Kuku, III. <a href="#Page_3_125">125</a><br /></li> +<li>Kuku Khoto, III. <a href="#Page_3_370">370</a><br /></li> +<li>Kulârnava Tantra, II. 281<br /></li> +<li>Kulaśekhara, II. 231<br /></li> +<li>Kulika, III. <a href="#Page_3_386">386</a><br /></li> +<li>Kullûka Bhaṭṭa, II. 281<br /></li> +<li>Kulottunga, II. 233<br /></li> +<li>Kumâra, II. 127<br /></li> +<li>Kumârabhûta, II. 19<br /></li> +<li>Kumâragupta, II. 95<br /></li> +<li>Kumârajiva, II. 41, 55, 84, 85; II. 203 <i>sq.</i>, +210, 247, 251, 294, 313, 321, 373<br /></li> +<li>Kumâralabdha, II. 86, 92<br /></li> +<li>Kumârapâla, I. 114<br /></li> +<li>Kumârata, II. 86; III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Kumârî, II. 278<br /></li> +<li>Kumârila Bhaṭṭa, I. xl; II. 109, 206 <i>sq.</i>, +310, 311<br /></li> +<li>Kumbhandas, I. 102<br /></li> +<li>Kumbhipathias, I. xl; II. 116<br /></li> +<li>Kumbum, III. <a href="#Page_3_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_3_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kunâla, I. 271<br /></li> +<li>Kuṇḍagga, III. <a href="#Page_3_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_3_164">164</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kuṇḍalini Devi, I. 310; II. 283, 320<br /></li> +<li>Kunjarakarna, III. <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_3_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_3_180">180</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kuo-Shih, III. <a href="#Page_3_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_3_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_3_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_3_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_3_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_3_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_3_355">355</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kürä, III. <a href="#Page_3_363">363</a><br /></li> +<li>Kural, II. 215<br /></li> +<li>Kuren, III. <a href="#Page_3_363">363</a><br /></li> +<li>Kurma Purâna, II. 140, 163<br /></li> +<li>Kurnool, II. 237<br /></li> +<li>Kurukshetra, I. 55<br /></li> +<li>Kurukullâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kurundi commentary, III. <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kurus, the, I. 20, 87, 88, 89, 95, 96, 149<br /></li> +<li><a name="Kushan" id="Kushan"></a>Kushan Empire, I. xxvi, xxxi, xli, 19, 22, 23, 24, 301; II. 64 <i>sq.</i>, 83, 88, 202, 276; +III. <a href="#Page_3_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kushashu, III. <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a><br /></li> +<li>Kü-shih (Kiu-shih), III. <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a><br /></li> +<li>Kushto, III. <a href="#Page_3_424">424</a><br /></li> +<li>Kusikas (Five), III. <a href="#Page_3_174">174</a><br /></li> +<li>Kusinârâ, I. 162, 164, 165, 166, 169, 255; II. 93<br /></li> +<li>Kûṭadanta Sutta, I. 131<br /></li> +<li>Kutagâra Hall, I. 159<br /></li> +<li>Kutb-ud-din-lbak, I. 28; II. 112<br /></li> +<li>Kuvera, III. <a href="#Page_3_145">145</a><br /></li> +<li>Kwannon, II. 17<br /></li> +<li>Kwan-shi-yin, II. 93, 125<br /></li> +<li>Kwan-yin, II. 275; III. <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_321">321</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kyansithâ (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kyocvâ (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kyoto, III. <a href="#Page_3_291">291</a><br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Labberton, III. <a href="#Page_3_171">171</a><br /></li> +<li>Lachen, III. <a href="#Page_3_352">352</a><br /></li> +<li>Ladak, III. <a href="#Page_3_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_3_399">399</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lahore, I. 138; II. 267<br /></li> +<li>Laity, I. 122, 249 <i>sq.</i>; II. 120; III. <a href="#Page_3_330">330</a><br /></li> +<li>Lajonquiére, III. <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lakshaṇa-vimukta-hṛidaya Śâstra, II. 10<br /></li> +<li>Lakshmana, III. <a href="#Page_3_43">43</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lakshmî, II. 19, 145, 233, 234, 320; III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_3_393">393</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lakshminda Bhumisvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Lokeśvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Lakulin (Lakulisa), II. 202<br /></li> +<li>Lala Baba, II. 255<br /></li> +<li>Lâlitâditya, king, II. 109<br /></li> +<li>Lalitavajra, II. 126<br /></li> +<li>Lalita Vistara, I. 136, 173, 176; II. 22, 26, 28, 53; III. <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_3_442">442</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lalitpur, I. 267<br /></li> +<li>Lallû Jî Lâl, II. 188<br /></li> +<li><a name="Lamaism" id="Lamaism"></a>Lamaism, I. xi, xxvi, xlix, 246; II. 125, 128, 260; III. <a href="#Page_3_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_3_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_3_302">302</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_318">318</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_3_345">345</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Lamas, II. 122; III. <a href="#Page_3_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_3_274">274</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lamphun, III. <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Langdarma (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a><br /></li> +<li>Langha-hsin, III. <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a><br /></li> +<li>Lang-'pi-ya, III. <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a><br /></li> +<li>Lanja script, III. <a href="#Page_3_301">301</a><br /></li> +<li>Lanka, I. 72; II. 149<br /></li> +<li>Lankâvatâra Sûtra, II. 19, 53, 60, 74, 84; III. <a href="#Page_3_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Laos, III. <a href="#Page_3_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_3_124">124</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Laotzu, I. xix; III. <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_3_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lasik, II. 147<br /></li> +<li>Lâṭa, II. 102<br /></li> +<li>Latin, I. 63; III. <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a><br /></li> +<li>Latsun Ch'embo, III. <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a><br /></li> +<li>Laufer, III. <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_3_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_3_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Laukikas, II. 210<br /></li> +<li>Lavater, I. lv<br /></li> +<li>Lavo, III. <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Law Books, II. 187<br /></li> +<li>Leclerc, A., III. <a href="#Page_3_112">112</a><br /></li> +<li>Le Coq, III. <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Left-handed Tantrism, II. 125, 283<br /></li> +<li>Le Gall, III. <a href="#Page_3_272">272</a><br /></li> +<li>Legge, I. 258; III. <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_3_210">210</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Leh, II. 278<br /></li> +<li>Lengyen Ching, II. 56, 60; III. <a href="#Page_3_311">311</a><br /></li> +<li>Leper king, III. <a href="#Page_3_110">110</a><br /></li> +<li>Lessing, I. lv<br /></li> +<li>Letterless One, the, II. 265<br /></li> +<li>Lévi, S., I. 283, 292; II. 14, 42, 80, 83, 87, 88, 116, 119; III. <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_3_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_3_388">388</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Leviticus, I. 278<br /></li> +<li>Lhamo, III. <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /></li> +<li>Lhasa, I. xxvii; II. 15; III. <a href="#Page_3_345">345</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Li, III. <a href="#Page_3_207">207</a><br /></li> +<li>Liang Chih, III. <a href="#Page_3_278">278</a><br /></li> +<li>Liang dynasty, II. 22; III. <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_3_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_3_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Liang (southern), III. <a href="#Page_3_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_3_204">204</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Liao Chai, I. 318<br /></li> +<li>Liccharis, I. 111, 158, 161, 163, 169; III. <a href="#Page_3_24">24</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Li-Chien, III. <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a><br /></li> +<li>Lichtenberg, I. lv<br /></li> +<li>Lidaiya, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_83">83</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Li dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_3_341">341</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Life and sayings of Râma Krishna</i>, II. 162<br /></li> +<li><i>Life and teachings of Sri Madhva-Charyar</i>, II. 240<br /></li> +<li><i>Life of the Buddha</i>, I. 99, 173, 259; II. 81, 103<br /></li> +<li><i>Life of Vasubandhu</i>, II. 78<br /></li> +<li>Light, Paradise of, III. <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a><br /></li> +<li>Ligor, III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_3_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Li-Hué Ton, Emperor, III. <a href="#Page_3_344">344</a><br /></li> +<li>Lîlâ, II. 145, 222<br /></li> +<li>Lîlâuja, I. 136<br /></li> +<li>Lîlâvajsa, II. 126<br /></li> +<li>Li Lung Mien, III. <a href="#Page_3_269">269</a><br /></li> +<li>Lin Chi, III. <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a><br /></li> +<li>Ling, III. <a href="#Page_3_399">399</a><br /></li> +<li>Linga Purâna, II. 140, 187, 202<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Śarîra, II. 32, 300<br /></li> +<li><a name="Linga_worship" id="Linga_worship"></a>worship, I. xlvi, 17, 115; II. 142 <i>sq.</i>, 213, 238; III. <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li><a name="Lingayat" id="Lingayat"></a>Lingavants (Lingayats), I. 28, 42; II. 176, 179, 220, 225-227, 318; III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_418">418</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Linguistics, I. 20, 63; III. <a href="#Page_3_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_3_151">151</a> <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Alphabets">Alphabets</a>, + + <a href="#Translations">Translations</a>, <a href="#Transliterations">Transliterations</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lin-I (Champa), III. <a href="#Page_3_139">139</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Liste Indienne des Actes du Buddha</i>, I. 173<br /></li> +<li>Li-t'ang, III. <a href="#Page_3_367">367</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Literatur und Sprache der Singhalesen</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_12">12</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Li Thai To (Emperor), III. <a href="#Page_3_344">344</a><br /></li> +<li>Lithuanian forms, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Liturgy of Kuan-yin, III. <a href="#Page_3_276">276</a><br /></li> +<li>Liu Hsieh, III. <a href="#Page_3_255">255</a><br /></li> +<li>Liu Mi, III. <a href="#Page_3_288">288</a><br /></li> +<li>Liu Sing dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_3_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_3_253">253</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Liu-t'o-pa-mo, III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a><br /></li> +<li>Liu Tsung Yuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Liu Yuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_356">356</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Livre des esprits et des immortels</i>, II. 18<br /></li> +<li>Lobnor, Lake, II. 93; III. <a href="#Page_3_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_3_210">210</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Locanâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +<li>Lochana, III. <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a><br /></li> +<li>Lochen, III. <a href="#Page_3_352">352</a><br /></li> +<li>Lodge, Sir. O., I. 11<br /></li> +<li>Lodi dynasty, I. 29, 30<br /></li> +<li>Logan, III. <a href="#Page_3_101">101</a><br /></li> +<li>Logic, II. 91, 94, 131<br /></li> +<li>Logos, II. 293; III. <a href="#Page_3_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_3_433">433</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lohans, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Lohapasada (Copper Palace), III. <a href="#Page_3_18">18</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Loi Kăthŏng, III. <a href="#Page_3_94">94</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lokâcârya, II. 257<br /></li> +<li>Lokâkshi, III. <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_313">313</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lokamahadevi, III. <a href="#Page_3_116">116</a><br /></li> +<li>Lokanâth, II. 15<br /></li> +<li>Lokapaññatti, III. <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a><br /></li> +<li>Lokâyatikas, II. 97, 320<br /></li> +<li>Lokâyatam, III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lokeśvara, II. 13, 15; III. <a href="#Page_3_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lokottaravâdins, II. 59, 102; III. <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a><br /></li> +<li>Lók práh sŏkŏn, III. <a href="#Page_3_131">131</a><br /></li> +<li>Lokuttara, I. 263<br /></li> +<li>bLo-lden-shes-rab, III. <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a><br /></li> +<li>Lolei, III. <a href="#Page_3_115">115</a><br /></li> +<li>Lombok, III. <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a><br /></li> +<li>Longimanus, I. 341<br /></li> +<li>Lophburi, III. <a href="#Page_3_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lorgeon, III. <a href="#Page_3_36">36</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lo-shih-fu, III. <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a><br /></li> +<li>Lo-tsa-va, III. <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a><br /></li> +<li>Lotsu, III. <a href="#Page_3_318">318</a><br /></li> +<li>Lotus, the, I. 130; II. 4, 14, 19, 22, 23, 26, 28, 48, 50, 51, 52, 60, 66, 84, 103, 125, 279; +III. <a href="#Page_3_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_3_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_3_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_3_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_3_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_3_438">438</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Le Lotus de la bonne Loi</i>, II. 52<br /></li> +<li>Lotus school, III. <a href="#Page_3_312">312</a><br /></li> +<li>Lourdes, I. 327<br /></li> +<li>Lovek, III. <a href="#Page_3_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lowis, C.C., III. <a href="#Page_3_48">48</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Loyang, III. <a href="#Page_3_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_3_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_3_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_3_313">313</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Loyola, Ignatius, I. 315<br /></li> +<li>Lozang, III. <a href="#Page_3_363">363</a><br /></li> +<li>Lu (Vinaya) school, III. <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a><br /></li> +<li>Luang Prabang, III. <a href="#Page_3_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_3_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lu-Chin-Yuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_3_278">278</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lucknow, II. 252<br /></li> +<li>Lüders, II. 197; III. <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ludwig, III. <a href="#Page_3_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_3_368">368</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Luipa, II. 126<br /></li> +<li>Lü Kuang, III. <a href="#Page_3_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lumbini Park, I. 132, 174, 269<br /></li> +<li>Lung-hu-shan, III. <a href="#Page_3_237">237</a><br /></li> +<li>Lung-men, III. <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Lupercalia, I. 101<br /></li> +<li>Lü-tsang, III. <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a><br /></li> +<li>Lü-tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_3_316"> 316</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Ly, III. <a href="#Page_3_141">141</a><br /></li> +<li>Lyall, Sir. Alfred, I. lxiii, 166; III. <a href="#Page_3_412">412</a><br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Macauliffe, II. 256, 262 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Macdonell, II. 139<br /></li> +<li>Macdonell and Keith, I. 134; II. 152<br /></li> +<li>Macedonia, I. 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a><br /></li> +<li>MacGowan, III. <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a><br /></li> +<li>Macnicol, II. 251<br /></li> +<li>Madagascar, III. <a href="#Page_3_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Madhab Deb, II. 191, 259<br /></li> +<li>Mâdhava, I. lxxii, 125; II. 110, 291; III. <a href="#Page_3_457">457</a><br /></li> +<li>Mâdhurya, II. 255<br /></li> +<li>Mâdhva Acârya, I. xliv; II. 73, 163, 228, 237 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Mâdhvas, II. 73, 163, 239, 241, 318; III. <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a><br /></li> +<li>Mâdhva Sampradâya, II. 251<br /></li> +<li>Madhvavijaya, II. 241<br /></li> +<li>Madhyamâgama, III. <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /></li> +<li>Madhyamakâvatâra, III. <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a><br /></li> +<li>Mâdhyamika school, I. 260; II. 37, 73, 74, 85, 90, 102, 103, 211, 315; III. <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mâdhyântavibhâga Śâstra, III. <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a><br /></li> +<li>Madjapahit, III. <a href="#Page_3_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_3_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_3_171">171 </a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Madras, I. xli, 19, 26; III. <a href="#Page_3_416">416</a><br /></li> +<li>Madrolle, III. <a href="#Page_3_339">339</a><br /></li> +<li>Madura (Modura), I. 26, 114; II. 214, 222; III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Madya, II. 284<br /></li> +<li>Magadha, I. xl, 18, 20, 21, 87, 95, 131 <i>sq.</i>, 147, 149, 156, 161, 163, 169, 283; +II. 93, 96, 100, 102, 105, 124, 125, 129; III. <a href="#Page_3_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_3_256">256</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Magas, I. 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Maghar, II. 263<br /></li> +<li><a name="Magic" id="Magic"></a>Magic, I. lxxxvi, lxxxviii, 67; II. 66, 87, 94, 113, 121, 126, 190, 274 <i>sq.</i>, 311; III. +<a href="#Page_3_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_3_316">316</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_3_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Mantras">Mantras</a>, <a href="#Tantras">Tantras</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Magic im Alten-Aegypten</i>, II. 122<br /></li> +<li>Mạgna Mater, III. <a href="#Page_3_429">429</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahâ Aṭṭhakathâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâbalipûr, III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a> (Seven Pagodas)<br /></li> +<li><a name="Maha_Bharata" id="Maha_Bharata"></a>Mahâbhârata, I. xxxviii, lxxiv, xc, xci, 55, 59, 288, 332; II. 114, 143, 146, 151 +<i>sq.</i>, 168, 182, 186, 187, 193, 200, 206, 279, 306, 317; III. <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_3_424">424</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâ-bhâshya, I. 303; II. 156, 157<br /></li> +<li>Mahâ-Bodi-Vaṃsa, I. 255<br /></li> +<li>Mahâbrahmâ, I. 102; III. <a href="#Page_3_43">43</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâcinakramâcâra, II. 21<br /></li> +<li>Mahâcinatantra. II. 126<br /></li> +<li>Mahâdeva, I. 48; II. 145; III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâdevadâsa, II. 115<br /></li> +<li>Mahâdevi, I. 68; II. 128, 146<br /></li> +<li>Mahâdhammakathi, III. <a href="#Page_3_31">31</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâgaṇapatitantra, III. <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahâgandi, III. <a href="#Page_3_73">73</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâgîta Medânigyân, III. <a href="#Page_3_68">68</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâguhya, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahâguru, III. <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahâkâla, II. 105, 140, 145; III. <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâ-kâla-cakra, III. <a href="#Page_3_67">67</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâ-kâla-Tantra, III. <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahâkaruna, II. 14, 15<br /></li> +<li>Mahâ-karuna-candin, II. 14<br /></li> +<li>Mahâkassapa, I. 168; III. <a href="#Page_3_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâkut, III. <a href="#Page_3_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâmati, II. 54<br /></li> +<li>Mahâmâtris, II. 286<br /></li> +<li>Mahâmâyopanishad, II. 210<br /></li> +<li>Mahâmegha garden, III. <a href="#Page_3_16">16</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Sûtra, III. <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Mahâmuni, III. <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahânadi, I. 263<br /></li> +<li>Mahânâma, III. <a href="#Page_3_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_3_28">28</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahânirvâna Tantra, I. lxxxviii, 67; II. 278, 281, 282, 285, 289<br /></li> +<li>Mahâpadâna sutta, I. 134<br /></li> +<li>Mahâparinibbâṇa sutta, I. lxxiii, 135, 161, 164; II. 21, 58; III. <a href="#Page_3_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_378">378</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâprajapati, I. 133, 159<br /></li> +<li>Mahâprajnâpâramitâ Śâstra, II. 52, 84, 85; III. <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâprasâd, III. <a href="#Page_3_422">422</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahâpurusha, I. 341<br /></li> +<li>Mahâpurushias, II. 260<br /></li> +<li>Mahâ Râjâ, I. 131; II. 250<br /></li> +<li>Mahârâjâdhammathat, III. <a href="#Page_3_67">67</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahârâshtra, I. 31; II. 108<br /></li> +<li>Mahârâshtri (Prakrit), I. 116; III. <a href="#Page_3_12">12</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâsaccaka Sûtra, I. 135<br /></li> +<li>Mahâ Saman, I. 7; III. <a href="#Page_3_43">43</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâsamaya sutta, I. 103, 278<br /></li> +<li>Mahâsammatiyas, I. 299<br /></li> +<li>Mahâsangha, I. 290<br /></li> +<li>Mahâsanghika, I. 258, 260, 262, 263, 298, 299, 332; III. <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a> (Vinaya), <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâsangîti, I. 254, 258, 290<br /></li> +<li>Mahâsangîtika, I. 258, 262<br /></li> +<li>Mahâsannipâta Sûtra, II. 57, 58, 61; III. <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâsena, III. <a href="#Page_3_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_3_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâsiddhas, II. 128; III. <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahâsthâmaprâpta, II. 13, 23, 30; III. <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahâ-sudassana, I. 166<br /></li> +<li>Mahâsukhakâya, II. 123<br /></li> +<li>Mahâtaṇhasan-khaya sutta, I. 197<br /></li> +<li>Mahâthapa, III. <a href="#Page_3_18">18</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâthera, III. <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâtmyas, III. <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahâvagga, I. 137, 142, 143, 145 <i>sq.</i>, 206, 257, 277, 289; III. <a href="#Page_3_62">62</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâ-vairocanâ-bhi-sambhodhi, II. 58; III. <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahâ-vaṃsa, I. 257, 259, 269; III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_3_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_3_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_3_306">306</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâ-vaṃsatîkâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_15">15</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâvarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahâvastu, I. 173, 263, 282; II. 9, 22, 27, 58<br /></li> +<li>Mahâvibhâsha-śâstra, II. 169; III. <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahâvidyâs, II. 286<br /></li> +<li>Mahâvihâra, I. 276, 292; III. <a href="#Page_3_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_3_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_3_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_3_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_3_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_3_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâvîr, I. xix, 95, 105, 108, 110 <i>sq.</i>, 119, 123, 129<br /></li> +<li>Mahâvrata ceremony, I. 100<br /></li> +<li>Mahâvrâtins, II. 203<br /></li> +<li>Mahâvyutpatti, III. <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahâyâna, I. xxvi <i>sq.</i>, 220, 260, 263, 275, 325, 332; II. 1, 131, 181; III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a>, + + <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_3_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_3_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_3_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_3_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_3_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_3_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_3_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a>, + + <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâyâna-dharma-dhâtvaviśeshata-śâstra, II. 10<br /></li> +<li>Mahâyâna-śâstra, II. 84<br /></li> +<li>Mahâyâna-sûtrâlankâra, II. 11, 32, 42, 48, 57, 125; III. <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâyâna Sûtras, III. <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahâyânist Canon, II. 47 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Mahâyasa, III. <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahâyuga, I. 334<br /></li> +<li>Mahendra (Mt.), III. <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahendravarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a><br /></li> +<li>Maheśamurti, II. 165<br /></li> +<li>Maheśvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_83">83</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahima Dharma, II. 115<br /></li> +<li>Mahinda, II. 214; III. <a href="#Page_3_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_3_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_3_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_3_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_3_333">333</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahintale, III. <a href="#Page_3_43">43</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahipâla, II. 111, 128<br /></li> +<li>Mahisâsakas, I. 298; III. <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a><br /></li> +<li>Mahiśvara, II. 202<br /></li> +<li>Mahmud of Ghazni, I. 16, 28; III. <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_3_458">458</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mahrattas. <i>See</i> <a href="#Marathas">Marathas</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mai (mother) section, II. 266<br /></li> +<li>Maidari, II. 21<br /></li> +<li>Maidari Khutuktu, III. <a href="#Page_3_363">363</a><br /></li> +<li>Mailapur, III. <a href="#Page_3_420">420</a><br /></li> +<li>Mailla, III. <a href="#Page_3_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_3_276">276</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Maithili Christomathy</i>, II. 244<br /></li> +<li>maithuna, II. 87, 124, 125, 284<br /></li> +<li>Maitrayâna Upanishad, I. 83; II. 75, 182, 310<br /></li> +<li>Maitreya, I. 47; II. 12, 13, 19, 21, 23, 83, 88, 102; III. <a href="#Page_3_20">20</a> (images), <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_3_210">210</a>, + + <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_3_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Maitreyi, I. lxxiii, 74, 79, 80, 159, 232<br /></li> +<li>Maitri, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +<li>Majjhima, I. 269<br /></li> +<li><a name="Majjhima_Nikaya" id="Majjhima_Nikaya"></a>Majjhima Nikâya, I. 143, 197, 278, 289, 342; III. <a href="#Page_3_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_3_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_3_441">441</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Majuli Island, II. 260<br /></li> +<li>Makhan Chor, II. 160<br /></li> +<li>Makkhali Gosala, I. lxxviii, 97, 99, 111, 145<br /></li> +<li>Malabar, II. 148, 207, 219; III. <a href="#Page_3_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Malacca, III. 85, <a href="#Page_3_163">163</a><br /></li> +<li>Maladâkuthara, III. <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a><br /></li> +<li>Malakuta, II. 15, 100; III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Malâtî, I. lxxii<br /></li> +<li>Malaya (Archipelago, etc.), I. xiii, xxviii, 16; II. 82; III. <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_3_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_3_151">151-187</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Malaya (Mt.), II. 54<br /></li> +<li>Malay languages, III. <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a><br /></li> +<li>Mâlikabuddhi, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Mâlikâdeva, I. 269<br /></li> +<li>Malik Ibrahim, III. <a href="#Page_3_161">161</a><br /></li> +<li>Malik Kafur, I. 30<br /></li> +<li>Mâlkânas, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +<li>Malkhed, I. 27<br /></li> +<li><a name="Mallas" id="Mallas"></a>Mallas, I. 166, 168 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_22">22</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mallian, I. 165<br /></li> +<li>Mâlunkyaputta, I. 228<br /></li> +<li>Malwa, I. 25, 27, 29; II. 251, 271<br /></li> +<li>Malwatte, III. <a href="#Page_3_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_3_41">41</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mâmakî, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +<li>Mâmallapuram, III. <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mâṃsa, II. 284<br /></li> +<li>Ma-ning, III. <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Manura, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Man (sect), III. <a href="#Page_3_73">73</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Manas, II. 44, 300<br /></li> +<li>Manasa, II. 276, 279<br /></li> +<li>Mânava-dharma-śâstra, III. <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Manavala Mahâmuni, II. 237<br /></li> +<li>Manchu dynasty, I. xxvi, 248; III. <a href="#Page_3_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_3_365">365</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Man-Chu-Shih-li, II. 19<br /></li> +<li>Maṇḍala, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mandalay, II. 105; III. <a href="#Page_3_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_3_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mandor, II. 159<br /></li> +<li>Mandra, III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a><br /></li> +<li>Mandukya, I. 83; (Upanishad), II. 74<br /></li> +<li>Mani, II. 88; III. <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_3_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_3_445">445</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Maniac, the, II. 184<br /></li> +<li>Manichæism, I. xii, xlix, lv; II. 88, 199, 240; III. <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_3_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_3_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_3_334">334</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_3_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_3_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_3_445">445</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Manifestations (Buddha's), III. <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a>. +<i>See also</i> <a href="#Avataras">Avatâras</a>, <a href="#Incarnations">Incarnations</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Manikambum, III. <a href="#Page_3_395">395</a><br /></li> +<li>Manikka Vaçagar, II. 212, 215<br /></li> +<li>Maṇimanjarî, II. 241<br /></li> +<li>Manimat, II. 238, 240<br /></li> +<li>Manimêgalei, II. 108; III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Manimêkhalai, II. 214<br /></li> +<li>Manipuris, I. xxxvii; III. <a href="#Page_3_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_3_67">67</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Manjughosha, II. 19<br /></li> +<li>Mañjunâtha, II. 19<br /></li> +<li>Mañjuśrî, I. xxix; II. 12, 13, 19-21, 54, 93, 118; III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_3_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_3_221">221</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_3_383">383</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mañjuśrî Kirti, III. <a href="#Page_3_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a><br /> + +</li> +<li>Mañjuśrî Krodha, II. 128<br /></li> +<li>Mañjuśrî vikridita, II. 19<br /></li> +<li>Man Lion (incarnation), II. 147<br /></li> +<li>Man Nat, III. <a href="#Page_3_69">69</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mano, I. 192, 227<br /></li> +<li>Manohari, III. <a href="#Page_3_55">55</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Manthra Spenta, III. <a href="#Page_3_419">419</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Mantras" id="Mantras"></a>Mantras, I. 332; II. 50, 129, 174, 184, 275, 319; III. <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_395">395</a>. +<i>See</i> <a href="#Dharanis">Dhâranîs</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mantrayâna, II. 4, 87; III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_3_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_3_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Manu, I. xxxviii, lxxxix, 18, 90, 334; II. 154, 187, 199, 281, 306; III. <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_3_422">422</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Manual of a Mystic</i>, I. 310, 312; II. 7<br /></li> +<li><i>Manual of Buddhism</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Manual of Buddhist Terminology</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a><br /></li> +<li>Manuraja, III. <a href="#Page_3_67">67</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Manuscript remains, II. 56<br /></li> +<li>Manvantaras, I. 46, 334<br /></li> +<li>Manyakheta, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Mao-lun, III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a><br /></li> +<li>Mappilahs (Moplahs), III. <a href="#Page_3_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Mara" id="Mara"></a>Mâra, I. lxxix, 143, 164, 175, 179, 190, 337; II. 160; III. <a href="#Page_3_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_3_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_3_350">350</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Marai-ñaña-Sambandhar, II. 221<br /></li> +<li>Mârânanda, III. <a href="#Page_3_336">336</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Marathas" id="Marathas"></a>Marâthas, I. 19, 31, 32; II. 178, 244, 255, 258; III. <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a><br /></li> +<li>Marco Polo, I. 305; II. 320; III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_3_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_3_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_3_416">416</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Marcus Aurelius, I. 202<br /></li> +<li>Mardâna, II. 267<br /></li> +<li>Mârgabhûmi Sûtra, II. 64<br /></li> +<li>Marguérite Marie Alacoque, II. 161<br /></li> +<li>Mariamman, II. 276<br /></li> +<li>Marici, III. <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Marjâra-nyâya, II. 236<br /></li> +<li>Markandeya Purâna, I. lxxix, 39; II. 187, 193<br /></li> +<li>Markaṭa-nyâya, II. 236<br /></li> +<li>Marpa, III. <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a><br /></li> +<li>Marpori hill, III. <a href="#Page_3_365">365</a><br /></li> +<li>Marriage market, III. <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /></li> +<li>Martaban, III. <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Maruts, I. 57; III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /></li> +<li>Maryâda Jîvas, II. 249<br /></li> +<li>Maspéro, III. <a href="#Page_3_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_3_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_3_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_3_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_3_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_3_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_3_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_3_301">301</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mass, the, I. 66; III. <a href="#Page_3_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_3_422">422</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Massacre of the Innocents, III. <a href="#Page_3_424">424</a><br /></li> +<li>Masson-Oursel, III. <a href="#Page_3_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_3_311">311</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Masulipatam, III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mata Adisakti ( = Dharma), II. 115<br /></li> +<li>Mataram, III. <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_3_157">157</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mâtariśvan, I. 57, 62<br /></li> +<li>Materialism, I. 99, 196; II. 320 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Mater Triumphalis, II. 287<br /></li> +<li>Maths, II. 175, 208, 233, 240, 244, 256, 260. +<i>See</i> <a href="#Monasteries">Monasteries</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mathurâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /></li> +<li>Mathura, II. 154<br /></li> +<li><i>Mathura, a District Memoir</i>, II. 248<br /></li> +<li>Matriarchy, III. <a href="#Page_3_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_3_145">145</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mâtricakras, II. 127<br /></li> +<li>Mâtricheta, II. 104<br /></li> +<li>Mâtrikâ, II. 223<br /></li> +<li>Matsya, I. 87; II. 284<br /></li> +<li>Matsya Purâna, I. 15; II. 187<br /></li> +<li>Matsyendranâtha, II. 117, 118<br /></li> +<li><a name="Matter" id="Matter"></a>Matter, theories of, I. ciii; II. 296 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Matthakundali, II. 73<br /></li> +<li>Matvalasen, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Maudgalyâyana, III. <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /></li> +<li>Maurya dynasty, I. 21; II. 68; III. <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Maya" id="Maya"></a>Mâyâ, I. lxxvii, ciii, 45, 82, 193, 211, +212; II. 73, 74, 204, 211, 221, 223, +225, 246, 247, 255, 264, 268, 278, +284, 289, 307, 309, 312 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_3_421">421</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Maya (mother of Buddha), I. 132, 174<br /></li> +<li>Mâyâjâla, II. 128<br /></li> +<li>Mayûra, II. 98<br /></li> +<li>Mayurabhanja, II. 115<br /></li> +<li>McCrindle, I. 15; II. 159<br /></li> +<li>McTaggart, I. lv, ciii<br /></li> +<li>Mead, III. <a href="#Page_3_445">445</a><br /></li> +<li>Mecca, II. 267<br /></li> +<li>Mecquenem, III. <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Medieval School of Indian Logic</i>, II. 94, 105<br /></li> +<li><a name="Meditation" id="Meditation"></a>Meditation, I. c, 128, 129, 150, 222, 302-324; +II. 122, 304; III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_3_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_3_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_3_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_3_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_3_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_3_448">448</a>. +<i>See</i> <a href="#Intuition">Intuition</a>, <a href="#Yoga">Yoga</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Megasthenes, I. 21, 272; II. 137; III. <a href="#Page_3_432">432</a><br /></li> +<li>Meghadûta, III. <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a><br /></li> +<li>Meghavarman, king, II. 87<br /></li> +<li>Meiji era, III. <a href="#Page_3_402">402</a><br /></li> +<li>Meister Eckhart, II. 313<br /></li> +<li>Mekong, III. <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_3_80">80</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Mélanges Harley</i>, II. 18, 195, 238<br /></li> +<li>Melas, I. 103; II. 172<br /></li> +<li>Melncote, II. 237, 243<br /></li> +<li><i>Memoir on the History of the Tooth Relic of Ceylon</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Memory" id="Memory"></a>Memory and rebirth, I. lvii, 320 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Memphis, III. <a href="#Page_3_431">431</a><br /></li> +<li>Menam, III. <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Menander, I. 23; II. 159; III. <a href="#Page_3_23">23</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mencius, II. 275<br /></li> +<li>Mendicants, I. 100, 134<br /></li> +<li>Mental phenomena. <i>See</i> <a href="#Intuition">Intuition</a>, <a href="#Knowledge">Knowledge</a>, <a href="#Meditation">Meditation</a>, <a href="#Memory">Memory</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mera (Pera), III. <a href="#Page_3_101">101</a><br /></li> +<li>Mercurial system, I. 305<br /></li> +<li>Mergui, III. <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Merit-transfer, I. lxxxvi; II. 10, 31; III. <a href="#Page_3_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Meru, III. <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a><br /></li> +<li>Meru, Mt., I. 335; III. <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Merutantra, II. 280<br /></li> +<li>Merv, III. <a href="#Page_3_427">427</a><br /></li> +<li>Messiah, I. 4, 36, 179; II. 88, 149; III. <a href="#Page_3_319">319</a><br /></li> +<li>Metamorphosis, I. 200<br /></li> +<li>Metaphysics, I. xxix, cii, 64, 78, 183, 187, 192, 193; II. 6, 36-46, 72, 82, 92, 207, 225, +315; III. <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_3_345">345</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Metaphysics and Ethics of the Jains</i>, I. 105<br /></li> +<li><a name="Metempsychosis" id="Metempsychosis"></a>Metempsychosis, I. xv, xviii, 194; II. 101, 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_3_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_3_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_3_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_3_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_3_435">435</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_3_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_3_462">462</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Méthode</i>, II. 56<br /></li> +<li>Metta, I. 184, 216<br /></li> +<li>Metteya, I. 344; II. 21; III. <a href="#Page_3_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_3_84">84</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mewar, I. 30<br /></li> +<li>Mexico, III. <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a><br /></li> +<li>Mey Kaṇḍa Devar, II. 221<br /></li> +<li>Miao-Shên, II. 18<br /></li> +<li>Micchaka, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Mi-chiao, III. <a href="#Page_3_316">316</a><br /></li> +<li>Middle Kingdom, II. 93<br /></li> +<li>Migâra, I. 153<br /></li> +<li>Mi-gyo-ba, III. <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /></li> +<li>Mihira, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Mihiragula, I. 25; II. 95, 100; III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Milarâpa, III. <a href="#Page_3_399">399</a><br /></li> +<li>Mi-le, III. <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /></li> +<li>Mili, II. 21<br /></li> +<li>Milinda Panha, I. 190, 227, 344; III. <a href="#Page_3_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mîmâṃsâ, II. 292, 310<br /></li> +<li>Mîmâṃsakam, III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Minayeff, II. 9; III. <a href="#Page_3_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mindolling, III. <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a><br /></li> +<li>Mindon Min, III. <a href="#Page_3_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ming (dynasty, etc.), I. xxvi, 153, 160, 205, 207, 274 <i>sq.</i>, 289, 290, 301, 319, 359<br /></li> +<li>Ming-Öi, III. <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ming Ti, III. <a href="#Page_3_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_3_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_3_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_3_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_3_253">253</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mingun, III. <a href="#Page_3_63">63</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ministry of Thunder, III. <a href="#Page_3_225">225</a><br /></li> +<li>Minor Rock Edict. <i>See</i> <a href="#Edicts_of_Asoka">Edicts of Asoka</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Minussinsk, III. <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a><br /></li> +<li>Mira Bai, II. 244<br /></li> +<li><a name="Miracles" id="Miracles"></a>Miracles, I. 325, 329; II. 53, 58, 66, 84, 154; III. <a href="#Page_3_441">441</a><br /></li> +<li>Miraj, II. 109<br /></li> +<li>Miran, II. 192, 200, 210<br /></li> +<li>Miriok, III. <a href="#Page_3_336">336</a><br /></li> +<li>Miroku, II. 21<br /></li> +<li>Misal, II. 272<br /></li> +<li>Mi-sha-so Wu-fên Lü, III. <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a><br /></li> +<li>Mi-so'n, III. <a href="#Page_3_139">139</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Missaka, Mt., III. <a href="#Page_3_16">16</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Missionizing, I. xxxvii, lxxxviii, xcii, 254, 268 <i>sq.</i>; II. 70; III. <a href="#Page_3_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_3_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_3_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mitanni, III. <a href="#Page_3_435">435</a><br /></li> +<li>Mithila, I. 89; II. 149<br /></li> +<li>Mithra, I. 41; II. 88, 139; III. <a href="#Page_3_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mithradates, I. 23<br /></li> +<li>Mitra, I. 57, 60, 88; II. 270<br /></li> +<li>Mitra-Rajendralala, II. 51, 52, 54, 61, 116, 119, 123, 182, 190, 270, 395, 453<br /></li> +<li>Mi-Tsang, III. <a href="#Page_3_291">291</a><br /></li> +<li>Mixed cults, II. 70<br /></li> +<li>Mnemonic tradition, I. 285 <i>sq.</i>, 296<br /></li> +<li>Moamarias, II. 261<br /></li> +<li><i>Modern Buddhism</i>, II. 114<br /></li> +<li><i>Modern Vernacular Literature of Hindustan</i>, II. 245<br /></li> +<li>Moggaliputta, III. <a href="#Page_3_15">15</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Moggallâna, I. 147, 155, 319; III. <a href="#Page_3_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mohammed, I. 177, 178, 183; III. <a href="#Page_3_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Mohanechedanî, III. <a href="#Page_3_67">67</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mohanîya, I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Mohsin Fani, III. <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a><br /></li> +<li>Mo-ko-Sêng-Chi-Lü, III. <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a><br /></li> +<li>Moksha. <i>See</i> <a href="#Salvation">Salvation</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Molaiye, III. <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a><br /></li> +<li>Molinos, I. 136<br /></li> +<li>Mollahs, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +<li>Möllendorf, III. <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a><br /></li> +<li>Mo-lo-po, II. 96<br /></li> +<li>Mon, III. <a href="#Page_3_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_3_100">100</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Monasteries" id="Monasteries"></a>Monasteries, I. xxxviii, xli, lxxxii, xciii, 137, 150; II. 94, 104, 105, 112, 113, 119, 120, +121, 175, 208, 260, 266; III. <a href="#Page_3_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_3_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_3_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_3_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_3_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_3_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_3_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_3_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_3_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_3_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_3_195">195</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_3_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_3_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_3_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_3_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_3_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_3_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_3_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_3_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_3_442">442</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mongkut, III. <a href="#Page_3_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_3_93">93</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mongolia, I. xxvi<br /></li> +<li>Mongolian Lamaism, III. <a href="#Page_3_401">401</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Mongols, I. xxvi, 28; III. <a href="#Page_3_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_3_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_3_272">272</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Monism" id="Monism"></a>Monism, I. xliii; II. 223, 249; III. <a href="#Page_3_305">305</a><br /></li> +<li>Monju, II. 19<br /></li> +<li>Mon-Khmer languages, II. 279<br /></li> +<li>Mono-physites, I. 39; III. <a href="#Page_3_409">409</a><br /></li> +<li>Monotheism, I. xviii, xxxiv, ci, 7, 85; II. 192, 195, 197, 219, 229, 238, 239, 243; III. <a href="#Page_3_224">224</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_3_418">418</a>,<a href="#Page_3_433"> 433</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Morality, I. lxxi, lxxvi; II. 167, 168, 209<br /></li> +<li>Moriyas, I. 169<br /></li> +<li>Mormonism, I. 325; III. <a href="#Page_3_228">228</a><br /></li> +<li>Moses, I. 216<br /></li> +<li>Moslems, I. 178; III. <a href="#Page_3_458">458</a><br /></li> +<li>Mothers, the, II. 276<br /></li> +<li>Mountain spirits, II. 159<br /></li> +<li>Moura, III. <a href="#Page_3_111">111</a><br /></li> +<li>Mou-tzu, III. <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a><br /></li> +<li>Mpoe Sedah, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_3_171">171</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Sindok, III. <a href="#Page_3_157">157</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Mriccha-kaṭikâ, II. 142<br /></li> +<li>Mṛigas, III. <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a><br /></li> +<li>Mrigendra, II. 205<br /></li> +<li>Mṛityu, II. 145<br /></li> +<li>Mṛityuh pâpmâ, I. 337<br /></li> +<li>Mucalinda, I. 142<br /></li> +<li>Muc-Lien. III. <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /></li> +<li>Mudal-Ayiram, II. 231<br /></li> +<li>muditâ, II. 11; III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +<li>Mudrâ, I. 306; II. 284; III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Mughals, I. 19, 30; III. <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a><br /></li> +<li>Muhammad Adil, I. 29<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Bakhtyar, I. 29; II. 112<br /></li> +<li>Dara Shukoh, II. 270<br /></li> +<li>of Ghor, I. 28; III. <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Muhammedan Conquests, I. 29; II. 95, 109, 112; III. <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Muir, I. 36; II. 148<br /></li> +<li>Mukaṇṇa Kadamba, II. 213<br /></li> +<li>Mukhalinga, I. xxviii; III. <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Mukhyas, II. 29<br /></li> +<li>Mukocha, III. <a href="#Page_3_336">336</a><br /></li> +<li>Mukta, III. <a href="#Page_3_174">174</a><br /></li> +<li>Muktagiri, I. 121<br /></li> +<li>Mukti, I. 44; II. 140, 235, 247, 250. <i>See</i> <a href="#Salvation">Salvation</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Muktikâ Upanishad, I. 76<br /></li> +<li>Mukunda Deva, II. 115<br /></li> +<li>Mu-la-san-pu-la, III. <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /></li> +<li>Mûla Sarvâstivâda, I. 260, 299, 301; II. 57, 82; III. <a href="#Page_3_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_3_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_3_285">285 </a>(Vinaya), <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Mûlâsthâna, III. <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /></li> +<li>mûla tantra, III. <a href="#Page_3_377">377</a><br /></li> +<li>Mulavarman (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_164">164</a><br /></li> +<li>mûla-vigraha, II. 173<br /></li> +<li>Müller, F.W.K., II. 54; III. <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a><br /></li> +<li>Müller, Max, I. 80, 86, 317, 340; II. 52, 162, 296; III. <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_3_301">301</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Multan, III. <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /></li> +<li>Munda, I. 19; II. 279; III. <a href="#Page_3_100">100</a><br /></li> +<li>Muṇḍaka Upanishad, I. 85<br /></li> +<li>Mungayin Sen (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Munis (Indian), I. 224<br /></li> +<li>Munja, king, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Murder, I. 99<br /></li> +<li>Murids, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +<li>Murray, III. <a href="#Page_3_447">447</a><br /></li> +<li>Muruṇḍa, III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a><br /></li> +<li>Muruvan, II. 213<br /></li> +<li><i>Muséon</i>, II. 42, 87, 222, 321; III. <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /></li> +<li>Mutsung (Emperor), III. <a href="#Page_3_316">316</a><br /></li> +<li>Muttra, I. xlv, 113, 263; II. 19, 93, 154, 158, 159, 162, 230, 244, 251, 255; III. <a href="#Page_3_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_458">458</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Muziris, I. 26; III. <a href="#Page_3_415">415</a><br /></li> +<li>Myang-hdas, III. <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a><br /></li> +<li>Myingyan, III. <a href="#Page_3_54">54</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Myos Hormos, III. <a href="#Page_3_415">415</a><br /></li> +<li>Mysore, I. xli, 26; II. 108, 171, 213, 233, 235; III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Mysore and Coorg from the Inscriptions</i>, I. 114; II. 108, 212<br /></li> +<li>Mysticism, I. lxi, 136, 142, 304, 310, 322, 323; III. <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Meditation">Meditation</a>, + <a href="#Yoga">Yoga</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Mysticism</i> (Underhill), I. 308, 316, 317; II. 275<br /></li> +<li><i>Mythologie der Buddhismus</i>, II. 129<br /></li> +<li>Mythology, I. xxxi, 3, 13, 49, 63, 64, 103, 128, 142, 325-345; II. 26 <i>sq.</i>, 52, 68,<br /></li> +<li>77, 82, 137, 162, 179, 201, 213, 229; III. <a href="#Page_3_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a><br /> +</li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Nâbha Das, II. 191, 245<br /></li> +<li>Nâbhaka, I. 268<br /></li> +<li>Nâbhitis, I. 268<br /></li> +<li>Nâda, II. 319<br /></li> +<li>Nadia, II. 253, 255<br /></li> +<li>Nâgânanda, II. 97<br /></li> +<li>Nagar, III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nâgarakrĕtâgama, III. <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nâgârjuna, I. xxxii, 193; II. 8, 10, 29, 38, 43, 46, 52, 54, 55, 59, 65, 82 <i>sq.</i>, 316; +III. <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_3_376">376</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nâgas, I. 6, 102, 175; II. 85, 118; III. <a href="#Page_3_393">393</a><br /></li> +<li>Nâgasena, I. 226; III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a><br /></li> +<li>Nag-dban bLo-zan rGya-mThso, III. <a href="#Page_3_363">363</a><br /></li> +<li>Nahusha, I. 36<br /></li> +<li>Nairâtmyam, II. 36<br /></li> +<li>Naiyâyikam, III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nakshi Rustam, III. <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /></li> +<li>Nâladiyar, II. 215<br /></li> +<li>Nâlanda, I. 150, 162, 258; II. 87, 95, 102, 103, 106, 111, 125, 128; III. <a href="#Page_3_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nâlâyiram, II. 231, 235, 244<br /></li> +<li>Nâlâyira Prabandham, II. 191<br /></li> +<li>Nâma, I. 107, 209<br /></li> +<li>nâmarûpam, III. <a href="#Page_3_247">247</a><br /></li> +<li>Nambi-Andar-Nambi, II. 215<br /></li> +<li>Nambutiri Brahmans, I. 90; II. 171, 190, 207, 275; III. <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a><br /></li> +<li>Nâmder, II. 244, 256<br /></li> +<li>Namghosha, I. lxxv; II. 191, 259, 260<br /></li> +<li>Namm'âr̤var, II. 231, 233<br /></li> +<li>Ñânâbhivaṃsa, III. <a href="#Page_3_64">64</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nanak, I. lxxii; II. 176, 242, 244, 248, 257, 267 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Nana nuru, II. 219<br /></li> +<li>nânârtha, II. 43<br /></li> +<li>Nanda dynasty, I. 132<br /></li> +<li>Nanda, I. 148; II. 83, 154; III. <a href="#Page_3_424">424</a><br /></li> +<li>Nandi, II. 222; III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nandikeśvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /></li> +<li>Nandimitra, II. 61<br /></li> +<li>Nandîsvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Nanjio</i> (Bunyiu) <i>Catalogue</i> I. 258; II. 3, 14, 19, 24, 46, 51, 54 <i>sq.</i>, +61, 84, 86, 89, 126, 304; III. <a href="#Page_3_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a> , <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_3_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_3_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_3_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_3_276">276</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Nanking, II. 316; III. <a href="#Page_3_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_3_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_3_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_3_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_3_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_3_312">312</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nan Shan, III. <a href="#Page_3_316">316</a><br /></li> +<li>Nan Yueh, III. <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a><br /></li> +<li>Nâparam itthattâyâti, I. 139<br /></li> +<li>Nara, II. 27, 88, 200, 252<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>period, III. <a href="#Page_3_403">403</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Nârada, II. 182, 195, 196, 200, 230; III. <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_3_426">426</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nârada pañcarâtra, II. 158, 195, 250<br /></li> +<li>Nârada parivrâjaka Upanishad, II. 198<br /></li> +<li>Nârada Purâna, II. 187<br /></li> +<li>Nâradîya, II. 182; III. <a href="#Page_3_142">142</a><br /></li> +<li>Nârah, II. 199<br /></li> +<li>Nărai, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_86">86</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Naraina, II. 266<br /></li> +<li>Nara Nârâyana, II. 199<br /></li> +<li>Narapati, III. <a href="#Page_3_61">61</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Narasimha, III. <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a><br /></li> +<li>Narasimha Varman, I. 26<br /></li> +<li>Narasinha Gupta Bâlâditya, II. 105<br /></li> +<li>Nârâyâṇa, I. xliii; II. 159, 193, 195, 197, 199 <i>sq.</i>, 228, 233, 234, 253, 282; III. + <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_3_426">426</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nârâyaṇîya, I. lxxiv; II. 187, 200, 201, 229<br /></li> +<li>Narthang Press, III. <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a><br /></li> +<li>mNaris, III. <a href="#Page_3_352">352</a><br /></li> +<li>Narita (burnt-offerings at), II. 128<br /></li> +<li>Na-ro-pa, II. 126<br /></li> +<li>Narotapa, III. <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a><br /></li> +<li>Naruma, III. <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a><br /></li> +<li>Nasik, I. 27; II. 203<br /></li> +<li>Nâstika, II. 32<br /></li> +<li>Nâtâ, I. 14, 105<br /></li> +<li>Nâtaputta, I. 105, 111<br /></li> +<li>Nâthamuni, II. 231, 232, 234, 237<br /></li> +<li>Nâthas, II. 117<br /></li> +<li>Nath Dwara, II. 252<br /></li> +<li><a name="Nats" id="Nats"></a>Nats, I. 6, 102; II. 54, 68, 97<br /></li> +<li><a name="Nature_worship" id="Nature_worship"></a>Nature (nature-worship, etc.), I. xvi, lxvi, 3, 6, 7, 12, 33, 56, 137, 332; II. 217; III. <a href="#Page_3_68">68</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_3_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_3_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_3_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_3_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_3_399">399<br /> +</a></li> +<li>Nāyā, I. 111<br /></li> +<li>Nâyâdhammakahâo, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Nâyakas, II. 286<br /></li> +<li>Nayaks, II. 226<br /></li> +<li>Nayottara, III. <a href="#Page_3_117">117</a><br /></li> +<li>Necho, III. <a href="#Page_3_432">432</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Neerlands Indië</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_3">3</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Negapatam, II. 188<br /></li> +<li>Negoro, III. <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /></li> +<li>Nei-tien-lu, III. <a href="#Page_3_290">290</a><br /></li> +<li>Neoplatonists, I. xii, lv; III. <a href="#Page_3_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_3_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_3_460">460</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Neopythagoreans, III. <a href="#Page_3_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_3_447">447</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Nepal" id="Nepal"></a>Nepal, I. xxiv, xxvii, 132, 248, 269; II. 19, 21, 31, 32, 116, 117, 129, 143; III. <a href="#Page_3_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_3_388">388</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Le Népal</i>, II. 116<br /></li> +<li>Nepâla mâhâtmya, II. 1, 8<br /></li> +<li><i>Nepalese Buddhistic Literature</i>, II. 51, 52, 54<br /></li> +<li>Nepalese Scriptures, I. 275<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>manuscripts, II. 18<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Nerañjara, I. 136, 142<br /></li> +<li>Nerbudda, I. 20, 25, 208<br /></li> +<li>Nestorian Christianity, I. xlix, 39; III. <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_3_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_3_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_3_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_3_427">427</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_428">428</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Stone, III. <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a><br /></li> + +</ul></li> +<li>Netti Pakarana, III. <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nevars, II. 116, 117, 178<br /></li> +<li>New Testament, III. <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a><br /></li> +<li>New Zealand, III. <a href="#Page_3_151">151</a><br /></li> +<li>Ngelmoe, III. <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a><br /></li> +<li>Nguyen, III. <a href="#Page_3_341">341</a><br /></li> +<li>Nha-trang, III. <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nibâna, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Nibbâyeyya, I. 231<br /></li> +<li>nibbuto, I. 223<br /></li> +<li>Nichiren sect, III. <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /></li> +<li>Nicholson, R.A., III. <a href="#Page_3_460">460</a><br /></li> +<li>Nicolaus Damascenus, III. <a href="#Page_3_431">431</a><br /></li> +<li>Nidâna Kathâ, I. 171; III. <a href="#Page_3_94">94</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nidânas, I. 207, 212<br /></li> +<li>niddeṣa, I. 258; II. 197<br /></li> +<li>Nieh-pan, III. <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a><br /></li> +<li>Nigamas, II. 282<br /></li> +<li>Nigaṇṭhas, I. 105, 111; III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nigliva, I. 269<br /></li> +<li>Nigrodha Jâtaka, III. <a href="#Page_3_442">442</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Nikaya" id="Nikaya"></a>Nikâya, I. lxxiii, lxxv, 278 <i>sq.</i>; II. 48, 101, 205; III. <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_3_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_3_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_3_372">372</a>. + +<i>See</i> <a href="#Suttas">Sutta</a>, <a href="#Pitakas">Pitaka</a>, <a href="#Digha_Nikaya">Dîgha Nikâya</a>, <a href="#Majjhima_Nikaya">Majjhima Nikâya</a>, <a href="#Samyutta_Nikaya">Samyutta Nikâya</a>, <a href="#Anguttara">Anguttara</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nikâya, Khuddaka Nikâya<br /></li> +<li>Nikâya-Sangrahawa, I. 293; III. <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nîlâcala, II. 114<br /></li> +<li>Nîlâkantha, II. 205, 318<br /></li> +<li>Nîlâmata Purâna, II. 126<br /></li> +<li>Nîlânetra, II. 86<br /></li> +<li>Nîlapata-darśana, III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nil Sâdhana, III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nimâvats (Nimbârkas), I. xlii; II. 230, 248, 251<br /></li> +<li>Nimbâditya Nimbârak, II. 228, 230<br /></li> +<li>Nine Dharmas, II. 59, 119<br /></li> +<li>Ning-po, II. 14<br /></li> +<li>Nirañjana, II. 32<br /></li> +<li>Nirâtman, III. <a href="#Page_3_175">175</a><br /></li> +<li>nirgama, II. 43<br /></li> +<li>Nirganthas, I. 111<br /></li> +<li>Nirguṇa, III. <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_3_445">445</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nirguṇa Mâhâtmya, II. 115<br /></li> +<li>Nirjarâ, I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Nirmâna, III. <a href="#Page_3_360">360</a><br /></li> +<li>Nirmâna Kâya, II. 33<br /></li> +<li>nirodha, II. 43<br /></li> +<li>Niruttara (Tantra), III. <a href="#Page_3_118">118</a><br /></li> +<li>Nirvâna, I. xviii, xcv, 204, 219, 222, 236, 249, 250; II. 6, 8, 10, 12, 32, 44, 45, 67, 75, +105, 121, 264; III. <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a><br /></li> +<li>Nirvânapada, III. <a href="#Page_3_121">121</a><br /></li> +<li>Nirvâna Sûtra, II. 51<br /></li> +<li>Nirvritti, I. lxxxi; II. 283<br /></li> +<li>Nîtiśâstra, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nityânanda, II. 254<br /></li> +<li><i>Nityanusandham Series</i>, II. 232<br /></li> +<li>nityatva, II. 204<br /></li> +<li>Nivâsa, II. 230<br /></li> +<li>Nivedita (sister), I. xlvii, lxxxix; II. 287<br /></li> +<li>Niyama, I. 305<br /></li> +<li>niyâti, I. 98; II. 204<br /></li> +<li>Nizam's dominions, I. 31; II. 225<br /></li> +<li>Nobunaga, III. <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /></li> +<li>Nordarisch, I. 276; III. <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Nord-Ouest de l'Inde dans le Vinaya des Mulasarvastivadins</i>, I. 263; II. 81<br /></li> +<li>Norman, II. 148; III. <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_3_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Northern Chou dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_257">257</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Circars, I. 22<br /></li> +<li>Sing dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_258">258</a><br /></li> +<li>Wei, III. <a href="#Page_3_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>North-West India, I. 263<br /></li> +<li>Nri Simha, III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a><br /></li> +<li>Nṛisinhatâ-panîya, II. 280<br /></li> +<li>Nudity, I. 112<br /></li> +<li>Num, I. 9<br /></li> +<li><a name="Nuns" id="Nuns"></a>Nuns, I. 159, 248; III. <a href="#Page_3_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_3_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_3_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Nushirwan, III. <a href="#Page_3_460">460</a><br /></li> +<li>Nyâsa, I. 67; II. 275, 283<br /></li> +<li>Nyâya, II. 39, 95, 291, 294<br /></li> +<li>Nyâyadvâra-śâstra, II. 91<br /></li> +<li>Nyâya-praveśa, II. 95<br /></li> +<li>Nying-ma-pa, III. <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_3_397">397</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>O, III. <a href="#Page_3_141">141</a><br /></li> +<li>Ō-baku, III. <a href="#Page_3_291">291</a><br /></li> +<li>Obscenity in ritual, I. 100<br /></li> +<li>Occupation and caste, II. 177<br /></li> +<li>Odontapuri, II. 111, 112; III. <a href="#Page_3_350">350</a><br /></li> +<li>Oelot, III. <a href="#Page_3_365">365</a><br /></li> +<li>Ola Bibi, II. 276<br /></li> +<li>Oldenburg, I. 147; III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_3_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Omei, II. 23<br /></li> +<li>O-mi-to, III. <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a><br /></li> +<li>Om-mani-padme hum, II. 17; III. <a href="#Page_3_395">395</a><br /></li> +<li>Oracles, I. 103<br /></li> +<li>Ordination, I. 141, 146, 243; III. <a href="#Page_3_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_3_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_3_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_3_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_3_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_3_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Organisations" id="Organisations"></a>Organisation, ecclesiastical, I. 37, 237 <i>sq.</i>; II. 210; III. <a href="#Page_3_64">64</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_3_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Origin of Man, III. <a href="#Page_3_288">288</a><br /></li> +<li>Orissa, I. xxxix, xlii, 19, 30, 31, 113; II. 111, 113, 114, 116, 174, 206, 277, 386<br /></li> +<li>Ormasd Yasht, III. <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a><br /></li> +<li>Orpheus, Orphism, I. lv, 237; II. 285<br /></li> +<li>Orphic Societies, III. <a href="#Page_3_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Osh, III. <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Osiris, II. 122, 285<br /></li> +<li>Osmanlis, III. <a href="#Page_3_198">198</a><br /></li> +<li>Oudh, I. xxii, 20, 31, 95, 113, 131; II. 149, 266; III. <a href="#Page_3_457">457</a><br /></li> +<li>Oupnekhat, II. 270<br /></li> +<li><i>Outlines of Indian Philosophy</i>, II. 188, 222<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li><i>of Jainism</i>, I. 105<br /></li> +<li><i>of Mahâyâna Buddhism</i>, II. 45, 56<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li><i>Oxford History of India</i>, II. 64<br /></li> +<li>Oxus, III. <a href="#Page_3_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_3_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Oxyrhynchus Logia</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_437">437</a><br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Pabbaja Sutta, I. 135<br /></li> +<li>Pabbajja, I. 243<br /></li> +<li>Paccari (raft commentary), III. <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Paccaya, I. 208<br /></li> +<li>Pacceka Buddhas, I. 344; II. 8<br /></li> +<li>Padakalpataru, II. 245, 256<br /></li> +<li>Padakartâs, II. 256<br /></li> +<li>Pâdas, III. <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a><br /></li> +<li>Padhânam, I. 216<br /></li> +<li>Padjadjaran, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a><br /></li> +<li>Padmanabha, II. 147<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Char, II. 238, 240<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Padmapâni, II. 15; III. <a href="#Page_3_396">396</a><br /></li> +<li>Padma Purâṇa, II. 148<br /></li> +<li>Padmaratna, II. 307<br /></li> +<li>Padma Sambhava, I. xxvii; II. 125; III. <a href="#Page_3_348">348</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_3_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_3_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_3_397">397</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pâdma Samhitâ, II. 188<br /></li> +<li>Padmâsana, III. <a href="#Page_3_184">184</a><br /></li> +<li>Padma-tantra, II. 188<br /></li> +<li>Padma-than-yig, III. <a href="#Page_3_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Padmodbhava, III. <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a><br /></li> +<li>Pagan, I. 120; III. <a href="#Page_3_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_3_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_3_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_3_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pagan Min, III. <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Pagodas" id="Pagodas"></a>Pagodas, III. <a href="#Page_3_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_3_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_3_325">325</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pag Sam Jon Zang, II. 129; III. <a href="#Page_3_352">352</a><br /></li> +<li>Pagspa, III. <a href="#Page_3_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_3_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_3_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_3_392">392<br /> +</a></li> +<li>Pahlavas, I. 23; II. 69<br /></li> +<li>Pai-Chang-ts'ung-lin-ch'ung-kuei, III. <a href="#Page_3_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_3_324">324</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Paitao, III. <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a><br /></li> +<li>Pajâpati, I. 103<br /></li> +<li>Pakche, III. <a href="#Page_3_336">336</a><br /></li> +<li>Pakudha Kaccâyana, I. 99<br /></li> +<li>Palas, I. 27; II. 109; III. <a href="#Page_3_129">129</a><br /></li> +<li>Palembang, III. <a href="#Page_3_161">161</a><br /></li> +<li>Pali, I. xxiv, 116, 282; III. <a href="#Page_3_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pali and Sanskrit, I. 282<br /></li> +<li>Pali-Buddhism, I. xxiv, 127; III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_3_180">180</a>. Cf. Hînâyâna<br /> +</li> +<li><i>Pali-Buddhismus</i>, I. 312<br /></li> +<li><a name="Pali_Canon" id="Pali_Canon"></a>Pali Canon, I. 128, 130, 164, 254, 275-301; II. 7, 21, 33, 34, 48, 59, 102; III. <a href="#Page_3_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Pali dictionary</i>, II. 10<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>inscriptions, III. <a href="#Page_3_84">84</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>palimattam, III. <a href="#Page_3_29">29</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Palitâna, I. 119 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li><i>Pali Text Society</i>, I. 275, 304<br /></li> +<li>Pallas worship, I. 23<br /></li> +<li>Pallavas, I. 26, 27; III. <a href="#Page_3_107">107</a><br /></li> +<li>Pallegoix, III. <a href="#Page_3_94">94</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pallivals, II. 177<br /></li> +<li>Palmyra, II. 14<br /></li> +<li>palya, I. 110<br /></li> +<li>Panataran, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pancabheda, II. 239<br /></li> +<li>Pancakrama, II. 86<br /></li> +<li>Pancalas, I. 20, 27, 87, 95, 96<br /></li> +<li>pancamakâra, II. 284<br /></li> +<li>Pâñcarâtra, I. xxxv, lxxx; II. 97, 147, 152, 182, 186, 188, 195, 196, 197, 202, 224, 232 +<i>sq.</i>, 309; III. <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_3_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_3_426">426</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pâñcarâtra Śâstra, II. 189<br /></li> +<li>Pâñcarâtra-tantra, II. 189<br /></li> +<li>Pancaśikha, II. 20, 296<br /></li> +<li>Pancaśîrsha, II. 20<br /></li> +<li>pancatattva, II. 284<br /></li> +<li>pancâtmaka, III. <a href="#Page_3_175">175</a><br /></li> +<li>Pancayat, II. 176<br /></li> +<li>Pan-Chao, I. 24; II. 64, 76; III. <a href="#Page_3_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_3_244">244</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Panchen Lama, III. <a href="#Page_3_368">368</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Rinpoche, III. <a href="#Page_3_365">365</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Pan-ch'i, III. <a href="#Page_3_125">125</a><br /></li> +<li>Panchou, III. <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a><br /></li> +<li>Panchpiriyas, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +<li>Panchpirs, III. <a href="#Page_3_175">175</a><br /></li> +<li>Paṇḍansalas, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_160">160</a><br /></li> +<li>Paṇḍarâvasinî, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +<li>Pandavas, I. 55; II. 154, 155, 169<br /></li> +<li>Pander, III. <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pandharpur, II. 16, 256, 257<br /></li> +<li>Pandrenthan, III. <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a><br /></li> +<li>Pandukabhaya (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pâṇḍurang, II. 275<br /></li> +<li>Pâṇḍurânga, III. <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a><br /></li> +<li>Paṇḍuvâsudeva, III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pandya (Pandian), I. 26, 114, 268; II. 214; III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Panhâvâgaranâim, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Pâṇini, I. xxxi; II. 153, 180, 194, 197; III. <a href="#Page_3_419">419</a><br /></li> +<li>Pâṇiniya Darśana, II. 291<br /></li> +<li>Panjab, I. xlviii, 20 <i>sq.</i>, 25, 28, 29, 31, 87; II. 92, 93, 109, 270 <i>sq.</i>; III. +<a href="#Page_3_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Panjo, II. 282, 283<br /></li> +<li>Paññâ, I. 220, 261; III. <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Paññasâmi, III. <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Panran, III. <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_3_141">141</a><br /> +</li> +<li>pansala (monastery), III. <a href="#Page_3_41">41</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pantænus, III. <a href="#Page_3_414">414</a><br /></li> +<li>Panthaka, I. 170<br /></li> +<li>Pantheism, I. xviii, xxxiv, xxxvi, xliii, lxxix, ci, 8; II. 167, 179, 197, 224, 265; III. <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_3_462">462</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Panya, III. <a href="#Page_3_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Paochi, III. <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pao-Chih, III. <a href="#Page_3_254">254</a><br /></li> +<li>Pao-hua-shan, III. <a href="#Page_3_316">316</a><br /></li> +<li>Pâpa, I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Pâpa-nâtha, III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a><br /></li> +<li>Para, II. 196, 235<br /></li> +<li>Parabrâhma, II. 32, 278<br /></li> +<li>Paracatti, II. 216<br /></li> +<li><a name="Paradise" id="Paradise"></a>Paradise, II. 23, 28, 30, 31, 35, 42, 57, 61; III. <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a>. +<i>See</i> <a href="#Kailas">Kailas</a>, <a href="#Sukhavati">Sukhâvati</a>, <a href="#Tusita">Tusita</a>, <a href="#Heaven">Heaven</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Paradise Lost</i>, II. 246<br /></li> +<li><i>Paradise Regained</i>, I. 129<br /></li> +<li>Pârâjika, I. 205; III. <a href="#Page_3_323">323</a><br /></li> +<li>Parakrama Bâhu, I. 293; III. <a href="#Page_3_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_3_33">33</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_179">179</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Paramabodhisattva, III. <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a><br /></li> +<li>Paramâdi-buddha-uddhṛita-srî-kâla-cakra, III. <a href="#Page_3_376">376</a><br /></li> +<li>Paramâditya-bhakta, III. <a href="#Page_3_454">454</a><br /></li> +<li>parama-guhya, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +<li>Paramara dynasty, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Paramârtha, I. 260; II. 78, 80, 81, 84, 88; III. <a href="#Page_3_256">256</a><br /></li> +<li>paramârtha-satya, II. 38<br /></li> +<li>Parama Samhitâ, II. 189<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Śiva, III. <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a><br /></li> +<li>Śûnya, III. <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Paramâtman, II. 266, 312<br /></li> +<li>Paramats, III. <a href="#Page_3_63">63</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Parama-Vishṇu-loka, III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_134">134</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Param Brahma, II. 42<br /></li> +<li>Parameśvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_96">96</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>king, III. <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Pâramitâs, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Param-vrahmâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /></li> +<li>Pararaton, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Parasnath (Mt.), I. 120, 121<br /></li> +<li>Paraśurâma, I. 36, 88, 130; II. 147, 213<br /></li> +<li>paratantra, II. 38<br /></li> +<li>Parâtman, III. <a href="#Page_3_175">175</a><br /></li> +<li>parâtparâ, II. 278<br /></li> +<li>Parbatiya, II. 119<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Gosains, II. 288<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Pargiter, I. 15; II. 187, 188, 279; III. <a href="#Page_3_424">424</a><br /></li> +<li>Parias, III. <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a><br /></li> +<li>Paribbâjakas, I. 95; III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a><br /> +</li> +<li>pari-kalpita, II. 38<br /></li> +<li>Pariṇâmanâ, II. 31<br /></li> +<li>pariṇâmavâda, II. 264, 318<br /></li> +<li>Parinibbânam, I. 223<br /></li> +<li>Parinirvâna, I. 223; III. <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a><br /></li> +<li>Parinishpanna, II. 38<br /></li> +<li>Pari-pṛicchâ, II. 61, 62<br /></li> +<li>Parishads, I. 75<br /></li> +<li>Paritta, III. <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a><br /></li> +<li>parittam, III. <a href="#Page_3_71">71</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Parivâra, I. 258, 292; III. <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_3_31">31</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Parivrâjaka, I. 95<br /></li> +<li>Parker, III. <a href="#Page_3_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_3_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_3_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_3_361">361</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Parmenides, I. xix<br /></li> +<li>Parmentier, III. <a href="#Page_3_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_3_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_3_150">150</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Parnaśavarî, III. <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /></li> +<li>Parsis, I. 69, 122; III. <a href="#Page_3_414">414</a><br /></li> +<li>Parsvâ, I. xix, 110, 112<br /></li> +<li>Pârśva, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Parsvanâtha, I. 95, 120<br /></li> +<li>Parthians, I. xxx, 22, 69; III. <a href="#Page_3_414">414</a><br /></li> +<li>Pârupana, III. <a href="#Page_3_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_3_63">63</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Parvatî, II. 174, 222, 277; III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /></li> +<li>Pâśa, II. 204, 216, 223<br /></li> +<li>Pasenadi, I. 148<br /></li> +<li>Pashanda Capetika, II. 258<br /></li> +<li>Pasoeroean, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pa-ssu-pa, III. <a href="#Page_3_273">273</a><br /></li> +<li>Pa-ssu-wei, III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_125">125</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Paśu, II. 204, 216, 223<br /></li> +<li>Pâśupata philosophy, II. 54, 189, 201-205, 211, 216, 280, 291; III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Paśupati, II. 118, 145, 202; III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pâṭaligâma, I. 161<br /></li> +<li><a name="Pataliputra" id="Pataliputra"></a>Pataliputra (Patna), I. 21, 24, 117, 161, 162, 272, 290; II. 92, 137; III. <a href="#Page_3_15">15</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Patan, II. 113<br /></li> +<li>Patañjali, I. 303; II. 153, 202, 306; III. <a href="#Page_3_424">424</a><br /></li> +<li>Path, The, I. 185, 186, 213<br /></li> +<li>Pa: thŏ́mma Sŏ́mphôthĩyan, III. <a href="#Page_3_98">98</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pa-ti, II. 204, 216, 223<br /></li> +<li>paṭiccasamuppâda, I. 144, 206<br /></li> +<li>paṭigho, I. 227<br /></li> +<li>Pâtimokkha, I. 129, 247, 277, 289, 290; III. <a href="#Page_3_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_3_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_3_249">249</a>. +<i>See</i> <a href="#Confession">Confession</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Paṭisambhidâ, I. 258<br /></li> +<li>Paṭisandhiviññaṇam, I. 197<br /></li> +<li>Patna, I. 135; II. 111. +<i>See</i> <a href="#Pataliputra">Pataliputra</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Patriarchs (Buddhist), I. 256; II. 85, 86, 88, 95; III. <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_3_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a> (list)<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>(Jain), I. 113; II. 153<br /></li> +<li>(Taoist), III. <a href="#Page_3_228">228</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Paṭṭadkal, III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_116">116</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Paṭṭanatta Pillai, II. 219, 226<br /></li> +<li>Paṭṭhânanayo, I. 208<br /></li> +<li>Paudgalikam Karma, I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Paundraka, king, II. 162<br /></li> +<li>Paushkara, II. 205<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Saṃhitâs, II. 189, 195<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Pava, I. 111, 162, 164, 169<br /></li> +<li>Pavârânâ, I. 245, 247<br /></li> +<li>Pawar dynasty, I. 27<br /></li> +<li>Pâyâsi, I. 196<br /></li> +<li>Pedanda, III. <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a><br /></li> +<li>dPe-dkar, III. <a href="#Page_3_393">393</a><br /></li> +<li>Pegu, I. xxv, 269; III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_3_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_3_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_3_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_3_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_3_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_3_88">88</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pei Liang, III. <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a><br /></li> +<li>Peking, II. 16; III. <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_3_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_3_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_3_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_3_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_3_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Peliyaksha, II. 59<br /></li> +<li>Pelliot, II. 55; III. <a href="#Page_3_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_3_124">124</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a>,<a href="#Page_3_296"> 296</a>, <a href="#Page_3_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a><i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Pemangku, III. <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a><br /></li> +<li>Pemeyangtse, III. <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a><br /></li> +<li>Pemiongchi, III. <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a><br /> +</li> +<li>pen, III. <a href="#Page_3_311">311</a><br /></li> +<li>Pen-shi, III. <a href="#Page_3_299">299</a><br /></li> +<li>Pentad, II. 26, 164<br /></li> +<li>Perahesa festival, I. 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Péri, I. 301; II. 22, 65, 87; III. <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a><br /></li> +<li>Perisiriyar, II. 219<br /></li> +<li>Periya Purâṇa, II. 188, 220<br /></li> +<li>Periyâr̤var, II. 231<br /></li> +<li>Periyatirumor̤i, II. 231<br /></li> +<li>Persecutions, I. 178; III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_3_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_3_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_3_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_3_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_3_414">414</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Persepolis, III. <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Persia" id="Persia"></a>Persia, I. xv, xxx, xxxi, 21, 22, 31; II. 23, 65, 88, 139, 181, 240; III. <a href="#Page_3_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_3_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_3_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a> + <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_432">432</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Peshawar, I. 21; II. 76, 87; III. <a href="#Page_3_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Peshwas, I. 31<br /></li> +<li>Pessimism, I. lix, lxv, 44, 202 <i>sq.</i>, 205<br /></li> +<li>Peṭakopadesa, III. <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Petas, I. 338<br /></li> +<li>Petavaṭṭha, I. 280, 289; III. <a href="#Page_3_205">205</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Petersburg Lexicon</i>, II. 196<br /></li> +<li>Petithuguenin, III. <a href="#Page_3_83">83</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Petrie (Flinders), III. <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Peys, I. 6<br /></li> +<li>Phagmodu dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_3_364">364<br /> +</a></li> +<li>hPhagspa bLo-gros-rgyal-mthsan, III. <a href="#Page_3_354">354</a><br /></li> +<li>Phalchen, III. <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a><br /></li> +<li>Phalgu, I. 136<br /></li> +<li>Phanrang, III. <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a><br /></li> +<li>Pharisees, III. <a href="#Page_3_436">436</a><br /></li> +<li>Phasso, I. 189, 209<br /></li> +<li>Phat-To, III. <a href="#Page_3_344">344</a><br /></li> +<li>Phăya Man, III. <a href="#Page_3_96">96</a> (Mâra)<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Rùang, III. <a href="#Page_3_80">80</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tăk Sin, III. <a href="#Page_3_86">86</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li><a name="Phis" id="Phis"></a>Phi, III. <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Am, III. <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Philo, III. <a href="#Page_3_433">433</a><br /></li> +<li>Philosophy, I. 64, 73, 303 <i>sq.</i>; II. 291 <i>sq.</i> +<i>See also</i> <a href="#Advaita">Advaita</a>, <a href="#Monism">Monism</a>, <a href="#Sankara">Sankâra</a>, <a href="#Vedanta">Vedanta</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Philosophy of Reflection</i>, II. 39<br /></li> +<li><i>Philosophy of the Upanishads</i>, II. 306<br /></li> +<li>Philostratus, III. <a href="#Page_3_447">447</a><br /></li> +<li>Phimeanakas, III. <a href="#Page_3_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_3_132">132</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phí-Prẽt, III. <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phí Ruen, III. <a href="#Page_3_98">98</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phnom Penh, III. <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_3_129">129</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phong-nha grotto, III. <a href="#Page_3_150">150</a><br /></li> +<li>Photisms, I. 309<br /></li> +<li>Phra-bat, III. <a href="#Page_3_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_3_98">98</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phra: Buddha-Löt-La, III. <a href="#Page_3_86">86</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phra: chedi, III. <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phra: In (Indra), III. <a href="#Page_3_96">96</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phra: Isuén (Śiva), III. <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phra-Khaphung, III. <a href="#Page_3_98">98</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phra: Kodom (Gautama), III. <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phra: Môkha: la, III. <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phra: Nang: Klao, III. <a href="#Page_3_87">87</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phra: Nărai, III. <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phra Pathom, III. <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_3_98">98</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phra: prang, III. <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phra: Saribut, III. <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>phyidar</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_352">352</a><br /></li> +<li>Physicians, king of, I. 201<br /></li> +<li>Physics, I. ciii, 66. <i>See</i> <a href="#Matter">Matter</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pi'ao, III. <a href="#Page_3_47">47</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pi-eh, III. <a href="#Page_3_311">311</a><br /></li> +<li>Pilgrims, I. 143; II. 94, 130<br /></li> +<li>Piḷḷai Lokâcârya, II. 236<br /></li> +<li>Pillar Edicts, I. 269 <i>sq</i>.<br /></li> +<li>Pi-lo-fu, III. <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a><br /></li> +<li>P'i-mo, III. <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a><br /></li> +<li>Piṇḍola, III. <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Bharadvâja, I. 320; II. 12<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>pinkama, III. <a href="#Page_3_42">42</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pipal Tree, I. 142<br /></li> +<li>Pipa Raja, II. 243<br /></li> +<li>Piper, Mrs., I. lvii<br /></li> +<li>Pipphalivâna, I. 169<br /></li> +<li>Piprava Vase, I. 169; III. <a href="#Page_3_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_3_99">99</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pir Badar, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +<li>pirit, III. <a href="#Page_3_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_3_42">42</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pirs, worship of, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +<li>Piśâcî, III. <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /></li> +<li>P'isha, III. <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pistis Sophia, III. <a href="#Page_3_445">445</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Pitakas" id="Pitakas"></a>Pitakas, I. xlix, lxxiii, lxxviii, 95, 102, 117, 133<i>sq</i>., 141, 143, 149, 152, +169<i>sq</i>., 189, 193, 195, 197, 208, 211<i>sq</i>., 239, 260, 290-301; II. 67, 122, +137, 171, 305; III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_3_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_3_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_3_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_3_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_3_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_3_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Piths" id="Piths"></a>pîths, II. 286<br /></li> +<li>Pitinikas, I. 268<br /></li> +<li>Pito, II. 129<br /></li> +<li>pitriyâna, I. 88<br /></li> +<li>Piyadassi, I. 266<br /></li> +<li>Plato, I. lv, lxiii; III. <a href="#Page_3_447">447</a><br /></li> +<li>Pleyte, III. <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pliny, I. 26; III. <a href="#Page_3_415">415</a><br /></li> +<li>Plotinus, I. 310; III. <a href="#Page_3_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_3_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_3_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_3_462">462</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Plutarch, II. 23<br /></li> +<li>Po-lai (Prah), III. <a href="#Page_3_125">125</a><br /></li> +<li>Polar Star, III. <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /></li> +<li>Poli, III. <a href="#Page_3_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_3_163">163</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Politics and Religion, I. lxxxi; III. <a href="#Page_3_236">236</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Pollanarua, III. <a href="#Page_3_18">18</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pollunaruwa, III. <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Polo, III. <a href="#Page_3_163">163</a><br /></li> +<li>Polyandry, I. 55; II. 155<br /></li> +<li>Polycrates, III. <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a><br /></li> +<li>Polydæmonism, III. <a href="#Page_3_225">225</a><br /></li> +<li>Polygamy, I. 90<br /></li> +<li>Polymorphism, I. 48; II. 139<br /></li> +<li>Polynesians, III. <a href="#Page_3_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_3_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Polytheism, I. lxix, 61, 62, 63; III. <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a><br /></li> +<li>Po-nagar, III. <a href="#Page_3_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Po-nan, III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a><br /></li> +<li>Pongol festivities, I. 100<br /></li> +<li>Pôngyi, III. <a href="#Page_3_72">72</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pônnâs, III. <a href="#Page_3_67">67</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pon Prajnâ Candra, III. <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a><br /></li> +<li>Poona, I. 69; II. 171, 258<br /></li> +<li>Pope, G.H., I. xc; II. 183, 215<br /></li> +<li>Pope Innocent III, I. 202<br /></li> +<li>Popular Religion, I. lxix, 6 <i>sq.</i>, 100; II. 173; III. <a href="#Page_3_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_3_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_3_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_3_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_3_224">224</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_3_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a> <i>sq.</i> (Bön)<br /> +</li> +<li><i>Popular Religion of Northern India</i>, I. 103, 145, 147; II. 277<br /></li> +<li>Porâṇa, III. <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Porphyry, III. <a href="#Page_3_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_3_460">460</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Portuguese, I. 31; III. <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_3_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_3_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_3_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Possession by spirits, I. 11<br /></li> +<li>Potala (Potalaka), II. 15; III. <a href="#Page_3_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_3_363">363</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Po-U-Daung, III. <a href="#Page_3_63">63</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Prabandham, II. 231<br /></li> +<li>prabhakari, II. 11<br /></li> +<li>Prabhû, II. 256<br /></li> +<li>Prabhuling-lila, II. 226<br /></li> +<li>Prabodha candradaya, I. 27; II. 123, 230<br /></li> +<li>pradakshina path, II. 172; III. <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a><br /></li> +<li>pradesika, I. 268<br /></li> +<li>Pradhâna, I. 335<br /></li> +<li>Pradyumna, II. 196, 235<br /></li> +<li>Prah Kou, III. <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a><br /></li> +<li>Prajâpati, I. 57, 62, 67<br /></li> +<li>Prajñâ, I. 220; II. 21, 34, 79; III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a> ,<a href="#Page_3_301">301</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>pâramitâ, I. xxxii, lxxiii; II. 50 <i>sq.</i>, 60, 66, 71, 72, 83, 85, 93, 118, 119; III. + <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_3_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_3_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_3_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_3_378">378</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Prajñâtara, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Prakâśa, II. 319<br /></li> +<li>Prakrit, I. 116; III.<a href="#Page_3_8"> 8</a>, <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_3_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_3_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Prakṛiti, II. 217, 244, 255, 278, 289, 297 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>pralaya, II. 317<br /></li> +<li>pramâra, II. 293<br /></li> +<li>Prambânam, III. <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_3_178">178</a> <i>sq</i>., <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Prameya Ratnavâlî, II. 255<br /></li> +<li>Prameyaratnârṇava, II. 249<br /></li> +<li>Prâṇa, II. 240<br /></li> +<li>Prâṇayama, I. 306<br /></li> +<li>Praṇidhâna, I. 344; II. 29<br /></li> +<li>Prannâth, II. 261<br /></li> +<li>Prapañcasâra Tantra, II. 282<br /></li> +<li>Prapantja, III. <a href="#Page_3_159">159</a><br /></li> +<li>Prapatti, II. 237<br /></li> +<li>Pra Pratom, III. <a href="#Page_3_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Prasad" id="Prasad"></a>prasâd, II. 174, 180; III. <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_3_422">422</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Prasat Prah Khse, Inscript., III. <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a><br /></li> +<li>Prasnaviyakaraṇâni, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Prasthânas, II. 238<br /></li> +<li>Pratapa Chandra Ghosha, II. 236<br /></li> +<li>Pratâparudra, king, II. 115<br /></li> +<li>Pratardana, II. 181<br /></li> +<li>Praten, III. <a href="#Page_3_98">98</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pratibhâ, I. 309<br /></li> +<li>Prâtimoksha, I. 300; III. <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_3_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_3_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_3_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Confession">Confession</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pratîtya Samutpâda, I. 206<br /></li> +<li>Pratyabhijña, II. 223, 224<br /></li> +<li>Pratyabhijña-kârikâs, II. 223<br /></li> +<li>Pratyâhâra, I. 306<br /></li> +<li>pratyaksha, II. 292<br /></li> +<li>Pratyekabuddhayâna, II. 4<br /></li> +<li>Pravâhaṇa Jaivali, I. 74, 88, 298<br /></li> +<li>Pravritti, I. lxxxi; II. 283<br /></li> +<li>Prayaga, II. 243<br /></li> +<li>Praying wheels, III. <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /></li> +<li>Prea Eynkosey, II. 159; III. <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a><br /></li> +<li>prema<br /></li> +<li>Prem Sâgar, II. 161, 191<br /></li> +<li>Preserver, the, II. 146<br /></li> +<li><a name="Preta" id="Preta"></a>Preta, I. 335; III. <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Preuschen, III. <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a><br /></li> +<li>Priesthood, I. 36. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Bonze">Bonze</a>, <a href="#Brahman">Brahman</a>, <a href="#Hoshang">Hoshang</a>, <a href="#Hotri">Hotri</a>, <a href="#Purohit">Purohit</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Principles of Tantra</i>, II. 190, 281, 282; III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Printing press, III. <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Prithivi-bandhu, III. <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a><br /></li> +<li>Priyadarśikâ, II. 97<br /></li> +<li>Proclus, III. <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a><br /></li> +<li>Prodigal son parable, III. <a href="#Page_3_438">438</a><br /></li> +<li>Prome, III. <a href="#Page_3_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Proverbs, Book of, I. 94<br /></li> +<li><i>Provincial Geographies of India</i>, II. 273<br /></li> +<li>sPrut-pa, III. <a href="#Page_3_360">360</a><br /></li> +<li>Przyluski, I. 161, 263; II. 81<br /></li> +<li><i>Psalms of Maratha Saints</i>, II. 256<br /></li> +<li>Psychology, I. 186, 192, 262; III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ptolemy, I. 26, 268; II. 158; III. <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Philadelphus, III. <a href="#Page_3_432">432</a><br /></li> +<li>Soter, III. <a href="#Page_3_244">244</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Pubbaselikas, I. 259<br /></li> +<li>Public worship, I. lxxxiv<br /></li> +<li>Pugâma, III. <a href="#Page_3_47">47</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Puggalavâdin, II. 101<br /></li> +<li>Puggalo (individual), I. 191; II. 101<br /></li> +<li>P'u-hsien, II. 23; III. <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a><br /></li> +<li>Pujaris, II. 173<br /></li> +<li>Pukham, III. <a href="#Page_3_52">52</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pukkusa, I. 165<br /></li> +<li>Pu-K'ung, III. <a href="#Page_3_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_3_293">293</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pulakesin, I. 19<br /></li> +<li>Pulindas, I. 268<br /></li> +<li>Puṃs, II. 165<br /></li> +<li>Punakha Press, III. <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a><br /></li> +<li>Puni, III. <a href="#Page_3_163">163</a><br /></li> +<li>P'un-ming, II. 18<br /></li> +<li>puṇya, I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Punyamitra, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Punyayasas, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Purâna Kassapa, I. 99<br /></li> +<li>Purâṇartha, III. <a href="#Page_3_142">142</a><br /></li> +<li>Purâṇas, I. xxxvi, xxxviii, lxxiv, 15, 59, 256, 333; II. 28, 48, 151, 187, 193, 281, 306, +321; III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pure Land school, III. <a href="#Page_3_312">312</a><br /></li> +<li>Puri, I. 30; II. 114, 116, 176, 208, 238, 254; III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_3_134">134</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pûrṇâ, I. 175, 299<br /></li> +<li>Pûrṇâ prajña, II. 237<br /></li> +<li>pûrṇatva, II. 204<br /></li> +<li>Pûrṇavarman, II. 96, 307; III. <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Purohit" id="Purohit"></a>Purohita, I. 88; III. <a href="#Page_3_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_3_145">145</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Purra-Poruḷ Veṇbâ-Mâlai, II. 213<br /></li> +<li>Purusha, II. 297; III. <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_3_426">426</a>. +<i>See</i> <a href="#Atman">Atmân</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Purushâda Śânta, III. <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a><br /></li> +<li>Purushapura, II. 76<br /></li> +<li>pûrvaja, III. <a href="#Page_3_426">426</a><br /></li> +<li>Pûrvamîmâmsâ Sûtra, II. 207, 291, 294, 310<br /></li> +<li>Pûrvas, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Pusa, III. <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a><br /></li> +<li>Puśan, I. 57; II. 146<br /></li> +<li>Pushkara-dvîpa, III. <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a><br /></li> +<li>Pushpadanta, I. 117<br /></li> +<li>Pushṭi-Jîva (Mârga), II. 249<br /></li> +<li>Pushya-mitra, II. 68, 69<br /></li> +<li>Pu-tai, II. 25<br /></li> +<li>P'u-ti-tu-lo, II. 95<br /></li> +<li>Putnomita, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>P'u-t'o, II. 15; III. <a href="#Page_3_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_3_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_3_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_3_321">321</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Puvvas, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Pyitshin, III. <a href="#Page_3_72">72</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Pythagoras, I. lv, 237; III. <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Pyus, III. <a href="#Page_3_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a><br /> +</li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Qamar, II. 155<br /></li> +<li>Quakers, I. 122<br /></li> +<li>Quan-Am, III. <a href="#Page_3_343">343</a><br /></li> +<li>Quan-Am-Thi-Kinh, III. <a href="#Page_3_343">343</a><br /></li> +<li>Quan-Am-Toa-Son, III. <a href="#Page_3_343">343</a><br /></li> +<li>Quãng-nam, III. <a href="#Page_3_137">137</a><br /></li> +<li>Questions of Milinda, I. 23, 199, 205, 225, 226, 240, 291, 339; +III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Quietism, I. 136<br /></li> +<li>Quilon (Bishop of), III. <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a><br /></li> +<li>Quod semper, quod ubique, quod ab omnibus, I. xcvii<br /></li> +<li>Qutayba, III. <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a><br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul><ul class="IX"> +<li>Rabbis, I. 91<br /></li> +<li>Racial distinctions, II. 177<br /></li> +<li>Raden Radmat, III. <a href="#Page_3_141">141</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Rahmat, III. <a href="#Page_3_161">161</a><br /></li> +<li>Vidjaja, III. <a href="#Page_3_159">159</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Râdhâ, II. 157, 158, 229, 253<br /></li> +<li>Râdhâ-swâmis, II. 266<br /></li> +<li>Râdhâ Vallabhis, II. 256<br /></li> +<li>Radiance, world of, I. 331<br /></li> +<li>Radloff, III. <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a><br /></li> +<li>Raffles, III. <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_3_161">161</a><br /> +</li> +<li>râga, II. 204<br /></li> +<li>Raghuvaṃsa, II. 151, 189<br /></li> +<li>Râhasyas, II. 237<br /></li> +<li>Râhula, I. 134, 148, 151, 160, 298, 301, 315; <i>also</i>. III. <a href="#Page_3_57">57</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Râhulabhadra, II. 85; III. <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a><br /></li> +<li>Râhulabhadra Nâgârjuna, II. 128<br /></li> +<li>Râhulata, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Rai Das, II. 243<br /></li> +<li>Râjâ, status of, I. 131<br /></li> +<li>Rajagaha, I. 135, 147, 148, 150, 157, 158, 161, 162, 254, 255; +III. <a href="#Page_3_32">32</a> (council at)<br /> +</li> +<li>Râjagirikas, I. 259, 339<br /></li> +<li>Râjagopala Chariar, II. 190, 316<br /></li> +<li>Râjagriha, I. 111; II. 94<br /></li> +<li>Râja Kumâra, II. 99<br /></li> +<li>Rajaraja, I. 26; II. 108, 215<br /></li> +<li>rajas, II. 298<br /></li> +<li>Râjâsanagara, III. <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a><br /></li> +<li>Râjasuya, I. 68<br /></li> +<li>Râjataranginî, II. 85, 109, 127<br /></li> +<li>Râjâvaliya, III. <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Râja-yoga, I. 305<br /></li> +<li>Rajendravarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_3_121">121</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Rajgir, I. 121, 135<br /></li> +<li>Rajputana, I. 19, 30, 31, 115; II. 113, 242, 244, 252; +III. <a href="#Page_3_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Rajput Clans, I. 25, 26<br /></li> +<li>Râjûka, I. 268<br /></li> +<li>Raksasas, III. <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_3_393">393</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ralpachan, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_3_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_3_386">386</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ram, II. 263, 264, 268<br /></li> +<li><a name="Rama" id="Rama"></a>Râma, I. xv, xxxv, 72, 169; +II. 148 <i>sq.</i>, 169, 243 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Candra, II. 113, 148 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Râmâdhipati, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_3_85">85</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Râmagâma, I. 169<br /></li> +<li>Râmâi Pandit, II. 114<br /></li> +<li>Ramaites, II. 233<br /></li> +<li>Râma Komhëng, I. xxv; III. <a href="#Page_3_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_3_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_3_126">126</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Krishna, I. xlvii; II. 161<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li><i>Rama Krishna (life of)</i>, I. 317, 340<br /></li> +<li>Râma-linga, II. 221<br /></li> +<li>Râmânanda, I. xliv <i>sq.</i>; II. 212, 242 <i>sq.</i>, 257, 263, 268, 269; III. <a href="#Page_3_420">420</a><br /></li> +<li>Râmaññadesa, III. <a href="#Page_3_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Râmânuja, I. xliv; II. 73, 74, 145, 151, 182, 186, 192, 197 <i>sq.</i>, 203, 212, 221, 226, +228, 229, 232 <i>sq.</i>, 242, 314, 316; III. <a href="#Page_3_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_3_457">457</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Râmanya Sangha, III. <a href="#Page_3_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_3_38">38</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Râmapâla, II. 112, 129; III. <a href="#Page_3_360">360</a><br /></li> +<li>Râmapûrvatâ-panîya Upanishad, II. 151<br /></li> +<li>Râmarâja, III. <a href="#Page_3_80">80</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Râmatâpanîya, II. 280<br /></li> +<li>Rama Thuppdey-Chan, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_129">129</a><br /></li> +<li>Râmats, II. 243<br /></li> +<li>Râma-uttaratâpanîya, II. 151<br /></li> +<li><a name="Ramayana" id="Ramayana"></a>Râmâyana, I. xlv, lxxv, xc, c; II. 148 <i>sq.</i>, 169, 187, 245; III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_3_152">152</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_3_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_3_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ramayya, II. 225<br /></li> +<li>Râmdâs, II. 256<br /></li> +<li>Râm Dâs (Guru), II. 268<br /></li> +<li>Ramesvaram, I. 17; II. 150<br /></li> +<li>Rammaka (Brahma), I. 153<br /></li> +<li>Ranchor, II. 244<br /></li> +<li>Rangachari, V., II. 236<br /></li> +<li>Rangoon, III. <a href="#Page_3_49">49</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ranjit-Singh, II. 272<br /></li> +<li>Ranmali, III. <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Rao-Gopînâtha, I. xxxv, 58; II. 140, 165, 190, 202; III. <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Rapson, II. 153<br /></li> +<li>Rapti (upper), I. 132<br /></li> +<li>Raseśvara Darśana, I. 305; II. 320<br /></li> +<li>Râshṭra kûṭa dynasty, I. 27, 114<br /></li> +<li>Râshṭrapâlaparipricchâ, II. 100<br /></li> +<li>Ras Lîlâ, II. 250<br /></li> +<li>Ras Mandali, II. 250<br /></li> +<li>Ratnakaraṇḍa-vyûha-sûtra, II. 19<br /></li> +<li>Ratnakûṭa, III. <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_3_378">378</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ratnakûṭa-dharma-paryâya, II. 57, 61<br /></li> +<li>Ratnapura, III. <a href="#Page_3_43">43</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ratnasambhava, II. 26; III. <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ratnavajra, II. 126<br /></li> +<li>Ratnâvalî, I. 319; II. 97, 259<br /></li> +<li>Ratthapâla sutta, I. 134; III. <a href="#Page_3_71">71</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Raudra, III. <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a><br /></li> +<li>Raurava, II. 205<br /></li> +<li>Ravana, I. 72, 337; II. 54, 149<br /></li> +<li>Raverty, II. 112<br /></li> +<li>Ravi, I. 20<br /></li> +<li>Rawak, III. <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a><br /></li> +<li>Rawal Pindi, I. 21<br /></li> +<li>Rawlinson, II. 256<br /></li> +<li>Raymond, I. 11<br /></li> +<li><i>Recherches sur les superstitions en Chine</i>, I. 341; II. 18<br /></li> +<li><i>Recht und Sitte</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Record of Buddhist practices</i>, II. 3<br /></li> +<li><i>Records of the Buddhist Empire</i>, I. 258<br /></li> +<li>Red Clergy, III. <a href="#Page_3_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_3_397">397</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Reincarnation" id="Reincarnation"></a>Reincarnation, I. xviii, xix, 1 <i>sq.</i>, 11, 42, 108, 109, 123, 139, 194, 195, 196; III. +<a href="#Page_3_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_3_444">444</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Rë̂k Na, III. <a href="#Page_3_94">94</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Relations, relativity, theory, I. 208<br /></li> +<li><a name="Relics" id="Relics"></a>Relics (Buddhist), I. 169; III. <a href="#Page_3_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_3_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_3_22">22-28</a>, <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_3_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_3_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_3_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_3_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_3_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_3_270">270</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Religion, definition, I. xii, xcvii, 12. Cf. Introduction <i>passim</i><br /></li> +<li><i>Religions of India</i>, II. 143<br /></li> +<li>Religious Orders, I. 95, 96, 97, 237. <i>See</i> <a href="#Asceticism">Asceticism</a>, <a href="#Monasteries">Monasteries</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Rembang, III. <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a><br /></li> +<li>Rémusat, III. <a href="#Page_3_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_3_250">250</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Rémy, III. <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a><br /></li> +<li>Renunciation, I. lxv <i>sq.</i>, 135, 215; II. 168<br /></li> +<li><i>Répertoire d'Epigraphie Jaina</i>, I. 105, 113<br /></li> +<li>Revata, I. 257; III. <a href="#Page_3_28">28</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Revelation (progressive), I. lxxi, 76; II. 191, 233<br /></li> +<li>Revelations (Maitreya), II. 83<br /></li> +<li>Rhys Davids, I. 97, 103, 128, 129, 161, 212, 226, 259, 260, 315; II. 100, 175, 320; III. <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_3_303">303</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Rhys Davids (Mrs.), I. xxi, 180, 188, 190, 193, 208, 209, 213, 248, 259, 281, 314; III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Rhys Davids and Oldenburg, I. 139<br /></li> +<li>Ricci, II. 279<br /></li> +<li>Rice, I. 114; II. 108, 213<br /></li> + +<li>Richards, II. 174; III. <a href="#Page_3_311">311</a><br /></li> +<li>Right Effort, I. 217<br /></li> +<li>Righteousness, kingdom of, I. 140<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>wheel of, I. 143, 170<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Right mindfulness, I. 217<br /></li> +<li>Ṛig Veda, I. xiv. lxxii, 19, 20, 51, 53, 55, 60, 62; II. 137, 146, 152, 181, 244, 275; III. +<a href="#Page_3_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_3_426">426</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ri-lac, III. <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /></li> +<li>Ri-moi-mthsan-ñid, III. <a href="#Page_3_377">377</a><br /></li> +<li>Ṛishabha, I. 110; II. 148<br /></li> +<li>Rishis, II. 193<br /></li> +<li>Risshu sect, III. <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /></li> +<li>Ritual, I. xvi, xxi, lxxiv; II. 6, 166-185, 207; III. <a href="#Page_3_331">331</a>. Cf. Sacrifices, Temples<br /></li> +<li>Rochas (Colonel), I. lvii<br /></li> +<li>Rockhill, I. 99, 173, 259; II. 81, 103; III. <a href="#Page_3_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_3_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_3_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_3_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_3_396">396</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Roga, I. 201<br /></li> +<li>Rohinî, I. 149; II. 153, 154<br /></li> +<li>Roja, I. 171<br /></li> +<li>Roman Catholicism, I. lxxxv, 37, 39, 238, 246; III. <a href="#Page_3_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_3_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_3_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_3_443">443</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Colonies, III. <a href="#Page_3_415">415</a><br /></li> +<li>Empire, I. 24<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Romance, religious, III. <a href="#Page_3_225">225</a><br /></li> +<li>Rosetti, I. lxxxvii<br /></li> +<li>Ross, Sir. Denison, II. 89<br /></li> +<li>Roussel, II. 195<br /></li> +<li>Royal deification, III. <a href="#Page_3_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a><br /> +</li> +<li>de Rubruk (Wilhelm), III. <a href="#Page_3_395">395</a><br /></li> +<li>Ru-che-tsan, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_377">377</a><br /></li> +<li>ruci, II. 255<br /></li> +<li>Rudhirâdhyâya, II. 289<br /></li> +<li>Rudra, I. 59; II. 137, 140, 141, 183, 202, 228, 277; III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /></li> +<li>Rudradaman, II. 69; III. <a href="#Page_3_139">139</a><br /></li> +<li>Rudras, I. 57<br /></li> +<li>Rudra-sampradâya, II. 229, 248<br /></li> +<li>Rudra Singh, II. 260<br /></li> +<li>Rudravarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Rudra Yâmala Tantra, II. 281<br /></li> +<li>Rufais, II. 254<br /></li> +<li>Rukmiṇî, II. 257<br /></li> +<li>Ruling Spirits of the Four Quarters, I. 102<br /></li> +<li>Rummin Dei, I. 132, 269, 274<br /></li> +<li>Runes, III. <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a><br /></li> +<li>Runot, I. 67<br /></li> +<li>rûpa, I. 188, 209<br /></li> +<li>rûparâgo, I. 227<br /></li> +<li>Russell, II. 261, 266<br /></li> +<li>Russia, I. lxx, 54, 122; III. <a href="#Page_3_370">370</a><br /></li> +<li>Ruwanweli Dagoba, III. <a href="#Page_3_18">18</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ruysbroek, I. 323<br /></li> +<li>Ryō-bu Shintō, III. <a href="#Page_3_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_3_410">410</a><br /> +</li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Sabannu, I. 228<br /></li> +<li>Sabaza, III. <a href="#Page_3_161">161</a><br /></li> +<li>Sabbakâmi, I. 257<br /></li> +<li>Śabda, II. 265, 266, 292, 320; III. <a href="#Page_3_419">419</a><br /></li> +<li>Sabhâ, II. 273<br /></li> +<li>Saccidânanda, I. ciii, 84; II. 248<br /></li> +<li>Sachan, III. <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Sacred Books of the Hindus</i>, II. 182, 255<br /></li> +<li>Sacred Edict, I. 267; III. <a href="#Page_3_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_3_323">323</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sacrifice, I. xvi, xxii, xxxvi, lvi, lxxxv, lxxxvii, 49, 62, 63, 64, 65 <i>sq.</i>, 120, 145, +230; III. <a href="#Page_3_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_3_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_3_443">443</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sadaśiva, III. <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a><br /></li> +<li>Saddanîti, III. <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Saddhammapura, III. <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Saddharma Puṇḍarika, II. 4, 52; III. <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sadducees, III. <a href="#Page_3_436">436</a><br /></li> +<li>Sâdhaka, II. 122<br /></li> +<li><i>Sadhana</i>, I. 46; II. 45, 282<br /></li> +<li>Sâdhu, II. 104, 245<br /></li> +<li>Sâdhumatî, II. 11<br /></li> +<li>S'adi, III. <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /></li> +<li>Sadiya, II. 279<br /></li> +<li>Sad-Vaishnavas, II. 239<br /></li> +<li>Sadyojâta, II. 198<br /></li> +<li>Saeki, III. <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a><br /></li> +<li>Sagaing, III. <a href="#Page_3_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_3_75">75</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sâgaliyas, III. <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sâgara, I. 110<br /></li> +<li>Sâgata, I. 155, 329<br /></li> +<li>Sahajânanda, II. 252<br /></li> +<li>Sahaj Bhajanias, II. 185<br /></li> +<li>Sahassadeva, I. 269<br /></li> +<li>Sahin (novice), III. <a href="#Page_3_72">72</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sailesh, II. 147<br /></li> +<li>Saindhava-çrâvakas, II. 129<br /></li> +<li>Saint Angela, I. 316<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Augustine, II. 180<br /></li> +<li>Christopher, III. <a href="#Page_3_442">442</a><br /></li> +<li>Frances, II. 217<br /></li> +<li>Gertrude, II. 161<br /></li> +<li>John, I. 181<br /></li> +<li>Paul, I. lxxiv, 273<br /></li> +<li>Placidus (Hubert), III. <a href="#Page_3_442">442</a><br /></li> +<li>Teresa, I. lxii, 310<br /></li> +<li>Thomas, Apostle, III. <a href="#Page_3_414">414</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Śaisunâga dynasty, I. 132<br /></li> +<li>Śaiva, etc. <i>See</i> <a href="#Siva">Siva</a>, etc.<br /> +</li> +<li>Śaiva Siddhânta, II. 184, 203, 204, 216, 221, 225, 291, 309, 318<br /></li> +<li>Śaivottara Kalpa, III. <a href="#Page_3_142">142</a><br /></li> +<li>Saiyad Sular Masud (shrine), III. <a href="#Page_3_458">458</a><br /></li> +<li>Saiyid dynasty, I. 29<br /></li> +<li>Sakadâgâmin, I. 227<br /></li> +<li>Sâkadvîpa, III. <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_3_452">452</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Saka era, III. <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sakalâcâryamata-sangraha, II. 249<br /></li> +<li>Śakambhara, I. 102<br /></li> +<li>Sakas, I. xxx, 22, 23; II. 69; III. <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a><br /></li> +<li>Sâkiya, I. 131<br /></li> +<li>Sakka, I. 59, 102, 130, 333; III. <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /></li> +<li>Sakkâya, I. 200<br /></li> +<li>Sakkâyadiṭṭi, I. 227<br /></li> +<li>Śakra, I. 333<br /></li> +<li><a name="Saktism" id="Saktism"></a>Sâktas (Sâktism), I. xxxiv, xxxvi, lxxxvii, 104, 310; II. 17, 18, 121, 124, 125 <i>sq.</i>, +170, 176, 185, 189 <i>sq.</i>, 209, 224, 255, 259, 274-290, 319 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_3_274">274</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Sakti_worship" id="Sakti_worship"></a>Sâkti (proper name), II. 145, 196, 216, 223, 274 <i>sq.</i>, 319; III. <a href="#Page_3_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_3_396">396</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Sakyas" id="Sakyas"></a>Sâkya (clan), I. 131, 132, 135, 149, 155, 161, 162, 166, 169; III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>(abbots), III. <a href="#Page_3_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_3_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_3_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Sâkya, II. 255; III. <a href="#Page_3_364">364</a><br /></li> +<li>Sakya Muni, I. 133, 274; II. 7, 30, 33, 52, 53, 55, 58, 66, 93, 105; III. <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sakyaputtiya, I. 242<br /></li> +<li>Sakya siṃha, I. 133<br /></li> +<li>Salá, III. <a href="#Page_3_130">130</a><br /></li> +<li>Śalistambha Sûtra, III. <a href="#Page_3_378">378</a><br /></li> +<li>Sallustius, III. <a href="#Page_3_447">447</a><br /></li> +<li>Salva, king, II. 155<br /></li> +<li><a name="Salvation" id="Salvation"></a>Salvation (by devotion or faith or prayer), I. xvi, xviii, xix, xxi, xxii, xxix, lviii +<i>sq.</i>, 31, 44, 49, 83, 106 <i>sq.</i>, 144, 186, 222 <i>sq.</i>; II. 72, 84, 121 +(Tantras), 140, 152, 180-183, 217, 222, 235, 239, 255, 290, 291, 295, +310, 317; III. <a href="#Page_3_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_3_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_3_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_3_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_3_457">457</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Samâdhi (rapture), I. 83, 221, 262, 307; II. 61; III. <a href="#Page_3_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Samâdhi-râja, II. 55<br /></li> +<li>Samajja, I. 103<br /></li> +<li>Samanas, I. 95<br /></li> +<li>Samañña-phala-sutta, I. 298<br /></li> +<li>Samantabhadra, II. 13, 23, 32; III. <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_3_388">388</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Samantamukha, II. 14<br /></li> +<li>Samanta Pâsâdika, II. 13, 14, 30, 298<br /></li> +<li>Samarkand, III. <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Samarpana, II. 250<br /></li> +<li>Samatâ, II. 43; III. <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a><br /></li> +<li>Samaṭata, III. <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Samatho, I. 313<br /></li> +<li>Samavâyangam, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Sâma Veda, I. 53<br /></li> +<li>Sâmba, III. <a href="#Page_3_452">452</a><br /></li> +<li>Sambandha, II. 215<br /></li> +<li>Śâmbapuri, III. <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /></li> +<li>Śambhala, II. 129; III. <a href="#Page_3_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_3_386">386 </a>(Zhambala)<br /> +</li> +<li>Sambhâra, II. 32<br /></li> +<li>Sambhoga Kâya, II. 32; III. <a href="#Page_3_388">388</a><br /></li> +<li>Śambhuvarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_140">140</a><br /></li> +<li>Śambhu Vishṇu, III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /></li> +<li>Samding, III. <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /></li> +<li>Saṃhitâs, II. 128, 188, 195<br /></li> +<li>Saṃkara, II. 238<br /></li> +<li>Sammâdiṭṭhi, I. 215<br /></li> +<li>Sammâ Samâdhi, I. lxii, 221<br /></li> +<li>Sammâ-sam-buddha, I. 344<br /></li> +<li>Sammitîya, I. 260, 298; II. 98, 101, 105, 108, 129; III. <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_3_162">162</a><br /> +</li> +<li>sammoha, III. <a href="#Page_3_117">117</a><br /></li> +<li>Sammohana (Tantra), III. <a href="#Page_3_118">118</a><br /></li> +<li>Sammohavinodinî (Pali), III. <a href="#Page_3_118">118</a><br /></li> +<li>Sammutiraya, III. <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Samos, III. <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a><br /></li> +<li>Samoyede, I. 9<br /></li> +<li>bSam-pa rGya-mThso, III. <a href="#Page_3_363">363</a><br /></li> +<li>Sampradâya, II. 179, 228. Cf. Sects<br /></li> +<li>Samprati, I. 113<br /></li> +<li><a name="Samsara" id="Samsara"></a>Saṃsâra (migration), I. 1, 42, 43, 44 <i>sq</i>., 199, 200; II. 45. <i>See</i> + <a href="#Reincarnation">Reincarnation</a><br /> +</li> +<li>saṃskâra, I. 188, 210; II. 300; III. <a href="#Page_3_95">95</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Samudra Gupta, I. 24; II. 87; III. <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Saṃvara, I. 107; II. 140; III. <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a><br /></li> +<li>Samvṛiti-satya, II. 38<br /></li> +<li>Saṃyama, I. 308<br /></li> +<li>Samye, III. <a href="#Page_3_350">350</a><br /></li> +<li>Saṃyuktâbhidharmahṛidaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a><br /></li> +<li>Saṃyuktâgama, I. 293, 300; II. 48; III. <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a> <i>sq</i>.<br /> +</li> +<li>Saṃyukta-ratna-piṭaka Sûtra, II. 83<br /></li> +<li>Saṃyukta-vastu, II. 224<br /></li> +<li><a name="Samyutta_Nikaya" id="Samyutta_Nikaya"></a>Saṃyutta nikâya, I. lxxiii, 189, 190, 192, 193, 201, 232, 278, 289; II. 48; III. <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sanakâdi, II. 228<br /></li> +<li>Sanakâdi-sampradâya, II. 230<br /></li> +<li>Śanakavâsa, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a> (Śanavâsa)<br /></li> +<li>Sanang Setsen, III. <a href="#Page_3_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_3_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_3_361">361</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sanan-kumâra, I. 103<br /></li> +<li>Sanâtama Dharma, I. xlviii<br /></li> +<li>Sanatsujatîya, II. 187<br /></li> +<li>San-bo-tsai, III. <a href="#Page_3_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_3_162">162</a><br /> +</li> +<li>San-Chao, III. <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sanchi tope, I. 269, 272; III. <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sandberg, III. <a href="#Page_3_399">399</a><br /></li> +<li>Sâṇḍilya, II. 308<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Sûtras, II. 182<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Sangâmaji, I. 160<br /></li> +<li>Sangermano, Father, III. <a href="#Page_3_63">63</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Sangha" id="Sangha"></a>Sangha (Buddhist order), I. 97, 154, 156, 182, 185, 237 <i>sq.</i>, 256, 258; II. 115; III. + <a href="#Page_3_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_3_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_3_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_3_214">214</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sanghamittâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sanghams, II. 214<br /></li> +<li>Sanghanandi, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Sanghapâla, III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a><br /></li> +<li>Sangharâjas, III. <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_3_83">83</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sangharaksha, II. 64, 80<br /></li> +<li>Sanghavarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a><br /></li> +<li>Sanghayaśas, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Sang Hyang Kamahâyânikan, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_3_180">180</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sangîti, I. 256; III. <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sangsit, III. <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a><br /></li> +<li>Sâñjaya, I. 98, 145, 147, 155<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>(Java), III. <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a><br /></li> +<li>Belaputta, II. 97<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li><a name="Sankara" id="Sankara"></a>Śaṇkara Acârya, I. xxxii, xl, xlii, xliii, lxviii, lxxxi, 82, 86, 211, 303; II. 73, 74, 109, +110, 130, 175, 183, 187, 197, 203, 206 <i>sq.</i> (life), 220, 233, 234, 238, 258, 280, +282, 312 <i>sq.</i> (doctrines); III. <a href="#Page_3_421">421</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Advaita">Advaita</a>, <a href="#Monism">Monism</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Śaṇkara-dig-vijaya, II. 110, 203<br /></li> +<li>Saṇkara Nârâyana, II. 164; III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Śaṇkarapandita, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a><br /></li> +<li>Śaṇkara-vijaya, II. 209<br /></li> +<li>Śankarshaṇa, II. 196, 197, 200, 235, 319<br /></li> +<li>Sankhâras, I. 188 <i>sq.</i>, 206 <i>sq.</i>, 225, 230<br /></li> +<li>Sankhâruppatti-sutta, I. 210<br /></li> +<li><i>Śankhya Aphorisms of Kapila</i>, II. 296<br /></li> +<li>Sâṇkhya Kârikâbhâshya, II. 296, 304; III. <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>philosophy, I. lxxvi, xcii, 47, 49, 74, 98, 106, 108, 109, 128, 210, 211, 302; II. 40, 54, +88, 99, 182, 197, 201, 202, 216, 217, 232, 291, 292, 293, 296 <i>sq.</i> (details); III. +<a href="#Page_3_448">448</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Sânkhyam, III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>die Sankhya philosophie</i>, II. 296, 299<br /></li> +<li>Sâṇkhyapravacana, II. 296<br /></li> +<li>Sâṇkhya-tattva-kaumadi, II. 303<br /></li> +<li>Sânkhya-Yoga, II. 224, 229<br /></li> +<li>San Kuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_225">225</a><br /></li> +<li>San-lun-tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /></li> +<li>Sanna, I. 188<br /></li> +<li>Sanna (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a><br /></li> +<li>Sannyâsin, I. 89; II. 247, 254, 294<br /></li> +<li>Sanskrit, I. xxiv, xxviii, 117, 130, 275, 300; II. 4, 6, 47 <i>sq.</i> (Canon). (<i>Also</i> +Mahâyânist Literature), 69, 113, 123 (Nepal); III. <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a> <i>sq.</i> (Champa), <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a>, + +<a href="#Page_3_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_294">294 </a><i>sq.</i> (Chinese Canon), <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Sanskrit manuscripts of Bikaner</i>, II. 190<br /></li> +<li><i>Sanskrit Texts</i> (Muir), I. 36<br /></li> +<li>Śânta, III. <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a><br /></li> +<li>santâna, II. 36<br /></li> +<li>San-ta-pu, III. <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_3_311">311</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Śântarakshita, III. <a href="#Page_3_348">348</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Santhagâra, I. 150<br /></li> +<li>Sânti, II. 255<br /></li> +<li>Śântideva, II. 9, 45, 60, 106<br /></li> +<li>Śântiparvan, II. 195, 196, 202, 203; III. <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a><br /></li> +<li>Santri Birahis, III. <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a><br /></li> +<li>San Tsang, III. <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a><br /></li> +<li>Saoshyant, II. 23; III. <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /></li> +<li>Śarabha Mûrti, II. 140<br /></li> +<li>Sâradâtilaka Tantra, II. 281<br /></li> +<li>Saraha, I. xxxii; II. 29, 85; III. <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a><br /></li> +<li>Saraks, II. 114, 177<br /></li> +<li>Saraladasa, II. 114<br /></li> +<li>Sârasamuccaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Sarasvatî, II. 19, 145<br /></li> +<li>Sâriputra-prakaraṇa, III. <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a><br /></li> +<li>Sariputta, I. 147, 148, 155, 157, 172, 180, 211, 229, 320; II. 9; III. <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_3_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sarkar, B.K., II. 32, 111, 114, 116<br /></li> +<li>Sarkar Jadunath, II. 113<br /></li> +<li>Sarnath, I. 141, 171, 266, 270; II. 112<br /></li> +<li>Śarva, III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /></li> +<li>Sarva-darśana-saṇgraha, II. 91, 201, 202, 203, 205, 222, 291, 320, 321<br /></li> +<li>Sarvajñâdeva, III. <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a><br /></li> +<li>sarvajnatva, II. 204<br /></li> +<li>sarva-kartṛitva, II. 204<br /></li> +<li>Sarva Śavarânâm Bhagavati, III. <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /></li> +<li>Sarvâstivâdin (sect), I. xxvi, xxxii, 262, 263, 291, 300; II. 48, 72, 77 <i>sq.</i>, 85, 90, +101, 224; III. <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_299">299</a> (Canon), <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a>, + +<a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sâsanavaṃsa, III. <a href="#Page_3_55">55 </a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_3_62">62 </a><i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Saśâṇka, II. 96<br /></li> +<li>Sa-skya-pancen, III. <a href="#Page_3_354">354</a><br /></li> +<li>Saskya Pandita, III. <a href="#Page_3_350">350</a><br /></li> +<li>Sassanids, I. 24; III. <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Śâstâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a><br /></li> +<li>Śâstra Madhyavibhâga, III. <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a><br /></li> +<li>Śâstri, Pandit Hari Prasad, II. 113, 116<br /></li> +<li>sasvatâ, II. 43<br /></li> +<li>Satagiri, I. 103<br /></li> +<li>Śatapatha Brâhmana, I. lxxx, 89, 91 <i>sq.</i>; II. 195<br /></li> +<li>Satara Brahmans, II. 279<br /></li> +<li>Śatarudriya hymn, II. 141, 142, 183<br /></li> +<li>Śataśâstra, III. <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /></li> +<li>Sâtavahâna dynasty, I. 22; II. 85<br /></li> +<li>Sathagopa, II. 231, 237<br /></li> +<li>Sâti, I. 197<br /></li> +<li>Sati, I. 217<br /></li> +<li>Satî, II. 126, 285<br /></li> +<li>Sati (Suttee), I. lxxxviii; II. 168; III. <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a><br /></li> +<li>Sat-mahal-prasâda, III. <a href="#Page_3_18">18</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sat-nâmis, II. 286<br /></li> +<li>Satrapies, III. <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /></li> +<li>Satriyas, III. <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a><br /></li> +<li>Satrunjaya, I. 121; III. <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a><br /></li> +<li>Sattras (monasteries), II. 175, 260<br /></li> +<li>Sattva, II. 298<br /></li> +<li>Sâttvata-Saṃhitâ, II. 188, 189, 195, 196, 198<br /></li> +<li>Sâttvata sept, II. 154, 162, 194 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Śâtyasiddhiśâstra, III. <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /></li> +<li>Satyavarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_3_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Saugatâśrama, III. <a href="#Page_3_121">121</a> (monastery)<br /></li> +<li>Saukavastan, III. <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a><br /></li> +<li>saumya, III. <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a><br /></li> +<li>Saundarânandakâvya, II. 83<br /></li> +<li>Saura Purâna, II. 163, 238<br /></li> +<li>Saurântrika, I. 260; II. 86, 90, 92; III. <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /></li> +<li>Sauvîra, I. 190<br /></li> +<li>Sâvatthi, I. 148, 151, 152, 159, 162, 245<br /></li> +<li>Savitri, I. 57; II. 146<br /></li> +<li>Sawan, III. <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a><br /></li> +<li>Sawti sect, III. <a href="#Page_3_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_3_73">73</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sayâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_72">72</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sâyanâcârya, II. 210<br /></li> +<li>Say-fong inscript., III. <a href="#Page_3_124">124</a><br /></li> +<li>Scandinavian Literature, I. 45<br /></li> +<li><i>Scènes de la Vie du Buddha</i>, I. 173<br /></li> +<li>Schiefner, I. 173; II. 126, 129; III. <a href="#Page_3_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_3_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Schmidt, III. <a href="#Page_3_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Schmitt, III. <a href="#Page_3_83">83</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Schomerus, I. xli; II. 188, 204, 319<br /></li> +<li>Schools of Philosophy (Indian), II. 291 <i>sq.</i> Cf. Sects<br /></li> +<li>Schopenhauer, I. lv, lxxvi, 47, 201, 208, 236, 309; II. 270<br /></li> +<li>Schrader, I. lxxx, 76, 97, 99, 219, 232, 236; II. 128, 188, 189, 195, 197, 198, 204, 210, +235, 270, 322, 387<br /></li> +<li>Science, I. ciii; III. <a href="#Page_3_376">376</a> (Tibetan literature). Cf. Cosmology, Metaphysics<br /></li> +<li>Scott, Sir. J.S., III. <a href="#Page_3_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_3_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_3_70">70</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Scott Moncrieff, III. <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a><br /></li> +<li>Scythian kingdoms, I. 22; III. <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Scythianus, III. <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /></li> +<li>Sdok Kak Thom inscript., III. <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_3_117">117</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sea of Milk, III. <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a><br /></li> +<li>Secret rites, II. 121, 283<br /></li> +<li>Sects:<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Buddhist, I. 259, 260 (list), 298 (list); III. <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a><br /></li> +<li>Burmese, III. <a href="#Page_3_57">57</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Chinese Buddhists, III. <a href="#Page_3_303">303</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Hindu, II. 179 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Japanese Buddhists, III. <a href="#Page_3_403">403</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Mahayâna and Hinâyana defined, I. xxx; II. 3 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Sivaite, II. 216 <i>sq.</i>, 222 <i>sq.</i> (Kashmir), 225 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Tibetan, III. <a href="#Page_3_397">397</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Vishnuite, II. 194 <i>sq.</i>, 228 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Seidenstücker, I. 312<br /></li> +<li>Seistan, III. <a href="#Page_3_3">3</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sekhen, I. 218<br /></li> +<li>Sekkilar, II. 220<br /></li> +<li>Seleucus Nicator, I. 21; III. <a href="#Page_3_432">432</a><br /></li> +<li>Self-hypnotization, I. 319<br /></li> +<li>Semirechinsk, III. <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a><br /></li> +<li>Semitic alphabets, I. 61; III. <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>deities, I. 60; II. 276<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Sen-Dinesh Chandra, II. 114, 187, 213, 245, 253, 255, 279, 287<br /></li> +<li>Sen, Keshub Chunder, I. 339<br /></li> +<li>Senart, I. 113, 267; III. <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Senas, I. 27; II. 112, 253<br /></li> +<li>Sendha-pa, II. 129<br /></li> +<li>Sêng, III. <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a><br /></li> +<li>Sêng-Hin, III. <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a><br /></li> +<li>Sêng-ts'an, III. <a href="#Page_3_308">308</a><br /></li> +<li>Sêng-Yu, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Sensus Communis, I. 192<br /></li> +<li>Seoul, III. <a href="#Page_3_339">339</a><br /></li> +<li>Sera, III. <a href="#Page_3_359">359</a><br /></li> +<li>Serapis, I. 41; III. <a href="#Page_3_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_3_429">429</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Seringapatam, II. 237<br /></li> +<li>Sermons (Buddhas), I. 143, 146, 185, 295<br /></li> +<li><i>Sermons of a Buddhist Abbot</i>, II. 42, 71<br /></li> +<li>Serpent Power, the, I. 311<br /></li> +<li>Serpent-worship, I. 103<br /></li> +<li>Serra, III. <a href="#Page_3_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_3_399">399</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Setavya, I. 162<br /></li> +<li>Shâburkân, III. <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /></li> +<li>Shadâyatana, III. <a href="#Page_3_247">247</a><br /></li> +<li>Shah Jehan, I. 30, 31; II. 270<br /></li> +<li>Shaka, III. <a href="#Page_3_405">405</a><br /></li> +<li>Shakespeare, III. <a href="#Page_3_437">437</a><br /></li> +<li>Sha-le (Su-le, Shu-le) (Kashgar), III. <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a><br /></li> +<li>Shamanism, III. <a href="#Page_3_383">383</a><br /></li> +<li>Shang Ti (Tien), I. 8<br /></li> +<li>Shan languages, II. 279<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>mountain, III. <a href="#Page_3_325">325</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Shans, III. <a href="#Page_3_46">46</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Shan-shan, III. <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a> 213<br /></li> +<li>Shan-si, II. 20; III. <a href="#Page_3_221">221</a><br /></li> +<li>Shan Tao, III. <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a><br /></li> +<li>Shantung, III. <a href="#Page_3_319">319</a><br /></li> +<li>Shao-Lin Temple, III. <a href="#Page_3_255">255</a><br /></li> +<li>Shaṭcakrabheda, I. 310<br /></li> +<li>Shaṭ-karma, I. 305<br /></li> +<li>Shea and Trayer, II. 321<br /></li> +<li>Sheikh Chisti shrine, III. <a href="#Page_3_458">458</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Farid, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +<li>Sadu, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Shelley, I. 46<br /></li> +<li>Shen, I. 6<br /></li> +<li>Shen-Chu Hung, III. <a href="#Page_3_279">279</a><br /></li> +<li>Shen-Hsiu, III. <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a><br /></li> +<li>Shen-Kua, III. <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a><br /></li> +<li>Shên-Sêng-Chuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_288">288</a><br /></li> +<li>Shen-shen (Hinayanist), II. 93<br /></li> +<li>Shen-Si, III. <a href="#Page_3_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Shê-p'o, III. <a href="#Page_3_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sher-Chin, III. <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Shê-yeh-po-mo, III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a><br /></li> +<li>Shiahs, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +<li>Shiefner, II. 29<br /></li> +<li>Shih-Chi-lung, III. <a href="#Page_3_250">250</a><br /></li> +<li>Shih-fen-lü-tsang, III. <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a><br /></li> +<li>Shih-Huang Ti (Emperor), III. <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a><br /></li> +<li>Shih-li-fo-shih, III. <a href="#Page_3_162">162</a><br /></li> +<li>Shih-li-pa-da-do-a-la-pa-mo, III. <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a><br /></li> +<li>Shih-sung-lü, III. <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a><br /></li> +<li>Shih Tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_268">268</a><br /></li> +<li>Shin, II. 60<br /></li> +<li>Shingon sect, II. 27, 58, 87, 275; III. <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_316">316 </a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Shin-shu, II. 51; III. <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /></li> +<li>Shintoism, I. lxxxiii, lxxxviii; III. <a href="#Page_3_402">402</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Sho-jo, II. 3<br /></li> +<li>Short cut, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_312">312</a><br /></li> +<li>Shou-leng-yen-san-mei-ching, II. 56<br /></li> +<li>Shou-Pu-sa-Chieh, III. <a href="#Page_3_328">328</a><br /></li> +<li>Shrichakrasambhara, II. 121<br /></li> +<li>Shrines, II. 116 (Nepalese). <i>See also</i> <a href="#Temples">Temples</a>, <a href="#Images">Images</a>, <a href="#Caves">Caves</a>, <a href="#Piths">Pîths</a>, <a href="#Dagobas">Dagobas</a>,<br /> +</li> +<li>Pagodas, Chedis, Stupas<br /></li> +<li>Shu, III. <a href="#Page_3_249">249</a><br /></li> +<li>Shuddhi, I. xlviii<br /></li> +<li>Shun-Chih, III. <a href="#Page_3_279">279</a><br /></li> +<li>Shun-ti, III. <a href="#Page_3_274">274</a><br /></li> +<li>Shwe Dagon Pagoda, I. 119; III. <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_3_76">76</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Shwe Zigon Pagoda, III. <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_3_69">69</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sialkot, I. 25<br /></li> +<li>Siam, I. xii, xxiv, xxv, lxxxii, 241, 248, 276; II. 80; III. <a href="#Page_3_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_3_78">78</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Siam Sangha, III. <a href="#Page_3_37">37</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Siamese Chronicles, III. <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_111">111</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Siddha, I. 110<br /></li> +<li>Siddhânta, I. 116; II. 216, 222<br /></li> +<li>Siddhântâcâra, II. 284<br /></li> +<li>Siddhânta Dipika, II. 183, 204, 205, 221<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Rahasya, II. 249<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Siddha Pito, III. <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a><br /></li> +<li>Siddhartha, Siddhattha (name of Buddha), I. 133<br /></li> +<li>Siddhattika, I. 339<br /></li> +<li>Siddhi, II. 128, 282<br /></li> +<li>Siddhi-traya, II. 232<br /></li> +<li>Siddhi-vidyâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_117">117</a><br /></li> +<li>Si-Do-In-Dzon, II. 122<br /></li> +<li>Siem-reap, III. <a href="#Page_3_112">112</a><br /></li> +<li>Sîgâla, I. 251<br /></li> +<li>Sîgâlovâda sutta, I. 158, 251<br /></li> +<li>Siggava, I. 256<br /></li> +<li>Siha, I. 111, 158<br /></li> +<li>Sihalaṭṭha Kathâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sikander Lodi, II. 263; III. <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a><br /></li> +<li>Sikhi, I. 342<br /></li> +<li>Sikhim, II. 260; III. <a href="#Page_3_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sikh Religion, the, II. 256, 262 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Sikhs, I. xliv, xlvi, lxxii, 19, 31; II. 151, 176, 177, 185, 212, 267 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a><br /></li> +<li>Śikshapatri, II. 252<br /></li> +<li>Śikshâsamuccaya, II. 55 <i>sq.</i>, 60<br /></li> +<li>Sîlabbataparamâso, I. 227<br /></li> +<li>Sîlabhadra, III. <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /></li> +<li>Sîlâditya, II. 96<br /></li> +<li>Sîlam (Sîla), I. 272; III. <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Śilappadhikaram, II. 214<br /></li> +<li>Silappadigaram, II. 108<br /></li> +<li>Sîla-vagga, I. 103<br /></li> +<li>Sîlavaṃsa, III. <a href="#Page_3_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_3_71">71</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Silla, III. <a href="#Page_3_336">336</a><br /></li> +<li>Sîmâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_3_130">130</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sima (queen), III. <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a><br /></li> +<li>Simeon, I. 133<br /></li> +<li>Simha Bhikshu, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Simhâlaputra, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Simhâsana (<a href="#Lingayat">Lingayat</a> See), II. 227<br /> +</li> +<li>Sin (Jain views), I. 107<br /></li> +<li>Sind, I. 25, 28; II. 100, 109, 129; III. <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a><br /></li> +<li>Sindhu, II. 102<br /></li> +<li>Si-nganfu, III. <a href="#Page_3_207">207</a><br /></li> +<li>Singaraja, III. <a href="#Page_3_185">185</a><br /></li> +<li>Singasari, III. <a href="#Page_3_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Sing-gu-sa, III. <a href="#Page_3_63">63</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sinhalese Canon, I. 289 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Chronicles, I. 269; III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a>. Cf. Mahâvaṃsa, Culavaṃsa<br /> +</li> +<li>Commentaries, III. <a href="#Page_3_29">29</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sangha, III. <a href="#Page_3_37">37</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Sinhapura, III. <a href="#Page_3_137">137</a><br /></li> +<li>Sinope, III. <a href="#Page_3_244">244</a><br /></li> +<li>Śiraścheda, III. <a href="#Page_3_118">118</a><br /></li> +<li>Siri, I. 103; II. 124<br /></li> +<li>Sirimeghavaṇṇa, III. <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Śiśira peak, III. <a href="#Page_3_152">152</a><br /></li> +<li>Śisṇadevâh, II. 143<br /></li> +<li>Sisodias, II. 155<br /></li> +<li>Sisowath, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_129">129</a><br /></li> +<li>Sister-marriage, III. <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /></li> +<li>Sîtâ, I. 72; III. <a href="#Page_3_152">152</a><br /></li> +<li>Sîtalâ, II. 276; III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +<li>Sittars, II. 218, 220; III. <a href="#Page_3_418">418</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Siva" id="Siva"></a>Śiva, I. xv, xvi, xxviii, xlii, xlvi, 48; II. 70, 95, 96, 98, 114, 118, 119, 122, 126, 127, +136-165, 174, 179, 182, 192 <i>sq.</i>, 202-227, 228, 274, 319; III. <a href="#Page_3_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_3_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_3_107">107</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_3_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_3_417">417</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Linga_worship">Linga-worship</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Goddesses, II. 145 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Śiva-bhâgavatas, II. 202<br /></li> +<li>Śiva-bhakti, III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /></li> +<li>Śiva-buddha, III. <a href="#Page_3_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Śiva-buddhâlaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a><br /></li> +<li>Śiva-dharmottara, II. 187<br /></li> +<li>Śiva-dṛishti, II. 223<br /></li> +<li>Sivaism, Kashmiri, II. 222 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Sivaism, Tamil, II. 212 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Sivaite Tantrism, II. 139<br /></li> +<li>Sivaji (Maratha), I. 31; II. 157, 161, 256<br /></li> +<li>Śiva Kaivalya, III. <a href="#Page_3_117">117</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Śiva-mukham, III. <a href="#Page_3_144">144</a><br /></li> +<li>Sivañânabotham, II. 205<br /></li> +<li>Sivañânar, II. 221<br /></li> +<li>Śivâ-râdha, III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /></li> +<li>Śiva-Soma, III. <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a><br /></li> +<li>Śivâśrama, III. <a href="#Page_3_134">134</a><br /></li> +<li>Śiva Sûtras, II. 205, 222, 224, 225<br /></li> +<li>Śivâvâkyam, II. 220<br /></li> +<li>Śiva Vishṇu, III. <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Skandha" id="Skandha"></a>Skanda (Kârtekeya), II. 145, 202<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Purâna, II. 220<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Skandas, I. 123, 186, 190, 198, 209, 218 <i>sq.</i>, 223, 229, 230; II. 67; III. <a href="#Page_3_175">175</a><br /></li> +<li>Skardo, III. <a href="#Page_3_20">20</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Skeen, III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Skoptsys, I. xxxvi, lxx, 122<br /></li> +<li>Slave Sultans, I. 29<br /></li> +<li>Slavonic (Slavs), I. 54, 63; III. <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a><br /></li> +<li>Sleep, I. lxiii, 82 <i>sq.</i>; II. 302<br /></li> +<li>Ślokas, II. 104<br /></li> +<li>Smaradahana, III. <a href="#Page_3_171">171</a><br /></li> +<li>Smârta Acâryas, II. 237<br /></li> +<li>Smârtas, I. xxxiv, xxxvi, xxxviii, xl; II. 189, 209, 222<br /></li> +<li>Smith (Vincent), I. xix, 15, 32, 267, 271; II. 64, 76, 88, 149, 159, 172, 187; III. <a href="#Page_3_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_3_414">414</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Smṛiti, I. lxxv, 54, 217; II. 189, 210<br /></li> +<li>sṇadar, III. <a href="#Page_3_352">352</a><br /></li> +<li>Snânadroṇi, III. <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a><br /></li> +<li>Socrates, I. 94, 142<br /></li> +<li>bSod-nams, III. <a href="#Page_3_361">361</a><br /></li> +<li>Soenda, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a><br /></li> +<li>Soerabaja, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_3_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sogdiana, I. 276; II. 139; III. <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sohgaura copper-plate, III. <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Solar deities, II. 28<br /></li> +<li>Solomon, I. 94; III. <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Soma" id="Soma"></a>Soma, I. 39, 58, 69, 90, 103<br /></li> +<li>Somaj, III. <a href="#Page_3_412">412</a><br /></li> +<li>Somânanda, II. 223<br /></li> +<li>Somanaradittyar, II. 318<br /></li> +<li>Somapuri, II. 111<br /></li> +<li>Somdec práh sanghrâc, III. <a href="#Page_3_131">131</a><br /></li> +<li>Somnath, I. 28; III. <a href="#Page_3_455">455</a><br /></li> +<li>Son of Heaven, III. <a href="#Page_3_235">235</a><br /></li> +<li>Sona, III. <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sonadaṇḍa Sutta, I. 131, 135, 152<br /></li> +<li>Sonagir, I. 121<br /></li> +<li>Sonaka, I. 256, 257<br /></li> +<li>Sonari, I. 269<br /></li> +<li>Sôngkran, III. <a href="#Page_3_93">93</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Songs of the Monks and Nuns, I. 171, 242<br /></li> +<li>Soshyos, III. <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /></li> +<li>Sotapanno, I. 227<br /></li> +<li>Soul, I. l <i>sq.</i>, ci <i>sq.</i>, 260; II. 204, 236, 239, +297, 300; III. <a href="#Page_3_116">116</a>. Cf. Atman, Anatta, Jîva, Purusha, Paśu, Reincarnation<br /></li> +<li><a name="Southern_India" id="Southern_India"></a>South Indian inscriptions, II. 278<br /></li> +<li>Southern Star, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /></li> +<li>Soyen Shaku, II. 42<br /></li> +<li>Spanda, II. 223, 224<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Karikas, II. 223<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Specht, III. <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a><br /></li> +<li>Spells. <i>See</i> <a href="#Dharanis">Dharânis</a>, <a href="#Mantras">Mantras</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Spenta Mainyu, II. 198<br /></li> +<li>Sphuṭârtha, II. 89<br /></li> +<li>Spiritualism, III. <a href="#Page_3_229">229</a><br /></li> +<li>Spirit world, I. 330; III. <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Nats">Nats</a>, <a href="#Phis">Phis</a>, <a href="#Preta">Preta-bhut</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Śraddhâ, II. 53, 180<br /></li> +<li>Śramaṇas, I. 95; III. <a href="#Page_3_245">245</a><br /></li> +<li>Śrâvakas, II. 80, 114, 129; III. <a href="#Page_3_324">324</a><br /></li> +<li>Srâvakayâna, II. 4<br /></li> +<li>Sravana Belgola, I. xli, 114, 117, 120, 121; II. 214<br /></li> +<li>Sravasti, II. 30, 93<br /></li> +<li>Srey Santhor inscript., III. <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Srî, II. 145, 228; III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Champeśvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a><br /></li> +<li>Dharmarâja, III. <a href="#Page_3_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Guhya Samaja, III. <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a><br /></li> +<li>Harsha, III. <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /></li> +<li>Herukaharmya, III. <a href="#Page_3_150">150</a><br /></li> +<li>Jalangeśvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a><br /></li> +<li>Jayakshetra, III. <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a><br /></li> +<li>Kantha, II. 205<br /></li> +<li>Mahendreśvarî, III. <a href="#Page_3_115">115</a><br /></li> +<li>Mandareśvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Srîbhâshya, II. 182, 186, 229, 233, 234, 235, 237; II. 420<br /></li> +<li>Srîbhoja, III. <a href="#Page_3_162">162</a><br /></li> +<li>Srîmârarâja, III. <a href="#Page_3_139">139</a><br /></li> +<li>Srinagar, I. 269<br /></li> +<li>Sringeri (Abbot and monastery), I. 208, 210, 211; II. 176; III. <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a><br /></li> +<li>Srinjaya, I. 88<br /></li> +<li>Śrîparama-purohita, III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /></li> +<li>Śrî-perumbudur, II. 233<br /></li> +<li>Śrî Râjasanâgara, III. <a href="#Page_3_159">159</a><br /></li> +<li>Śrîranga, II. 173, 190, 222, 232, 233, 234, 237<br /></li> +<li>Śrîsailam, II. 227<br /></li> +<li>Śrîsampradâya, II. 233<br /></li> +<li>Śrîśânabhadresvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a><br /></li> +<li>Śrî Śikhareśvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a><br /></li> +<li>Śrîsomasarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_120">120</a><br /></li> +<li>Śrî Sûryavaṃsa Râma, III. <a href="#Page_3_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_3_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_3_96">96</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Vaishnavas, II. 233, 235, 241<br /></li> +<li>Vinaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Srŏk Kâmpûchéa (Khmer), III. <a href="#Page_3_101">101</a><br /></li> +<li>Srong-tsan-gan-po (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_347">347</a><br /></li> +<li>Srosh, III. <a href="#Page_3_221">221</a><br /></li> +<li>Srut Gopal, II. 265<br /></li> +<li>Sruti, I. lxxv, 54; II. 310<br /></li> +<li>Ssu, III. <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a><br /></li> +<li>Ssu-Chuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_349">349</a><br /></li> +<li>Stael Holstein, II. 64<br /></li> +<li><i>Stand der indischen Philosophie zur Zeit Mahâvîras und Buddhas</i>, I. 97<br /></li> +<li>Stanton, III. <a href="#Page_3_319">319</a><br /></li> +<li>Starr, F., III. <a href="#Page_3_336">336</a><br /></li> +<li>State-craft, I. 18<br /></li> +<li>Statue portraits, III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Stcherbatskoi, II. 87<br /></li> +<li>Stein, I. xxxi; II. 127; III. <a href="#Page_3_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_3_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_3_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_3_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_3_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_3_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_3_378">378</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Steiner, III. <a href="#Page_3_395">395</a><br /></li> +<li>Stevenson, Mrs., I. 105<br /></li> +<li>Sthâ, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Sthânakavâsi, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Sthavira, I. 260; II. 100, 101, 103; III. <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sthiramati, II. 10, 46, 94<br /></li> +<li>sthûla-śarîra, II. 32<br /></li> +<li><i>Stories of the Eighty-four Vaishnavas</i>, II. 251<br /></li> +<li>Strabo, III. <a href="#Page_3_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_3_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Studies in Mystical Religion</i>, II. 313<br /></li> +<li><a name="Stupas" id="Stupas"></a>Stupa, I. 119, 169; II. 76, 85, 98, 143, 172; III. <a href="#Page_3_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_3_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_3_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_3_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_3_325">325</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Suali, II. 321<br /></li> +<li>Subandhu, II. 98<br /></li> +<li>Subbâshita Sangraha, II. 121, 123<br /></li> +<li>Subhadda, I. 154, 166<br /></li> +<li>Subhâshita, II. 104<br /></li> +<li>Subhûti, III. <a href="#Page_3_360">360</a><br /></li> +<li>Subjective reality, I. 327<br /></li> +<li>Subrahmaṇya, II. 222<br /></li> +<li>Sucandra, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_386">386</a><br /></li> +<li>Suchin, III. <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a><br /></li> +<li>Suchow, III. <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a><br /></li> +<li>Sudarśana, III. <a href="#Page_3_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sudas, I. 20, 59<br /></li> +<li>Suddhâdvaita, II. 248, 318<br /></li> +<li>Suddhâvidya, II. 319<br /></li> +<li>Suddhodana, I. 131, 133, 148<br /></li> +<li>Sudhanvan, king, II. 110, 207<br /></li> +<li>Sudharman, I. 111<br /></li> +<li>Sudras, I. 72; II. 85, 173, 185, 260; III. <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Suffering (cause of), I. 144, 206<br /></li> +<li>Sufism, I. xii, ci; II. 239, 266; III. <a href="#Page_3_460">460</a><br /></li> +<li>Sugata, III. <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a><br /></li> +<li><i>(La) Suggestion</i>, I. 318<br /></li> +<li>Suhrillekha, II. 85; III. <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a><br /></li> +<li>Suhtankar, II. 73<br /></li> +<li>Sui Annals and dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_3_257">257</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_3_293">293</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Suicide, I. lxx, 205; II. 104; III. <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a><br /></li> +<li>Sujârâ, I. 175<br /></li> +<li>Sukham, I. 224<br /></li> +<li><a name="Sukhavati" id="Sukhavati"></a>Sukhâvatî, II. 23, 28, 103; III. <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sukhâvatî-vyûha, II. 5, 14, 19, 27 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_3_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_3_428">428</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sukh Nidhan, II. 265<br /></li> +<li>Sukhothai, III. <a href="#Page_3_79">79 </a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_82">82</a>,<a href="#Page_3_85"> 85 </a>(Sukhodaya)<br /> +</li> +<li>Sukhtankar, II. 315<br /></li> +<li>Sûkshṃa-śarîra, I. li<br /></li> +<li>Suku temples, III. <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a><br /></li> +<li>Sûlagandi, III. <a href="#Page_3_73">73</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sultanates, I. 29, 30<br /></li> +<li>Sultan Muhammad Bahmani, III. <a href="#Page_3_461">461</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Shahid, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Sumangalavilâsinî, III. <a href="#Page_3_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sumatî (queen), Play, II. 237<br /></li> +<li>Sumatra, I. xii; III. <a href="#Page_3_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_3_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_3_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_3_161">161-163</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sumedha, I. 343<br /></li> +<li>Su-mên-ta-la, III. <a href="#Page_3_163">163</a><br /></li> +<li>Sumerugarbha, III. <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a><br /></li> +<li>Sumpa, III. <a href="#Page_3_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sun (Buddha), III. <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a><br /></li> +<li>Sundara (king), I. 114<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>(writer), II. 215<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Sundarî, I. 157<br /></li> +<li>Sung dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_3_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_3_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_3_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_3_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_3_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_3_301">301</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sunga dynasty, I. 22; II. 68<br /></li> +<li>Sung Yün, II. 65, 96; III. <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_3_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_3_256">256</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sun-worship, II. 98, 109, 146, 156; III. <a href="#Page_3_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sûnyâ (Sûnyam, Sûnrata, Sûnyâta), II. 38, 43, 51, 52, 55, 67, 73, 75, 115, 198; III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +<li>Sûnyamûrti, II. 116<br /></li> +<li>Sûnyâ Purâṇa, II. 114<br /></li> +<li>Sûnya Saṃhitâ, II. 115<br /></li> +<li>Sûnya-vâda, I. 303; II. 322<br /></li> +<li>Supernatural, the, I. 141, 161, 174, 304. <i>See</i> <a href="#Miracles">Miracles</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Superstitions, I. xxxvii; II. 121; III. <a href="#Page_3_230">230</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_3_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_3_344">344</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Aboriginal_deities">Aboriginal deities</a>, <a href="#Animism">Animism</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Suppiya, I. 289<br /></li> +<li>Supreme Spirit, II. 46, 137, 179, 193, 194, 199, 229, 238, 243, 290, 294<br /></li> +<li>Śûrângama, III. <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a><br /></li> +<li>Śûrangama Samâdhi, II. 56<br /></li> +<li>Surashtra, I. 23; III. <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /></li> +<li>Surdas, II. 191<br /></li> +<li>Surendrabodhi, III. <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a><br /></li> +<li>Sur-sagar, II. 191<br /></li> +<li>Sûrya, I. 57; II. 146; III. <a href="#Page_3_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_3_454">454</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sûryagarbha Sûtra, II. 58; III. <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a><br /></li> +<li>Sûryanârâyana, II. 114<br /></li> +<li>Sûryavaṃsa Rama (Śrî), II. 7; III. <a href="#Page_3_11">11</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sûryavarmadeva, III. <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a><br /></li> +<li>Sûryavarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_110">110</a><br /></li> +<li>Suso, I. 317<br /></li> +<li>Sutasoma Jâtaka, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_3_442">442</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sûtra Kritânga, I. 111, 116<br /></li> +<li>Sûtrâlankâra, II. 49, 83, 169; III. <a href="#Page_3_439">439</a><br /></li> +<li>Su-Tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_3_274">274</a><br /> +</li> + +<li><a name="Suttas" id="Suttas"></a>Sutta, I. lxxiii, 98, 129 (meaning), 130, 150, 166, 172, 258, 277 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Suttanta, I. 129<br /></li> +<li>Sutta Nipâta, I. 117, 133, 135, 164, 216, 232, 279, 289; II. 160, 197; III. <a href="#Page_3_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_3_299">299</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Sangaha, III. <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vibhanga, I. 277, 289<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Suvarṇabhûmi, III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_3_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Suvârna-dvîpâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_353">353</a><br /></li> +<li>Suvarṇa-prabhâsa-sûtra, II. 32, 54, 60; III. <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Su-Wu, III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Sûyagadangam, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Suzuki (Zeitaro), II. 10, 34, 42, 44, 56, 71, 83<br /></li> +<li>Svabhâva, II. 39<br /></li> +<li>Svabhâva-kâya, II. 32<br /></li> +<li>Svabhâva-vâda, I. 98<br /></li> +<li>Svacchanda, II. 224<br /></li> +<li>Svankalok, III. <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Svasamvedyopanishad, II. 322<br /></li> +<li>Svayambhû, II. 20, 57, 118<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Purâna, II. 20, 55, 118, 119; III. <a href="#Page_3_383">383</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Svetadvîpa, II. 196; III. <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a><br /></li> +<li>Svetaketu, I. 8<br /></li> +<li>Śvetâmbara, I. 111, 112, 116, 117, 120<br /></li> +<li>Śvetâśvatara Upanishad, I. 85; II. 180, 182, 187, 219, 296, 302, 305<br /></li> +<li>Swâminârâyaṇa, II. 175, 252<br /></li> +<li>Swat, II. 126<br /></li> +<li>Swedenborg, I. lv<br /></li> +<li>Swinburne, I. lxvi; II. 287<br /></li> +<li>Swing rites, I. 100; II. 115; III. <a href="#Page_3_94">94</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Syadvâda, I. 108<br /></li> +<li>Syâma, III. <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Syllabaries, use of, III. <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a><br /></li> +<li>Symbolism, I. lxx<br /></li> +<li>Synod, III. <a href="#Page_3_34">34</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Syria, I. 268; III. <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a><br /></li> +<li>Syriac, III. <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a><br /></li> +<li>Syrian Christianity, II. 226<br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Ta-A-lo-han-nan-t'i-mi-to-lo-so-shuo-fa-chu-chi, III. <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a><br /></li> +<li>Tabaristan, III. <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a><br /></li> +<li>Tabat-i-Nasiri, II. 112<br /></li> +<li>Ta Chi, III. <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a><br /></li> +<li>Ta Chieng, II. 3<br /></li> +<li>Tagara (Ter), III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tagaung, III. <a href="#Page_3_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tagore Devendranath, I. 76; II. 287<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Rabindranath, I. 46; II. 45<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>T'aiping Rebellion, III. <a href="#Page_3_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_3_319">319</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tai-shih-chih, II. 23<br /></li> +<li>Tai-Tsu, III. <a href="#Page_3_270">270</a> <a href="#Page_3_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tai-Tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_3_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_3_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_3_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_3_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_3_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Taittiriya Aranyaka, II. 153<br /></li> +<li>Taittiriya school, I. lxxiii, 78 <i>sq.</i><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Upanishad, I. 46, 72, 78, 81, 84<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Tajih, II. 27<br /></li> +<li>Ta-jih-ching, II. 58; III. <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ta-jima, II. 88; III. <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a><br /></li> +<li>Takakusu, I. 258; II. 3, 55, 78, 81, 82, +90, 103, 104, 125; III. <a href="#Page_3_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_3_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_3_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ta Keo, III. <a href="#Page_3_132">132</a><br /></li> +<li>Takshaśîlâ, I. 282; II. 100; III. <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a><br /></li> +<li>Talaings, III. <a href="#Page_3_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_3_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_3_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_3_100">100</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Talifu, III. <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Talikota, I. 30<br /></li> +<li>tamas, II. 298<br /></li> +<li><i>Tamilian Antiquary</i>, II. 215, 219<br /></li> +<li>Tamil Purâṇas, II. 183<br /></li> +<li><a name="Tamils" id="Tamils"></a>Tamils (language, literature, etc.), I. xxiv, xli, 108, 114, 118; II. 96, 182, 189, 191, 192, +204, 211, 212, 216; III. <a href="#Page_3_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_3_11">11</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_3_42">42</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_416">416</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ta Ming San Tsang, III. <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a><br /></li> +<li>Tamluk, II. 94<br /></li> +<li>Ta-mo, III. <a href="#Page_3_255">255</a><br /></li> +<li>Ta-mohsüe-mailun, III. <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /></li> +<li>Tamralipti, II. 92<br /></li> +<li>tan-dhan-man, II. 250<br /></li> +<li>T'ang dynasty, II. 18; III. <a href="#Page_3_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_3_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_3_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_3_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_3_258">258-269</a>, <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_3_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_3_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_3_337">337</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tangri, III. <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a><br /></li> +<li>Tanguts, III. <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Taṇhâ, I. lxxvii <i>sq.</i>, 144, 198, 206, 208, 209<br /></li> +<li>Tanjore, I. 26; II. 214; III. <a href="#Page_3_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_3_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Tanjur" id="Tanjur"></a>Tanjur, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_3_372">372</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Tanmâtra, II. 299<br /></li> +<li>Tantoc Panggĕlaran, III. <a href="#Page_3_171">171</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Tantras" id="Tantras"></a>Tantras (Tantrism), I. xxxvi, lxxiv, lxxxi, lxxxvi, lxxxviii, 49, 67; II. 4, 8, 9, 21, 32, 55, +61, 62, 87, 121, 185, 188 <i>sq.</i>, 274 <i>sq.</i>, 306, 342; III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_3_372">372</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_3_462">462</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tantra Śâstra, II. 281<br /></li> +<li>Tantravârttika, II. 207<br /></li> +<li>Tantrayâna, III. <a href="#Page_3_316">316</a><br /></li> +<li>Tantri, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Tantric Buddhism, II. 126, 129, 130; III. <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_3_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_3_349">349</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>school, III. <a href="#Page_3_316">316-320</a><br /></li> +<li>texts, II. 121; III. <a href="#Page_3_265">265</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Tantular, III. <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a><br /></li> +<li>Tanunapat (Agni), I. 57<br /></li> +<li>Tao, II. 42; III. <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a><br /></li> +<li>Tao-an, III. <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a><br /></li> +<li>Tao Hsin, III. <a href="#Page_3_308">308</a><br /></li> +<li>Tao Hsuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Taoism, I. lxxxiii, 49, 306; II. 284; III. <a href="#Page_3_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_3_227">227</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_3_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_3_267">267</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_3_275">275</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_3_319">319</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Taoist deities, III. <a href="#Page_3_342">342</a><br /></li> +<li>Tao-mi-to Ching, III. <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a><br /></li> +<li>Tao-tê-Ching, III. <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_3_247">247</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tåpå, III. <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a><br /></li> +<li>Tapas, I. 71, 119. <i>See</i> <a href="#Asceticism">Asceticism</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tapasi, III. <a href="#Page_3_141">141</a><br /></li> +<li>Ta Prohm temple, III. <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a><br /></li> +<li>Tapussa, III. <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Târâ, II. 16-19, 27, 105, 122 <i>sq.</i>, 277, +280; III. <a href="#Page_3_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_3_393">393</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Târâ, the White, III. <a href="#Page_3_383">383</a><br /></li> +<li>Târanâtha, II. 56, 63, 65, 68, 78, 80, 87, 111, 112, 113, 115, 125, 126, 128, 129; III. <a href="#Page_3_52">52</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_3_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_3_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_3_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_3_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_3_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_3_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_3_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_3_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Târanâtha Vidyâratha, II. 281<br /></li> +<li>Tarigs, I. 238<br /></li> +<li>Tarim basin, I. xxvi; II. 17; III. <a href="#Page_3_188">188</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_3_452">452</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tartar states, III. <a href="#Page_3_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_3_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_3_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_3_268">268</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tashiding, III. <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a><br /></li> +<li>Tashihchi, III. <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a><br /></li> +<li>Tashi Lama, II. 113; III. <a href="#Page_3_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tashi-lhun-po, III. <a href="#Page_3_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_3_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_3_399">399</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tashkent, III. <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a><br /> +</li> +<li>de Tassy (Garcin), II. 262<br /></li> +<li>Tathâgata, I. 110, 133, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 228, 230; II. 26, 38; III. <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Garbha, II. 34, 43, 75, 84, 87<br /></li> +<li>Guhyaka, II. 55, 61, 123; III. <a href="#Page_3_375">375</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Ta-Tsi, II. 57<br /></li> +<li>Taṭṭaṇaṭṭu Piḷḷai, II. 220<br /></li> +<li>Tat tvam asi, I. 81<br /></li> +<li>tattvas, II. 204, 297, 319<br /></li> +<li>tattvatraya, II. 237<br /></li> +<li>Ta'-t'ung-fu, III. <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a><br /></li> +<li>Taunggwin Sayâdaw, III. <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Taungu, III. <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tauric Artemis, II. 276<br /></li> +<li>Taw Sein Ko, III. <a href="#Page_3_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_3_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_3_59">59</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Taxila (Takshasila), I. xxxi, xxxv, 21, 23; III. <a href="#Page_3_450">450</a>. Now Rawal Pindi<br /></li> +<li>Taylor (Isaac), III. <a href="#Page_3_356">356</a><br /></li> +<li>Ta Yueh Chih, III. <a href="#Page_3_244">244</a><br /></li> +<li>Ta Yuṇ Ching, III. <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Teachings of Vêdanta according to Rāmānūjā</i>, II. 315<br /></li> +<li>Teg Bahadur Guru, II. 268, 270<br /></li> +<li>Tegri, III. <a href="#Page_3_354">354</a><br /></li> +<li>tejas, II. 196<br /></li> +<li>Telang, II. 207<br /></li> +<li>Tel-el-Amarna, III. <a href="#Page_3_432">432</a><br /></li> +<li>Telinga Brahmans, II. 249<br /></li> +<li>Telingâna, III. <a href="#Page_3_46">46</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Telopa (Tailopa), III. <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a><br /></li> +<li>Telugu, I. 118; II. 219<br /></li> +<li>Temple, Sir. R.C., III. <a href="#Page_3_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_3_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_3_69">69</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Temple ritual, I. lxxxiv; II. 174; III. <a href="#Page_3_42">42 </a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_331">331</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_400">400 </a>(Tibetan)<br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Temples" id="Temples"></a>Temples, I. xxix, xxxiii, xlii, xlvi, lxxxiv <i>sq.</i>, 114, 115, 119 (Jains); II. 172, 174; +III. <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_184">184</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_3_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_3_356">356</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Cedi">Chedis</a>, <a href="#Dagobas">Dagobas</a>, +<a href="#Pagodas">Pagodas</a>, <a href="#Stupas">Stupas</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tenasserim, III. <a href="#Page_3_73">73</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tendai, III. <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tengalais, II. 163, 231, 235<br /></li> +<li>Tenggarese, III. <a href="#Page_3_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tennent's <i>Ceylon</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_3_33">33</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tennyson, I. 329<br /></li> +<li>Tephu, III. <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a><br /></li> +<li>Ter, III. <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a><br /></li> +<li>Terai, I. 266<br /></li> +<li>Terebinthus, III. <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /></li> +<li>Terma, III. <a href="#Page_3_350">350</a><br /></li> +<li>Terminology, ambiguities, I. 8, 189; III. <a href="#Page_3_224">224</a><br /></li> +<li>Teshu Lama, III. <a href="#Page_3_280">280</a><br /></li> +<li>Tetsu-yen, III. <a href="#Page_3_291">291</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Textbook of Psychology</i>, I. 190<br /></li> +<li>Tezpur, II. 127<br /></li> +<li>Thadominpaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_48">48</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thagyâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_69">69</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thai, the, I. xxv; III. <a href="#Page_3_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thanangam, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Thanesar, I. 25, 55<br /></li> +<li>Thapinyu, III. <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tharrawadi, III. <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thathanabaing, III. <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_3_72">72</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thaton, III. <a href="#Page_3_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_3_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_3_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_3_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_3_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_3_55">55</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Theg-dman, II. 3<br /></li> +<li>Thegpa-chen-po, II. 3<br /></li> +<li>Theopathic condition, II. 161<br /></li> +<li>Thera, I. 256; III. <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Theragâthâ, I. 137, 139, 170, 180, 200, 279; II. 181; III. <a href="#Page_3_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Therapeutæ, III. <a href="#Page_3_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_3_436">436</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Theravâda, I. 261, 262; II. 48, 62, 162<br /></li> +<li>Therîgâthâ, I. 171, 279; II. 181; III. <a href="#Page_3_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_3_299">299</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Theriya Nikâya, III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thesmophoria, I. 101<br /></li> +<li>Thibaut, II. 316<br /></li> +<li>Thibaw, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_3_71">71</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thĩb-Chĩng-Cha, III. <a href="#Page_3_94">94</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thohanbwâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_61">61</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thomas, III. <a href="#Page_3_396">396</a><br /></li> +<li>Thompson, Francis, II. 162, 183<br /></li> +<li>Thompson, P.A., III. <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thonmi Sanbhota, III. <a href="#Page_3_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_3_378">378</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thor, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Thòt-Kăthĭ̆n, III. <a href="#Page_3_93">93</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thought transference, III. <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thrace (Thracians), III. <a href="#Page_3_435">435</a><br /></li> +<li>Three Bodies. <i>See</i> <a href="#Trikaya">Trikâya</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Three kingdoms, III. <a href="#Page_3_249">249</a><br /></li> +<li>Thsang-yang-Gya-thso, III. <a href="#Page_3_366">366</a><br /></li> +<li>Thugs, I. lxxxix; II. 277<br /></li> +<li>Thú-'Năm, III. <a href="#Page_3_94">94</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thunder, Ministry of, III. <a href="#Page_3_225">225</a><br /></li> +<li>Thuparâma Dagoba, III. <a href="#Page_3_16">16</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Thurston, I. 90; II. 171, 225<br /></li> +<li><a name="Tibet" id="Tibet"></a>Tibet, I. xiii, xxiv, xxvii, xcii, 212, 238, 248; II. 17, 19, 23, 32, 82, 100, 111, 122, 127, +128, 129, 278; III. <a href="#Page_3_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_3_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_3_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_3_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_3_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_3_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_3_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_3_345">345</a><i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Tibetan Canon, I. 276; II. 47, 57, 372-381<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Chronicles, III. <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Tibetan manuscripts, III. <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>translations, II. 74, 95, 103, 111, 280, 350, 352. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Kanjur">Kanjur</a>, <a href="#Lamaism">Lamaism</a>, + <a href="#Tanjur">Tanjur</a>, <a href="#Tantras">Tantrism</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Tibeto-Burman languages, II. 279; III. <a href="#Page_3_46">46</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tien (Shang Ti), I. 7; III. <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a><br /></li> +<li>Tien-shan, III. <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a><br /></li> +<li>Tien-t'ai, II. 51; III. <a href="#Page_3_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_3_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_3_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_3_311">311</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_336">336</a><br /> +</li> +<li>T'ientsin, III. <a href="#Page_3_319">319</a><br /></li> +<li>Tigaria, II. 114<br /></li> +<li>Ti-Kuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_312">312</a><br /></li> +<li>Tiladhaka, II. 17<br /></li> +<li>Ti-lo-shi-ka, II. 105<br /></li> +<li>Timur, I. 29<br /></li> +<li>Tinnevelly, I. 26; II. 222, 237<br /></li> +<li>Tipitaka. <i>See</i> <a href="#Tripitaka">Tripitaka</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tirokuḍḍasuttam, III. <a href="#Page_3_92">92</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tirhut. I. 87, 113; II. 117<br /></li> +<li>Tîrthankara, I. 110, 119, 343; II. 153; III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Tirumalar, II. 204<br /></li> +<li>Tirumangai, II. 231<br /></li> +<li>Tirumurai, II. 215, 220<br /></li> +<li>Tirupati, II. 240<br /></li> +<li>Tiruvâçagam, I. xlv, xc; II. 215, 217, 219, 221, 232; III. <a href="#Page_3_418">418</a><br /></li> +<li>Tiru-vay-mori, II. 231<br /></li> +<li>Tisastvustik (Turkish), III. <a href="#Page_3_356">356</a><br /></li> +<li>Tissak, III. <a href="#Page_3_43">43</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tissa Moggaliputta, I. 256, 259, 261, 271<br /></li> +<li>Ti-tsang, II. 18, 24; III. <a href="#Page_3_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_3_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Titthiya school, I. 97<br /></li> +<li>Tjandi Arjuno, III. <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Bimo, III. <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a><br /></li> +<li>Djago, III. <a href="#Page_3_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Kalasan, III. <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Mendut, III. <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a><br /></li> +<li>Plaosan, III. <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a><br /></li> +<li>Sangasani, III. <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a><br /></li> +<li>Sari, III. <a href="#Page_3_165">165</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Tjantakaparva, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Tjitjatih River, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a><br /></li> +<li>Toba Hung, III. <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a><br /></li> +<li>Toba Tao, III. <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a><br /></li> +<li>Todar Mall, I. 31<br /></li> +<li>Toemapel, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_3_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tokhâra, III. <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a><br /></li> +<li>Tokharian (Tokhari), III. <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_221">221</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tokmak, III. <a href="#Page_3_198">198</a><br /></li> +<li>Tōkyō, III. <a href="#Page_3_290">290</a><br /></li> +<li>Toleration, I. xcii, xciv, 158, 178<br /></li> +<li>Tolo-Pu-sa, II. 17<br /></li> +<li>Tomara dynasty, I. 29<br /></li> +<li>Tone inflexion, III. <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tonkin, III. <a href="#Page_3_340">340</a><br /></li> +<li>Tooth (Buddha's), III. <a href="#Page_3_22">22-28</a>, <a href="#Page_3_277">277</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Toramâṇa, I. 25<br /></li> +<li>Tortoise (incarnation), II. 147<br /></li> +<li>T'oumu, II. 18<br /></li> +<li>Toungco, III. <a href="#Page_3_48">48</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>T'oung Pao</i>, II. 78, 88; III. <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_3_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_3_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_3_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_3_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_3_350">350</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_3_384">384</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Tour in search of Sanskrit manuscripts</i>, II. 127<br /></li> +<li>Towers of Fame and Victory, I. 120<br /></li> +<li>Toyog, III. <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a><br /></li> +<li>Trade routes, I. xii, xxvi; II. 139; III. <a href="#Page_3_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_3_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_3_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_3_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_3_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_3_430">430</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Trailokyasâra, III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /></li> +<li>Trailokyeśvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_116">116</a><br /></li> +<li>Traiphûm, III. <a href="#Page_3_99">99</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tran dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_341">341</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Translations<a name="Translations" id="Translations"></a> of the Dhamma Sangari</i>, I. 281<br /></li> +<li>Transliteration<a name="Transliterations" id="Transliterations"></a> (Chinese system), III. <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a> <i>sq.</i>; +(Tibetan system), III. <a href="#Page_3_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_3_377">377</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Transmigration. <i>See</i> <a href="#Metempsychosis">Metempsychosis</a>, <a href="#Reincarnation">Reincarnation</a>, <a href="#Samsara">Saṃsâra</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Trapusha, III. <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a><br /></li> +<li>Travancore, I. 26; II. 147, 222<br /></li> +<li>Triad, II. 23, 30, 164, 204; III. <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a><br /></li> +<li>Triad (Chinese Scriptures), III. <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tribal divisions, II. 178<br /></li> +<li><i>Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces</i>, II. 261, 266<br /></li> +<li>Trichinopoly, I. 17, 26; II. 235<br /></li> +<li>Trichur, II. 207<br /></li> +<li>Trika (tripartite), II. 223<br /></li> +<li><a name="Trikaya" id="Trikaya"></a>Trikâya, II. 32, 84; III. <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_3_388">388</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Trilokasâra, I. 117<br /></li> +<li>Trimûrti, I. 57; II. 164; III. <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_3_180">180</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Trinh, III. <a href="#Page_3_341">341</a><br /></li> +<li>Trinity, I, 310; III. <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a> <a href="#Page_3_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_3_451">451</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Tripitaka" id="Tripitaka"></a>Tripitaka (Tipitaka), I. 51, 117, 128, 242, 258, 261, 271, 276; II. 78, 81, 84; III. <a href="#Page_3_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a>, + <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_3_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_3_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_3_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_3_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_3_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_3_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_3_356">356</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Chinese_Tripitaka">Chinese Tripitaka</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Triratna, III. <a href="#Page_3_343">343</a><br /></li> +<li>Trita, III. <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a><br /></li> +<li>Tritresta, III. <a href="#Page_3_155">155</a><br /></li> +<li>Tritsus, I. 20<br /></li> +<li>True Law, the, I. 217<br /></li> +<li>Trŭ̃t-Thai, III. <a href="#Page_3_93">93</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tsa, III. <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a><br /></li> +<li>Tsai Hsin, III. <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a><br /></li> +<li>Tsai-Li, III. <a href="#Page_3_319">319</a><br /></li> +<li>Tsang province, III. <a href="#Page_3_364">364</a><br /></li> +<li>Tśangspa-dKarpo, III. <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /></li> +<li>Tsao Tung, III. <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a><br /></li> +<li>Tsarma, III. <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a><br /></li> +<li>Tseng-i, III. <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a><br /></li> +<li>Tshe-Mara, III. <a href="#Page_3_350">350</a><br /></li> +<li>Tsi-lu (Chi-lu), III. <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a><br /></li> +<li>Tsin dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_3_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_3_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tsin (former) State, III. <a href="#Page_3_250">250</a><br /></li> +<li>Tsong-kha-pa, I. xxvii; III. <a href="#Page_3_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_3_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_3_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_3_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tsui Hao, III. <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a><br /></li> +<li>Tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_303">303</a><br /></li> +<li>Tsung-mên, III. <a href="#Page_3_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tsung-n'en-t'ung-yoao-hsu-chi, III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Tsu-Shih, III. <a href="#Page_3_306">306</a><br /></li> +<li>Tu-Chi, III. <a href="#Page_3_290">290</a><br /></li> +<li>Tu Fa Shun, III. <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /></li> +<li>Tughlak dynasty, I. 29<br /></li> +<li>Tukaram, I. xc; II. 161, 244, 245, 255, 258; III. <a href="#Page_3_427">427</a><br /></li> +<li>Tukhara, III. <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a><br /></li> +<li>Tulsi Das, I. xlv, lxxv, lxxxi, xc, c; II. 150, 152, 191, 245 <i>sq.</i>, 282<br /></li> +<li>Tümed, III. <a href="#Page_3_362">362</a><br /></li> +<li>T'ung, III. <a href="#Page_3_311">311</a><br /></li> +<li>Tungabhadra, I. 30<br /></li> +<li>Tun-huang, III. <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_3_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_3_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_3_446">446</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Turanian invasions, I. 35<br /></li> +<li>Turfan, II. 22; III. <a href="#Page_3_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_3_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_3_205">205</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_3_356">356</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Turiya, I. lxiii, 83<br /></li> +<li>Turkestan, II. 24, 54, 56; III. <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_3_458">458</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Turki dynasties, I. 28; III. <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a><br /></li> +<li>Turkish, I. 20; III. <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Turkomans, I. 23<br /></li> +<li>Turks, III. <a href="#Page_3_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Turnour, III. <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Tusita" id="Tusita"></a>Tusita heaven, I. 174, 261, 342; II. 7, 67; III. <a href="#Page_3_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_3_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tutelary deities, III. <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a> <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Tvashṭri, I. 57<br /></li> +<li><i>Two visits to Tea Countries of China</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_27">27</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Tylor, I. 304<br /></li> +<li>Tzu-An, III. <a href="#Page_3_280">280</a><br /></li> +<li>Tz'u-ên-tai-shih, III. <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /></li> +<li>Tz'u-ên-tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /></li> +<li>Tzu Liang, III. <a href="#Page_3_253">253</a><br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Uccheda, II. 43<br /></li> +<li>Udâna, I. 133, 157, 160, 226, 296; III. <a href="#Page_3_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_3_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Udânavarga, III. <a href="#Page_3_295">295</a><br /></li> +<li>Udandapura, II. 111<br /></li> +<li>Udayâdityavarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Udayana (king), II. 85<br /></li> +<li>Uddaka Râmaputta, I. 135, 136, 303, 316<br /></li> +<li>Uddâlaka Aruṇi, I. 75, 81, 92; II. 308<br /></li> +<li>Udeypore, III. <a href="#Page_3_116">116</a><br /></li> +<li>Udgâtṛi, I. 69<br /></li> +<li>Udhaccam, I. 227<br /></li> +<li>Udipi, II. 240<br /></li> +<li>Udyâna, II. 22, 93, 96, 100, 109, 126, 127, 278; III. <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_3_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ugra. III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_3_382">382</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ugrasena, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_452">452</a><br /></li> +<li>Uighur, I. 276; II. 54, 89; III. <a href="#Page_3_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_3_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_3_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_3_356">356</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ujjain, I. 25; II. 108<br /></li> +<li>Ujjeni, II. 227<br /></li> +<li>Ujjhebhaka, II. 59<br /></li> +<li>Ukkala, III. <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ukko, I. 9<br /></li> +<li>Ullambana, III. <a href="#Page_3_264">264</a><br /></li> +<li>Umâ, II. 216, 218; III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_3_147">147</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Umâ Haimavati, II. 277<br /></li> +<li>Umâpati, II. 184, 221<br /></li> +<li>Underhill, I. 136, 308; II. 275<br /></li> +<li>Uniformity (Hinduism), II. 167, 177<br /></li> +<li>United Provinces, I. xlviii, 87, 132; II. 108, 194<br /></li> +<li>Universal Mother, II. 287<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Religions, I. 123; II. 124<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Upâdâna, I. 208 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Upadesa Śâstra, II. 78<br /></li> +<li>Upâdhis, II. 313<br /></li> +<li>Upâdhyâya, III. <a href="#Page_3_330">330</a><br /></li> +<li>Upâgamas, II. 205<br /></li> +<li>Upagupta, I. 269, 271; II. 80; III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Upajjhâya, I. 244<br /></li> +<li>Upaka, I. 110<br /></li> +<li>Upakâraka, I. 208<br /></li> +<li>Upâli, I. 155, 256, 257, 288<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>(abbot), III. <a href="#Page_3_36">36</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Upanishads, I. xvi, liv <i>sq.</i>, lxxiii, lxxvii, lxxix, 20, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, 51, 53, 62, +66, 72, 74 <i>sq.</i>, 92, 104, 108, 129, 159, 192, 209, 286, 288, 297, 305, 306, 310, +331; II. 48, 74, 151, 154, 186, 187, 201, 208, 229, 232, 234, 238, 240, 270, 280, 281, 293, +305, 308, 321; III. <a href="#Page_3_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_3_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_3_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_3_462">462</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Upapurânas, II. 285<br /></li> +<li>Upâsaka, I. 249; III. <a href="#Page_3_245">245</a><br /></li> +<li>Upâsakadasâḥ, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Upasampadâ, I. 244; III. <a href="#Page_3_328">328</a><br /></li> +<li>Upatissa, I. 155<br /></li> +<li>Upavasatha days, II. 104<br /></li> +<li>Upekshâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /></li> +<li>Upendra, II. 156<br /></li> +<li>Uposatha days, I. 243, 244, 250, 257, 270; III. <a href="#Page_3_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_3_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_3_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_3_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_3_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_3_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_3_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_3_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Upper Chindwin, III. <a href="#Page_3_53">53</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Ural Altaic languages, I. 20<br /></li> +<li>Urga, III. <a href="#Page_3_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_3_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Uroja, II. 147<br /></li> +<li><i>Ursprung der Linga Kultus</i>, II. 143<br /></li> +<li>Urumtsi, III. <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Uruvelâ, I. 136, 146, 168, 257<br /></li> +<li>Ushas, I. 62, 63<br /></li> +<li>Ushnîsha-vijaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /></li> +<li>Ushṇisha-vijayâ-dhâraṇi, II. 125<br /></li> +<li>utpâda, II. 43<br /></li> +<li>Utpala, II. 223<br /></li> +<li>Utsarpinî, I. 107<br /></li> +<li>utsavavigraha, II. 173<br /></li> +<li>Utśü-kän-külgan, II. 3<br /></li> +<li>uttama-yâna, II. 3<br /></li> +<li>Uttara, III. <a href="#Page_3_50">50</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Uttara-dhyâna, I. 111, 112<br /></li> +<li>Uttarâdyayâna, I. 117; III. <a href="#Page_3_439">439</a><br /></li> +<li>Uttarâjîva, III. <a href="#Page_3_57">57</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Uttara Mîmâṃsâ, II. 291, 310<br /></li> +<li>Uttarâpathaka, I. 261<br /></li> +<li>Uvâsagadasao, I. 99, 116<br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul><ul class="IX"> +<li>Vac, II. 181<br /></li> +<li>Vacanâmritam, II. 252<br /></li> +<li>Vacaspatimiśra, II. 95<br /></li> +<li>Vaccha, I. 230<br /></li> +<li>Vadagalais, II. 163, 235 <i>sq.</i>, 243<br /></li> +<li>Vaeddhas, III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vagîśvara, II. 19<br /></li> +<li>Vâgvatî mâhâtmya, II. 119<br /></li> +<li>Vai-bhâshika, I. 260; II. 82, 89, 90, 102; III. <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a><br /></li> +<li>Vaidehî (queen), II. 30<br /></li> +<li>Vaidika Karmakâṇḍa, II. 190<br /></li> +<li>Vaidûrya, III. <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a><br /></li> +<li>Vaikhânasâgama, II. 190<br /></li> +<li>Vaikuntha, II. 196<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Nâtha, II. 260<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Vaipulya Sûtras, II. 48, 54, 103<br /></li> +<li>Vairocana, II. 19, 26, 27, 126, 198; III. <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_3_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_3_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_3_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_3_395">395</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vairocana-rasmi-pratimandita, II. 27<br /></li> +<li>Vaisali, I. 111, 114; II. 17<br /></li> +<li>Vai-śeshika (philosophy), I. 109; II. 95, 291, 292, 304<br /></li> +<li>Vaiśeshikam, III. <a href="#Page_3_44">44</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vaishnava, Vaishnavism. <i>See</i> <a href="#Vishnuism">Vishnuism</a>, <a href="#Vishnuites">Vishnuites</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Vaishnavism and Saivism</i>, II. 152, 153, 157, 202, 242, 248, 256, 262<br /></li> +<li><i>Vaishnavite Reformers of India</i>, II. 232, 237<br /></li> +<li>Vaiśravana, III. <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vaiśvanara, I. 57 (Agni)<br /></li> +<li>Vaiśya, I. 34; III. <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a> (Visias)<br /></li> +<li>Vaitulya sect, III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_3_41">41</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vajapeya, II. 171<br /></li> +<li>Vajira, I. 190; III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Vajjians" id="Vajjians"></a>Vajjians, I. 161, 162, 166, 257, 258<br /></li> +<li>Vajjiputta school, III. <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vajra, III. <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a><br /></li> +<li>Vajrabodhi, II. 21; III. <a href="#Page_3_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vajrâcârya, II. 119<br /></li> +<li>Vajrâcârya-arhat-bhikshu-buddha, II. 119<br /></li> +<li>Vajracchedikâ, II. 41; III. <a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_3_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_3_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_3_378">378</a> (diamond-cutter)<br /> +</li> +<li>Vajradhara, II. 23; III. <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vajradhâtu, III. <a href="#Page_3_317">317</a><br /></li> +<li>Vajragarbha, II. 55<br /></li> +<li>Vajrakâya, II. 32, 123<br /></li> +<li>Vajrapâni, III. <a href="#Page_3_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vajrasattva, II. 23, 26, 32; III. <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vajravarâhî, III. <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /></li> +<li>Vajrayâna, II. 4; III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_3_386">386</a><br /> +</li> +<li>vâk, III. <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a><br /></li> +<li>Valabhî, I. 117; II. 105<br /></li> +<li>Valavati, II. 15<br /></li> +<li>Valentinus, III. <a href="#Page_3_445">445</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Vallabha" id="Vallabha"></a>Vallabha, I. xlv; II. 230, 244, 248, 253<br /></li> +<li>Vallabhâcârya, I. 42; II. 147, 176, 185, 245, 248 <i>sq.</i>, 251, 268, 290<br /></li> +<li>(De la) Vallée-Poussin, II. 9, 11, 32, 48, 85, 89, 121, 122, 315; III. <a href="#Page_3_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_3_387">387</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vâlmîki, II. 246<br /></li> +<li>Vâmâ-cârins, II. 283, 284 (left-handed celebrants)<br /></li> +<li>Vâmadeva, II. 198<br /></li> +<li>Vâmana, II. 151, 193; III. <a href="#Page_3_106">106</a><br /></li> +<li>Vâma Śiva, III. <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a><br /></li> +<li>Vâmsâvali, II. 119<br /></li> +<li>Vanaprastha, I. 89<br /></li> +<li>Vaṇga, II. 279<br /></li> +<li>Van-mien, III. <a href="#Page_3_344">344</a><br /></li> +<li>Vâraha-Saṃhitâ, II. 195<br /></li> +<li>Vârâhi Tantra, II. 190<br /></li> +<li>Vârâmudra, II. 16<br /></li> +<li>Varâna Purâṇa, II. 193<br /></li> +<li>Vardhamâna, I. 105, 111, 112<br /></li> +<li><i>Varieties of Religious Experience</i>, I. 309; II. 161<br /></li> +<li>Varna, II. 178; III. <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a><br /></li> +<li>Varṇapiṭaka, I. 293<br /></li> +<li>Varuṇa, I. 57, 60, 88, 103; II. 28, 270<br /></li> +<li>Vâsana, II. 44<br /></li> +<li>Vasantotsava, II. 270<br /></li> +<li>Vâsaṿadatta, II. 98<br /></li> +<li>Vasco da Gama, I. 15, 31<br /></li> +<li>Vasilief, II. 81, 90, 92<br /></li> +<li>Vâsishka, II. 64<br /></li> +<li>Vasishṭha, II. 152<br /></li> +<li>Vaśitâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_355">355</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Vasso" id="Vasso"></a>Vassa, I. 149, 245; III. <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_3_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_3_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_3_332">332</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vasu, Nagendranath, II. 114<br /></li> +<li>Vasubandhu, I. xxxviii, 260; II. 48, 59, 64 <i>sq.</i>, 83 <i>sq.</i>, 102, 123, 169, 306; +III. <a href="#Page_3_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_3_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_3_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_3_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_3_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_3_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_3_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_3_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a> ,<a href="#Page_3_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_3_376">376</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vâsudeva, I. xliii, 24, 113; II. 64, 153, 154, 162, 180, 194 <i>sq.</i>, 200, 228, 233, 245<br /></li> +<li>Vasugupta, II. 225<br /></li> +<li>Vasumitra, II. 78; III. <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a><br /></li> +<li>Vasus, I. 57<br /></li> +<li>Vatapi, I. 26, 27, 114<br /></li> +<li>vâtsalya, II. 255<br /></li> +<li>Vat-si-jum, III. <a href="#Page_3_84">84</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vaṭṭagâmani, I. 285; II. 50; III. <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_3_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_3_33">33</a><br /> +</li> +<li>vaṭṭhu-vijjâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_232">232</a><br /></li> +<li>Vâyu, I. 63; II. 239, 240<br /></li> +<li>Vâyu Purâna, I. 15; II. 187, 202<br /></li> +<li>Vâyustuti, II. 241<br /></li> +<li>vedanâ, I. 188<br /></li> +<li>vedanîya, I. 107<br /></li> +<li><a name="Vedanta" id="Vedanta"></a>Vedânta (Philosophy), I. xxxii, lii, cii, 47, 235, 302; II. 202, 208-225, 235, 268, 292 +<i>sq.</i>, 307-317<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Desika, II. 195, 236, 237<br /></li> +<li>Sûtras, II. 202, 208, 229, 230, 233, 238, 255, 282, 305, 314<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Vedârtha Pradîpa, II. 233<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Saṇgraha, II. 233<br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Vedas (Jain Canon), I. 117<br /></li> +<li>Vedas (Vedic religion), I. xv, xxxvi, lxxiv, 3, 40, 42, 67, 77 <i>sq.</i>, 89; II. 136 +<i>sq.</i>, 186, 202, 236, 292 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_3_419">419</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vedaśâstras, II. 67<br /></li> +<li><i>Vedic Index</i>, I. 134; II. 153<br /></li> +<li>Vedic Rites, II. 171<br /></li> +<li>Vegetation deity, II. 156<br /></li> +<li>Vêmana, II. 219<br /></li> +<li>Vena (king), I. 36, 88<br /></li> +<li>Vengi, I. 27; III. <a href="#Page_3_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_3_156">156</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Veṇhu, I. 103; II. 137 (Vishṇu)<br /></li> +<li>Venkateśvara, I. 105<br /></li> +<li>Vepulla (Mt.), I. 103<br /></li> +<li>Verethragna, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Vernacular, literature, and language, I. xxiv, xlv, 40; II. 119, 241, 243, 244; III. <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vesâlî, I. 150, 159, 162 <i>sq.</i>, 169, 254, 255, 257, 290<br /></li> +<li>Vessabhû, I. 342<br /></li> +<li>Vessantara, II. 10<br /></li> +<li>Veth, III. <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a><br /></li> +<li>Veṭhadîpa, I. 169<br /></li> +<li>Vetulyaka sect, I. 260, 261, 293; II. 48, 67; III. <a href="#Page_3_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vetulyas, III. <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_3_32">32</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vibbhajavâdin sect, I. 261, 262, 276, 291, 298<br /></li> +<li>Vibhangas, III. <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vibhâsha, II. 79, 82, 89<br /></li> +<li>vibhinnâmśa, II. 255<br /></li> +<li>Vibhu, III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /></li> +<li>vici-kicchâ, I. 227<br /></li> +<li>Vidarbha, II. 85<br /></li> +<li>viddhi, III. <a href="#Page_3_117">117</a><br /></li> +<li>Videha, I. 36, 87, 94, 161<br /></li> +<li>Vidhi, II. 195<br /></li> +<li>Viḍûḍabha, I. 161<br /></li> +<li>Vidya, II. 204<br /></li> +<li>Vidyabhushana, Satischandra, II. 65, 94, 105, 111; III. <a href="#Page_3_376">376</a><br /></li> +<li>Vidyâdharis, III. <a href="#Page_3_182">182</a> (widadaris)<br /></li> +<li>Vidyâ-karaprabhâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a><br /></li> +<li>Vidyâmâtra, III. <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /></li> +<li>Vidyâpati, II. 244, 253<br /></li> +<li><i>Vier philosophische Texte des Mahabharatam</i>, II. 187<br /></li> +<li>Vighnotsava, III. <a href="#Page_3_172">172</a><br /></li> +<li>Vihâra, I. 119, 245; II. 257; III. <a href="#Page_3_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_3_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Monasteries">Monasteries</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vihâro, I. 210<br /></li> +<li>Vijaya, II. 149; III. <a href="#Page_3_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_3_12">12</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vijaya (Champa), III. <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Bahu, III. <a href="#Page_3_33">33</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Vijayâditya (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_116">116</a><br /></li> +<li>Vijayanagar, I. xli, 19, 30, 31; II. 210, 212, 249; III. <a href="#Page_3_456">456</a><br /></li> +<li>Vijayapur, III. <a href="#Page_3_58">58</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vijayasambhava (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vijayeśvara, III. <a href="#Page_3_116">116</a><br /></li> +<li>Vijñâna Bhikshu, II. 303<br /></li> +<li>Vijñânamâtra, III. <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /></li> +<li>Vijñânavâdin sect, II. 37<br /></li> +<li>Vikramâditya, I. 25; II. 88<br /></li> +<li>Vikramaśila, II. 111, 112, 128<br /></li> +<li>Vikrântavarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_3_143">143<br /> +</a></li> +<li>Vikṛiti, II. 297<br /></li> +<li>Village deities, I. 100, 103<br /></li> +<li><i>Village Gods of Southern India</i>, II. 213, 276<br /></li> +<li>Villemereuil, III. <a href="#Page_3_111">111</a><br /></li> +<li>Vimalâ, II. 11<br /></li> +<li>Vimalâ Dharma (I and II), III. <a href="#Page_3_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_3_36">36</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vimalakîrti Sûtra, II. 84<br /></li> +<li>Vimâna vatthu, I. 280, 289<br /></li> +<li>Vimar'sinî, II. 222<br /></li> +<li><a name="Vinaya" id="Vinaya"></a>Vinaya, I. lxxv, 97, 129, 130, 135, 155 <i>sq.</i>, 161, 224, 239, 241, 244, 245, 256 +<i>sq.</i>, 263, 277 <i>sq.</i>; II. 48, 57, 71, 72, 80, 82, 99, 102, 125; III. <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_3_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_3_62">62</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_3_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_3_296">296</a> <i>sq.</i> (Hînayâna), <a href="#Page_3_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vinaya Pattrika, II. 245<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Piṭaka, III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_3_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Vinaya-vibhâsha-Sûtra, II. 78<br /></li> +<li>Vindhya mountains, I. 20; II. 277<br /></li> +<li>Vindhyâcal, II. 277<br /></li> +<li>Vindhyeśvari (Maharânî), II. 277<br /></li> +<li>Viññâṇa, I. 189, 190, 197, 198<br /></li> +<li>Vipakasrutam, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Vipassanâ, I. 313; III. <a href="#Page_3_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vipassî, I. 342<br /></li> +<li>Vîrabhadra, II. 140; III. <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a><br /></li> +<li>Vîrapura, III. <a href="#Page_3_140">140</a><br /></li> +<li>Vîra Śaiva Brahmans, II. 227<br /></li> +<li>Virgil, I. lv<br /></li> +<li>Virincivatsa, II. 87<br /></li> +<li>vîrya, II. 196; III. <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Visâkhâ, I. 153, 159, 251<br /></li> +<li><a name="Vishnuism" id="Vishnuism"></a>Vishṇu (Vishnuism), I. xxxiv <i>sq.</i>, xl <i>sq.</i>, lxxi, lxxiv, lxxx, 17, 36, 47, +48, 57, 103, 343 (incarnations); II. 33, 113, 115, 130, 136-165, 182, 228 <i>sq.</i>; III. +<a href="#Page_3_43">43</a> (Ceylon), <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a> (Siam), <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a> (Champa), <a href="#Page_3_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_3_176">176</a> (Java), <a href="#Page_3_186">186</a> (Bali), <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a> (Tibet), <a href="#Page_3_419">419</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vishṇu Buddha, III. <a href="#Page_3_181">181</a><br /></li> +<li>Vishṇu Dharma, II. 187, 228<br /></li> +<li><a name="Vishnuites" id="Vishnuites"></a>Vishnuites (sects), I. 115; II. 115, 128, 140, 177 (Baishnabs), 179 <i>sq.</i>, 186 +<i>sq.</i>, 228 <i>sq.</i>, 242 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Vishṇukarma, III. <a href="#Page_3_96">96</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vishṇuloka, III. <a href="#Page_3_114">114</a><br /></li> +<li>Vishṇu Purâna, I. 218; II. 28, 146, 148, +155, 157, 186, 187, 228, 234, 306; III. <a href="#Page_3_425">425</a><br /></li> +<li>Vishṇu-Siva, III. <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a>. Cf. Harihara<br /></li> +<li>Vishṇusvâmi, II. 248<br /></li> +<li>Vishṇu Vardhâna, III. <a href="#Page_3_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Visishtadvaita (philosophy), II. 229, 233, 234, 316 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Visser, II. 24; III. <a href="#Page_3_221">221</a><br /></li> +<li>Visuddhi-Magga, III. <a href="#Page_3_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_3_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Visvaksena, II. 233<br /></li> +<li>Visvamitra, I. 36<br /></li> +<li>Vithalnath, II. 251<br /></li> +<li>Vittala Deva, II. 233<br /></li> +<li>Viṭṭhala, II. 161, 257<br /></li> +<li>Vittoba, II. 161, 257<br /></li> +<li>Vivâgasuyam, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>vivartavâda, II. 264, 318<br /></li> +<li>Vivasvat, I. 57<br /></li> +<li>Viveka (king), II. 237<br /></li> +<li>Vivekananda (Svâmi), I. xlvii<br /></li> +<li>Viyâhapaññatti, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>viyaṇga, III. <a href="#Page_3_454">454</a><br /></li> +<li>Vocan (Vochan inscript.), I. xxviii; III. <a href="#Page_3_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_3_138">138</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Voharaka Tissa (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_19">19</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vohâratissa, III. <a href="#Page_3_40">40</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Vrah Kamrata, III. <a href="#Page_3_121">121</a><br /></li> +<li>Vraḥ rûpa, III. <a href="#Page_3_115">115</a><br /></li> +<li>Vrah Vináśikha, III. <a href="#Page_3_117">117</a><br /></li> +<li>Vriddha Harita Samhitâ, II. 163<br /></li> +<li>Vrikats, II. 256<br /></li> +<li>Vrindâvana, II. 154<br /></li> +<li>Vrishabha, II. 225<br /></li> +<li>Vrishṇis (sept), II. 154, 194 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Vritra, I. 59<br /></li> +<li>Vritrahan, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Vṛitta-sañcaya, III. <a href="#Page_3_158">158</a><br /></li> +<li>Vulcan, I. 56<br /></li> +<li>Vulture's Peak (sermon, etc.), I. 157; II. 29, 49, 51, 55<br /></li> +<li>vyakaraṇa, II. 55<br /></li> +<li>Vyâkhyâprajnâpti, I. 116<br /></li> +<li>Vyâkhyâtantra, III. <a href="#Page_3_377">377</a><br /></li> +<li>Vyasakutas, II. 241<br /></li> +<li>Vyûha, II. 196 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Wachsberger, III. <a href="#Page_3_194">194</a><br /></li> +<li>Waddell, I. 212, 336; II. 16, 50, 128; III. <a href="#Page_3_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_3_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_3_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_3_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_3_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_3_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_3_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_3_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_3_383">383</a>, +<a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_3_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_3_400">400</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Waguru (king), III. <a href="#Page_3_66">66</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wahabis, III. <a href="#Page_3_458">458</a><br /></li> +<li>Wäinämöinen, I. 67<br /></li> +<li>Waleri, III. <a href="#Page_3_168">168</a><br /></li> +<li>Walleser, II. 51, 74, 85, 86, 315, 373<br /></li> +<li>Wan, III. <a href="#Page_3_278">278</a><br /></li> +<li>Wang An Shih, III. <a href="#Page_3_259">259</a><br /></li> +<li>Wang-Chen, III. <a href="#Page_3_277">277</a><br /></li> +<li>Wang Chin, III. <a href="#Page_3_264">264</a><br /></li> +<li>Wang dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_337">337</a><br /></li> +<li>Wang Hsüan Ts'ê, III. <a href="#Page_3_260">260</a><br /></li> +<li>Wang-Wei, III. <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a><br /></li> +<li>Wang Yang Ming, III. <a href="#Page_3_272">272</a><br /></li> +<li>Wan-li, III. <a href="#Page_3_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_3_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_3_363">363</a><br /> +</li> +<li>wănphra:, III. <a href="#Page_3_92">92</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wan Ti, III. <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a><br /></li> +<li>Warren, I. 190, 212, 252, 320<br /></li> +<li>Wartal, II. 175, 259<br /></li> +<li>Was. <i>See</i> <a href="#Vasso">Vasso</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wassiljen, III. <a href="#Page_3_283">283</a><br /></li> +<li>Wăt, III. <a href="#Page_3_88">88</a><br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Chern, III. <a href="#Page_3_85">85</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Phô, III. <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Somarokot, III. <a href="#Page_3_85">85</a><br /> +</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Watanabe, II. 55<br /></li> +<li>Watters, I. 258; II. 15, 22, 23, 33, 51, 61, 76 <i>sq.</i>, 80, 82 <i>sq.</i>, 92, 126; III. <a href="#Page_3_5">5</a>, + + <a href="#Page_3_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_3_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_3_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_3_156">156</a>,<a href="#Page_3_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_3_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_3_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_3_453">453</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Weber, I. 116; II. 176; III. <a href="#Page_3_423">423</a><br /></li> +<li>Wei, II. 171; III. <a href="#Page_3_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_3_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_3_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_257">257</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wei Ch'ih, III. <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a><br /></li> +<li>Wei-ch'ih I-sêng, III. <a href="#Page_3_195">195</a><br /></li> +<li>Wei-ch'ih-Po-chih-na, III. <a href="#Page_3_195">195</a><br /></li> +<li>Wei Hsieh, III. <a href="#Page_3_242">242</a><br /></li> +<li>Wei-lüeh, III. <a href="#Page_3_245">245</a><br /></li> +<li>Wei-shih-hsiang-chiao, III. <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /></li> +<li>Wei-to, III. <a href="#Page_3_326">326</a><br /></li> +<li>Wells, H.G., I. ciii<br /></li> +<li><i>Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung</i>, I. 236, 309<br /></li> +<li>Wema Kadphises, II. 202<br /></li> +<li>Wên Hsüan Ti, III. <a href="#Page_3_251">251</a><br /></li> +<li>Wên Shu, II. 19; III. <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a><br /></li> +<li>Wên-ti (Emperor), III. <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a><br /></li> +<li>Westcott, G.H., II. 262 <i>sq.</i><br /></li> +<li>Western Tsin dynasty, II. 52; III. <a href="#Page_3_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_3_249">249</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wheel of Causation, I. 49<br /></li> +<li>Wheel of Life, I. 212<br /></li> +<li>Wheel of Righteousness, I. 143<br /></li> +<li>White Brahma, III. <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /></li> +<li>Whitehead, II. 213, 276, 394<br /></li> +<li>White Horse Monastery, III. <a href="#Page_3_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_3_249">249</a><br /> +</li> +<li>White Huns. <i>See</i> <a href="#Huns">Huns</a><br /> +</li> +<li>White Lotus school, III. <a href="#Page_3_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_3_319">319</a><br /> +</li> +<li>White Târâ, III. <a href="#Page_3_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Widow-burning (Sati, Suttee), I. lxxxviii; II. 168; III. <a href="#Page_3_192">192</a><br /></li> +<li>Widow's Mite, III. <a href="#Page_3_437">437</a><br /></li> +<li>Wiedemann, II. 122<br /></li> +<li>Wieger, I. 173; II. 284, 320; III. <a href="#Page_3_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_3_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_3_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_3_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_3_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wĩhán, III. <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wilde, Oscar, II. 236<br /></li> +<li>Williams (Monier), II. 277<br /></li> +<li>Wilson, H.H., II. 155, 262<br /></li> +<li>Wilwatikta, III. <a href="#Page_3_160">160</a><br /></li> +<li>Windisch, I. 143, 282<br /></li> +<li>Winternitz, I. 134, 286; II. 55, 83, 84, 87, 118, 169, 187, 283<br /></li> +<li>Wisdom, God of, II. 145<br /></li> +<li>Wodeyars of Mysore, II. 226<br /></li> +<li>(The) Woman of Samaria, III. <a href="#Page_3_439">439</a><br /></li> +<li>Women (status), I. 112, 158, 248, 251; II. 123, 160, 168, 232, 250, 251, 275 <i>sq.</i>, +285; III. <a href="#Page_3_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_3_97">97</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Nuns">Nuns</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wong Madjapahit, III. <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a><br /></li> +<li>Wordsworth, I. lv<br /></li> +<li>World Religion (Buddhism as), I. 177<br /></li> +<li>Worship of Relics. <i>See</i> <a href="#Relics">Relics</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wright, II. 116<br /></li> +<li>Writing (art of), I. 287. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Alphabets">Alphabets</a>, <a href="#Inscriptions">Inscriptions</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wu dynasty, III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wu, Empress, III. <a href="#Page_3_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_3_315">315</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wu Hou, III. <a href="#Page_3_260">260</a><br /></li> +<li>Wu-i (Hînayânist), II. 93<br /></li> +<li>Wu-K'ung, III. <a href="#Page_3_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_3_262">262</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wu province, III. <a href="#Page_3_364">364</a><br /></li> +<li>Wu-t'ai-shan, II. 20, 21; III. <a href="#Page_3_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_3_321">321</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wu-Tao-tzu, III. <a href="#Page_3_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_3_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wu-Ti, I. 265; III. <a href="#Page_3_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_3_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_3_163">163</a>,<a href="#Page_3_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_3_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_3_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_3_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_3_253">253</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_3_304">304</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Wu-Ti (Northern Chan), III. <a href="#Page_3_257">257</a><br /></li> +<li>Wu Tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_3_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_3_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_3_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_3_278">278</a><br /> +</li> +<li><i>Wu-wei</i>, II. 42<br /></li> +<li>Wu-wei-chiao, III. <a href="#Page_3_318">318</a><br /></li> +<li>Wu-yu, III. <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a><br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul><ul class="IX"> +<li>Xerxes, III. <a href="#Page_3_432">432</a><br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul><ul class="IX"> +<li>Yâdavas, I. 30; II. 113, 154, 194<br /></li> +<li>Yadricchâ-vâdins, I. 98<br /></li> +<li>Yâjakas, III. <a href="#Page_3_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_3_125">125</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yajna, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Yajñaśrî, king, III. <a href="#Page_3_102">102</a><br /></li> +<li>Yâjñavalkya, I. lxxiii, 75, 79, 80, 83, 84, 93, 159, 298, 308<br /></li> +<li>Yajurveda, I. 53, 93; II. 141, 277<br /></li> +<li>Yäkä-külgän, II. 3<br /></li> +<li>Yakkhas (Yakshas), I. 6, 102, 103; III. <a href="#Page_3_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_3_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_3_393">393</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yama, I. 62, 103, 337; III. <a href="#Page_3_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_3_175">175</a> ,<a href="#Page_3_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yama (restraint), I. 305, 393<br /></li> +<li>Yamaka, I. 229, 234<br /></li> +<li>Yâmalas, II. 282<br /></li> +<li>Yamântaka, III. <a href="#Page_3_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_3_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_3_392">392</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yamdok (lake), III. <a href="#Page_3_394">394</a><br /></li> +<li>Yamunâ, II. 159; III. <a href="#Page_3_113">113</a><br /></li> +<li>Yâmunâcârya, II. 195, 232<br /></li> +<li>Yâna, II. 4. Cf. Hînayâna, Mahâyâna<br /></li> +<li>Yang, II. 278, 289<br /></li> +<li>Yang ( = God, in Malay), III. <a href="#Page_3_183">183</a><br /></li> +<li>Yang-Ti, III. <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a><br /></li> +<li>Yang Tikuh inscript., III. <a href="#Page_3_109">109</a><br /></li> +<li>Yangtse, III. <a href="#Page_3_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_3_269">269</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yang-wen Hiu, III. <a href="#Page_3_303">303</a><br /></li> +<li>Yannur, I. 126<br /></li> +<li>Yantras, II. 280<br /></li> +<li>Yao Ch'a, III. <a href="#Page_3_255">255</a><br /></li> +<li>Yao Ch'ung, III. <a href="#Page_3_262">262</a><br /></li> +<li>Yao Kuang Hsiao, III. <a href="#Page_3_276">276</a><br /></li> +<li>Yarkand, I. xxvi, 24; II. 76; III. <a href="#Page_3_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_211">211</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yasa, I. 134, 145, 185, 257<br /></li> +<li>Yashts, II. 28<br /></li> +<li>Yasna, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Yâsodâ, II. 154<br /></li> +<li>Yaśodharâ, I. 174, 301<br /></li> +<li>Yaśodharman (king), II. 148<br /></li> +<li>Yaśomitra, II. 89<br /></li> +<li>Yaśovarman, III. <a href="#Page_3_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_3_119">119</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yatis, I. 113, 119, 121<br /></li> +<li>Yâtras (religious dramas), II. 230<br /></li> +<li>Yava, III. <a href="#Page_3_152">152</a><br /></li> +<li>Yavadi, III. <a href="#Page_3_153">153</a><br /></li> +<li>Yavadvîpa, III. <a href="#Page_3_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_3_152">152</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yavakoṭi, III. <a href="#Page_3_152">152</a><br /></li> +<li>Yavanas, I. 23; II. 69<br /></li> +<li>Yazawin (Chronicle), III. <a href="#Page_3_65">65</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yellow Church, III. <a href="#Page_3_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_3_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_3_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_3_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_3_398">398</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Yen-lo, III. <a href="#Page_3_225">225</a><br /></li> +<li>Yenta, III. <a href="#Page_3_361">361</a><br /></li> +<li>Yeses, III. <a href="#Page_3_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_3_367">367</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yeses Hod, III. <a href="#Page_3_352">352</a><br /></li> +<li>Ye'ses-sde, III. <a href="#Page_3_379">379</a><br /></li> +<li>Yethas, II. 96<br /></li> +<li>Yezd, I. 69<br /></li> +<li>Yi-dam, II. 122, 391<br /></li> +<li>Yin, II. 278<br /></li> +<li>Ying Tsung, III. <a href="#Page_3_277">277</a><br /></li> +<li>Ying-yai-Shêng-len, III. <a href="#Page_3_160">160</a><br /></li> +<li>Yoe, III. <a href="#Page_3_49">49</a><br /> +</li> +<li><a name="Yoga" id="Yoga"></a>Yoga (philosophy), I. xlviii, 73, 201, 302 <i>sq.</i>; II. 128, 152, 189, 201, 202, 216, +224, 240, 291, 292, 296, 303 <i>sq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_3_173">173</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yogâcâra, I. 193, 260, 303; II. 37 <i>sq.</i>, 42, 83, 87, 88, 90, 91, 103<br /></li> +<li>Yogâcâryâbhûmi śâstra, III. <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_3_285">285</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yogâchârya (Asanga's system), I. xxxix; II. 3, 306. <i>See</i> <a href="#Asanga">Asanga</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yogaddhyâna, III. <a href="#Page_3_146">146</a><br /></li> +<li>Yogaśâstra, III. <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a><br /></li> +<li>Yoga-vaśishtḥa-râmâyaṇa, II. 187<br /></li> +<li>Yoginî Tantra, II. 280, 289<br /></li> +<li>Yoginîs, II. 286<br /></li> +<li>Yogis, I. lxv, 72, 303; II. 294<br /></li> +<li>Yŏmma: rạt (Yâma), III. <a href="#Page_3_96">96</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yonanâgarâlasanda, III. <a href="#Page_3_18">18</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yonas, I. 268<br /></li> +<li>Yo-shih-fo, III. <a href="#Page_3_327">327</a><br /></li> +<li>Yuan, III. <a href="#Page_3_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_3_311">311</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yuan (Annals, dynasty), III. <a href="#Page_3_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_3_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_3_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_3_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_3_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_3_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_3_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_3_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_3_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_3_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_3_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_3_357">357</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yuan Chwang, I. 258; II. 76; III. <a href="#Page_3_5">5</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yuan-Jen-lu, III. <a href="#Page_3_288">288</a><br /></li> +<li>Yuan Tao, III. <a href="#Page_3_267">267</a><br /></li> +<li>Yuan Ti, III. <a href="#Page_3_257">257</a><br /></li> +<li>Yucatan, III. <a href="#Page_3_169">169</a><br /></li> +<li>Yu-Chao-En, III. <a href="#Page_3_264">264</a><br /></li> +<li>Yueh-chih, II. 20, 64, 109; III. <a href="#Page_3_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_3_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_3_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_3_248">248</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Kushan">Kushan</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yueh-teng-san-mei-ching, II. 55<br /></li> +<li>Yugas, I. 46<br /></li> +<li>Yü-lau-p'en, III. <a href="#Page_3_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_3_332">332</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yule's <i>Marco Polo</i>, I. 305; II. 320; III. <a href="#Page_3_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_3_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_3_277">277</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yunga-Chêng, III. <a href="#Page_3_237">237</a><br /></li> +<li>Yung-Lo, III. <a href="#Page_3_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_3_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_3_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_3_359">359</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Yun Kang, III. <a href="#Page_3_252">252</a><br /></li> +<li>Yün Mên, III. <a href="#Page_3_309">309</a><br /></li> +<li>Yünnan, III. <a href="#Page_3_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_3_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_3_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_3_349">349</a><br /> +</li> +<li>gYün-ston-rDo-rje-dpal, III. <a href="#Page_3_357">357</a><br /></li> +<li>Yü-pien, III. <a href="#Page_3_300">300</a><br /></li> +<li>Yü Ti, III. <a href="#Page_3_228">228</a><br /></li> +<li>Yūzūnembutsu sect, III. <a href="#Page_3_404">404</a><br /></li> +<li><br /></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Zaingganaing, III. <a href="#Page_3_59">59</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Zaotar, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Zarathustra, II. 156<br /></li> +<li>Zarmanochegas, III. <a href="#Page_3_431">431</a><br /></li> +<li>Zedi, III. <a href="#Page_3_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_3_89">89</a> (chedi)<br /> +</li> +<li>Zen, I. 233, 322; II. 46; III. <a href="#Page_3_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_3_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_3_405">405</a><br /> +</li> +<li>Zervan, III. <a href="#Page_3_215">215</a><br /></li> +<li>Zeus, I. 63<br /></li> +<li>Zinda Kaliana, II. 147<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Ghazi, III. <a href="#Page_3_459">459</a><br /></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Zohar, the, III. <a href="#Page_3_462">462</a><br /></li> +<li><i>Zo-jo-ji Library</i>, III. <a href="#Page_3_290">290</a><br /></li> +<li><a name="Zoroaster" id="Zoroaster"></a>Zoroaster (Zoroastrian religion), I. xv, 52, 63; II. 70, 275; III. <a href="#Page_3_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_3_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_3_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_3_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_3_218">218</a><i>sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_3_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_3_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_3_449">449</a> <i>sq.</i><br /> +</li> +<li>Zoroastrian Gathas, I. 51, 52<br /> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Theology, II. 275<br /></li> +</ul></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 16847 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/16847-h/images/230_1.jpg b/16847-h/images/230_1.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9eabf39 --- /dev/null +++ b/16847-h/images/230_1.jpg diff --git a/16847-h/images/230_2.jpg b/16847-h/images/230_2.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..48dbd20 --- /dev/null +++ b/16847-h/images/230_2.jpg diff --git a/16847-h/images/230_3.jpg b/16847-h/images/230_3.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..920c4fa --- /dev/null +++ b/16847-h/images/230_3.jpg diff --git a/16847-h/images/230_4.jpg b/16847-h/images/230_4.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c4da2c --- /dev/null +++ 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