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diff --git a/16768-8.txt b/16768-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..69bbc7b --- /dev/null +++ b/16768-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,21445 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Sumatra, by William Marsden + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The History of Sumatra + Containing An Account Of The Government, Laws, Customs And + Manners Of The Native Inhabitants + +Author: William Marsden + +Release Date: September 28, 2005 [EBook #16768] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF SUMATRA *** + + + + +Produced by Sue Asscher + + + + + +(PLATE 16. A MALAY BOY, NATIVE OF BENCOOLEN. +T. Heaphy delt. A. Cardon fecit. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +THE HISTORY OF SUMATRA, + +CONTAINING AN ACCOUNT OF + +THE GOVERNMENT, LAWS, CUSTOMS, AND MANNERS + +OF + +THE NATIVE INHABITANTS, + +WITH + +A DESCRIPTION OF THE NATURAL PRODUCTIONS, + +AND A RELATION OF THE + +ANCIENT POLITICAL STATE OF THAT ISLAND. + +BY + +WILLIAM MARSDEN, F.R.S. + +THE THIRD EDITION, WITH CORRECTIONS, ADDITIONS, AND PLATES. + +LONDON: +PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR, +BY J. M'CREERY, BLACK-HORSE-COURT, +AND SOLD BY +LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, AND BROWN, PATERNOSTER-ROW. +1811. + +... + + +THE HISTORY OF SUMATRA. + + +CONTENTS. + + +PREFACE. + + +CHAPTER 1. + +SITUATION. +NAME. +GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY, ITS MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. +AIR AND METEORS. +MONSOONS, AND LAND AND SEA-BREEZES. +MINERALS AND FOSSILS. +VOLCANOES. +EARTHQUAKES. +SURFS AND TIDES. + + +CHAPTER 2. + +DISTINCTION OF INHABITANTS. +REJANGS CHOSEN FOR GENERAL DESCRIPTION. +PERSONS AND COMPLEXION. +CLOTHING AND ORNAMENTS. + + +CHAPTER 3. + +VILLAGES. +BUILDINGS. +DOMESTIC UTENSILS. +FOOD. + + +CHAPTER 4. + +AGRICULTURE. +RICE, ITS CULTIVATION, ETC. +PLANTATIONS OF COCONUT, BETEL-NUT, AND OTHER VEGETABLES FOR DOMESTIC USE. +DYE STUFFS. + + +CHAPTER 5. + +FRUITS, FLOWERS, MEDICINAL SHRUBS AND HERBS. + + +CHAPTER 6. + +BEASTS. +REPTILES. +FISH. +BIRDS. +INSECTS. + + +CHAPTER 7. + +VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS OF THE ISLAND CONSIDERED AS ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. +PEPPER. +CULTIVATION OF PEPPER. +CAMPHOR. +BENZOIN. +CASSIA, ETC. + + +CHAPTER 8. + +GOLD, TIN, AND OTHER METALS. +BEESWAX. +IVORY. +BIRDS-NEST, ETC. +IMPORT-TRADE. + + +CHAPTER 9. + +ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. +ART OF MEDICINE. +SCIENCES. +ARITHMETIC. +GEOGRAPHY. +ASTRONOMY. +MUSIC, ETC. + + +CHAPTER 10. + +LANGUAGES. +MALAYAN. +ARABIC CHARACTER USED. +LANGUAGES OF THE INTERIOR PEOPLE. +PECULIAR CHARACTERS. +SPECIMENS OF LANGUAGES AND OF ALPHABETS. + + +CHAPTER 11. + +COMPARATIVE STATE OF THE SUMATRANS IN CIVIL SOCIETY. +DIFFERENCE OF CHARACTER BETWEEN THE MALAYS AND OTHER INHABITANTS. +GOVERNMENT. +TITLES AND POWER OF THE CHIEFS AMONG THE REJANGS. +INFLUENCE OF THE EUROPEANS. +GOVERNMENT IN PASSUMMAH. + + +CHAPTER 12. + +LAWS AND CUSTOMS. +MODE OF DECIDING CAUSES. +CODE OF LAWS. + + +CHAPTER 13. + +REMARKS ON, AND ELUCIDATION OF, THE VARIOUS LAWS AND CUSTOMS. +MODES OF PLEADING. +NATURE OF EVIDENCE. +OATHS. +INHERITANCE. +OUTLAWRY. +THEFT, MURDER, AND COMPENSATION FOR IT. +ACCOUNT OF A FEUD. +DEBTS. +SLAVERY. + + +CHAPTER 14. + +MODES OF MARRIAGE, AND CUSTOMS RELATIVE THERETO. +POLYGAMY. +FESTIVALS. +GAMES. +COCK-FIGHTING. +USE AND EFFECTS OF OPIUM. + + +CHAPTER 15. + +CUSTOM OF CHEWING BETEL. +EMBLEMATIC PRESENTS. +ORATORY. +CHILDREN. +NAMES. +CIRCUMCISION. +FUNERALS. +RELIGION. + + +CHAPTER 16. + +THE COUNTRY OF LAMPONG AND ITS INHABITANTS. +LANGUAGE. +GOVERNMENT. +WARS. +PECULIAR CUSTOMS. +RELIGION. + + +CHAPTER 17. + +ACCOUNT OF THE INLAND COUNTRY OF KORINCHI. +EXPEDITION TO THE SERAMPEI AND SUNGEI-TENANG COUNTRIES. + + +CHAPTER 18. + +MALAYAN STATES. +ANCIENT EMPIRE OF MENANGKABAU. +ORIGIN OF THE MALAYS AND GENERAL ACCEPTATION OF NAME. +EVIDENCES OF THEIR MIGRATION FROM SUMATRA. +SUCCESSION OF MALAYAN PRINCES. +PRESENT STATE OF THE EMPIRE. +TITLES OF THE SULTAN. +CEREMONIES. +CONVERSION TO MAHOMETAN RELIGION. +LITERATURE. +ARTS. +WARFARE. +GOVERNMENT. + + +CHAPTER 19. + +KINGDOMS OF INDRAPURA, ANAK-SUNGEI, PASSAMMAN, SIAK. + + +CHAPTER 20. + +THE COUNTRY OF THE BATTAS. +TAPPANULI-BAY. +JOURNEY INTO THE INTERIOR. +CASSIA-TREES. +GOVERNMENTS. +ARMS. +WARFARE. +TRADE. +FAIRS. +FOOD. +MANNERS. +LANGUAGE. +WRITING. +RELIGION. +FUNERALS. +CRIMES. +EXTRAORDINARY CUSTOM. + + +CHAPTER 21. + +KINGDOM OF ACHIN. +ITS CAPITAL. +AIR. +INHABITANTS. +COMMERCE. +MANUFACTURES. +NAVIGATION. +COIN. +GOVERNMENT. +REVENUES. +PUNISHMENTS. + + +CHAPTER 22. + +HISTORY OF THE KINGDOM OF ACHIN, FROM THE PERIOD OF ITS BEING VISITED BY +EUROPEANS. + + +CHAPTER 23. + +BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE ISLANDS LYING OFF THE WESTERN COAST OF SUMATRA. + + +LIST OF PLATES. + +PLATE 1. THE PEPPER-PLANT, Piper nigrum. +E.W. Marsden delt. Engraved by J. Swaine, Queen Street, Golden Square. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 2. THE DAMMAR, A SPECIES OF PINUS. +Sinensis delt. Swaine Sc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 3. THE MANGUSTIN FRUIT, Garcinia mangostana. +Engraved by J. Swaine. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 4. THE RAMBUTAN, Nephelium lappaceum. +L. Wilkins delt. Engraved by J. Swaine. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 5. THE LANSEH FRUIT, Lansium domesticum. +L. Wilkins delt. Hooker Sc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 6. THE RAMBEH FRUIT, A SPECIES OF LANSEH. +Maria Wilkins delt. Engraved by J. Swaine. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 7. THE KAMILING OR BUAH KRAS, Juglans camirium. +L. Wilkins delt. Engraved by J. Swaine. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 8. Marsdenia tinctoria, OR BROAD-LEAFED INDIGO. +E.W. Marsden delt. Swaine fct. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 9. A SPECIES OF Lemur volans, SUSPENDED FROM THE RAMBEH-TREE. +Sinensis delt. N. Cardon fct. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 9a. THE MUSANG, A SPECIES OF VIVERRA. +W. Bell delt. A. Cardon fc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 10. THE TANGGILING OR PENG-GOLING-SISIK, A SPECIES OF MANIS. +W. Bell delt. A. Cardon fct. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 11. n.1. THE ANJING-AYER, Mustela lutra. +W. Bell delt. A. Cardon fc. + +PLATE 11a. n.2. +1. SKULL OF THE KAMBING-UTAN. +2. SKULL OF THE KIJANG. +W. Bell delt. A. Cardon sc. + +PLATE 12. n.1. THE PALANDOK, A DIMINUTIVE SPECIES OF MOSCHUS. +Sinensis delt. A. Cardon fc. + +PLATE 12a. n.2. THE KIJANG OR ROE, Cervus muntjak. +W. Bell delt. A. Cardon sc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 13. n.1. THE LANDAK, Hystrix longicauda. +Sinensis delt. A. Cardon fc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 13a. n.2. THE ANJING-AYER. +Sinensis delt. A. Cardon fc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 14. n.1. THE KAMBING-UTAN, OR WILD-GOAT. +W. Bell delt. + +PLATE 14a. n.2. THE KUBIN, Draco volans. +Sinensis delt. A. Cardon sc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 15. BEAKS OF THE BUCEROS OR HORN-BILL. +M. de Jonville delt. Swaine sc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 16. A MALAY BOY, NATIVE OF BENCOOLEN. +T. Heaphy delt. A. Cardon fecit. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 17. SUMATRAN WEAPONS. +A. A Malay Gadoobang. +B. A Batta Weapon. +C. A Malay Creese. +One-third of the size of the Originals. +W. Williams del. and sculpt. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 17a. SUMATRAN WEAPONS. +D. A Malay Creese. +E. An Achenese Creese. +F. A Malay Sewar. +One-third of the size of the Originals. +W. Williams del. and sculpt. + +PLATE 18. ENTRANCE OF PADANG RIVER. +With Buffaloes. + +PLATE 18A. VIEW OF PADANG HILL. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 19. A VILLAGE HOUSE IN SUMATRA. +W. Bell delt. J.G. Stadler sculpt. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + +PLATE 19a. A PLANTATION HOUSE IN SUMATRA. +W. Bell delt. J.G. Stadler sculpt. + + +INDEX. + +... + + + +PREFACE. + +The island of Sumatra, which, in point of situation and extent, holds a +conspicuous rank on the terraqueous globe, and is surpassed by few in the +bountiful indulgences of nature, has in all ages been unaccountably +neglected by writers insomuch that it is at this day less known, as to +the interior parts more especially, than the remotest island of modern +discovery; although it has been constantly resorted to by Europeans for +some centuries, and the English have had a regular establishment there +for the last hundred years. It is true that the commercial importance of +Sumatra has much declined. It is no longer the Emporium of Eastern riches +whither the traders of the West resorted with their cargoes to exchange +them for the precious merchandise of the Indian Archipelago: nor does it +boast now the political consequence it acquired when the rapid progress +of the Portuguese successes there first received a check. That +enterprising people, who caused so many kingdoms to shrink from the +terror of their arms, met with nothing but disgrace in their attempts +against Achin, whose monarchs made them tremble in their turn. Yet still +the importance of this island in the eye of the natural historian has +continued undiminished, and has equally at all periods laid claim to an +attention that does not appear, at any, to have been paid to it. + +The Portuguese being better warriors than philosophers, and more eager to +conquer nations than to explore their manners or antiquities, it is not +surprising that they should have been unable to furnish the world with +any particular and just description of a country which they must have +regarded with an evil eye. The Dutch were the next people from whom we +had a right to expect information. They had an early intercourse with the +island, and have at different times formed settlements in almost every +part of it; yet they are almost silent with respect to its history.* But +to what cause are we to ascribe the remissness of our own countrymen, +whose opportunities have been equal to those of their predecessors or +contemporaries? It seems difficult to account for it; but the fact is +that, excepting a short sketch of the manners prevailing in a particular +district of the island, published in the Philosophical Transactions of +the year 1778, not one page of information respecting the inhabitants of +Sumatra has been communicated to the public by any Englishman who has +resided there. + +(*Footnote. At the period when this remark was written, I was not aware +that an account of the Dutch settlements and commerce in Sumatra by M. +Adolph Eschels-kroon had in the preceding year been published at +Hamburgh, in the German language; nor had the transactions of a literary +society established at Batavia, whose first volume appeared there in +1779, yet reached this country. The work, indeed, of Valentyn, containing +a general history of the European possessions in the East Indies, should +have exempted a nation to which oriental learning is largely indebted +from what I now consider as an unmerited reflection.) + +To form a general and tolerably accurate account of this country and its +inhabitants is a work attended with great and peculiar difficulties. The +necessary information is not to be procured from the people themselves, +whose knowledge and inquiries are to the last degree confined, scarcely +extending beyond the bounds of the district where they first drew breath; +and but very rarely have the almost impervious woods of Sumatra been +penetrated to any considerable distance from the sea coast by Europeans, +whose observations have been then imperfect, trusted perhaps to memory +only, or, if committed to paper, lost to the world by their deaths. Other +difficulties arise from the extraordinary diversity of national +distinctions, which, under a great variety of independent governments, +divide this island in many directions; and yet not from their number +merely, nor from the dissimilarity in their languages or manners, does +the embarrassment entirely proceed: the local divisions are perplexed and +uncertain; the extent of jurisdiction of the various princes is +inaccurately defined; settlers from different countries and at different +periods have introduced an irregular though powerful influence that +supersedes in some places the authority of the established governments, +and imposes a real dominion on the natives where a nominal one is not +assumed. This, in a course of years, is productive of innovations that +destroy the originality and genuineness of their customs and manners, +obliterate ancient distinctions, and render confused the path of an +investigator. + +These objections, which seem to have hitherto proved unsurmountable with +such as might have been inclined to attempt the history of Sumatra, would +also have deterred me from an undertaking apparently so arduous, had I +not reflected that those circumstances in which consisted the principal +difficulty were in fact the least interesting to the public, and of the +least utility in themselves. It is of but small importance to determine +with precision whether a few villages on this or that particular river +belong to one petty chief or to another; whether such a nation is divided +into a greater or lesser number of tribes; or which of two neighbouring +powers originally did homage to the other for its title. History is only +to be prized as it tends to improve our knowledge of mankind, to which +such investigations contribute in a very small degree. I have therefore +attempted rather to give a comprehensive than a circumstantial +description of the divisions of the country into its various governments; +aiming at a more particular detail in what respects the customs, +opinions, arts, and industry of the original inhabitants in their most +genuine state. The interests of the European powers who have established +themselves on the island; the history of their settlements, and of the +revolutions of their commerce I have not considered as forming a part of +my plan; but these subjects, as connected with the accounts of the native +inhabitants and the history of their governments, are occasionally +introduced. + +I was principally encouraged to this undertaking by the promises of +assistance I received from some ingenious and very highly esteemed +friends who resided with me in Sumatra. It has also been urged to me here +in England that, as the subject is altogether new, it is a duty incumbent +on me to lay the information I am in possession of, however defective, +before the public, who will not object to its being circumscribed whilst +its authenticity remains unimpeachable. This last quality is that which I +can with the most confidence take upon me to vouch for. The greatest +portion of what I have described has fallen within the scope of my own +immediate observation; the remainder is either matter of common notoriety +to every person residing in the island, or received upon the concurring +authority of gentlemen whose situation in the East India Company's +service, long acquaintance with the natives, extensive knowledge of their +language, ideas, and manners, and respectability of character, render +them worthy of the most implicit faith that can be given to human +testimony. + +I have been the more scrupulously exact in this particular because my +view was not, ultimately, to write an entertaining book to which the +marvellous might be thought not a little to contribute, but sincerely and +conscientiously to add the small portion in my power to the general +knowledge of the age; to throw some glimmering light on the path of the +naturalist; and more especially to furnish those philosophers whose +labours have been directed to the investigation of the history of Man +with facts to serve as data in their reasonings, which are too often +rendered nugatory, and not seldom ridiculous, by assuming as truths the +misconceptions or wilful impositions of travellers. The study of their +own species is doubtless the most interesting and important that can +claim the attention of mankind; and this science, like all others, it is +impossible to improve by abstract speculation merely. A regular series of +authenticated facts is what alone can enable us to rise towards a perfect +knowledge in it. To have added one new and firm step in this arduous +ascent is a merit of which I should be proud to boast. + +... + +Of this third edition it is necessary to observe that, the former two +having made their appearance so early as the years 1783 and 1784, it +would long since have been prepared for the public eye had not the duties +of an official situation occupied for many years the whole of my +attention. During that period, however, I received from my friends abroad +various useful, and, to me at least, interesting communications which +have enabled me to correct some inaccuracies, to supply deficiencies, and +to augment the general mass of information on the subject of an island +still but imperfectly explored. To incorporate these new materials +requiring that many liberties should be taken with the original +contexture of the work, I became the less scrupulous of making further +alterations wherever I thought they could be introduced with advantage. +The branch of natural history in particular I trust will be found to have +received much improvement, and I feel happy to have had it in my power to +illustrate several of the more interesting productions of the vegetable +and animal kingdoms by engravings executed from time to time as the +drawings were procured, and which are intended to accompany the volume in +a separate atlas. + +... + + + +THE HISTORY OF SUMATRA. + + +CHAPTER 1. + +SITUATION. +NAME. +GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY, ITS MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. +AIR AND METEORS. +MONSOONS, AND LAND AND SEA-BREEZES. +MINERALS AND FOSSILS. +VOLCANOES. +EARTHQUAKES. +SURFS AND TIDES. + +If antiquity holds up to us some models, in different arts and sciences, +which have been found inimitable, the moderns, on the other hand, have +carried their inventions and improvements, in a variety of instances, to +an extent and a degree of perfection of which the former could entertain +no ideas. Among those discoveries in which we have stepped so far beyond +our masters there is none more striking, or more eminently useful, than +the means which the ingenuity of some, and the experience of others, have +taught mankind, of determining with certainty and precision the relative +situation of the various countries of the earth. What was formerly the +subject of mere conjecture, or at best of vague and arbitrary +computation, is now the clear result of settled rule, founded upon +principles demonstratively just. It only remains for the liberality of +princes and states, and the persevering industry of navigators and +travellers, to effect the application of these means to their proper end, +by continuing to ascertain the unknown and uncertain positions of all the +parts of the world, which the barriers of nature will allow the skill and +industry of man to approach. + +SITUATION OF THE ISLAND. + +Sumatra, the subject of the present work, is an extensive island in the +East Indies, the most western of those which may be termed the Malayan +Archipelago, and constituting its boundary on that side. + +LATITUDE. + +The equator divides it obliquely, its general direction being north-west +and south-east, into almost equal parts; the one extremity lying in five +degrees thirty-three minutes north, and the other in five degrees +fifty-six minutes south latitude. In respect to relative position its +northern point stretches into the Bay of Bengal; its south-west coast is +exposed to the great Indian Ocean; towards the south it is separated by +the Straits of Sunda from the island of Java; on the east by the +commencement of the Eastern and China Seas from Borneo and other islands; +and on the north-east by the Straits of Malacca from the peninsula of +Malayo, to which, according to a tradition noticed by the Portuguese +historians, it is supposed to have been anciently united. + +LONGITUDE. + +The only point of the island whose longitude has been settled by actual +observation is Fort Marlborough, near Bencoolen, the principal English +settlement, standing in three degrees forty-six minutes of south +latitude. From eclipses of Jupiter's satellites observed in June 1769, +preparatory to an observation of the transit of the planet Venus over the +sun's disc, Mr. Robert Nairne calculated its longitude to be 101 degrees +42 minutes 45 seconds; which was afterwards corrected by the Astronomer +Royal to 102 degrees east of Greenwich. The situation of Achin Head is +pretty accurately fixed by computation at 95 degrees 34 minutes; and +longitudes of places in the Straits of Sunda are well ascertained by the +short runs from Batavia, which city has the advantage of an observatory. + +MAP. + +By the general use of chronometers in latter times the means have been +afforded of determining the positions of many prominent points both on +the eastern and western coasts, by which the map of the island has been +considerably improved: but particular surveys, such as those of the bays +and islets from Batang-kapas to Padang, made with great ability by +Captain (now Lieutenant-Colonel) John Macdonald; of the coast from +Priaman to the islands off Achin by Captain George Robertson; and of Siak +River by Mr. Francis Lynch, are much wanted; and the interior of the +country is still very imperfectly known. From sketches of the routes of +Mr. Charles Campbell and of Lieutenant Hastings Dare I have been enabled +to delineate the principal features of the Sarampei, Sungei Tenang and +Korinchi countries, inland of Ipu, Moco-moco, and Indrapura; and +advantage has been taken of all other information that could be procured. +For the general materials from which the map is constructed I am chiefly +indebted to the kindness of my friend, the late Mr. Alexander Dalrymple, +whose indefatigable labours during a long life have contributed more than +those of any other person to the improvement of Indian Hydrography. It +may be proper to observe that the map of Sumatra to be found in the fifth +volume of Valentyn's great work is so extremely incorrect, even in regard +to those parts immediately subject to the Dutch government, as to be +quite useless. + +UNKNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. TAPROBANE. + +Notwithstanding the obvious situation of this island in the direct track +from the ports of India to the Spice Islands and to China, it seems to +have been unknown to the Greek and Roman geographers, whose information +or conjectures carried them no farther than Selan-dib or Ceylon, which +has claims to be considered as their Taprobane; although during the +middle ages that celebrated name was almost uniformly applied to Sumatra. +The single circumstance indeed of the latter being intersected by the +equator (as Taprobane was said to be) is sufficient to justify the doubts +of those who were disinclined to apply it to the former; and whether in +fact the obscure and contradictory descriptions given by Strabo, +Pomponius Mela, Pliny, and Ptolemy, belonged to any actual place, however +imperfectly known; or whether, observing that a number of rare and +valuable commodities were brought from an island or islands in the +supposed extremity of the East, they might have been led to give place in +their charts to one of vast extent, which should stand as the +representative of the whole, is a question not to be hastily decided. + +OPHIR. + +The idea of Sumatra being the country of Ophir, whither Solomon sent his +fleets for cargoes of gold and ivory, rather than to the coast of Sofala, +or other part of Africa, is too vague, and the subject wrapped in a veil +of too remote antiquity, to allow of satisfactory discussion; and I shall +only observe that no inference can be drawn from the name of Ophir found +in maps as belonging to a mountain in this island and to another in the +peninsula; these having been applied to them by European navigators, and +the word being unknown to the natives. + +Until the discovery of the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope the +identity of this island as described or alluded to by writers is often +equivocal, or to be inferred only from corresponding circumstances. + +ARABIAN TRAVELLERS. + +The first of the two Arabian travellers of the ninth century, the account +of whose voyages to India and China was translated by Renaudot from a +manuscript written about the year 1173, speaks of a large island called +Ramni, in the track between Sarandib and Sin (or China), that from the +similarity of productions has been generally supposed to mean Sumatra; +and this probability is strengthened by a circumstance I believe not +hitherto noticed by commentators. It is said to divide the Sea of +Herkend, or Indian Ocean, from the Sea of Shelahet) Salahet in Edrisi), +and Salat being the Malayan term both for a strait in general, and for +the well-known passage within the island of Singapura in particular, this +may be fairly presumed to refer to the Straits of Malacca. + +EDRISI. + +Edrisi, improperly called the Nubian geographer, who dedicated his work +to Roger, King of Sicily, in the middle of the twelfth century, describes +the same island, in the first climate, by the name of Al-Rami; but the +particulars so nearly correspond with those given by the Arabian +traveller as to show that the one account was borrowed from the other. He +very erroneously however makes the distance between Sarandib and that +island to be no more than three days' sail instead of fifteen. The island +of Soborma, which he places in the same climate, is evidently Borneo, and +the two passages leading to it are the Straits of Malacca and of Sunda. +What is mentioned of Sumandar, in the second climate, has no relation +whatever to Sumatra, although from the name we are led to expect it. + +MARCO POLO. + +Marco Polo, the celebrated Venetian traveller of the thirteenth century, +is the first European who speaks of this island, but under the +appellation of Java minor, which he gave to it by a sort of analogy, +having forgotten, or not having learned from the natives, its appropriate +name. His relation, though for a long time undervalued, and by many +considered as a romantic tale, and liable as it is to the charge of +errors and omissions, with some improbabilities, possesses, +notwithstanding, strong internal evidence of genuineness and good faith. +Containing few dates, the exact period of his visit to Sumatra cannot be +ascertained, but as he returned to Venice in 1295, and possibly five +years might have elapsed in his subsequent tedious voyages and journeys +by Ceylon, the Karnatick, Malabar, Guzerat, Persia, the shores of the +Caspian and Euxine, to Genoa (in a prison at which place he is said to +have dictated his narrative), we may venture to refer it to the year +1290. + +Taking his departure, with a considerable equipment, from a southern port +of China, which he (or his transcriber) named Zaitum, they proceeded to +Ziamba (Tsiampa or Champa, adjoining to the southern part of +Cochin-China) which he had previously visited in 1280, being then in the +service of the emperor Kublai Khan. From thence, he says, to the island +of Java major is a course of fifteen hundred miles, but it is evident +that he speaks of it only from the information of others, and not as an +eyewitness; nor is it probable that the expedition should have deviated +so far from its proper route. He states truly that it is a mart for +spices and much frequented by traders from the southern provinces of +China. He then mentions in succession the small uninhabited islands of +Sondur and Condur (perhaps Pulo Condore); the province of Boeach +otherwise Lochac (apparently Camboja, near to which Condore is situated); +the island of Petan (either Patani or Pahang in the peninsula) the +passage to which, from Boeach, is across a gulf (that of Siam); and the +kingdom called Malaiur in the Italian, and Maletur in the Latin version, +which we can scarcely doubt to be the Malayan kingdom of Singa-Pura, at +the extremity of the peninsula, or Malacca, then beginning to flourish. +It is not however asserted that he touched at all these places, nor does +he seem to speak from personal knowledge until his arrival at Java minor +(as he calls it) or Sumatra. This island, lying in a south-eastern +direction from Petan (if he does not rather mean from Malaiur, the place +last mentioned) he expressly says he visited, and describes it as being +in circumference two thousand miles (not very wide of the truth in a +matter so vague), extending to the southward so far as to render the +Polar Star invisible, and divided into eight kingdoms, two of which he +did not see, and the six others he enumerates as follows: Ferlech, which +I apprehend to be Parlak, at the eastern extremity of the northern coast, +where they were likely to have first made the land. Here he says the +people in general were idolaters; but the Saracen merchants who +frequented the place had converted to the faith of Mahomet the +inhabitants of the towns, whilst those of the mountains lived like +beasts, and were in the practice of eating human flesh. Basma or Basman: +this nearly approaches in sound to Pasaman on the western coast, but I +should be more inclined to refer it to Pase (by the Portuguese written +Pacem) on the northern. The manners of the people here, as in the other +kingdoms, are represented as savage; and such they might well appear to +one who had long resided in China. Wild elephants are mentioned, and the +rhinoceros is well described. Samara: this I suppose to be Samar-langa, +likewise on the northern coast, and noted for its bay. Here, he says, the +expedition, consisting of two thousand persons, was constrained to remain +five months, waiting the change of the monsoon; and, being apprehensive +of injury from the barbarous natives, they secured themselves, by means +of a deep ditch, on the land side, with its extremities embracing the +port, and strengthened by bulwarks of timber. With provisions they were +supplied in abundance, particularly the finest fish. There is no wheat, +and the people live on rice. They are without vines, but extract an +excellent liquor from trees of the palm kind by cutting off a branch and +applying to it a vessel which is filled in the course of a day and night. +A description is then given of the Indian or coconut. Dragoian, a name +bearing some though not much resemblance to Indragiri on the eastern +coast; but I doubt his having proceeded so far to the southward as that +river. The customs of the natives are painted as still more atrocious in +this district. When any of them are afflicted with disorders pronounced +by their magicians to be incurable their relations cause them to be +suffocated, and then dress and eat their flesh; justifying the practice +by this argument, that if it were suffered to corrupt and breed worms, +these must presently perish, and by their deaths subject the soul of the +deceased to great torments. They also kill and devour such strangers +caught amongst them as cannot pay a ransom. Lambri might be presumed a +corruption of Jambi, but the circumstances related do not justify the +analogy. It is said to produce camphor, which is not found to the +southward of the equinoctial line; and also verzino, or red-wood (though +I suspect benzuin to be the word intended), together with a plant which +he names birci, supposed to be the bakam of the Arabs, or sappan wood of +the eastern islands, the seeds of which he carried with him to Venice. In +the mountainous parts were men with tails a palm long; also the +rhinoceros, and other wild animals. Lastly, Fanfur or Fansur, which +corresponds better to Campar than to the island of Panchur, which some +have supposed it. Here the finest camphor was produced, equal in value to +its weight in gold. The inhabitants live on rice and draw liquor from +certain trees in the manner before described. There are likewise trees +that yield a species of meal. They are of a large size, have a thin bark, +under which is a hard wood about three inches in thickness, and within +this the pith, from which, by means of steeping and straining it, the +meal (or sago) is procured, of which he had often eaten with +satisfaction. Each of these kingdoms is said to have had its peculiar +language. Departing from Lambri, and steering northward from Java minor +one hundred and fifty miles, they reached a small island named Necuram or +Norcueran (probably Nancowry, one of the Nicobars), and afterwards an +island named Angaman (Andaman), from whence, steering to the southward of +west a thousand miles, they arrived at that of Zeilan or Seilam, one of +the most considerable in the world. The editions consulted are chiefly +the Italian of Ramusio, 1583, Latin of Muller, 1671, and French of +Bergeron, 1735, varying much from each other in the orthography of proper +names. + +ODORICUS. + +Odoricus, a friar, who commenced his travels in 1318 and died at Padua in +1331, had visited many parts of the East. From the southern part of the +coast of Coromandel he proceeded by a navigation of twenty days to a +country named Lamori (perhaps a corruption of the Arabian Al-rami), to +the southward of which is another kingdom named Sumoltra, and not far +from thence a large island named Java. His account, which was delivered +orally to the person by whom it was written down, is extremely meagre and +unsatisfactory. + +MANDEVILLE. + +Mandeville, who travelled in the fourteenth century, seems to have +adopted the account of Odoricus when he says, "Beside the isle of Lemery +is another that is clept Sumobor; and fast beside a great isle clept +Java." + +NICOLO DI CONTI. + +Nicolo di Conti, of Venice, returned from his oriental travels in 1449 +and communicated to the secretary of Pope Eugenius IV a much more +consistent and satisfactory account of what he had seen than any of his +predecessors. After giving a description of the cinnamon and other +productions of Zeilam he says he sailed to a great island named Sumatra, +called by the ancients Taprobana, where he was detained one year. His +account of the pepper-plant, of the durian fruit, and of the +extraordinary customs, now well ascertained, of the Batech or Batta +people, prove him to have been an intelligent observer. + +ITINERARIUM PORTUGALLENSIUM. + +A small work entitled Itinerarium Portugallensium, printed at Milan in +1508, after speaking of the island of Sayla, says that to the eastward of +this there is another called Samotra, which we name Taprobane, distant +from the city of Calechut about three months' voyage. The information +appears to have been obtained from an Indian of Cranganore, on the coast +of Malabar, who visited Lisbon in 1501. + +LUDOVICO BARTHEMA. + +Ludovico Barthema (Vartoma) of Bologna, began his travels in 1503, and in +1505, after visiting Malacca, which he describes as being the resort of a +greater quantity of shipping than any other port in the world, passed +over to Pedir in Sumatra, which he concludes to be Taprobane. The +productions of the island, he says, were chiefly exported to Catai or +China. From Sumatra he proceeded to Banda and the Moluccas, from thence +returned by Java and Malacca to the west of India, and arrived at Lisbon +in 1508. + +ODOARDUS BARBOSA. + +Odoardus Barbosa, of Lisbon, who concluded the journal of his voyage in +1516, speaks with much precision of Sumatra. He enumerates many places, +both upon the coast and inland, by the names they now bear, among which +he considers Pedir as the principal, distinguishes between the Mahometan +inhabitants of the coast and the Pagans of the inland country; and +mentions the extensive trade carried on by the former with Cambaia in the +west of India. + +ANTONIO PIGAFETTA. + +In the account given by Antonio Pigafetta, the companion of Ferdinand +Magellan, of the famous circumnavigatory voyage performed by the +Spaniards in the years 1519 to 1522, it is stated that, from their +apprehension of falling in with Portuguese ships, they pursued their +westerly route from the island of Timor, by the Laut Kidol, or southern +ocean, leaving on their right hand the island of Zamatra (written in +another part of the journal, Somatra) or Taprobana of the ancients. +Mention is also made of a native of that island being on board, who +served them usefully as an interpreter in many of the places they +visited; and we are here furnished with the earliest specimen of the +Malayan language. + +PORTUGUESE EXPEDITIONS. + +Previously however to this Spanish navigation of the Indian seas, by the +way of South America, the expeditions of the Portuguese round the Cape of +Good Hope had rendered the island well known, both in regard to its local +circumstances and the manners of its inhabitants. + +EMANUEL KING OF PORTUGAL. + +In a letter from Emanuel King of Portugal to Pope Leo the Tenth, dated in +1513, he speaks of the discovery of Zamatra by his subjects; and the +writings of Juan de Barros, Castaneda, Osorius, and Maffaeus, detail the +operations of Diogo Lopez de Sequeira at Pedir and Pase in 1509, and +those of the great Alfonso de Alboquerque at the same places, in 1511, +immediately before his attack upon Malacca. Debarros also enumerates the +names of twenty of the principal places of the island with considerable +precision, and observes that the peninsula or chersonesus had the epithet +of aurea given to it on account of the abundance of gold carried thither +from Monancabo and Barros, countries in the island of C(cedilla)amatra. + +Having thus noticed what has been written by persons who actually visited +this part of India at an early period, or published from their oral +communication by contemporaries, it will not be thought necessary to +multiply authorities by quoting the works of subsequent commentators and +geographers, who must have formed their judgments from the same original +materials. + +NAME OF SUMATRA. + +With respect to the name of Sumatra, we perceive that it was unknown both +to the Arabian travellers and to Marco Polo, who indeed was not likely to +acquire it from the savage natives with whom he had intercourse. The +appellation of Java minor which he gives to the island seems to have been +quite arbitrary, and not grounded upon any authority, European or +Oriental, unless we can suppose that he had determined it to be the +I'azadith nesos of Ptolemy; but from the other parts of his relation it +does not appear that he was acquainted with the work of that great +geographer, nor could he have used it with any practical advantage. At +all events it could not have led him to the distinction of a greater and +a lesser Java; and we may rather conclude that, having visited (or heard +of) the great island properly so called, and not being able to learn the +real name of another, which from its situation and size might well be +regarded as a sister island, he applied the same to both, with the +relative epithets of major and minor. That Ptolemy's Jaba-dib or dio was +intended, however vaguely, for the island of Java, cannot be doubted. It +must have been known to the Arabian merchants, and he was indefatigable +in his inquiries; but at the same time that they communicated the name +they might be ill qualified to describe its geographical position. + +In the rude narrative of Odoricus we perceive the first approach to the +modern name in the word Sumoltra. Those who immediately followed him +write it with a slight, and often inconsistent, variation in the +orthography, Sumotra, Samotra, Zamatra, and Sumatra. But none of these +travellers inform us from whom they learned it; whether from the natives +or from persons who had been in the habits of frequenting it from the +continent of India; which latter I think the more probable. Reland, an +able oriental scholar, who directed his attention to the languages of the +islands, says it obtains its appellation from a certain high land called +Samadra, which he supposes to signify in the language of the country a +large ant; but in fact there is not any spot so named; and although there +is some resemblance between semut, the word for an ant, and the name in +question, the etymology is quite fanciful. Others have imagined that they +find an easy derivation in the word samatra, to be met with in some +Spanish or Portuguese dictionaries, as signifying a sudden storm of wind +and rain, and from whence our seamen may have borrowed the expression; +but it is evident that the order of derivation is here reversed, and that +the phrase is taken from the name of the land in the neighbourhood of +which such squalls prevail. In a Persian work of the year 1611 the name +of Shamatrah occurs as one of those places where the Portuguese had +established themselves; and in some very modern Malayan correspondence I +find the word Samantara employed (along with another more usual, which +will be hereafter mentioned) to designate this island. + +PROBABLY DERIVED FROM THE SANSKRIT. + +These, it is true, are not entirely free from the suspicion of having +found their way to the Persians and Malays through the medium of European +intercourse; but to a person who is conversant with the languages of the +continent of India it must be obvious that the name, however written, +bears a strong resemblance to words in the Sanskrit language: nor should +this appear extraordinary when we consider (what is now fully admitted) +that a large proportion of the Malayan is derived from that source, and +that the names of many places in this and the neighbouring countries +(such as Indrapura and Indragiri in Sumatra, Singapura at the extremity +of the peninsula, and Sukapura and the mountain of Maha-meru in Java) are +indisputably of Hindu origin. It is not my intention however to assign a +precise etymology; but in order to show the general analogy to known +Sanskrit terms it may be allowed to instance Samuder, the ancient name of +the capital of the Carnatik, afterwards called Bider; Samudra-duta, which +occurs in the Hetopadesa, as signifying the ambassador of the sea; the +compound formed of su, good, and matra, measure; and more especially the +word samantara, which implying a boundary, intermediate, or what lies +between, might be thought to apply to the peculiar situation of an island +intermediate between two oceans and two straits. + +NOT ENTIRELY UNKNOWN TO THE NATIVES. + +When on a former occasion it was asserted (and with too much confidence) +that the name of Sumatra is unknown to the natives, who are ignorant of +its being an island, and have no general name for it, the expression +ought to have been confined to those natives with whom I had an +opportunity of conversing, in the southern part of the west coast, where +much genuineness of manners prevails, with little of the spirit of +commercial enterprise or communication with other countries. But even in +situations more favourable for acquiring knowledge I believe it will be +found that the inhabitants of very large islands, and especially if +surrounded by smaller ones, are accustomed to consider their own as terra +firma, and to look to no other geographical distinction than that of the +district or nation to which they belong. Accordingly we find that the +more general names have commonly been given by foreigners, and, as the +Arabians chose to call this island Al-rami or Lameri, so the Hindus +appear to have named it Sumatra or Samantara. + +MALAYAN NAMES FOR THE ISLAND. + +Since that period however, having become much better acquainted with +Malayan literature, and perused the writings of various parts of the +peninsula and islands where the language is spoken and cultivated, I am +enabled to say that Sumatra is well known amongst the eastern people and +the better-informed of the natives themselves by the two names of Indalas +and Pulo percha (or in the southern dialect Pritcho). + +INDALAS. + +Of the meaning or analogies of the former, which seems to have been +applied to it chiefly by the neighbouring people of Java, I have not any +conjecture, and only observe its resemblance (doubtless accidental) to +the Arabian denomination of Spain or Andalusia. In one passage I find the +Straits of Malacca termed the sea of Indalas, over which, we are gravely +told, a bridge was thrown by Alexander the Great. + +PERCHA. + +The latter and more common name is from a Malayan word signifying +fragments or tatters, and the application is whimsically explained by the +condition of the sails of the vessel in which the island was +circumnavigated for the first time; but it may with more plausibility be +supposed to allude to the broken or intersected land for which the +eastern coast is so remarkable. It will indeed be seen in the map that in +the vicinity of what are called Rupat's Straits there is a particular +place of this description named Pulo Percha, or the Broken Islands. As to +the appellation of Pulo Ber-api, or Volcano Island, which has also +occurred, it is too indefinite for a proper name in a region of the globe +where the phenomenon is by no means rare or peculiar, and should rather +be considered as a descriptive epithet. + +MAGNITUDE. + +In respect to magnitude, it ranks amongst the largest islands in the +world; but its breadth throughout is determined with so little accuracy +that any attempt to calculate its superficies must be liable to very +considerable error. Like Great Britain it is broadest at the southern +extremity, narrowing gradually to the north; and to this island it is +perhaps in size more nearly allied than in shape. + +MOUNTAINS. + +A chain of mountains runs through its whole extent, the ranges being in +many parts double and treble, but situated in general much nearer to the +western than the opposite coast, being on the former seldom so much as +twenty miles from the sea, whilst on the eastern side the extent of level +country, in the broader part of the island, through which run the great +rivers of Siak, Indragiri, Jambi, and Palembang, cannot be less than a +hundred and fifty. The height of these mountains, though very great, is +not sufficient to occasion their being covered with snow during any part +of the year, as those in South America between the tropics are found to +be. Mount Ophir,* or Gunong Pasaman, situated immediately under the +equinoctial line, is supposed to be the highest visible from the sea, its +summit being elevated thirteen thousand eight hundred and forty-two feet +above that level; which is no more than two-thirds of the altitude the +French astronomers have ascribed to the loftiest of the Andes, but +somewhat exceeds that of the Peak of Tenerife. + +(*Footnote. The following is the result of observations made by Mr. +Robert Nairne of the height of Mount Ophir: + +Height of the peak above the level of the sea, in feet: 13,842. +English miles: 2.6216. +Nautical miles: 2.26325. +Inland, nearly: 26 nautical miles. +Distance from Massang Point: 32 nautical miles. +Distance at sea before the peak is sunk under the horizon: 125 nautical +miles. +Latitude of the peak: 0 degrees 6 minutes north. +A volcano mountain, south of Ophir, is short of that in height by: 1377 +feet. +Inland, nearly 29 nautical miles. +In order to form a comparison I subjoin the height, as computed by +mathematicians, of other mountains in different parts of the world: +Chimborazo, the highest of the Andes, 3220 toises or 20,633 English feet. +Of this about 2400 feet from the summit are covered with eternal snow. +Carazon, ascended by the French astronomers: 15,800 English feet. +Peak of Tenerife. Feuille: 2270 toises or 13,265 feet. +Mount Blanc, Savoy. Sr. G. Shuckburgh: 15,662. +Mount Etna, Sr. G. Shuckburgh: 10,954. + +Between these ridges of mountains are extensive plains, considerably +elevated above the surface of the maritime lands, where the air is cool; +and from this advantage they are esteemed the most eligible portion of +the country, are consequently the best inhabited and the most cleared +from woods, which elsewhere in general throughout Sumatra cover both +hills and valleys with an eternal shade. Here too are found many large +and beautiful lakes that extend at intervals through the heart of the +country, and facilitate much the communication between the different +parts, but their dimensions, situation, or direction, are very little +known, though the natives make frequent mention of them in the accounts +of their journeys. Those principally spoken of are: one of great extent +but unascertained situation in the Batta country; one in the Korinchi +country, lately visited by Mr. C. Campbel; and another in the Lampong +country, extending towards Pasummah, navigated by boats of a large class +with sails, and requires a day and night to effect the passage across it; +which may be the case in the rainy season, as that part of the island +through which the Tulang Bawang River flows is subject to extensive +inundations, causing it to communicate with the river of the Palembang. +In a journey made many years since by a son of the sultan of the latter +place, to visit the English resident at Croee, he is said to have +proceeded by the way of that lake. It is much to be regretted that the +situation of so important a feature in the geography of the island should +be at this day the subject of uncertain conjecture. + +WATERFALLS. + +Waterfalls and cascades are not uncommon, as may be supposed in a country +of so uneven a surface as that of the western coast. A remarkable one +descends from the north side of Mount Pugong. The island of Mansalar, +lying off and affording shelter to the bay of Tappanuli, presents to the +view a fall of very striking appearance, the reservoir of which the +natives assert (in their fondness for the marvellous) to be a huge shell +of the species called kima (Chama gigas) found in great quantities in +that bay, as well as at New Guinea and other parts of the east.* At the +bottom of this fall ships occasionally take in their water without being +under the necessity of landing their casks; but such attempts are liable +to extreme hazard. A ship from England (the Elgin) attracted by the +appearance from sea of a small but beautiful cascade descending +perpendicularly from the steep cliff, that, like an immense rampart, +lines the seashore near Manna, sent a boat in order to procure fresh +water; but she was lost in the surf, and the crew drowned. + +(*Footnote. The largest I have seen was brought from Tappanuli by Mr. +James Moore of Arno's Vale in the north of Ireland. It is 3 feet 3 1/2 +inches in its longest diameter, and 2 feet 1 1/4 inches across. One of +the methods of taking them in deep water is by thrusting a long bamboo +between the valves as they lie open, when, by the immediate closure which +follows, they are made fast. The substance of the shell is perfectly +white, several inches thick, is worked by the natives into arm-rings, and +in the hands of our artists is found to take a polish equal to the finest +statuary marble.) + +RIVERS. + +No country in the world is better supplied with water than the western +coast of the island. Springs are found wherever they are sought for, and +the rivers are innumerable; but they are in general too small and rapid +for the purpose of navigation. The vicinity of the mountains to that side +of the island occasions this profusion of rivulets, and at the same time +the imperfections that attend them, by not allowing them space to +accumulate to any considerable size. On the eastern coast the distance of +the range of hills not only affords a larger scope for the course of the +rivers before they disembogue, presents a greater surface for the +receptacle of rain and vapours, and enables them to unite a greater +number of subsidiary streams, but also renders the flux more steady and +uniform by the extent of level space than where the torrent rolls more +immediately from the mountains. But it is not to be understood that on +the western side there are no large rivers. Kataun, Indrapura, Tabuyong, +and Sinkel have a claim to that title, although inferior in size to +Palembang, Jambi, Indragiri, and Siak. The latter derive also a material +advantage from the shelter given to them by the peninsula of Malacca, and +Borneo, Banca, and the other islands of the Archipelago, which, breaking +the force of the sea, prevent the surf from forming those bars that choke +the entrance of the south-western rivers, and render them impracticable +to boats of any considerable draught of water. These labour too under +this additional inconvenience that scarcely any except the largest run +out to sea in a direct course. The continual action of the surf, more +powerful than the ordinary force of the stream, throws up at their mouths +a bank of sand, which in many instances has the effect of diverting their +course to a direction parallel with the shore, between the cliffs and the +beach, until the accumulated waters at length force their way wherever +there is found the weakest resistance. In the southerly monsoon, when the +surfs are usually highest, and the streams, from the dryness of the +weather, least rapid, this parallel course is of the greatest extent; and +Moco-moco River takes a course, at times, of two or three miles in this +manner, before it mixes with the sea; but as the rivers swell with the +rain they gradually remove obstructions and recover their natural +channel. + +AIR. + +The heat of the air is by no means so intense as might be expected in a +country occupying the middle of the torrid zone. It is more temperate +than in many regions without the tropics, the thermometer, at the most +sultry hour, which is about two in the afternoon, generally fluctuating +between 82 and 85 degrees. I do not recollect to have ever seen it higher +than 86 in the shade, at Fort Marlborough; although at Natal, in latitude +34 minutes north, it is not unfrequently at 87 and 88 degrees. At sunrise +it is usually as low as 70; the sensation of cold however is much greater +than this would seem to indicate, as it occasions shivering and a +chattering of the teeth; doubtless from the greater relaxation of the +body and openness of the pores in that climate; for the same temperature +in England would be esteemed a considerable degree of warmth. These +observations on the state of the air apply only to the districts near the +sea-coast, where, from their comparatively low situation, and the greater +compression of the atmosphere, the sun's rays operate more powerfully. +Inland, as the country ascends, the degree of heat decreases rapidly, +insomuch that beyond the first range of hills the inhabitants find it +expedient to light fires in the morning, and continue them till the day +is advanced, for the purpose of warming themselves; a practice unknown in +the other parts of the island; and in the journal of Lieutenant Dare's +expedition it appears that during one night's halt on the summit of a +mountain, in the rainy season, he lost several of his party from the +severity of the weather, whilst the thermometer was not lower than 40 +degrees. To the cold also they attribute the backwardness in growth of +the coconut-tree, which is sometimes twenty or thirty years in coming to +perfection, and often fails to produce fruit. Situations are uniformly +colder in proportion to their height above the level of the sea, unless +where local circumstances, such as the neighbourhood of sandy plains, +contribute to produce a contrary effect; but in Sumatra the coolness of +the air is promoted by the quality of the soil, which is clayey, and the +constant and strong verdure that prevails, which, by absorbing the sun's +rays, prevents the effect of their reflection. The circumstance of the +island being so narrow contributes also to its general temperateness, as +wind directly or recently from the sea is seldom possessed of any violent +degree of heat, usually acquired in passing over large tracts of land in +the tropical climates. Frost, snow, and hail I believe to be unknown to +the inhabitants. The hill-people in the country of Lampong speak indeed +of a peculiar kind of rain that falls there, which some have supposed to +be what we call sleet; but the fact is not sufficiently established. The +atmosphere is in common more cloudy than in Europe, which is sensibly +perceived from the infrequency of clear starlight nights. This may +proceed from the greater rarefaction of the air occasioning the clouds to +descend lower and become more opaque, or merely from the stronger heat +exhaling from the land and sea a thicker and more plentiful vapour. The +fog, called kabut by the natives, which is observed to rise every morning +among the distant hills, is dense to a surprising degree; the extremities +of it, even when near at hand, being perfectly defined; and it seldom is +observed to disperse till about three hours after sunrise. + +WATERSPOUT. + +That extraordinary phenomenon, the waterspout, so well known to and +described by navigators, frequently makes its appearance in these parts, +and occasionally on shore. I had seen many at sea; but the largest and +most distinct (from its proximity) that I had an opportunity of +observing, presented itself to me whilst on horseback. I was so near to +it that I could perceive what appeared to be an inward gyration, distinct +from the volume surrounding it or body of the tube; but am aware that +this might have been a deception of sight, and that it was the exterior +part which actually revolved--as quiescent bodies seem to persons in +quick motion, to recede in a contrary direction. Like other waterspouts +it was sometimes perpendicular and sometimes curved, like the pipe of a +still-head, its course tending in a direction from Bencoolen Bay across +the peninsula on which the English settlement stands; but before it +reached the sea on the other side it diminished by degrees, as if from +want of the supplies that should be furnished by its proper element, and +collected itself into the cloud from which it depended, without any +consequent fall of water or destructive effect. The whole operation we +may presume to be of the nature of a whirlwind, and the violent +ebullition in that part of the sea to which the lower extremity of the +tube points to be a corresponding effect to the agitation of the leaves +or sand on shore, which in some instances are raised to a vast height; +but in the formation of the waterspout the rotatory motion of the wind +acts not only upon the surface of the land or sea, but also upon the +overhanging cloud, and seems to draw it downwards. + +THUNDER AND LIGHTNING. + +Thunder and lightning are there so very frequent as scarcely to attract +the attention of persons long resident in the country. During the +north-west monsoon the explosions are extremely violent; the forked +lightning shoots in all directions, and the whole sky seems on fire, +whilst the ground is agitated in a degree little inferior to the motion +of a slight earthquake. In the south-east monsoon the lightning is more +constant, but the coruscations are less fierce or bright, and the thunder +is scarcely audible. It would seem that the consequences of these awful +meteors are not so fatal there as in Europe, few instances occurring of +lives being lost or buildings destroyed by the explosions, although +electrical conductors have never been employed. Perhaps the paucity of +inhabitants in proportion to the extent of country and the unsubstantial +materials of the houses may contribute to this observation. I have seen +some trees, however, that have been shattered in Sumatra by the action of +lightning.* + +(*Footnote. Since the above was written accounts have been received that +a magazine at Fort Marlborough, containing four hundred barrels of +powder, was fired by lightning and blown up on the 18th of March 1782.) + +MONSOONS. + +The causes which produce a successive variety of seasons in the parts of +the earth without the tropics, having no relation or respect to the +region of the torrid zone, a different order takes place there, and the +year is distinguished into two divisions, usually called the rainy and +dry monsoons or seasons, from the weather peculiar to each. In the +several parts of India these monsoons are governed by various particular +laws in regard to the time of their commencement, period of duration, +circumstances attending their change, and direction of the prevailing +wind according to the nature and situation of the lands and coasts where +their influence is felt. The farther peninsula of India, where the +kingdom of Siam lies, experiences at the same time the effects of +opposite seasons; the western side, in the Bay of Bengal, being exposed +for half the year to continual rains, whilst on the eastern side the +finest weather is enjoyed; and so on the different coasts of Indostan the +monsoons exert their influence alternately; the one remaining serene and +undisturbed whilst the other is agitated by storms. Along the coast of +Coromandel the change, or breaking up of the monsoon as it is called, is +frequently attended with the most violent gales of wind. + +On the west coast of Sumatra, southward of the equinoctial, the +south-east monsoon or dry season begins about May and slackens in +September: the north-west monsoon begins about November, and the hard +rains cease about March. The monsoons for the most part commence and +leave off gradually there; the months of April and May, October and +November generally affording weather and winds variable and uncertain. + +CAUSE OF THE MONSOONS. + +The causes of these periodical winds have been investigated by several +able naturalists, whose systems, however, do not entirely correspond +either in the principles laid down or in their application to the effects +known to be produced in different parts of the globe. I shall summarily +mention what appear to be the most evident, or probable at least, among +the general laws, or inferences, which have been deduced from the +examination of this subject. If the sea were perfectly uninterrupted and +free from the irregular influence of lands, a perpetual easterly wind +would prevail in all that space comprehended between the twenty-eighth or +thirteenth degrees of north and south latitude. This is primarily +occasioned by the diurnal revolution of the earth upon its axis from west +to east; but whether through the operation of the sun, proceeding +westward, upon the atmospheric fluid, or the rapidity of revolution of +the solid body, which leaves behind it that fluid with which it is +surrounded, and thereby causes it virtually to recede in a contrary +direction; or whether these principles cooperate, or unequally oppose +each other, as has been ingeniously contended, I shall not take upon me +to decide. It is sufficient to say that such an effect appears to be the +first general law of the tropical winds. Whatever may be the degree of +the sun's influence upon the atmosphere in his transient diurnal course, +it cannot be doubted but that, in regard to his station in the path of +the ecliptic, his power is considerable. Towards that region of the air +which is rarefied by the more immediate presence of the heat, the colder +and denser parts will naturally flow. Consequently from about, and a few +degrees beyond, the tropics, on either side, the air tends towards the +equator; and, combining with the general eastern current before +mentioned, produces (or would, if the surface were uniform) a north-east +wind in the northern division, and a south-east in the southern; varying +in the extent of its course as the sun happens to be more or less remote +at the time. These are denominated the trade-winds, and are the subject +of the second general observation. It is evident that, with respect to +the middle space between the tropics, those parts which at one season of +the year lie to the northward of the sun, are, during another, to the +southward of him; and of course that an alteration of the effects last +described must take place, according to the relative situation of the +luminary; or in other words, that the principle which causes at one time +a north-east wind to prevail at any particular spot in those latitudes +must, when the circumstances are changed, occasion a south-east wind. +Such may be esteemed the outline of the periodical winds, which +undoubtedly depend upon the alternate course of the sun northwards and +southwards; and this I state as the third general law. But although this +may be conformable with experience in extensive oceans, yet, in the +vicinity of continents and great islands, deviations are remarked that +almost seem to overturn the principle. Along the western coast of Africa +and in some parts of the Indian seas, the periodical winds, or monsoons +as they are termed in the latter, blow from the west-north-west and +south-west, according to the situation, extent, and nature of the nearest +lands; the effect of which upon the incumbent atmosphere, when heated by +the sun at those seasons in which he is vertical, is prodigious, and +possibly superior to that of any other cause which contributes to the +production or direction of wind. To trace the operation of this irregular +principle through the several winds prevalent in India, and their +periodical failures and changes, would prove an intricate but, I +conceive, by no means an impossible task.* It is foreign however to my +present purpose, and I shall only observe that the north-east monsoon is +changed, on the western coast of Sumatra, to north-west or +west-north-west by the influence of the land. During the south-east +monsoon the wind is found to blow there, between that point and south. +Whilst the sun continues near the equator the winds are variable, nor is +their direction fixed till he has advanced several degrees towards the +tropic: and this is the cause of the monsoons usually setting in, as I +have observed, about May and November, instead of the equinoctial months. + +(*Footnote. It has been attempted, and with much ingenious reasoning, by +Mr. Semeyns in the third volume of the Haerlem Transactions which have +but lately fallen into my hands.) + +LAND AND SEA BREEZES. + +Thus much is sufficient with regard to the periodical winds. I shall +proceed to give an account of those distinguished by the appellation of +land and sea breezes, which require from me a minuter investigation, both +because, as being more local, they more especially belong to my subject, +and that their nature has hitherto been less particularly treated of by +naturalists. + +In this island, as well as all other countries between the tropics of any +considerable extent, the wind uniformly blows from the sea to the land +for a certain number of hours in the four and twenty, and then changes +and blows for about as many from the land to the sea; excepting only when +the monsoon rages with remarkable violence, and even at such time the +wind rarely fails to incline a few points, in compliance with the efforts +of the subordinate clause, which has not power, under these +circumstances, to produce an entire change. On the west coast of Sumatra +the sea-breeze usually sets in, after an hour or two of calm, about ten +in the forenoon, and continues till near six in the evening. About seven +the land-breeze comes off, and prevails through the night till towards +eight in the morning, when it gradually dies away. + +CAUSE OF THE LAND AND SEA-BREEZES. + +These depend upon the same general principle that causes and regulates +all other wind. Heat acting upon air rarefies it, by which it becomes +specifically lighter, and mounts upward. The denser parts of the +atmosphere which surround that so rarefied, rush into the vacuity from +their superior weight; endeavouring, as the laws of gravity require, to +restore the equilibrium. Thus in the round buildings where the +manufactory of glass is carried on, the heat of the furnace in the centre +being intense, a violent current of air may be perceived to force its way +in, through doors or crevices, on opposite sides of the house. As the +general winds are caused by the DIRECT influence of the sun's rays upon +the atmosphere, that particular deviation of the current distinguished by +the name of land and sea breezes is caused by the influence of his +REFLECTED rays, returned from the earth or sea on which they strike. The +surface of the earth is more suddenly heated by the rays of the sun than +that of the sea, from its greater density and state of rest; consequently +it reflects those rays sooner and with more power: but, owing also to its +density, the heat is more superficial than that imbibed by the sea, which +becomes more intimately warmed by its transparency and by its motion, +continually presenting a fresh surface to the sun. I shall now endeavour +to apply these principles. By the time the rising sun has ascended to the +height of thirty or forty degrees above the horizon the earth has +acquired, and reflected on the body of air situated over it, a degree of +heat sufficient to rarefy it and destroy its equilibrium; in consequence +of which the body of air above the sea, not being equally, or scarcely at +all, rarefied, rushes towards the land and the same causes operating so +long as the sun continues above the horizon, a constant sea-breeze, or +current of air from sea to land, prevails during that time. From about an +hour before sunset the surface of the earth begins to lose the heat it +has acquired from the more perpendicular rays. That influence of course +ceases, and a calm succeeds. The warmth imparted to the sea, not so +violent as that of the land but more deeply imbibed, and consequently +more permanent, now acts in turn, and by the rarefaction it causes draws +towards its region the land air, grown cooler, more dense, and heavier, +which continues thus to flow back till the earth, by a renovation of its +heat in the morning, once more obtains the ascendancy. Such is the +general rule, conformable with experience, and founded, as it seems to +me, in the laws of motion and the nature of things. The following +observations will serve to corroborate what I have advanced, and to throw +additional light on the subject for the information and guidance of any +future investigator. + +The periodical winds which are supposed to blow during six months from +the north-west and as many from the south-east rarely observe this +regularity, except in the very heart of the monsoon; inclining, almost at +all times, several points to seaward, and not unfrequently blowing from +the south-west or in a line perpendicular to the coast. This must be +attributed to the influence of that principle which causes the land and +sea winds proving on these occasions more powerful than the principle of +the periodical winds; which two seem here to act at right angles with +each other; and as the influence of either is prevalent the winds draw +towards a course perpendicular to or parallel with the line of the coast. +Excepting when a squall or other sudden alteration of weather, to which +these climates are particularly liable, produces an irregularity, the +tendency of the land-wind at night has almost ever a correspondence with +the sea-wind of the preceding or following day; not blowing in a +direction immediately opposite to it (which would be the case if the +former were, as some writers have supposed, merely the effect of the +accumulation and redundance of the latter, without any positive cause) +but forming an equal and contiguous angle, of which the coast is the +common side. Thus, if the coast be conceived to run north and south, the +same influence, or combination of influences, which produces a sea-wind +at north-west produces a land-wind at north-east; or adapting the case to +Sumatra, which lies north-west and south-east, a sea-wind at south is +preceded or followed by a land-wind at east. This remark must not be +taken in too strict a sense, but only as the result of general +observation. If the land-wind, in the course of the night, should draw +round from east to north it would be looked upon as an infallible +prognostic of a west or north-west wind the next day. On this principle +it is that the natives foretell the direction of the wind by the noise of +the surf at night, which if heard from the northward is esteemed the +forerunner of a northerly wind, and vice versa. The quarter from which +the noise is heard depends upon the course of the land-wind, which brings +the sound with it, and drowns it to leeward--the land-wind has a +correspondence with the next day's sea-wind--and thus the divination is +accounted for. + +The effect of the sea-wind is not perceived to the distance of more than +three or four leagues from the shore in common, and for the most part it +is fainter in proportion to the distance. When it first sets in it does +not commence at the remoter extremity of its limits but very near the +shore, and gradually extends itself farther to sea, as the day advances; +probably taking the longer or shorter course as the day is more or less +hot. I have frequently observed the sails of ships at the distance of +four, six, or eight miles, quite becalmed, whilst a fresh sea-breeze was +at the time blowing upon the shore. In an hour afterwards they have felt +its effect.* + +(*Footnote. This observation as well as many others I have made on the +subject I find corroborated in the Treatise before quoted from the +Haerlem Transactions which I had not seen when the present work was first +published.) + +Passing along the beach about six o'clock in the evening when the +sea-breeze is making its final efforts, I have perceived it to blow with +a considerable degree of warmth, owing to the heat the sea had by that +time acquired, which would soon begin to divert the current of air +towards it when it had first overcome the vis inertiae that preserves +motion in a body after the impelling power has ceased to operate. I have +likewise been sensible of a degree of warmth on passing, within two hours +after sunset, to leeward of a lake of fresh water; which proves the +assertion of water imbibing a more permanent heat than earth. In the +daytime the breeze would be rendered cool in crossing the same lake. + +Approaching an island situated at a distance from any other land, I was +struck with the appearance of the clouds about nine in the morning which +then formed a perfect circle round it, the middle being a clear azure, +and resembled what the painters call a glory. This I account for from the +reflected rays of the sun rarefying the atmosphere immediately over the +island, and equally in all parts, which caused a conflux of the +neighbouring air, and with in the circumjacent clouds. These last, +tending uniformly to the centre, compressed each other at a certain +distance from it, and, like the stones in an arch of masonry, prevented +each other's nearer approach. That island, however, does not experience +the vicissitude of land and sea breezes, being too small, and too lofty, +and situated in a latitude where the trade or perpetual winds prevail in +their utmost force. In sandy countries, the effect of the sun's rays +penetrating deeply, a more permanent heat is produced, the consequence of +which should be the longer continuance of the sea-breeze in the evening; +and agreeably to this supposition I have been informed that on the coast +of Coromandel it seldom dies away before ten at night. I shall only add +on this subject that the land-wind on Sumatra is cold, chilly, and damp; +an exposure to it is therefore dangerous to the health, and sleeping in +it almost certain death. + +SOIL. + +The soil of the western side of Sumatra may be spoken of generally as a +stiff, reddish clay, covered with a stratum or layer of black mould, of +no considerable depth. From this there springs a strong and perpetual +verdure of rank grass, brushwood, or timber-trees, according as the +country has remained a longer or shorter time undisturbed by the +consequences of population, which, being in most places extremely thin, +it follows that a great proportion of the island, and especially to the +southward, is an impervious forest. + +UNEVENNESS OF SURFACE. + +Along the western coast of the island the low country, or space of land +which extends from the seashore to the foot of the mountains, is +intersected and rendered uneven to a surprising degree by swamps whose +irregular and winding course may in some places be traced in a continual +chain for many miles till they discharge themselves either into the sea, +some neighbouring lake, or the fens that are so commonly found near the +banks of the larger rivers and receive their overflowings in the rainy +monsoons. The spots of land which these swamps encompass become so many +islands and peninsulas, sometimes flat at top, and often mere ridges; +having in some places a gentle declivity, and in others descending almost +perpendicularly to the depth of a hundred feet. In few parts of the +country of Bencoolen, or of the northern districts adjacent to it, could +a tolerably level space of four hundred yards square be marked out. I +have often, from an elevated situation, where a wider range was subjected +to the eye, surveyed with admiration the uncommon face which nature +assumes, and made inquiries and attended to conjectures on the causes of +these inequalities. Some choose to attribute them to the successive +concussions of earthquakes through a course of centuries. But they do not +seem to be the effect of such a cause. There are no abrupt fissures; the +hollows and swellings are for the most part smooth and regularly sloping +so as to exhibit not unfrequently the appearance of an amphitheatre, and +they are clothed with verdure from the summit to the edge of the swamp. +From this latter circumstance it is also evident that they are not, as +others suppose, occasioned by the falls of heavy rains that deluge the +country for one half of the year; which is likewise to be inferred from +many of them having no apparent outlet and commencing where no torrent +could be conceived to operate. The most summary way of accounting for +this extraordinary unevenness of surface were to conclude that, in the +original construction of our globe, Sumatra was thus formed by the same +hand which spread out the sandy plains of Arabia, and raised up the alps +and Andes beyond the region of the clouds. But this is a mode of solution +which, if generally adopted, would become an insuperable bar to all +progress in natural knowledge by damping curiosity and restraining +research. Nature, we know from sufficient experience, is not only turned +from her original course by the industry of man, but also sometimes +checks and crosses her own career. What has happened in some instances it +is not unfair to suppose may happen in others; nor is it presumption to +trace the intermediate causes of events which are themselves derived from +one first, universal, and eternal principle. + +CAUSES OF THIS INEQUALITY. + +To me it would seem that the springs of water with which these parts of +the island abound in an uncommon degree operate directly, though +obscurely, to the producing this irregularity of the surface of the +earth. They derive their number and an extraordinary portion of activity +from the loftiness of the ranges of mountains that occupy the interior +country, and intercept and collect the floating vapours. Precipitated +into rain at such a hight, the water acquires in its descent through the +fissures or pores of these mountains a considerable force which exerts +itself in every direction, lateral and perpendicular, to procure a vent. +The existence of these copious springs is proved in the facility with +which wells are everywhere sunk; requiring no choice of ground but as it +may respect the convenience of the proprietor; all situations, whether +high or low, being prodigal of this valuable element. Where the +approaches of the sea have rendered the cliffs abrupt, innumerable rills, +or rather a continued moisture, is seen to ooze through and trickle down +the steep. Where on the contrary the sea has retired and thrown up banks +of sand in its retreat I have remarked the streams of water, at a certain +level and commonly between the boundaries of the tide, effecting their +passage through the loose and feeble barrier opposed to them. In short, +every part of the low country is pregnant with springs that labour for +the birth; and these continual struggles, this violent activity of +subterraneous waters, must gradually undermine the plains above. The +earth is imperceptibly excavated, the surface settles in, and hence the +inequalities we speak of. The operation is slow but unremitting, and, I +conceive, fully capable of the effect. + +MINERAL PRODUCTIONS. + +The earth of Sumatra is rich in minerals and other fossil productions. + +GOLD. + +No country has been more famous in all ages for gold, and, though the +sources from whence it is drawn may be supposed in some measure exhausted +by the avarice and industry of ages, yet at this day the quantity +procured is very considerable, and doubtless might be much increased were +the simple labour of the gatherer assisted by a knowledge of the arts of +mineralogy. + +COPPER, IRON, TIN, SULPHUR. + +There are also mines of copper, iron, and tin. Sulphur is gathered in +large quantities about the numerous volcanoes. + +SALTPETRE. + +Saltpetre the natives procure by a process of their own from the earth +which is found impregnated with it; chiefly in extensive caves that have +been, from the beginning of time, the haunt of a certain species of +birds, of whose dung the soil is formed. + +COAL. + +Coal, mostly washed down by the floods, is collected in several parts, +particularly at Kataun, Ayer-rammi, and Bencoolen. It is light and not +esteemed very good; but I am informed that this is the case with all coal +found near the surface of the earth, and, as the veins are observed to +run in an inclined direction until the pits have some depth, the fossil +must be of an indifferent quality. The little island of Pisang, near the +foot of Mount Pugong, was supposed to be chiefly a bed of rock crystal, +but upon examination of specimens taken from thence they proved to be +calcareous spar. + +HOT SPRINGS. + +Mineral and hot springs have been discovered in many districts. In taste +the waters mostly resemble those of Harrowgate, being nauseous to the +palate. + +EARTH OIL. + +The oleum terrae, or earth oil, used chiefly as a preservative against +the destructive ravages of the white-ants, is collected at Ipu and +elsewhere.* + +(*Footnote. The fountain of Naphtha or liquid balsam found at Pedir, so +much celebrated by the Portuguese writers, is doubtless this oleum +terrae, or meniak tanah, as it is called by the Malays.) + +SOFT ROCK. + +There is scarcely any species of hard rock to be met with in the low +parts of the island near the seashore. Besides the ledges of coral, which +are covered by the tide, that which generally prevails is the napal, as +it is called by the inhabitants, forming the basis of the red cliffs, and +not infrequently the beds of the rivers. Though this napal has the +appearance of rock it possesses in fact so little solidity that it is +difficult to pronounce whether it be a soft stone or only an indurated +clay. The surface of it becomes smooth and glossy by a slight attrition, +and to the touch resembles soap, which is its most striking +characteristic; but it is not soluble in water and makes no effervescence +with acids. Its colour is either grey, brown, or red, according to the +nature of the earth that prevails in its composition. The red napal has +by much the smallest proportion of sand, and seems to possess all the +qualities of the steatite or soap-earth found in Cornwall and other +countries. The specimens of stone which I brought from the hills in the +neighbourhood of Bencoolen were pronounced by some mineralogists, to whom +I showed them at the time, to be granite; but upon more particular +examination they appear to be a species of trap, consisting principally +of feldspar and hornblende, of a greyish colour and nearly similar to the +mountain stone of North Wales. + +PETRIFACTION. + +Where the encroachments of the sea have undermined the land the cliffs +are left abrupt and naked, in some places to a very considerable height. +In these many curious fossils are discovered, such as petrified wood, and +seashells of various sorts. Hypotheses on this subject have been so ably +supported and so powerfully attacked that I shall not presume to intrude +myself in the lists. I shall only observe that, being so near the sea, +many would hesitate to allow such discoveries to be of any weight in +proving a violent alteration to have taken place in the surface of the +terraqueous globe; whilst, on the other hand, it is unaccountable how, in +the common course of natural events, such extraneous matter should come +to be lodged in strata at the height perhaps of fifty feet above the +level of the water, and as many below the surface of the land. + +COLOURED EARTHS. + +Here are likewise found various species of earths which might be applied +to valuable purposes, as painters' colours, and otherwise. The most +common are the yellow and red, probably ochres, and the white, which +answers the description of the milenum of the ancients. + +VOLCANOES. + +There are a number of volcano mountains in this, as in almost all the +other islands of the eastern Archipelago. They are called in the Malay +language gunong-api, or more correctly, gunong ber-api. Lava has been +seen to flow from a considerable one near Priamang; but I have never +heard of its causing any other damage than the burning of woods. This +however may be owing to the thinness of population, which does not render +it necessary for the inhabitants to settle in a situation that exposes +them to danger of this kind. The only volcano I had an opportunity of +observing opened in the side of a mountain, about twenty miles inland of +Bencoolen, one-fourth way from its top, as nearly as I can judge. It +scarcely ever failed to emit smoke; but the column was only visible for +two or three hours in the morning, seldom rising and preserving its form, +above the upper edge of the hill, which is not of a conical shape but +extending with a gradual slope. + +EARTHQUAKES. + +The high trees with which the country thereabout is covered, prevent the +crater from being discernible at a distance; and this proves that the +spot is not considerably raised or otherwise affected by the earthquakes +which are very frequently felt there. Sometimes it has emitted smoke upon +these occasions, and in other instances not. Yet during a smart +earthquake which happened a few years before my arrival it was remarked +to send forth flame, which it is rarely known to do.* The apprehension of +the European inhabitants however is rather more excited when it continues +any length of time without a tendency to an eruption, as they conceive it +to be the vent by which the inflammable matter escapes that would +otherwise produce these commotions of the earth. Comparatively with the +descriptions I have read of earthquakes in South America, Calabria, and +other countries, those which happen in Sumatra are generally very slight; +and the usual manner of building renders them but little formidable to +the natives. + +(*Footnote. Some gentlemen who deny the fact of its having at any time +emitted flame, conjecture that what exhibits the appearance of smoke is +more probably vapour arising from a considerable hot spring. The natives +speak of it as a volcano.) + +REMARKABLE EFFECTS OF AN EARTHQUAKE. + +The most severe that I have known was chiefly experienced in the district +of Manna in the year 1770. A village was destroyed by the houses falling +down and taking fire, and several lives were lost.* The ground was in one +place rent a quarter of a mile, the width of two fathoms, and depth of +four or five. A bituminous matter is described to have swelled over the +sides of the cavity, and the earth for a long time after the shocks was +observed to contract and dilate alternately. Many parts of the hills far +inland could be distinguished to have given way, and a consequence of +this was that during three weeks Manna River was so much impregnated with +particles of clay that the natives could not bathe in it. At this time +was formed near to the mouth of Padang Guchi, a neighbouring river south +of the former, a large plain, seven miles long and half a mile broad; +where there had been before only a narrow beach. The quantity of earth +brought down on this occasion was so considerable that the hill upon +which the English resident's house stands appears, from indubitable +marks, less elevated by fifteen feet than it was before the event. + +(*Footnote. I am informed that in 1763 an entire village was swallowed up +by an earthquake in Pulo Nias, one of the islands which lie off the +western coast of Sumatra. In July or August of the same year a severe one +was felt in Bengal.) + +Earthquakes have been remarked by some to happen usually upon sudden +changes of weather, and particularly after violent heats; but I do not +vouch this upon my own experience, which has been pretty ample. They are +preceded by a low rumbling noise like distant thunder. The domestic +cattle and fowls are sensible of the preternatural motion, and seem much +alarmed; the latter making the cry they are wont to do on the approach of +birds of prey. Houses situated on a low sandy soil are least affected, +and those which stand on distinct hills suffer most from the shocks +because the further removed from the centre of motion the greater the +agitation; and the loose contexture of the one foundation, making less +resistance than the solidity of the other, subjects the building to less +violence. Ships at anchor in the road, though several miles distant from +the shore, are strongly sensible of the concussion. + +NEW LAND FORMED. + +Besides the new land formed by the convulsions above described, the sea +by a gradual recess in some parts produces the same effect. Many +instances of this kind, of no considerable extent however have been +observed within the memory of persons now living. But it would seem to me +that that large tract of land called Pulo Point, forming the bay of the +name, near to Silebar, with much of the adjacent country has thus been +left by the withdrawing or thrown up by the motion of the sea. Perhaps +the point may have been at first an island (from whence its appellation +of Pulo) and the parts more inland gradually united to it.* Various +circumstances tend to corroborate such an opinion, and to evince the +probability that this was not an original portion of the main but new, +half-formed land. All the swamps and marshy grounds that lie within the +beach, and near the extremity there are little else, are known, in +consequence of repeated surveys, to be lower than the level of +high-water; the bank of sand alone preventing an inundation. The country +is not only quite free from hills or inequalities of any kind, but has +scarcely a visible slope. Silebar River, which empties itself into Pulo +Bay, is totally unlike those in other parts of the island. The motion of +its stream is hardly perceptible; it is never affected by floods; its +course is marked out, not by banks covered with ancient and venerable +woods but by rows of mangroves and other aquatics springing from the +ooze, and perfectly regular. Some miles from the mouth it opens into a +beautiful and extensive lake, diversified with small islands, flat, and +verdant with rushes only. The point of Pulo is covered with the arau tree +(casuarina) or bastard-pine, as some have called it, which never grows +but in the seasand and rises fast. + +(*Footnote. Since I formed this conjecture I have been told that such a +tradition of no very ancient date prevails amongst the inhabitants.) + +ENCROACHMENT OF THE SEA. + +None such are found toward Sungei-Lamo and the rest of the shore +northward of Marlborough Point, where, on the contrary, you perceive the +effects of continual depredations by the ocean. The old forest trees are +there yearly undermined and, falling, obstruct the traveller; whilst +about Pulo the arau-trees are continually springing up faster than they +can be cut down or otherwise destroyed. Nature will not readily be forced +from her course. The last time I visited that part there was a beautiful +rising grove of these trees, establishing a possession in their proper +soil. The country, as well immediately here about as to a considerable +distance inland, is an entire bed of sand without any mixture of clay or +mould, which I know to have been in vain sought for many miles up the +neighbouring rivers. To the northward of Padang there is a plain which +has evidently been, in former times, a bay. Traces of a shelving beach +are there distinguishable at the distance of one hundred and fifty yards +from the present boundary of the sea. + +But upon what hypothesis can it be accounted for that the sea should +commit depredations on the northern coast, of which there are the most +evident tokens as high up at least as Ipu, and probably to Indrapura, +where the shelter of the neighbouring islands may put a stop to them, and +that it should restore the land to the southward in the manner I have +described? I am aware that according to the general motion of the tides +from east to west this coast ought to receive a continual accession +proportioned to the loss which others, exposed to the direction of this +motion, must and do sustain; and it is likely that it does gain upon the +whole. But the nature of my work obliges me to be more attentive to +effects than causes, and to record facts though they should clash with +systems the most just in theory, and most respectable in point of +authority. + +ISLANDS NEAR THE WEST COAST. + +The chain of islands which lie parallel with the west coast of Sumatra +may probably have once formed a part of the main and been separated from +it, either by some violent effort of nature, or the gradual attrition of +the sea. I should scarcely introduce the mention of this apparently vague +surmise but that a circumstance presents itself on the coast which +affords some stronger colour of proof than can be usually obtained in +such instances. In many places, and particularly about Pally, we observe +detached pieces of land standing singly, as islands, at the distance of +one or two hundred yards from the shore, which were headlands of points +running out into the sea within the remembrance of the inhabitants. The +tops continue covered with trees or shrubs; but the sides are bare, +abrupt, and perpendicular. The progress of insulation here is obvious and +incontrovertible, and why may not larger islands, at a greater distance, +have been formed in the revolution of ages by the same accidents? The +probability is heightened by the direction of the islands Nias, Batu, +Mantawei, Pagi, Mego, etc., the similarity of the rock, soil, and +productions, and the regularity of soundings between them and the main, +whilst without them the depth is unfathomable. + +CORAL ROCKS. + +Where the shore is flat or shelving the coast of Sumatra, as of all other +tropical islands, is defended from the attacks of the sea by a reef or +ledge of coral rock on which the surfs exert their violence without +further effect than that of keeping its surface even, and reducing to +powder those beautiful excrescences and ramifications which have been so +much the object of the naturalist's curiosity, and which some ingenious +men who have analysed them contend to be the work of insects. The coral +powder is in particular places accumulated on the shore in great +quantities, and appears, when not closely inspected, like a fine white +sand. + +SURF. + +The surf (a word not to be found, I believe, in our dictionaries) is used +in India, and by navigators in general, to express a peculiar swell and +breaking of the sea upon the shore; the phenomena of which not having +been hitherto much adverted to by writers I shall be the more +circumstantial in my description of them. + +The surf forms sometimes but a single range along the shore. At other +times there is a succession of two, three, four, or more, behind each +other, extending perhaps half a mile out to sea. The number of ranges is +generally in proportion to the height and violence of the surf. + +The surf begins to assume its form at some distance from the place where +it breaks, gradually accumulating as it moves forward till it gains a +height, in common, of fifteen to twenty feet,* when it overhangs at top +and falls like a cascade, nearly perpendicular, involving itself as it +descends. The noise made by the fall is prodigious, and during the +stillness of the night may be heard many miles up the country. + +(*Footnote. It may be presumed that in this estimation of its height I +was considerably deceived.) + +Though in the rising and formation of the surf the water seems to have a +quick progressive motion towards the land, yet a light body on the +surface is not carried forward, but, on the contrary, if the tide is +ebbing, will recede from the shore; from which it would follow that the +motion is only propagated in the water, like sound in air, and not the +mass of water protruded. A similar species of motion is observed on +shaking at one end a long cord held moderately slack, which is expressed +by the word undulation. I have sometimes remarked however that a body +which sinks deep and takes hold of the water appears to move towards +shore with the course of the surf, as is perceptible in a boat landing +which seems to shoot swiftly forward on the top of the swell; though +probably it is only after having reached the summit, and may owe its +velocity to its own weight in the descent. + +Countries where the surfs prevail require boats of a peculiar +construction, and the art of managing them demands the experience of a +man's life. All European boats are more or less unfit, and seldom fail to +occasion the sacrifice of the people on board them, in the imprudent +attempts that are sometimes made to land with them on the open coast. The +natives of Coromandel are remarkably expert in the management of their +craft; but it is to be observed that the intervals between the breaking +of the surfs are usually on that coast much longer than on the coast of +Sumatra. + +The force of the surf is extremely great. I have known it to overset a +country vessel in such a manner that the top of the mast has stuck in the +sand, and the lower end made its appearance through her bottom. Pieces of +cloth have been taken up from a wreck, twisted and rent by its involved +motion. In some places the surfs are usually greater at high, and in +others at low, water; but I believe they are uniformly more violent +during the spring-tides. + +CONSIDERATIONS RESPECTING THE CAUSE OF THE SURF. + +I shall proceed to inquire into the efficient cause of the surfs. The +winds have doubtless a strong relation to them. If the air was in all +places of equal density, and not liable to any motion, I suppose the +water would also remain perfectly at rest and its surface even; +abstracting from the general course of the tides and the partial +irregularities occasioned by the influx of rivers. The current of the air +impels the water and causes a swell, which is the regular rising and +subsiding of the waves. This rise and fall is similar to the vibrations +of a pendulum and subject to like laws. When a wave is at its height it +descends by the force of gravity, and the momentum acquired in descending +impels the neighbouring particles, which in their turn rise and impel +others, and thus form a succession of waves. This is the case in the open +sea; but when the swell approaches the shore and the depth of water is +not in proportion to the size of the swell the subsiding wave, instead of +pressing on a body of water, which might rise in equal quantity, presses +on the ground, whose reaction causes it to rush on in that manner which +we call a surf. Some think that the peculiar form of it may be plainly +accounted for from the shallowness and shelving of the beach. When a +swell draws near to such a beach the lower parts of the water, meeting +first with obstruction from the bottom, stand still, whilst the higher +parts respectively move onward, by which a rolling and involved motion is +produced that is augmented by the return of the preceding swell. I object +that this solution is founded on the supposition of an actual progressive +motion of the body of water in forming a surf; and, that certainly not +being the fact, it seems deficient. The only real progression of the +water is occasioned by the perpendicular fall, after the breaking of the +surf, when from its weight it foams on to a greater or less distance in +proportion to the height from which it fell and the slope of the shore. + +That the surfs are not, like common waves, the immediate effect of the +wind, is evident from this, that the highest and most violent often +happen when there is the least wind and vice versa. And sometimes the +surfs will continue with an equal degree of violence during a variety of +weather. On the west coast of Sumatra the highest are experienced during +the south-east monsoon, which is never attended with such gales of wind +as the north-west. The motion of the surf is not observed to follow the +course of the wind, but often the contrary; and when it blows hard from +the land the spray of the sea may be seen to fly in a direction opposite +to the body of it, though the wind has been for many hours in the same +point. + +Are the surfs the effect of gales of wind at sea, which do not happen to +extend to the shore but cause a violent agitation throughout a +considerable tract of the waters, which motion, communicating with less +distant parts, and meeting at length with resistance from the shore, +occasions the sea to swell and break in the manner described? To this I +object that there seems no regular correspondence between their magnitude +and the apparent agitation of the water without them: that gales of wind, +except at particular periods, are very unfrequent in the Indian seas, +where the navigation is well known to be remarkably safe, whilst the +surfs are almost continual; and that gales are not found to produce this +effect in other extensive oceans. The west coast of Ireland borders a sea +nearly as extensive and much more wild than the coast of Sumatra, and yet +there, though when it blows hard the swell on the shore is high and +dangerous, is there nothing that resembles the surfs of India. + +PROBABLE CAUSE OF THE SURF. + +These, so general in the tropical latitudes, are, upon the most probable +hypothesis I have been able to form, after long observation and much +thought and inquiry, the consequence of the trade or perpetual winds +which prevail at a distance from shore between the parallels of thirty +degrees north and south, whose uniform and invariable action causes a +long and constant swell, that exists even in the calmest weather, about +the line, towards which its direction tends from either side. This swell +or libration of the sea is so prodigiously long, and the sensible effect +of its height, of course, so much diminished, that it is not often +attended to; the gradual slope engrossing almost the whole horizon when +the eye is not very much elevated above its surface: but persons who have +sailed in those parts may recollect that, even when the sea is apparently +the most still and level, a boat or other object at a distance from the +ship will be hidden from the sight of one looking towards it from the +lower deck for the space of minutes together. This swell, when a squall +happens or the wind freshens up, will for a time have other subsidiary +waves on the extent of its surface, breaking often in a direction +contrary to it, and which will again subside as a calm returns without +having produced on it any perceptible effect. Sumatra, though not +continually exposed to the south-east trade-wind, is not so distant but +that its influence may be presumed to extend to it, and accordingly at +Pulo Pisang, near the southern extremity of the island, a constant +southerly sea is observed even after a hard north-west wind. This +incessant and powerful swell rolling in from an ocean, open even to the +pole, seems an agent adequate to the prodigious effects produced on the +coast; whilst its very size contributes to its being overlooked. It +reconciles almost all the difficulties which the phenomena seem to +present, and in particular it accounts for the decrease of the surf +during the north-west monsoon, the local wind then counteracting the +operation of the general one; and it is corroborated by an observation I +have made that the surfs on the Sumatran coast ever begin to break at +their southern extreme, the motion of the swell not being perpendicular +to the direction of the shore. This manner of explaining their origin +seems to carry much reason with it; but there occurs to me one objection +which I cannot get over, and which a regard to truth obliges me to state. +The trade-winds are remarkably steady and uniform, and the swell +generated by them is the same. The surfs are much the reverse, seldom +persevering for two days in the same degree of violence; often mountains +high in the morning and nearly subsided by night. How comes a uniform +cause to produce effects so unsteady, unless by the intervention of +secondary causes, whose nature and operation we are unacquainted with? + +It is clear to me that the surfs as above described are peculiar to those +climates which lie within the remoter limits of the trade-winds, though +in higher latitudes large swells and irregular breakings of the sea are +to be met with after boisterous weather. Possibly the following causes +may be judged to conspire, with that I have already specified, towards +occasioning this distinction. The former region being exposed to the +immediate influence of the two great luminaries, the water, from their +direct impulse, is liable to more violent agitation than nearer the poles +where their power is felt only by indirect communication. The equatorial +parts of the earth performing their diurnal revolution with greater +velocity than the rest, a larger circle being described in the same time, +the waters thereabout, from the stronger centrifugal force, may be +supposed to feel less restraint from the sluggish principle of matter; to +have less gravity; and therefore to be more obedient to external impulses +of every kind, whether from the winds or any other cause. + +TIDES. + +The spring-tides on the west coast of Sumatra are estimated to rise in +general no more than four feet, owing to its open, unconfined situation, +which prevents any accumulation of the tide, as is the case in narrow +seas. It is always high-water there when the moon is in the horizon, and +consequently at six o'clock nearly, on the days of conjunction and +opposition throughout the year, in parts not far remote from the +equator.* This, according to Newton's theory, is about three hours later +than the uninterrupted course of nature, owing to the obvious impediment +the waters meet with in revolving from the eastward. + +(*Footnote. Owing to this uniformity it becomes an easy matter for the +natives to ascertain the height of the tide at any hour that the moon is +visible. Whilst she appears to ascend the water falls and vice versa; the +lowest of the ebb happening when she is in her meridian. The vulgar rule +for calculating the tides is rendered also to Europeans more simple and +practical from the same cause. There only needs to add together the +epact, number of the month, and day of the month; the sum of which, if +under thirty, gives the moon's age--the excess, if over. Allow +forty-eight minutes for each day or, which is the same, take four-fifths +of the age, and it will give you the number of hours after six o'clock at +which high-water happens. A readiness at this calculation is particularly +useful in a country where the sea-beach is the general road for +travelling.) + + +CHAPTER 2. + +DISTINCTION OF INHABITANTS. +REJANGS CHOSEN FOR GENERAL DESCRIPTION. +PERSONS AND COMPLEXION. +CLOTHING AND ORNAMENTS. + +GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE INHABITANTS. + +Having exhibited a general view of the island as it is in the hands of +nature, I shall now proceed to a description of the people who inhabit +and cultivate it, and shall endeavour to distinguish the several species +or classes of them in such a manner as may best tend to perspicuity, and +to furnish clear ideas of the matter. + +VARIOUS MODES OF DIVISION. + +The most obvious division, and which has been usually made by the writers +of voyages, is that of Mahometan inhabitants of the sea-coast, and Pagans +of the inland country. This division, though not without its degree of +propriety, is vague and imperfect; not only because each description of +people differ considerably among themselves, but that the inland +inhabitants are, in some places, Mahometans, and those of the coast, in +others, what they term Pagans. It is not unusual with persons who have +not resided in this part of the East to call the inhabitants of the +islands indiscriminately by the name of Malays. This is a more +considerable error, and productive of greater confusion than the former. +By attempting to reduce things to heads too general we defeat the very +end we propose to ourselves in defining them at all: we create obscurity +where we wish to throw light. On the other hand, to attempt enumerating +and distinguishing the variety, almost endless, of petty sovereignties +and nations into which this island is divided, many of which differ +nothing in person or manners from their neighbours, would be a task both +insurmountable and useless. I shall aim at steering a middle course, and +accordingly shall treat of the inhabitants of Sumatra under the following +summary distinctions, taking occasion as it may offer to mention the +principal subdivisions. And first it is proper to distinguish the empire +of Menangkabau and the Malays; in the next place the Achinese; then the +Battas; the Rejangs; and next to them the people of Lampong.* + +(*Footnote. In the course of my inquiries amongst the natives concerning +the aborigines of the island I have been informed of two different +species of people dispersed in the woods and avoiding all communication +with the other inhabitants. These they call Orang Kubu and Orang Gugu. +The former are said to be pretty numerous, especially in that part of the +country which lies between Palembang and Jambi. Some have at times been +caught and kept as slaves in Labun; and a man of that place is now +married to a tolerably handsome Kubu girl who was carried off by a party +that discovered their huts. They have a language quite peculiar to +themselves, and they eat promiscuously whatever the woods afford, as +deer, elephant, rhinoceros, wild hog, snakes, or monkeys. The Gugu are +much scarcer than these, differing in little but the use of speech from +the Orang Utan of Borneo; their bodies being covered with long hair. +There have not been above two or three instances of their being met with +by the people of Labun (from whom my information is derived) and one of +these was entrapped many years ago in much the same manner as the +carpenter in Pilpay's Fables caught the monkey. He had children by a +Labun woman which also were more hairy than the common race; but the +third generation are not to be distinguished from others. The reader will +bestow what measure of faith he thinks due to this relation, the veracity +of which I do not pretend to vouch for. It has probably some foundation +in truth but is exaggerated in the circumstances.) + +Menangkabau being the principal sovereignty of the island, which formerly +comprehended the whole, and still receives a shadow of homage from the +most powerful of the other kingdoms which have sprung up from its ruins, +would seem to claim a right to precedence in description, but I have a +sufficient reason for deferring it to a subsequent part of the work; +which is that the people of this empire, by their conversion to +Mahometanism and consequent change of manners, have lost in a greater +degree than some neighbouring tribes the genuine Sumatran character, +which is the immediate object of my investigation. + +MALAYS. + +They are distinguished from the other inhabitants of this island by the +appellation of Orang Malayo, or Malays, which however they have in common +with those of the coast of the Peninsula and of many other islands; and +the name is applied to every Mussulman speaking the Malayan as his proper +language, and either belonging to, or claiming descent from, the ancient +kingdom of Menangkabau; wherever the place of his residence may be. +Beyond Bencoolen to the southward there are none to be met with excepting +such as have been drawn thither by, and are in the pay of, Europeans. On +the eastern side of the island they are settled at the entrance of almost +all the navigable rivers, where they more conveniently indulge their +habitual bent for trade and piracy. It must be observed indeed that in +common speech the term Malay, like that of Moor in the continent of +India, is almost synonymous with Mahometan; and when the natives of other +parts learn to read the Arabic character, submit to circumcision, and +practise the ceremonies of religion, they are often said men-jadi Malayo, +to become Malays, instead of the more correct expression sudah masuk +Islam, have embraced the faith. The distinction will appear more strongly +from this circumstance, that whilst the sultan of Anak Sungei +(Moco-moco), ambitious of imitating the sultan of Menangkabau, styles +himself and his immediate subjects Malays, his neighbour, the Pangeran of +Sungei Lamo, chief of the Rejangs, a very civilised Mahometan, and whose +ancestors for some generations were of the same faith, seemed offended, +in a conversation I had with him, at my supposing him (as he is usually +considered) a Malay, and replied with some emotion, "Malayo tidah, sir; +orang ulu betul sayo." "No Malay sir; I am a genuine, aboriginal +countryman." The two languages he wrote and talked (I know not if he be +still living) with equal facility; but the Rejang he esteemed his mother +tongue. + +Attempts to ascertain from what quarter Sumatra was peopled must rest +upon mere conjecture. The adjacent peninsula (called by Europeans or +other foreigners the Malayan Peninsula) presents the most obvious source +of population; and it has accordingly been presumed that emigrants from +thence supplied it and the other islands of the eastern Archipelago with +inhabitants. By this opinion, adopted without examination, I was likewise +misled and, on a former occasion, spoke of the probability of a colony +from the peninsula having settled upon the western coast of the island; +but I have since learned from the histories and traditions of the natives +of both countries that the reverse is the fact, and that the founders of +the celebrated kingdoms of Johor, Singapura, and Malacca were adventurers +from Sumatra. Even at this day the inhabitants of the interior parts of +the peninsula are a race entirely distinct from those of the two coasts. + +Thus much it was necessary, in order to avoid ambiguity, to say in the +first instance concerning the Malays, of whom a more particular account +will be given in a subsequent part of the work. + +As the most dissimilar among the other classes into which I have divided +the inhabitants must of course have very many points of mutual +resemblance, and many of their habits, customs, and ceremonies, in +common, it becomes expedient, in order to avoid a troublesome and useless +repetition, to single out one class from among them whose manners shall +undergo a particular and full investigation, and serve as a standard for +the whole; the deviation from which, in other classes, shall afterwards +be pointed out, and the most singular and striking usages peculiar to +each superadded. + +NATION OF THE REJANGS ADOPTED AS A STANDARD OF DESCRIPTION. + +Various circumstances induce me on this occasion to give the preference +to the Rejangs, though a nation of but small account in the political +scale of the island. They are placed in what may be esteemed a central +situation, not geographically, but with respect to the encroachments of +foreign manners and opinions introduced by the Malays from the north, and +Javans from the south; which gives them a claim to originality superior +to that of most others. They are a people whose form of government and +whose laws extend with very little variation over a considerable part of +the island, and principally that portion where the connexions of the +English lie. There are traditions of their having formerly sent forth +colonies to the southward; and in the country of Passummah the site of +their villages is still pointed out; which would prove that they have +formerly been of more consideration than they can boast at present. They +have a proper language and a perfect written character. These advantages +point out the Rejang people as an eligible standard of description; and a +motive equally strong that induces me to adopt them as such is that my +situation and connexions in the island led me to a more intimate and +minute acquaintance with their laws and manners than with those of any +other class. I must premise however that the Malay customs having made +their way in a greater or less degree to every part of Sumatra, it will +be totally impossible to discriminate with entire accuracy those which +are original from those which are borrowed; and of course what I shall +say of the Rejangs will apply for the most part not only to the Sumatrans +in general but may sometimes be in strictness proper to the Malays alone, +and by them taught to the higher rank of country people. + +SITUATION OF THE REJANG COUNTRY. + +The country of the Rejangs is divided to the north-west from the kingdom +of Anak Sungei (of which Moco-moco is the capital) by the small river of +Uri, near that of Kattaun; which last, with the district of Labun on its +banks, bounds it on the north or inland side. The country of Musi, where +Palembang River takes its rise, forms its limit to the eastward. +Bencoolen River, precisely speaking, confines it on the south-east; +though the inhabitants of the district called Lemba, extending from +thence to Silebar, are entirely the same people in manners and language. +The principal rivers besides those already mentioned are Laye, Pally, and +Sungeilamo; on all of which the English have factories, the resident or +chief being stationed at Laye. + +PERSONS OF THE INHABITANTS. + +The persons of the inhabitants of the island, though differing +considerably in districts remote from each other, may in general be +comprehended in the following description; excepting the Achinese, whose +commixture with the Moors of the west of India has distinguished them +from the other Sumatrans. + +GENERAL DESCRIPTION. + +They are rather below the middle stature; their bulk is in proportion; +their limbs are for the most part slight, but well shaped, and +particularly small at the wrists and ankles. Upon the whole they are +gracefully formed, and I scarcely recollect to have ever seen one +deformed person among the natives.* + +(*Footnote. Ghirardini, an Italian painter, who touched at Sumatra on his +way to China in 1698 observes of the Malays: +Son di persona ben formata +Quanto mai finger san pittori industri. +He speaks in high terms of the country as being beautifully picturesque.) + +The women however have the preposterous custom of flattening the noses, +and compressing the heads of children newly born, whilst the skull is yet +cartilaginous, which increases their natural tendency to that shape. I +could never trace the origin of the practice, or learn any other reason +for moulding the features to this uncouth appearance, but that it was an +improvement of beauty in their estimation. Captain Cook takes notice of a +similar operation at the island of Ulietea. They likewise pull out the +ears of infants to make them stand at an angle from the head. Their eyes +are uniformly dark and clear, and among some, especially the southern +women, bear a strong resemblance to those of the Chinese, in the +peculiarity of formation so generally observed of that people. Their hair +is strong and of a shining black; the improvement of both which qualities +it probably owes in great measure to the early and constant use of +coconut oil, with which they keep it moist. The men frequently cut their +hair short, not appearing to take any pride in it; the women encourage +theirs to a considerable length, and I have known many instances of its +reaching the ground. The men are beardless and have chins so remarkably +smooth that, were it not for the priests displaying a little tuft, we +should be apt to conclude that nature had refused them this token of +manhood. It is the same in respect to other parts of the body with both +sexes; and this particular attention to their persons they esteem a point +of delicacy, and the contrary an unpardonable neglect. The boys as they +approach to the age of puberty rub their chins, upper lips, and those +parts of the body that are subject to superfluous hair with chunam +(quicklime) especially of shells, which destroys the roots of the +incipient beard. The few pilae that afterwards appear are plucked out +from time to time with tweezers, which they always carry about them for +that purpose. Were it not for the numerous and very respectable +authorities from which we are assured that the natives of America are +naturally beardless, I should think that the common opinion on that +subject had been rashly adopted, and that their appearing thus at a +mature age was only the consequence of an early practice, similar to that +observed among the Sumatrans. Even now I must confess that it would +remove some small degree of doubt from my mind could it be ascertained +that no such custom prevails.* + +(*Footnote. It is allowed by travellers that the Patagonians have tufts +of hair on the upper lip and chin. Captain Carver says that among the +tribes he visited the people made a regular practice of eradicating their +beards with pincers. At Brussels is preserved, along with a variety of +ancient and curious suits of armour, that of Montezuma, king of Mexico, +of which the visor, or mask for the face, has remarkably large whiskers; +an ornament which those Americans could not have imitated unless nature +had presented them with the model. See a paper in the Philosophical +Transactions for 1786, which puts this matter beyond a doubt. In a French +dictionary of the Huron language, published in 1632, I observe a term +corresponding to "arracher la barbe.") + +Their complexion is properly yellow, wanting the red tinge that +constitutes a tawny or copper colour. They are in general lighter than +the Mestees, or halfbreed, of the rest of India; those of the superior +class who are not exposed to the rays of the sun, and particularly their +women of rank, approaching to a great degree of fairness. Did beauty +consist in this one quality some of them would surpass our brunettes in +Europe. The major part of the females are ugly, and many of them even to +disgust, yet there are those among them whose appearance is strikingly +beautiful; whatever composition of person, features, and complexion that +sentiment may be the result of. + +COLOUR NOT ASCRIBABLE TO CLIMATE. + +The fairness of the Sumatrans comparatively with other Indians, situated +as they are under a perpendicular sun where no season of the year affords +an alternative of cold, is I think an irrefragable proof that the +difference of colour in the various inhabitants of the earth is not the +immediate effect of climate. The children of Europeans born in this +island are as fair as those born in the country of their parents. I have +observed the same of the second generation, where a mixture with the +people of the country has been avoided. On the other hand the offspring +and all the descendants of the Guinea and other African slaves imported +there continue in the last instance as perfectly black as in the original +stock. I do not mean to enter into the merits of the question which +naturally connects with these observations; but shall only remark that +the sallow and adust countenances so commonly acquired by Europeans who +have long resided in hot climates are more ascribable to the effect of +bilious distempers, which almost all are subject to in a greater or less +degree, than of their exposure to the influence of the weather, which few +but seafaring people are liable to, and of which the impression is seldom +permanent. From this circumstance I have been led to conjecture that the +general disparity of complexions in different nations might POSSIBLY be +owing to the more or less copious secretion or redundance of that juice, +rendering the skin more or less dark according to the qualities of the +bile prevailing in the constitutions of each. But I fear such a +hypothesis would not stand the test of experiment, as it might be +expected to follow that, upon dissection, the contents of a negro's +gall-bladder, or at least the extravasated bile, should uniformly be +found black. Persons skilled in anatomy will determine whether it is +possible that the qualities of any animal secretion can so far affect the +frame as to render their consequences liable to be transmitted to +posterity in their full force.* + +(*Footnote. In an Essay on the Causes of the Variety of Complexion and +Figure in the Human Species published at Philadelphia in 1787 the +permanent effect of the bilious secretion in determining the colour is +strongly insisted upon.) + +The small size of the inhabitants, and especially of the women, may be in +some measure owing to the early communication between the sexes; though, +as the inclinations which lead to this intercourse are prompted here by +nature sooner than in cold climates, it is not unfair to suppose that, +being proportioned to the period of maturity, this is also sooner +attained, and consequently that the earlier cessation of growth of these +people is agreeable to the laws of their constitution, and not occasioned +by a premature and irregular appetite. + +Persons of superior rank encourage the growth of their hand-nails, +particularly those of the fore and little fingers, to an extraordinary +length; frequently tingeing them red with the expressed juice of a shrub +which they call inei, the henna of the Arabians; as they do the nails of +their feet also, to which, being always uncovered, they pay as much +attention as to their hands. The hands of the natives, and even of the +halfbreed, are always cold to the touch; which I cannot account for +otherwise than by a supposition that, from the less degree of elasticity +in the solids occasioned by the heat of the climate, the internal action +of the body by which the fluids are put in motion is less vigorous, the +circulation is proportionably languid, and of course the diminished +effect is most perceptible in the extremities, and a coldness there is +the natural consequence. + +HILL PEOPLE SUBJECT TO WENS. + +The natives of the hills through the whole extent of the island are +subject to those monstrous wens from the throat which have been observed +of the Vallaisans and the inhabitants of other mountainous districts in +Europe. It has been usual to attribute this affection to the badness, +thawed state, mineral quality, or other peculiarity of the waters; many +skilful men having applied themselves to the investigation of the +subject. My experience enables me to pronounce without hesitation that +the disorder, for such it is though it appears here to mark a distinct +race of people (orang-gunong), is immediately connected with the +hilliness of the country, and of course, if the circumstances of the +water they use contribute thereto, it must be only so far as the nature +of the water is affected by the inequality or height of the land. But in +Sumatra neither snow nor other congelation is ever produced, which +militates against the most plausible conjecture that has been adopted +concerning the Alpine goitres. From every research that I have been +enabled to make I think I have reason to conclude that the complaint is +owing, among the Sumatrans, to the fogginess of the air in the valleys +between the high mountains, where, and not on the summits, the natives of +these parts reside. I before remarked that, between the ranges of hills, +the kabut or dense mist was visible for several hours every morning; +rising in a thick, opaque, and well-defined body with the sun, and seldom +quite dispersed till afternoon. This phenomenon, as well as that of the +wens, being peculiar to the regions of the hills, affords a presumption +that they may be connected; exclusive of the natural probability that a +cold vapour, gross to a uncommon degree, and continually enveloping the +habitations, should affect with tumors the throats of the inhabitants. I +cannot pretend to say how far this solution may apply to the case of the +goitres, but I recollect it to have been mentioned that the only method +of curing the people is by removing them from the valleys to the clear +and pure air on the tops of the hills; which seems to indicate a similar +source of the distemper to what I have pointed out. The Sumatrans do not +appear to attempt any remedy for it, the wens being consistent with the +highest health in other respects. + +DIFFERENCE IN PERSON BETWEEN MALAYS AND OTHER SUMATRANS. + +The personal difference between the Malays of the coast and the country +inhabitants is not so strongly marked but that it requires some +experience to distinguish them. The latter however possess an evident +superiority in point of size and strength, and are fairer complexioned, +which they probably owe to their situation, where the atmosphere is +colder; and it is generally observed that people living near the +seashore, and especially when accustomed to navigation, are darker than +their inland neighbours. Some attribute the disparity in constitutional +vigour to the more frequent use of opium among the Malays, which is +supposed to debilitate the frame; but I have noted that the Limun and +Batang Asei gold traders, who are a colony of that race settled in the +heart of the island, and who cannot exist a day without opium, are +remarkably hale and stout; which I have known to be observed with a +degree of envy by the opium-smokers of our settlements. The inhabitants +of Passummah also are described as being more robust in their persons +than the planters of the low country. + +CLOTHING. + +The original clothing of the Sumatrans is the same with that found by +navigators among the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands, and now +generally called by the name of Otaheitean cloth. It is still used among +the Rejangs for their working dress, and I have one in my possession +procured from these people consisting of a jacket, short drawers, and a +cap for the head. This is the inner bark of a certain species of tree, +beaten out to the degree of fineness required, approaching the more to +perfection as it resembles the softer kind of leather, some being nearly +equal to the most delicate kid-skin; in which character it somewhat +differs from the South Sea cloth, as that bears a resemblance rather to +paper, or to the manufacture of the loom. The country people now conform +in a great measure to the dress of the Malays, which I shall therefore +describe in this place, observing that much more simplicity still +prevails among the former, who look upon the others as coxcombs who lay +out all their substance on their backs, whilst in their turns they are +regarded by the Malays with contempt as unpolished rustics. + +MAN'S DRESS. + +A man's dress consists of the following parts. A close waistcoat, without +sleeves, but having a neck like a shirt, buttoned close up to the top, +with buttons, often of gold filigree. This is peculiar to the Malays. +Over this they wear the baju, which resembles a morning gown, open at the +neck, but generally fastened close at the wrists and halfway up the arm, +with nine buttons to each sleeve. The sleeves, however, are often wide +and loose, and others again, though nearly tight, reach not far beyond +the elbow, especially of those worn by the younger females, which, as +well as those of the young men, are open in front no farther down than +the bosom, and reach no lower than the waist, whereas the others hang +loose to the knees, and sometimes to the ankles. They are made usually of +blue or white cotton cloth; for the better sort, of chintz; and for great +men, of flowered silks. The kain-sarong is not unlike a Scots +highlander's plaid in appearance, being a piece of party-coloured cloth +about six or eight feet long and three or four wide, sewed together at +the ends; forming, as some writers have described it, a wide sack without +a bottom. This is sometimes gathered up and slung over the shoulder like +a sash, or else folded and tucked about the waist and hips; and in full +dress it is bound on by the belt of the kris (dagger), which is of +crimson silk and wraps several times round the body, with a loop at the +end in which the sheath of the kris hangs. They wear short drawers +reaching halfway down the thigh, generally of red or yellow taffeta. +There is no covering to their legs or feet. Round their heads they +fasten, in a particular manner, a fine, coloured handkerchief, so as to +resemble a small turban; the country people usually twisting a piece of +white or blue cloth for this purpose. The crown of their head remains +uncovered except on journeys, when they wear a tudong or umbrella-hat, +which completely screens them from the weather. + +WOMAN'S DRESS. + +The women have a kind of bodice, or short waistcoat rather, that defends +the breasts and reaches to the hips. The kain-sarong, before described, +comes up as high as the armpits, and extends to the feet, being kept on +simply by folding and tucking it over at the breast, except when the +tali-pending, or zone, is worn about the waist, which forms an additional +and necessary security. This is usually of embroidered cloth, and +sometimes a plate of gold or silver, about two inches broad, fastening in +the front with a large clasp of filigree or chased work, with some kind +of precious stone, or imitation of such, in the centre. The baju, or +upper gown, differs little from that of the men, buttoning in the same +manner at the wrists. A piece of fine, thin, cotton cloth, or slight +silk, about five feet long, and worked or fringed at each end, called a +salendang, is thrown across the back of the neck, and hangs down before; +serving also the purpose of a veil to the women of rank when they walk +abroad. The handkerchief is carried either folded small in the hand, or +in a long fold over the shoulder. There are two modes of dressing the +hair, one termed kundei and the other sanggol. The first resembles much +the fashion in which we see the Chinese women represented in paintings, +and which I conclude they borrowed from thence, where the hair is wound +circularly over the centre of the head, and fastened with a silver bodkin +or pin. In the other mode, which is more general, they give the hair a +single twist as it hangs behind, and then doubling it up they pass it +crosswise under a few hairs separated from the rest on the back of the +head for that purpose. A comb, often of tortoise-shell and sometimes +filigreed, helps to prevent it from falling down. The hair of the front +and of all parts of the head is of the same length, and when loose hangs +together behind, with most of the women, in very great quantity. It is +kept moist with oil newly expressed from the coconut; but those persons +who can afford it make use also of an empyreumatic oil extracted from gum +benzoin, as a grateful perfume. They wear no covering except ornaments of +flowers, which on particular occasions are the work of much labour and +ingenuity. The head-dresses of the dancing girls by profession, who are +usually Javans, are very artificially wrought, and as high as any modern +English lady's cap, yielding only to the feathered plumes of the year +1777. It is impossible to describe in words these intricate and fanciful +matters so as to convey a just idea of them. The flowers worn in undress +are for the most part strung in wreaths, and have a very neat and pretty +effect, without any degree of gaudiness, being usually white or pale +yellow, small, and frequently only half-blown. Those generally chosen for +these occasions are the bunga-tanjong and bunga-mellur: the +bunga-chumpaka is used to give the hair a fragrance, but is concealed +from the sight. They sometimes combine a variety of flowers in such a +manner as to appear like one, and fix them on a single stalk; but these, +being more formal, are less elegant than the wreaths. + +DISTINGUISHING ORNAMENTS OF VIRGINS. + +Among the country people, particularly in the southern countries, the +virgins (anak gaddis, or goddesses, as it is usually pronounced) are +distinguished by a fillet which goes across the front of the hair and +fastens behind. This is commonly a thin plate of silver, about half an +inch broad: those of the first rank have it of gold, and those of the +lowest class have their fillet of the leaf of the nipah tree. Beside this +peculiar ornament their state is denoted by their having rings or +bracelets of silver or gold on their wrists. Strings of coins round the +neck are universally worn by children, and the females, before they are +of an age to be clothed, have what may not be inaptly termed a +modesty-piece, being a plate of silver in the shape of a heart (called +chaping) hung before, by a chain of the same metal, passing round the +waist. The young women in the country villages manufacture themselves the +cloth that forms the body-dress, or kain-sarong, which for common +occasions is their only covering, and reaches from the breast no lower +than the knees. The dresses of the women of the Malay bazaars on the +contrary extend as low as the feet; but here, as in other instances, the +more scrupulous attention to appearances does not accompany the superior +degree of real modesty. This cloth, for the wear both of men and women, +is imported from the island of Celebes, or, as it is here termed, the +Bugis country. + +MODE OF FILING TEETH. + +Both sexes have the extraordinary custom of filing and otherwise +disfiguring their teeth, which are naturally very white and beautiful +from the simplicity of their food. For files they make use of small +whetstones of different degrees of fineness, and the patients lie on +their back during the operation. Many, particularly the women of the +Lampong country, have their teeth rubbed down quite even with the gums; +others have them formed in points; and some file off no more than the +outer coat and extremities, in order that they may the better receive and +retain the jetty blackness with which they almost universally adorn them. +The black used on these occasions is the empyreumatic oil of the +coconut-shell. When this is not applied the filing does not, by +destroying what we term the enamel, diminish the whiteness of the teeth; +but the use of betel renders them black if pains be not taken to prevent +it. The great men sometimes set theirs in gold, by casing, with a plate +of that metal, the under row; and this ornament, contrasted with the +black dye, has by lamp or candlelight a very splendid effect. It is +sometimes indented to the shape of the teeth, but more usually quite +plain. They do not remove it either to eat or sleep. + +At the age of about eight or nine they bore the ears and file the teeth +of the female children; which are ceremonies that must necessarily +precede their marriage. The former they call betende, and the latter +bedabong; and these operations are regarded in the family as the occasion +of a festival. They do not here, as in some of the adjacent islands (of +Nias in particular), increase the aperture of the ear to a monstrous +size, so as in many instances to be large enough to admit the hand, the +lower parts being stretched till they touch the shoulders. Their earrings +are mostly of gold filigree, and fastened not with a clasp, but in the +manner of a rivet or nut screwed to the inner part. + + +CHAPTER 3. + +VILLAGES. +BUILDINGS. +DOMESTIC UTENSILS. +FOOD. + +I shall now attempt a description of the villages and buildings of the +Sumatrans, and proceed to their domestic habits of economy, and those +simple arts on which the procuring of their food and other necessaries +depends. These are not among the least interesting objects of +philosophical speculation. In proportion as the arts in use with any +people are connected with the primary demands of nature, they carry the +greater likelihood of originality, because those demands must have been +administered to from a period coeval with the existence of the people +themselves. Or if complete originality be regarded as a visionary idea, +engendered from ignorance and the obscurity of remote events, such arts +must be allowed to have the fairest claim to antiquity at least. Arts of +accommodation, and more especially of luxury, are commonly the effect of +imitation, and suggested by the improvements of other nations which have +made greater advances towards civilisation. These afford less striking +and characteristic features in delineating the picture of mankind, and, +though they may add to the beauty, diminish from the genuineness of the +piece. We must not look for unequivocal generic marks, where the breed, +in order to mend it, has been crossed by a foreign mixture. All the arts +of primary necessity are comprehended within two distinctions: those +which protect us from the inclemency of the weather and other outward +accidents; and those which are employed in securing the means of +subsistence. Both are immediately essential to the continuance of life, +and man is involuntarily and immediately prompted to exercise them by the +urgent calls of nature, even in the merest possible state of savage and +uncultivated existence. In climates like that of Sumatra this impulse +extends not far. The human machine is kept going with small effort in so +favourable a medium. The spring of importunate necessity there soon loses +its force, and consequently the wheels of invention that depend upon it +fail to perform more than a few simple revolutions. In regions less mild +this original motive to industry and ingenuity carries men to greater +lengths in the application of arts to the occasions of life; and these of +course in an equal space of time attain to greater perfection than among +the inhabitants of the tropical latitudes, who find their immediate wants +supplied with facility, and prefer the negative pleasure of inaction to +the enjoyment of any conveniences that are to be purchased with exertion +and labour. This consideration may perhaps tend to reconcile the high +antiquity universally allowed to Asiatic nations, with the limited +progress of arts and sciences among them; in which they are manifestly +surpassed by people who compared with them are but of very recent date. + +The Sumatrans however in the construction of their habitations have +stepped many degrees beyond those rude contrivances which writers +describe the inhabitants of some other Indian countries to have been +contented with adopting in order to screen themselves from the immediate +influence of surrounding elements. Their houses are not only permanent +but convenient, and are built in the vicinity of each other that they may +enjoy the advantages of mutual assistance and protection resulting from a +state of society.* + +(*Footnote. In several of the small islands near Sumatra (including the +Nicobars), whose inhabitants in general are in a very low state of +civilisation, the houses are built circularly. Vid Asiatic Researches +volume 4 page 129 plate.) + +VILLAGES. + +The dusuns or villages (for the small number of inhabitants assembled in +each does not entitle them to the appellations of towns) are always +situated on the banks of a river or lake for the convenience of bathing +and of transporting goods. An eminence difficult of ascent is usually +made choice of for security. The access to them is by footways, narrow +and winding, of which there are seldom more than two; one to the country +and the other to the water; the latter in most places so steep as to +render it necessary to cut steps in the cliff or rock. The dusuns, being +surrounded with abundance of fruit-trees, some of considerable height, as +the durian, coco, and betel-nut, and the neighbouring country for a +little space about being in some degree cleared of wood for the rice and +pepper plantations, these villages strike the eye at a distance as clumps +merely, exhibiting no appearance of a town or any place of habitation. +The rows of houses form commonly a quadrangle, with passages or lanes at +intervals between the buildings, where in the more considerable villages +live the lower class of inhabitants, and where also their padi-houses or +granaries are erected. In the middle of the square stands the balei or +town hall, a room about fifty to a hundred feet long and twenty or thirty +wide, without division, and open at the sides, excepting when on +particular occasions it is hung with mats or chintz; but sheltered in a +lateral direction by the deep overhanging roof. + + +(PLATE 19. A VILLAGE HOUSE IN SUMATRA. +W. Bell delt. J.G. Stadler sculpt. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + + +PLATE 19a. A PLANTATION HOUSE IN SUMATRA. +W. Bell delt. J.G. Stadler sculpt.) + + +BUILDINGS. + +In their buildings neither stone, brick, nor clay, are ever made use of, +which is the case in most countries where timber abounds, and where the +warmth of the climate renders the free admission of air a matter rather +to be desired than guarded against: but in Sumatra the frequency of +earthquakes is alone sufficient to have prevented the natives from +adopting a substantial mode of building. The frames of the houses are of +wood, the underplate resting on pillars of about six or eight feet in +height, which have a sort of capital but no base, and are wider at top +than at bottom. The people appear to have no idea of architecture as a +science, though much ingenuity is often shown in the manner of working up +their materials, and they have, the Malays at least, technical terms +corresponding to all those employed by our house carpenters. Their +conception of proportions is extremely rude, often leaving those parts of +a frame which have the greatest bearing with the weakest support, and +lavishing strength upon inadequate pressure. For the floorings they lay +whole bamboos (a well-known species of large cane) of four or five inches +diameter, close to each other, and fasten them at the ends to the +timbers. Across these are laid laths of split bamboo, about an inch wide +and of the length of the room, which are tied down with filaments of the +rattan; and over these are usually spread mats of different kinds. This +sort of flooring has an elasticity alarming to strangers when they first +tread on it. The sides of the houses are generally closed in with palupo, +which is the bamboo opened and rendered flat by notching or splitting the +circular joints on the outside, chipping away the corresponding divisions +within, and laying it to dry in the sun, pressed down with weights. This +is sometimes nailed onto the upright timbers or bamboos, but in the +country parts it is more commonly interwoven, or matted, in breadths of +six inches, and a piece, or sheet, formed at once of the size required. +In some places they use for the same purpose the kulitkayu, or coolicoy, +as it is pronounced by the Europeans, who employ it on board ship as +dunnage in pepper and other cargoes. This is a bark procured from some +particular trees, of which the bunut and ibu are the most common. When +they prepare to take it the outer rind is first torn or cut away; the +inner, which affords the material, is then marked out with a prang, +pateel, or other tool, to the size required, which is usually three +cubits by one; it is afterwards beaten for some time with a heavy stick +to loosen it from the stem, and being peeled off is laid in the sun to +dry, care being taken to prevent its warping. The thicker or thinner +sorts of the same species of kulitkayu owe their difference to their +being taken nearer to or farther from the root. That which is used in +building has nearly the texture and hardness of wood. The pliable and +delicate bark of which clothing is made is procured from a tree called +kalawi, a bastard species of the bread-fruit. + +The most general mode of covering houses is with the atap, which is the +leaf of a species of palm called nipah. These, previous to their being +laid on, are formed into sheets of about five feet long and as deep as +the length of the leaf will admit, which is doubled at one end over a +slip or lath of bamboo; they are then disposed on the roof so as that one +sheet shall lap over the other, and are tied to the bamboos which serve +for rafters. There are various other and more durable kinds of covering +used. The kulitkayu, before described, is sometimes employed for this +purpose: the galumpei--this is a thatch of narrow split bamboos, six feet +in length, placed in regular layers, each reaching within two feet of the +extremity of that beneath it, by which a treble covering is formed: +iju--this is a vegetable production so nearly resembling horse-hair as +scarcely to be distinguished from it. It envelopes the stem of that +species of palm called anau, from which the best toddy or palm wine is +procured, and is employed by the natives for a great variety of purposes. +It is bound on as a thatch in the manner we do straw, and not +unfrequently over the galumpei; in which case the roof is so durable as +never to require renewal, the iju being of all vegetable substances the +least prone to decay, and for this reason it is a common practice to wrap +a quantity of it round the ends of timbers or posts which are to be fixed +in the ground. I saw a house about twenty miles up Manna River, belonging +to Dupati Bandar Agung, the roof of which was of fifty years standing. +The larger houses have three pitches in the roof; the middle one, under +which the door is placed, being much lower than the other two. In smaller +houses there are but two pitches, which are always of unequal height, and +the entrance is in the smaller, which covers a kind of hall or cooking +room. + +There is another kind of house, erected mostly for a temporary purpose, +the roof of which is flat and is covered in a very uncommon, simple, and +ingenious manner. Large, straight bamboos are cut of a length sufficient +to lie across the house, and, being split exactly in two and the joints +knocked out, a first layer of them is disposed in close order, with the +inner or hollow sides up; after which a second layer, with the outer or +convex sides up, is placed upon the others in such manner that each of +the convex falls into the two contiguous concave pieces, covering their +edges; the latter serving as gutters to carry off the water that falls +upon the upper or convex layer.* + +(*Footnote. I find that the original inhabitants of the Philippine +Islands covered their buildings in the same manner.) + +The mode of ascent to the houses is by a piece of timber or stout bamboo, +cut in notches, which latter an European cannot avail himself of, +especially as the precaution is seldom taken of binding them fast. These +are the wonderful light scaling-ladders which the old Portuguese writers +described to have been used by the people of Achin in their wars with +their nation. It is probable that the apprehension of danger from the +wild beasts caused them to adopt and continue this rude expedient, in +preference to more regular and commodious steps. The detached buildings +in the country, near to their plantations, called talangs, they raise to +the height of ten or twelve feet from the ground, and make a practice of +taking up their ladder at night to secure themselves from the destructive +ravages of the tigers. I have been assured, but do not pledge myself for +the truth of the story, that an elephant, attempting to pass under one of +these houses, which stand on four or six posts, stuck by the way, but, +disdaining to retreat, carried it, with the family it contained, on his +back to a considerable distance. + +In the buildings of the dusuns, particularly where the most respectable +families reside, the woodwork in front is carved in the style of +bas-relief, in a variety of uncouth ornaments and grotesque figures, not +much unlike the Egyptian hieroglyphics, but certainly without any mystic +or historical allusion. + +FURNITURE. + +The furniture of their houses, corresponding with their manner of living, +is very simple, and consists of but few articles. Their bed is a mat, +usually of fine texture, and manufactured for the purpose, with a number +of pillows, worked at the ends and adorned with a shining substance that +resembles foil. A sort of canopy or valance, formed of various coloured +cloths, hangs overhead. Instead of tables they have what resemble large +wooden salvers, with feet called dulang, round each of which three or +four persons dispose themselves; and on these are laid the talams or +brass waiters which hold the cups that contain their curry, and plantain +leaves or matted vessels filled with rice. Their mode of sitting is not +cross-legged, as the inhabitants of Turkey and our tailors use, but +either on the haunches or on the left side, supported by the left hand +with the legs tucked in on the right side; leaving that hand at liberty +which they always, from motives of delicacy, scrupulously eat with; the +left being reserved for less cleanly offices. Neither knives, spoons, nor +any substitutes for them are employed; they take up the rice and other +victuals between the thumb and fingers, and dexterously throw it into the +mouth by the action of the thumb, dipping frequently their hands in water +as they eat. + +UTENSILS. + +They have a little coarse chinaware, imported by the eastern praws, which +is held a matter of luxury. In cooking they employ a kind of iron vessel +well-known in India by the name of quallie or tauch, resembling in shape +the pans used in some of our manufactures, having the rim wide and bottom +narrow. These are likewise brought from the eastward. The priu and +balanga, species of earthen pipkins, are in more common use, being made +in small quantities in different parts of the island, particularly in +Lampong, where they give them a sort of glazing; but the greater number +of them are imported from Bantam. The original Sumatran vessel for +boiling rice, and which is still much used for that purpose, is the +bamboo, that material of general utility with which bountiful nature has +supplied an indolent people. By the time the rice is dressed the utensil +is nearly destroyed by the fire, but resists the flame so long as there +is moisture within. + +FIRES. + +Fire being wanted among these people but occasionally, and only when they +cook their victuals, there is not much attention paid in their buildings +to provide conveniences for it. Their houses have no chimneys, and their +fireplaces are no more than a few loose bricks or stones, disposed in a +temporary manner and frequently on the landing-place before the doors. +The fuel made use of is wood alone, the coal which the island produces +never being converted by the inhabitants to that purpose. The flint and +steel for striking fire are common in the country, but it is a practice +certainly borrowed from some other people, as that species of stone is +not a native of the soil. These generally form part of their travelling +apparatus, and especially with those men called risaus (spendthrifts that +turn freebooters), who find themselves often obliged to take up their +habitation in the woods or in deserted houses. But they also frequently +kindle fire from the friction of two sticks. + +MODE OF KINDLING THEM. + +They choose a piece of dry, porous wood, and cutting smooth a spot of it +lay it in a horizontal direction. They then apply a smaller piece, of a +harder substance, with a blunt point, in a perpendicular position, and +turn it quickly round, between the two hands, as chocolate is milled, +pressing it downwards at the same time. A hole is soon formed by this +motion of the smaller stick; but it has not penetrated far before the +larger one takes fire. I have also seen the same effect produced more +simply by rubbing one bit of bamboo with a sharp edge across another.* + +(*Footnote. This mode of kindling fire is not peculiar to Sumatra: we +read of the same practice in Africa and even in Kamtschatka. It is +surprising, but confirmed by abundant authority, that many nations of the +earth have at certain periods, been ignorant of the use of fire. To our +immediate apprehension human existence would seem in such circumstances +impossible. Every art, every convenience, every necessary of life, is now +in the most intimate manner connected with it: and yet the Chinese, the +Egyptians, the Phoenicians, and Greeks acknowledged traditions concerning +its first discovery in their respective countries. But in fact if we can +once suppose a man, or society of men, unacquainted with the being and +uses of this element, I see no difficulty in conceiving the possibility +of their supporting life without it; I mean in the tropical climates; and +of centuries passing before they should arrive at the important +discovery. It is true that lightning and its effects, volcanoes, the +firing of dry substances by fortuitous attrition, or of moist, by +fermentation, might give them an idea of its violent and destructive +properties; but far from being thence induced to appropriate and apply it +they would, on the contrary, dread and avoid it, even in its less +formidable appearances. They might be led to worship it as their deity, +but not to cherish it as their domestic. There is some reason to conclude +that the man who first reduced it to subjection and rendered it +subservient to the purposes of life procured it from the collision of two +flints; but the sparks thus produced, whether by accident or design, +might be observed innumerable times without its suggesting a beneficial +application. In countries where those did not present themselves the +discovery had, most probably, its origin in the rubbing together of dry +sticks, and in this operation, the agent and subject coexisting, flame, +with its properties and uses, became more immediately apparent. Still, as +no previous idea was conceived of this latent principle, and consequently +no search made, no endeavours exerted, to bring it to light, I see not +the impossibility a priori of its remaining almost as long concealed from +mankind as the properties of the loadstone or the qualities of +gunpowder.) + +Water is conveyed from the spring in bamboos, which for this purpose are +cut, either to the length of five or six feet and carried over the +shoulder, or into a number of single joints that are put together in a +basket. It is drunk out of the fruit called labu here, resembling the +calabash of the West Indies, a hole being made in the side of the neck +and another at top for vent. In drinking they generally hold the vessel +at a distance above their mouths and catch the stream as it falls; the +liquid descending to the stomach without the action of swallowing. +Baskets (bronong, bakul) are a considerable part of the furniture of a +man's house, and the number of these seen hanging up are tokens of the +owner's substance; for in them his harvests of rice or pepper are +gathered and brought home; no carts being employed in the interior parts +of the island which I am now describing. They are made of slips of bamboo +connected by means of split rattans; and are carried chiefly by the +women, on the back, supported by a string or band across the forehead. + +FOOD. + +Although the Sumatrans live in a great measure upon vegetable food they +are not restrained by any superstitious opinion from other aliments, and +accordingly at their entertainments the flesh of the buffalo (karbau), +goat, and fowls, are served up. Their dishes are almost all prepared in +that mode of dressing to which we have given the name of curry (from a +Hindostanic word), and which is now universally known in Europe. It is +called in the Malay language gulei, and may be composed of any kind of +edible, but is generally of flesh or fowl, with a variety of pulse and +succulent herbage, stewed down with certain ingredients, by us termed, +when mixed and ground together, curry powder. These ingredients are, +among others, the cayenne or chili-pepper, turmeric, sarei or +lemon-grass, cardamums, garlick, and the pulp of the coconut bruised to a +milk resembling that of almonds, which is the only liquid made use of. +This differs from the curries of Madras and Bengal, which have greater +variety of spices, and want the coconut. It is not a little remarkable +that the common pepper, the chief produce and staple commodity of the +country, is never mixed by the natives in their food. They esteem it +heating to the blood, and ascribe a contrary effect to the cayenne; which +I can say, my own experience justifies. A great diversity of curries is +usually served up at the same time, in small vessels, each flavoured to a +nice discerning taste in a different manner; and in this consists all the +luxury of their tables. Let their quantity or variety or meat be what it +may, the principle article of their food is rice, which is eaten in a +large proportion with every dish, and very frequently without any other +accompaniment than salt and chili-pepper. It is prepared by boiling in a +manner peculiar to India; its perfection, next to cleanness and +whiteness, consisting in its being, when thoroughly dressed and soft to +the heart, at the same time whole and separate, so that no two grains +shall adhere together. The manner of effecting this is by putting into +the earthen or other vessel in which it is boiled a quantity of water +sufficient to cover it, letting it simmer over a slow fire, taking off +the water by degrees with a flat ladle or spoon that the grain may dry, +and removing it when just short of burning. At their entertainments the +guests are treated with rice prepared also in a variety of modes, by +frying it in cakes or boiling a particular species of it mixed with the +kernel of the coconut and fresh oil, in small joints of bamboo. This is +called lemmang. Before it is served up they cut off the outer rind of the +bamboo and the soft inner coat is peeled away by the person who eats. + +FLESH-MEAT. + +They dress their meat immediately after killing it, while it is still +warm, which is conformable with the practice of the ancients as recorded +in Homer and elsewhere, and in this state it is said to eat tenderer than +when kept for a day: longer the climate will not admit of, unless when it +is preserved in that mode called dinding. This is the flesh of the +buffalo cut into small thin steaks and exposed to the heat of the sun in +fair weather, generally on the thatch of their houses, till it is become +so dry and hard as to resist putrefaction without any assistance from +salt. Fish is preserved in the same manner, and cargoes of both are sent +from parts of the coast where they are in plenty to those where +provisions are in more demand. It is seemingly strange that heat, which +in a certain degree promotes putrefaction, should when violently +increased operate to prevent it; but it must be considered that moisture +also is requisite to the former effect, and this is absorbed in thin +substances by the sun's rays before it can contribute to the production +of maggots. + +Blachang, a preservation, if it may be so termed, of an opposite kind, is +esteemed a great delicacy among the Malays, and is by them exported to +the west of India. The country Sumatrans seldom procure it. It is a +species of caviar, and is extremely offensive and disgusting to persons +who are not accustomed to it, particularly the black kind, which is the +most common. The best sort, or the red blachang, is made of the spawn of +shrimps, or of the shrimps themselves, which they take about the mouths +of rivers. They are, after boiling, exposed to the sun to dry, then +pounded in a mortar with salt, moistened with a little water and formed +into cakes, which is all the process. The black sort, used by the lower +class, is made of small fish, prepared in the same manner. On some parts +of the east coast of the island they salt the roes of a large fish of the +shad kind, and preserve them perfectly dry and well flavoured. These are +called trobo. + +When the natives kill a buffalo, which is always done at their public +meetings, they do not cut it up into joints as we do an ox, but into +small pieces of flesh, or steaks, which they call bantei. The hide of the +buffalo is sometimes scalded, scraped, and hung up to dry in their houses +where it shrivels and becomes perfectly hard. When wanted for use a piece +is chopped off and, being stewed down for a great number of hours in a +small quantity of water, forms a rich jelly which, properly seasoned, is +esteemed a very delicate dish. + +The sago (sagu), though common on Sumatra and used occasionally by the +natives, is not an article of food of such general use among them as with +the inhabitants of many other eastern islands, where it is employed as a +substitute for rice. Millet (randa jawa) is also cultivated for food, but +not in any considerable quantity. + +When these several articles of subsistence fail the Sumatran has recourse +to those wild roots, herbs, and leaves of trees which the woods +abundantly afford in every season without culture, and which the habitual +simplicity of his diet teaches him to consider as no very extraordinary +circumstance of hardship. Hence it is that famines in this island or, +more properly speaking, failures of crops of grain, are never attended +with those dreadful consequences which more improved countries and more +provident nations experience. + + +CHAPTER 4. + +AGRICULTURE. +RICE, ITS CULTIVATION, ETC. +PLANTATIONS OF COCONUT, BETEL-NUT, AND OTHER VEGETABLES FOR DOMESTIC USE. +DYE STUFFS. + +AGRICULTURE. + +From their domestic economy I am led to take a view of their labours in +the field, their plantations and the state of agriculture amongst them, +which an ingenious writer esteems the justest criterion of civilisation. + +RICE. + +The most important article of cultivation, not in Sumatra alone but +throughout the East, is rice. It is the grand material of food on which a +hundred millions of the inhabitants of the earth subsist, and although +chiefly confined by nature to the regions included between and bordering +on the tropics, its cultivation is probably more extensive than that of +wheat, which the Europeans are wont to consider as the universal staff of +life. In the continent of Asia, as you advance to the northward, you come +to the boundary where the plantations of rice disappear and the +wheatfields commence; the cold felt in that climate, owing in part to the +height of the land, being unfriendly to the production of the former +article. + +Rice (Oryza sativa) whilst in the husk is called padi by the Malays (from +whose language the word seems to have found its way to the maritime parts +of the continent of India), bras when deprived of the husk, and nasi +after it has been boiled; besides which it assumes other names in its +various states of growth and preparation. This minuteness of distinction +applies also to some other articles of common use, and may be accounted +for upon this principle: that amongst people whose general objects of +attention are limited, those which do of necessity occupy them are liable +to be more the subject of thought and conversation than in more +enlightened countries where the ideas of men have an extensive range. The +kinds of rice also (whether technically of different species I cannot +pronounce) are very numerous, but divided in the first place into the two +comprehensive classes of padi ladang or upland, from its growing in high, +dry grounds, and padi sawah (vulgarly pronounced sawur or sour) or +lowland, from its being planted in marshes; each of which is said to +contain ten or fifteen varieties, distinct in shape, size, and colour of +the grain, modes of growth, and delicacy of flavour; it being observed +that in general the larger-grained rice is not so much prized by the +natives as that which is small, when at the same time white and in some +degree transparent.* To M. Poivre, in his Travels of a Philosopher, we +are indebted for first pointing out these two classes when speaking of +the agriculture of Cochin-China. The qualities of the ladang, or upland +rice, are held to be superior to those of the sawah, being whiter, more +nourishing, better tasted and having the advantage in point of keeping. +Its mode of culture too is free from the charge of unhealthiness +attributed to the latter, which is of a watery substance, is attended +with less increase in boiling, and is subject to a swifter decay; but of +this the rate of produce from the seed is much greater, and the certainty +of the crops more to be depended on. It is accordingly cheaper and in +more common use. The seed of each sort is kept separate by the natives, +who assert that they will not grow reciprocally. + +(*Footnote. The following sorts of dry-ground padi have come under my +notice but as the names vary in different districts it is possible that +some of these may be repetitions, where there is no striking difference +of character: +Padi Ebbas, large grain, very common; +Andalong, short round grain, grows in whorls or bunches round the stalk, +common; +Galu, light-coloured, scarce; +Sini, small grain, deep coloured, scarce; +Iju, light ish colour, scarce; +Kuning, deep yellow, crooked and pointed, fine rice; +Kukur-ballum, small, much crooked and resembling a dove's claw, from +whence the name; light-coloured, highly esteemed for its delicate flavour; +Pisang, outer coat light brown, inner red, longer, smaller, and less +crooked than the preceding; +Bringin, long, flattish, ribbed, pointed, dead yellow; +Bujut, shaped like the preceding, but with a tinge of red in the colour; +Chariap, short, roundish, reddish yellow; +Janggut or bearded, small, narrow, pale brown; +Jambi, small, somewhat crooked and pointed, light brown; +Laye, gibbous, light-coloured; +Musang, long, small, crooked and pointed, deep purple; +Pandan, small, light-coloured; +Pau, long, crooked and pointed, light yellow; +Puyuh, small, delicate, crooked and pointed, bright ochre; +Rakkun, roundish grain, resembles the andalong, but larger and deeper colour; +Sihong, much resembles the laye in shape and colour; +Sutar, short, roundish, bright, reddish brown; +Pulut gading or ivory, long, nearly straight, light yellow; +Pulut kechil, small, crooked, reddish yellow; +Pulut bram, long and rather large grain, purple, when fresh more nearly red; +Pulut bram lematong, in shape like the preceding, but of a dead pale colour. +Beside these four there is also a black kind of pulut. +Samples of most of these have been in my possession for a number of +years, and still continue perfectly sound. Of the sorts of rice growing +in low grounds I have not specimens. The padi santong, which is small, +straight, and light-coloured, is held to be the finest. In the Lampong +country they make a distinction of padi krawang and padi jerru, of which +I know nothing more than that the former is a month earlier in growth +than the latter.) + +UPLAND RICE. + +For the cultivation of upland padi the site of woods is universally +preferred, and the more ancient the woods the better, on account of the +superior richness of the soil; the continual fall and rotting of the +leaves forming there a bed of vegetable mould, which the open plains do +not afford, being exhausted by the powerful operation of the sun's rays +and the constant production of a rank grass called lalang. When this +grass, common to all the eastern islands, is kept under by frequent +mowing or the grazing of cattle (as is the case near the European +settlements) its room is supplied by grass of a finer texture. Many +suppose that the same identical species of vegetable undergoes this +alteration, as no fresh seeds are sown and the substitution uniformly +takes place. But this is an evident mistake as the generic characters of +the two are essentially different; the one being the Gramen caricosum and +the other the Gramen aciculatum described by Rumphius. The former, which +grows to the height of five feet, is remarkable for the whiteness and +softness of the down or blossom, and the other for the sharpness of its +bearded seeds, which prove extremely troublesome to the legs of those who +walk among it.* + +(*Footnote. Gramen hoc (caricosum) totos occupat campos, nudosque colles +tam dense et laete germinans, ut e longinquo haberetur campus oryza +consitus, tam luxuriose ac fortiter crescit, ut neque hortos neque sylvas +evitet, atque tam vehementer prorepit, ut areae vix depurari ac servari +possint, licet quotidie deambulentur...Potissimum amat solum flavum +arguillosum. (Gramen aciculatum) Usus ejus fere nullus est, sed hic +detegendum est taediosum ludibrium, quod quis habet, si quis per campos +vel in sylvis procedat, ubi hoc gramen ad vias publicas crescit, quum +praetereuntium vestibus, hoc semen quam maxime inhaeret. Rumphius volume +6 book 10 chapters 8 and 13. M. Poivre describes the plains of Madagascar +and Java as covered with a long grass which he calls fatak, and which, +from the analogy of the countries in other respects, I should suppose to +be the lalang; but he praises it as affording excellent pasturage; +whereas in Sumatra it is reckoned the worst, and except when very young +it is not edible by the largest cattle; for which reason the carters and +drovers are in the practice of setting fire to that which grows on the +plains by the roadside, that the young shoots which thereupon shoot up, +may afterwards supply food to their buffaloes.) + +If old woods are not at hand ground covered with that of younger growth, +termed balukar, is resorted to; but not, if possible, under the age of +four or five years. Vegetation is there so strong that spots which had +been perfectly cleared for cultivation will, upon being neglected for a +single season, afford shelter to the beasts of the forest; and the same +being rarely occupied for two successive years, the face of the country +continues to exhibit the same wild appearance, although very extensive +tracts are annually covered with fresh plantations. From this it will be +seen that, in consequence of the fertility to which it gives occasion, +the abundance of wood in the country is not considered by the inhabitants +as an inconvenience but the contrary. Indeed I have heard a native prince +complain of a settlement made by some persons of a distant tribe in the +inland part of his dominions, whom he should be obliged to expel from +thence in order to prevent the waste of his old woods. This seemed a +superfluous act of precaution in an island which strikes the eye as one +general, impervious, and inexhaustible forest. + +MODE OF CLEARING THE GROUND. + +On the approach of the dry monsoon (April and May) or in the course of +it, the husbandman makes choice of a spot for his ladang, or plantation +of upland rice, for that season, and marks it out. Here it must be +observed that property in land depends upon occupancy, unless where +fruit-bearing trees have been planted, and, as there is seldom any +determined boundary between the lands of neighbouring villages, such +marks are rarely disturbed. Collecting his family and dependents, he next +proceeds to clear the ground. This is an undertaking of immense labour, +and would seem to require herculean force, but it is effected by skill +and perseverance. The work divides itself into two parts. The first +(called tebbas, menebbas) consists in cutting down the brushwood and rank +vegetables, which are suffered to dry during an interval of a fortnight, +or more or less, according to the fairness of the weather, before they +proceed to the second operation (called tebbang, menebbang) of felling +the large trees. Their tools, the prang and billiong (the former +resembling a bill-hook, and the latter an imperfect adze) are seemingly +inadequate to the task, and the saw is unknown in the country. Being +regardless of the timber they do not fell the tree near the ground, where +the stem is thick, but erect a stage and begin to hew, or chop rather, at +the height of ten or twelve, to twenty or thirty feet, where the +dimensions are smaller (and sometimes much higher, taking off little more +than the head) until it is sufficiently weakened to admit of their +pulling it down with rattans made fast to the branches instead of ropes.* +And thus by slow degrees the whole is laid low. + +(*Footnote. A similar mode of felling is described in the Maison rustique +de Cayenne.) + +In some places however a more summary process is attempted. It may be +conceived that in the woods the cutting down trees singly is a matter of +much difficulty on account of the twining plants which spread from one to +the other and connect them strongly together. To surmount this it is not +an uncommon practice to cut a number of trees half through, on the same +side, and then fix upon one of great bulk at the extremity of the space +marked out, which they cut nearly through, and, having disengaged it from +these lianas (as they are termed in the western world) determine its fall +in such a direction as may produce the effect of its bearing down by its +prodigious weight all those trees which had been previously weakened for +the purpose. By this much time and labour are saved, and, the object +being to destroy and not to save the timber, the rending or otherwise +spoiling the stems is of no moment. I could never behold this devastation +without a strong sentiment of regret. Perhaps the prejudices of a +classical education taught me to respect those aged trees as the +habitation or material frame of an order of sylvan deities, who were now +deprived of existence by the sacrilegious hand of a rude, +undistinguishing savage. But without having recourse to superstition it +is not difficult to account for such feelings on the sight of a venerable +wood, old, to appearance, as the soil it stood on, and beautiful beyond +what pencil can describe, annihilated for the temporary use of the space +it occupied. It seemed a violation of nature in the too arbitrary +exercise of power. The timber, from its abundance, the smallness of +consumption, and its distance in most cases from the banks of navigable +rivers, by which means alone it could be transported to any distance, is +of no value; and trees whose bulk, height, straightness of stem, and +extent of limbs excite the admiration of a traveller, perish +indiscriminately. Some of the branches are lopped off, and when these, +together with the underwood, are become sufficiently arid, they are set +fire to, and the country, for the space of a month or two, is in a +general blaze and smoke, until the whole is consumed and the ground +effectually cleared. The expiring wood, beneficent to its ungrateful +destroyer, fertilises for his use by its ashes and their salts the earth +which it so long adorned. + +Unseasonable wet weather at this period, which sometimes happens, and +especially when the business is deferred till the close of the dry or +south-east monsoon, whose termination is at best irregular, produces much +inconvenience by the delay of burning till the vegetation has had time to +renew itself; in which case the spot is commonly abandoned, or, if +partially burned, it is not without considerable toil that it can be +afterwards prepared for sowing. On such occasions there are imposters +ready to make a profit of the credulity of the husbandman who, like all +others whose employments expose them to risks, are prone to superstition, +by pretending to a power of causing or retarding rain. One of these will +receive, at the time of burning the ladangs, a dollar or more from each +family in the neighbourhood, under the pretence of ensuring favourable +weather for their undertaking. To accomplish this purpose he abstains, or +pretends to abstain, for many days and nights from food and sleep, and +performs various trifling ceremonies; continuing all the time in the open +air. If he espies a cloud gathering he immediately begins to smoke +tobacco with great vehemence, walking about with a quick pace and +throwing the puffs towards it with all the force of his lungs. How far he +is successful it is no difficult matter to judge. His skill, in fact, +lies in choosing his time, when there is the greatest prospect of the +continuance of fair weather in the ordinary course of nature: but should +he fail there is an effectual salvo. He always promises to fulfil his +agreement with a Deo volente clause, and so attributes his occasional +disappointments to the particular interposition of the deity. The cunning +men who, in this and many other instances of conjuration, impose on the +simple country people, are always Malayan adventurers, and not +unfrequently priests. The planter whose labour has been lost by such +interruptions generally finds it too late in the season to begin on +another ladang, and the ordinary resource for subsisting himself and +family is to seek a spot of sawah ground, whose cultivation is less +dependent upon accidental variations of weather. In some districts much +confusion in regard to the period of sowing is said to have arisen from a +very extraordinary cause. Anciently, say the natives, it was regulated by +the stars, and particularly by the appearance (heliacal rising) of the +bintang baniak or Pleiades; but after the introduction of the Mahometan +religion they were induced to follow the returns of the puisa or great +annual fast, and forgot their old rules. The consequence of this was +obvious, for the lunar year of the hejrah being eleven days short of the +sidereal or solar year the order of the seasons was soon inverted; and it +is only astonishing that its inaptness to the purposes of agriculture +should not have been immediately discovered. + +SOWING. + +When the periodical rains begin to fall, which takes place gradually +about October, the planter assembles his neighbours (whom he assists in +turn), and with the aid of his whole family proceeds to sow his ground, +endeavouring to complete the task in the course of one day. In order to +ensure success he fixes, by the priest's assistance, on a lucky day, and +vows the sacrifice of a kid if his crop should prove favourable; the +performance of which is sacredly observed, and is the occasion of a feast +in every family after harvest. The manner of sowing (tugal-menugal) is +this. Two or three men enter the plantation, as it is usual to call the +padi-field, holding in each hand sticks about five feet long and two +inches diameter, bluntly pointed, with which, striking them into the +ground as they advance, they make small, shallow holes, at the distance +of about five inches from each other. These are followed by the women and +elder children with small baskets containing the seed-grain (saved with +care from the choicest of the preceding crop) of which they drop four or +five grains into every hole, and, passing on, are followed by the younger +children who with their feet (in the use of which the natives are nearly +as expert as with their hands) cover them lightly from the adjacent +earth, that the seed may not be too much exposed to the birds, which, as +might be expected, often prove destructive foes. The ground, it should be +observed, has not been previously turned up by any instrument of the hoe +or plough kind, nor would the stumps and roots of trees remaining in it +admit of the latter being worked; although employed under other +circumstances, as will hereafter appear. If rain succeeds the padi is +above ground in four or five days; but by an unexpected run of dry +weather it is sometimes lost, and the field sowed a second time. When it +has attained a month or six weeks' growth it becomes necessary to clear +it of weeds (siang-menyiang), which is repeated at the end of two months +or ten weeks; after which the strength it has acquired is sufficient to +preserve it from injury in that way. Huts are now raised in different +parts of the plantation, from whence a communication is formed over the +whole by means of rattans, to which are attached scarecrows, rattles, +clappers, and other machines for frightening away the birds, in the +contrivance of which they employ incredible pains and ingenuity; so +disposing them that a child, placed in the hut, shall be able, with +little exertion, to create a loud clattering noise to a great extent; and +on the borders of the field are placed at intervals a species of windmill +fixed on poles which, on the inexperienced traveller, have an effect as +terrible as those encountered by the knight of La Mancha. Such +precautions are indispensable for the protection of the corn, when in the +ear, against the numerous flights of the pipi, a small bird with a +light-brown body, white head, and bluish beak, rather less than the +sparrow, which in its general appearance and habits it resembles. Several +of these lighting at once upon a stalk of padi, and bearing it down, soon +clear it of its produce, and thus if unmolested destroy whole crops. + +At the time of sowing the padi it is a common practice to sow also, in +the interstices, and in the same manner, jagong or maize, which, growing +up faster and ripening before it (in little more than three months) is +gathered without injury to the former. It is also customary to raise in +the same ground a species of momordica, the fruit of which comes forward +in the course of two months. + +REAPING. + +The nominal time allowed from the sowing to the reaping of the crop is +five lunar months and ten days; but from this it must necessarily vary +with the circumstances of the season. When it ripens, if all at the same +time, the neighbours are again summoned to assist, and entertained for +the day: if a part only ripens first the family begin to reap it, and +proceed through the whole by degrees. In this operation, called +tuwei-menuwei from the instrument used, they take off the head of corn +(the term of ear not being applicable to the growth of this plant) about +six inches below the grain, the remaining stalk or halm being left as of +no value. The tuwei is a piece of wood about six inches long, usually of +carved work and about two inches diameter, in which is fixed lengthwise a +blade of four or five inches, secured at the extremes by points bent to a +right angle and entering the wood. To this is added a piece of very small +bamboo from two to three inches long, fixed at right angles across the +back of the wood, with a notch for receiving it, and pinned through by a +small peg. This bamboo rests in the hollow of the hand, one end of the +piece of wood passing between the two middle fingers, with the blade +outwards; the natives always cutting FROM them.* With this in the right +hand and a small basket slung over the left shoulder, they very +expeditiously crop the heads of padi one by one, bringing the stalk to +the blade with their two middle fingers, and passing them, when cut, from +the right hand to the left. As soon as the left hand is full the contents +are placed in regular layers in the basket (sometimes tied up in a little +sheaf), and from thence removed to larger baskets, in which the harvest +is to be conveyed to the dusun or village, there to be lodged in the +tangkian or barns, which are buildings detached from the dwelling-houses, +raised like them from the ground, widening from the floor towards the +roof, and well lined with boards or coolitcoy. In each removal care is +taken to preserve the regularity of the layers, by which means it is +stowed to advantage, and any portion of it readily taken out for use. + +(*Footnote. The inhabitants of Menangkabau are said to reap with an +instrument resembling a sickle.) + +LOW-GROUND RICE. + +Sawahs are plantations of padi in low wet ground, which, during the +growth of the crop, in the rainy season between the months of October and +March,* are for the most part overflowed to the depth of six inches or a +foot, beyond which latter the water becomes prejudicial. Level marshes, +of firm bottom, under a moderate stratum of mud, and not liable to deep +stagnant water, are the situations preferred; the narrower hollows, +though very commonly used for small plantations, being more liable to +accidents from torrents and too great depth of water, which the +inhabitants have rarely industry enough to regulate to advantage by +permanent embankments. They are not however ignorant of such expedients, +and works are sometimes met with, constructed for the purpose chiefly of +supplying the deficiency of rain to several adjoining sawahs by means of +sluices, contrived with no small degree of skill and attention to levels. + +(*Footnote. In the Transactions of the Batavian Society the following +mention is made of the cultivation of rice in Java. The padi sawa is sown +in low watered grounds in the month of March, transplanted in April, and +reaped in August. The padi tipar is sown in high ploughed lands in +November, and reaped in March (earlier in the season than I could have +supposed.) when sown where woods have been recently cut down, or in the +clefts of the hills (klooven van het gebergte) it is named padi gaga. +Volume 1 page 27.) + +In new ground, after clearing it from the brushwood, reeds, and aquatic +vegetables with which the marshes, when neglected, are overrun, and +burning them at the close of the dry season, the soil is, in the +beginning of the wet, prepared for culture by different modes of working. +In some places a number of buffaloes, whose greatest enjoyment consists +in wading and rolling in mud, are turned in, and these by their motions +contribute to give it a more uniform consistence as well as enrich it by +their dung. In other parts less permanently moist the soil is turned up, +either with a wooden instrument between a hoe and a pickaxe, or with the +plough, of which they use two kinds; their own, drawn by one buffalo, +extremely simple, and the wooden share of it doing little more than +scratch the ground to the depth of six inches; and one they have borrowed +from the Chinese, drawn either with one or two buffaloes, very light, and +the share more nearly resembling ours, turning the soil over as it passes +and making a narrow furrow. In sawahs however the surface has in general +so little consistence that no furrow is perceptible, and the plough does +little more than loosen the stiff mud to some depth, and cut the roots of +the grass and weeds, from which it is afterwards cleared by means of a +kind of harrow or rake, being a thick plank of heavy wood with strong +wooden teeth and loaded with earth where necessary. This they contrive to +drag along the surface for the purpose at the same time of depressing the +rising spots and filling up the hollow ones. The whole being brought as +nearly as possible to a level, that the water may lie equally upon it the +sawah is, for the more effectual securing of this essential point, +divided into portions nearly square or oblong (called piring, which +signifies a dish) by narrow banks raised about eighteen inches and two +feet wide. These drying become harder than the rest, confine the water, +and serve the purpose of footways throughout the plantation. When there +is more water in one division than another small passages are cut through +the dams to produce an equality. Through these apertures water is also in +some instances introduced from adjacent rivers or reservoirs, where such +exist, and the season requires their aid. The innumerable springs and +rivulets with which this country abounds render unnecessary the laborious +processes by which water is raised and supplied to the rice grounds in +the western part of India, where the soil is sandy: yet still the +principal art of the planter consists, and is required, in the management +of this article; to furnish it to the ground in proper and moderate +quantities and to carry it off from time to time by drains; for if +suffered to be long stagnant it would occasion the grain to rot. + +TRANSPLANTATION. + +Whilst the sawahs have been thus in preparation to receive the padi a +small, adjacent, and convenient spot of good soil has been chosen, in +which the seed-grain is sown as thick as it can well lie to the ground, +and is then often covered with layers of lalang (long grass, instead of +straw) to protect the grain from the birds, and perhaps assist the +vegetation. When it has grown to the height of from five to eight inches, +or generally at the end of forty days from the time of sowing, it is +taken up in showery weather and transplanted to the sawah, where holes +are made four or five inches asunder to receive the plants. If they +appear too forward the tops are cropped off. A supply is at the same time +reserved in the seed-plots to replace such as may chance to fail upon +removal. These plantations, in the same manner as the ladangs, it is +necessary to cleanse from weeds at least twice in the first two or three +months; but no maize or other seed is sown among the crop. When the padi +begins to form the ear or to blossom, as the natives express it, the +water is finally drawn off, and at the expiration of four months from the +time of transplanting it arrives at maturity. The manner of guarding +against the birds is similar to what has been already described; but the +low ground crop has a peculiar and very destructive enemy in the rats, +which sometimes consume the whole of it, especially when the plantation +has been made somewhat out of season; to obviate which evil the +inhabitants of a district sow by agreement pretty nearly at the same +time; whereby the damage is less perceptible. In the mode of reaping +likewise there is nothing different. Upon the conclusion of the harvest +it is an indispensable duty to summon the neighbouring priests to the +first meal that is made of the new rice, when an entertainment is given +according to the circumstances of the family. Should this ceremony be +omitted the crop would be accursed (haram) nor could the whole household +expect to outlive the season. This superstition has been by the +Mahometans judiciously engrafted on the stock of credulity in the country +people. + +The same spot of low ground is for the most part used without regular +intermission for several successive years, the degree of culture they +bestow by turning up the soil and the overflowing water preserving its +fertility. They are not however insensible to the advantage of occasional +fallows. In consequence of this continued use the value of the sawah +grounds differs from that of ladangs, the former being, in the +neighbourhood of populous towns particularly, distinct property, and of +regularly ascertained value. At Natal for example those consisting +between one and two acres sell for sixteen to twenty Spanish dollars. In +the interior country, where the temperature of the air is more favourable +to agriculture, they are said to sow the same spot with ladang rice for +three successive years; and there also it is common to sow onions as soon +as the stubble is burned off. Millet (randa jawa) is sown at the same +time with the padi. In the country of Manna, southward of Bencoolen, a +progress in the art of cultivation is discovered, superior to what +appears in almost any other part of the island; the Batta country perhaps +alone excepted. Here may be seen pieces of land in size from five to +fifteen acres, regularly ploughed and harrowed. The difference is thus +accounted for. It is the most populous district in that southern part, +with the smallest extent of sea-coast. The pepper plantations and ladangs +together having in a great measure exhausted the old woods in the +accessible parts of the country, and the inhabitants being therein +deprived of a source of fertility which nature formerly supplied, they +must either starve, remove to another district, or improve by cultivation +the spot where they reside. The first is contrary to the inherent +principle that teaches man to preserve life by every possible means: +their attachment to their native soil, or rather their veneration for the +sepulchres of their ancestors, is so strong that to remove would cost +them a struggle almost equal to the pangs of death: necessity therefore, +the parent of art and industry, compels them to cultivate the earth. + +RATE OF PRODUCE. + +The produce of the grounds thus tilled is reckoned at thirty for one; +from those in the ordinary mode about a hundred fold on the average, the +ladangs yielding about eighty, and the sawahs a hundred and twenty. Under +favourable circumstances I am assured the rate of produce is sometimes so +high as a hundred and forty fold. The quantity sown by a family is +usually from five to ten bamboo measures or gallons. These returns are +very extraordinary compared with those of our wheat-fields in Europe, +which I believe seldom exceed fifteen, and are often under ten. To what +is this disproportion owing? to the difference of grain, as rice may be +in its nature extremely prolific? to the more genial influence of a +warmer climate? or to the earth's losing by degrees her fecundity from an +excessive cultivation? Rather than to any of these causes I am inclined +to attribute it to the different process followed in sowing. In England +the saving of labour and promoting of expedition are the chief objects, +and in order to effect these the grain is almost universally scattered in +the furrows; excepting where the drill has been introduced. The +Sumatrans, who do not calculate the value of their own labour or that of +their domestics on such occasions, make holes in the ground, as has been +described, and drop into each a few grains*; or, by a process still more +tedious, raise the seed in beds and then plant it out. Mr. Charles +Miller, in a paper published in the Philosophical Transactions, has shown +us the wonderful effects of successive transplantation. How far it might +be worth the English farmer's while to bestow more labour in the business +of sowing the grain, with the view of a proportionate increase in the +rate of produce, I am not competent, nor is it to my present purpose, to +form a judgment. Possibly as the advantage might be found to lie rather +in the quantity of grain saved in the sowing than gained in the reaping, +it would not answer his purpose; for although half the quantity of +seed-corn bears reciprocally the same proportion to the usual produce +that double the latter does to the usual allowance of seed, yet in point +of profit the scale is different. To augment this it is of much more +importance to increase the produce from a given quantity of land than to +diminish the quantity of grain necessary for sowing it. + +(*Footnote. In an address from the Bath Agricultural Society dated 12th +October 1795 it is strongly recommended to the cultivators of land (on +account of the then existing scarcity of grain) to adopt the method of +dibbling wheat. The holes to be made either by the common dibble, or with +an implement having four or more points in a frame, at the distance of +about four inches every way, and to the depth of an inch and a half; +dropping TWO grains into every hole. The man who dibbles is to move +backwards and to be followed by two or three women or children, who drop +in the grains. A bush-hurdle, drawn across the furrows by a single horse, +finishes the business. About six pecks of seed-wheat per acre are saved +by this method. The expense of dibbling, dropping, and covering is +reckoned in Norfolk at about six shillings per acre. Times Newspaper of +20th October 1795.) + +FERTILITY OF SOIL. + +Notwithstanding the received opinion of the fertility of what are called +the Malay Islands, countenanced by the authority of M. Poivre and other +celebrated writers, and still more by the extraordinary produce of grain, +as above stated, I cannot help saying that I think the soil of the +western coast of Sumatra is in general rather sterile than rich. It is +for the most part a stiff red clay, burned nearly to the state of a brick +where it is exposed to the influence of the sun. The small proportion of +the whole that is cultivated is either ground from which old woods have +been recently cleared, whose leaves had formed a bed of vegetable earth +some inches deep, or else ravines into which the scanty mould of the +adjoining hills has been washed by the annual torrents of rain. It is +true that in many parts of the coast there are, between the cliffs and +the sea-beach, plains varying in breadth and extent of a sandy soil, +probably left by the sea and more or less mixed with earth in proportion +to the time they have remained uncovered by the waters; and such are +found to prove the most favourable spots for raising the productions of +other parts of the world. But these are partial and insufficient proofs +of fertility. Every person who has attempted to make a garden of any kind +nor Fort Marlborough must well know how ineffectual a labour it would +prove to turn up with the spade a piece of ground adopted at random. It +becomes necessary for this purpose to form an artificial soil of dung, +ashes, rubbish, and such other materials as can be procured. From these +alone he can expect to raise the smallest supply of vegetables for the +table. I have seen many extensive plantations of coconut, pinang, lime, +and coffee-trees, laid out at a considerable expense by different +gentlemen, and not one do I recollect to have succeeded; owing as it +would seem to the barrenness of the soil, although covered with long +grass. These disappointments have induced the Europeans almost entirely +to neglect agriculture. The more industrious Chinese colonists, who work +the ground with indefatigable pains, and lose no opportunity of saving +and collecting manure, are rather more successful; yet have I heard one +of the most able cultivators among this people, who, by the dint of +labour and perseverance, had raised what then appeared to me a delightful +garden, designed for profit as well as pleasure, declare that his heart +was almost broken in struggling against nature; the soil being so +ungrateful that, instead of obtaining an adequate return for his trouble +and expense, the undertaking was likely to render him a bankrupt; and +which he would inevitably have been but for assistance afforded him by +the East India Company.* + +(*Footnote. Some particular plants, especially the tea, Key Sun used to +tell me he considered as his children: his first care in the morning and +his last in the evening was to tend and cherish them. I heard with +concern of his death soon after the first publication of this work, and +could have wished the old man had lived to know that the above small +tribute of attention had been paid to his merits as a gardener. In a +letter received from the late ingenious Mr. Charles Campbell, belonging +to the medical establishment of Fort Marlborough, whose communications I +shall have future occasion to notice, he writes on the 29th of March +1802: "I must not omit to say a word about my attempts to cultivate the +land. The result of all my labours in that way was disappointment almost +as heartbreaking as that of the unlucky Chinaman, whose example however +did not deter me. After many vexations I descended from the plains into +the ravines, and there met with the success denied me on the elevated +land. In one of these, through which runs a small rivulet emptying itself +into the lake of Dusun Besar, I attempted a plantation of coffee, where +there are now upwards of seven thousand plants firmly rooted and putting +out new leaves." this cultivation has since been so much increased as to +become an important article of commerce. It should at the same time be +acknowledged that our acquaintance with the central and eastern parts of +the island is very imperfect, and that much fertile land may be found +beyond the range of mountains.) + +The natives, it is true, without much or any cultivation raise several +useful trees and plants; but they are in very small quantities, and +immediately about their villages, where the ground is fertilised in spite +of their indolence by the common sweepings of their houses and streets +and the mere vicinity of their buildings. I have often had occasion to +observe in young plantations that those few trees which surrounded the +house of the owner or the hut of the keeper considerably over-topped +their brethren of the same age. Every person at first sight, and on a +superficial view of the Malayan countries, pronounces them the favourites +of nature where she has lavished her bounties with a profusion unknown in +other regions, and laments the infatuation of the people, who neglect to +cultivate the finest soil in the world. But I have scarcely known one +who, after a few years' residence, has not entirely altered his opinion. +Certain it is that in point of external appearance they may challenge all +others to comparison. In many parts of Sumatra, rarely trodden by human +foot, scenes present themselves adapted to raise the sublimest sentiments +in minds susceptible of the impression. But how rarely are they +contemplated by minds of that temper! and yet it is alone: + +For such the rivers dash their foaming tides, +The mountain swells, the vale subsides, +The stately wood detains the wandering sight, +And the rough barren rock grows pregnant with delight. + +Even when there ARE inhabitants, to how little purpose as it respects +them has she been profuse in ornament! In passing through places where my +fancy was charmed with more luxuriant, wild, and truly picturesque views +than I had ever before met with, I could not avoid regretting that a +country so captivating to the eye should be allotted to a race of people +who seem totally insensible of its beauties. But it is time to return +from this excursion and pursue the progress of the husbandman through his +remaining labours. + +MODES OF THRESHING. + +Different nations have adopted various methods of separating the grain +from the ear. The most ancient we read of was that of driving cattle over +the sheaves in order to trample it out. Large planks, blocks of marble, +heavy carriages, have been employed in later times for this end. In most +parts of Europe the flail is now in use, but in England begins to be +superseded by the powerful and expeditious but complicated threshing +machine. The Sumatrans have a mode differing from all these. The bunches +of padi in the ear being spread on mats, they rub out the grain between +and under their feet; supporting themselves in common for the more easy +performance of this labour by holding with their hands a bamboo placed +horizontally over their heads. Although, by going always unshod, their +feet are extremely callous, and therefore adapted to the exercise, yet +the workmen when closely tasked by their masters sometimes continue +shuffling till the blood issues from their soles. This is the universal +practice throughout the island. + +After treading out or threshing the next process is to winnow the corn +(mengirei), which is done precisely in the same manner as practised by +us. Advantage being taken of a windy day, it is poured out from the sieve +or fan; the chaff dispersing whilst the heavier grain falls to the +ground. This simple mode seems to have been followed in all ages and +countries, though now giving place, in countries where the saving of +labour is a principal object, to mechanical contrivances. + +In order to clear the grain from the husk, by which operation the padi +acquires the name of rice (bras), and loses one half of its measured +quantity, two bamboos of the former yielding only one of the latter, it +is first spread out in the sunshine to dry (jumur), and then pounded in +large wooden mortars (lesung) with heavy pestles (alu) made of a hard +species of wood, until the outer coat is completely separated from it, +when it is again fanned. This business falls principally to the lot of +the females of the family, two of whom commonly work at the same mortar. +In some places (but not frequently) it is facilitated by the use of a +lever, to the end of which a short pestle or pounder is fixed; and in +others by a machine which is a hollow cylinder or frustum of a cone, +formed of heavy wood, placed upon a solid block of the same diameter, the +contiguous surfaces of each being previously cut in notches or small +grooves, and worked backwards and forwards horizontally by two handles or +transverse arms; a spindle fixed in the centre of the lower cylinder +serving as an axis to the upper or hollow one. Into this the grain is +poured, and it is thus made to perform the office of the hopper at the +same time with that of the upper, or movable stone, in our mills. In +working it is pressed downwards to increase the friction, which is +sufficient to deprive the padi of its outer coating. + +The rice is now in a state for sale, exportation, or laying up. To render +it perfectly clean for eating, a point to which they are particularly +attentive, it is put a second time into a lesung of smaller size, and, +being sufficiently pounded without breaking the grains, it is again +winnowed by tossing it dexterously in a flat sieve until the pure and +spotless corns are separated from every particle of bran. They next wash +it in cold water and then proceed to boil it in the manner before +described. + +RICE AS AN ARTICLE OF TRADE. + +As an article of trade the Sumatran rice seems to be of a more perishable +nature than that of some other countries, the upland rice not being +expected to keep longer than twelve months, and the lowland showing signs +of decay after six. At Natal there is a practice of putting a quantity of +leaves of a shrub called lagundi (Vitex trifolia) amongst it in +granaries, or the holds of vessels, on the supposition of its possessing +the property of destroying or preventing the generation of weevils that +usually breed in it. In Bengal it is said the rice intended for +exportation is steeped in hot water whilst still in the husk, and +afterwards dried by exposure to the sun; owing to which precaution it +will continue sound for two or three years, and is on that account +imported for garrison store at the European settlements. If retained in +the state of padi it will keep very long without damaging.* The country +people lay it up unthreshed from the stalk and beat it out (as we render +their word tumbuk) from time to time as wanted for use or sale. + +(*Footnote. I have in my possession specimens of a variety of species +which were transmitted to me twelve years ago and are still perfectly +sound.) + +The price of this necessary of life differs considerably throughout the +island, not only from the circumstances of the season but according to +the general demand at the places where it is purchased, the degree of +industry excited by such demand, and the aptitude of the country to +supply it. The northern parts of the coast under the influence of the +Achinese produce large quantities; particularly Susu and Tampat-tuan, +where it is (or used to be) purchased at the rate of thirty bamboos +(gallons) for the Spanish dollar, and exported either to Achin or to the +settlement of Natal for the use of the Residency of Fort Marlborough. At +Natal also, and for the same ultimate destination, is collected the +produce of the small island of Nias, whose industrious inhabitants, +living themselves upon the sweet-potato (Convolvulus batatas), cultivate +rice for exportation only, encouraged by the demand from the English and +(what were) the Dutch factories. Not any is exported from Natal of its +actual produce; a little from Ayer Bungi; more from the extensive but +neglected districts of Pasaman and Masang, and many cargoes from the +country adjacent to Padang. Our pepper settlements to the northward of +Fort Marlborough, from Moco-moco to Laye inclusive, export each a small +quantity, but from thence southward to Kroi supplies are required for the +subsistence of the inhabitants, the price varying from twelve to four +bamboos according to the season. At our head settlement the consumption +of the civil and military establishments, the company's LABOURERS, +together with the Chinese and Malayan settlers, so much exceeds the +produce of the adjoining districts (although exempted from any obligation +to cultivate pepper) that there is a necessity for importing a quantity +from the islands of Java and Bally, and from Bengal about three to six +thousand bags annually.* + +(*Footnote. This has reference to the period between 1770 and 1780 +generally. So far as respects the natives there has been no material +alteration.) + +The rice called pulut or bras se-pulut (Oryza gelatinosa), of which +mention has been made in the list above, is in its substance of a very +peculiar nature, and not used as common food but with the addition of +coconut-kernel in making a viscous preparation called lemang, which I +have seen boiled in a green bamboo, and other juadahs or friandises. It +is commonly distinguished into the white, red, and black sorts, among +which the red appears to be the most esteemed. The black chiefly is +employed by the Chinese colonists at Batavia and Fort Marlborough in the +composition of a fermented liquor called bram or brum, of which the basis +is the juice extracted from a species of palm. + +COCONUT. + +The coconut-tree, kalapa, nior (Cocos nucifera), may be esteemed the next +important object of cultivation from the uses to which its produce is +applied; although by the natives of Sumatra it is not converted to such a +variety of purposes as in the Maldives and those countries where nature +has been less bountiful in other gifts. Its value consists principally in +the kernel of the nut, the consumption of which is very great, being an +essential ingredient in the generality of their dishes. From this also, +but in a state of more maturity, is procured the oil in common use near +the sea-coast, both for anointing the hair, in cookery, and for burning +in lamps. In the interior country other vegetable oils are employed, and +light is supplied by a kind of links made of dammar or resin. A liquor, +commonly known in India by the name of toddy, is extracted from this as +well as from other trees of the palm-kind. Whilst quite fresh it is sweet +and pleasant to the taste, and is called nira. After four and twenty +hours it acidulates, ferments, and becomes intoxicating, in which state +it is called tuak. Being distilled with molasses and other ingredients it +yields the spirit called arrack. In addition to these but of trifling +importance are the cabbage or succulent pith at the head of the tree, +which however can be obtained only when it is cut down, and the fibres of +the leaves, of which the natives form their brooms. The stem is never +used for building nor any carpenter's purposes in a country where fine +timber so much abounds. The fibrous substance of the husk is not there +manufactured into cordage, as in the west of India where it is known by +the name of coir; rattans and eju (a substance to be hereafter described) +being employed for that purpose. The shell of the nut is but little +employed as a domestic utensil, the lower class of people preferring the +bamboo and the labu (Cucurbita lagenaria) and the better sort being +possessed of coarse chinaware. If the filaments surrounding the stem are +anywhere manufactured into cloth, as has been asserted, it must be in +countries that do not produce cotton, which is a material beyond all +comparison preferable: besides that certain kind of trees, as before +observed, afford in their soft and pliable inner bark what may be +considered as a species of cloth ready woven to their hands. + +This tree in all its species, stages, fructification, and appropriate +uses has been so elaborately and justly described by many writers, +especially the celebrated Rumphius in his Herbarium Amboinense, and Van +Rheede in his Hortus Malabaricus, that to attempt it here would be an +unnecessary repetition, and I shall only add a few local observations on +its growth. Every dusun is surrounded with a number of fruit-bearing +trees, and especially the coconut where the soil and temperature will +allow them to grow, and, near the bazaars or sea-port towns, where the +concourse of inhabitants is in general much greater than in the country, +there are always large plantations of them to supply the extraordinary +demand. The tree thrives best in a low, sandy soil, near the sea, where +it will produce fruit in four or five years; whilst in the clayey ground +it seldom bears in less than seven to ten years. As you recede from the +coast the growth is proportionably slower, owing to the greater degree of +cold among the hills; and it must attain there nearly its full height +before it is productive, whereas in the plains a child can generally +reach its first fruit from the ground. Here, said a countryman at Laye, +if I plant a coconut or durian-tree I may expect to reap the fruit of it; +but in Labun (an inland district) I should only plant for my +great-grandchildren. In some parts where the land is particularly high, +neither these, the betel-nut, nor pepper-vines, will produce fruit at +all. + +It has been remarked by some writer that the date-bearing palm-tree and +the coconut are never found to flourish in the same country. However this +may hold good as a general assertion it is a fact that not one tree of +that species is known to grow in Sumatra, where the latter, and many +others of the palm kind, so much abound. All the small low islands which +lie off the western coast are skirted near the sea-beach so thickly with +coconut-trees that their branches touch each other, whilst the interior +parts, though not on a higher level, are entirely free from them. This +beyond a doubt is occasioned by the accidental floating of the nuts to +the shore, where they are planted by the hand of nature, shoot up, and +bear fruit; which, falling when it arrives at maturity, causes a +successive reproduction. Where uninhabited, as is the case with Pulo +Mego, one of the southernmost, the nuts become a prey to the rats and +squirrels unless when occasionally disturbed by the crews of vessels +which go thither to collect cargoes for market on the mainland. In the +same manner, as we are told by Flacourt,* they have been thrown upon a +coast of Madagascar and are not there indigenous; as I have been also +assured by a native. Yet it appears that the natives call it voaniou, +which is precisely the name by which it is familiarly known in Sumatra, +being buah-nior; and v being uniformly substituted for b, and f for p, in +the numerous Malayan words occurring in the language of the former +island. On the other hand the singular production to which the +appellation of sea-coconut (kalapa laut) has been given, and which is +known to be the fruit of a species of borassus growing in one of the +Seychelles Islands,** not far from Madagascar, are sometimes floated as +far as the Malayan coasts, where they are supposed to be natives of the +ocean and were held in high veneration for their miraculous effects in +medicine until, about the year 1772, a large cargo of them was brought to +Bencoolen by a French vessel, when their character soon fell with their +price. + +(*Footnote. Histoire de l'isle Madagascar page 127.) + +(*Footnote. See a particular description of the sea-coconut with plates +in the Voyage a la Nouvelle Guinee par Sonnerat page 3.) + +PINANG OR BETEL-NUT. + +The pinang (Areca catechu L.) or betel-nut-tree (as it is usually, but +improperly, called, the betel being a different plant) is in its mode of +growth and appearance not unlike the coconut. It is however straighter in +the stem, smaller in proportion to the height, and more graceful. The +fruit, of which the varieties are numerous (such as pinang betul, pinang +ambun, and pinang wangi), is in its outer coat about the size of a plum; +the nut something less than that of the nutmeg but rounder. This is eaten +with the leaf of the sirih or betel (Piper betel L.) a claiming plant +whose leaf has a strong aromatic flavour and other stimulating additions; +a practice that shall be hereafter described. Of both of these the +natives make large plantations. + +BAMBOO. + +In respect to its numerous and valuable uses the bambu or bamboo-cane +(Arundo bambos) holds a conspicuous rank amongst the vegetables of the +island, though I am not aware that it is anywhere cultivated for domestic +purposes, growing wild in most parts in great abundance. In the Batta +country, and perhaps some other inland districts, they plant a particular +species very thickly about their kampongs or fortified villages as a +defence against the attacks of an enemy; the mass of hedge which they +form being almost impenetrable. It grows in common to the thickness of a +man's leg, and some sorts to that of the thigh. The joints are from +fifteen to twenty inches asunder, and the length about twenty to forty +feet. In all manner of building it is the chief material, both in its +whole state, and split into laths and otherwise, as has already appeared +in treating of the houses of the natives; and the various other modes of +employing it will be noticed either directly or incidentally in the +course of the work. + +SUGAR-CANE. + +The sugar-cane (tubbu) is very generally cultivated, but not in large +quantities, and more frequently for the sake of chewing the juicy reed, +which they consider as a delicacy, than for the manufacture of sugar. Yet +this is not unattended to for home consumption, especially in the +northern districts. By the Europeans and Chinese large plantations have +been set on foot near Bencoolen, and worked from time to time with more +or less effect; but in no degree to rival those of the Dutch at Batavia, +from whence in time of peace the exportation of sugar (gula), sugar-candy +(gula batu) and arrack is very considerable. In the southern parts of the +island, and particularly in the district of Manna, every village is +provided with two or three machines of a peculiar construction for +squeezing the cane; but the inhabitants are content with boiling the +juice to a kind of syrup. In the Lampong country they manufacture from +the liquor yielded by a species of palm-tree a moist, clammy, imperfect +kind of sugar, called jaggri in most parts of India.* + +(*Footnote. This word is evidently the shakar of the Persians, the Latin +saccharum, and our sugar.) + +JAGGRI. + +This palm, named in Sumatra anau, and by the eastern Malays gomuto, is +the Borassus gomutus of Loureiro, the Saguerus pinnatus of the Batavian +Transactions, and the cleophora of Gaertner. Its leaves are long and +narrow and, though naturally tending to a point, are scarcely ever found +perfect, but always jagged at the end. The fruit grows in bunches of +thirty or forty together, on strings three or four feet long, several of +which hang from one shoot. In order to procure the nira or toddy (held in +higher estimation than that from the coconut-tree), one of these shoots +for fructification is cut off a few inches from the stem, the remaining +part is tied up and beaten, and an incision is then made, from which the +liquor distils into a vessel or bamboo closely fastened beneath. This is +replaced every twenty-four hours. The anau palm produces also (beside a +little sago) the remarkable substance called iju and gomuto, exactly +resembling coarse black horse-hair, and used for making cordage of a very +excellent kind, as well as for many other purposes, being nearly +incorruptible. It encompasses the stem of the tree, and is seemingly +bound to it by thicker fibres or twigs, of which the natives made pens +for writing. Toddy is likewise procured from the lontar or Borassus +flabellifer, the tala of the Hindus. + +SAGO. + +The rambiya, puhn sagu, or proper sago tree, is also of the palm kind. +Its trunk contains a farinaceous and glutinous pith that, being soaked, +dried, and granulated, becomes the sago of our shops, and has been too +frequently and accurately described (by Rumphius in particular, Volume 1 +chapters 17 and 18, and by M. Poivre) to need a repetition here. + +NIBONG. + +The nibong (Caryota urens), another species of palm, grows wild in such +abundance as not to need cultivation. The stem is tall, slender, and +straight, and, being of a hard texture on the outer part, it is much used +for posts in building the slight houses of the country, as well as for +paling of a stronger kind than the bamboo usually employed. Withinside it +is fibrous and soft and, when hollowed out, being of the nature of a +pipe, is well adapted to the purpose of gutters or channels to convey +water. The cabbage, as it is termed, or pith at the head of the tree (the +germ of the foliage) is eaten as a delicacy, and preferred to that of the +coconut. + +NIPAH. + +The nipah (Cocos nypa, Lour.) a low species of palm, is chiefly valuable +for its leaves, which are much used as thatch for the roofs of houses. +The pulpy kernels of the fruit (called buah atap) are preserved as a +sweetmeat, but are entirely without flavour. + +CYCAS. + +The paku bindu (Cycas circinalis) has the general appearance of a young, +or rather dwarf coconut-tree, and like that and the nibong produces a +cabbage that is much esteemed as a culinary vegetable. The tender shoots +are likewise eaten. The stem is short and knobby, the lower part of each +branch (if branches they may be called) prickly, and the blossom yellow. +The term paku, applied to it by the Malays, shows that they consider it +as partaking of the nature of the fern (filix) and Rumphius, who names it +Sayor calappa and Olus calappoides, describes it as an arborescent +species of osmunda. It is well depicted in Volume 1 table 22. + +MAIZE. + +The maize or turkey-corn (Zea mays), called jagong, though very generally +sown, is not cultivated in quantities as an article of food, excepting in +the Batta country. The ears are plucked whilst green, and, being slightly +roasted on the embers, are eaten as a delicacy. Chili or cayenne pepper +(capsicum), called improperly lada panjang or long pepper, and also lada +merah, red pepper, which, in preference to the common or black pepper, is +used in their curries and with almost every article of their food, always +finds a place in their irregular and inartificial gardens. To these +indeed their attention is very little directed, in consequence of the +liberality with which nature, unsolicited, supplies their wants. Turmeric +(curcuma) is a root of general use. Of this there are two kinds, the one +called kunyit merah, an indispensable ingredient in their curries, +pilaws, and sundry dishes; the other, kunyit tummu (a variety with +coloured leaves and a black streak running along the midrib) is esteemed +a good yellow dye, and is sometimes employed in medicine. Ginger (Amomum +zinziber) is planted in small quantities. Of this also there are two +kinds, alia jai (Zinziber majus) and alia padas (Zinziber minus), +familiarly called se-pade or se-pudde, from a word signifying that +pungent acrid taste in spices which we express by the vague term hot. The +tummu (Costus arabicus) and lampuyang (Amomum zerumbet) are found both in +the wild and cultivated state, being used medicinally; as is also the +galangale (Kaempferia galanga). The coriander, called katumbar, and the +cardamum, puah lako, grow in abundance. Of the puah (amomum) they reckon +many species, the most common of which has very large leaves, resembling +those of the plantain and possessing an aromatic flavour not unlike that +of the bay tree. The jintan or cumin-seed (cuminum) is sometimes an +ingredient in curries. Of the morunggei or kelor (Guilandina moringa L. +Hyperanthera moringa Wilden.), a tall shrub with pinnated leaves, the +root has the appearance, flavour, and pungency of the horse-radish, and +the long pods are dressed as a culinary vegetable; as are also the young +shoots of the pringgi (Cucurbita pepo) various sorts of the lapang or +cucumber, and of the lobak or radish. The inei or henna of the Arabians +(Lawsonia inermis) is a shrub with small light-green leaves, yielding an +expressed juice with which the natives tinge the nails of their hands and +feet. Ampalas (Delima sarmentosa and Ficus ampelos) is a shrub whose +blossom resembles that of our hawthorn in appearance and smell. Its leaf +has an extraordinary roughness, on which account it is employed to give +the last fine polish to carvings in wood ivory, particularly the handles +and sheaths of their krises, on which they bestow much labour. The leaf +of the sipit also, a climbing species of fig, having the same quality, is +put to the same use. Ganja or hemp (cannabis) is extensively cultivated, +not for the purpose of making rope, to which they never apply it, but to +make an intoxicating preparation called bang, which they smoke in pipes +along with tobacco. In other parts of India a drink is prepared by +bruising the blossoms, young leaves, and tender parts of the stalk. Small +plantations of tobacco, which the natives call tambaku, are met with in +every part of the country. The leaves are cut whilst green into fine +shreds, and afterwards dried in the sun. The species is the same as the +Virginian, and, were the quantity increased and people more expert in the +method of curing it, a manufacture and trade of considerable importance +might be established. + +PULAS TWINE. + +The kaluwi is a species of urtica or nettle of which excellent twine +called pulas is made. It grows to the height of about four feet, has a +stem imperfectly ligneous, without branches. When cut down, dried, and +beaten, the rind is stripped off and then twisted as we do the hemp. It +affords me great satisfaction to learn that the manufacture of rope from +this useful plant has lately attracted the attention of the Company's +Government, and that a considerable nursery of the kaluwi has been +established in the Botanic Garden at Calcutta, under the zealous and +active management of Dr. Roxburgh, who expresses his opinion that so soon +as a method shall be discovered of removing a viscid matter found to +adhere to the fibres the kaluwi hemp, or pulas, will supersede every +other material. The bagu-tree (Gnetum gnemon, L.) abounds on the southern +coast of the island, where its bark is beaten, like hemp, and the twine +manufactured from it is employed in the construction of large fishing +nets. The young leaves of the tree are dressed in curries. In the island +of Nias they make a twine of the baru-tree (Hibiscus tiliaceus), which is +afterwards woven into a coarse cloth for bags. From the pisang (musa) a +kind of sewing-thread is procured by stripping filaments from the midribs +of the leaves, as well as from the stem. In some places this thread is +worked in the loom. The kratau, a dwarf species of mulberry (morus, +foliis profunde incisis) is planted for the food of the silkworms, which +they rear, but not to any great extent, and the raw silk produced from +them seems of but an indifferent quality. The samples I have seen were +white instead of yellow, in large, flat cakes, which would require much +trouble to wind off, and the filaments appeared coarse; but this may be +partly occasioned by the method of loosening them from the bags, which is +by steeping them in hot water. Jarak (ricinus and Palma christi), from +whence the castor oil is extracted, grows wild in abundance: especially +near the sea-shore. Bijin (Sesamum indicum) is sown extensively in the +interior districts for the oil it produces, which is there used for +burning in place of the coconut-oil so common near the coast. + +ELASTIC GUM. + +In the description of the Urceola elastica, or caout-chouc-vine, of +Sumatra and Pulo Pinang, by Dr. W. Roxburgh, in the Asiatic Researches +Volume 5 page 167, he says, "For the discovery of this useful vine we +are, I believe, indebted to Mr. Howison, late surgeon at Pulo Pinang; but +it would appear he had no opportunity of determining its botanical +character. To Dr. Charles Campbell of Fort Marlborough we owe the +gratification arising from a knowledge thereof. About twelve months ago I +received from that gentleman, by means of Mr. Fleming, very complete +specimens, in full foliage, flower, and fruit. From these I was enabled +to reduce it to its class and order in the Linnean system. It forms new +genus immediately after tabernaemontana, and consequently belongs to the +class called contortae. One of the qualities of the plants of this order +is their yielding, on being cut, a juice which is generally milky, and +for the most part deemed of a poisonous nature." Of another plant, +producing a similar substance, I received the following information from +Mr. Campbell, in a letter dated in November, 1803: "You may remember a +trailing plant with a small yellowish flower and a seed vessel of an +oblong form, containing one seed; the whole plant resembling much the +caout-chouc. To this, finding it wholly nondescript, I have taken the +liberty to attach your name. It has no relationship to a genus yielding a +similar substance, of which I sent a specimen to Dr. Roxburgh at Bengal, +who published an account of it under the name of urceola. It is called +jintan by the Malays, and of its three species I have accurately +ascertained two, the jintan itam and jintan burong, the latter very rare. +Its leaves are of a deep glossy green, and the flowers lightly tinged +with a pale yellow; it belongs to the tetrandria, and is a handsome +plant--but more of this with the drawing." Unfortunately however neither +this drawing nor any part of his valuable collection of materials for +improving the natural history of that interesting country, which he +bequeathed to me by his will, have yet reached my hands. + +GUM. + +Mr. Charles Miller observed in the country near Bencoolen a gum exuding +spontaneously from the paty tree, which appeared very much to resemble +the gum-arabic; and, as they belong to the same genus of plants, he +thought it not improbable that this gum might be used for the same +purposes. In the list of new species by F. Norona (Batavian Transactions +Volume 5) he gives to the pete of Java the name of Acacia gigantea; which +I presume to be the same plant. + +PULSE. + +Kachang is a term applied to all sorts of pulse, of which a great variety +is cultivated; as the kachang china (Dolichos sinensis), kachang putih +(Dolichos katjang), k. ka-karah (D. lignosus), k. kechil (Phaseolus +radiatus), k. ka-karah gatal (Dolichos pruriens) and many others. The +kachang tanah (Arachis hypogaea) is of a different class, being the +granulose roots (or, according to some, the self-buried pods) of a herb +with a yellow, papilionaceous flower, the leaves of which have some +resemblance to the clover, but double only, and, like it, affords rice +pasture for cattle. The seeds are always eaten fried or parched, from +whence they obtain their common appellation of kachang goring. + +YAMS. + +The variety of roots of the yam and potato kind, under the general name +of ubi, is almost endless; the dioscorea being generally termed ubi +kechil (small), and the convolvulus ubi gadang (large); some of which +latter, of the sort called at Bencoolen the China-yam, weigh as much as +forty pounds, and are distinguished into the white and the purple. The +fruit of the trong (melongena), of which the egg-plant is one species, is +much eaten by the natives, split and fried. They are commonly known by +the name of brinjals, from the beringelhas of the Portuguese. + +DYE-STUFFS. + + +(PLATE 8. Marsdenia tinctoria, OR BROAD-LEAFED INDIGO. +E.W. Marsden delt. Swaine fct. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +INDIGO. + +Tarum or indigo (Indigofera tinctoria) being the principal dye-stuff they +employ, the shrub is always found in their planted spots; but they do not +manufacture it into a solid substance, as is the practice elsewhere. The +stalks and branches having lain for some days in water to soak and +macerate, they then boil it, and work among it with their hands a small +quantity of chunam (quick lime, from shells), with leaves of the paku +sabba (a species of fern) for fixing the colour. It is afterwards drained +off, and made use of in the liquid state. + +There is another kind of indigo, called in Sumatra tarum akar, which +appears to be peculiar to that country, and was totally unknown to +botanists to whom I showed the leaves upon my return to England in the +beginning of the year 1780. The common kind is known to have small +pinnated leaves growing on stalks imperfectly ligneous. This, on the +contrary, is a vine, or climbing plant, with leaves from three to five +inches in length, thin, of a dark green, and in the dried state +discoloured with blue stains. It yields the same dye as the former sort; +they are prepared also in the same manner, and used indiscriminately, no +preference being given to the one above the other, as the natives +informed me, excepting inasmuch as the tarum akar, by reason of the +largeness of the foliage, yields a greater proportion of sediment. +Conceiving it might prove a valuable plant in our colonies, and that it +was of importance in the first instance that its identity and class +should be accurately ascertained, I procured specimens of its +fructification, and deposited them in the rich and extensively useful +collection of my friend Sir Joseph Banks. In a paper on the Asclepiadeae, +highly interesting to botanical science, communicated by Mr. Robert Brown +(who has lately explored the vegetable productions of New Holland and +other parts of the East) to the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, and +printed in their Transactions, he has done me the honour of naming the +genus to which this plant belongs, MARSDENIA, and this particular species +Marsdenia tinctoria.* + +(*Footnote. 2. M. caule volubili, foliis cordatis ovato-oblongis +acuminatis glabriusculis basi antice glandulosis, thyrsis lateralibus, +fauce barbata. Tarram akkar Marsd. Sumat. page 78 edition 2 Hab. In +insula Sumatra. (v.s. in Herb. Banks.)) + +KASUMBA. + +Under the name of kasumba are included two plants yielding materials for +dyeing, but very different from each other. The kasumba (simply) or +kasumba jawa, as it is sometimes called, is the Carthamus tinctorius, of +which the flowers are used to produce a saffron colour, as the name +imports. The kasumba kling or galuga is the Bixa orellana, or arnotto of +the West Indies. Of this the capsule, about an inch in length, is covered +with soft prickles or hair, opens like a bivalve shell, and contains in +its cavities a dozen or more seeds, the size of grape-stones, thickly +covered with a reddish farina, which is the part that constitutes the +dye. + +Sapang, the Brazil-wood, (Caesalpinia sappan), whether indigenous or not, +is common in the Malayan countries. The heart of this being cut into +chips, steeped for a considerable time in water, and then boiled, is used +for dying here, as in other countries. The cloth or thread is repeatedly +dipped in this liquid, and hung to dry between each wetting till it is +brought to the shade required. To fix the colour alum is added in the +boiling. + +Of the tree called bangkudu in some districts, and in others mangkudu +(Morinda umbellata) the outward parts of the root, being dried, pounded, +and boiled in water, afford a red dye, for fixing which the ashes +procured from the stalks of the fruit and midribs of the leaves of the +coconut are employed. Sometimes the bark or wood of the sapang tree is +mixed with these roots. It is to be observed that another species of +bangkudu, +with broader leaves (Morinda citrifolia) does not yield any colouring +matter, but is, as I apprehend, the tree commonly planted in the Malayan +peninsula and in Pulo Pinang as a support to the pepper-vine. + +RED-WOOD. + +Ubar is a red-wood resembling the logwood (haematoxylon) of Honduras, and +might probably be employed for the same purpose. It is used by the +natives in tanning twine for fishing nets, and appears to be the okir or +Tanarius major of Rumphius, Volume 3 page 192, and Jambolifera rezinoso +of Lour. Fl. C. C. page 231. Their black dye is commonly made from the +coats of the mangostin-fruit and of the kataping (Terminalia catappa). +With this the blue cloth from the west of India is changed to a black, as +usually worn by the Malays of Menangkabau. It is said to be steeped in +mud in order to fix the colour. + +The roots of the chapada or champadak (Artocarpus integrifolia) cut into +chips and boiled in water produce a yellow dye. To strengthen the tint a +little turmeric (the kunyit tumma or variety of curcuma already spoken +of) is mixed with it, and alum to fix it; but as the yellow does not hold +well it is necessary that the operation of steeping and drying should be +frequently repeated. + + +CHAPTER 5. + +FRUITS, FLOWERS, MEDICINAL SHRUBS AND HERBS. + +FRUITS. + +Nature, says a celebrated writer,* seems to have taken a pleasure in +assembling in the Malayan countries her most favourite productions; and +with truth I think it may be affirmed that no region of the earth can +boast an equal abundance and variety of indigenous fruits; for although +the whole of those hereafter enumerated cannot be considered as such, yet +there is reason to conclude that the greater part may, for the natives, +who never appear to bestow the smallest labour in improving or even in +cultivating such as they naturally possess, can hardly be suspected of +taking the pains to import exotics. The larger number grow wild, and the +rest are planted in a careless, irregular manner about their villages. + +(*Footnote. Les terres possedees par les Malais, sont en general de tres +bonne qualite. La nature semble avoir pris plaisir d'y placer ses plus +excellentes productions. On y voit tous les fruits delicieux que j'ai dit +se trouver sur le territoire de Siam, et une multitude d'autres fruits +agreables qui sont particuliers a ces isles. On y respire un air embaume +par une multitude de fleurs agreables qui se succedent toute l'annee, et +dont l'odeur suave penetre jusqu'a l'ame, et inspire la volupte la plus +seduisante. Il n'est point de voyageur qui en se promenant dans les +campagnes de Malacca, ne se sente invite a fixer son sejour dans un lieu +si plein d'agremens, dont la nature seule a fait tous les frais. Voyages +d'un Philosophe par M. Poivre page 56.) + + +(PLATE 3. THE MANGUSTIN FRUIT, GARCINIA MANGOSTANA. +Engraved by J. Swaine. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +MANGUSTIN. + +The mangustin, called by the natives manggis and manggista (Garcinia +mangostana, L.) is the pride of these countries, to which it exclusively +belongs, and has, by general consent, obtained, in the opinion of +Europeans, the pre-eminence amongst Indian fruits. Its characteristic +quality is extreme delicacy of flavour, without being rich or luscious. +It is a drupe of a brownish-red colour, and the size of a common apple, +consisting of a thick rind, somewhat hard on the outside, but soft and +succulent within, encompassing kernels which are covered with a juicy and +perfectly white pulp, which is the part eaten, or, more properly, sucked, +for it dissolves in the mouth. Its qualities are as innocent as they are +grateful, and the fruit may be eaten in any moderate quantity without +danger of surfeit, or other injurious effects. The returns of its season +appeared to be irregular, and the periods short. + +DURIAN. + +The durian (Durio zibethinus) is also peculiar to the Malayan countries. +It is a rich fruit but strong and even offensive in taste as well as +smell, to those who are not accustomed to it, and of a very heating +quality; yet the natives (and others who fall into their habits) are +passionately addicted to it, and during the time of its continuing in +season live almost wholly upon its luscious and cream-like pulp; whilst +the rinds, thrown about in the bazaars, communicate their scent to the +surrounding atmosphere. The tree is large and lofty; the leaves are small +in proportion, but in themselves long and pointed. The blossoms grow in +clusters on the stem and larger branches. The petals are five, of a +yellowish-white, surrounding five branches of stamina, each bunch +containing about twelve, and each stamen having four antherae. The +pointal is knobbed at top. When the stamina and petal fall, the +empalement resembles a fungus, and nearly in shape a Scot's bonnet. The +fruit is in its general appearance not unlike the bread-fruit, but +larger, and its coat is rougher. + +BREAD-FRUIT. + +The sutun kapas, and sukun biji or kalawi, are two species of the +bread-fruit-tree (Artocarpus incisa). The former is the genuine, edible +kind, without kernels, and propagated by cuttings of the roots. Though by +no means uncommon, it is said not to be properly a native of Sumatra. The +kalawi, on the contrary, is in great abundance, and its bark supplies the +country people with a sort of cloth for their working dresses. The leaves +of both species are deeply indented, like those of the fig, but +considerably longer. The bread-fruit is cut in slices, and, being boiled +or broiled on the fire, is eaten with sugar, and much esteemed. It cannot +however be considered as an article of food, and I suspect that in +quality it is inferior to the bread-fruit of the South-Sea Islands. + +JACK-FRUIT. + +The Malabaric name of jacca, or the jack-fruit, is applied both to the +champadak or chapada (Artocarpus integrifolia, L. and Polyphema jaca, +Lour.) and to the nangka (Artocarpus integrifolia, L. and Polyphema +champeden, Lour). Of the former the leaves are smooth and pointed; of the +latter they are roundish, resembling those of the cashew. This is the +more common, less esteemed, and larger fruit, weighing, in some +instances, fifty or sixty pounds. Both grow in a peculiar manner from the +stem of the tree. The outer coat is rough, containing a number of seeds +or kernels (which, when roasted, have the taste of chestnuts) inclosed in +a fleshy substance of a rich, and, to strangers, too strong smell and +flavour, but which gains upon the palate. When the fruit ripens the +natives cover it with mats or the like to preserve it from injury by the +birds. Of the viscous juice of this tree they make a kind of birdlime: +the yellow wood is employed for various purposes, and the root yields a +dye-stuff. + +MANGO. + +The mango, called mangga and mampalam (Mangifera indica, L.) is well +known to be a rich, high-flavoured fruit of the plumb kind, and is found +here in great perfection; but there are many inferior varieties beside +the ambachang, or Mangifera foetida, and the tais. + +JAMBU. + +Of the jambu (eugenia, L.) there are several species, among which the +jambu merah or kling (Eugenia malaccensis) is the most esteemed for the +table, and is also the largest. In shape it has some resemblance to the +pear, but is not so taper near the stalk. The outer skin, which is very +fine, is tinged with a deep and beautiful red, the inside being perfectly +white. Nearly the whole substance is edible, and when properly ripe it is +a delicious fruit; but otherwise, it is spongy and indigestible. In smell +and even in taste it partakes much of the flavour of the rose; but this +quality belongs more especially to another species, called jambu ayer +mawar, or the rose-water jambu. Nothing can be more beautiful than the +blossoms, the long and numerous stamina of which are of a bright pink +colour. The tree grows in a handsome, regular, conical shape, and has +large, deep-green, pointed leaves. The jambu ayer (Eugenia aquea) is a +delicate and beautiful fruit in appearance, the colour being a mixture of +white and pink; but in its flavour, which is a faint, agreeable acid, it +does not equal the jambu merah. + +PLANTAIN. + +Of the pisang, or plantain (Musa paradisiaca, L.) the natives reckon +above twenty varieties, including the banana of the West Indies. Among +these the pisang amas, or small yellow plantain, is esteemed the most +delicate; and next to that the pisang raja, pisang dingen, and pisang +kalle. + +Pineapple. + +The nanas, or pineapple (Bromelia ananas), though certainly not +indigenous, grows here in great plenty with the most ordinary culture. +Some think them inferior to those produced from hothouses in England; but +this opinion may be influenced by the smallness of their price, which +does not exceed two or three pence. With equal attention it is probable +they might be rendered much superior, and their variety is considerable. +The natives eat them with salt. + +ORANGES. + +Oranges (limau manis) of many sorts, are in the highest perfection. That +called limau japan, or Japan orange, is a fine fruit, not commonly known +in Europe. In this the cloves adhere but slightly to each other, and +scarcely at all to the rind, which contains an unusual quantity of the +essential oil. The limau gadang, or pumple-nose (Citrus aurantium), +called in the West Indies the shaddock (from the name of the captain who +carried them thither), is here very fine, and distinguished into the +white and red sorts. Limes or limau kapas, and lemons, limau kapas +panjang, are in abundance. The natives enumerate also the limau langga, +limau kambing, limau pipit, limau sindi masam, and limau sindi manis. The +true citron, or limau karbau, is not common nor in esteem. + +GUAVA. + +The guava (Psidium pomiferum) called jambu biji, and also jambu protukal +(for Portugal, in consequence, as we may presume, of its having been +introduced by the people of that country) has a flavour which some +admire, and others equally dislike. The pulp of the red sort is sometimes +mixed with cream by Europeans, to imitate strawberries, from a fond +partiality to the productions of their native soil; and it is not +unusual, amidst a profusion of the richest eastern fruits, to sigh for an +English codling or gooseberry. + +CUSTARD-APPLE. + +The siri kaya, or custard-apple (Annona squamosa), derives its name from +the likeness which its white and rich pulp bears to a custard, and it is +accordingly eaten with a spoon. The nona, as it is called by the natives +(Annona reticulata), is another species of the same fruit, but not so +grateful to the taste. + +PAPAW. + +The kaliki, or papaw (Carica papaja), is a large, substantial, and +wholesome fruit, in appearance not unlike a smooth sort of melon, but not +very highly flavoured. The pulp is of a reddish yellow, and the seeds, +which are about the size of grains of pepper, have a hot taste like +cresses. The watermelon, called here samangka (Cucurbita citrullus) is of +very fine quality. The rock or musk-melons, are not common. + +TAMARIND. + +Tamarinds, called asam jawa, or the Javan acid, are the produce of a +large and noble tree, with small pinnated leaves, and supply a grateful +relief in fevers, which too frequently require it. The natives preserve +them with salt, and use them as an acid ingredient in their curries and +other dishes. It may be remarked that in general they are not fond of +sweets, and prefer many of their fruits whilst green to the same in their +ripe state. + + +(PLATE 4. THE RAMBUTAN, Nephelium lappaceum. +L. Wilkins delt. Engraved by J. Swaine. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +RAMBUTAN. + +The rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum, L. Mant.) is in appearance not much +unlike the fruit of the arbutus, but larger, of a brighter red, and +covered with coarser hair or soft spines, from whence it derives its +name. The part eaten is a gelatinous and almost transparent pulp +surrounding the kernel, of a rich and pleasant acid. + + +(PLATE 5. THE LANSEH FRUIT, Lansium domesticum. +L. Wilkins delt. Hooker Sc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810. + + +PLATE 6. THE RAMBEH FRUIT, A SPECIES OF LANSEH. +Maria Wilkins delt. Engraved by J. Swaine. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +LANSEH. + +The lanseh, likewise but little known to botanists, is a small oval +fruit, of a whitish-brown colour, which, being deprived of its thin outer +coat, divides into five cloves, of which the kernels are covered with a +fleshy pulp, subacid, and agreeable to the taste. The skin contains a +clammy juice, extremely bitter, and, if not stripped with care, it is apt +to communicate its quality to the pulp. M. Correa de Serra, in les +Annales du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle Tome 10 page 157 plate 7, has +given a description of the Lansium domesticum from specimens of the fruit +preserved in the collection of Sir Joseph Banks. The chupak, ayer-ayer, +and rambe are species or varieties of the same fruit. + +BLIMBING. + +Of the blimbing (Averrhoa carambola) a pentagonal fruit, containing five +flattish seeds, and extremely acid, there are two sorts, called penjuru +and besi. The leaves of the latter are small, opposite, and of a +sapgreen; those of the former grow promiscuously and are of a silver +green. There is also the blimbing bulu (Averrhoa billimbi), or smooth +species. Their uses are chiefly in cookery, and for purposes where a +strong acid is required, as in cleaning the blades of their krises and +bringing out the damask, for which they are so much admired. The cheremi +(Averrhoa acida) is nearly allied to the blimbing besi, but the fruit is +smaller, of an irregular shape, growing in clusters close to the branch, +and containing each a single hard seed or stone. It is a common +substitute for our acid fruits in tarts. + +KATAPING. + +The kataping (Terminalia catappa, L. and Juglans catappa, Lour.) +resembles the almond both in its outer husk and the flavour of its +kernel; but instead of separating into two parts, like the almond, it is +formed of spiral folds, and is developed somewhat like a rosebud, but +continuous, and not in distinct laminae. + +SPECIES OF CHESTNUT. + +The barangan (a species of fagus) resembles the chestnut. The tree is +large, and the nuts grow sometimes one, two, and three in a husk. The +jerring, a species of mimosa, resembles the same fruit, but is larger and +more irregularly shaped than the barangan. The tree is smaller. The tapus +(said to be a new genus belonging to the tricoccae) has likewise some +analogy, but more distant, to the chestnut. There are likewise three nuts +in one husk, forming in shape an oblong spheroid. If eaten unboiled they +are said to inebriate. The tree is large. + + +(PLATE 7. THE KAMILING OR BUAH KRAS, Juglans camirium. +L. Wilkins delt. Engraved by J. Swaine. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +KAMILING. + +The fruit named kamiri, kamiling, and more commonly buah kras, or the +hard fruit (Camirium cordifolium, Gaert. and Juglans camirium, Lour.) +bears much resemblance to the walnut in the flavour and consistence of +the kernel; but the shell is harder and does not open in the same manner. +The natives of the hills make use of it as a substitute for the coconut, +both in their cookery and for procuring a delicate oil. + +RATTAN. + +The rotan salak (Calamus zalacca, Gaert.) yields a fruit, the pulp of +which is sweetish, acidulous, and pleasant. Its outer coat, like those of +the other rotans, is covered with scales, or the appearance of nice +basket-work. It incloses sometimes one, two, and three kernels, of a +peculiar horny substance. + +CASHEW. + +The cashew-apple and nut, called jambu muniet, or monkey-jambu +(Anacardium occidentale), are well known for the strong acidity of the +former, and the caustic quality of the oil contained in the latter, from +tasting which the inexperienced often suffer. + +POMEGRANATE. + +The pomegranate or dalima (Punica granatum) flourishes here, as in all +warm climates. + +GRAPES, ETC. + +Grape-vines are planted with success by Europeans for their tables, but +not cultivated by the people of the country. There is found in the woods +a species of wild grape, called pringat (Vitis indica); and also a +strawberry, the blossom of which is yellow, and the fruit has little +flavour. Beside these there are many other, for the most part wild, +fruits, of which some boast a fine flavour, and others are little +superior to our common berries, but might be improved by culture. Such +are the buah kandis, a variety of garcinia (it should be observed that +buah, signifying fruit, is always prefixed to the particular name), buah +malaka (Phyllanthus emblica), rukam (Carissa spinarum), bangkudu or +mangkudu (Morinda citrifolia), sikaduduk (melastoma), kitapan (Callicarpa +japonica). + +FLOWERS. + +"You breathe in the country of the Malays (says the writer before quoted) +an air impregnated with the odours of innumerable flowers of the greatest +fragrance, of which there is a perpetual succession throughout the year, +the sweet flavour of which captivates the soul, and inspires the most +voluptuous sensations." Although this luxurious picture may be drawn in +too-warm tints it is not however without its degree of justness. The +people of the country are fond of flowers in the ornament of their +persons, and encourage their growth, as well as that of various +odoriferous shrubs and trees. + +KANANGA. + +The kananga (Uvaria cananga, L.) being a tree of the largest size, +surpassed by few in the forest, may well take the lead, on that account, +in a description of those which bear flowers. These are of a greenish +yellow, scarcely distinguishable from the leaves, among which the bunches +hang down in a peculiar manner. About sunset, if the evening be calm, +they diffuse a fragrance around that affects the sense at the distance of +some hundred yards. + +CHAMPAKA. + +Champaka (Michelia champaca). This tree grows in a regular, conical +shape, and is ornamental in gardens. The flowers are a kind of small +tulip, but close and pointed at top; their colour a deep yellow, the +scent strong, and at a distance agreeable. They are wrapped in the folds +of the hair, both by the women, and by young men who aim at gallantry. + +TANJONG. + +Bunga tanjong (Mimusops elengi, L.) A fair tree, rich in foliage, of a +dark green; the flowers small, radiated, of a yellowish white, and worn +in wreaths by the women; their scent, though exquisite at a distance, is +too powerful when brought nigh. The fruit is a drupe, containing a large +blackish flatted seed. + +GARDENIA. + +Sangklapa (Gardenia flore simplice). A handsome shrub with leaves of very +deep green, long-pointed; the flowers a pure white, without visible +stamina or pistil, the petals standing angularly to each other. It has +little or no scent. The pachah-piring (Gardenia florida, described by +Rumphius under the name of catsjopiri) is a grand white double flower, +emitting a pleasing and not powerful odour. + +HIBISCUS. + +The bunga raya (Hibiscus rosa sinensis) is a well-known shrub, with +leaves of a yellowish green, serrated and curled. Of one sort the flower +is red, yielding a juice of deep purple, and when applied to leather +produces a bright black, from whence its vulgar name of the shoe-flower. +Of another sort the blossom is white. They are without smell. + +PLUMERIA. + +Bunga or kumbang kamboja (Plumeria obtusa) is likewise named bunga +kubur-an, from its being always planted about graves. The flower is +large, white, yellow towards the centre, consisting of five simple, +smooth, +thick petals, without visible pistil or stamina, and yielding a strong +scent. The leaf of the tree is long, pointed, of a deep green, remarkable +in this, that round the fibres proceeding from the midrib run another set +near the edge, forming a handsome border. The tree grows in a stunted, +irregular manner, and even whilst young has a venerable antique +appearance. + +NYCTANTHES. + +The bunga malati and bunga malur (Nyctanthes sambac) are different names +for the same humble plant, called mugri in Bengal. It bears a pretty +white flower, diffusing a more exquisite fragrance, in the opinion of +most persons, than any other of which the country boasts. It is much worn +by the females; sometimes in wreaths, and various combinations, along +with the bunga tanjong, and frequently the unblown buds are strung in +imitation of rows of pearls. It should be remarked that the appellative +bunga, or flower, (pronounced bungo in the south-western parts of +Sumatra), is almost ever prefixed to the proper name, as buah is to +fruits. There is also the malati china (Nyctanthes multiflora); the +elegant bunga malati susun (Nyctanthes acuminata). + +PERGULARIA. + +And the celebrated bunga tonking (Pergularia odoratissima), whose +fascinating sweets have been widely dispersed in England by the +successful culture and liberal participation of Sir Joseph Banks. At +Madras it obtained the appellation of West-coast, i.e. Sumatran, creeper, +which marks the quarter from whence it was obtained. At Bencoolen the +same appellation is familiarly applied to the bunga tali-tali (Ipomoea +quamoclit), a beautiful, little, monopetalous flower, divided into five +angular segments, and closing at sunset. From its bright crimson colour +it received from Rumphius the name of Flos cardinalis. The plant is a +luxuriant creeper, with a hairlike leaf. + +Pavetta indica, ETC. + +The angsuka, or bunga jarum-jarum (Pavetta indica), obtained from +Rumphius, on account of the glowing red colour of its long calices, the +name of flamma sylvarum peregrina. The bunga marak (Poinciana +pulcherrima) is a most splendid flower, the colours being a mixture of +yellow and scarlet, and its form being supposed to resemble the crest of +the peacock, from whence its Malayan name, which Rumphius translated. The +nagasari (Calophyllum nagassari) bears a much admired blossom, well known +in Bengal; but in the upper parts of India, called nagakehsir, and in +the Batavian Transactions Acacia aurea. The bakong, or salandap (Crinum +asiaticum), is a plant of the lily kind, with six large, white, +turbinated petals of an agreeable scent. It grows wild near the beach +amongst those plants which bind the loose sands. Another and beautiful +species of the bakong has a deep shade of purple mixed with the white. +The kachubong (Datura metel) appears also to flourish mostly by the +seaside. It bears a white infundibuliform flower, rather pentagonal than +round, with a small hook at each angle. The leaves are dark green, +pointed, broad and unequal at the bottom. The fruit is shaped like an +apple, very prickly, and full of small seeds. Sundal malam or harlot of +the night (Polyanthes tuberosa) is so termed from the circumstance of its +diffusing its sweet odours at that season. It is the tuberose of our +gardens, but growing with great vigour and luxuriance. The bunga mawur +(Rosa semperflorens, Curtis, Number 284), is small and of a deep crimson +colour. Its scent is delicate and by no means so rich as that yielded by +the roses of our climate. The Amaranthus cristatus (Celosia castrensis, +L.) is probably a native, being found commonly in the interior of the +Batta country, where strangers have rarely penetrated. The various +species of this genus are called by the general name of bayam, of which +some are edible, as before observed. + +PANDAN. + +Of the pandan (pandanus), a shrub with very long prickly leaves, like +those of the pineapple or aloe, there are many varieties, of which some +are highly fragrant, particularly the pandan wangi (Pandanus +odoratissima, L.), which produces a brownish white spath or blossom, one +or two feet in length. This the natives shred fine and wear about their +persons. The pandan pudak, or keura of Thunberg, which is also fragrant, +I have reason to believe the same as the wangi. The common sort is +employed for hedging and called caldera by Europeans in many parts of +India. In the Nicobar islands it is cultivated and yields a fruit called +the melori, which is one of the principle articles of food. + +EPIDENDRA. + +Bunga anggrek (epidendrum). The species or varieties of this remarkable +tribe of parasitical plants are very numerous, and may be said to exhibit +a variety of loveliness. Kaempfer describes two kinds by the names of +angurek warna and katong'ging; the first of which I apprehend to be the +anggrek bunga putri (Angraecum scriptum, R.) and the other the anggrek +kasturi (Angraecum moschatum, R.) or scorpion-flower, from its resembling +that insect, as the former does the butterfly. The musky scent resides at +the extremity of the tail.* + +(*Footnote. Habetur haec planta apud Javanos in deliciis et magno studio +colitur; tum ob floris eximium odorem, quem spirat, moschi, tum ob +singularem elegantiam et figuram scorpionis, quam exhibet...spectaculo +sane jocundissimo, ut negem quicquam elegantius et admiratione dignius in +regno vegetabili me vidisse...Odorem flos moschi exquisitissimum atque +adeo copiosum spargit, ut unicus stylus floridus totum conclave impleat. +Qui vero odor, quod maxi me mireris, in extrema parte petali caudam +referentis, residet; qua abicissa, omnis cessat odoris expiratio. Amoen +exoticae, page 868.) + +WATER-LILIES, ETC. + +The bunga tarati or seruja (Nymphaea nelumbo) as well as several other +beautiful kinds of aquatic plants are found upon the inland waters of +this country. Daun gundi or tabung bru (Nepenthes destillatoria) can +scarcely be termed a flower, but is a very extraordinary climbing plant. +From the extremity of the leaf a prolongation of the mid-rib, resembling +the tendril of a vine, terminates in a membrane formed like a tankard +with the lid or valve half opened; and growing always nearly erect, it is +commonly half full of pure water from the rain or dews. This monkey-cup +(as the Malayan name implies) is about four or five inches long and an +inch in diameter. Giring landak (Crotalaria retusa) is a papilionaceous +flower resembling the lupin, yellow, and tinged at the extremities with +red. From the rattling of its seed in the pod it obtains its name, which +signifies porcupine-bells, alluding to the small bells worn about the +ankles of children. The daup (bauhinia) is a small, white, semiflosculous +flower, with a faint smell. The leaves alone attract notice, being +double, as if united by a hinge, and this peculiarity suggested the +Linnean name, which was given in compliment to two brothers of the name +of Bauhin, celebrated botanists, who always worked conjointly. + +To the foregoing list, in every respect imperfect, many interesting +plants might be added by an attentive and qualified observer. The natives +themselves have a degree of botanical knowledge that surprises Europeans. +They are in general, and at a very early age, acquainted not only with +the names, but the properties of every shrub and herb amongst that +exuberant variety with which the island is clothed. They distinguish the +sexes of many plants and trees, and divide several of the genera into as +many species as our professors. Of the paku or fern I have had specimens +brought to me of twelve sorts, which they told me were not the whole, and +to each they gave a distinct name. + +MEDICINAL HERBS. + +Some of the shrubs and herbs employed medicinally are as follows. +Scarcely any of them are cultivated, being culled from the woods or +plains as they happen to be wanted. + +Lagundi (Vitex trifolia, L.) The botanic characters of this shrub are +well known. The leaves, which are bitter and pungent rather than +aromatic, are considered as a powerful antiseptic, and are employed in +fevers in the place of Peruvian bark. They are also put into granaries +and among cargoes of rice to prevent the destruction of the grain by +weevils. + +Katupong resembles the nettle in growth, in fruit the blackberry. I have +not been able to identify it. The leaf, being chewed, is used in dressing +small fresh wounds. + +Siup, a kind of wild fig, is applied to the scurf or leprosy of the Nias +people, when not inveterate. + +Sikaduduk (melastoma) has the appearance of a wild rose. A decoction of +its leaves is used for the cure of a disorder in the sole of the foot, +called maltus, resembling the impetigo or ringworm. + +Ampadu-bruang or bear's gall (brucea, foliis serratis) is the lussa raja +of Rumphius, excessively bitter, and applied in infusion for the relief +of disorders in the bowels. + +Kabu (unknown). Of this the bark and root are used for curing the kudis +or itch, by rubbing it on the part affected. + +Marampuyan (a new genus). The young shoots of this, being supposed to +have a refreshing and corroborating quality, are rubbed over the body and +limbs after violent fatigue. + +Mali-mali (unknown). The leaf of this plant, which bears a white +umbellated blossom, is applied to reduce swellings. + +Chapo (Conyza balsamifera) resembles the sage (salvia) in colour, smell, +taste, and qualities, but grows to the height of six feet, has a long +jagged leaf, and its blossom resembles that of groundsel. + +Murribungan (unknown). The leaves of this climber are broad, roundish, +and smooth. The juice of its stalk is applied to heal excoriations of the +tongue. + +Ampi-ampi (unknown). A climbing plant with leaves resembling the box, and +a small flosculous blossom. It is used as a medicine in fevers. + +Kadu (species of piper), with a leaf in shape and taste resembling the +betel. It is burned to preserve children newly born from the influence of +evil spirits. + +Gumbai (unknown). A shrub with monopetalous, stillated, purple flowers, +growing in tufts. The leaves are used in disorders of the bowels. + +Tabulan bukan (unknown). A shrub bearing a semiflosculous blossom, +applied to the cure of sore eyes. + +Kachang prang (Dolichos ensiformis). The pods of this are of a huge size, +and the beans, of a fine crimson colour, are used in diseases of the +pleura. + +Sipit, a species of fig, with a large oval leaf, rough to the touch, and +rigid. An infusion of it is swallowed in iliac affections. + +Daun se-dingin (Cotyledon laciniata). This leaf, as the name denotes, is +of a remarkably cold quality. It is applied to the forehead to cure the +headache, and sometimes to the body in fevers. + +Long pepper (Piper longum) is used medicinally. + +Turmeric, also, mixed with rice reduced to powder and then formed into a +paste, is much used outwardly in cases of colds and pains in the bones; +and chunam or quick-lime is likewise commonly rubbed on parts of the body +affected with pain. + +In the cure of the kura or boss (from the Portuguese word baco), which is +an obstruction of the spleen, forming a hard lump in the upper part of +the abdomen, a decoction of the following plants is externally applied: +sipit tunggul; madang tandok (a new genus, highly aromatic); ati ayer +(species of arum ?) tapa besi; paku tiong (a most beautiful fern, with +leaves like a palm; genus not ascertained); tapa badak (a variety of +callicarpa); laban (Vitex altissima); pisang ruko (species of musa); and +paku lamiding (species of polypodium ?); together with a juice extracted +from the akar malabatei (unknown). + +In the cure of the kurap, tetter or ringworm, they apply the daun +galinggan (Cassia quadri-alata) a herbaceous shrub with large pinnated +leaves and a yellow blossom. In the more inveterate cases, barangan +(coloured arsenic, or orpiment), a strong poison, is rubbed in. + +The milky exsudation from the sudu-sudu (Euphorbia neriifolia) is valued +highly by the natives for medicinal purposes. Its leaves eaten by sheep +or goats occasion present death. + +UPAS TREE. + +On the subject of the puhn upas or poison tree (Arbor toxicaria, R.), of +whose properties so extraordinary an account was published in the London +Magazine for September 1785 by Mr. N.P. Foersch, a surgeon in the service +of the Dutch East India Company, at that time in England, I shall quote +the observations of the late ingenious Mr. Charles Campbell, of the +medical establishment at Fort Marlborough. "On my travels in the country +at the back of Bencoolen I found the upas tree, about which so many +ridiculous tales have been told. Some seeds must by this time have +arrived in London in a packet I forwarded to Mr. Aiton at Kew. The poison +is certainly deleterious, but not in so terrific a degree as has been +represented. Some of it in an inspissated state you will receive by an +early opportunity. As to the tree itself, it does no manner of injury to +those around it. I have sat under its shade, and seen birds alight upon +its branches; and as to the story of grass not growing beneath it, +everyone who has been in a forest must know that grass is not found in +such situations." For further particulars respecting this poison-tree, +which has excited so much interest, the reader is referred to Sir George +Staunton's Account of Lord Macartney's Embassy Volume 1 page 272; to +Pennant's Outlines of the Globe Volume 4 page 42, where he will find a +copy of Foersch's original narrative; and to a Dissertation by Professor +C.P. Thunberg upon the Arbor toxicaria Macassariensis, in the Mem. of the +Upsal Acad. for 1788. The information given by Rumphius upon the subject +of the Ipo or Upas, in his Herb. Amboin. Volume 2 page 263, will also be +perused with satisfaction.* It is evident that some of the exaggerated +stories related to him by the people of Celebes (the plant not being +indigenous at Amboina) suggested to Mr. Foersch, the fables with which he +amused the world. + +(*Footnote. Since the above was written I have seen the Dissertation sur +les Effets d'un Poison de Java, appele Upas tieute, etc.; presentee a la +Faculte de Medicine de Paris le 6 Juillet 1809, par M. Alire +Raffeneau-Delile, in which he details a set of curious and interesting +experiments on this very active poison, made with specimens brought from +Java by M. Leschenault; and also a second dissertation, in manuscript +(presented to the Royal Society), upon the effects of similar experiments +made with what he terms the upas antiar. The former he states to be a +decoction or extract from the bark of the roots of a climbing plant of +the genus strychnos, called tieute by the natives of Java; and the latter +to be a milky, bitter, and yellowish juice, running from an incision in +the bark of a large tree (new genus) called antiar; the word upas +meaning, as M. Leschenault understands, vegetable poison of any kind. A +small branch of the puhn upas, with some of the poisonous gum, was +brought to England in 1806 by Dr. Roxburgh, who informed Mr. Lambert that +a plant of it which he had procured from Sumatra was growing rapidly in +the Company's Botanic Garden at Calcutta. A specimen of the gum, by the +favour of the latter gentleman, is in my possession.) + + +CHAPTER 6. + +BEASTS. +REPTILES. +FISH. +BIRDS. +INSECTS. + +BEASTS. + +The animal kingdom claims attention, but, the quadrupeds of the island +being in general the same as are found elsewhere throughout the East, +already well described, I shall do little more than furnish a list of +those which have occurred to my notice; adding a few observations on such +as may appear to require them. + +BUFFALO. + +The karbau, or buffalo, constituting a principal part of the food of the +natives, and, being the only animal employed in their domestic labours, +it is proper that I should enter into some detail of its qualities and +uses; although it may be found not to differ materially from the buffalo +of Italy, and to be the same with that of Bengal. The individuals of the +species, as is the case with other domesticated cattle, differ extremely +from each other in their degree of perfection, and a judgment is not to +be formed of the superior kinds, from such as are usually furnished as +provision to the ships from Europe. They are distinguished into two +sorts; the black and the white. Both are equally employed in work, but +the latter is seldom killed for food, being considered much inferior in +quality, and by many as unwholesome, occasioning the body to break out in +blotches. If such be really the effect, it may be presumed that the light +flesh-colour is itself the consequence of some original disorder, as in +the case of those of the human species who are termed white negroes. The +hair upon this sort is extremely thin, scarcely serving to cover the +hide; nor have the black buffaloes a coat like the cattle of England. The +legs are shorter than those of the ox, the hoofs larger, and the horns +are quite peculiar, being rather square or flat than round, excepting +near the extremities; and whether pointing backward, as in general, or +forwards, as they often do, are always in the plane of the forehead, and +not at an angle, as those of the cow-kind. They contain much solid +substance, and are valuable in manufacture. The tail hangs down to the +middle joint of the leg only, is small, and terminates in a bunch of +hair. The neck is thick and muscular, nearly round, but somewhat flatted +at top, and has little or no dewlap dependant from it. The organ of +generation in the male has an appearance as if the extremity were cut +off. It is not a salacious animal. The female goes nine months with calf, +which it suckles during six, from four teats. When crossing a river it +exhibits the singular sight of carrying its young one on its back. It has +a weak cry, in a sharp tone, very unlike the lowing of oxen. The most +part of the milk and butter required for the Europeans (the natives not +using either) is supplied by the buffalo, and its milk is richer than +that of the cow, but not yielded in equal quantity. What these latter +produce is also very small compared with the dairies of Europe. At +Batavia, likewise, we are told that their cows are small and lean, from +the scantiness of good pasture, and do not give more than about an +English quart of milk, sixteen of which are required to make a pound of +butter. + +The inland people, where the country is tolerably practicable, avail +themselves of the strength of this animal to draw timber felled in the +woods: the Malays and other people on the coast train them to the draft, +and in many places to the plough. Though apparently of a dull, obstinate, +capricious nature, they acquire from habit a surprising docility, and are +taught to lift the shafts of the cart with their horns, and to place the +yoke, which is a curved piece of wood attached to the shafts, across +their necks; needing no further harness than a breast-band, and a string +that is made to pass through the cartilage of the nostrils. They are +also, for the service of Europeans, trained to carry burdens suspended +from each side of a packsaddle, in roads, or rather paths, where +carriages cannot be employed. It is extremely slow, but steady in its +work. The labour it performs, however, falls short of what might be +expected from its size and apparent strength, any extraordinary fatigue, +particularly during the heat of the day, being sufficient to put a period +to its life, which is at all times precarious. The owners frequently +experience the loss of large herds, in a short space of time, by an +epidemic distemper, called bandung (obstruction), that seizes them +suddenly, swells their bodies, and occasions, as it is said, the serum of +the blood to distil through the tubes of the hairs. + +The luxury of the buffalo consists in rolling itself in a muddy pool, +which it forms, in any spot, for its convenience, during the rainy +season. This it enjoys in a high degree, dexterously throwing with its +horn the water and slime, when not of a sufficient depth to cover it, +over its back and sides. Their blood is perhaps of a hot temperature, +which may render this indulgence, found to be quite necessary to their +health, so desirable to their feelings; and the mud, at the same time, +forming a crust upon their bodies, preserves them from the attack of +insects, which otherwise prove very troublesome. Their owners light fires +for them in the evening, in order that the smoke may have the same +effect, and they have the instinctive sagacity to lay themselves down to +leeward, that they may enjoy its full benefit. + +Although common in every part of the country, they are not understood to +exist in the proper wild or indigenous state, those found in the woods +being termed karbau jalang, or stray buffaloes, and considered as the +subject of property; or if originally wild, they may afterwards, from +their use in labour and food, have been all caught and appropriated by +degrees. They are gregarious, and usually found in large numbers +together, but sometimes met with singly, when they are more dangerous to +passengers. Like the turkey and some other animals they have an antipathy +to a red colour, and are excited by it to mischief. When in a state of +liberty they run with great swiftness, keeping pace with the speed of an +ordinary horse. Upon an attack or alarm they fly to a short distance, and +then suddenly face about and draw up in battle-array with surprising +quickness and regularity; their horns being laid back, and their muzzles +projecting. Upon the nearer approach of the danger that presses on them +they make a second flight, and a second time halt and form; and this +excellent mode of retreat, which but few nations of the human race have +attained to such a degree of discipline as to adopt, they continue till +they gain the fastnesses of a neighbouring wood. Their principal foe, +next to man, is the tiger; but only the weaker sort, and the females fall +a certain prey to this ravager, as the sturdy male buffalo can support +the first vigorous stroke from the tiger's paw, on which the fate of the +battle usually turns. + +COW. + +The cow, called sapi (in another dialect sampi) and jawi, is obviously a +stranger to the country, and does not appear to be yet naturalized. The +bull is commonly of what is termed the Madagascar breed, with a large +hump upon the shoulders, but from the general small size of the herds I +apprehend that it degenerates, from the want of good pasture, the +spontaneous production of the soil being too rank. + +THE HORSE. + +The horse, kuda: the breed is small, well made, and hardy. The country +people bring them down in numbers for sale in nearly a wild state; +chiefly from the northward. In the Batta country they are eaten as food; +which is a custom also amongst the people of Celebes. + +SHEEP, ETC. + +Sheep, biri-biri and domba: small breed, introduced probably from Bengal. + + +(PLATE 11a. n.2. +1. SKULL OF THE KAMBING-UTAN. +2. SKULL OF THE KIJANG. +W. Bell delt. A. Cardon sc.) + + +(PLATE 14. n.1. THE KAMBING-UTAN, OR WILD-GOAT. +W. Bell delt.) + + +Goat, kambing: beside the domestic species, which is in general small and +of a light brown colour, there is the kambing utan, or wild goat. One +which I examined was three feet in height, and four in the length of the +body. It had something of the gazelle in its appearance, and, with the +exception of the horns, which were about six inches long and turned back +with an arch, it did not much resemble the common goat. The hinder parts +were shaped like those of a bear, the rump sloping round off from the +back; the tail was very small, and ended in a point; the legs clumsy; the +hair along the ridge of the back rising coarse and strong, almost like +bristles; no beard; over the shoulder was a large spreading tuft of +greyish hair; the rest of the hair black throughout; the scrotum +globular. Its disposition seemed wild and fierce, and it is said by the +natives to be remarkably swift. + +Hog, babi: that breed we call Chinese. + +The wild hog, babi utan. + +Dog, anjing: those brought from Europe lose in a few years their +distinctive qualities, and degenerate at length into the cur with erect +ears, kuyu, vulgarly called the pariah dog. An instance did not occur of +any one going mad during the period of my residence. Many of them are +affected with a kind of gonorrhoea. + + +(PLATE 11. n.1. THE ANJING-AYER, Mustela lutra. +W. Bell delt. A. Cardon fc.) + + +(PLATE 13a. n.2. THE ANJING-AYER. +Sinensis delt. A. Cardon fc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +Otter, anjing ayer (Mustela lutra). + +Cat, kuching: these in every respect resemble our common domestic cat, +excepting that the tails of all are more or less imperfect, with a knob +or hardness at the end, as if they had been cut or twisted off. In some +the tail is not more than a few inches in length, whilst in others it is +so nearly perfect that the defect can be ascertained only by the touch. + +Rat, tikus: of the grey kind. + +Mouse, tikus kechil. + +ELEPHANT. + +Elephant, gajah: these huge animals abound in the woods, and from their +gregarious habits usually traversing the country in large troops +together, prove highly destructive to the plantations of the inhabitants, +obliterating the traces of cultivation by merely walking through the +grounds; but they are also fond of the produce of their gardens, +particularly of plantain-trees and the sugar-cane, which they devour with +eagerness. This indulgence of appetite often proves fatal to them, for +the owners, knowing their attachment to these vegetables, have a practice +of poisoning some part of the plantation, by splitting the canes and +putting yellow arsenic into the clefts which the animal unwarily eats of, +and dies. Not being by nature carnivorous, the elephants are not fierce, +and seldom attack a man but when fired at or otherwise provoked. +Excepting a few kept for state by the king of Achin, they are not tamed +in any part of the island. + +RHINOCEROS. + +The rhinoceros, badak, both that with a single horn and the double-horned +species, are natives of these woods. The latter has been particularly +described by the late ingenious Mr. John Bell (one of the pupils of Mr. +John Hunter) in a paper printed in Volume 83 of the Philosophical +Transactions for 1793. The horn is esteemed an antidote against poison, +and on that account formed into drinking cups. I do not know anything to +warrant the stories told of the mutual antipathy and the desperate +encounters of these two enormous beasts. + +HIPPOPOTAMUS. + +Hippopotamus, kuda ayer: the existence of this quadruped in the island of +Sumatra having been questioned by M. Cuvier, and not having myself +actually seen it, I think it necessary to state that the immediate +authority upon which I included it in the list of animals found there was +a drawing made by Mr. Whalfeldt, an officer employed on a survey of the +coast, who had met with it at the mouth of one of the southern rivers, +and transmitted the sketch along with his report to the government, of +which I was then secretary. Of its general resemblance to that well-known +animal there could be no doubt. M. Cuvier suspects that I may have +mistaken for it the animal called by naturalists the dugong, and vulgarly +the sea-cow, which will be hereafter mentioned; and it would indeed be a +grievous error to mistake for a beast with four legs, a fish with two +pectoral fins serving the purposes of feet; but, independently of the +authority I have stated, the kuda ayer, or river-horse, is familiarly +known to the natives, as is also the duyong (from which Malayan word the +dugong of naturalists has been corrupted); and I have only to add that, +in a register given by the Philosophical Society of Batavia in the first +Volume of their Transactions for 1799, appears the article "couda aijeer, +rivier paard, hippopotamus" amongst the animals of Java. + +BEAR, ETC. + +Bear, bruang: generally small and black: climbs the coconut-trees in +order to devour the tender part or cabbage. + + +(PLATE 12. n.1. THE PALANDOK, A DIMINUTIVE SPECIES OF MOSCHUS. +Sinensis delt. A. Cardon fc.) + + +(PLATE 12a. n.2. THE KIJANG OR ROE, Cervus muntjak. +W. Bell delt. A. Cardon sc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +Of the deer kind there are several species: rusa, the stag, of which some +are very large; kijang, the roe, with unbranched horns, the emblem of +swiftness and wildness with the Malayan poets; palandok, napu, and +kanchil, three varieties, of which the last is the smallest, of that most +delicate animal, termed by Buffon the chevrotin, but which belong to the +moschus. Of a kanchil measured at Batavia the extreme length was sixteen +inches, and the height ten behind, and eight at the shoulder. + +Babi-rusa, or hog-deer: an animal of the hog kind, with peculiar tusks +resembling horns. Of this there is a representation in Valentyn, Volume 3 +page 268 fig. c., and also in the very early travels of Cosmas, published +in Thevenot's Collect. Volume 1 page 2 of the Greek Text. + +The varieties of the monkey tribe are innumerable: among them the best +known are the muniet, karra, bru, siamang (or simia gibbon of Buffon), +and lutong. With respect to the appellation of orang utan, or wild man, +it is by no means specific, but applied to any of these animals of a +large size that occasionally walks erect, and bears the most resemblance +to the human figure. + +Sloth, ku-kang, ka-malas-an (Lemur tardigradus). + +Squirrel, tupei; usually small and dark-coloured. + +Teleggo, stinkard. + +TIGER. + +Tiger, arimau, machang: this beast is here of a very large size, and +proves a destructive foe to man as well as to most other animals. The +heads being frequently brought in to receive the reward given by the East +India Company for killing them, I had an opportunity of measuring one, +which was eighteen inches across the forehead. Many circumstances +respecting their ravages, and the modes of destroying them, will occur in +the course of the work. + +Tiger-cat, kuching-rimau (said to feed on vegetables as well as flesh). + +Civet-cat, tanggalong (Viverra civetta): the natives take the civet, as +they require it for use, from a peculiar receptacle under the tail of the +animal. It appears from the Ayin Akbari (Volume 1 page 103) that the +civet used at Delhi was imported from Achin. + + +(PLATE 9a. THE MUSANG, A SPECIES OF VIVERRA. +W. Bell delt. A. Cardon fc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +Polecat, musang (Viverra fossa, or a new species). + + +(PLATE 13. n.1. THE LANDAK, Hystrix longicauda. +Sinensis delt. A. Cardon fc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +Porcupine (Hystrix longicauda) landak, and, for distinction, babi landak. + +Hedgehog (erinaceus) landak. + + +(PLATE 10. THE TANGGILING OR PENG-GOLING-SISIK, A SPECIES OF MANIS. +W. Bell delt. A. Cardon fct. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +PENG-GOLING. + +Peng-goling, signifying the animal which rolls itself up; or pangolin of +Buffon: this is distinguished into the peng-goling rambut, or hairy sort +(myrmophaga), and the peng-goling sisik, or scaly sort, called more +properly tanggiling (species of manis); the scales of this are esteemed +by the natives for their medicinal properties. See Asiatic Researches +Volume 1 page 376 and Volume 2 page 353. + + +(PLATE 9. A SPECIES OF Lemur volans, SUSPENDED FROM THE RAMBEH-TREE. +Sinensis delt. N. Cardon fct. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +BATS. + +Of the bat kind there is an extraordinary variety: the churi-churi is the +smallest species, called vulgarly burong tikus, or the mouse-bird; next +to these is the kalalawar; then the kalambit; and the kaluwang (noctilio) +is of considerable size; of these I have observed very large flights +occasionally passing at a great height in the air, as if migrating from +one country to another, and Captain Forrest notices their crossing the +Straits of Sunda from Java Head to Mount Pugong; they are also seen +hanging by hundreds upon trees. The flying-foxes and flying-squirrels +(Lemur volans), which by means of a membrane extending from what may be +termed the forelegs to those behind, are enabled to take short flights, +are also not uncommon. + +ALLIGATORS AND OTHER LIZARDS. + +Alligators, buaya (Crocodilus biporcatus of Cuvier), abound in most of +the rivers, grow to a large Size, and do much mischief. + +The guana, or iguana, biawak (Lacerta iguana) is another animal of the +lizard kind, about three or four feet in length, harmless, excepting to +the poultry and young domestic cattle, and sometimes itself eaten as +food. The bingkarong is next in size, has hard, dark scales on the back, +and is often found under heaps of decayed timber; its bite venomous. + +The koke, goke, or toke, as it is variously called, is a lizard, about +ten or twelve inches long, frequenting old buildings, and making a very +singular noise. Between this and the small house-lizard (chichak) are +many gradations in size, chiefly of the grass-lizard kind, which is +smooth and glossy. The former are in length from about four inches down +to an inch or less, and are the largest reptiles that can walk in an +inverted situation: one of these, of size sufficient to devour a +cockroach, runs on the ceiling of a room, and in that situation seizes +its prey with the utmost facility. This they seem to be enabled to do +from the rugose structure of their feet, with which they adhere strongly +to the smoothest surface. Sometimes however, on springing too eagerly at +a fly, they lose their hold, and drop to the floor, on which occasions a +circumstance occurs not undeserving of notice. The tail being frequently +separated from the body by the shock (as it may be at any of the +vertebrae by the slightest force, without loss of blood or evident pain +to the animal, and sometimes, as it would seem, from the effect of fear +alone) within a little time, like the mutilated claw of a lobster, begins +to renew itself. They are produced from eggs about the size of the +wren's, of which the female carries two at a time, one in the lower, and +one in the upper part of the abdomen, on opposite sides; they are always +cold to the touch, and yet the transparency of their bodies gives an +opportunity of observing that their fluids have as brisk a circulation as +those of warm-blooded animals: in none have I seen the peristaltic motion +so obvious as in these. It may not be useless to mention that these +phenomena were best observed at night when the lizard was on the outside +of a pane of glass, with a candle on the inside. There is, I believe, no +class of living creatures in which the gradations can be traced with such +minuteness and regularity as in this; where, from the small animal just +described, to the huge alligator or crocodile, a chain may be traced +containing almost innumerable links, of which the remotest have a +striking resemblance to each other, and seem, at first view, to differ +only in bulk. + +CHAMELEON. + +The chameleon, gruning: these are about a foot and half long, including +the tail; the colour, green with brown spots, as I had it preserved; when +alive in the woods they are generally green, but not from the reflection +of the leaves, as some have supposed. When first caught they usually turn +brown, apparently the effect of fear or anger, as men become pale or red; +but if undisturbed soon resume a deep green on the back, and a yellow +green on the belly, the tail remaining brown. Along the spine, from the +head to the middle of the back, little membranes stand up like the teeth +of a saw. As others of the genus of lacerta they feed on flies and +grasshoppers, which the large size of their mouths and peculiar structure +of their bony tongues are well adapted for catching. + + +(PLATE 14a. n.2. THE KUBIN, Draco volans. +Sinensis delt. A. Cardon sc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +The flying lizard, kubin, or chachak terbang (Draco volans), is about +eight inches in its extreme length, and the membranes which constitute +the wings are about two or three inches in extent. These do not connect +with the fore and hind legs, as in the bat tribe, but are supported by an +elongation of the alternate ribs, as pointed out by my friend Mr. Everard +Home. They have flapped ears, and a singular kind of pouch or alphorges, +under the jaws. In other respects they much resemble the chameleon in +appearance. They do not take distant flights, but merely from tree to +tree, or from one bough to another. The natives take them by springs +fastened to the stems. + +FROGS. SNAKES. + +With animals of the frog kind (kodok) the swamps everywhere teem; and +their noise upon the approach of rain is tremendous. They furnish prey to +the snakes, which are found here of all sizes and in great variety of +species; the larger proportion harmless, but of some, and those generally +small and dark-coloured, the bite is mortal. If the cobra capelo, or +hooded snake, be a native of the island, as some assert, it must be +extremely rare. The largest of the boa kind (ular sauh) that I had an +opportunity of observing was no more than twelve feet long. This was +killed in a hen-house where it was devouring the poultry. It is very +surprising, but not less true, that snakes will swallow animals of twice +or three times their own apparent circumference; having in their jaws or +throat a compressive force that gradually and by great efforts reduces +the prey to a convenient dimension. I have seen a small snake (ular sini) +with the hinder legs of a frog sticking out of its mouth, each of them +nearly equal to the smaller parts of its own body, which in the thickest +did not exceed a man's little finger. The stories told of their +swallowing deer, and even buffaloes, in Ceylon and Java, almost choke +belief, but I cannot take upon me to pronounce them false; for if a snake +of three inches diameter can gorge a fowl of six, one of thirty feet in +length and proportionate bulk and strength might well be supposed capable +of swallowing a beast of the size of a goat; and I have respectable +authority for the fact that the fawn of a kijang or roe was cut out of +the body of a very large snake killed at one of the southern settlements. +The poisonous kinds are distinguished by the epithet of ular bisa, among +which is the biludak or viper. The ular garang, or sea-snake, is coated +entirely with scales, both on the belly and tail, not differing from +those on the back, which are small and hexagonal; the colour is grey, +with here and there shades of brown. The head and about one-third of the +body from thence is the smallest part, and it increases in bulk towards +the tail, which resembles that of the eel. It has not any dog-fangs. + +TORTOISE. + +The tortoise, kura-kura, and turtle, katong, are both found in these +seas; the former valuable for its scales, and the latter as food; the +landtortoise (Testudo graeca) is brought from the Seychelles Islands. + +There is also an extensive variety of shellfish. The crayfish, udang laut +(Cancer homarus or ecrevisse-de-mer), is as large as the lobster, but +wants its biting claws. The small freshwater crayfish, the prawns and +shrimps (all named udang, with distinctive epithets), are in great +perfection. + +The crab, kapiting and katam (cancer), is not equally fine, but exhibits +many extraordinary varieties. + +The kima, or gigantic cockle (chama), has been already mentioned. + +The oysters, tiram, are by no means so good as those of Europe. The +smaller kind are generally found adhering to the roots of the mangrove, +in the wash of the tide. + +The mussel, kupang (mytilus), rimis (donax), kapang (Teredo navalis), +seaegg, bulu babi (echinus), bia papeda (nautilus), ruma gorita +(argonauta), bia unam (murex), bia balang (cuprea), and many others may +be added to the list. The beauty of the madrepores and corallines, of +which the finest specimens are found in the recesses of the Bay of +Tappanuli, is not to be surpassed in any country. Of these a superb +collection is in the possession of Mr. John Griffiths, who has given, in +Volume 96 of the Philosophical Transactions, the Description of a rare +species of Worm-Shells, discovered at an island lying off the North-west +coast of Sumatra. In the same volume is also a Paper by Mr. Everard Home, +containing Observations on the Shell of the Sea Worm found on the Coast +of Sumatra, proving it to belong to a species of Teredo; with an Account +of the Anatomy of the Teredo navalis. The former he proposes to call the +Teredo gigantea. The sea-grass, or ladang laut, concerning which Sir +James Lancaster tells some wonderful stories, partakes of the nature of a +sea-worm and of a coralline; in its original state it is soft and shrinks +into the sand from the touch; but when dry it is quite hard, straight, +and brittle. + +FISH. + +The duyong is a very large sea-animal or fish, of the order of mammalia, +with two large pectoral fins serving the purposes of feet. By the early +Dutch voyagers it was, without any obvious analogy, called the sea-cow; +and from the circumstance of the head being covered with a kind of shaggy +hair, and the mammae of the female being placed immediately under the +pectus, it has given rise to the stories of mermaids in the tropical +seas. The tusks are applied to the same uses as ivory, especially for the +handles of krises, and being whiter are more prized. It has much general +resemblance to the manatee or lamantin of the West Indies, and has been +confounded with it; but the distinction between them has been ascertained +by M. Cuvier, Annales du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle 22 cahier page 308.* + +(*Footnote. "Some time ago (says Captain Forrest) a large fish, with +valuable teeth, being cast ashore in the Illana districts, there arose a +dispute who should have the teeth, but the Magindanoers carried it." +Voyage to New Guinea page 272. See also Valentyn Volume 3 page 341.) + +WHALE. + +The grampus whale (species of delphinus) is well known to the natives by +the names of pawus and gajah mina; but I do not recollect to have heard +any instance of their being thrown upon the coast. + +VOILIER. + +Of the ikan layer (genus novum schombro affine) a grand specimen is +preserved in the British Museum, where it was deposited by Sir Joseph +Banks;* and a description of it by the late M. Brousonet, under the name +of le Voilier, is published in the Mem. de l'Acad. de Scien. de Paris for +1786 page 450 plate 10. It derives its appellation from the peculiarity +of its dorsal fin, which rises so high as to suggest the idea of a sail; +but it is most remarkable for what should rather be termed its snout than +its horn, being an elongation of the frontal bone, and the prodigious +force with which it occasionally strikes the bottoms of ships, mistaking +them, as we may presume, for its enemy or prey. A large fragment of one +of these bones, which had transfixed the plank of an East India ship, and +penetrated about eighteen inches, is likewise preserved in the same +national collection, together with the piece of plank, as it was cut out +of the ship's bottom upon her being docked in England. Several accidents +of a similar nature are known to have occurred. There is an excellent +representation of this fish, under the name of fetisso, in Barbot's +Description of the Coasts of Guinea, plate 18, which is copied in +Astley's Collection of Voyages, Volume 2 plate 73. + +(*Footnote. This fish was hooked by Mr. John Griffiths near the southern +extremity of the west coast of Sumatra, and was given to Captain Cumming +of the Britannia indiaman, by whom it was presented to Sir Joseph Banks.) + +VARIOUS FISH. + +To attempt an enumeration of the species of fish with which these seas +abound would exceed my power, and I shall only mention briefly some of +the most obvious; as the shark, hiyu (squalus); skate, ikan pari (raya); +ikan mua (muraena); ikan chanak (gymnotus); ikan gajah (cepole); ikan +karang or bonna (chaetodon), described by Mr. John Bell in Volume 82 of +the Philosophical Transactions. It is remarkable for certain tumours +filled with oil, attached to its bones. There are also the ikan krapo, a +kind of rock-cod or sea-perch; ikan marrang or kitang (teuthis), commonly +named the leather fish, and among the best brought to table; jinnihin, a +rock-fish shaped like a carp; bawal or pomfret (species of chaetodon); +balanak, jumpul, and marra, three fish of the mullet kind (mugil); kuru +(polynemus); ikan lidah, a kind of sole; tingeri, resembles the mackerel; +gagu, catfish; summa, a river fish, resembling the salmon; ringkis, +resembles the trout, and is noted for the size of its roe; ikan tambarah, +I believe the shad of Siak River; ikan gadis, good river fish, about the +size of a carp; ikan bada, small, like white bait; ikan gorito, sepia; +ikan terbang, flying-fish (exocoetus). The little seahorse (Syngnathus +hippocampus) is commonly found here. + +BIRDS. + +Of birds the variety is considerable, and the following list contains but +a small portion of those that might be discovered in the island by a +qualified person who should confine his researches to that branch of +natural history. + +KUWAU. + +The kuwau, or Sumatran pheasant (Phasianus argus), is a bird of uncommon +magnificence and beauty; the plumage being perhaps the most rich, without +any mixture of gaudiness, of all the feathered race. It is found +extremely difficult to keep it alive for any considerable time after +catching it in the woods, yet it has in one instance been brought to +England; but, having lost its fine feathers by the voyage, it did not +excite curiosity, and died unnoticed. There is now a good specimen in the +Liverpool Museum. It has in its natural state an antipathy to the light, +and in the open day is quite moped and inanimate. When kept in a darkened +place it seems at its ease, and sometimes makes use of the note or call +from which it takes its name, and which is rather plaintive than harsh. +The flesh, of which I have eaten, perfectly resembles that of the common +pheasant (tugang), also found in the woods, but the body is of much +larger size. I have reason to believe that it is not, as supposed, a +native of the North or any part of China. From the Malayan Islands, of +which it is the boast, it must be frequently carried thither. + +PEACOCK, ETC. + +The peacock, burong marak (pavo), appears to be well known to the +natives, though I believe not common. + +I should say the same of the eagle and the vulture (coracias), to the one +or the other of which the name of raja wali is familiarly applied. + +The kite, alang (falco), is very common, as is the crow, gadak (corvus), +and jackdaw, pong (gracula), with several species of the woodpecker. + +The kingfisher (alcedo) is named burong buaya, or the alligator-bird. + +The bird-of-paradise, burong supan, or elegant-bird, is known here only +in the dried state, as brought from the Moluccas and coast of New Guinea +(tanah papuah). + + +(PLATE 15. BEAKS OF THE BUCEROS OR HORN-BILL. +M. de Jonville delt. Swaine sc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +The rhinoceros bird, hornbill, or calao (buceros), called by the natives +anggang and burong taun, is chiefly remarkable for what is termed the +horn, which in the most common species extends halfway down the upper +mandible of its large beak, and then turns up; but the varieties of shape +are numerous. The length of one I measured whilst alive was ten inches +and a half; the breadth, including the horn, six and a half; length from +beak to tail four feet; wings four feet six inches; height one foot; +length of neck one foot; the beak whitish; the horn yellow and red; the +body black; the tail white ringed with black; rump, and feathers on the +legs down to the heel, white; claws three before and one behind; the iris +red. In a hen chick there was no appearance of a horn, and the iris was +whitish. They eat either boiled rice or tender fresh meat. Of the use of +such a singular cavity I could not learn any plausible conjecture. As a +receptacle for water, it must be quite unnecessary in the country of +which it is a native. + +STORK, ETC. + +Of the stork kind there are several species, some of great height and +otherwise curious, as the burong kambing and burong ular, which frequent +the rice plantations in wet ground. + +We find also the heron, burong kuntul (ardea); the snipe, kandidi +(scolopax); the coot, or water-hen, ayam ayer (fulica); and the plover, +cheruling (charadrius). + +The cassowary, burong rusa, is brought from the island of Java. + +The domestic hen is as common as in most other countries. In some the +bones (or the periostea) are black, and these are at least equally good +as food. The hen of the woods, ayam barugo, or ayam utan (which latter +name is in some places applied to the pheasant), differs little from the +common sort, excepting in the uniformity of its brown colour. In the +Lampong country of Sumatra and western part of Java lying opposite to it +there is a very large breed of fowls, called ayam jago; of these I have +seen a cock peck from off of a common dining table; when inclined to rest +they sit on the first joint of the leg and are then taller than the +ordinary fowls. It is singular if the same country produces likewise the +diminutive breed that goes by the name of bantam. + +A species of partridge is called ayam gunong, or mountain hen. + +DOVES. + +Beside the pigeon, merapeti and burong darah (columba), and two common +species of doves, the one of a light brown or dove-colour, called ballum, +and the other green, called punei, there are of the latter some most +exquisite varieties: the punei jambu is smaller than the usual size of +doves; the back, wings, and tail are green; the breast and crop are +white, but the front of the latter has a slight shade of pink; the +forepart of the head is of a deep pink, resembling the blossom of the +jambu fruit, from whence its name; the white of the breast is continued +in a narrow streak, having the green on one side and the pink on the +other, half round the eye, which is large, full, and yellow; of which +colour is also the beak. It will live upon boiled rice and padi; but its +favourite food, when wild, is the berry of the rumpunnei (Ardisia +coriacea), perhaps from this circumstance so called. The selaya, or punei +andu, another variety, has the body and wings of deep crimson, with the +head, and extremity of its long indented tail, white; the legs red. It +lives on the worms generated in the decayed part of old trees, and is +about the size of a blackbird. Of the same size is the burong sawei, a +bird of a bluish black colour, with a dove-tail, from which extend two +very long feathers, terminating circularly. It seems to be what is called +the widow-bird, and is formidable to the kite. + +The burong pipit resembles the sparrow in its appearance, habits, +numbers, and the destruction it causes to the grain. + +The quail, puyuh (coturnix); but whether a native or a bird of passage, I +cannot determine. + +The starling (sturnus), of which I know not the Malayan name. + +The swallow, layang-layang (hirundo), one species of which, called layang +buhi, from its being supposed to collect the froth of the sea, is that +which constructs the edible nests. + +The murei, or dial-bird, resembling a small magpie, has a pretty but +short note. There is not any bird in the country that can be said to +sing. The tiyong, or mino, a black bird with yellow gills, has the +faculty of imitating human speech in greater perfection than any other of +the feathered tribe. There is also a yellow species, but not loquacious. + +Of the parrot kind the variety is not so great as might be expected, and +consists chiefly of those denominated parakeets. The beautiful luri, +though not uncommon, is brought from the eastward. The kakatua is an +inhabitant chiefly of the southern extremity of the island. + +The Indian goose, angsa and gangsa (anser); the duck, bebek and itik +(anas); and the teal, belibi, are common. + +INSECTS. + +With insects the island may truly be said to swarm; and I doubt whether +there is any part of the world where greater variety is to be found. Of +these I shall only attempt to enumerate a few: + +The kunang, or firefly, larger than the common fly, (which it resembles), +with the phosphoric matter in the abdomen, regularly and quickly +intermitting its light, as if by respiration; by holding one of them in +my hand I could see to read at night; + +Lipas, the cockroach (blatta); chingkarek, the cricket (gryllus); + +Lebah, taun, the bee (apis), whose honey is gathered in the woods; +kumbang, a species of apis, that bores its nest in timber, and thence +acquires the name of the carpenter; + +Sumut, the ant (formica), the multitudes of which overrun the country, +and its varieties are not less extraordinary than its numbers. The +following distinctions are the most obvious: the krangga, or great red +ant, about three-fourths of an inch long, bites severely, and usually +leaves its head, as a bee its sting, in the wound; it is found mostly on +trees and bushes, and forms its nest by fastening together, with a +glutinous matter, a collection of the leaves of a branch, as they grow; +the common red ant; the minute red ant; the large black ant, not equal in +size to the krangga, but with a head of disproportioned bulk; the common +black ant; and the minute black ant: they also differ from each other in +a circumstance which I believe has not been attended to; and that is the +sensation with which they affect the taste when put into the mouth, as +frequently happens unintentionally: some are hot and acrid, some bitter, +and some sour. Perhaps this will be attributed to the different kinds of +food they have accidentally devoured; but I never found one which tasted +sweet, though I have caught them in the fact of robbing a sugar or +honey-pot. Each species of ant is a declared enemy of the other, and +never suffers a divided empire. Where one party effects a settlement the +other is expelled; and in general they are powerful in proportion to +their bulk, with the exception of the white-ant, sumut putih (termes), +which is beaten from the field by others of inferior size; and for this +reason it is a common expedient to strew sugar on the floor of a +warehouse in order to allure the formicae to the spot, who do not fail to +combat and overcome the ravaging but unwarlike termites. Of this insect +and its destructive qualities I had intended to give some description, +but the subject is so elaborately treated (though with some degree of +fancy) by Mr. Smeathman, in Volume 71 of the Philosophical Transactions +for 1781, who had an opportunity of observing them in Africa, that I omit +it as superfluous. + +Of the wasp kind there are several curious varieties. One of them may be +observed building its nest of moistened clay against a wall, and +inclosing in each of its numerous compartments a living spider; thus +revenging upon this bloodthirsty race the injuries sustained by harmless +flies, and providently securing for its own young a stock of food. + +Lalat, the common fly (musca); lalat kuda (tabanus); lalat karbau +(oestrus); + +Niamok, agas, the gnat or mosquito (culex), producing a degree of +annoyance equal to the sum of all the other physical plagues of a hot +climate, but even to these I found that habit rendered me almost +indifferent; + +Kala-jingking, the scorpion (scorpio), the sting of which is highly +inflammatory and painful, but not dangerous; + +Sipasan, centipede (scholopendra), not so venomous as the preceding; + +Alipan (jules); + +Alintah, water-leech (hirudo); achih, small land-leech, dropping from the +leaves of trees whilst moist with dew, and troublesome to travellers in +passing through the woods. + +To this list I shall only add the suala, tripan, or sea-slug +(holothurion), which, being collected from the rocks and dried in the +sun, is exported to China, where it is an article of food. + + +CHAPTER 7. + +VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS OF THE ISLAND CONSIDERED AS ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. +PEPPER. +CULTIVATION OF PEPPER. +CAMPHOR. +BENZOIN. +CASSIA, ETC. + + +(PLATE 1. THE PEPPER-PLANT, PIPER NIGRUM. +E.W. Marsden delt. Engraved by J. Swaine, Queen Street, Golden Square. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +PEPPER. + +OF those productions of Sumatra, which are regarded as articles of +commerce, the most important and most abundant is pepper. This is the +object of the East India Company's trade thither, and this alone it keeps +in its own hands; its servants, and merchants under its protection, being +free to deal in every other commodity. + +ESTABLISHMENT OF THE TRADE. + +Many of the princes or chiefs in different parts of the island having +invited the English to form settlements in their respective districts, +factories were accordingly established, and a permanency and regularity +thereby given to the trade, which was very uncertain whilst it depended +upon the success of occasional voyages to the coast; disappointments +ensuing not only from failure of adequate quantities of pepper to furnish +cargoes when required, but also from the caprices and chicanery of the +chiefs with whom the disposal of it lay, the motives of whose conduct +could not be understood by those who were unacquainted with the language +and manners of the people. These inconveniencies were obviated when the +agents of the Company were enabled, by their residence on the spot, to +obtain an influence in the country, to inspect the state of the +plantations, secure the collection of the produce, and make an estimate +of the tonnage necessary for its conveyance to Europe. + +In order to bind the chiefs to the observance of their original promises +and professions, and to establish a plausible and legal claim, in +opposition to the attempts of rival European powers to interfere in the +trade of the same country, written contracts, attended with much form and +solemnity, were entered into with the former; by which they engaged to +oblige all their dependants to cultivate pepper, and to secure to us the +exclusive purchase of it; in return for which they were to be protected +from their enemies, supported in the rights of sovereignty, and to be +paid a certain allowance or custom on the produce of their respective +territories. + +PRICE. + +The price for many years paid to the cultivators for their produce was +ten Spanish dollars or fifty shillings per bahar of five hundredweight or +five hundred and sixty pounds. About the year 1780, with a view to their +encouragement and the increase of investment, as it is termed, the sum +was augmented to fifteen dollars. To this cost is to be added the custom +above mentioned, varying in different districts according to specific +agreements, but amounting in general to one dollar and a half, or two +dollars on each bahar, which is distributed amongst the chiefs at an +annual entertainment; and presents are made at the same time to planters +who have distinguished themselves by their industry. This low price, at +which the natives submit to cultivate the plantations, affording to each +man an income of not more than from eight to twelve dollars yearly, and +the undisturbed monopoly we have so long possessed of the trade, from +near Indrapura northward to Flat Point southward, are doubtless in a +principal degree to be attributed to the peculiar manner in which this +part of the island is shut up, by the surfs which prevail along the +south-west coast, from communication with strangers, whose competition +would naturally produce the effect of enhancing the price of the +commodity. The general want of anchorage too, for so many leagues to the +northward of the Straits of Sunda, has in all ages deterred the Chinese +and other eastern merchants from attempting to establish an intercourse +that must be attended with imminent risk to unskilful navigators; indeed +I understand it to be a tradition among the natives who border on the +sea-coast that it is not many hundred years since these parts began to be +inhabited, and they speak of their descent as derived from the more +inland country. Thus it appears that those natural obstructions, which we +are used to lament as the greatest detriment to our trade, are in fact +advantages to which it in a great measure owes its existence. In the +northern countries of the island, where the people are numerous and their +ports good, they are found to be more independent also, and refuse to +cultivate plantations upon any other terms than those on which they can +deal with private traders. + +CULTIVATION OF PEPPER. + +In the cultivation of pepper (Piper nigrum, L.)* the first circumstance +that claims attention, and on which the success materially depends, is +the choice of a proper site for the plantation. A preference is usually +given to level ground lying along the banks of rivers or rivulets, +provided they are not so low as to be inundated, both on account of the +vegetable mould commonly found there, and the convenience of +water-carriage for the produce. Declivities, unless very gentle, are to +be avoided, because the soil loosened by culture is liable in such +situations to be washed away by heavy rains. When these plains however +are naked, or covered with long grass only, they will not be found to +answer without the assistance of the plough and of manure, their +fertility being exhausted by exposure to the sun. How far the returns in +general might be increased by the introduction of these improvements in +agriculture I cannot take upon me to determine; but I fear that, from the +natural indolence of the natives, and their want of zeal in the business +of pepper-planting, occasioned by the smallness of the advantage it +yields to them, they will never be prevailed upon to take more pains than +they now do. The planters therefore, depending more upon the natural +qualities of the soil than on any advantage it might receive from their +cultivation, find none to suit their purpose better than those spots +which, having been covered with old woods and long fertilized by decaying +foliage and trunks, have recently been cleared for ladangs or +padi-fields, in the manner already described; where it was also observed +that, being allured by the certainty of abundant produce from a virgin +soil, and having land for the most part at will, they renew their toil +annually, and desert the ground so laboriously prepared after occupying +it for one, or at the furthest for two, seasons. Such are the most usual +situations chosen for the pepper plantations (kabun) or gardens, as they +are termed; but, independently of the culture of rice, land is very +frequently cleared for the pepper in the first instance by felling and +burning the trees. + +(*Footnote. See Remarks on the Species of Pepper (and on its Cultivation) +at Prince of Wales Island, by Dr. William Hunter, in the Asiatic +Researches Volume 9 page 383.) + +FORMATION OF THE GARDEN. + +The ground is then marked out in form of a regular square or oblong, with +intersections throughout at the distance of six feet (being equal to five +cubits of the measure of the country), the intended interval between the +plants, of which there are commonly either one thousand or five hundred +in each garden; the former number being required from those who are heads +of families (their wives and children assisting them in their work), and +the latter from single men. Industrious or opulent persons sometimes have +gardens of two or three thousand vines. A border twelve feet in width, +within which limit no tree is suffered to grow, surrounds each garden, +and it is commonly separated from others by a row of shrubs or irregular +hedge. Where the nature of the country admits of it the whole or greater +part of the gardens of a dusun or village lie adjacent to each other, +both for the convenience of mutual assistance in labour and mutual +protection from wild beasts; single gardens being often abandoned from +apprehension of their ravages, and where the owner has been killed in +such a situation none will venture to replace him. + +VEGETATING PROPS. + +After lining out the ground and marking the intersections by slight +stakes the next business is to plant the trees that are to become props +to the pepper, as the Romans planted elms, and the modern Italians more +commonly plant poplars and mulberries, for their grape-vines. These are +cuttings of the chungkariang (Erythrina corallodendron), usually called +chinkareens, put into the ground about a span deep, sufficiently early to +allow time for a shoot to be strong enough to support the young +pepper-plant when it comes to twine about it. The cuttings are commonly +two feet in length, but sometimes a preference is given to the length of +six feet, and the vine is then planted as soon as the chinkareen has +taken root: but the principal objections to this method are that in such +state they are very liable to fail and require renewal, to the prejudice +of the garden; and that their shoots are not so vigorous as those of the +short cuttings, frequently growing crooked, or in a lateral instead of a +perpendicular direction. The circumstances which render the chinkareen +particularly proper for this use are its readiness and quickness of +growth, even after the cuttings have been kept some time in bundles,* if +put into the ground with the first rains; and the little thorns with +which it is armed enabling the vine to take a firmer hold. They are +distinguished into two sorts, the white and red, not from the colour of +the flowers (as might be supposed) for both are red, but from the tender +shoots of the one being whitish and of the other being of a reddish hue. +The bark of the former is of a pale ash colour, of the latter brown; the +former is sweet, and the food of elephants, for which reason it is not +much used in parts frequented by those animals; the latter is bitter and +unpalatable to them; but they are not deterred by the short prickles +which are common to the branches of both sorts. + +(*Footnote. It is a common and useful practice to place these bundles of +cuttings in water about two inches deep and afterwards to reject such of +them as in that state do not show signs of vegetation.) + +Trial has frequently been made of other trees, and particularly of the +bangkudu or mangkudu (Morinda citrifolia), but none have been found to +answer so well for these vegetating props. It has been doubted indeed +whether the growth and produce of the pepper-vine are not considerably +injured by the chinkareen, which may rob it of its proper nourishment by +exhausting the earth; and on this principle, in other of the eastern +islands (Borneo, for instance), the vine is supported by poles in the +manner of hops in England. Yet it is by no means clear to me that the +Sumatran method is so disadvantageous in the comparison as it may seem; +for, as the pepper-plant lasts many years, whilst the poles, exposed to +sun and rain, and loaded with a heavy weight, cannot be supposed to +continue sound above two seasons, there must be a frequent renewal, +which, notwithstanding the utmost care, must lacerate and often destroy +the vines. It is probable also that the shelter from the violence of the +sun's rays afforded by the branches of the vegetating prop, and which, +during the dry monsoon, is of the utmost consequence, may counterbalance +the injury occasioned by their roots; not to insist on the opinion of a +celebrated writer that trees, acting as siphons, derive from the air and +transmit to the earth as much of the principle of vegetation as is +expended in their nourishment. + +When the most promising shoot of the chinkareen reserved for rearing has +attained the height of twelve to fifteen feet (which latter it is not to +exceed), or in the second year of its growth, it must be headed or +topped; and the branches that then extend themselves laterally, from the +upper part only, so long as their shade is required, are afterwards +lopped annually at the commencement of the rainy season (about November), +leaving little more than the stem; from whence they again shoot out to +afford their protection during the dry weather. By this operation also +the damage to the plant that would ensue from the droppings of rain from +the leaves is avoided. + +DESCRIPTION OF THE PEPPER-VINE. + +The pepper-vine is, in its own climate, a hardy plant, growing readily +from cuttings or layers, rising in several knotted stems, twining round +any neighbouring support, and adhering to it by fibres that shoot from +every joint at intervals of six to ten inches, and from which it probably +derives a share of its nourishment. If suffered to run along the ground +these fibres would become roots; but in this case (like the ivy) it would +never exhibit any appearance of fructification, the prop being necessary +for encouraging it to throw out its bearing shoots. It climbs to the +height of twenty or twenty-five feet, but thrives best when restrained to +twelve or fifteen, as in the former case the lower part of the vine bears +neither leaves nor fruit, whilst in the latter it produces both from +within a foot of the ground. The stalk soon becomes ligneous, and in time +acquires considerable thickness. The leaves are of a deep green and +glossy surface, heart-shaped, pointed, not pungent to the taste, and have +but little smell. The branches are short and brittle, not projecting +above two feet from the stem, and separating readily at the joints. The +blossom is small and white, the fruit round, green when young and +fullgrown, and turning to a bright red when ripe and in perfection. It +grows abundantly from all the branches in long small clusters of twenty +to fifty grains, somewhat resembling bunches of currants, but with this +difference, that every grain adheres to the common stalk, which occasions +the cluster of pepper to be more compact, and it is also less pliant. + +MODES OF PROPAGATING IT. + +The usual mode of propagating the pepper is by cuttings, a foot or two in +length, of the horizontal shoots that run along the ground from the foot +of the old vines (called lado sulur), and one or two of these are planted +within a few inches of the young chinkareen at the same time with it if +of the long kind, or six months after if of the short kind, as before +described. Some indeed prefer an interval of twelve months; as in good +soil the luxuriancy of the vine will often overpower and bear down the +prop, if it has not first acquired competent strength. In such soil the +vine rises two or three feet in the course of the first year, and four or +five more in the second, by which time, or between the second and third +year of its growth, it begins to show its blossom (be-gagang), if in fact +it can be called such, being nothing more than the germ of the future +bunch of fruit, of a light straw colour, darkening to green as the fruit +forms. These germs or blossoms are liable to fall untimely (gugur) in +very dry weather, or to be shaken off in high winds (although from this +accident the gardens are in general well sheltered by the surrounding +woods), when, after the fairest promise, the crop fails. + +TURNING DOWN THE VINES. + +In the rainy weather that succeeds the first appearance of the fruit the +whole vine is loosened from the chinkareen and turned down again into the +earth, a hole being dug to receive it, in which it is laid circularly or +coiled, leaving only the extremity above ground, at the foot of the +chinkareen, which it now reascends with redoubled vigour, attaining in +the following season the height of eight or ten feet, and bearing a full +crop of fruit. There is said to be a great nicety in hitting the exact +time proper for this operation of turning down; for if it be done too +soon, the vines have been known not to bear till the third year, like +fresh plants; and on the other hand the produce is ultimately retarded +when they omit to turn them down until after the first fruit has been +gathered; to which avarice of present, at the expense of future +advantage, sometimes inclines the owners. It is not very material how +many stems the vine may have in its first growth, but now one only, if +strong, or two at the most, should be suffered to rise and cling to the +prop: more would be superfluous and only weaken the whole. The +supernumerary shoots however are usefully employed, being either +conducted through narrow trenches to adjacent chinkareens whose vines +have failed, or taken off at the root and transplanted to others more +distant, where, coiled round and buried as the former, they rise with the +same vigour, and the garden is completed of uniform growth, although many +of its original vines have not succeeded. With these offsets or layers +(called anggor and tettas) new gardens may be at once formed; the +necessary chinkareens being previously planted, and of sufficient growth +to receive them. + +This practice of turning down the vines, which appears singular but +certainly contributes to the duration as well as strength of the plants, +may yet amount to nothing more than a substitute for transplantation. Our +people observing that vegetables often fail to thrive when permitted to +grow up in the same beds where they were first set or sown, find it +advantageous to remove them, at a certain period of their growth, to +fresh situations. The Sumatrans observing the same failure have had +recourse to an expedient nearly similar in its principle but effected in +a different and perhaps more judicious mode. + +In order to lighten the labour of the cultivator, who has also the +indispensable task of raising grain for himself and his family, it is a +common practice, and not attended with any detriment to the gardens, to +sow padi in the ground in which the chinkareens have been planted, and +when this has become about six inches high, to plant the cuttings of the +vines, suffering the shoots to creep along the ground until the crop has +been taken off, when they are trained to the chinkareens, the shade of +the corn being thought favourable to the young plants. + +PROGRESS OF BEARING. + +The vines, as has been observed, generally begin to bear in the course of +the third year from the time of planting, but the produce is retarded for +one or two seasons by the process just described; after which it +increases annually for three years, when the garden (about the seventh or +eighth year) is esteemed in its prime, or at its utmost produce; which +state it maintains, according to the quality of the soil, from one to +four years, when it gradually declines for about the same period until it +is no longer worth the labour of keeping it in order. From some, in good +ground, fruit has been gathered at the age of twenty years; but such +instances are uncommon. On the first appearance of decline it should be +renewed, as it is termed; but, to speak more properly, another garden +should be planted to succeed it, which will begin to bear before the old +one ceases. + +MODE OF PRUNING. + +The vine having acquired its full growth, and being limited by the height +of the chinkareen, sometimes grows bushy and overhangs at top, which, +being prejudicial to the lower parts, must be corrected by pruning or +thinning the top branches, and this is done commonly by hand, as they +break readily at every joint. Suckers too, or superfluous sideshoots +(charang), which spring luxuriantly, are to be plucked away. The ground +of the garden must be kept perfectly clear of weeds, shrubs, and whatever +might injure or tend to choke the plants. During the hot months of June, +July, and August the finer kinds of grass may be permitted to cover the +ground, as it contributes to mitigate the effects of the sun's power, and +preserves for a longer time the dews, which at that season fall +copiously; but the rank species, called lalang, being particularly +difficult to eradicate, should not be suffered to fix itself, if it can +be avoided. As the vines increase in size and strength less attention to +the ground is required, and especially as their shade tends to check the +growth of weeds. In lopping the branches of the chinkareens preparatory +to the rains, some dexterity is required that they may fall clear of the +vine, and the business is performed with a sharp prang or bill that +generally separates at one stroke the light pithy substance of the bough. +For this purpose, as well as that of gathering the fruit, light +triangular ladders made of bamboo are employed. + +TIME OF GATHERING. + +As soon as any of the berries or corns redden, the bunch is reckoned fit +for gathering, the remainder being then generally full-grown, although +green; nor would it answer to wait for the whole to change colour, as the +most mature would drop off. + +MODE OF DRYING AND CLEANSING. + +It is collected in small baskets slung over the shoulder, and with the +assistance of the women and children conveyed to a smooth level spot of +clean hard ground near the garden or the village, where it is spread, +sometimes upon mats, to dry in the sun, but exposed at the same time to +the vicissitudes of the weather, which are not much regarded nor thought +to injure it. In this situation it becomes black and shrivelled, as we +see it in Europe, and as it dries is hand-rubbed occasionally to separate +the grains from the stalk. It is then winnowed in large round shallow +sieves called nyiru, and put in large vessels made of bark (kulitkayu) +under their houses until the whole of the crop is gathered, or a +sufficient quantity for carrying (usually by water) to the European +factory or gadong at the mouth of the river. That which has been gathered +at the properest stage of maturity will shrivel the least; but, if +plucked too soon, it will in a short time, by removal from place to +place, become mere dust. Of this defect trial may be made by the hand; +but as light pepper may have been mixed with the sound it becomes +necessary that the whole should be garbled at the scale by machines +constructed for the purpose. Pepper that has fallen to the ground +overripe and been gathered from thence will be known by being stripped of +its outer coat, and in that state is an inferior kind of white pepper. + +WHITE PEPPER. + +This was for centuries supposed in Europe to be the produce of a +different plant, and to possess qualities superior to those of the common +black pepper; and accordingly it sold at a considerably higher price. But +it has lost in some measure that advantage since it has been known that +the secret depended merely upon the art of blanching the grains of the +other sort, by depriving it of the exterior pellicle. For this purpose +the ripest red grains are picked out and put in baskets to steep, either +in running water (which is preferred), in pits dug for the occasion near +the banks of rivers, or in stagnant pools. Sometimes it is only buried in +the ground. In any of these situations it swells, and in the course of a +week or ten days bursts its tegument, from which it is afterwards +carefully separated by drying in the sun, rubbing between the hands, and +winnowing. It has been much disputed, and is still undetermined, to which +sort the preference ought to be given. The white pepper has this obvious +recommendation, that it can be made of no other than the best and +soundest grains, taken at their most perfect stage of maturity: but on +the other hand it is argued that, by being suffered to remain the +necessary time in water, its strength must be considerably diminished; +and that the outer husk, which is lost by the process, has a peculiar +flavour distinct from that of the heart, and though not so pungent, more +aromatic. For the white pepper the planter receives the fourth part of a +dollar, or fifteen pence, per bamboo or gallon measure, equal to about +six pounds weight. At the sales in England the prices are at this time in +the proportion of seventeen to ten or eleven, and the quantity imported +has for some years been inconsiderable. + +APPEARANCE OF THE GARDENS. + +The gardens being planted in even rows, running parallel, and at right +angles with each other, their symmetrical appearance is very beautiful, +and rendered more striking by the contrast they exhibit to the wild +scenes of nature which surround them. In highly cultivated countries such +as England, where landed property is all lined out and bounded and +intersected with walls and hedges, we endeavour to give our gardens and +pleasure-grounds the charm of variety and novelty by imitating the +wildness of nature, in studied irregularities. Winding walks, hanging +woods, craggy rocks, falls of water, are all looked upon as improvements; +and the stately avenues, the canals, and rectangular lawns of our +ancestors, which afforded the beauty of contrast in ruder times are now +exploded. This difference of taste is not merely the effect of caprice, +nor entirely of refinement, but results from the change of circumstances. +A man who should attempt to exhibit in Sumatra the modern or irregular +style of laying out grounds would attract but little attention, as the +unimproved scenes adjoining on every side would probably eclipse his +labours. Could he, on the contrary, produce, amidst its magnificent +wilds, one of those antiquated parterres, with its canals and fountains, +whose precision he has learned to despise, his work would create +admiration and delight. A pepper-garden cultivated in England would not +in point of external appearance be considered as an object of +extraordinary beauty, and would be particularly found fault with for its +uniformity; yet in Sumatra I never entered one, after travelling many +miles, as is usually the case, through the woods, that I did not find +myself affected with a strong sensation of pleasure. Perhaps the simple +view of human industry, so scantily presented in that island, might +contribute to this pleasure, by awakening those social feelings that +nature has inspired us with, and which make our breasts glow on the +perception of whatever indicates the prosperity and happiness of our +fellow-creatures. + +SURVEYS. + +Once in every year a survey of all the pepper-plantations is taken by the +Company's European servants resident at the various settlements, in the +neighbourhood of which that article is cultivated. The number of vines in +each particular garden is counted; accurate observation is made of its +state and condition; orders are given where necessary for further care, +for completion of stipulated quantity, renewals, changes of situation for +better soil; and rewards and punishments are distributed to the planters +as they appear, from the degree of their industry or remissness, +deserving of either. Minutes of all these are entered in the survey-book, +which, beside giving present information to the chief, and to the +governor and council, to whom a copy is transmitted, serves as a guide +and check for the survey of the succeeding year. An abstract of the form +of the book is as follows. It is divided into sundry columns, containing +the name of the village; the names of the planters; the number of +chinkareens planted; the number of vines just planted; of young vines, +not in a bearing state, three classes or years; of young vines in a +bearing state, three classes; of vines in prime; of those on decline; of +those that are old, but still productive; the total number; and lastly +the quantity of pepper received during the year. A space is left for +occasional remarks, and at the conclusion is subjoined a comparison of +the totals of each column, for the whole district or residency, with +those of the preceding year. This business the reader will perceive to be +attended with considerable trouble, exclusive of the actual fatigue of +the surveys, which from the nature of the country must necessarily be +performed on foot, in a climate not very favourable to such excursions. +The journeys in few places can be performed in less than a month, and +often require a much longer time. + +The arrival of the Company's Resident at each dusun is considered as a +period of festivity. The chief, together with the principal inhabitants, +entertain him and his attendants with rustic hospitality, and when he +retires to rest, his slumbers are soothed, or interrupted, by the songs +of young females, who never fail to pay this compliment to the respected +guest; and receive in return some trifling ornamental and useful presents +(such as looking-glasses, fans, and needles) at his departure. + +SUCCESSION OF GARDENS. + +The inhabitants, by the original contracts of the headmen with the +Company, are obliged to plant a certain number of vines; each family one +thousand, and each young unmarried man five hundred; and, in order to +keep up the succession of produce, so soon as their gardens attain to +their prime state, they are ordered to prepare others, that they may +begin to bear as the old ones fall off; but as this can seldom be +enforced till the decline becomes evident, and as young gardens are +liable to various accidents which older ones are exempt from, the +succession is rendered incomplete, and the consequence is that the annual +produce of each district fluctuates, and is greater or less in the +proportion of the quantity of bearing vines to the whole number. To enter +minutely into the detail of this business will not afford much +information or entertainment to the generality of readers, who will +however be surprised to hear that pepper-planting, though scarcely an +art, so little skill appears to be employed in its cultivation, has +nevertheless been rendered an abstruse science by the investigations +which able men have bestowed upon the subject. These took their rise from +censures conveyed for supposed mismanagement, when the investment, or +annual provision of pepper, decreased in comparison with preceding years, +and which was not satisfactorily accounted for by unfavourable seasons. +To obviate such charges it became necessary for those who superintended +the business to pay attention to and explain the efficient causes which +unavoidably occasioned this fluctuation, and to establish general +principles of calculation by which to determine at any time the probable +future produce of the different residencies. These will depend upon a +knowledge of the medium produce of a determinate number of vines, and the +medium number to which this produce is to be applied; both of which are +to be ascertained only from a comprehensive view of the subject, and a +nice discrimination. Nothing general can be determined from detached +instances. It is not the produce of one particular plantation in one +particular stage of bearing and in one particular season, but the mean +produce of all the various classes of bearing vines collectively, drawn +from the experience of several years, that can alone be depended on in +calculations of this nature. So in regard to the median number of vines +presumed to exist at any residency in a future year, to which the medium +produce of a certain number, one thousand, for instance, is to be +applied, the quantity of young vines of the first, second, and third year +must not be indiscriminately advanced, in their whole extent, to the next +annual stage, but a judicious allowance founded on experience must be +made for the accidents to which, in spite of a resident's utmost care, +they will be exposed. Some are lost by neglect or death of the owner; +some are destroyed by inundations, others by elephants and wild +buffaloes, and some by unfavourable seasons, and from these several +considerations the number of vines will ever be found considerably +decreased by the time they have arrived at a bearing state. Another +important object of consideration in these matters is the comparative +state of a residency at any particular period with what may be justly +considered as its medium state. There must exist a determinate proportion +between any number of bearing vines and such a number of young as are +necessary to replace them when they go off and keep up a regular +succession. This will depend in general upon the length of time before +they reach a bearing state and during which they afterwards continue in +it. If this certain proportion happens at any time to be disturbed the +produce must become irregular. Thus, if at any period the number of +bearing vines shall be found to exceed their just proportion to the total +number, the produce at such period is to be considered as above the mean, +and a subsequent decrease may with certainty be predicted, and vice +versa. If then this proportion can be known, and the state of population +in a residency ascertained, it becomes easy to determine the true medium +number of bearing vines in that residency. + +There are, agreeably to the form of the survey book, eleven stages or +classes of vines, each advanced one year. Of these classes six are +bearing and five young. If therefore the gardens were not liable to +accidents, but passed on from column to column undiminished, the true +proportion of the bearing vines to the young would be as six to five, or +to the total, as six to eleven. But the various contingencies above +hinted at must tend to reduce this proportion; while, on the other hand, +if any of the gardens should continue longer than is necessary to pass +through all the stages on the survey-book, or should remain more than one +year in a prime state, these circumstances would tend to increase the +proportion. What then is the true medium proportion can only be +determined from experience, and by comparing the state of a residency at +various successive periods. In order to ascertain this point a very +ingenious gentleman and able servant of the East India Company, Mr. John +Crisp, to whom I am indebted for the most part of what I have laid before +the reader on this part of the subject, drew out in the year 1777 a +general comparative view of Manna residency, from the surveys of twelve +years, annexing the produce of each year. From the statement it appeared +that the proportion of the bearing vines to the whole number in that +district was no more than 5.1 to 11, instead of 6 to 11, which would be +the proportion if not reduced by accidents; and further that, when the +whole produce of the twelve years was diffused over the whole number of +bearing vines during that period, the produce of one thousand vines came +out to be four hundred and fifty-three pounds, which must therefore be +estimated as the medium produce of that residency. The same principle of +calculation being applied to the other residencies, it appeared that the +mean annual produce of one thousand vines, in all the various stages of +bearing, taken collectively throughout the country, deduced from the +experience of twelve years, was four hundred and four pounds. It likewise +became evident from the statements drawn out by that gentleman that the +medium annual produce of the Company's settlements on the west coast of +Sumatra ought to be estimated at twelve hundred tons, of sixteen hundred +weight; which is corroborated by an average of the actual receipts for +any considerable number of years. + +Thus much will be sufficient to give the reader an idea of +pepper-planting as a kind of science. How far in a commercial light this +produce answers the Company's views in supporting the settlements, is +foreign from my purpose to discuss, though it is a subject on which not a +little might be said. It is the history of the island and its +inhabitants, and not of the European interests, that I attempt to lay +before the public. + +SPECIES OF PEPPER. + +The natives distinguish three species of pepper, which are called at +different places by different names. At Laye, in the Rejang country, they +term them lado kawur, lado manna, and lado jambi, from the parts where +each sort is supposed to prevail, or from whence it was first brought to +them. The lado kawur, or Lampong pepper, is the strongest plant, and +bears the largest leaf and fruit; is slower in coming to perfection than +the second, but of much longer duration. The leaf and fruit of the lado +manna are somewhat smaller, and it has this peculiarity, that it bears +soon and in large quantities, but seldom passes the third or fourth +year's crop. The jambi, which has deservedly fallen into disrepute, is of +the smallest leaf and fruit, very short-lived, and not without difficulty +trained to the chinkareen. In some places to the southward they +distinguish two kinds only, lado sudul and lado jambi. Lado sulur and +lado anggor are not distinctions of species; the former denoting the +cuttings of young creeping shoots commonly planted, in opposition to the +latter, which is the term for planting by layers. + +SEASONS. + +The season of the pepper-vines bearing, as well as that of most other +fruit-trees on Sumatra, is subject to great irregularities, owing perhaps +to the uncertainty of the monsoons, which are not there so strictly +periodical as on the western side of India. Generally speaking however +the pepper produces two crops in the year; one called the greater crop +(pupul agung) between the months of October and March; the other called +the lesser or half crop (buah sello) between the months of April and +September, which is small in proportion as the former has been +considerable, and vice versa. Sometimes in particular districts they will +be employed in gathering it in small quantities during the whole year +round, whilst perhaps in others the produce of that year is confined to +one crop; for, although the regular period between the appearance of the +blossom and maturity is about four months, the whole does not ripen at +once, and blossoms are frequently found on the same vine with green and +ripe fruit. In Laye residency the principal harvest of pepper in the year +1766 was gathered between the months of February and May; in 1767 and +1768 about September and October; in 1778 between June and August; and +for the four succeeding years was seldom received earlier than November +and December. Long-continued droughts, which sometimes happen, stop the +vegetation of the vines and retard the produce. This was particularly +experienced in the year 1775, when, for a period of about eight months, +scarcely a shower of rain fell to moisten the earth. The vines were +deprived of their foliage, many gardens perished and a general +destruction was expected. But this apparent calamity was attended with a +consequence not foreseen, though analogous to the usual operations of +nature in that climate. The natives, when they would force a tree that is +backward to produce fruit, strip it of its leaves, by which means the +nutritive juices are reserved for that more important use, and the +blossoms soon begin to show themselves in abundance. A similar effect was +displayed in the pepper gardens by the inclemency of the season. The +vines, as soon as the rains began to descend, threw out blossoms in a +profusion unknown before; old gardens which had been unprolific for two +or three years began to bear; and accordingly the crop of 1776/1777 +considerably surpassed that of many preceding years. + +TRANSPORTATION OF PEPPER. + +The pepper is mostly brought down from the country on rafts (rakit), +which are sometimes composed of rough timbers, but usually of large +bamboos, with a platform of split bamboos to keep the cargo dry. They are +steered at both head and stern, in the more rapid rivers with a kind of +rudder, or scull rather, having a broad blade fixed in a fork or crutch. +Those who steer are obliged to exert the whole strength of the body in +those places especially where the fall of water is steep, and the course +winding; but the purchase of the scull is of so great power that they can +move the raft bodily across the river when both ends are acted upon at +the same time. But, notwithstanding their great dexterity and their +judgment in choosing the channel, they are liable to meet with +obstruction in large trees and rocks, which, from the violence of the +stream, occasion their rafts to be overset, and sometimes dashed to +pieces. + +It is a generally received opinion that pepper does not sustain any +damage by an immersion in seawater; a circumstance that attends perhaps a +fourth part of the whole quantity shipped from the coast. The surf, +through which it is carried in an open boat, called a sampan lonchore, +renders such accidents unavoidable. This boat, which carries one or two +tons, being hauled up on the beach and there loaded, is shoved off, with +a few people in it, by a number collected for that purpose, who watch the +opportunity of a lull or temporary intermission of the swell. A +tambangan, or long narrow vessel, built to contain from ten to twenty +tons, (peculiar to the southern part of the coast), lies at anchor +without to receive the cargoes from the sampans. At many places, where +the kwallas, or mouths of the rivers, are tolerably practicable, the +pepper is sent out at once in the tambangans over the bar; but this, +owing to the common shallowness of the water and violence of the surfs, +is attended with considerable risk. Thus the pepper is conveyed either to +the warehouses at the head-settlement or to the ship from Europe lying +there to receive it. About one-third part of the quantity of black pepper +collected, but none of the white, is annually sent to China. Of the +extent and circumstances of the trade in pepper carried on by private +merchants (chiefly American) at the northern ports of Nalabu, Susu, and +Mukki, where it is managed by the subjects of Achin, I have not any +accurate information, and only know that it has increased considerably +during the last twelve years. + +NUTMEGS AND CLOVES. + +It is well known with what jealousy and rigour the Batavian government +has guarded against the transplantation of the trees producing nutmegs +and cloves from the islands of Banda and Amboina to other parts of India. +To elude its vigilance many attempts have been made by the English, who +considered Sumatra to be well adapted, from its local circumstances, to +the cultivation of these valuable spices; but all proved ineffectual, +until the reduction of the eastern settlements in 1796 afforded the +wished for opportunity, which was eagerly seized by Mr. Robert Broff, at +that period chief of the Residency of Fort Marlborough. As the culture is +now likely to become of importance to the trade of this country, and the +history of its introduction may hereafter be thought interesting, I shall +give it in Mr. Broff's own words: + +The acquisition of the nutmeg and clove plants became an object of my +solicitude the moment I received by Captain Newcombe, of his Majesty's +ship Orpheus, the news of the surrender of the islands where they are +produced; being convinced, from the information I had received, that the +country in the neighbourhood of Bencoolen, situated as it is in the same +latitude with the Moluccas, exposed to the same periodical winds, and +possessing the same kind of soil, would prove congenial to their culture. +Under this impression I suggested to the other members of the Board the +expediency of freighting a vessel for the twofold purpose of sending +supplies to the forces at Amboina, for which they were in distress, and +of bringing in return as many spice-plants as could be conveniently +stowed. The proposition was acceded to, and a vessel, of which I was the +principal owner (no other could be obtained), was accordingly dispatched +in July 1806; but the plan was unfortunately frustrated by the imprudent +conduct of a person on the civil establishment to whom the execution was +entrusted. Soon afterwards however I had the good fortune to be more +successful, in an application I made to Captain Hugh Moore, who commanded +the Phoenix country ship, to undertake the importation, stipulating with +him to pay a certain sum for every healthy plant he should deliver. + +FIRST INTRODUCTION. + +Complete success attended the measure: he returned in July 1798, and I +had the satisfaction of planting myself, and distributing for that +purpose, a number of young nutmeg and a few clove trees in the districts +of Bencoolen and Silebar, and other more distant spots, in order to +ascertain from experience the situations best adapted to their growth. I +particularly delivered to Mr. Charles Campbell, botanist, a portion to be +under his own immediate inspection; and another to Mr. Edward Coles, this +gentleman having in his service a family who were natives of a spice +island and had been used to the cultivation. When I quitted the coast in +January 1799 I had the gratification of witnessing the prosperous state +of the plantations, and of receiving information from the quarters where +they had been distributed of their thriving luxuriantly; and since my +arrival in England various letters have reached me to the same effect. To +the merit therefore of introducing this important article, and of forming +regulations for its successful culture, I put in my exclusive claim; and +am fully persuaded that if a liberal policy is adopted it will become of +the greatest commercial advantage to the Company and to the nation. + +... + +Further light will be thrown upon this subject and the progress of the +cultivation by the following extract of a letter to me from Mr. Campbell, +dated in November 1803: + +Early in the year 1798 Mr. Broff, to whom the highest praise is due for +his enterprising and considerative scheme of procuring the spice trees +from our newly-conquered islands (after experiencing much disappointment +and want of support) overcame every obstacle, and we received, through +the agency of Mr. Jones, commercial resident at Amboina, five or six +hundred nutmeg plants, with about fifty cloves; but these latter were not +in a vigorous state. They were distributed and put generally under my +inspection. Their culture was attended with various success, but Mr. +Coles, from the situation of his farm, near Silebar River but not too +close to the seashore, and from, I believe, bestowing more personal +attention than any of us, has outstripped his competitors. Some trees +which I planted as far inland as the Sugar-loaf Mountain blossomed with +his, but the fruit was first perfected in his ground. The plants were +dispatched from Amboina in March 1798, just bursting from the shell, and +two months ago I plucked the perfect fruit, specimens of which I now send +you; being a period of five years and nine months only; whereas in their +native land eight years at least are commonly allowed. Having early +remarked the great promise of the trees I tried by every means in my +power to interest the Bengal government in our views, and at length, by +the assistance of Dr. Roxburgh, I succeeded. + +SECOND IMPORTATION OF PLANTS. + +A few months ago his son arrived here from Amboina, with twenty-two +thousand nutmeg plants, and upwards of six thousand cloves, which are +already in my nurseries, and flourishing like those which preceded them. +About the time the nutmegs fruited one clove tree flowered. Only three of +the original importation had survived their transit and the accidents +attending their planting out. Its buds are now filling, and I hope to +transmit specimens of them also. The Malay chiefs have eagerly engaged in +the cultivation of their respective shares. I have retained eight +thousand nutmegs as a plantation from which the fruit may hereafter be +disseminated. Every kind of soil and every variety of situation has been +tried. The cloves are not yet widely dispersed, for, being a tender +plant, I choose to have them under my own eye. + +... + +Since the death of Mr. Campbell Mr. Roxburgh has been appointed to the +superintendence, and the latest accounts from thence justify the sanguine +expectations formed of the ultimate importance of the trade; there being +at that period upwards of twenty thousand nutmeg trees in full bearing, +capable of yielding annually two hundred thousand pounds weight of +nutmegs, and fifty thousand pounds of mace. The clove plants have proved +more delicate, but the quality of their spice equal to any produced in +the Moluccas. + +CULTURE LEFT TO INDIVIDUALS. + +It is understood that the Company has declined the monopoly of the trade +and left the cultivation to individual exertion; directing however that +its own immediate plantations be kept up by the labour of convicts from +Bengal, and reserving to itself an export duty of ten per cent on the +value of the spices. + +CAMPHOR. + +Among the valuable productions of the island as articles of commerce a +conspicuous place belongs to the camphor. + +This peculiar substance, called by the natives kapur-barus,* and +distinguished by the epithet of native camphor from another sort which +shall be mentioned hereafter, is a drug for which Sumatra and Borneo have +been celebrated from the earliest times, and with the virtues of which +the Arabian physicians appear to have been acquainted. Chemists formerly +entertained opinions extremely discordant in regard to the nature and the +properties of camphor; and even at this day they seem to be but +imperfectly known. It is considered however as a sedative and powerful +diaphoretic: but my province is to mention such particulars of its +history as have come within my knowledge, leaving to others to +investigate its most beneficial uses. + +(*Footnote. The word kapur appears to be derived from the Sanskrit +karpura, and the Arabic and Persian kafur (from whence our camphor) to +have been adopted from the language of the country where the article is +produced. Barus is the name of a place in Sumatra.) + +PLACE OF GROWTH. + +The tree is a native of the northern parts of the island only, not being +found to the southward of the line, nor yet beyond the third degree of +north latitude. It grows without cultivation in the woods lying near to +the sea-coast, and is equal in height and bulk to the largest timber +trees, being frequently found upwards of fifteen feet in circumference. + +WOOD. + +For carpenters' purposes the wood is in much esteem, being easy to work, +light, durable, and not liable to be injured by insects, particularly by +the kumbang, a species of the bee, whose destructive perforations have +been already mentioned; but is also said to be more affected than most +others by the changes of the atmosphere. The leaf is small, of a roundish +oval, the fibres running straight and parallel to each other, and +terminates in a remarkably long and slender point. The flower has not yet +been brought to England. The fruit is described by C.F. Gaertner (De +Seminibus Volume 3 page 49 tab. 186) by the name of Dryobalanops +aromatica, from specimens in the collection of Sir Joseph Banks; but he +has unaccountably mistaken it for the cinnamon tree, and spoken of it as +a native of Ceylon. It is also described, from the same specimens, by M. +Correa de Serra (Annales du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle Tome 10 page 159 +plate 8) by the name of Pterigium teres; without any reference whatever +to the nature of the tree as yielding this valuable drug. A beautiful +engraving of its very peculiar foliage has been made under the direction +of Mr. A.B. Lambert. + +CAMPHOR FOUND IN THE FISSURES. + +The camphor is found in the concrete state in which we see it, in natural +fissures or crevices of the wood, but does not exhibit any exterior +appearance by which its existence can be previously ascertained, and the +persons whose employment it is to collect it usually cut down a number of +trees, almost at random, before they find one that contains a sufficient +quantity to repay their labour, although always assisted in their +research by a professional conjurer, whose skill must be chiefly employed +in concealing or accounting for his own mistakes. It is said that not a +tenth part of the number felled is productive either of camphor or of +camphor-oil (meniak kapur), although the latter is less rare; and that +parties of men are sometimes engaged for two or three months together in +the forests, with very precarious success. This scarcity tends to enhance +the price. The tree when cut down is divided transversely into several +blocks, and these again are split with wedges into small pieces, from the +interstices of which the camphor, if any there be, is extracted. That +which comes away readily in large flakes, almost transparent, is esteemed +the prime sort or head; the smaller, clean pieces are considered as +belly, and the minute particles, chiefly scraped from the wood, and often +mixed with it, are called foot; according to the customary terms adopted +in the assortment of drugs. The mode of separating it from these and +other impurities is by steeping and washing it in water, and sometimes +with the aid of soap. It is then passed through sieves or screens of +different apertures in order to make the assortment, so far as that +depends upon the size of the grains; but much of the selection is also +made by hand, and particular care is taken to distinguish from the more +genuine kinds that which is produced by an artificial concretion of the +essential oil. + +CAMPHOR OIL. + +The inquiries I formerly made on the subject (not having been myself in +the district where the tree grows) led me to believe with confidence that +the oil and the dry crystallized resin were not procured from the same +individual tree; but in this I was first undeceived by Mr. R. Maidman, +who in June 1788 wrote to me from Tappanuli, where he was resident, to +the following effect: + +I beg your acceptance of a piece of camphor-wood, the genuine quality of +which I can answer for, being cut by one of my own people, who was +employed in making charcoal, of which the best for smiths' work is made +from this wood. On cutting deep into a pretty large tree the fine oil +suddenly gushed out and was lost for want of a receiver. He felled the +tree, and, having split it, brought me three or four catties (four or +five pounds) of the finest camphor I ever saw, and also this log, which +is very rich. My reason for being thus particular is that the country +people have a method of pouring oil of inferior camphor-trees into a log +of wood that has natural cracks, and, by exposing this to the sun every +day for a week, it appears like genuine camphor; but is the worst sort. + +... + +This coexistence of the two products has been since confirmed to me by +others, and is particularly stated by Mr. Macdonald in his ingenious +paper on certain Natural Productions of Sumatra, published in the Asiatic +Researches Volume 4 Calcutta 1795. It seems probable on the whole that, +as the tree advances in age, a greater proportion of this essential oil +takes a concrete form, and it has been observed to me that, when the +fresh oil has been allowed to stand and settle, a sediment of camphor is +procured; but the subject requires further examination by well-informed +persons on the spot. + +PRICE. + +Head camphor is usually purchased from those who procure it at the rate +of six Spanish dollars the pound, or eight dollars the catty, and sells +in the China market at Canton for nine to twelve dollars the pound, or +twelve to fifteen hundred dollars the pekul of a hundred catties or one +hundred thirty-three pounds and a third, avoirdupois. When of superior +quality it sells for two thousand dollars, and I have been assured that +some small choice samples have produced upwards of thirty dollars per +catty.* It is estimated that the whole quantity annually brought down for +sale on the western side of the island does not exceed fifty pekul. The +trade is chiefly in the hands of the Achinese settled at Sinkell, who buy +the article from the Batta people and dispose of it to the Europeans and +Chinese settlers. + +(*Footnote. See Price Currents of the China trade. Camphor was purchased +in Sumatra by Commodore Beaulieu in 1622 at the rate of fifteen Spanish +dollars for twenty-eight ounces, which differs but little from the modern +price. In the Transactions of the Society at Batavia it appears that the +camphor of Borneo sells in their market for 3200 rix dollars, and that of +Japan for 50 rix dollars the pekul.) + +JAPAN CAMPHOR. + +It has been commonly supposed that the people of China or Japan prepare a +factitious substance resembling native camphor, and impregnated with its +virtues by the admixture of a small quantity of the genuine, which is +sold to the Dutch factory for thirty or forty dollars the pekul, sent to +Holland, and afterwards refined to the state in which we see it in our +shops, where it is sold at eight to twelve shillings the pound. It +appears however an extraordinary circumstance that any article could +possibly be so adulterated, bearing at the same time the likeness and +retaining the sensible qualities of its original, as that the dealers +should be enabled, with profit to themselves to resell it for the +fiftieth part of the price they gave. But, upon inquiry of an ingenious +person long resident in China, I learned that the Japan camphor is by no +means a factitious substance, but the genuine produce of a tree growing +in abundance in the latter country, different in every character from +that of Sumatra or Borneo, and well known to our botanists by the name of +Laurus camphora, L. He further informed me that the Chinese never mix the +Sumatran camphor with that from Japan, but purchase the former for their +own use, at the before-mentioned extravagant price, from an idea of its +efficacy, probably superstitious, and export the latter as a drug not +held in any particular estimation. Thus we buy the leaves of their +tea-plant at a high rate and neglect herbs, the natives of our own soil, +possessing perhaps equal virtues. It is known also that the Japan +camphor, termed factitious, will evaporate till it wholly disappears, and +at all stages of its diminution retain its full proportion of strength; +which does not seem the property of an adulterated or compounded body. +Kaempfer informs us that it is prepared from a decoction of the wood and +roots of the tree cut into small pieces; and the form of the lumps in +which it is brought to us shows that it has undergone a process. The +Sumatran sort, though doubtless from its extreme volatility it must be +subject to decrease, does not lose any very sensible quantity from being +kept, as I find from the experience of many years that it has been in my +possession. It probably may not be very easy to ascertain its superiority +over the other in the materia medica, not being brought for sale to this +country, nor generally administered; but from a medical person who +practised at Bencoolen I learned that the usual dose he gave was from +half a grain to one or two grains at the most. The oil, although hitherto +of little importance as an article of commerce, is a valuable domestic +medicine, and much used by the natives as well as Europeans in cases of +strains, swellings, and rheumatic pains; its particles, from their +extreme subtlety, readily entering the pores. It undergoes no +preparation, and is used in the state in which, upon incision, it has +distilled from the tree. The kayu putih (Melaleuca leucadendron) oil, +which is somewhat better known in England, is obtained in the same +manner; but to procure the meniak kayu or common wood-oil, used for +preserving timber or boards exposed to the weather, from decay, and for +boiling with dammar to pay the bottoms of ships and boats, the following +method is practised. They make a transverse incision into the tree to the +depth of some inches, and then cut sloping down from the notch, till they +leave a flat superficies. This they hollow out to a capacity to receive +about a quart. They then put into the hollow a bit of lighted reed, and +let it remain for about ten minutes, which, acting as a stimulus, draws +the fluid to that part. In the space of a night the liquor fills the +receptacle prepared for it, and the tree continues to yield a lesser +quantity for three successive nights, when the fire must be again +applied: but on a few repetitions it is exhausted. + +BENZOIN. + +Benzoin or Benjamin (Styrax benzoin*) called by the Malays kaminian, is, +like the camphor, found almost exclusively in the Batta country, to the +northward of the equator, but not in the Achinese dominions immediately +beyond that district. It is also met with, though rarely, south of the +line, but there, either from natural inferiority or want of skill in +collecting it, the small quantity produced is black and of little value. +The tree does not grow to any considerable size, and is of no value as +timber. The seeds or nuts, which are round, of a brown colour, and about +the size of a moderate bolus, are sown in the padi-fields and afterwards +require no other cultivation than to clear away the shrubs from about the +young plants. In some places, especially near the sea-coast, large +plantations of it are formed, and it is said that the natives, sensible +of the great advantage accruing to them from the trade, in a national +point of view, oblige the proprietors, by legal regulation, to keep up +the succession. + +(*Footnote. See a Botanical Description of this tree by my friend Mr. +Jonas Dryander, with a plate, in Volume 77 page 307 of the Philosophical +Transactions for the year 1787.) + +MODE OF PROCURING IT. + +When the trees have attained the age of about seven years, and are six or +eight inches in diameter, incisions are made in the bark, from whence the +balsam or gum (as it is commonly termed, although being soluble in +spirits and not in water, it is rather a resin) exudes, which is +carefully pared off. The purest of the gum, or Head benzoin, is that +which comes from these incisions during the first three years, and is +white, inclining to yellow, soft, and fragrant; after which it gradually +changes to the second sort, which is of a reddish yellow, degenerating to +brown; and at length when the tree, which will not bear a repetition of +the process for more than ten or twelve years, is supposed to be worn +out, they cut it down, and when split in pieces procure, by scraping, the +worst sort, or Foot benzoin, which is dark coloured, hard, and mixed more +or less with parings of the wood and other impurities. The Head is +further distinguished into Europe and India-head, of which the first is +superior, and is the only sort adapted to the home market: the latter, +with most of the inferior sorts, is exported to Arabia,* Persia, and some +parts of India, where it is burned to perfume with its smoke their +temples and private houses, expel troublesome insects, and obviate the +pernicious effects of unwholesome air or noxious exhalations; in addition +to which uses, in the Malayan countries, it is always considered as a +necessary part of the apparatus in administering an oath. It is brought +down from the country for sale in large cakes, called tampang, covered +with mats; and these, as a staple commodity, are employed in their +dealings for a standard of value, to which the price of other things have +reference, as in most parts of the world to certain metals. In order to +pack it in chests it is necessary to soften the coarser sorts with +boiling water; for the finer it is sufficient to break the lumps and to +expose it to the heat of the sun. The greater part of the quantity +brought to England is re-exported from thence to countries where the +Roman Catholic and Mahometan religions prevail, to be there burnt as +incense in the churches and temples.** The remainder is chiefly employed +in medicine, being much esteemed as an expectorant and styptic, and +constitutes the basis of that valuable balsam distinguished by the name +of Turlington, whose very salutary effects, particularly in healing green +and other wounds, is well known to persons abroad who cannot always +obtain surgical assistance. It is also employed, if I am not misinformed, +in the preparation of court sticking-plaster. The gum or resin called +dulang is named by us scented benzoin from its peculiar fragrance. The +rasamala (Lignum papuanum of Rumphius, and Altingia excelsa of the +Batavian Transactions) is a sort of wild benzoin, of little value, and +not, in Sumatra, considered as an object of commerce. + +(*Footnote. Les Arabes tirent beaucoup d'autres sortes d'encens de +l'Habbesch, de Sumatra, Siam, Java, etc. et parmi celles-la une qu'ils +appellent Bachor (bakhor) Java, et que les Anglois nomment Benzoin, est +tres semblable a l'Oliban. On en exporte en grande quantite en Turquie +parles golfes d'Arabie et de Perse, et la moindre des trois especes de +Benzoin, que les marchands vendent, est estimee meilleure que l'Oliban +d'Arabie. Niebuhr, Description de l'Arabie page 126.) + +(**Footnote. According to Mr. Jackson the annual importation of Benzoin +at Mogodor from London is about 13,000 pounds annually.) + +CASSIA. + +Cassia or kulit manis (Laurus cassia) is a coarse species of cinnamon +which flourishes chiefly, as well as the two foregoing articles, in the +northern part of the island; but with this difference, that the camphor +and benzoin grow only near the coast, whereas the cassia is a native of +the central parts of the country. It is mostly procured in those +districts which lie inland of Tapanuli, but it is also found in Musi, +where Palembang River takes its rise. The leaves are about four inches +long, narrower than the bay (to which tribe it belongs) and more pointed; +deep green; smooth surface, and plain edge. The principal fibres take +their rise from the peduncle. The young leaves are mostly of reddish hue. +The blossoms grow six in number upon slender footstalks, close to the +bottom of the leaf. They are monopetalous, small, white, stellated in six +points. The stamina are six, with one stile, growing from the germen, +which stands up in three brownish segments, resembling a cup. The trees +grow from fifty to sixty feet high, with large, spreading, horizontal +branches, almost as low as the earth. The root is said to contain much +camphor that may be obtained by boiling or other processes unknown on +Sumatra. No pains is bestowed on the cultivation of the cassia. The bark, +which is the part in use, is commonly taken from such of the trees as are +a foot or eighteen inches diameter, for when they are younger it is said +to be so thin as to lose all its qualities very soon. The difference of +soil and situation alters considerably the value of the bark. Those trees +which grow in a high rocky soil have red shoots, and the bark is superior +to that which is produced in a moist clay, where the shoots are green. I +have been assured by a person of extensive knowledge that the cassia +produced on Sumatra is from the same tree which yields the true cinnamon, +and that the apparent difference arises from the less judicious manner of +quilling it. Perhaps the younger and more tender branches should be +preferred; perhaps the age of the tree or the season of the year ought to +be more nicely attended to; and lastly I have known it to be suggested +that the mucilaginous slime which adheres to the inside of the fresh +peeled rind does, when not carefully wiped off, injure the flavour of the +cassia and render it inferior to that of the cinnamon. I am informed that +it has been purchased by Dutch merchants at our India sales, where it +sometimes sold to much loss, and afterwards by them shipped for Spain as +cinnamon, being packed in boxes which had come from Ceylon with that +article. The price it bears in the island is about ten or twelve dollars +the pecul. + +RATTANS. + +Rattans or rotan (Calamus rotang) furnish annually many large cargoes, +chiefly from the eastern side of the island, where the Dutch buy them to +send to Europe; and the country traders for the western parts of India. +Walking-canes, or tongkat, of various kinds, are also produced near the +rivers which open to the straits of Malacca. + +COTTON. + +In almost every part of the country two species of cotton are cultivated, +namely, the annual sort named kapas (Gossypium herbaceum), and the shrub +cotton named kapas besar (Gossypium herboreum). The cotton produced from +both appears to be of very good quality, and might, with encouragement, +be procured in any quantities; but the natives raise no more than is +necessary for their own domestic manufactures. The silk cotton or kapok +(bombax) is also to be met with in every village. This is, to appearance, +one of the most beautiful raw materials the hand of nature has presented. +Its fineness, gloss, and delicate softness render it, to the sight and +touch, much superior to the labour of the silkworm; but owing to the +shortness and brittleness of the staple it is esteemed unfit for the reel +and loom, and is only applied to the unworthy purpose of stuffing pillows +and mattresses. Possibly it has not undergone a fair trial in the hands +of our ingenious artists, and we may yet see it converted into a valuable +manufacture. It grows in pods, from four to six inches long, which burst +open when ripe. The seeds entirely resemble the black pepper, but are +without taste. The tree is remarkable from the branches growing out +perfectly straight and horizontal, and being always three, forming equal +angles, at the same height: the diminutive shoots likewise grow flat; and +the several gradations of branches observe the same regularity to the +top. Some travellers have called it the umbrella tree, but the piece of +furniture called a dumb-waiter exhibits a more striking picture of it. + +BETEL-NUT. + +The betel-nut or pinang (Areca catechu) before mentioned is a +considerable article of traffic to the coast of Coromandel or Telinga, +particularly from Achin. + +COFFEE. + +The coffee-trees are universally planted, but the fruit produced here is +not excellent in quality, which is probably owing entirely to the want of +skill in the management of them. The plants are disposed too close to +each other, and are so much overshaded by other trees that the sun cannot +penetrate to the fruit; owing to which the juices are not well ripened, +and the berries, which become large, do not acquire a proper flavour. Add +to this that the berries are gathered whilst red, which is before they +have arrived at a due degree of maturity, and which the Arabs always +permit them to attain to, esteeming it essential to the goodness of the +coffee. As the tree is of the same species with that cultivated in Arabia +there is little doubt but with proper care this article might be produced +of a quality equal, perhaps superior, to that imported from the West +Indies; though probably the heavy rains on Sumatra may prevent its +attaining to the perfection of the coffee of Mocha.* + +(*Footnote. For these observations on the growth of the coffee, as well +as many others on the vegetable productions of the island, I am indebted +to the letters of Mr. Charles Miller, entered on the Company's records at +Bencoolen, and have to return him my thanks for many communications since +his return to England. On the subject of this article of produce I have +since received the following interesting information from the late Mr. +Charles Campbell in a letter dated November 1803. "The coffee you +recollect on this coast I found so degenerated from want of culture and +care as not to be worth the rearing. But this objection has been removed, +for more than three years ago I procured twenty-five plants from Mocha; +they produced fruit in about twenty months, are now in their second crop, +and loaded beyond any fruit-trees I ever saw. The average produce is +about eight pounds a tree; but so much cannot be expected in extensive +plantations, nor in every soil. The berries are in no respect inferior in +flavour to those of the parent country." This cultivation, I am happy to +hear, has since been carried to a great extent.) + + +(PLATE 2. THE DAMMAR, A SPECIES OF PINUS. +Sinensis delt. Swaine Sc. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +DAMMAR. + +The dammar is a kind of turpentine or resin from a species of pine, and +used for the same purposes to which that and pitch are applied. It is +exported in large quantities to Bengal and elsewhere. It exudes, or +flows rather, spontaneously from the tree in such plenty that there is no +need of making incisions to procure it. The natives gather it in lumps +from the ground where it has fallen, or collect it from the shores of +bays and rivers whither it has floated. It hangs from the bough of the +tree which produces it in large pieces, and hardening in the air it +becomes brittle and is blown off by the first high wind. When a quantity +of it has fallen in the same place it appears like a rock, and thence, +they say, or more probably from its hardness, it is called dammar batu; +by which name it is distinguished from the dammar kruyen. This is another +species of turpentine, yielded by a tree growing in Lampong, called +kruyen, the wood of which is white and porous. It differs from the common +sort, or dammar batu, in being soft and whitish, having the consistence +and somewhat the appearance of putty. It is in much estimation for paying +the bottoms of vessels, for which use, to give it firmness and duration, +it ought to be mixed with some of the hard kind, of which it corrects the +brittleness. The natives, in common, do not boil it, but rub or smear it +on with their hands; a practice which is probably derived from indolence, +unless, as I have been informed, that boiling it, without oil, renders it +hard. To procure it, an incision is made in the tree. + +DRAGONS-BLOOD. + +Dragons-blood, Sanguis draconis, or jaranang, is a drug obtained from a +large species of rattan, called rotan jaranang, growing abundantly in the +countries of Palembang and Jambi, where it is manufactured and exported, +in the first instance to Batavia, and from thence to China, where it is +held in much estimation; but whether it be precisely the drug of our +shops, so named, I cannot take upon me to determine. I am informed that +it is prepared in the following manner: the stamina and other parts of +fructification of this plant, covered with the farina, are mixed with a +certain proportion of white dammar, and boiled in water until the whole +is well incorporated, and the water evaporated; by which time the +composition has acquired a red colour, and, when rubbed between the +fingers, comes off in a dry powder. Whilst soft, it is usually poured +into joints of small bamboo, and shipped in that state. According to this +account, which I received from my friend Mr. Philip Braham, who had an +opportunity of acquiring a knowledge of the process, the resinous quality +of the drug belongs only to the dammar, and not to the rotan. + +GAMBIR. + +Gambir, or gatah gambir, is a juice extracted from the leaves of a plant +of that name, inspissated by decoction, strained, suffered to cool and +harden, and then cut into cakes of different shapes, or formed into +balls. It is very generally eaten by the natives with their sirih or +betel, and is supposed to have the property of cleansing and sweetening +the mouth; for which reason it is also rubbed to the gums of infants. For +a minute detail of the culture and manufacture of this article at Malacca +see the Batavian Transactions Volume 2 page 356, where the plant is +classed between the portlandia and roella of L. In other places it is +obtained from a climbing or trailing plant, evidently the Funis uncatus +of Rumphius.* See also Observations on the Nauclea Gambir, by Mr. W. +Hunter, in the Linnean Transactions Volume 9 page 218. At Siak, Kampar, +and Indragiri, on the eastern side of Sumatra, it is an important article +of commerce. + +(*Footnote. Hoc unum adhuc addendum est, in Sumatra nempe ac forte in +Java aliam quoque esse plantam repentem gatta gambir akar dictam, qum +forte unae eaedemque erunt plantae; ac verbum akar Malaiensibus denotat +non tantum radicem, sed repentem quoque fruticem. Volume 5 page 64.) + +LIGNUM ALOES. + +The agallochin, agila-wood, or lignum aloes, called by the natives +kalambak and kayu gahru, is highly prized in all parts of the East, for +the fragrant scent it emits in burning. I find these two names used +indiscriminately in Malayan writings, and sometimes coupled together; but +Valentyn pronounces the gahru to be an inferior species, and the Batavian +Catalogue describes it as the heart of the rasamala, and different from +the genuine kalambak. This unctuous substance, which burns like a resin, +is understood to be the decayed, and probably disordered, part of the +tree. It is described by Kaempfer (Amaenit page 903) under the Chinese +name of sinkoo, and by Dr. Roxburgh under that of Aquillaria agallocha. + +TIMBER. + +The forests contain an inexhaustible store and endless variety of timber +trees, many sorts of which are highly valuable and capable of being +applied to ship-building and other important purposes. On the western +coast the general want of navigable rivers has materially hindered both +the export and the employment of timber; but those on the eastern side, +particularly Siak, have heretofore supplied the city of Batavia with +great abundance, and latterly the naval arsenal at Pulo Pinang with what +is required for the construction of ships of war. + +TEAK. + +The teak however, the pride of Indian forests, called by the Malays jati +(Tectona grandis, L.), does not appear to be indigenous to this island, +although flourishing to the northward and southward of it, in Pegu and +Java; and I believe it is equally a stranger to the Malayan peninsula. +Attempts have been made by the servants of the Company to promote its +cultivation. Mr. Robert Hay had a plantation near Bencoolen, but the +situation seemed unfavourable. Mr. John Marsden, when resident of Laye in +the year 1776, sowed some seeds of it, and distributed a quantity amongst +the inhabitants of his district. The former, at least, throve +exceedingly, as if in their natural soil. The appearance of the tree is +stately, the leaves are broad and large, and they yield, when squeezed, a +red juice. The wood is well known to be, in many respects, preferable to +oak, working more kindly, surpassing it in durability, and having the +peculiar property of preserving the iron bolts driven into it from rust; +a property that may be ascribed to the essential oil or tar contained in +it, and which has lately been procured from it in large quantities by +distillation at Bombay. Many ships built at that place have continued to +swim so long that none could recollect the period at which they were +launched. + +POON, ETC. + +For masts and yards the wood preferred is the red bintangur (a species of +uvaria), which in all the maritime parts of India has obtained the name +of poon or puhn, from the Malayan word signifying tree in general; as +puhn upas, the poison-tree, puhn kayu, a timber-tree, etc. + +The camphor-wood, so useful for carpenters' purposes, has been already +mentioned. + +Kayu pindis or kapini (species of metrosideros), is named also kayu besi, +or iron-wood, on account of its extraordinary hardness, which turns the +edge of common tools. + +Marbau (Metrosideros amboinensis, R.) grows to a large size, and is used +for beams both in ship and housebuilding, as well as for other purposes +to which oak is applied in Europe. Pinaga is valuable as crooked timber, +and used for frames and knees of ships, being also very durable. It +frequently grows in the wash of the sea. + +Juar, ebony, called in the Batavian Catalogue kayu arang, or +charcoal-wood, is found here in great plenty. + +Kayu gadis, a wood possessing the flavour and qualities of the sassafras, +and used for the same purposes in medicine, but in the growth of the tree +resembling rather our elm than the laurus (to which latter tribe the +American sassafras belongs), is very common in the plains near Bencoolen. + +Kayu arau (Casuarina littorea) is often termed a bastard-pine, and as +such gave name to the Isle of Pines discovered by Captain Cook. By the +Malays it is usually called kayu chamara, from the resemblance of its +branches to the ornamental cowtails of Upper India. It has been already +remarked of this tree, whose wood is not particularly useful, that it +delights in a low sandy soil, and is ever the first that springs up from +land relinquished by the sea. + +The rangas or rungi, commonly supposed to be the manchineel of the West +Indies, but perhaps only from the noxious quality of its juices, is the +Arbor vernicis of Rumphius, and particularly described in the Batavian +Transactions Volume 5 under the name of Manga deleteria sylvestris, +fructu parvo cordiformi. In a list of plants in the same volume, by F. +Norona, it is termed Anacardium encardium. The wood has some resemblance +to mahogany, is worked up into articles of furniture, and resists the +destructive ravages of the white ant, but its hardness and acrid sap, +which blisters the hands of those employed about it, are objections to +its general use. I am not aware of the natives procuring a varnish from +this tree. + +Of the various sorts of tree producing dammar, some are said to be +valuable as timber, particularly the species called dammar laut, not +mentioned by Rumphius, which is employed at Pulo Pinang for frame timbers +of ships, beams, and knees. + +Kamuning (camunium, R. chalcas paniculata, Lour.) is a light-coloured +wood, close, and finely grained, takes an exquisite polish, and is used +for the sheaths of krises. There is also a red-grained sort, in less +estimation. The appearance of the tree is very beautiful, resembling in +its leaves the larger myrtle, with a white flower. + +The langsani likewise is a wood handsomely veined, and is employed for +cabinet and carved work. + +Beside these the kinds of wood most in use are the madang, ballam, +maranti, laban, and marakuli. The variety is much greater, but many, from +their porous nature and proneness to decay, are of very little value, and +scarcely admit of seasoning before they become rotten. + +I cannot quit the vegetable kingdom without noticing a tree which, +although of no use in manufacture or commerce, not peculiar to the +island, and has been often described, merits yet, for its extreme +singularity, that it should not be passed over in silence. This is the +jawi-jawi and ulang-ulang of the Malays, the banyan tree of the +continent, the Grossularia domestica of Rumphius, and the Ficus indica or +Ficus racemosa of Linnaeus. It possesses the uncommon property of +dropping roots or fibres from certain parts of its boughs, which, when +they touch the earth, become new stems, and go on increasing to such an +extent that some have measured, in circumference of the branches, upwards +of a thousand feet, and have been said to afford shelter to a troop of +horse.* These fibres, that look like ropes attached to the branches, when +they meet with any obstruction in their descent conform themselves to the +shape of the resisting body, and thus occasion many curious +metamorphoses. I recollect seeing them stand in the perfect shape of a +gate long after the original posts and cross piece had decayed and +disappeared; and I have been told of their lining the internal +circumference of a large bricked well, like the worm in a distiller's +tub; there exhibiting the view of a tree turned inside out, the branches +pointing to the centre, instead of growing from it. It is not more +extraordinary in its manner of growth than whimsical and fantastic in its +choice of situations. From the side of a wall or the top of a house it +seems to spring spontaneously. Even from the smooth surface of a wooden +pillar, turned and painted, I have seen it shoot forth, as if the +vegetative juices of the seasoned timber had renewed their circulation +and begun to produce leaves afresh. I have seen it flourish in the centre +of a hollow tree of a very different species, which however still +retained its verdure, its branches encompassing those of the adventitious +plant whilst its decayed trunk enclosed the stem, which was visible, at +interstices, from nearly the level of the plain on which they grew. This +in truth appeared so striking a curiosity that I have often repaired to +the spot to contemplate the singularity of it. How the seed from which it +is produced happens to occupy stations seemingly so unnatural is not +easily determined. Some have imagined the berries carried thither by the +wind, and others, with more appearance of truth, by the birds; which, +cleansing their bills where they light, or attempt to light, leave, in +those places, the seeds adhering by the viscous matter which surrounds +them. However this be, the jawi-jawi, growing on buildings without earth +or water, and deriving from the genial atmosphere its principle of +nourishment, proves in its increasing growth highly destructive to the +fabric where it is harboured; for the fibrous roots, which are at first +extremely fine, penetrate common cements, and, overcoming as their size +enlarges the most powerful resistance, split, with the force of the +mechanic wedge, the most substantial brickwork. When the consistence is +such as not to admit the insinuation of the fibres the root extends +itself along the outside, and to an extraordinary length, bearing not +unfrequently to the stem the proportion of eight to one when young. I +have measured the former sixty inches, when the latter, to the extremity +of the leaf, which took up a third part, was no more than eight inches. I +have also seen it wave its boughs at the apparent height of two hundred +feet, of which the roots, if we may term them such, occupied at least one +hundred; forming by their close combination the appearance of a venerable +gothic pillar. It stood near the plains of Krakap, but, like other +monuments of antiquity, it had its period of existence, and is now no +more. + +(*Footnote. The following is an account of the dimensions of a remarkable +banyan or burr tree, near Manjee, twenty miles west of Patna in Bengal. +Diameter 363 to 375 feet. Circumference of shadow at noon 1116 feet. +Circumference of the several stems, in number fifty or sixty, 921 feet. +Under this tree sat a naked Fakir, who had occupied that situation for +twenty-five years; but he did not continue there the whole year through, +for his vow obliged him to lie, during the four cold months, up to his +neck in the waters of the river Ganges.) + + +(PLATE 18. ENTRANCE OF PADANG RIVER. +With Buffaloes.) + + +(PLATE 18A. VIEW OF PADANG HILL. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + + +CHAPTER 8. + +GOLD, TIN, AND OTHER METALS. +BEESWAX. +IVORY. +BIRDS-NEST, ETC. +IMPORT-TRADE. + +GOLD. + +Beside those articles of trade afforded by the vegetable kingdom Sumatra +produces many others, the chief of which is gold. This valuable metal is +found mostly in the central parts of the island; none (or with few +exceptions) being observed to the southward of Limun, a branch of Jambi +River, nor to the northward of Nalabu, from which port Achin is +principally supplied. Menangkabau has always been esteemed the richest +seat of it; and this consideration probably induced the Dutch to +establish their head factory at Padang, in the immediate neighbourhood of +that kingdom. Colonies of Malays from thence have settled themselves in +almost all the districts where gold is procured, and appear to be the +only persons who dig for it in mines, or collect it in streams; the +proper inhabitants or villagers confining their attention to the raising +of provisions, with which they supply those who search for the metal. +Such at least appears to be the case in Limun, Batang Asei, and Pakalang +jambu, where a considerable gold trade is carried on. + +It has been generally understood at the English settlements that earth +taken up from the beds of rivers, or loosened from the adjacent banks, +and washed by means of rivulets diverted towards the newly-opened ground, +furnishes the greater proportion of the gold found in the island, and +that the natives are not accustomed to venture upon any excavation that +deserves the name of mining; but our possession, during the present war, +of the settlements that belonged to the Dutch, has enabled us to form +juster notions on the subject, and the following account, obtained from +well-informed persons on the spot, will show the methods pursued in both +processes, and the degree of enterprise and skill employed by the +workmen. + +In the districts situated inland of Padang, which is the principal mart +for this article, little is collected otherwise than from mines (tambang) +by people whose profession it is to work them, and who are known by the +appellation of orang gulla. The metal brought down for sale is for the +most part of two sorts, distinguished by the terms amas supayang and amas +sungei-abu, from the names of places where they are respectively +procured. The former is what we usually call rock-gold, consisting of +pieces of quartz more or less intermixed with veins of gold, generally of +fine quality, running through it in all directions, and forming beautiful +masses, which, being admired by Europeans, are sometimes sold by weight +as if the whole were solid metal. The mines yielding this sort are +commonly situated at the foot of a mountain, and the shafts are driven +horizontally to the extent of from eight to twenty fathoms. The gold to +which sungei-abu gives name is on the contrary found in the state of +smooth solid lumps, in shape like gravel, and of various sizes, the +largest lump that I have seen weighing nine ounces fifteen grains, and +one in my possession (for which I am indebted to Mr. Charles Holloway) +weighing eight grains less than nine ounces. This sort is also termed +amas lichin or smooth gold, and appears to owe that quality to its having +been exposed, in some prior state of the soil or conformation of the +earth, to the action of running water, and deprived of its sharp and +rough edges by attrition. This form of gravel is the most common in which +gold is discovered. Gold-dust or amas urei is collected either in the +channels of brooks running over ground rich in the metal, in standing +pools of water occasioned by heavy rains, or in a number of holes dug in +a situation to which a small rapid stream can be directed. + +The tools employed in working the mines are an iron crow three feet in +length, called tabah, a shovel called changkul, and a heavy iron mallet +or hammer, the head of which is eighteen inches in length and as thick as +a man's leg, with a handle in the middle. With this they beat the lumps +of rock till they are reduced to powder, and the pounded mass is then put +into a sledge or tray five or six feet long and one and a half broad, in +the form of a boat, and thence named bidu. To this vessel a rope of iju +is attached, by which they draw it when loaded out of the horizontal mine +to the nearest place where they can meet with a supply of water, which +alone is employed to separate the gold from the pulverized quartz. + +In the perpendicular mines the smooth or gravel-gold is often found near +the surface, but in small quantities, improving as the workmen advance, +and again often vanishing suddenly. This they say is most likely to be +the case when after pursuing a poor vein they suddenly come to large +lumps. When they have dug to the depth of four, six, or sometimes eight +fathoms (which they do at a venture, the surface not affording any +indications on which they can depend), they work horizontally, supporting +the shaft with timbers; but to persons acquainted with the berg-werken of +Germany or Hungary, these pits would hardly appear to merit the +appellation of mines.* In Siberia however, as in Sumatra, the hills yield +their gold by slightly working them. Sand is commonly met with at the +depth of three or four fathoms, and beneath this a stratum of napal or +steatite, which is considered as a sign that the metal is near; but the +least fallible mark is a red stone, called batu kawi, lying in detached +pieces. It is mostly found in red and white clay, and often adhering to +small stones, as well as in homogeneous lumps. The gold is separated from +the clay by means of water poured on a hollow board, in the management of +which the persons employed are remarkably expert. + +(*Footnote. It has been observed to me that it is not so much the want of +windlasses or machines (substitutes for which they are ready enough at +contriving) that prevents excavation to a great depth as the apprehension +of earthquakes, the effect of which has frequently been to overwhelm them +before they could escape even from their shallow mines.) + +In these perpendicular mines the water is drawn off by hand in pails or +buckets. In the horizontal they make two shafts or entries in a direction +parallel to each other, as far as they mean to extend the work, and there +connect them by a cross trench. One of these, by a difference in their +respective levels, serves as a drain to carry off the water, whilst the +other is kept dry. They work in parties of from four or five to forty or +fifty in number; the proprietor of the ground receiving one half of the +produce and the undertakers the other; and it does not appear that the +prince receives any established royalty. The hill people affect a kind of +independence or equality which they express by the term of sama rata. + +It may well be imagined that mines of this description are very numerous, +and in the common estimation of the natives they amount to no fewer than +twelve hundred in the dominions of Menangkabau. A considerable proportion +of their produce (perhaps one half) never comes into the hands of +Europeans but is conveyed to the eastern side of the island, and yet I +have been assured on good authority that from ten to twelve thousand +ounces have annually been received, on public and private account, at +Padang alone; at Nalabu about two thousand, Natal eight hundred, and +Moco-moco six hundred. The quality of the gold collected in the Padang +districts is inferior to that purchased at Natal and Moco-moco, in +consequence of the practice of blending together the unequal produce of +such a variety of mines which in other parts it is customary to keep +distinct. The gold from the former is of the fineness of from nineteen to +twenty-one, and from the latter places is generally of from twenty-two to +twenty-three carats. The finest that has passed through my hands was +twenty-three carats, one grain and a half, assayed at the Tower of +London. Gold of an inferior touch, called amas muda from the paleness of +its colour, is found in the same countries where the other is produced. I +had some assayed which was two carats three grains worse than standard, +and contained an alloy of silver, but not in a proportion to be affected +by the acids. I have seen gold brought from Mampawah in Borneo which was +in the state of a fine uniform powder, high-coloured, and its degree of +fineness not exceeding fifteen or sixteen carats. The natives suppose +these differences to proceed from an original essential inferiority of +the metal, not possessing the art of separating it from the silver or +copper. In this island it is never found in the state of ore, but is +always completely metallic. A very little pale gold is now and then found +in the Lampong country. + +Of those who dig for it the most intelligent, distinguished by the name +of sudagar or merchants, are intrusted by the rest with their +collections, who carry the gold to the places of trade on the great +eastern rivers, or to the settlements on the west coast, where they +barter it for iron (of which large quantities are consumed in tools for +working the mines), opium, and the fine piece-goods of Madras and Bengal +with which they return heavily loaded to their country. In some parts of +the journey they have the convenience of water-carriage on lakes and +rivers; but in others they carry on their backs a weight of about eighty +pounds through woods, over streams, and across mountains, in parties +generally of one hundred or more, who have frequent occasion to defend +their property against the spirit of plunder and extortion which prevails +among the poorer nations through whose districts they are obliged to +pass. Upon the proposal of striking out any new road the question always +asked by these intermediate people is, apa ontong kami, what is to be our +advantage? + +PRICE. + +When brought to our settlements it was formerly purchased at the rate of +eighteen Spanish dollars the tail, or about three pounds five shillings +the ounce, but in later times it has risen to twenty-one dollars, or to +three pounds eighteen shillings the ounce. Upon exportation to Europe +therefore it scarcely affords a profit to the original buyer, and others +who employ it as a remittance incur a loss when insurance and other +incidental charges are deducted. A duty of five per cent which it had +been customary to charge at the East India-house was, about twenty years +ago, most liberally remitted by the Company upon a representation made by +me to the Directors of the hardship sustained in this respect by its +servants at Fort Marlborough, and the public benefit that would accrue +from giving encouragement to the importation of bullion. The long +continuance of war and peculiar risk of Indian navigation resulting from +it may probably have operated to counteract these good effects. + +It has generally been thought surprising that the European Companies who +have so long had establishments in Sumatra should not have considered it +an object to work these mines upon a regular system, with proper +machinery, and under competent inspection; but the attempt has in fact +been made, and experience and calculation may have taught them that it is +not a scheme likely to be attended with success, owing among other causes +to the dearness of labour, and the necessity it would occasion for +keeping up a force in distant parts of the country for the protection of +the persons engaged and the property collected. Europeans cannot be +employed upon such work in that climate, and the natives are unfit for +(nor would they submit to) the laborious exertion required to render the +undertaking profitable. A detailed and in many respects interesting +account of the working a gold mine at Sileda, with a plate representing a +section of the mine, is given by Elias Hesse,* who in the year 1682 +accompanied the Bergh-Hoofdman, Benj. Olitzsch, and a party of miners +from Saxony, sent out by the Dutch East India Company for that purpose. +The superintendent, with most of his people, lost their lives, and the +undertaking failed. It is said at Padang that the metal proved to be +uncommonly poor. Many years later trial was made of a vein running close +to that settlement; but the returns not being adequate to the expense it +was let to farm, and in a few years fell into such low repute as to be at +length disposed of by public auction at a rent of two Spanish dollars.** +The English company, also having intelligence of a mine said to be +discovered near Fort Marlborough, gave orders for its being worked; but +if it ever existed no trace now remains. + +(*Footnote. Ost-Indische Reise-beschreibung oder Diarium. Leipzig 1690 +octavo. See also J.W. Vogel's Ost-Indianische Reise-beschreibung. +Altenburg 1704 octavo.) + +(**Footnote. The following is an extract of a letter from Mr. James +Moore, a servant of the Company, dated from Padang in 1778. "They have +lately opened a vein of gold in the country inland of this place, from +which the governor at one time received a hundred and fifty tials (two +hundred ounces). He has procured a map to be made of a particular part of +the gold country, which points out the different places where they work +for it; and also the situation of twenty-one Malay forts, all inhabited +and in repair. These districts are extremely populous compared to the +more southern part of the island. They collect and export annually to +Batavia about two thousand five hundred tials of gold from this place: +the quantity never exceeds three thousand tials nor falls short of two +thousand." This refers to the public export on the Company's account, +which agrees with what is stated in the Batavian Transactions. "In een +goed Jaar geeven de Tigablas cottas omtrent 3000 Thail, zynde 6 Thail een +Mark, dus omtrent 500 Mark Goud, van 't gchalte van 19 tot 20 carat.") + +Before the gold dust is weighed for sale, in order to cleanse it from all +impurities and heterogeneous mixtures, whether natural or fraudulent, +(such as filings of copper or of iron) a skilful person is employed who, +by the sharpness of his eye and long practice, is able to effect this to +a surprising degree of nicety. The dust is spread out on a kind of wooden +platter, and the base particles (lanchong) are touched out from the mass +and put aside one by one with an instrument, if such it may be termed, +made of cotton cloth rolled up to a point. If the honesty of these +goldcleaners can be depended upon their dexterity is almost infallible; +and as some check upon the former it is usual to pour the contents of +each parcel when thus cleansed into a vessel of aqua-fortis, which puts +their accuracy to the test. The parcels or bulses in which the gold is +packed up are formed of the integument that covers the heart of the +buffalo. This has the appearance of bladder, but is both tougher and more +pliable. In those parts of the country where the traffic in the article +is considerable it is generally employed as currency instead of coin; +every man carries small scales about him, and purchases are made with it +so low as to the weight of a grain or two of padi. Various seeds are used +as gold weights, but more especially these two: the one called rakat or +saga-timbangan (Glycine abrus L. or Abrus maculatus of the Batavian +Transactions) being the well-known scarlet pea with a black spot, +twenty-four of which constitute a mas, and sixteen mas a tail: the other +called sagapuhn and kondori batang (Adenanthera pavonia, L.), a scarlet +or rather coral bean, much larger than the former and without the black +spot. It is the candarin-weight of the Chinese, of which a hundred make a +tail, and equal, according to the tables published by Stevens, to 5.7984 +gr. troy; but the average weight of those in my possession is 10.50 +grains. The tail differs however in the northern and southern parts of +the island, being at Natal twenty-four pennyweights nine grains, and at +Padang, Bencoolen, and elsewhere, twenty-six pennyweights twelve grains. +At Achin the bangkal of thirty pennyweights twenty-one grains, is the +standard. Spanish dollars are everywhere current, and accounts are kept +in dollars, sukus (imaginary quarter-dollars) and kepping or copper cash, +of which four hundred go to the dollar. Beside these there are silver +fanams, single, double, and treble (the latter called tali) coined at +Madras, twenty-four fanams or eight talis being equal to the Spanish +dollar, which is always valued in the English settlements at five +shillings sterling. Silver rupees have occasionally been struck in Bengal +for the use of the settlements on the coast of Sumatra, but not in +sufficient quantities to become a general currency; and in the year 1786 +the Company contracted with the late Mr. Boulton of Soho for a copper +coinage, the proportions of which I was desired to adjust, as well as to +furnish the inscriptions; and the same system, with many improvements +suggested by Mr. Charles Wilkins, has since been extended to the three +Presidencies of India. At Achin small thin gold and silver coins were +formerly struck and still are current; but I have not seen any of the +pieces that bore the appearance of modern coinage; nor am I aware that +this right of sovereignty is exercised by any other power in the island. + +TIN. + +Tin, called timar, is a very considerable article of trade, and many +cargoes of it are yearly carried to China, where the consumption is +chiefly for religious purposes. The mines are situated in the island of +Bangka, lying near Palembang, and are said to have been accidentally +discovered there in 1710, by the burning of a house. They are worked by a +colony of Chinese (said in the Batavian Transactions to consist of +twenty-five thousand persons) under the nominal direction of the king of +Palembang, but for the account and benefit of the Dutch Company, which +has endeavoured to monopolize the trade, and actually obtained two +millions of pounds yearly; but the enterprising spirit of private +merchants, chiefly English and American, finds means to elude the +vigilance of its cruisers, and the commerce is largely participated by +them. It is exported for the most part in small pieces or cakes called +tampang, and sometimes in slabs. M. Sonnerat reports that this tin (named +calin by the French writers), was analysed by M. Daubenton, who found it +to be the same metal as that produced in England; but it sells something +higher than our grain-tin. In different parts of Sumatra, there are +indications of tin-earth, or rather sand, and it is worked at the +mountain of Sungei-pagu, but not to any great extent. Of this sand, at +Bangka, a pikul, or 133 pounds is said to yield about 75 pounds of the +metal. + +COPPER. + +A rich mine of copper is worked at Mukki near Labuan-haji, by the +Achinese. The ore produces half its original weight in pure metal, and is +sold at the rate of twenty dollars the pikul. A lump which I deposited in +the Museum of the East India Company is pronounced to be native copper. +The Malays are fond of mixing this metal with gold in equal quantities, +and using the composition, which they name swasa, in the manufacture of +buttons, betel-boxes, and heads of krises. I have never heard silver +spoken of as a production of this part of the East. + +IRON. + +Iron ore is dug at a place named Turawang, in the eastern part of +Menangkabau, and there smelted, but not, I apprehend, in large +quantities, the consumption of the natives being amply supplied with +English and Swedish bar-iron, which they are in the practice of +purchasing by measure instead of weight. + +SULPHUR. + +Sulphur (balerang), as has been mentioned, is abundantly procured from +the numerous volcanoes, and especially from that very great one which is +situated about a day's journey inland from Priaman. Yellow Arsenic +(barangan) is also an article of traffic. + +SALTPETRE. + +In the country of Kattaun, near the head of Urei River, there are +extensive caves (goha) from the soil of which saltpetre (mesiyu mantah) +is extracted. M. Whalfeldt, who was employed as a surveyor, visited them +in March 1773. Into one he advanced seven hundred and fortythree feet, +when his lights were extinguished by the damp vapour. Into a second he +penetrated six hundred feet, when, after getting through a confined +passage about three feet wide and five in height, an opening in the rock +led to a spacious place forty feet high. The same caves were visited by +Mr. Christopher Terry and Mr. Charles Miller. They are the habitation of +innumerable birds, which are perceived to abound the more the farther you +proceed. Their nests are formed about the upper parts of the cave, and it +is thought to be their dung simply that forms the soil (in many places +from four to six feet deep, and from fifteen to twenty broad) which +affords the nitre. A cubic foot of this earth, measuring seven gallons, +produced on boiling seven pounds fourteen ounces of saltpetre, and a +second experiment gave a ninth part more. This I afterwards saw refined +to a high degree of purity; but I conceive that its value would not repay +the expense of the process. + +BIRDS-NEST. + +The edible birds-nest, so much celebrated as a peculiar luxury of the +table, especially amongst the Chinese, is found in similar caves in +different parts of the island, but chiefly near the sea-coast, and in the +greatest abundance at its southern extremity. Four miles up the river +Kroi there is one of considerable size. The birds are called +layang-layang, and resemble the common swallow, or perhaps rather the +martin. I had an opportunity of giving to the British Museum some of +these nests with the eggs in them. They are distinguished into white and +black, of which the first are by far the more scarce and valuable, being +found in the proportion of one only to twenty-five. The white sort sells +in China at the rate of a thousand to fifteen hundred dollars the pikul +(according to the Batavian Transactions for nearly its weight in silver), +the black is usually disposed of at Batavia at about twenty or thirty +dollars for the same weight, where I understand it is chiefly converted +into a kind of glue. The difference between the two sorts has by some +been supposed to be owing to the mixture of the feathers of the birds +with the viscous substance of which the nests are formed; and this they +deduce from the experiment of steeping the black nests for a short time +in hot water, when they are said to become white to a certain degree. +Among the natives I have heard a few assert that they are the work of a +different species of bird. It was also suggested to me that the white +might probably be the recent nests of the season in which they were +taken, and the black such as had been used for several years +successively. This opinion appearing plausible, I was particular in my +inquiries as to that point, and learned what seems much to corroborate +it. When the natives prepare to take the nests they enter the cave with +torches, and, forming ladders of bamboos notched according to the usual +mode, they ascend and pull down the nests, which adhere in numbers +together, from the sides and top of the rock. I was informed that the +more regularly the cave is thus stripped the greater proportion of white +nests they are sure to find, and that on this experience they often make +a practice of beating down and destroying the old nests in larger +quantities than they trouble themselves to carry away, in order that they +may find white nests the next season in their room. The birds, I am +assured, are seen, during the building time, in large flocks upon the +beach, collecting in their beaks the foam thrown up by the surf, of which +there appears little doubt of their constructing their gelatinous nests, +after it has undergone, perhaps, some preparation from commixture with +their saliva or other secretion in the beak or the craw; and that this is +the received opinion of the natives appears from the bird being very +commonly named layang-buhi, the foam-swallow. Linnaeus however has +conjectured, and with much plausibility, that it is the animal substance +frequently found on the beach which fishermen call blubber or jellies, +and not the foam of the sea, that these birds collect; and it is proper +to mention that, in a Description of these Nests by M. Hooyman, printed +in Volume 3 of the Batavian Transactions, he is decidedly of opinion that +the substance of them has nothing to do with the sea-foam but is +elaborated from the food of the bird. Mr. John Crisp informed me that he +had seen at Padang a common swallow's nest, built under the eaves of a +house, which was composed partly of common mud and partly of the +substance that constitutes the edible nests. The young birds themselves +are said to be very delicate food, and not inferior in richness of +flavour to the beccafico. + +TRIPAN. + +The swala, tripan, or sea-slug (holothurion), is likewise an article of +trade to Batavia and China, being employed, as birds-nest or vermicelli, +for enriching soups and stews, by a luxurious people. It sells at the +former place for forty-five dollars per pikul, according to the degree of +whiteness and other qualities. + +WAX. + +Beeswax is a commodity of great importance in all the eastern islands, +from whence it is exported in large oblong cakes to China, Bengal, and +other parts of the continent. No pains are taken with the bees, which are +left to settle where they list (generally on the boughs of trees) and are +never collected in hives. Their honey is much inferior to that of Europe, +as might be expected from the nature of the vegetation. + +GUM-LAC. + +Gum-lac, called by the natives ampalu or ambalu, although found upon +trees and adhering strongly to the branches, is known to be the work of +insects, as wax is of the bee. It is procured in small quantities from +the country inland of Bencoolen; but at Padang is a considerable article +of trade. Foreign markets however are supplied from the countries of Siam +and Camboja. It is chiefly valued in Sumatra for the animal part, found +in the nidus of the insect, which is soluble in water, and yields a very +fine purple dye, used for colouring their silks and other webs of +domestic manufacture. Like the cochineal it would probably, with the +addition of a solution of tin, become a good scarlet. I find in a Bisayan +dictionary that this substance is employed by the people of the +Philippine Islands for staining their teeth red. For an account of the +lac insect see in the Philosophical Transactions Volume 71 page 374 a +paper by Mr. James Kerr. + +IVORY. + +The forests abounding with elephants, ivory (gading) is consequently +found in abundance, and is carried both to the China and Europe markets. +The animals themselves were formerly the objects of a considerable +traffic from Achin to the coast of Coromandel, or kling country, and +vessels were built expressly for their transport; but it has declined, or +perhaps ceased altogether, from the change which the system of warfare +has undergone, since the European tactics have been imitated by the +princes of India. + +FISH-ROES. + +The large roes of a species of fish (said to be like the shad, but more +probably of the mullet-kind) taken in great quantities at the mouth of +Siak River, are salted and exported from thence to all the Malayan +countries, where they are eaten with boiled rice, and esteemed a +delicacy. This is the botarga of the Italians, and here called trobo and +telur-trobo. + +IMPORT-TRADE. + +The most general articles of import-trade are the following: + +From the coast of Coromandel various cotton goods, as long-cloth, blue +and white, chintz, and coloured handkerchiefs, of which those +manufactured at Pulicat are the most prized; and salt. + +From Bengal muslins, striped and plain, and several other kinds of cotton +goods, as cossaes, baftaes, hummums, etc., taffetas and some other silks; +and opium in considerable quantities. + +From the Malabar coast various cotton goods, mostly of a coarse raw +fabric. + +From China coarse porcelain, kwalis or iron pans, in sets of various +sizes, tobacco shred very fine, gold thread, fans, and a number of small +articles. + +From Celebes (known here by the names of its chief provinces, Mangkasar, +Bugis, and Mandar), Java, Balli, Ceram, and other eastern islands, the +rough, striped cotton cloth called kain-sarong, or vulgarly +bugis-clouting, being the universal body-dress of the natives; krises and +other weapons, silken kris-belts, tudongs or hats, small pieces of +ordnance, commonly of brass, called rantaka, spices, and also salt of a +large grain, and sometimes rice, chiefly from Balli. + +From Europe silver, iron, steel, lead, cutlery, various sorts of +hardware, brass wire, and broadcloths, especially scarlet. + +It is not within my plan to enlarge on this subject by entering into a +detail of the markets for, or prices of, the several articles, which are +extremely fluctuating, according to the more or less abundant or scanty +supply. Most of the kinds of goods above enumerated are incidentally +mentioned in other parts of the work, as they happen to be connected with +the account of the natives who purchase them. + + +CHAPTER 9. + +ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. +ART OF MEDICINE. +SCIENCES. +ARITHMETIC. +GEOGRAPHY. +ASTRONOMY. +MUSIC, ETC. + +ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. + +I shall now take a view of those arts and manufactures which the +Sumatrans are skilled in, and which are not merely domestic but +contribute rather to the conveniences, and in some instances to the +luxuries, than to the necessaries of life. I must remind the reader that +my observations on this subject are mostly drawn from the Rejangs, or +those people of the island who are upon their level of improvement. We +meet with accounts in old writers of great foundries of cannon in the +dominion of Achin, and it is certain that firearms as well as krises are +at this day manufactured in the country of Menangkabau; but my present +description does not go to these superior exertions of art, which +certainly do not appear among those people of the island whose manners, +more immediately, I am attempting to delineate. + +FILIGREE. + +What follows, however, would seem an exception to this limitation; there +being no manufacture in that part of the world, and perhaps I might be +justified in saying, in any part of the world, that has been more admired +and celebrated than the fine gold and silver filigree of Sumatra. This +indeed is, strictly speaking, the work of the Malayan inhabitants; but as +it is in universal use and wear throughout the country, and as the +goldsmiths are settled everywhere along the coast, I cannot be guilty of +much irregularity in describing here the process of their art. + +MODE OF WORKING IT. + +There is no circumstance that renders the filigree a matter of greater +curiosity than the coarseness of the tools employed in the workmanship, +and which, in the hands of a European, would not be thought sufficiently +perfect for the most ordinary purposes. They are rudely and +inartificially formed by the goldsmith (pandei) from any old iron he can +procure. When you engage one of them to execute a piece of work his first +request is usually for a piece of iron hoop to make his wire-drawing +instrument; an old hammer head, stuck in a block, serves for an anvil; +and I have seen a pair of compasses composed of two old nails tied +together at one end. The gold is melted in a piece of a priuk or earthen +rice-pot, or sometimes in a crucible of their own making, of common clay. +In general they use no bellows but blow the fire with their mouths +through a joint of bamboo, and if the quantity of metal to be melted is +considerable three or four persons sit round their furnace, which is an +old broken kwali or iron pot, and blow together. At Padang alone, where +the manufacture is more considerable, they have adopted the Chinese +bellows. Their method of drawing the wire differs but little from that +used by European workmen. When drawn to a sufficient fineness they +flatten it by beating it on their anvil; and when flattened they give it +a twist like that in the whalebone handle of a punch-ladle, by rubbing it +on a block of wood with a flat stick. After twisting they again beat it +on the anvil, and by these means it becomes flat wire with indented +edges. With a pair of nippers they fold down the end of the wire, and +thus form a leaf or element of a flower in their work, which is cut off. +The end is again folded and cut off till they have got a sufficient +number of leaves, which are all laid on singly. Patterns of the flowers +or foliage, in which there is not very much variety, are prepared on +paper, of the size of the gold plate on which the filigree is to be laid. +According to this they begin to dispose on the plate the larger +compartments of the foliage, for which they use plain flat wire of a +larger size, and fill them up with the leaves before mentioned. To fix +their work they employ a glutinous substance made of the small red pea +with a black spot before mentioned, ground to a pulp on a rough stone. +This pulp they place on a young coconut about the size of a walnut, the +top and bottom being cut off. I at first imagined that caprice alone +might have directed them to the use of the coconut for this purpose; but +I have since reflected on the probability of the juice of the young fruit +being necessary to keep the pulp moist, which would otherwise speedily +become dry and unfit for the work. After the leaves have been all placed +in order and stuck on, bit by bit, a solder is prepared of gold filings +and borax, moistened with water, which they strew or daub over the plate +with a feather, and then putting it in the fire for a short time the +whole becomes united. This kind of work on a gold plate they call karrang +papan: when the work is open, they call it karrang trus. In executing the +latter the foliage is laid out on a card, or soft kind of wood covered +with paper, and stuck on, as before described, with the paste of the red +seed; and the work, when finished, being strewed over with their solder, +is put into the fire, when, the card or soft wood burning away, the gold +remains connected. The greatest skill and attention is required in this +operation as the work is often made to run by remaining too long or in +too hot a fire. If the piece be large they solder it at several times. +When the work is finished they give it that fine high colour they so much +admire by an operation which they term sapoh. This consists in mixing +nitre, common salt, and alum, reduced to powder and moistened, laying the +composition on the filigree and keeping it over a moderate fire until it +dissolves and becomes yellow. In this situation the piece is kept for a +longer or shorter time according to the intensity of colour they wish the +gold to receive. It is then thrown into water and cleansed. In the +manufacture of baju buttons they first make the lower part flat, and, +having a mould formed of a piece of buffalo's horn, indented to several +sizes, each like one half of a bullet mould, they lay their work over one +of these holes, and with a horn punch they press it into the form of the +button. After this they complete the upper part. The manner of making the +little balls with which their works are sometimes ornamented is as +follows. They take a piece of charcoal, and, having cut it flat and +smooth, they make in it a small hole, which they fill with gold dust, and +this melted in the fire becomes a little ball. They are very inexpert at +finishing and polishing the plain parts, hinges, screws, and the like, +being in this as much excelled by the European artists as these fall +short of them in the fineness and minuteness of the foliage. The Chinese +also make filigree, mostly of silver, which looks elegant, but wants +likewise the extraordinary delicacy of the Malayan work. The price of the +workmanship depends upon the difficulty or novelty of the pattern. In +some articles of usual demand it does not exceed one-third of the value +of the gold; but, in matters of fancy, it is generally equal to it. The +manufacture is not now (1780) held in very high estimation in England, +where costliness is not so much the object of luxury as variety; but, in +the revolution of taste, it may probably be again sought after and +admired as fashionable. + +IRON MANUFACTURES. + +But little skill is shown amongst the country people in forging iron. +They make nails however, though not much used by them in building, wooden +pins being generally substituted; also various kinds of tools, as the +prang or bill, the banchi, rembe, billiong, and papatil, which are +different species of adzes, the kapak or axe, and the pungkur or hoe. +Their fire is made with charcoal; the fossil coal which the country +produces being rarely, if ever, employed, except by the Europeans; and +not by them of late years, on the complaint of its burning away too +quickly: yet the report made of it in 1719 was that it gave a surer heat +than the coal from England. The bed of it (described rather as a large +rock above ground) lies four days' journey up Bencoolen River, from +whence quantities are washed down by the floods. The quality of coal is +rarely good near the surface. Their bellows are thus constructed: two +bamboos, of about four inches diameter and five feet in length, stand +perpendicularly near the fire, open at the upper end and stopped below. +About an inch or two from the bottom a small joint of bamboo is inserted +into each, which serve as nozzles, pointing to, and meeting at, the fire. +To produce a stream of air bunches of feathers or other soft substance, +being fastened to long handles, are worked up and down in the upright +tubes, like the piston of a pump. These, when pushed downwards, force the +air through the small horizontal tubes, and, by raising and sinking each +alternately, a continual current or blast is kept up; for which purpose a +boy is usually placed on a high seat or stand. I cannot retrain from +remarking that the description of the bellows used in Madagascar, as +given by Sonnerat, Volume 2 page 60, so entirely corresponds with this +that the one might almost pass for a copy of the other. + +CARPENTER'S WORK. + +The progress they have made in carpenter's work has been already pointed +out, where there buildings were described. + +TOOLS. + +They are ignorant of the use of the saw, excepting where we have +introduced it among them. Trees are felled by chopping at the stems, and +in procuring boards they are confined to those the direction of whose +grain or other qualities admit of their being easily split asunder. In +this respect the species called maranti and marakuli have the preference. +The tree, being stripped of its branches and its bark, is cut to the +length required, and by the help of wedges split into boards. These being +of irregular thickness are usually dubbed upon the spot. The tool used +for this purpose is the rembe, a kind of adze. Most of their smaller +work, and particularly on the bamboo, is performed with the papatil, +which resembles in shape as much as in name the patupatu of the New +Zealanders, but has the vast superiority of being made of iron. The +blade, which is fastened to the handle with a nice and curious kind of +rattan-work, is so contrived as to turn in it, and by that means can be +employed either as an adze or small hatchet. Their houses are generally +built with the assistance of this simple instrument alone. The billiong +is no other than a large papatil, with a handle of two or three feet in +length, turning, like that, in its socket. + +CEMENTS. + +The chief cement they employ for small work is the curd of buffalomilk, +called prakat. It is to be observed that butter is made (for the use of +Europeans only; the words used by the Malays, for butter and cheese, +monteiga and queijo, being pure Portuguese) not as with us, by churning, +but by letting the milk stand till the butter forms of itself on the top. +It is then taken off with a spoon, stirred about with the same in a flat +vessel, and well washed in two or three waters. The thick sour milk left +at the bottom, when the butter or cream is removed, is the curd here +meant. This must be well squeezed, formed into cakes, and left to dry, +when it will grow nearly as hard as flint. For use you must scrape some +of it off, mix it with quick lime, and moisten it with milk. I think +there is no stronger cement in the world, and it is found to hold, +particularly in a hot and damp climate, much better than glue; proving +also effectual in mending chinaware. The viscous juice of the saga-pea +(abrus) is likewise used in the country as a cement. + +INK. + +Ink is made by mixing lamp-black with the white of egg. To procure the +former they suspend over a burning lamp an earthen pot, the bottom of +which is moistened, in order to make the soot adhere to it. + +DESIGNING. + +Painting and drawing they are quite strangers to. In carving, both in +wood and ivory, they are curious and fanciful, but their designs are +always grotesque and out of nature. The handles of the krises are the +most common subjects of their ingenuity in this art, which usually +exhibit the head and beak of a bird, with the folded arms of a human +creature, not unlike the representation of one of the Egyptian deities. +In cane and basketwork they are particularly neat and expert; as well as +in mats, of which some kinds are much prized for their extreme fineness +and ornamental borders. + +LOOMS. + +Silk and cotton cloths, of varied colours, manufactured by themselves, +are worn by the natives in all parts of the country; especially by the +women. Some of their work is very fine, and the patterns prettily +fancied. Their loom or apparatus for weaving (tunun) is extremely +defective, and renders their progress tedious. One end of the warp being +made fast to a frame, the whole is kept tight, and the web stretched out +by means of a species of yoke, which is fastened behind the body, when +the person weaving sits down. Every second of the longitudinal threads, +or warp, passes separately through a set of reeds, like the teeth of a +comb, and the alternate ones through another set. These cross each other, +up and down, to admit the woof, not from the extremities, as in our +looms, nor effected by the feet, but by turning edgeways two flat sticks +which pass between them. The shuttle (turak) is a hollow reed about +sixteen inches long, generally ornamented on the outside, and closed at +one end, having in it a small bit of stick, on which is rolled the woof +or shoot. The silk cloths have usually a gold head. They use sometimes +another kind of loom, still more simple than this, being no more than a +frame in which the warp is fixed, and the woof darned with a long +small-pointed shuttle. For spinning the cotton they make use of a machine +very like ours. The women are expert at embroidery, the gold and silver +thread for which is procured from China, as well as their needles. For +common work their thread is the pulas before mentioned, or else filaments +of the pisang (musa). + +EARTHENWARE. + +Different kinds of earthenware, I have elsewhere observed, are +manufactured in the island. + +PERFUMES. + +They have a practice of perfuming their hair with oil of benzoin, which +they distil themselves from the gum by a process doubtless of their own +invention. In procuring it a priuk, or earthen rice-pot, covered close, +is used for a retort. A small bamboo is inserted in the side of the +vessel, and well luted with clay and ashes, from which the oil drops as +it comes over. Along with the benzoin they put into the retort a mixture +of sugar-cane and other articles that contribute little or nothing to the +quantity or quality of the distillation; but no liquid is added. This oil +is valued among them at a high price, and can only be used by the +superior rank of people. + +OIL. + +The oil in general use is that of the coconut, which is procured in the +following manner. The fleshy part being scraped out of the nut, which for +this use must be old, is exposed for some time to the heat of the sun. It +is then put into a mat bag and placed in the press (kampahan) between two +sloping timbers, which are fixed together in a socket in the lower part +of the frame, and forced towards each other by wedges in a groove at top, +compressing by this means the pulp of the nut, which yields an oil that +falls into a trough made for its reception below. In the farther parts of +the country this oil also, owing to the scarcity of coconuts, is dear; +and not so much used for burning as that from other vegetables, and the +dammar or rosin, which is always at hand. + +TORCHES. + +When travelling at night they make use of torches or links, called suluh, +the common sort of which are nothing more than dried bamboos of a +convenient length, beaten at the joints till split in every part, without +the addition of any resinous or other inflammable substance. A superior +kind is made by filling with dammar a young bamboo, about a cubit long, +well dried, and having the outer skin taken off. + +These torches are carried with a view, chiefly, to frighten away the +tigers, which are alarmed at the appearance of fire; and for the same +reason it is common to make a blaze with wood in different parts round +their villages. The tigers prove to the inhabitants, both in their +journeys and even their domestic occupations, most fatal and destructive +enemies. The number of people annually slain by these rapacious tyrants +of the woods is almost incredible. I have known instances of whole +villages being depopulated by them. Yet, from a superstitious prejudice, +it is with difficulty they are prevailed upon, by a large reward which +the India Company offers, to use methods of destroying them till they +have sustained some particular injury in their own family or kindred, and +their ideas of fatalism contribute to render them insensible to the risk. + +TIGER-TRAPS. + +Their traps, of which they can make variety, are very ingeniously +contrived. Sometimes they are in the nature of strong cages, with falling +doors, into which the beast is enticed by a goat or dog enclosed as a +bait; sometimes they manage that a large timber shall fall, in a groove, +across his back; he is noosed about the loins with strong rattans, or he +is led to ascend a plank, nearly balanced, which, turning when he is past +the centre, lets him fall upon sharp stakes prepared below. Instances +have occurred of a tiger being caught by one of the former modes, which +had many marks in his body of the partial success of this last expedient. +The escapes, at times, made from them by the natives are surprising, but +these accounts in general carry too romantic an air to admit of being +repeated as facts. The size and strength of the species which prevails on +this island are prodigious. They are said to break with a stroke of their +forepaw the leg of a horse or a buffalo; and the largest prey they kill +is without difficulty dragged by them into the woods. This they usually +perform on the second night, being supposed, on the first, to gratify +themselves with sucking the blood only. Time is by this delay afforded to +prepare for their destruction; and to the methods already enumerated, +beside shooting them, I should add that of placing a vessel of water, +strongly impregnated with arsenic, near the carcase, which is fastened to +a tree to prevent its being carried off: The tiger having satiated +himself with the flesh, is prompted to assuage his thirst with the +tempting liquor at hand, and perishes in the indulgence. Their chief +subsistence is most probably the unfortunate monkeys with which the woods +abound. They are described as alluring them to their fate, by a +fascinating power, similar to what has been supposed of the snake, and I +am not incredulous enough to treat the idea with contempt, having myself +observed that when an alligator, in a river, comes under an overhanging +bough of a tree, the monkeys, in a state of alarm and distraction, crowd +to the extremity, and, chattering and trembling, approach nearer and +nearer to the amphibious monster that waits to devour them as they drop, +which their fright and number renders almost unavoidable. These +alligators likewise occasion the loss of many inhabitants, frequently +destroying the people as they bathe in the river, according to their +regular custom, and which the perpetual evidence of the risk attending it +cannot deter them from. A superstitious idea of their sanctity also (or, +perhaps, of consanguinity, as related in the journal of the Endeavour's +voyage) preserves these destructive animals from molestation, although, +with a hook of sufficient strength, they may be taken without much +difficulty. A musket-ball appears to have no effect upon their +impenetrable hides. + +FISHING. + +Besides the common methods of taking fish, of which the seas that wash +the coasts of Sumatra afford an extraordinary variety and abundance, the +natives employ a mode, unpractised, I apprehend, in any part of Europe. +They steep the root of a certain climbing plant, called tuba, of strong +narcotic qualities, in the water where the fish are observed, which +produces such an effect that they become intoxicated and to appearance +dead, float on the surface of the water, and are taken with the hand. +This is generally made use of in the basins of water formed by the ledges +of coral rock which, having no outlet, are left full when the tide has +ebbed.* In the manufacture and employment of the casting-net they are +particularly expert, and scarcely a family near the sea-coast is without +one. To supply this demand great quantities of the pulas twine are +brought down from the hill-country to be there worked up; and in this +article we have an opportunity of observing the effect of that +conformation which renders the handiwork of orientals (unassisted by +machinery) so much more delicate than that of the western people. Mr. +Crisp possessed a net of silk, made in the country behind Padang, the +meshes of which were no wider than a small fingernail, that opened +sixteen feet in diameter. With such they are said to catch small fish in +the extensive lake situated on the borders of Menangkabau. + +(*Footnote. In Captain Cook's second voyage is a plate representing a +plant used for the same purpose at Otaheite, which is the exact +delineation of one whose appearance I was well acquainted with in +Sumatra, and which abounds in many parts of the sea-beach, but which is a +different plant from the tuba-akar, but may be another kind, named +tuba-biji. In South America also, we are informed, the inhabitants +procure fish after this extraordinary manner, employing three different +kinds of plants; but whether any of them be the same with that of +Otaheite or Sumatra I am ignorant. I have lately been informed that this +practice is not unknown in England, but has been prohibited. It is termed +foxing: the drug made use of was the Coculus indicus.) + +BIRD-CATCHING. + +Birds, particularly the plover (cheruling) and quails (puyu) are caught +by snares or springs laid for them in the grass. These are of iju, which +resembles horsehair, many fathoms in length, and disposed in such a +manner as to entangle their feet; for which purpose they are gently +driven towards the snares. In some parts of the country they make use of +clasp-nets. I never observed a Sumatran to fire a shot at a bird, though +many of them, as well as the more eastern people, have a remarkably fine +aim; but the mode of letting off the matchlocks, which are the pieces +most habitual to them, precludes the possibility of shooting flying. + +GUNPOWDER. + +Gunpowder is manufactured in various parts of the island, but less in the +southern provinces than amongst the people of Menangkabau, the Battas, +and Achinese, whose frequent wars demand large supplies. It appears +however, by an agreement upon record, formed in 1728, that the +inhabitants of Anak-sungei were restricted from the manufacture, which +they are stated to have carried to a considerable extent. It is made, as +with us, of proportions of charcoal, sulphur, and nitre, but the +composition is very imperfectly granulated, being often hastily prepared +in small quantities for immediate use. The last article, though found in +the greatest quantity in the saltpetre-caves before spoken of, is most +commonly procured from goat's dung, which is always to be had in plenty. + +SUGAR. + +Sugar (as has already been observed) is commonly made for domestic use +from the juice of a species of palm, boiled till a consistence is formed, +but scarcely at all granulated, being little more than a thick syrup. +This spread upon leaves to dry, made into cakes, and afterwards folded up +in a peculiar vegetable substance called upih, which is the sheath that +envelopes the branch of the pinang tree where it is inserted in the stem. +In this state it is called jaggri, and, beside its ordinary uses as +sugar, it is mixed with chunam in making cement for buildings, and that +exquisite plaster for walls which, on the coast of Coromandel, equals +Parian marble in whiteness and polish. But in many parts of the island +sugar is also made from the sugar-cane. The rollers of the mill used for +this purpose are worked by the endless screw instead of cogs, and are +turned with the hand by means of a bar passing through one of the rollers +which is higher than the other. As an article of traffic amongst the +natives it is not considerable, nor have they the art of distilling +arrack, the basis of which is molasses, along with the juice of the anau +or of the coconut palm in a state of fermentation. Both however are +manufactured by Europeans.* + +(*Footnote. Many attempts have been made by the English to bring to +perfection the manufacture of sugar and arrack from the canes; but the +expenses, particularly of the slaves, were always found to exceed the +advantages. Within these few years (about 1777) that the plantations and +works were committed to the management of Mr. Henry Botham, it has +manifestly appeared that the end is to be obtained by employing the +Chinese in the works of the field and allowing them a proportion of the +produce for their labour. The manufacture had arrived at considerable +perfection when the breaking out of war gave a check to its progress; but +the path is pointed out, and it may be worth pursuing. The sums of money +thrown into Batavia for arrack and sugar have been immense.) + +SALT. + +Salt is here, as in most other countries, an article of general +consumption. The demand for it is mostly supplied by cargoes imported, +but they also manufacture it themselves. The method is tedious. They +kindle a fire close to the sea-beach, and gradually pour upon it sea +water. When this has been continued for a certain time, the water +evaporating, and the salt being precipitated among the ashes, they gather +these in baskets, or in funnels made of the bark or leaves of trees, and +again pour seawater on them till the particles of salt are well +separated, and pass with the water into a vessel placed below to receive +them. This water, now strongly impregnated, is boiled till the salt +adheres in a thick crust to the bottom and sides of the vessel. In +burning a square fathom of firewood a skilful person procures about five +gallons of salt. What is thus made has so considerable a mixture of the +salt of the wood that it soon dissolves, and cannot be carried far into +the country. The coarsest grain is preferred. + +ART OF MEDICINE. + +The art of medicine among the Sumatrans consists almost entirely in the +application of simples, in the virtues of which they are well skilled. +Every old man and woman is a physician, and their rewards depend upon +their success; but they generally procure a small sum in advance under +the pretext of purchasing charms.* The mode of practice is either by +administering the juices of certain trees and herbs inwardly, or by +applying outwardly a poultice of leaves chopped small upon the breast or +part affected, renewing it as soon as it becomes dry. For internal pains +they rub oil on a large leaf of a stimulant quality, and, heating it +before the fire, clap it on the body of the patient as a blister, which +produces very powerful effects. Bleeding they never use, but the people +of the neighbouring island of Nias are famous for their skill in cupping, +which they practise in a manner peculiar to themselves. + +(*Footnote. Charms are there hung about the necks of children, as in +Europe, and also worn by persons whose situations expose them to risk. +They are long narrow scrolls of paper, filled with incoherent scraps of +verse, which are separated from each other by a variety of fanciful +drawings. A charm against an ague I once accidentally met with, which +from circumstances I conclude to be a translation of such as are employed +by the Portuguese Christians in India. Though not properly belonging to +my subject, I present it to the reader. "(Sign of the cross). When Christ +saw the cross he trembled and shaked; and they said unto him hast thou an +ague? and he said unto them, I have neither ague nor fever; and whosoever +bears these words, either in writing or in mind, shall never be troubled +with ague or fever. So help thy servants, O Lord, who put their trust in +thee!" From the many folds that appear in the original I have reason to +apprehend that it had been worn, and by some Englishmen, whom frequent +sickness and the fond love of life had rendered weak and superstitious +enough to try the effects of this barbarous and ridiculous quackery.) + +FEVERS. + +In fevers they give a decoction of the herb lakun, and bathe the patient, +for two or three mornings, in warm water. If this does not prove +effectual, they pour over him, during the paroxysm, a quantity of cold +water, rendered more chilly by the daun sedingin (Cotyledon laciniata) +which, from the sudden revulsion it causes, brings on a copious +perspiration. Pains and swellings in the limbs are likewise cured by +sweating; but for this purpose they either cover themselves over with +mats and sit in the sunshine at noon, or, if the operation be performed +within doors, a lamp, and sometimes a pot of boiling herbs, is enclosed +in the covering with them. + +LEPROSY. + +There are two species of leprosy known in these parts. The milder sort, +or impetigo, as I apprehend it to be, is very common among the +inhabitants of Nias, great numbers of whom are covered with a white scurf +or scales that renders them loathsome to the sight. But this distemper, +though disagreeable from the violent itching and other inconveniences +with which it is attended, does not appear immediately to affect the +health, slaves in that situation being bought and sold for field and +other outdoor work. It is communicated from parents to their offspring, +but though hereditary it is not contagious. I have sometimes been induced +to think it nothing more than a confirmed stage of the serpigo or +ringworm, or it may be the same with what is elsewhere termed the +shingles. I have known a Nias man who has effected a temporary removal of +this scurf by the frequent application of the golinggang or daun kurap +(Cassia alata) and such other herbs as are used to cure the ringworm, and +sometimes by rubbing gunpowder and strong acids to his skin; but it +always returned after some time. The other species with which the country +people are in some instances affected is doubtless, from the description +given of its dreadful symptoms, that severe kind of leprosy which has +been termed elephantiasis, and is particularly described in the Asiatic +Researches Volume 2, the skin coming off in flakes, and the flesh falling +from the bones, as in the lues venerea. This disorder being esteemed +highly infectious, the unhappy wretch who labours under it is driven from +the village he belonged to into the woods, where victuals are left for +him from time to time by his relations. A prang and a knife are likewise +delivered to him, that he may build himself a hut, which is generally +erected near to some river or lake, continual bathing being supposed to +have some effect in removing the disorder, or alleviating the misery of +the patient. Few instances of recovery have been known. There is a +disease called the nambi which bears some affinity to this, attacking the +feet chiefly, the flesh of which it eats away. As none but the lowest +class of people seem to suffer from this complaint I imagine it proceeds +in a great degree from want of cleanliness. + +SMALLPOX. + +The smallpox (katumbuhan) sometimes visits the island and makes terrible +ravages. It is regarded as a plague, and drives from the country +thousands whom the infection spares. Their method of stopping its +progress (for they do not attempt a cure) is by converting into a +hospital or receptacle for the rest that village where lie the greatest +number of sick, whither they send all who are attacked by the disorder +from the country round. The most effectual methods are pursued to prevent +any person's escape from this village, which is burnt to the ground as +soon as the infection has spent itself or devoured all the victims thus +offered to it. Inoculation was an idea long unthought of, and, as it +could not be universal, it was held to be a dangerous experiment for +Europeans to introduce it partially, in a country where the disorder +makes its appearance at distant intervals only, unless those periods +could be seized and the attempts made when and where there might be +well-founded apprehension of its being communicated in the natural way. +Such an opportunity presented itself in 1780, when great numbers of +people (estimated at a third of the population) were swept away in the +course of that and the two following years; whilst upon those under the +immediate influence of the English and Dutch settlements inoculation was +practised with great success. I trust that the preventive blessing of +vaccination has or will be extended to a country so liable to be +afflicted with this dreadful scourge. A distemper called chachar, much +resembling the smallpox, and in its first stages mistaken for it, is not +uncommon. It causes an alarm but does not prove mortal, and is probably +what we term the chickenpox. + +VENEREAL DISEASE. + +The venereal disease, though common in the Malay bazaars, is in the +inland country almost unknown. A man returning to his village with the +infection is shunned by the inhabitants as an unclean and interdicted +person. The Malays are supposed to cure it with the decoction of a +china-root, called by them gadong, which causes a salivation. + +INSANITY. + +When a man is by sickness or otherwise deprived of his reason, or when +subject to convulsion fits, they imagine him possessed by an evil spirit, +and their ceremony of exorcism is performed by putting the unfortunate +wretch into a hut, which they set fire to about his ears, suffering him +to make his escape through the flames in the best manner he can. The +fright, which would go nigh to destroy the intellects of a reasonable +man, may perhaps have under contrary circumstances an opposite effect. + +SCIENCES. + +The skill of the Sumatrans in any of the sciences, is, as may be +presumed, very limited. + +ARITHMETIC. + +Some however I have met with who, in arithmetic, could multiply and +divide, by a single multiplier or divisor, several places of figures. +Tens of thousands (laksa) are the highest class of numbers the Malay +language has a name for. In counting over a quantity of small articles +each tenth, and afterwards each hundredth piece is put aside; which +method is consonant with the progress of scientific numeration, and +probably gave it origin. When they may have occasion to recollect at a +distance of time the tale of any commodities they are carrying to market, +or the like, the country people often assist their memory by tying knots +on a string, which is produced when they want to specify the number. The +Peruvian quipos were I suppose an improvement upon this simple invention. + +MEASURES. + +They estimate the quantity of most species of merchandise by what we call +dry measure, the use of weights, as applied to bulky articles, being +apparently introduced among them by foreigners; for the pikul and catti +are used only on the sea-coast and places which the Malays frequent. The +kulah or bamboo, containing very nearly a gallon, is the general standard +of measure among the Rejangs: of these eight hundred make a koyan: the +chupah is one quarter of a bamboo. By this measure almost all articles, +even elephants' teeth, are bought and sold; but by a bamboo of ivory they +mean so much as is equal in weight to a bamboo of rice. This still +includes the idea of weight, but is not attended with their principal +objection to that mode of ascertaining quantity which arises, as they +say, from the impossibility of judging by the eye of the justness of +artificial weights, owing to the various materials of which they may be +composed, and to which measurement is not liable. The measures of length +here, as perhaps originally among every people upon earth, are taken from +the dimensions of the human body. The deppa, or fathom, is the extent of +the arms from each extremity of the fingers: the etta, asta, or cubit, is +the forearm and hand; kaki is the foot; jungka is the span; and jarri, +which signifies a finger, is the inch. These are estimated from the +general proportions of middle-sized men, others making an allowance in +measuring, and not regulated by an exact standard. + +GEOGRAPHY. + +The ideas of geography among such of them as do not frequent the sea are +perfectly confined, or rather they entertain none. Few of them know that +the country they inhabit is an island, or have any general name for it. +Habit renders them expert in travelling through the woods, where they +perform journeys of weeks and months without seeing a dwelling. In places +little frequented, where they have occasion to strike out new paths (for +roads there are none), they make marks on trees for the future guidance +of themselves and others. I have heard a man say, "I will attempt a +passage by such a route, for my father, when living, told me that he had +left his tokens there." They estimate the distance of places from each +other by the number of days, or the proportion of the day, taken up in +travelling it, and not by measurement of the space. Their journey, or +day's walk, may be computed at about twenty miles; but they can bear a +long continuance of fatigue. + +ASTRONOMY. + +The Malays as well as the Arabs and other Mahometan nations fix the +length of the year at three hundred and fifty-four days, or twelve lunar +months of twenty-nine days and a half; by which mode of reckoning each +year is thrown back about eleven days. The original Sumatrans rudely +estimate their annual periods from the revolution of the seasons, and +count their years from the number of their crops of grain (taun padi); a +practice which, though not pretending to accuracy, is much more useful +for the general purposes of life than the lunar period, which is merely +adapted to religious observances. They as well as the Malays compute time +by lunations, but do not attempt to trace any relation or correspondence +between these smaller measures and the solar revolution. Whilst more +polished nations were multiplying mistakes and difficulties in their +endeavours to ascertain the completion of the sun's course through the +ecliptic, and in the meanwhile suffering their nominal seasons to become +almost the reverse of nature, these people, without an idea of +intercalation, preserved in a rude way the account of their years free +from essential, or at least progressive, error and the confusion which +attends it. The division of the month into weeks I believe to be unknown +except where it has been taught with Mahometanism; the day of the moon's +age being used instead of it where accuracy is required; nor do they +subdivide the day into hours. To denote the time of day at which any +circumstance they find it necessary to speak of happened, they point with +their finger to the height in the sky at which the sun then stood. And +this mode is the more general and precise as the sun, so near the +equator, ascends and descends almost perpendicularly, and rises and sets +at all seasons of the year within a few minutes of six o'clock. Scarcely +any of the stars or constellations are distinguished by them. They notice +however the planet Venus, but do not imagine her to be the same at the +different periods of her revolution when she precedes the rising, and +follows the setting sun. They are aware of the night on which the new +moon should make its appearance, and the Malays salute it with the +discharge of guns. They also know when to expect the returns of the +tides, which are at their height, on the south-western coast of the +island, when that luminary is in the horizon, and ebb as it rises. When +they observe a bright star near the moon (or rubbing against her, as they +express it), they are apprehensive of a storm, as European sailors +foretell a gale from the sharpness of her horns. These are both, in part, +the consequence of an unusual clearness in the air, which, proceeding +from an extraordinary alteration of the state of the atmosphere, may +naturally be followed by a violent rushing of the circumjacent parts to +restore the equilibrium, and thus prove the prognostic of high wind. +During an eclipse they make a loud noise with sounding-instruments to +prevent one luminary from devouring the other, as the Chinese, to +frighten away the dragon, a superstition that has its source in the +ancient systems of astronomy (particularly the Hindu) where the nodes of +the moon are identified with the dragon's head and tail. They tell of a +man in the moon who is continually employed in spinning cotton, but that +every night a rat gnaws his thread and obliges him to begin his work +afresh. This they apply as an emblem of endless and ineffectual labour, +like the stone of Sisyphus, and the sieves of the Danaides. + +With history and chronology the country people are but little acquainted, +the memory of past events being preserved by tradition only. + +MUSIC. + +They are fond of music and have many instruments in use among them, but +few, upon inquiry, appear to be original, being mostly borrowed from the +Chinese and other more eastern people; particularly the kalintang, gong, +and sulin. The violin has found its way to them from the westward. The +kalintang resembles the sticcado and the harmonica; the more common ones +having the cross-pieces, which are struck with two little hammers, of +split bamboo, and the more perfect of a certain composition of metal +which is very sonorous. The gongs, a kind of bell, but differing much in +shape and struck on the outside, are cast in sets regularly tuned to +thirds, fourth, fifth, and octave, and often serve as a bass, or under +part, to the kalintang. They are also sounded for the purpose of calling +together the inhabitants of the village upon any particular occasion; but +the more ancient and still common instrument for this use is a hollowed +log of wood named katut. The sulin is the Malayan flute. The country +flute is called serdum. It is made of bamboo, is very imperfect, having +but few stops, and resembles much an instrument described as found among +the people of Otaheite. A single hole underneath is covered with the +thumb of the left hand, and the hole nearest the end at which it is +blown, on the upper side, with a finger of the same hand. The other two +holes are stopped with the right-hand fingers. In blowing they hold it +inclined to the right side. They have various instruments of the drum +kind, particularly those called tingkah, which are in pairs and beaten +with the hands at each end. They are made of a certain kind of wood +hollowed out, covered with dried goat-skins, and laced with split +rattans. It is difficult to obtain a proper knowledge of their division +of the scale, as they know nothing of it in theory. The interval we call +an octave seems to be divided with them into six tones, without any +intermediate semitones, which must confine their music to one key. It +consists in general of but few notes, and the third is the interval that +most frequently occurs. Those who perform on the violin use the same +notes as in our division, and they tune the instrument by fifths to a +great nicety. They are fond of playing the octave, but scarcely use any +other chord. The Sumatran tunes very much resemble, to my ear, those of +the native Irish, and have usually, like them, a flat third: the same has +been observed of the music of Bengal, and probably it will be found that +the minor key obtains a preference amongst all people at a certain stage +of civilization. + + +CHAPTER 10. + +LANGUAGES. +MALAYAN. +ARABIC CHARACTER USED. +LANGUAGES OF THE INTERIOR PEOPLE. +PECULIAR CHARACTERS. +SPECIMENS OF LANGUAGES AND OF ALPHABETS. + +LANGUAGES. + +Before I proceed to an account of the laws, customs, and manners of the +people of the island it is necessary that I should say something of the +different languages spoken on it, the diversity of which has been the +subject of much contemplation and conjecture. + +MALAYAN. + +The Malayan language, which has commonly been supposed original in the +peninsula of Malayo, and from thence to have extended itself throughout +the eastern islands, so as to become the lingua franca of that part of +the globe, is spoken everywhere along the coasts of Sumatra, prevails +without the mixture of any other in the inland country of Menangkabau and +its immediate dependencies, and is understood in almost every part of the +island. It has been much celebrated, and justly, for the smoothness and +sweetness of its sound, which have gained it the appellation of the +Italian of the East. This is owing to the prevalence of vowels and +liquids in the words (with many nasals which may be thought an objection) +and the infrequency of any harsh combination of mute consonants. These +qualities render it well adapted to poetry, which the Malays are +passionately addicted to. + +SONGS. + +They amuse all their leisure hours, including the greater portion of +their lives, with the repetition of songs which are, for the most part, +proverbs illustrated, or figures of speech applied to the occurrences of +life. Some that they rehearse, in a kind of recitative, at their bimbangs +or feasts, are historical love tales like our old English ballads, and +are often extemporaneous productions. An example of the former species is +as follows: + +Apa guna passang palita, +Kallo tidah dangan sumbu'nia? +Apa guna bermine matta, +Kalla tidah dangan sunggu'nia? + +What signifies attempting to light a lamp, +If the wick be wanting? +What signifies playing with the eyes, +If nothing in earnest be intended? + +It must be observed however that it often proves a very difficult matter +to trace the connexion between the figurative and the literal sense of +the stanza. The essentials in the composition of the pantun, for such +these little pieces are called, the longer being called dendang, are the +rhythmus and the figure, particularly the latter, which they consider as +the life and spirit of the poetry. I had a proof of this in an attempt +which I made to impose a pantun of my own composing on the natives as a +work of their countrymen. The subject was a dialogue between a lover and +a rich coy mistress: the expressions were proper to the occasion, and in +some degree characteristic. It passed with several, but an old lady who +was a more discerning critic than the others remarked that it was "katta +katta saja"--mere conversation; meaning that it was destitute of the +quaint and figurative expressions which adorn their own poetry. Their +language in common speaking is proverbial and sententious. If a young +woman prove with child before marriage they observe it is daulu buah, +kadian bunga--the fruit before the flower. Hearing of a person's death +they say, nen matti, matti; nen idup, bekraja: kallo sampi janji'nia, apa +buli buat?--Those who are dead, are dead; those who survive must work: if +his allotted time was expired, what resource is there? The latter phrase +they always make use of to express their sense of inevitability, and has +more force than any translation of it I can employ. + +ARABIC CHARACTER USED BY MALAYS. + +Their writing is in the Arabic character, with modifications to adapt +that alphabet to their language, and, in consequence of the adoption of +their religion from the same quarter, a great number of Arabic words are +incorporated with the Malayan. The Portuguese too have furnished them +with several terms, chiefly for such ideas as they have acquired since +the period of European discoveries to the eastward. They write on paper, +using ink of their own composition, with pens made of the twig of the +anau tree. I could never discover that the Malays had any original +written characters peculiar to themselves before they acquired those now +in use; but it is possible that such might have been lost, a fate that +may hereafter attend the Batta, Rejang, and others of Sumatra, on which +the Arabic daily makes encroachments. Yet I have had frequent occasion to +observe the former language written by inland people in the country +character; which would indicate that the speech is likely to perish +first. The Malayan books are very numerous, both in prose and verse. Many +of them are commentaries on the koran, and others romances or heroic +tales. + +The purest or most elegant Malayan is said, and with great appearance of +reason, to be spoken at Malacca. It differs from the dialect used in +Sumatra chiefly in this, that words, in the latter, made to terminate in +"o," are in the former, sounded as ending in "a." Thus they pronounce +lada (pepper) instead of lado. Those words which end with "k" in writing, +are, in Sumatra, always softened in speaking, by omitting it; as tabbe +bannia, many compliments, for tabbek banniak; but the Malaccans, and +especially the more eastern people, who speak a very broad dialect, give +them generally the full sound. The personal pronouns also differ +materially in the respective countries. + +Attempts have been made to compose a grammar of this tongue upon the +principles on which those of the European languages are formed. But the +inutility of such productions is obvious. Where there is no inflexion of +either nouns or verbs there can be no cases, declensions, moods, or +conjugations. All this is performed by the addition of certain words +expressive of a determinate meaning, which should not be considered as +mere auxiliaries, or as particles subservient to other words. Thus, in +the instance of rumah, a house; deri pada rumah signifies from a house; +but it would be talking without use or meaning to say that deri pada is +the sign of the ablative case of that noun, for then every preposition +should equally require an appropriate case, and as well as of, to, and +from, we should have a case for deatas rumah, on top of the house. So of +verbs: kallo saya buli jalan, If I could walk: this may be termed the +preter-imperfect tense of the subjunctive or potential mood of the verb +jalan; whereas it is in fact a sentence of which jalan, buli, etc. are +constituent words. It is improper, I say, to talk of the case of a noun +which does not change its termination, or the mood of a verb which does +not alter its form. A useful set of observations might be collected for +speaking the language with correctness and propriety, but they must be +independent of the technical rules of languages founded on different +principles.* + +(*Footnote. I have ventured to make this attempt, and have also prepared +a Dictionary of the language which it is my intention to print with as +little delay as circUmstances will admit.) + +INTERIOR PEOPLE USE LANGUAGES DIFFERENT FROM THE MALAYAN. + +Beside the Malayan there are a variety of languages spoken in Sumatra +which however have not only a manifest affinity among themselves, but +also to that general language which is found to prevail in, and to be +indigenous to all the islands of the eastern sea; from Madagascar to the +remotest of Captain Cook's discoveries; comprehending a wider extent than +the Roman or any other tongue has yet boasted. Indisputable examples of +this connexion and similarity I have exhibited in a paper which the +Society of Antiquaries have done me the honour to publish in their +Archaeologia, Volume 6. In different places it has been more or less +mixed and corrupted, but between the most dissimilar branches an evident +sameness of many radical words is apparent, and in some, very distant +from each other in point of situation, as for instance the Philippines +and Madagascar, the deviation of the words is scarcely more than is +observed in the dialects of neighbouring provinces of the same kingdom. +To render this comparison of languages more extensive, and if possible to +bring all those spoken throughout the world into one point of view, is an +object of which I have never lost sight, but my hopes of completing such +a work are by no means sanguine. + +PECULIAR WRITTEN CHARACTERS. + +The principal of these Sumatran languages are the Botta, the Rejang, and +the Lampong, whose difference is marked not so much by the want of +correspondence in the terms as by the circumstance of their being +expressed in distinct and peculiar written characters. But whether this +apparent difference be radical and essential, or only produced by +accident and the lapse of time, may be thought to admit of doubt; and, in +order that the reader may be enabled to form his own judgment, a plate +containing the Alphabetical characters of each, with the mode of applying +the orthographical marks to those of the Rejang language in particular, +is annexed. It would indeed be extraordinary, and perhaps singular in the +history of human improvement, that divisions of people in the same +island, with equal claims to originality, in stages of civilization +nearly equal, and speaking languages derived from the same source, should +employ characters different from each other, as well as from the rest of +the world. It will be found however that the alphabet used in the +neighbouring island of Java (given by Corneille Le Brun), that used by +the Tagala people of the Philippines (given by Thevenot), and by the +Bugis people of Celebes (given by Captain Forrest), vary at least as much +from these and from each other as the Rejang from the Batta. The Sanskrit +scholar will at the same time perceive in several of them an analogy to +the rhythmical arrangement, terminating with a nasal, which distinguishes +the alphabet of that ancient language whose influence is known to have +been extensive in this quarter. In the country of Achin, where the +language differs considerably from the Malayan, the Arabic character has +nevertheless been adopted, and on this account it has less claim to +originality. + +ON BARK OF TREES AND BAMBOO. + +Their manuscripts of any bulk and importance are written with ink of +their own making on the inner bark of a tree cut into slips of several +feet in length and folded together in squares; each square or fold +answering to a page or leaf. For more common occasions they write on the +outer coat of a joint of bamboo, sometimes whole but generally split into +pieces of two or three inches in breadth, with the point of the weapon +worn at their side, which serves the purpose of a stylus; and these +writings, or scratchings rather, are often performed with a considerable +degree of neatness. Thus the Chinese also are said by their historians to +have written on pieces of bamboo before they invented paper. Of both +kinds of manuscript I have many specimens in my possession. The lines are +formed from the left hand towards the right, contrary to the practice of +the Malays and the Arabians. + +In Java, Siam, and other parts of the East, beside the common language of +the country, there is established a court language spoken by persons of +rank only; a distinction invented for the purpose of keeping the vulgar +at a distance, and inspiring them with respect for what they do not +understand. The Malays also have their bhasa dalam, or courtly style, +which contains a number of expressions not familiarly used in common +conversation or writing, but yet by no means constituting a separate +language, any more than, in English, the elevated style of our poets and +historians. Amongst the inhabitants of Sumatra in general disparity of +condition is not attended with much ceremonious distance of behaviour +between the persons. + +(TABLE OF SUMATRAN ALPHABETS.) + +(TABLE OF SPECIMENS OF LANGUAGES SPOKEN IN SUMATRA.) + + +CHAPTER 11. + +COMPARATIVE STATE OF THE SUMATRANS IN CIVIL SOCIETY. +DIFFERENCE OF CHARACTER BETWEEN THE MALAYS AND OTHER INHABITANTS. +GOVERNMENT. +TITLES AND POWER OF THE CHIEFS AMONG THE REJANGS. +INFLUENCE OF THE EUROPEANS. +GOVERNMENT IN PASSUMMAH. + +COMPARATIVE STATE OF SUMATRANS IN SOCIETY. + +Considered as a people occupying a certain rank in the scale or civil +society, it is not easy to determine the proper situation of the +inhabitants of this island. Though far distant from that point to which +the polished states of Europe have aspired, they yet look down, with an +interval almost as great, on the savage tribes of Africa and America. +Perhaps if we distinguish mankind summarily into five classes; but of +which each would admit of numberless subdivisions; we might assign a +third place to the more civilized Sumatrans, and a fourth to the +remainder. In the first class I should of course include some of the +republics of ancient Greece, in the days of their splendour; the Romans, +for some time before and after the Augustan age; France, England, and +other refined nations of Europe, in the latter centuries; and perhaps +China. The second might comprehend the great Asiatic empires at the +period of their prosperity; Persia, the Mogul, the Turkish, with some +European kingdoms. In the third class, along with the Sumatrans and a few +other states of the eastern archipelago, I should rank the nations on the +northern coast of Africa, and the more polished Arabs. The fourth class, +with the less civilized Sumatrans, will take in the people of the new +discovered islands in the South Sea; perhaps the celebrated Mexican and +Peruvian empires; the Tartar hordes, and all those societies of people in +various parts of the globe, who, possessing personal property, and +acknowledging some species of established subordination, rise one step +above the Caribs, the New Hollanders, the Laplanders, and the Hottentots, +who exhibit a picture of mankind in its rudest and most humiliating +aspect. + +FEW IMPROVEMENTS ADOPTED FROM EUROPEANS. + +As mankind are by nature so prone to imitation it may seem surprising +that these people have not derived a greater share of improvement in +manners an arts from their long connection with Europeans, particularly +with the English, who have now been settled among them for a hundred +years. Though strongly attached to their own habits they are nevertheless +sensible of their inferiority, and readily admit the preference to which +our attainments in science, and especially in mechanics, entitle us. I +have heard a man exclaim, after contemplating the structure and uses of a +house-clock, "Is it not fitting that such as we should be slaves to +people who have the ingenuity to invent, and the skill to construct, so +wonderful a machine as this?" "The sun," he added, "is a machine of this +nature." "But who winds it up?" said his companion. "Who but Allah," he +replied. This admiration of our superior attainments is however not +universal; for, upon an occasion similar to the above, a Sumatran +observed, with a sneer, "How clever these people are in the art of +getting money." + +Some probable causes of this backwardness may be suggested. We carry on +few or no species of manufacture at our settlements; everything is +imported ready wrought to its highest perfection; and the natives +therefore have no opportunity of examining the first process, or the +progress of the work. Abundantly supplied with every article of +convenience from Europe, and prejudiced in their favour because from +thence, we make but little use of the raw materials Sumatra affords. We +do not spin its cotton; we do not rear its silkworms; we do not smelt its +metals; we do not even hew its stone: neglecting these, it is in vain we +exhibit to the people, for their improvement in the arts, our rich +brocades, our timepieces, or display to them in drawings the elegance of +our architecture. Our manners likewise are little calculated to excite +their approval and imitation. Not to insist on the licentiousness that +has at times been imputed to our communities; the pleasures of the table; +emulation in wine; boisterous mirth; juvenile frolics, and puerile +amusements, which do not pass without serious, perhaps contemptuous, +animadversion--setting these aside it appears to me that even our best +models are but ill adapted for the imitation of a rude, incurious, and +unambitious people. Their senses, not their reason, should be acted on, +to rouse them from their lethargy; their imaginations must be warmed; a +spirit of enthusiasm must pervade and animate them before they will +exchange the pleasures of indolence for those of industry. The +philosophical influence that prevails and characterizes the present age +in the western world is unfavourable to the producing these effects. A +modern man of sense and manners despises, or endeavours to despise, +ceremony, parade, attendance, superfluous and splendid ornaments in his +dress or furniture: preferring ease and convenience to cumbrous pomp, the +person first in rank is no longer distinguished by his apparel, his +equipage, or his number of servants, from those inferior to him; and +though possessing real power is divested of almost every external mark of +it. Even our religious worship partakes of the same simplicity. It is far +from my intention to condemn or depreciate these manners, considered in a +general scale of estimation. Probably, in proportion as the prejudices of +sense are dissipated by the light of reason, we advance towards the +highest degree of perfection our natures are capable of; possibly +perfection may consist in a certain medium which we have already stepped +beyond; but certainly all this refinement is utterly incomprehensible to +an uncivilized mind which cannot discriminate the ideas of humility and +meanness. We appear to the Sumatrans to have degenerated from the more +splendid virtues of our predecessors. Even the richness of their laced +suits and the gravity of their perukes attracted a degree of admiration; +and I have heard the disuse of the large hoops worn by the ladies +pathetically lamented. The quick, and to them inexplicable, revolutions +of our fashions, are subject of much astonishment, and they naturally +conclude that those modes can have but little intrinsic merit which we +are so ready to change; or at least that our caprice renders us very +incompetent to be the guides of their improvement. Indeed in matters of +this kind it is not to be supposed that an imitation should take place, +owing to the total incongruity of manners in other respects, and the +dissimilarity of natural and local circumstances. But perhaps I am +superfluously investigating minute and partial causes of an effect which +one general one may be thought sufficient to produce. Under the frigid, +and more especially the torrid zone, the inhabitants will naturally +preserve an uninterrupted similarity and consistency of manners, from the +uniform influence of their climate. In the temperate zones, where this +influence is equivocal, the manners will be fluctuating, and dependent +rather on moral than physical causes. + +DIFFERENCE IN CHARACTER BETWEEN THE MALAYS AND OTHER SUMATRANS. + +The Malays and the other native Sumatrans differ more in the features of +their mind than in those of their person. Although we know not that this +island, in the revolutions of human grandeur, ever made a distinguished +figure in the history of the world (for the Achinese, though powerful in +the sixteenth century, were very low in point of civilization) yet the +Malay inhabitants have an appearance of degeneracy, and this renders +their character totally different from that which we conceive of a +savage, however justly their ferocious spirit of plunder on the eastern +coast may have drawn upon them that name. They seem rather to be sinking +into obscurity, though with opportunities of improvement, than emerging +from thence to a state of civil or political importance. They retain a +strong share of pride, but not of that laudable kind which restrains men +from the commission of mean and fraudulent actions. They possess much low +cunning and plausible duplicity, and know how to dissemble the strongest +passions and most inveterate antipathy beneath the utmost composure of +features till the opportunity of gratifying their resentment offers. +Veracity, gratitude, and integrity are not to be found in the list of +their virtues, and their minds are almost strangers to the sentiments of +honour and infamy. They are jealous and vindictive. Their courage is +desultory, the effect of a momentary enthusiasm which enables them to +perform deeds of incredible desperation; but they are strangers to that +steady magnanimity, that cool heroic resolution in battle, which +constitutes in our idea the perfection of this quality, and renders it a +virtue.* Yet it must be observed that, from an apathy almost paradoxical, +they suffer under sentence of death, in cases where no indignant passions +could operate to buoy up the mind to a contempt of punishment, with +astonishing composure and indifference; uttering little more on these +occasions than a proverbial saying, common among them, expressive of the +inevitability of fate--apa buli buat? To this stoicism, their belief in +predestination, and very imperfect ideas of a future, eternal existence, +doubtless contribute. + +(*Footnote. In the history of the Portuguese wars in this part of the +East there appear some exceptions to this remark, and particularly in the +character of Laksamanna (his title of commander-in-chief being mistaken +for his proper name), who was truly a great man and most consummate +warrior.) + +Some writer has remarked that a resemblance is usually found between the +disposition and qualities of the beasts proper to any country and those +of the indigenous inhabitants of the human species, where an intercourse +with foreigners has not destroyed the genuineness of their character. The +Malay may thus be compared to the buffalo and the tiger. In his domestic +state he is indolent, stubborn, and voluptuous as the former, and in his +adventurous life he is insidious, bloodthirsty, and rapacious as the +latter. Thus also the Arab is said to resemble his camel, and the placid +Hindu his cow. + +CHARACTER OF NATIVE SUMATRANS. + +The Sumatran of the interior country, though he partakes in some degree +of the Malayan vices, and this partly from the contagion of example, +possesses many exclusive virtues; but they are more properly of the +negative than the positive kind. He is mild, peaceable, and forbearing, +unless his anger be roused by violent provocation, when he is implacable +in his resentments. He is temperate and sober, being equally abstemious +in meat and drink. The diet of the natives is mostly vegetable; water is +their only beverage; and though they will kill a fowl or a goat for a +stranger, whom perhaps they never saw before, nor ever expect to see +again, they are rarely guilty of that extravagance for themselves; nor +even at their festivals (bimbang), where there is a plenty of meat, do +they eat much of anything but rice. Their hospitality is extreme, and +bounded by their ability alone. Their manners are simple; they are +generally, except among the chiefs, devoid of the Malay cunning and +chicane; yet endued with a quickness of apprehension, and on many +occasions discovering a considerable degree of penetration and sagacity. +In respect to women they are remarkably continent, without any share of +insensibility. They are modest; particularly guarded in their +expressions; courteous in their behaviour; grave in their deportment, +being seldom or never excited to laughter; and patient to a great degree. +On the other hand, they are litigious; indolent; addicted to gaming; +dishonest in their dealings with strangers, which they esteem no moral +defect; suspicious; regardless of truth; mean in their transactions; +servile; though cleanly in their persons, dirty in their apparel, which +they never wash. They are careless and improvident of the future, because +their wants are few, for though poor they are not necessitous; nature +supplying, with extraordinary facility, whatever she has made requisite +for their existence. Science and the arts have not, by extending their +views, contributed to enlarge the circle of their desires; and the +various refinements of luxury, which in polished societies become +necessaries of life, are totally unknown to them. The Makassar and Bugis +people, who come annually in their praws from Celebes to trade at +Sumatra, are looked up to by the inhabitants as their superiors in +manners. The Malays affect to copy their style of dress, and frequent +allusions to the feats and achievements of these people are made in their +songs. Their reputation for courage, which certainly surpasses that of +all other people in the eastern seas, acquires them this flattering +distinction. They also derive part of the respect paid them from the +richness of the cargoes they import, and the spirit with which they spend +the produce in gaming, cock-fighting, and opium-smoking. + +GOVERNMENT. + +Having endeavoured to trace the character of these people with as much +fidelity and accuracy as possible, I shall now proceed to give an account +of their government, laws, customs, and manners; and, in order to convey +to the reader the clearest ideas in my power, I shall develop the various +circumstances in such order and connection as shall appear best to answer +this intent, without confining myself, in every instance, to a rigid and +scrupulous arrangement under distinct heads. + +REJANGS DIVIDED INTO TRIBES. + +The Rejang people, whom, for reasons before assigned, I have fixed upon +for a standard of description, but which apply generally to the orang +ulu, or inhabitants of the inland country, are distinguished into tribes, +the descendants of different ancestors. Of these there are four +principal, who are said to trace their origin to four brothers, and to +have been united from time immemorial in a league offensive and +defensive; though it may be presumed that the permanency of this bond of +union is to be attributed rather to considerations of expediency +resulting from their situation than to consanguinity or any formal +compact. + +THEIR GOVERNMENT. + +The inhabitants live in villages, called dusun, each under the government +of a headman or magistrate, styled dupati, whose dependants are termed +his ana-buah, and in number seldom exceed one hundred. The dupatis +belonging to each river (for here, the villages being almost always +situated by the waterside, the names we are used to apply to countries or +districts are properly those of the rivers) meet in a judicial capacity +at the kwalo, where the European factory is established, and are then +distinguished by the name of proattin. + +PANGERAN. + +The pangeran (a Javanese title), or feudal chief of the country, presides +over the whole. It is not an easy matter to describe in what consists the +fealty of a dupati to his pangeran, or of his ana-buah to himself, so +very little in either case is practically observed. Almost without arts, +and with but little industry, the state of property is nearly equal among +all the inhabitants, and the chiefs scarcely differ but in title from the +bulk of the people. + +HIS AUTHORITY. + +Their authority is no more than nominal, being without that coercive +power necessary to make themselves feared and implicitly obeyed. This is +the natural result of poverty among nations habituated to peace; where +the two great political engines of interest and military force are +wanting. Their government is founded in opinion, and the submission of +the people is voluntary. The domestic rule of a private family beyond a +doubt suggested first the idea of government in society, and, this people +having made but small advances in civil policy, theirs continues to +retain a strong resemblance of its original. It is connected also with +the principle of the feudal system, into which it would probably settle +should it attain to a greater degree of refinement. All the other +governments throughout the island are likewise a mixture of the +patriarchal and feudal; and it may be observed that, where a spirit of +conquest has reduced the inhabitants under the subjection of another +power, or has added foreign districts to their dominion, there the feudal +maxims prevail: where the natives, from situation or disposition, have +long remained undisturbed by revolutions, there the simplicity of +patriarchal rule obtains; which is not only the first and natural form of +government of all rude nations rising from imperceptible beginnings, but +is perhaps also the highest state of perfection at which they can +ultimately arrive. It is not in this art alone that we perceive the next +step from consummate refinement, leading to simplicity. + +MUCH LIMITED. + +The foundation of right to government among these people seems, as I +said, to be the general consent. If a chief exerts an undue authority, or +departs from their long established customs and usages, they conceive +themselves at liberty to relinquish their allegiance. A commanding +aspect, an insinuating manner, a ready fluency in discourse, and a +penetration and sagacity in unravelling the little intricacies of their +disputes, are qualities which seldom fail to procure to their possessor +respect and influence, sometimes perhaps superior to that of an +acknowledged chief. The pangean indeed claims despotic sway, and as far +as he can find the means scruples not to exert it; but, his revenues +being insufficient to enable him to keep up any force for carrying his +mandates into execution, his actual powers are very limited, and he has +seldom found himself able to punish a turbulent subject any otherwise +than by private assassination. In appointing the heads of dusuns he does +little more than confirm the choice already made among the inhabitants, +and, were he arbitrarily to name a person of a different tribe or from +another place, he would not be obeyed. He levies no tax, nor has any +revenue (what he derives from the India Company being out of the +question), or other emolument from his subjects than what accrues to him +from the determination of causes. Appeals lie to him in all cases, and +none of the inferior courts or assemblies of proattins are competent to +pronounce sentence of death. But, all punishments being by the laws of +the country commutable for fines, and the appeals being attended with +expense and loss of time, the parties generally abide by the first +decision. Those dusuns which are situated nearest to the residence of the +pangeran, at Sungey-lamo, acknowledge somewhat more of subordination than +the distant ones, which even in case of war esteem themselves at liberty +to assist or not, as they think proper, without being liable to +consequences. In answer to a question on this point, "we are his +subjects, not his slaves," replied one of the proattins. But from the +pangeran you hear a tale widely different. He has been known to say, in a +political conversation, "such and such dusuns there will be no trouble +with; they are my powder and shot;" explaining himself by adding that he +could dispose of the inhabitants, as his ancestors had done, to purchase +ammunition in time of war. + +ORIGIN OF THE PANGERAN IN RAJANG. + +The father of Pangeran Mangko Raja (whose name is preserved from oblivion +by the part he took in the expulsion of the English from Fort Marlborough +in the year 1719) was the first who bore the title of pangeran of +Sungey-lamo. He had before been simply Baginda Sabyam. Until about a +hundred years ago the southern coast of Sumatra as far as Urei River was +dependant on the king of Bantam, whose Jennang (lieutenant or deputy) +came yearly to Silebar or Bencoolen, collected the pepper and filled up +the vacancies by nominating, or rather confirming in their appointments, +the proattins. Soon after that time, the English having established a +settlement at Bencoolen, the jennang informed the chiefs that he should +visit them no more, and, raising the two headmen of Sungey-lamo and +Sungey-itam (the latter of whom is chief of the Lemba country in the +neighbourhood of Bencoolen River; on which however the former possesses +some villages, and is chief of the Rejang tribes), to the dignity of +pangeran, gave into their hands the government of the country, and +withdrew his master's claim. Such is the account given by the present +possessors of the origin of their titles, which nearly corresponds with +the recorded transactions of the period. It followed naturally that the +chief thus invested should lay claim to the absolute authority of the +king whom he represented, and on the other hand that the proattins should +still consider him but as one of themselves, and pay him little more than +nominal obedience. He had no power to enforce his plea, and they retain +their privileges, taking no oath of allegiance, nor submitting to be +bound by any positive engagement. They speak of him however with respect, +and in any moderate requisition that does not affect their adat or +customs they are ready enough to aid him (tolong, as they express it), +but rather as matter of favour than acknowledged obligation. + +The exemption from absolute subjection, which the dupatis contend for, +they allow in turn to their ana-buahs, whom they govern by the influence +of opinion only. The respect paid to one of these is little more than as +to an elder of a family held in esteem, and this the old men of the dusun +share with him, sitting by his side in judgment on the little differences +that arise among themselves. If they cannot determine the cause, or the +dispute be with one of a separate village, the neighbouring proattins of +the same tribe meet for the purpose. From these litigations arise some +small emoluments to the dupati, whose dignity in other respects is rather +an expense than an advantage. In the erection of public works, such as +the ballei or town hall, he contributes a larger share of materials. He +receives and entertains all strangers, his dependants furnishing their +quotas of provision on particular occasions; and their hospitality is +such that food and lodging are never refused to those by whom they are +required. + +SUCCESSION OF DUPATIS. + +Though the rank of dupati is not strictly hereditary the son, when of age +and capable, generally succeeds the father at his decease: if too young, +the father's brother, or such one of the family as appears most +qualified, assumes the post; not as a regent but in his own right; and +the minor comes in perhaps at the next vacancy. If this settlement +happens to displease any portion of the inhabitants they determine +amongst themselves what chief they will follow, and remove to his +village, or a few families, separating themselves from the rest, elect a +chief, but without contesting the right of him whom they leave. The +chiefs, when nominated, do not however assume the title of dupati until +confirmed by the pangeran, or by the Company's Resident. On every river +there is at least one superior proattin, termed a pambarab, who is chosen +by the rest and has the right or duty of presiding at those suits and +festivals in which two or more villages are concerned, with a larger +allotment of the fines, and (like Homer's distinguished heroes) of the +provisions also. If more tribes than one are settled on the same river +each has usually its pambarab. Not only the rivers or districts but +indeed each dusun is independent of, though not unconnected with, its +neighbours, acting in concert with them by specific consent. + +INFLUENCE OF THE EUROPEANS. + +The system of government among the people near the sea-coast, who, +towards the southern extreme of the island, are the planters of pepper, +is much influenced by the power of the Europeans, who are virtually the +lords paramount, and exercise in fact many of the functions of +sovereignty. The advantages derived to the subject from their sway, both +in a political and civil sense, are infinitely greater than persons at a +distance are usually inclined to suppose. Oppressions may be some times +complained of at the hands of individuals, but, to the honour of the +Company's service let me add, they have been very rare and of +inconsiderable magnitude. Where a degree of discretionary power is +intrusted to single persons abuses will, in the nature of things, arise +in some instances; cases may occur in which the private passions of the +Resident will interfere with his public duty; but the door has ever been +open for redress, and examples have been made. To destroy this influence +and authority in order to prevent these consequences were to cut off a +limb in order to remove a partial complaint. By the Company's power the +districts over which it extends are preserved in uninterrupted peace. +Were it not for this power every dusun of every river would be at war +with its neighbour. The natives themselves allow it, and it was evinced, +even in the short space of time during which the English were absent from +the coast, in a former war with France. Hostilities of district against +district, so frequent among the independent nations to the northward, +are, within the Company's jurisdiction, things unheard of; and those +dismal catastrophes which in all the Malayan islands are wont to attend +on private feuds but very rarely happen. "I tell you honestly," said a +dupati, much irritated against one of his neighbours, "that it is only +you," pointing to the Resident of Laye, "that prevents my plunging this +weapon into his breast." The Resident is also considered as the protector +of the people from the injustice and oppression of the chiefs. This +oppression, though not carried on in the way of open force, which the +ill-defined nature of their authority would not support, is scarcely less +grievous to the sufferer. Expounders of the law, and deeply versed in the +chicanery of it, they are ever lying in wait to take advantage of the +necessitous and ignorant, till they have stripped them of their property, +their family, and their personal liberty. To prevent these practices the +partial administration of justice in consequence of bribes, the +subornation of witnesses, and the like iniquities, a continual exertion +of the Resident's attention and authority is required, and, as that +authority is accidentally relaxed, the country falls into confusion. + +It is true that this interference is not strictly consonant with the +spirit of the original contracts entered into by the Company with the +native chiefs, who, in consideration of protection from their enemies, +regular purchase of the produce of their country, and a gratuity to +themselves proportioned to the quantity of that produce, undertake on +their part to oblige their dependants to plant pepper, to refrain from +the use of opium, the practice of gaming, and other vicious excesses, and +to punish them in case of non-compliance. But, however prudent or equal +these contracts might have been at the time their form was established, a +change of circumstances, the gradual and necessary increase of the +Company's sway which the peace and good of the country required, and the +tacit consent of the chiefs themselves (among whom the oldest living have +never been used to regard the Company, who have conferred on them their +respective dignities, as their equals, or as trading in their districts +upon sufferance), have long antiquated them; and custom and experience +have introduced in their room an influence on one side, and a +subordination on the other, more consistent with the power of the Company +and more suitable to the benefits derived from the moderate and humane +exercise of that power. Prescription has given its sanction to this +change, and the people have submitted to it without murmuring, as it was +introduced not suddenly but with the natural course of events, and +bettered the condition of the whole while it tended to curb the rapacity +of the few. Then let not short-sighted or designing persons, upon false +principles of justice, or ill-digested notions of liberty, rashly +endeavour to overturn a scheme of government, doubtless not perfect, but +which seems best adapted to the circumstances it has respect to, and +attended with the fewest disadvantages. Let them not vainly exert +themselves to procure redress of imaginary grievances, for persons who +complain not, or to infuse a spirit of freedom and independence, in a +climate where nature possibly never intended they should flourish, and +which, if obtained, would apparently be attended with effects that all +their advantages would badly compensate. + +GOVERNMENT IN PASSUMMAH. + +In Passummah, which nearly borders upon Rejang, to the southward, there +appears some difference in the mode of government, though the same spirit +pervades both; the chiefs being equally without a regular coercive power, +and the people equally free in the choice of whom they will serve. This +is an extensive and comparatively populous country, bounded on the north +by that of Lamattang, and on the south-east by that of Lampong, the river +of Padang-guchi marking the division from the latter, near the sea-coast. +It is distinguished into Passummah lebbar, or the broad, which lies +inland, extending to within a day's journey of Muaro Mulang, on Palembang +River; and Passummah ulu Manna, which is on the western side of the range +of hills, whither the inhabitants are said to have mostly removed in +order to avoid the government of Palembang. + +It is governed by four pangerans, who are independent of each other but +acknowledge a kind of sovereignty in the sultan of Palembang, from whom +they hold a chap (warrant) and receive a salin (investiture) on their +accession. This subordination is the consequence of the king of Bantam's +former influence over this part of the island, Palembang being a port +anciently dependent on him, and now on the Dutch, whose instrument the +sultan is. There is an inferior pangeran in almost every dusun (that +title being nearly as common in Passummah as dupati towards the +sea-coast) who are chosen by the inhabitants, and confirmed by the +superior pangeran, whom they assist in the determination of causes. In +the low country, where the pepper-planters reside, the title of kalippah +prevails; which is a corruption of the Arabic word khalifah, signifying a +vicegerent. Each of these presides over various tribes, which have been +collected at different times (some of them being colonists from Rejang, +as well as from a country to the eastward of them, named Haji) and have +ranged themselves, some under one and some under another chief; having +also their superior proattin, or pambarab, as in the northern districts. +On the rivers of Peeno, Manna, and Bankannon are two kalippahs +respectively, some of whom are also pangerans, which last seems to be +here rather a title of honour, or family distinction, than of magistracy. +They are independent of each other, owning no superior; and their number, +according to the ideas of the people, cannot be increased. + + +CHAPTER 12. + +LAWS AND CUSTOMS. +MODE OF DECIDING CAUSES. +CODE OF LAWS. + +LAWS OR CUSTOMS. + +There is no word in the languages of the island which properly and +strictly signifies law; nor is there any person or class of persons among +the Rejangs regularly invested with a legislative power. They are +governed in their various disputes by a set of long-established customs +(adat), handed down to them from their ancestors, the authority of which +is founded on usage and general consent. The chiefs, in pronouncing their +decisions, are not heard to say, "so the law directs," but "such is the +custom." It is true that, if any case arises for which there is no +precedent on record (of memory), they deliberate and agree on some mode +that shall serve as a rule in future similar circumstances. If the affair +be trifling that is seldom objected to; but when it is a matter of +consequence the pangeran, or kalippah (in places where such are present), +consults with the proattins, or lower order of chiefs, who frequently +desire time to consider of it, and consult with the inhabitants of their +dusun. When the point is thus determined the people voluntarily submit to +observe it as an established custom; but they do not acknowledge a right +in the chiefs to constitute what laws they think proper, or to repeal or +alter their ancient usages, of which they are extremely tenacious and +jealous. It is notwithstanding true that, by the influence of the +Europeans, they have at times been prevailed on to submit to innovations +in their customs; but, except when they perceived a manifest advantage +from the change, they have generally seized an opportunity of reverting +to the old practice. + +MODE OF DECIDING CAUSES. + +All causes, both civil and criminal, are determined by the several chiefs +of the district, assembled together at stated times for the purpose of +distributing justice. These meetings are called becharo (which signifies +also to discourse or debate), and among us, by an easy corruption, +bechars. Their manner of settling litigations in points of property is +rather a species of arbitration, each party previously binding himself to +submit to the award, than the exertion of a coercive power possessed by +the court for the redress of wrongs. + +The want of a written criterion of the laws and the imperfect stability +of traditionary usage must frequently, in the intricacies of their suits, +give rise to contradictory decisions; particularly as the interests and +passions of the chiefs are but too often concerned in the determination +of the causes that come before them. + +COMPILATION OF LAWS. + +This evil had long been perceived by the English Residents, who, in the +countries where we are settled, preside at the bechars, and, being +instigated by the splendid example of the Governor-general of Bengal (Mr. +Hastings), under whose direction a code of the laws of that empire was +compiled (and translated by Mr. Halhed), it was resolved that the +servants of the Company at each of the subordinates should, with the +assistance of the ablest and most experienced of the natives, attempt to +reduce to writing and form a system of the usages of the Sumatrans in +their respective residencies. This was accordingly executed in some +instances, and, a translation of that compiled in the residency of Laye +coming into my possession, I insert it here, in the original form, as +being attended with more authority and precision than any account +furnished from my own memorandums could pretend to. + +REJANG LAWS. + +For the more regular and impartial administration of justice in the +Residency of Laye, the laws and customs of the Rejangs, hitherto +preserved by tradition, are now, after being discussed, amended, and +ratified, in an assembly of the pangeran, pambarabs, and proattins, +committed to writing in order that they may not be liable to alteration; +that those deserving death or fine may meet their reward; that causes may +be brought before the proper judges, and due amends made for defaults; +that the compensation for murder may be fully paid; that property may be +equitably divided; that what is borrowed may be restored; that gifts may +become the undoubted property of the receiver; that debts may be paid and +credits received agreeably to the customs that have been ever in force +beneath the heavens and on the face of the earth. By the observance of +the laws a country is made to flourish, and where they are neglected or +violated ruin ensues. + +BECHARS, SUITS, OR TRIALS. + +PROCESS IN SUITS. + +The plaintiff and defendant first state to the bench the general +circumstances of the case. If their accounts differ, and they consent to +refer the matter to the decision of the proattins or bench, each party is +to give a token, to the value of a suku, that he will abide by it, and to +find security for the chogo, a sum stated to them, supposed to exceed the +utmost probable damages. + +If the chogo do not exceed 30 dollars the bio or fee paid by each is + 1 1/4 dollars. +If the chogo do not exceed 30 to 50 dollars the bio or fee paid by each + is 2 1/2 dollars. +If the chogo do not exceed 50 to 100 dollars the bio or fee paid by each + is 5 dollars. +If the chogo do not exceed 100 dollars and upwards the bio or fee paid by + each is 9 dollars. + +All chiefs of dusuns, or independent tallangs, are entitled to a seat on +the bench upon trials. + +If the pangeran sits at the bechar he is entitled to one half of all bio, +and of such fines, or shares of fines, as fall to the chiefs, the +pambarabs, and other proattins dividing the remainder. + +If the pangeran be not present the pambarabs have one-third, and the +other proattins two-thirds of the foregoing. Though a single pambarab +only sit he is equally entitled to the above one-third. Of the other +proattins five are requisite to make a quorum. + +No bechar, the chogo of which exceeds five dollars, to be held by the +proattins, except in the presence of the Company's Resident, or his +assistant. + +If a person maliciously brings a false accusation and it is proved such, +he is liable to pay a sum equal to that which the defendant would have +incurred had his design succeeded; which sum is to be divided between the +defendant and the proattins, half and half. + +The fine for bearing false witness is twenty dollars and a buffalo. + +The punishment of perjury is left to the superior powers (orang alus). +Evidence here is not delivered on previous oath. + +LAWS OF INHERITANCE. + +If the father leaves a will, or declares before witnesses his intentions +relative to his effects or estate, his pleasure is to be followed in the +distribution of them amongst his children. + +If he dies intestate and without declaring his intentions the male +children inherit, share and share alike, except that the house and pusako +(heirlooms, or effects on which, from various causes, superstitious value +is placed) devolve invariably to the eldest. + +The mother (if by the mode of marriage termed jujur, which, with the +other legal terms, will be hereafter explained) and the daughters are +dependant on the sons. + +If a man, married by semando, dies, leaving children, the effects remain +to the wife and children. If the woman dies, the effects remain to the +husband and children. If either dies leaving no children the family of +the deceased is entitled to half the effects. + +OUTLAWRY. + +Any person unwilling to be answerable for the debts or actions of his son +or other relation under his charge may outlaw him, by which he, from that +period, relinquishes all family connexion with him, and is no longer +responsible for his conduct. + +The outlaw to be delivered up to the Resident or pangeran, accompanied +with his writ of outlawry, in duplicate, one copy to be lodged with the +Resident, and one with the outlaw's pambarab. + +The person who outlaws must pay all debts to that day. + +On amendment, the outlaw may be recalled to his family, they paying such +debts as he may have contracted whilst outlawed, and redeeming his writ +by payment of ten dollars and a goat, to be divided among the pangeran +and pambarabs. + +If an outlaw commits murder he is to suffer death. + +If murdered, a bangun, or compensation, of fifty dollars, is to be paid +for him to the pangeran. + +If an outlaw wounds a person he becomes a slave to the Company or +pangeran for three years. If he absconds and is afterwards killed no +bangun is to be paid for him. + +If an outlaw wounds a person and is killed in the scuffle no bangun is to +be paid for him. + +If the relations harbour an outlaw they are held willing to redeem him, +and become answerable for his debts. + +THEFT. + +A person convicted of theft pays double the value of the goods stolen, +with a fine of twenty dollars and a buffalo, if they exceed the value of +five dollars: if under five dollars the fine is five dollars and a goat; +the value of the goods still doubled. + +All thefts under five dollars, and all disputes for property, or offences +to that amount, may be compromised by the proattins whose dependants are +concerned. + +Neither assertion nor oath of the prosecutor are sufficient for +conviction without token (chino) of the robbery, namely, some article +recovered of the goods stolen; or evidence sufficient. + +If any person, having permission to pass the night in the house of +another, shall leave it before daybreak, without giving notice to the +family, he shall be held accountable for any thing that may be that night +missing. + +If a person passing the night in the house of another does not commit his +effects to the charge of the owner of it, the latter is not accountable +if they are stolen during the night. If he has given them in charge, and +the stranger's effects only are lost during the night, the owner of the +house becomes accountable. If effects both of the owner and lodger are +stolen, each is to make oath to the other that he is not concerned in the +robbery, and the parties put up with their loss, or retrieve it as they +can. + +Oaths are usually made on the koran, or at the grave of an ancestor, +according as the Mahometan religion prevails more or less. The party +intended to be satisfied by the oath generally prescribes the mode and +purport of it. + +BANGUN, OR COMPENSATION FOR MURDER. + +The bangun or compensation for the murder of a pambarab is 500 dollars. +The bangun or compensation for the murder of an inferior proattin is 250 + dollars. +The bangun or compensation for the murder of a common person, man or boy, + is 80 dollars. +The bangun or compensation for the murder of a common person, woman or girl, + is 150 dollars. +The bangun or compensation for the murder of the legitimate children or + wife of a pambarab is 250 dollars. + +Exclusive of the above, a fine of fifty dollars and a buffalo as tippong +bumi (expiation), is to be paid on the murder of a pambarab; of twenty +dollars and a buffalo on the murder of any other; which goes to the +pambarab and proattins. + +The bangun of an outlaw is fifty dollars without tippong bumi. + +No bangun is to be paid for a person killed in the commission of a robbery. + +The bangun of pambarabs and proattins is to be divided between the pangeran +and pambarabs one half; and the family of the deceased the other half. + +The bangun of private persons is to be paid to their families; deducting +the adat ulasan of ten per cent to the pambarabs and proattins. + +If a man kills his slave he pays half his price as bangun to the +pangeran, and the tippong bumi to the proattins. + +If a man kills his wife by jujur he pays her bangun to her family, or to +the proattins, according as the tali kulo subsists or not. + +If a man kills or wounds his wife by semando he pays the same as for a +stranger. + +If a man wounds his wife by jujur slightly he pays one tail or two +dollars. + +If a man wounds his wife by jujur with a weapon and an apparent intention +of killing her he pays a fine of twenty dollars. + +If the tali kulo (tie of relationship) is broken the wife's family can no +longer claim bangun or fine: they revert to the proattins. + +If a pambarab wounds his wife by jujur he pays five dollars and a goat. + +If a pambarab's daughter, married by jujur, is wounded by her husband he +pays five dollars and a goat. + +For a wound occasioning the loss of an eye or limb or imminent danger of +death half the bangun is to be paid. + +For a wound on the head the pampas or compensation is twenty dollars. + +For other wounds the pampas from twenty dollars downwards. + +If a person is carried off and sold beyond the hills the offender, if +convicted, must pay the bangun. If the person has been recovered previous +to the trial the offender pays half the bangun. + +If a man kills his brother he pays to the proattins the tippong bumi. + +If a wife kills her husband she must suffer death. + +If a wife by semando wounds her husband her relations must pay what they +would receive if he wounded her. + +DEBTS AND CREDITS. + +DEBTS. + +On the death of a person in debt (unless he die an outlaw, or married +byambel-anak) his nearest relation becomes accountable to the creditors. + +Of a person married by ambel-anak the family he married into is +answerable for debts contracted during the marriage: such as were +previous to it his relations must pay. + +A father, or head of a family, has hitherto been in all cases liable to +the debts of his sons, or younger relations under his care; but to +prevent as much as possible his suffering by their extravagance it is now +resolved: + +That if a young unmarried man (bujang) borrows money, or purchases goods +without the concurrence of his father, or of the head of his family, the +parent shall not be answerable for the debt. Should the son use his +father's name in borrowing it shall be at the lender's risk if the father +disavows it. + +If any person gives credit to the debtor of another (publicly known as +such, either in the state of mengiring, when the whole of his labour +belongs to the creditor, or of be-blah, when it is divided) the latter +creditor can neither disturb the debtor for the sum nor oblige the former +to pay it. He must either pay the first debt (membulati, consolidate) or +let his claim lie over till the debtor finds means to discharge it. + +Interest of money has hitherto been three fanams per dollar per month, or +one hundred and fifty per cent per annum. It is now reduced to one fanam, +or fifty per cent per annum, and no person is to receive more, under +penalty of fine, according to the circumstances of the case. + +No more than double the principal can in any case be recovered at law. A +person lending money at interest, and letting it lie over beyond two +years, loses the surplus. + +No pepper-planter to be taken as a debtor mengiring, under penalty of +forty dollars. + +A planter in debt may engage in any work for hire that does not interfere +with the care of his garden, but must on no account mengiring, even +though his creditor offers to become answerable for the care of his +garden. + +If a debtor mengiring absconds from his master (or creditor, who has a +right to his personal service) without leave of absence he is liable to +an increase of debt at the rate of three fanams per day. Females have +been hitherto charged six fanams, but are now put upon a footing the same +as the men. + +If a debtor mengiring, without security, runs away, his debt is liable to +be doubled if he is absent above a week. + +If a man takes a person mengiring, without security for the debt, should +the debtor die in that predicament the creditor loses his money, having +no claim on the relations for it. + +If a person takes up money under promise of mengiring at a certain +period, should he not perform his agreement he must pay interest for the +money at one fanam per dollar per month. + +If a person, security for another, is obliged to pay the debt he is +entitled to demand double from the debtor; but this claim to be moderated +according to circumstances. + +If a person sues for a debt which is denied the onus probandi lies with +the plaintiff. If he fails in proof the defendant, on making oath to the +justness of his denial, shall be acquitted. + +If a debtor taking care of a pepper garden, or one that gives half +produce to his creditor (be-blah), neglects it, the person in whose debt +he is must hire a man to do the necessary work; and the hire so paid +shall be added to the debt. Previous notice shall however be given to the +debtor, that he may if he pleases avoid the payment of the hire by doing +the work himself. + +If a person's slave, or debtor mengiring, be carried off and sold beyond +the hills the offender is liable to the bangun, if a debtor, or to his +price, if a slave. Should the person be recovered the offender is liable +to a fine of forty dollars, of which the person that recovers him has +half, and the owner or creditor the remainder. If the offender be not +secured the reward shall be only five dollars to the person that brings +the slave, and three dollars the debtor, if on this side the hills; if +from beyond the hills the reward is doubled. + +LAWS REGARDING MARRIAGE. + +The modes of marriage prevailing hitherto have been principally by jujur, +or by ambel-anak, the Malay semando being little used. The obvious ill +consequences of the two former, from the debt or slavery they entailed +upon the man that married, and the endless lawsuits they gave rise to, +have at length induced the chiefs to concur in their being as far as +possible laid aside; adopting in lieu of them the semando malayo, or +mardiko, which they now strongly recommend to their dependants as free +from the encumbrances of the other modes, and tending, by facilitating +marriage, and the consequent increase of population, to promote the +welfare of their country. Unwilling, however, to abolish arbitrarily a +favourite custom of their ancestors, marriage by jujur is still permitted +to take place, but under such restrictions as will, it is hoped, +effectually counteract its hitherto pernicious consequences. Marriage by +ambel-anak, which rendered a man and his descendants the property of the +family he married into, is now prohibited, and none permitted for the +future, but, by semando, or jujur, subject to the following regulations. + +The jujur of a virgin (gadis) has been hitherto one hundred and twenty +dollars: the adat annexed to it have been tulis-tanggil, fifteen dollars; +upah daun kodo, six dollars, and tali kulo, five dollars: + +The jujur of a widow, eighty dollars, without the adat; unless her +children by the former marriage went with her, in which case the jujur +gadis was paid in full. + +It is now determined that, on a man's giving his daughter in marriage by +jujur for the future, there shall, in lieu of the above, be fixed a sum +not exceeding one hundred and fifty dollars, to be in full for jujur and +all adat whatever. That this sum shall, when the marriage takes place, be +paid upon the spot; that if credit is given for the whole, or any part, +it shall not be recoverable by course of law; and as the sum includes the +tali kulo, or bond of relationship, the wife thereby becomes the absolute +property of the husband. The marriage by jujur being thus rendered +equivalent to actual sale, and the difficulty enhanced by the necessity +of paying the full price upon the spot, it is probable that the custom +will in a great measure cease, and, though not positively, be virtually +abolished. Nor can a lawsuit follow from any future jujur. + +The adat, or custom, of the semando malayo or mardiko, to be paid by the +husband to the wife's family upon the marriage taking place, is fixed at +twenty dollars and a buffalo, for such as can afford it; and at ten +dollars and a goat, for the poorer class of people. + +Whatever may be acquired by either party during the subsistence of the +marriage becomes joint property, and they are jointly liable to debts +incurred, if by mutual consent. Should either contract debts without the +knowledge and consent of the other the party that contracts must alone +bear them in case of a divorce. + +If either party insists upon, or both agree in it, a divorce must follow. +No other power can separate them. The effects, debts, and credits in all +cases to be equally divided. If the man insists upon the divorce he pays +a charo of twenty dollars to the wife's family, if he obtained her a +virgin; if a widow, ten dollars. If the woman insists on the divorce no +charo is to be paid. If both agree in it the man pays half the charo. + +If a man married by semando dies--Vide Inheritance. + +If a man carries off a woman with her consent, and is willing either to +pay her price at once by jujur, or marry her by semando, as the father or +relations please, they cannot reclaim the woman, and the marriage takes +place. + +If a man carries off a girl under age (which is determined by her not +having her ears bored and teeth filed--bulum bertinde berdabong), though +with her own consent, he pays, exclusive of the adat jujur, or semando, +twenty dollars if she be the daughter of a pambarab, and ten dollars for +the daughter of any other, whether the marriage takes place or not. + +If a risau, or person without property and character, carries off a woman +(though with her own consent) and can neither pay the jujur, nor adat +semando, the marriage shall not take place, but the man be fined five +dollars and a goat for misdemeanour. If she be under age, his fine ten +dollars and a goat. + +If a man has but one daughter, whom, to keep her near him, he wishes to +give in marriage by semando; should a man carry her off, he shall not be +allowed to keep her by jujur, though he offer the money upon the spot. If +he refuses to marry her by semando, no marriage takes place, and he +incurs a fine to the father of ten dollars and a goat. + +If a man carries off a woman under pretence of marriage he must lodge her +immediately with some reputable family. If he carries her elsewhere, for +a single night he incurs a fine of fifty dollars, payable to her parents +or relations. + +If a man carries off a virgin against her inclination (me-ulih) he incurs +a fine of twenty dollars and a buffalo: if a widow, ten dollars and a +goat, and the marriage does not take place. If he commits a rape, and the +parents do not choose to give her to him in marriage, he incurs a fine of +fifty dollars. + +The adat libei, or custom of giving one woman in exchange for another +taken in marriage, being a modification of the jujur, is still admitted +of; but if the one be not deemed an equivalent for the other the +necessary compensation (as the pangalappang, for nonage) must be paid +upon the spot, or it is not recoverable by course of law. If a virgin is +carried off (te-lari gadis) and another is given in exchange for her, by +adat libei, twelve dollars must be paid with the latter as adat ka-salah. + +A man married by ambel-anak may redeem himself and family on payment of +the jujur and adat of a virgin before-mentioned. + +The charo of a jujur marriage is twenty-five dollars. If the jujur be not +yet paid in full and the man insists on a divorce he receives back what +he has paid, less twenty-five dollars. If the woman insists no charo can +be claimed by her relations. If the tali kulo is putus (broken) the wife +is the husband's property and he may sell her if he pleases. + +If a man compels a female debtor of his to cohabit with him her debt, if +the fact be proved, is thereby discharged, if forty dollars and upwards: +if under forty the debt is cleared and he pays the difference. If she +accuses her master falsely of this offence her debt is doubled. If he +cohabits with her by her consent her parents may compel him to marry her, +either by jujur or semando, as they please. + +If an unmarried woman proves with child the man against whom the fact is +proved must marry her; and they pay to the proattins a joint fine of +twenty dollars and a buffalo. This fine, if the parties agree to it, may +be levied in the country by the neighbouring proattins (without bringing +it before the regular court). + +If a woman proves with child by a relation within the prohibited degrees +they pay to the proattins a joint fine of twice fifty dollars and two +buffaloes (hukum duo akup). + +A marriage must not take place between relations within the third degree, +or tungal nene. But there are exceptions for the descendants of females +who, passing into other families, become as strangers. Of two brothers, +the children may not intermarry. A sister's son may marry a brother's +daughter; but a brother's son may not marry a sister's daughter. + +If relations within the prohibited degrees intermarry they incur a fine +of twice fifty dollars and two buffaloes, and the marriage is not valid. + +On the death of a man married by jujur or purchase, any of his brothers, +the eldest in preference, if he pleases, may succeed to his bed. If no +brother chooses it they may give the woman in marriage to any relation on +the father's side, without adat, the person who marries her replacing the +deceased (mangabalu). If no relation takes her and she is given in +marriage to a stranger he may be either adopted into the family to +replace the deceased, without adot, or he may pay her jujur, or take her +by semando, as her relations please. + +If a person lies with a man's wife by force he is deserving of death; but +may redeem his head by payment of the bangun, eighty dollars, to be +divided between the husband and proattins. + +If a man surprises his wife in the act of adultery he may put both man +and woman to death upon the spot, without being liable to any bangun. If +he kills the man and spares his wife he must redeem her life by payment +of fifty dollars to the proattins. If the husband spares the offender, or +has only information of the fact from other persons, he may not +afterwards kill him, but has his remedy at law, the fine for adultery +being fifty dollars, to be divided between the husband and the proattins. +If he divorces his wife on this account he pays no charo. + +If a younger sister be first married, the husband pays six dollars, adat +pelalu, for passing over the elder. + +GAMING. + +All gaming, except cock-fighting at stated periods, is absolutely +prohibited. The fine for each offence is fifty dollars. The person in +whose house it is carried on, if with his knowledge, is equally liable to +the fine with the gamesters. A proattin knowing of gaming in his dusun +and concealing it incurs a fine of twenty dollars. One half of the fines +goes to the informer, the other to the Company, to be distributed among +the industrious planters at the yearly payment of the customs. + +OPIUM FARM. + +The fine for the retailing of opium by any other than the person who +farms the license is fifty dollars for each offence: one half to the +farmer, and the other to the informer. + +EXECUTIVE POWER. + +The executive power for enforcing obedience to these laws and customs, +and for preserving the peace of the country, is, with the concurrence of +the pangeran and proattins, vested in the Company's Resident. + +Done at Laye, in the month Rabia-al akhir, in the year of the Hejra 1193, +answering to April 1779. + +JOHN MARSDEN, Resident. + +... + +LAWS OR ADAT OF MANNA. + +Having procured likewise a copy of the regulations sanctioned by the +chiefs of the Passummah country assembled at Manna, I do not hesitate to +insert it, not only as varying in many circumstances from the preceding, +but because it may eventually prove useful to record the document. + +INHERITANCE. + +If a person dies having children these inherit his effects in equal +portions, and become answerable for the debts of the deceased. If any of +his brothers survive they may be permitted to share with their nephews, +but rather as matter of courtesy than of right, and only when the effects +of the deceased devolved to him from his father or grandfather. If he was +a man of rank it is common for the son who succeeds him in title to have +a larger share. This succession is not confined to the eldest born but +depends much on private agreement in the family. If the deceased person +leaves no kindred behind him the tribe to which he belonged shall inherit +his effects, and be answerable for his debts. + +DEBTS. + +When a debt becomes due and the debtor is unable to pay his creditors, or +has no effects to deposit, he shall himself, or his wife, or his +children, live with the creditor as a bond-slave or slaves until redeemed +by the payment of the debt. + +If a debt is contracted without any promise of interest none shall be +demanded, although the debt be not paid until some time after it first +became due. The rate of interest is settled at twenty per cent per annum; +but in all suits relating to debts on interest, how long soever they may +have been outstanding, the creditor shall not be entitled to more +interest than may amount to a sum equal to the capital: if the debt is +recent it shall be calculated as above. If any person lends to another a +sum exceeding twenty-five dollars and sues for payment before the chiefs +he shall be entitled only to one year's interest on the sum lent. If +money is lent to the owner of a padi-plantation, on an agreement to pay +interest in grain, and after the harvest is over the borrower omits to +pay the stipulated quantity, the lender shall be entitled to receive at +the rate of fifteen dollars for ten lent; and if the omission should be +repeated another season the lender shall be entitled to receive double +the principal. In all cases of debt contested the onus probandi lies with +the demandant, who must make good his claim by creditable evidence, or in +default thereof the respondent may by oath clear himself from the debt. +On the other hand, if the respondent allows such a debt to have existed +but asserts a previous payment, it rests with him to prove such payment +by proper evidence, or in defect the demandant shall by oath establish +his debt. + +EVIDENCE AND OATHS. + +EVIDENCE. + +In order to be deemed a competent and unexceptionable evidence person +must be of a different family and dusun from the person in whose behalf +he gives evidence, of good character, and a free man: but if the dispute +be between two inhabitants of the same dusun persons of such dusun are +allowed to be complete evidence. In respect to the oath taken by the +principals in a dispute the hukuman (or comprehensive quality of the +oath) depends on the nature of the property in dispute: if it relates to +the effects of the grandfather the hukuman must extend to the descendants +from the grandfather; if it relates to the effects of the father it +extends to the descendants of the father, etc. If any of the parties +proposed to be included in the operation of the oath refuse to subject +themselves to the oath the principal in the suit loses his cause. + +PAWNS OR PLEDGES. + +If any person holding a pawn or pledge such as wearing-apparel, household +effects, or krises, swords, or kujur (lances), shall pledge it for a +larger sum than he advanced for it, he shall be answerable to the owner +for the full value of it, on payment of the sum originally advanced. If +any person holding as a pledge man, woman, or child shall pledge them to +any other at an advanced sum, or without the knowledge of the owner, and +by these means the person pledged should be sold as a slave, he shall +make good to the owner the full value of such slave, and pay a fine of +twenty-eight dollars. If any person whatever holding man, woman, or child +as a pawn, either with janji lalu (term expired) or not, or with or +without the consent of the original owner, shall sell such person as a +slave without the knowledge of the Resident and Chiefs, he shall be fined +twenty-eight dollars. + +BUFFALOES. + +CATTLE. + +All persons who keep buffaloes shall register at the godong +(factoryhouse) their tingas or mark; and, in case any dispute shall +arise about a marked buffalo, no person shall be allowed to plead a mark +that is not registered. If any wild (stray) buffalo or buffaloes, +unmarked, shall be taken in a kandang (staked inclosure) they shall be +adjudged the property of any who takes upon himself to swear to them; +and, if it should happen that two or more persons insist upon swearing to +the same buffaloes, they shall be divided among them equally. If no +individual will swear to the property the buffaloes are to be considered +as belonging to the kalippah or magistrate of the district where they +were caught. The person who takes any buffaloes in his kandang shall be +entitled to a gratuity of two dollars per head. If any buffaloes get into +a pepper-garden, either by day or night, the owner of the garden shall +have liberty to kill them, without being answerable to the owner of the +buffaloes: yet, if it shall appear on examination that the garden was not +properly fenced, and from this defect suffers damage, the owner shall be +liable to such fine as the Resident and Chiefs shall judge it proper to +impose. + +THEFT. + +A person convicted of stealing money, wearing-apparel, household effects, +arms, or the like shall pay the owner double the value of the goods +stolen and be fined twenty-eight dollars. A person convicted of stealing +slaves shall pay to the owner at the rate of eighty dollars per head, +which is estimated to be double the value, and fined twentyeight +dollars. A person convicted of stealing betel, fowls, or coconuts shall +pay the owner double the value and be fined seven dollars, half of which +fine is to be received by the owner. If buffaloes are stolen they shall +be valued at twelve dollars per head: padi at four bakul (baskets) for +the dollar. If the stolen goods be found in the possession of a person +who is not able to account satisfactorily how he came by them he shall be +deemed the guilty person. If a person attempting to seize a man in the +act of thieving shall get hold of any part of his clothes which are +known, or his kris or siwah, this shall be deemed a sufficient token of +the theft. If two witnesses can be found who saw the stolen goods in +possession of a third person such person shall be deemed guilty unless he +can account satisfactorily how he became possessed of the goods. The oath +taken by such witnesses shall either include the descendants of their +father, or simply their own descendants, according to the discretion of +the chiefs who sit as judges. If several people sleep in one house, and +one of them leaves the house in the night without giving notice to any of +the rest, and a robbery be committed in the house that night, the person +so leaving the house shall be deemed guilty of the crime, provided the +owner of the stolen goods be willing to subject himself to an oath on the +occasion; and provided the other persons sleeping in the house shall +clear themselves by oath from being concerned in the theft: but if it +should happen that a person so convicted, being really innocent, should +in after time discover the person actually guilty, he shall have liberty +to bring his suit and recover. If several persons are sleeping in a house +and a robbery is committed that night, although none leave the house the +whole shall be obliged to make oath that they had no knowledge of, or +concern in, the theft, or on refusal shall be deemed guilty. In all cases +of theft where only a part of the stolen goods is found the owner must +ascertain upon oath the whole amount of his loss. + +MURDER, WOUNDING, AND ASSAULT. + +A person convicted of murder shall pay to the relations of the deceased a +bangun of eighty-eight dollars, one suku, and seventy-five cash; to the +chiefs a fine of twenty-eight dollars; the bhasa lurah, which is a +buffalo and one hundred bamboos of rice; and the palantan, which is +fourteen dollars. If a son kills his father, or a father his son, or a +man kills his brother, he shall pay a fine of twenty-eight dollars, and +the bhasa lurah as above. If a man kills his wife the relations of the +deceased shall receive half a bangun: if any other kills a man's wife the +husband is entitled to the bangun, but shall pay out of it to the +relations of the wife ten dollars. In wounds a distinction is made in the +parts of the body. A wound in any part from the hips upward is esteemed +more considerable than in the lower parts. If a person wounds another +with sword, kris, kujur, or other weapon, and the wound is considerable, +so as to maim him, he shall pay to the person wounded a half-bangun, and +to the chiefs half of the fine for murder, with half of the bhasa lurah, +etc. If the wound is trifling but fetches blood he shall pay the person +wounded the tepong of fourteen dollars, and be fined fourteen dollars. If +a person wounds another with a stick, bamboo, etc., he shall simply pay +the tepong of fourteen dollars. If in any dispute between two people +krises are drawn the person who first drew his kris shall be fined +fourteen dollars. If any person having a dispute assembles together his +friends with arms, he shall be fined twenty-eight dollars. + +MARRIAGE, DIVORCE, ETC. + +MARRIAGE. + +There are two modes of marriage used here: one by purchase, called jujur +or kulu, the other by adoption, called ambel anak. First of jujur. + +JUJUR. + +When a person is desirous of marrying he deposits a sum of money in the +hands of the father of the virgin, which is called the pagatan. This sum +is not esteemed part of the purchase, but as an equivalent for the +dandanan (paraphernalia, or ornamental apparel) of the bride, and is not +fixed but varies according to the circumstances and rank of the father. +The amount of the jujur is fixed at seventy dollars, including the hurup +niawa (price of life), forty dollars, a kris with gold about the head and +silver about the sheath, valued at ten dollars, and the meniudakan billi +or putus kulo (completion of purchase) at twenty. If a young man runs +away with a gadis or virgin without the consent of the father he does not +act contrary to the laws of the country; but if he refuses to pay the +full jujur on demand he shall be fined twentyeight dollars. If the +father, having received the pagatan of one man, marries his daughter to +another before he returns the money to the first, he shall be fined +fourteen dollars, and the man who marries the daughter shall also be +fined fourteen dollars. In case of divorce (which may take place at the +will of either party) the dandanan brought by the wife is to be valued +and to be deducted from the purchase-money. If a divorce originates from +the man, and before the whole purchasemoney is paid, the man shall +receive back what he has advanced after deducting the dandanan as above, +and fourteen dollars, called penusutan. If the divorce originates with +the woman the whole purchase-money shall be returned, and the children, +if any, remain with the father. If a divorce originates with the man, +when the whole purchase-money has been paid, or kulo sudah putus, he +shall not be entitled to receive back the purchase-money, but may recall +his wife whenever it shall be agreeable to him. An exact estimation is +made of the value of the woman's ornaments, and what are not restored +with her must be made good by the husband. If there are children they are +in this case to be divided, or if there be only one the husband is to +allow the woman fifteen dollars, and to take the child. Secondly, of +ambel anak. + +AMBEL ANAK. + +When a man marries after the custom called ambel anak he pays no money to +the father of the bride, but becomes one of his family, and is entirely +upon the footing of a son, the father of his wife being thenceforward +answerable for his debts, etc., in the same manner as for his own +children. The married man becomes entirely separate from his original +family, and gives up his right of inheritance. It is however in the power +of the father of the wife to divorce from her his adopted son whenever he +thinks proper, in which case the husband is not entitled to any of the +children, nor to any effects other than simply the clothes on his back: +but if the wife is willing still to live with him, and he is able to +redeem her and the children by paying the father a hundred dollars, it is +not at the option of the father to refuse accepting this sum; and in that +case the marriage becomes a kulo or jujur, and is subject to the same +rules. If any unmarried woman is convicted of incontinence, or a married +woman of adultery, they shall pay to the chiefs a fine of forty dollars, +or in defect thereof become slaves, and the man with whom the crime was +committed shall pay a fine of thirty dollars, or in like manner become a +slave; and the parties between them shall also be at the expense of a +buffalo and a hundred bamboos of rice. This is called the gawe pati or +panjingan. If an unmarried woman proves with child and refuses to name +the man with whom she was guilty she shall pay the whole fine of seventy +dollars, and furnish the buffalo, etc. If a woman after marriage brings +forth a child before the due course of nature she shall be fined +twenty-eight dollars. If a man keeps a young woman in his house for any +length of time, and has a child by her without being regularly married, +he shall be fined twenty-eight dollars, and furnish a buffalo and a +hundred bamboos of rice. If a person detects the offenders in the act of +adultery, and, attempting to seize the man, is obliged to kill him in +self-defence, he shall not pay the bangun, nor be fined, but only pay the +bhasa lurah, which is a buffalo and a hundred bamboos of rice. On the +other hand, if the guilty person kills the one who attempts to seize him, +he shall be deemed guilty of murder and pay the bangun and fine +accordingly. If a man holding a woman as a pawn, or in the condition of +mengiring shall commit fornication with her, he shall forfeit his claim +to the debt, and the woman become free. + +OUTLAWRY. + +If the members of a family have suffered inconvenience from the ill +conduct of any of their relations by having been rendered answerable for +their debts, etc., it shall be in their power to clear themselves from +all future responsibility on his account by paying to the chiefs the sum +of thirty dollars, a buffalo, and a hundred bamboos of rice. This is +termed buang surat. Should the person so cast out be afterwards murdered +the relations have forfeited their right to the bangun, which devolves to +the chiefs. + +Dated at Manna, July 1807. + +JOHN CRISP, Resident. + + +CHAPTER 13. + +REMARKS ON, AND ELUCIDATION OF, THE VARIOUS LAWS AND CUSTOMS. +MODES OF PLEADING. +NATURE OF EVIDENCE. +OATHS. +INHERITANCE. +OUTLAWRY. +THEFT, MURDER, AND COMPENSATION FOR IT. +ACCOUNT OF A FEUD. +DEBTS. +SLAVERY. + +REMARKS ON THE FOREGOING LAWS. + +The foregoing system of the adat, or customs of the country, being +digested chiefly for the use of the natives, or of persons well +acquainted with their manners in general, and being designed, not for an +illustration of the customs, but simply as a standard of right, the +fewest and concisest terms possible have been made use of, and many parts +must necessarily be obscure to the bulk of readers. I shall therefore +revert to those particulars that may require explanation, and endeavour +to throw a light upon the spirit and operation of such of their laws +especially as seem most to clash with our ideas of distributive justice. +This comment is the more requisite as it appears that some of their +regulations, which were judged to be inconsistent with the prosperity of +the people, were altered and amended through the more enlightened reason +of the persons who acted as the representatives of the English company; +and it may be proper to recall the idea of the original institutions. + +MODE OF PLEADING. + +The plaintiff and defendant usually plead their own cause, but if +circumstances render them unequal to it they are allowed to pinjam mulut +(borrow a mouth). Their advocate may be a proattin, or other person +indifferently; nor is there any stated compensation for the assistance, +though if the cause be gained a gratuity is generally given, and too apt +to be rapaciously exacted by these chiefs from their clients, when their +conduct is not attentively watched. The proattin also, who is security +for the damages, receives privately some consideration; but none is +openly allowed of. A refusal on his part to become security for his +dependant or client is held to justify the latter in renouncing his civil +dependence and choosing another patron. + +EVIDENCE. + +Evidence is used among these people in a manner very different from the +forms of our courts of justice. They rarely admit it on both sides of the +question; nor does the witness first make a general oath to speak the +truth, and nothing but the truth. When a fact is to be established, +either on the part of the plaintiff or of the defendant, he is asked if +he can produce any evidence to the truth of what he asserts. On answering +in the affirmative he is directed to mention the person. This witness +must not be a relation, a party concerned, nor even belong to the same +dusun. He must be a responsible man, having a family, and a determinate +place of residence. Thus qualified, his evidence may be admitted. They +have a settled rule in respect to the party that is to produce evidence. +For instance; A. sues B. for a debt: B. denies the debt: A. is now to +bring evidence to the debt, or, on failure thereof, it remains with B. to +clear himself of the debt by swearing himself not indebted. Had B. +acknowledged that such a debt had formerly subsisted but was since paid, +it would be incumbent on B. to prove the payment by evidence, or on +failure it would rest with A. to confirm the debt's being still due, by +his oath. This is an invariable mode, observed in all cases of property. + +OATHS. + +As their manner of giving evidence differs from ours so also does the +nature of an oath among them differ from our idea of it. In many cases it +is requisite that they should swear to what it is not possible in the +nature of things they should know to be true. A. sues B. for a debt due +from the father or grandfather of B. to the father or grandfather of A. +The original parties are dead and no witness of the transaction survives. +How is the matter to be decided? It remains with B. to make oath that his +father or grandfather never was indebted to those of A.; or that if he +was indebted the debt had been paid. This, among us, would be esteemed a +very strange method of deciding causes; but among these people something +of the kind is absolutely necessary. As they have no sort of written +accounts, nor anything like records or registers among them, it would be +utterly impossible for the plaintiff to establish the debt by a positive +proof in a multitude of cases; and were the suit to be dismissed at once, +as with us, for want of such proof, numbers of innocent persons would +lose the debts really due to them through the knavery of the persons +indebted, who would scarce ever fail to deny a debt. On the side of the +defendant again; if he was not permitted to clear himself of the debt by +oath, but that it rested with the plaintiff only to establish the fact by +a single oath, there would be a set of unprincipled fellows daily +swearing debts against persons who never were indebted to any of their +generation. In such suits, and there are many of them, it requires no +small discernment to discover, by the attendant circumstances, where the +truth lies; but this may be done in most instances by a person who is +used to their manners and has a personal knowledge of the parties +concerned. But what they mean by their oath, in those cases where it is +impossible they should be acquainted with the facts they design to prove, +is no more than this; that they are so convinced of the truth of the +matter as to be willing to subject themselves to the paju sumpah +(destructive consequences of perjury) if what they assert is believed by +them to be false. The form of words used is nearly as follows: "If what I +now declare, namely" (here the fact is recited) "is truly and really so, +may I be freed and clear from my oath: if what I assert is wittingly +false, may my oath be the cause of my destruction." But it may be easily +supposed that, where the punishment for a false oath rests altogether +with the invisible powers, where no direct infamy, no corporal punishment +is annexed to the perjury, there cannot fail to be many who would makan +sumpah (swallow an oath), and willingly incur the guilt, in order to +acquire a little of their neighbour's property. + +Although an oath, as being an appeal to the superior powers, is supposed +to come within their cognizance alone, and that it is contrary to the +spirit of the customs of these people to punish a perjury by human means, +even if it were clearly detected; yet, so far prevalent is the opinion of +their interposition in human affairs that it is very seldom any man of +substance, or who has a family that he fears may suffer by it, will +venture to forswear himself; nor are there wanting apparent examples to +confirm them in this notion. Any accident that happens to a man who has +been known to take a false oath, or to his children or grandchildren, is +carefully recorded in memory, and attributed to this sole cause. The +dupati of Gunong Selong and his family have afforded an instance that is +often quoted among the Rejangs, and has evidently had great weight. It +was notorious that he had, about the year 1770, taken in the most solemn +manner a false oath. He had at that time five sons grown up to manhood. +One of them, soon after, in a scuffle with some bugis (country soldiers) +was wounded and died. The dupati the next year lost his life in the issue +of a disturbance he had raised in the district. Two of the sons died +afterwards, within a week of each other. Mas Kaddah, the fourth, is +blind; and Treman, the fifth, lame. All this is attributed to, and firmly +believed to be the consequence of, the father's perjury. + +COLLATERAL OATHS. + +In administering an oath, if the matter litigated respects the property +of the grandfather, all the collateral branches of the family descended +from him are understood to be included in its operation: if the father's +effects only are concerned, or the transaction happened in his lifetime, +his descendants are included: if the affair regards only the present +parties and originated with them, they and their immediate descendants +only are comprehended in the consequences of the oath; and if any single +one of these descendants refuses to join in the oath it vitiates the +whole; that is, it has the same effect as if the party himself refused to +swear; a case that not unfrequently occurs. It may be observed that the +spirit of this custom tends to the requiring a weight of evidence and an +increase of the importance of the oath in proportion as the distance of +time renders the fact to be established less capable of proof in the +ordinary way. + +Sometimes the difficulty of the case alone will induce the court to +insist on administering the oath to the relations of the parties, +although they are nowise concerned in the transaction. I recollect an +instance where three people were prosecuted for a theft. There was no +positive proof against them, yet the circumstances were so strong that it +appeared proper to put them to the test of one of these collateral oaths. +They were all willing, and two of them swore. When it came to the turn of +the third he could not persuade his relations to join with him, and he +was accordingly brought in for the whole amount of the goods stolen, and +penalties annexed. + +These customs bear a strong resemblance to the rules of proof established +among our ancestors, the Anglo-Saxons, who were likewise obliged, in the +case of oaths taken for the purpose of exculpation, to produce a certain +number of compurgators; but, as these might be any indifferent persons, +who would take upon them to bear testimony to the truth of what their +neighbour swore, from an opinion of his veracity, there seems to be more +refinement and more knowledge of human nature in the Sumatran practice. +The idea of devoting to destruction, by a wilful perjury, not himself +only, but all, even the remotest branches, of a family which constitutes +his greatest pride, and of which the deceased heads are regarded with the +veneration that was paid to the dii lares of the ancients, has doubtless +restrained many a man from taking a false oath, who without much +compunction would suffer thirty or a hundred compurgators of the former +description to take their chance of that fate. Their strongest prejudices +are here converted to the most beneficial purposes. + +CEREMONY OF TAKING AN OATH. + +The place of greatest solemnity for administering an oath is the krammat +or burying-ground of their ancestors, and several superstitious +ceremonies are observed on the occasion. The people near the sea-coast, +in general, by long intercourse with the Malays, have an idea of the +Koran, and usually employ this in swearing, which the priests do not fail +to make them pay for; but the inland people keep, laid up in their +houses, certain old reliques, called in the Rejang language pesakko, and +in Malayan, sactian, which they produce when an oath is to be taken. The +person who has lost his cause, and with whom it commonly rests to bind +his adversary by an oath, often desires two or three days' time to get +ready these his swearing apparatus, called on such occasions sumpahan, of +which some are looked upon as more sacred and of greater efficacy than +others. They consist of an old rusty kris, a broken gun barrel, or any +ancient trumpery, to which chance or caprice has annexed an idea of +extraordinary virtue. These they generally dip in water, which the person +who swears drinks off, after having pronounced the form of words before +mentioned.* The pangeran of Sungei-lamo has by him certain copper bullets +which had been steeped in water drunk by the Sungeietam chiefs, when +they bound themselves never to molest his districts: which they have only +done since as often as they could venture it with safety, from the +relaxation of our government. But these were political oaths. The most +ordinary sumpahan is a kris, and on the blade of this they sometimes drop +lime-juice, which occasions a stain on the lips of the person performing +the ceremony; a circumstance that may not improbably be supposed to make +an impression on a weak and guilty mind. Such would fancy that the +external stain conveyed to the beholders an image of the internal. At +Manna the sumpahan most respected is a gun barrel. When produced to be +sworn on it is carried to the spot in state, under an umbrella, and +wrapped in silk. This parade has an advantageous effect by influencing +the mind of the party with a high idea of the importance and solemnity of +the business. In England the familiarity of the object and the summary +method of administering oaths are well known to diminish their weight, +and to render them too often nugatory. They sometimes swear by the earth, +laying their hands upon it and wishing that it may never produce aught +for their nourishment if they speak falsely. In all these ceremonies they +burn on the spot a little gum benzoin--Et acerra thuris plena, positusque +carbo in cespite vivo. + +(*Footnote. The form of taking an oath among the people of Madagascar +very nearly resembles the ceremonies used by the Sumatrans. There is a +strong similarity in the articles they swear on and in the circumstance +of their drinking the consecrated water.) + +It is a striking circumstance that practices which boast so little of +reason in their foundation, which are in fact so whimsical and childish, +should yet be common to nations the most remote in situation, climate, +language, complexion, character, and everything that can distinguish one +race of people from another. Formed of like materials, and furnished with +like original sentiments, the uncivilized tribes of Europe and of +India trembled from the same apprehensions, excited by similar ideas, at +a time when they were ignorant, or even denied the possibility of each +other's existence. Mutual wrong and animosity, attended with disputes and +accusations, are not by nature confined to either description of people. +Each, in doubtful litigations, might seek to prove their innocence by +braving, on the justice of their cause, those objects which inspired +amongst their countrymen the greatest terror. The Sumatran, impressed +with an idea of invisible powers, but not of his own immortality, regards +with awe the supposed instruments of their agency, and swears on krises, +bullets, and gun barrels; weapons of personal destruction. The German +Christian of the seventh century, more indifferent to the perils of this +life, but not less superstitious, swore on bits of rotten wood and rusty +nails, which he was taught to revere as possessing efficacy to secure him +from eternal perdition. + +INHERITANCE. + +When a man dies his effects, in common course, descend to his male +children in equal shares; but if one among them is remarkable for his +abilities above the rest, though not the eldest, he usually obtains the +largest proportion, and becomes the head of the tungguan or house; the +others voluntarily yielding him the superiority. A pangeran of Manna left +several children; none of them succeeded to the title, but a name of +distinction was given to one of the younger, who was looked upon as chief +of the family after the father's decease. Upon asking the eldest how it +happened that the name of distinction passed over him and was conferred +on his younger brother, he answered with great naivete, "because I am +accounted weak and silly." If no male children are left and a daughter +only remains they contrive to get her married by the mode of ambel anak, +and thus the tungguan of the father continues. An equal distribution of +property among children is more natural and conformable to justice than +vesting the whole in the eldest son, as prevails throughout most part of +Europe; but where wealth consists in landed estate the latter mode, +beside favouring the pride of family, is attended with fewest +inconveniences. The property of the Sumatrans being personal merely, this +reason does not operate with them. Land is so abundant in proportion to +the population that they scarcely consider it as the subject of right any +more than the elements of air and water; excepting so far as in +speculation the prince lays claim to the whole. The ground however on +which a man plants or builds, with the consent of his neighbours, becomes +a species of nominal property, and is transferable; but as it costs him +nothing beside his labour it is only the produce which is esteemed of +value, and the compensation he receives is for this alone. A temporary +usufruct is accordingly all that they attend to, and the price, in case +of sale, is generally ascertained by the coconut, durian, and other +fruit-trees that have been planted on it; the buildings being for the +most part but little durable. Whilst any of those subsist the descendants +of the planter may claim the ground, though it has been for years +abandoned. If they are cut down he may recover damages; but if they have +disappeared in the course of nature the land reverts to the public. + +They have a custom of keeping by them a sum of money as a resource +against extremity of distress, and which common exigencies do not call +forth. This is a refined antidote against despair, because, whilst it +remains possible to avoid encroaching on that treasure, their affairs are +not at the worst, and the idea of the little hoard serves to buoy up +their spirits and encourage them to struggle with wretchedness. It +usually therefore continues inviolate and descends to the heir, or is +lost to him by the sudden exit of the parent. From their apprehension of +dishonesty and insecurity of their houses their money is for the most +part concealed in the ground, the cavity of an old beam, or other secret +place; and a man on his death-bed has commonly some important discovery +of this nature to make to his assembled relations. + +OUTLAWRY. + +The practice of outlawing an individual of a family by the head of it +(called lepas or buang dangan surat, to let loose, or cast out with a +writing) has its foundation in the custom which obliges all the branches +to be responsible for the debts contracted by any one of the kindred. +When an extravagant and unprincipled spendthrift is running a career that +appears likely to involve his family in ruinous consequences, they have +the right of dissolving the connexion and clearing themselves of further +responsibility by this public act, which, as the writ expresses it, sends +forth the outcast, as a deer into the woods, no longer to be considered +as enjoying the privileges of society. This character is what they term +risau, though it is sometimes applied to persons not absolutely outlawed, +but of debauched and irregular manners. + +In the Saxon law we find a strong resemblance to this custom; the kindred +of a murderer being exempt from the feud if they abandoned him to his +fate. They bound themselves in this case neither to converse with him nor +to furnish him with meat or other necessaries. This is precisely the +Sumatran outlawry, in which it is always particularly specified (beside +what relates to common debts) that if the outlaw kills a person the +relations shall not pay the compensation, nor claim it if he is killed. +But the writ must have been issued before the event, and they cannot free +themselves by a subsequent process, as it would seem the Saxons might. If +an outlaw commits murder the friends of the deceased may take personal +revenge on him, and are not liable to be called to an account for it; but +if such be killed, otherwise than in satisfaction for murder, although +his family have no claim, the prince of the country is entitled to a +certain compensation, all outlaws being nominally his property, like +other wild animals. + +COMPENSATION FOR MURDER. + +It seems strange to those who are accustomed to the severity of penal +laws, which in most instances inflict punishment exceeding by many +degrees the measure of the offence, how a society can exist in which the +greatest of all crimes is, agreeably to established custom, expiated by +the payment of a certain sum of money; a sum not proportioned to the rank +and ability of the murderer, nor to the premeditation, or other +aggravating circumstances of the fact, but regulated only by the quality +of the person murdered. The practice had doubtless its source in the +imbecility of government, which, being unable to enforce the law of +retaliation, the most obvious rule of punishment, had recourse to a +milder scheme of retribution as being preferable to absolute indemnity. +The latter it was competent to carry into execution because the guilty +persons readily submit to a penalty which effectually relieves them from +the burden of anxiety for the consequences of their action. Instances +occur in the history of all states, particularly those which suffer from +internal weakness, of iniquities going unpunished, owing to the rigour of +the pains denounced against them by the law, which defeats its own +purpose. The original mode of avenging a murder was probably by the arm +of the person nearest in consanguinity, or friendship, to the deceased; +but this was evidently destructive of the public tranquillity, because +thereby the wrong became progressive, each act of satisfaction, or +justice, as it was called, being the source of a new revenge, till the +feud became general in the community; and some method would naturally be +suggested to put a stop to such confusion. The most direct step is to +vest in the magistrate or the law the rights of the injured party, and to +arm them with a vindictive power; which principle the policy of more +civilized societies has refined to that of making examples in terrorem, +with a view of preventing future, not of revenging past crimes. But this +requires a firmness of authority to which the Sumatran governments are +strangers. They are without coercive power, and the submission of the +people is little other than voluntary; especially of the men of +influence, who are held in subjection rather by the sense of general +utility planted in the breast of mankind, attachment to their family and +connexions, and veneration for the spot in which their ancestors were +interred, than by the apprehension of any superior authority. These +considerations however they would readily forego, renounce their fealty, +and quit their country, if in any case they were in danger of paying with +life the forfeit of their crimes; to lesser punishments those ties induce +them to submit; and to strengthen this hold their customs wisely enjoin +that every the remotest branch of the family shall be responsible for the +payment of their adjudged and other debts; and in cases of murder the +bangun, or compensation, may be levied on the inhabitants of the village +the culprit belonged to, if it happens that neither he nor any of his +relations can be found. + +The equality of punishment, which allows to the rich man the faculty of +committing, with small inconvenience, crimes that bring utter destruction +on the poor man and his family, and which is in fact the greatest +inequality, originates certainly from the interested design of those +through whose influence the regulation came to be adopted. Its view was +to establish a subordination of persons. In Europe the absolute +distinction between rich and poor, though too sensibly felt, is not +insisted upon in speculation, but rather denied or explained away in +general reasoning. Among the Sumatrans it is coolly acknowledged, and a +man without property, family, or connexions never, in the partiality of +self-love, considers his own life as being of equal value with that of a +man of substance. A maxim, though not the practice, of their law, says, +"that he who is able to pay the bangun for murder must satisfy the +relations of the deceased; he who is unable, must suffer death." But the +avarice of the relations prefers selling the body of the delinquent for +what his slavery will fetch them (for such is the effect of imposing a +penalty that cannot be paid) to the satisfaction of seeing the murder +revenged by the public execution of a culprit of that mean description. +Capital punishments are therefore almost totally out of use among them; +and it is only par la loi du plus fort that the Europeans take the +liberty of hanging a notorious criminal now and then, whom however their +own chiefs always condemn, and formally sentence. + +CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. + +Corporal punishment of any kind is rare. The chain, and a sort of stocks, +made of the pinang tree, are adopted from us; the word pasong, now +commonly used to denote the latter, originally signifying and being still +frequently applied to confinement in general. A kind of cage made use of +in the country is probably their own invention. "How do you secure a +prisoner (a man was asked) without employing a chain or our stocks?" "We +pen him up," said he, "as we would a bear!" The cage is made of bamboos +laid horizontally in a square, piled alternately, secured by timbers at +the corners, and strongly covered in at top. To lead a runaway they +fasten a rattan round his neck, and, passing it through a bamboo somewhat +longer than his arms, they bring his hands together and make them fast to +the bamboo, in a state rather of constraint than of pain, which I believe +never is wantonly or unnecessarily inflicted. If the offender is of a +desperate character they bind him hands and feet and sling him on a pole. +When they would convey a person from accident or otherwise unable to walk +they make a palanquin by splitting a large bamboo near the middle of its +length, where they contrive to keep it open so that the cavity forms a +bed, the ends being preserved whole, to rest upon their shoulders. + +The custom of exacting the bangun for murder seems only designed with a +view of making a compensation to the injured family, and not of punishing +the offender. The word signifies awaking or raising up, and the deceased +is supposed to be replaced, or raised again to his family, in the payment +of a sum proportioned to his rank, or equivalent to his or her personal +value. The price of a female slave is generally more than that of a male, +and therefore, I heard a chief say, is the bangun of a woman more than +that of a man. It is upon this principle that their laws take no +cognizance of the distinction between a wilful murder and what we term +manslaughter. The loss is the same to the family, and therefore the +compensations are alike. A dupati of Laye, in an ill hour, stepped +unwarily across the mouth of a cannon at the instant it was fired off for +a salute, and was killed by the explosion, upon which his relations +immediately sued the sergeant of the country-guard, who applied the +match, for the recovery of the bangun; but they were cast, and upon these +grounds: that the dupati was instrumental in his own death, and that the +Company's servants, being amenable to other laws for their crimes, were +not, by established custom, subject to the bangun or other penalties +inflicted by the native chiefs, for accidents resulting from the +execution of their duty. The tippong bumi, expiation, or purification of +the earth from the stain it has received, was however gratuitously paid. +No plea was set up that the action was unpremeditated, and the event +chance-medley. + +The introduction of this custom is beyond the extent of Sumatran +tradition, and has no connexion with, or dependence on, Mahometanism, +being established amongst the most inland people from time immemorial. In +early ages it was by no means confined to that part of the world. The +bangun is perfectly the same as the compensation for murder in the rude +institutions of our Saxon ancestors and other northern nations. It is the +eric of Ireland, and the apoinon of the Greeks. In the compartments of +the shield of Achilles Homer describes the adjudgment of a fine for +homicide. It would seem then to be a natural step in the advances from +anarchy to settled government, and that it can only take place in such +societies as have already a strong idea of the value of personal +property, who esteem its possession of the next importance to that of +life, and place it in competition with the strongest passion that seizes +the human soul. + +The compensation is so regularly established among the Sumatrans that any +other satisfaction is seldom demanded. In the first heat of resentment +retaliation is sometimes attempted, but the spirit soon evaporates, and +application is usually made, upon the immediate discovery of the fact, to +the chiefs of the country for the exertion of their influence to oblige +the criminal to pay the bangun. His death is then not thought of unless +he is unable, and his family unwilling, to raise the established sum. +Instances, it is true, occur in which the prosecutor, knowing the +European law in such case, will, from motives of revenge, urge to the +Resident the propriety of executing the offender rather than receive the +money; but if the latter is ready to pay it it is contrary to their laws +to proceed further. The degree of satisfaction that attends the payment +of the bangun is generally considered as absolute to the parties +concerned; they receive it as full compensation, and pretend to no +farther claim upon the murderer and his family. Slight provocations +however have been sometimes known to renew the feud, and there are not +wanting instances of a son's revenging his father's murder and willingly +refunding the bangun. When in an affray there happen to be several +persons killed on both sides, the business of justice is only to state +the reciprocal losses, in the form of an account current, and order the +balance to be discharged, if the numbers be unequal. The following is a +relation of the circumstances of one of these bloody feuds, which +happened whilst I was in the island, but which become every year more +rare where the influence of our government extends. + +ACCOUNT OF A FEUD. + +Raddin Siban was the head of a tribe in the district of Manna, of which +Pangeran Raja-Kalippah was the official chief; though by the customs of +the country he had no right of sovereignty over him. The pangeran's not +allowing him what he thought an adequate share of fines, and other +advantages annexed to his rank, was the foundation of a jealousy and ill +will between them, which an event that happened a few years since raised +to the highest pitch of family feud. Lessut, a younger brother of the +pangeran, had a wife who was very handsome, and whom Raddin Siban had +endeavoured to procure, whilst a virgin, for HIS younger brother, who was +in love with her: but the pangeran had contrived to circumvent him, and +obtained the girl for Lessut. However it seems the lady herself had +conceived a violent liking for the brother of Raddin Siban, who found +means to enjoy her after she was married, or was violently suspected so +to have done. The consequence was that Lessut killed him to revenge the +dishonour of his bed. Upon this the families were presently up in arms, +but the English Resident interfering preserved the peace of the country, +and settled the affair agreeably to the customs of the place by bangun +and fine. But this did not prove sufficient to extinguish the fury which +raged in the hearts of Raddin Siban's family, whose relation was +murdered. It only served to delay the revenge until a proper opportunity +offered of gratifying it. The people of the country being called together +on a particular occasion, the two inimical families were assembled, at +the same time, in Manna bazaar. Two younger brothers (they had been five +in all) of Raddin Siban, going to the cockpit, saw Raja Muda the next +brother of the pangeran, and Lessut his younger brother, in the open part +of a house which they passed. They quickly returned, drew their krises, +and attacked the pangeran's brothers, calling to them, if they were men, +to defend themselves. The challenge was instantly accepted, Lessut, the +unfortunate husband, fell; but the aggressors were both killed by Raja +Muda, who was himself much wounded. The affair was almost over before the +scuffle was perceived. The bodies were lying on the ground, and Raja Muda +was supporting himself against a tree which stood near the spot, when +Raddin Siban, who was in a house on the opposite side of the bazaar at +the time the affray happened, being made acquainted with the +circumstances, came over the way, with his lance in his hand. He passed +on the contrary side of the tree, and did not see Raja Muda, but began to +stab with his weapon the dead body of Lessut, in excess of rage, on +seeing the bloody remains of his two brothers. Just then, Raja Muda, who +was half dead, but had his kris in his hand, still unseen by Raddin +Siban, crawled a step or two and thrust the weapon into his side, saying +"Matti kau"--"die thou!" Raddin Siban spoke not a word, but put his hand +on the wound and walked across to the house from whence he came, at the +door of which he dropped down and expired. Such was the catastrophe. Raja +Muda survived his wounds, but being much deformed by them lives a +melancholy example of the effects of these barbarous feuds. + +PROOF OF THEFT. + +In cases of theft the swearing a robbery against a person suspected is of +no effect, and justly, for were it otherwise nothing would be more common +than the prosecution of innocent persons. The proper proofs are either +seizure of the person in the fact before witnesses, or discovery of the +goods stolen in possession of one who can give no satisfactory account +how he came by them. As it frequently happens that a man finds part only +of what he had lost it remains with him, when the robbery is proved, to +ascertain the whole amount, by oath, which in that point is held +sufficient. + +LAW RESPECTING DEBTS. + +The law which renders all the members of a family reciprocally bound for +the security of each others' debts forms a strong connexion among them, +and occasions the elder branches to be particularly watchful of the +conduct of those for whose imprudence they must be answerable. + +When a debtor is unable to pay what he owes, and has no relation or +friends capable of doing it for him, or when the children of a deceased +person do not find property enough to discharge the debts of their +parent, they are forced to the state which is called mengiring, which +simply means to follow or be dependent on, but here implies the becoming +a species of bond-slaves to the creditor, who allows them subsistence and +clothing but does not appropriate the produce of their labour to the +diminution of their debt. Their condition is better than that of pure +slavery in this, that the creditor cannot strike them, and they can +change their masters by prevailing on another person to pay their debt +and accept of their labour on the same terms. Of course they may obtain +their liberty if they can by any means procure a sum equal to their debt; +whereas a slave, though possessing ever so large property, has not the +right of purchasing his liberty. If however the creditor shall demand +formally the amount of his debt from a person mengiring, at three several +times, allowing a certain number of days between each demand, and the +latter is not able to persuade anyone to redeem him, he becomes, by the +custom of the country, a pure slave, upon the creditor's giving notice to +the chief of the transaction. This is the resource he has against the +laziness or untoward behaviour of his debtor, who might otherwise, in the +state of mengiring, be only a burden to him. If the children of a +deceased debtor are too young to be of service the charge of their +maintenance is added to the debt. This opens a door for many iniquitous +practices, and it is in the rigorous and frequently perverted exertion of +these rights which a creditor has over his debtor that the chiefs are +enabled to oppress the lower class of people, and from which abuses the +English Residents find it necessary to be the most watchful to restrain +them. In some cases one half of the produce of the labour is applied to +the reduction of the debt, and this situation of the insolvent debtor is +termed be-blah. Meranggau is the condition of a married woman who remains +as a pledge for a debt in the house of the creditor of her husband. If +any attempt should be made upon her person the proof of it annuls the +debt; but should she bring an accusation of that nature, and be unable to +prove it to the satisfaction of the court, and the man takes an oath in +support of his innocence, the debt must be immediately paid by the +family, or the woman be disposed of as a slave. + +When a man of one district or country has a debt owing to him from the +inhabitant of a neighbouring country, of which he cannot recover payment, +an usual resource is to seize on one or more of his children and carry +them off; which they call andak. The daughter of a Rejang dupati was +carried off in this manner by the Labun people. Not hearing for some time +from her father, she sent him cuttings of her hair and nails, by which +she intimated a resolution of destroying herself if not soon released. + +SLAVERY. + +The right of slavery is established in Sumatra, as it is throughout the +East, and has been all over the world; yet but few instances occur of the +country people actually having slaves; though they are common enough in +the Malayan, or sea-port towns. Their domestics and labourers are either +dependant relations, or the orang mengiring above described, who are +usually called debtors, but should be distinguished by the term of +insolvent debtors. The simple manners of the people require that their +servants should live, in a great measure, on a footing of equality with +the rest of the family, which is inconsistent with the authority +necessary to be maintained over slaves who have no principle to restrain +them but that of personal fear,* and know that their civil condition +cannot be altered for the worse. + +(*Footnote. I do not mean to assert that all men in the condition of +slaves are devoid of principle: I have experienced the contrary, and +found in them affection and strict honesty: but that there does not +result from their situation as slaves any principle of moral rectitude; +whereas every other condition of society has annexed to it ideas of duty +and mutual obligation arising from a sense of general utility. That +sublime species of morality derived from the injunctions of religion it +is almost universally their fate to be likewise strangers to, because +slavery is found inconsistent with the spirit of the gospel, not merely +as inculcating philanthropy but inspiring a principle of equality amongst +mankind.) + +There is this advantage also, that when a debtor absconds they have +recourse to his relations for the amount of his debt, who, if unable to +pay it, must mengiring in his room; whereas when a slave makes his escape +the law can give no redress, and his value is lost to the owner. These +people moreover are from habit backward to strike, and the state of +slavery unhappily requires the frequent infliction of punishment in that +mode. A slave cannot possess independently any property; yet it rarely +happens that a master is found mean and sordid enough to despoil them of +the fruits of their industry; and their liberty is generally granted them +when in a condition to purchase it, though they cannot demand it of +right. It is nothing uncommon for those belonging to the Europeans to +possess slaves of their own, and to acquire considerable substance. Their +condition is here for the most part less unhappy than that of persons in +other situations of life. I am far from wishing to diminish the horror +that should ever accompany the general idea of a state which, whilst it +degrades the species, I am convinced is not necessary among mankind; but +I cannot help remarking, as an extraordinary fact, that if there is one +class of people eminently happy above all others upon earth it is the +body of Caffres, or negro slaves belonging to the India Company at +Bencoolen. They are well clothed and fed, and supplied with a proper +allowance of liquor; their work is by no means severe; the persons +appointed as their immediate overseers are chosen for their merit from +amongst themselves; they have no occasion of care or anxiety for the past +or future, and are naturally of a lively and open temper. The +contemplation of the effects which such advantages produce must afford +the highest gratification to a benevolent mind. They are usually seen +laughing or singing whilst at work, and the intervals allowed them are +mostly employed in dancing to their rude instrumental music, which +frequently begins at sunset and ceases only with the daylight that +recalls them to their labour. Since they were first carried thither, from +different parts of Africa and Madagascar, to the present hour, not so +much as the rumour of disturbance or discontent has ever been known to +proceed from them. They hold the natives of the island in contempt, have +a degree of antipathy towards them, and enjoy any mischief they can do +them; and these in their turn regard the Caffres as devils half +humanized. + +The practice said to prevail elsewhere of men selling themselves for +slaves is repugnant to the customs of the Sumatrans, as it seems to +reason. It is an absurdity to barter anything valuable, much more civil +existence, for a sum which, by the very act of receiving, becomes again +the property of the buyer. Yet if a man runs in debt without a prospect +of paying, he does virtually the same thing, and this in cases of +distress is not uncommon, in order to relieve, perhaps, a beloved wife, +or favourite child, from similar bondage. A man has even been known to +apply in confidence to a friend to sell him to a third person, concealing +from the purchaser the nature of the transaction till the money was +appropriated. + +Ignorant stragglers are often picked up in the country by lawless knaves +in power and sold beyond the hills. These have sometimes procured their +liberty again, and prosecuting their kidnappers have recovered large +damages. In the district of Allas a custom prevails by which, if a man +has been sold to the hill people, however unfairly, he is restricted on +his return from associating with his countrymen as their equal unless he +brings with him a sum of money and pays a fine for his re-enfranchisement +to his kalippah or chief. This regulation has taken its rise from an idea +of contamination among the people, and from art and avarice among the +chiefs. + + +CHAPTER 14. + +MODES OF MARRIAGE, AND CUSTOMS RELATIVE THERETO. +POLYGAMY. +FESTIVALS. +GAMES. +COCK-FIGHTING. +USE AND EFFECTS OF OPIUM. + +MOTIVES FOR ALTERING SOME OF THEIR MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. + +By much the greater number of the legal disputes among these people have +their source in the intricacy attending their marriage contracts. In most +uncivilized countries these matters are very simple, the dictates of +nature being obeyed, or the calls of appetite satisfied, with little +ceremony or form of convention; but with the Sumatrans the difficulties, +both precedent and subsequent, are increased to a degree unknown even in +the most refined states. To remedy these inconveniences, which might be +supposed to deter men from engaging in marriage, was the view of the +Resident of Laye, before mentioned, who prevailed upon them to simplify +their engagements, as the means of preventing litigation between +families, and of increasing the population of the country. How far his +liberal views will be answered by having thus influenced the people to +change their customs, whether they will not soon relapse into the ancient +track; and whether in fact the cause that he supposed did actually +contribute to retard population, I shall not pretend to determine; but as +the last is a point on which a difference of opinion prevails I shall +take the liberty of quoting here the sentiments of another servant of the +Company (the late Mr. John Crisp) who possessed an understanding highly +enlightened. + +REASONS AGAINST THIS ALTERATION. + +This part of the island is in a low state of population, but it is an +error to ascribe this to the mode of obtaining wives by purchase. The +circumstance of children constituting part of the property of the parents +proves a most powerful incentive to matrimony, and there is not perhaps +any country on the face of the earth where marriage is more general than +here, instances of persons of either sex passing their lives in a state +of celibacy being extremely rare. The necessity of purchasing does not +prove such an obstacle to matrimony as is supposed. Was it indeed true +that every man was obliged to remain single till he had accumulated, from +the produce of his pepper-garden, a sum adequate to the purchase of a +wife, married pairs would truly be scarce. But the people have other +resources; there are few families who are not in possession of some small +substance; they breed goats and buffaloes, and in general keep in reserve +some small sum for particular purposes. The purchase-money of the +daughter serves also to provide wives for the sons. Certain it is that +the fathers are rarely at a loss for money to procure them wives so soon +as they become marriageable. In the districts under my charge are about +eight thousand inhabitants, among whom I do not conceive it would be +possible to find ten instances of men of the age of thirty years +unmarried. We must then seek for other causes of the paucity of +inhabitants, and indeed they are sufficiently obvious; among these we may +reckon that the women are by nature unprolific, and cease gestation at an +early age; that, almost totally unskilled in the medical art, numbers +fall victims to the endemic diseases of a climate nearly as fatal to its +indigenous inhabitants as to the strangers who settle among them: to +which we may add that the indolence and inactivity of the natives tend to +relax and enervate the bodily frame, and to abridge the natural period of +their lives. + +... + +MODES OF MARRIAGE. + +The modes of marriage, according to the original institutions of these +people, are by jujur, by ambel anak, or by semando. The jujur is a +certain sum of money given by one man to another as a consideration for +the person of his daughter, whose situation, in this case, differs not +much from that of a slave to the man she marries, and to his family. His +absolute property in her depends however upon some nice circumstances. +Beside the batang jujur (or main sum) there are certain appendages or +branches, one of which, the tali kulo, of five dollars, is usually, from +motives of delicacy or friendship, left unpaid, and so long as that is +the case a relationship is understood to subsist between the two +families, and the parents of the woman have a right to interfere on +occasions of ill treatment: the husband is also liable to be fined for +wounding her, with other limitations of absolute right. When that sum is +finally paid, which seldom happens but in cases of violent quarrel, the +tali kulo (tie of relationship) is said to be putus (broken), and the +woman becomes to all intents the slave of her lord.* + +(*Footnote. I cannot omit to remark here that, however apposite the word +tali, which in Malayan signifies a cord, may be to the subject of the +marriage tie, there is very strong evidence of the term, as applied to +this ceremony, having been adopted from the customs of the Hindu +inhabitants of the peninsula of India, in whose language it has a +different meaning. Among others who have described their rites is M. +Sonnerat. In speaking of the mode of marriage called pariam, which, like +the jujur, n'est autre chose qu'un achat que le mari fait de sa femme, he +says, le mari doit aussi fournir le tali, petit joyau d'or, qu'il attache +avec un cordon au col de la fille; c'est la derniere ceremonie; elle +donne la sanction au marriage, qui ne peut plus etre rompu des que le +tali est attache. Voyage aux Indes etc. tome 1 page 70. The reader will +also find the Sumatran mode of marriage by ambel anak, or adoption, +exactly described at page 72. An engraving of the tali is given by P. +Paolino, Systema Brahmanicum tab. 22. This resemblance is not confined to +the rites of marriage, for it is remarked by Sir W. Jones that, "among +the laws of the Sumatrans two positive rules concerning sureties and +interest appear to be taken word for word from the Indian legislators." +Asiatic Researches Volume 3 page 9.) + +She has then no title to claim a divorce in any predicament; and he may +sell her, making only the first offer to her relations. The other +appendages as already mentioned are the tulis tanggil (the meaning of +which I cannot satisfactorily ascertain, this and many other of the legal +terms being in the Rejang or the Passummah and not the Malayan language) +and the upah daun kodo, which is a consideration for the expense of the +marriage feast, paid to the girl's parent, who provides it. But sometimes +it is deposited at the wedding, when a distribution is made of it amongst +the old people present. The words allude to the leaf in which the rice is +served up. These additional sums are seldom paid or claimed before the +principal is defrayed, of which a large proportion, as fifty, eighty, and +sometimes a hundred and four dollars, is laid down at the time of +marriage, or in the first visit (after the parties are determined in +their regards) made by the father of the young man, or the bujang +himself, to the father of the woman. Upon opening his design this money +is tendered as a present, and the other's acceptance of it is a token +that he is inclined to forward the match. It lies often in his hands +three, six, or twelve months before the marriage is consummated. He +sometimes sends for more, and is seldom refused. Until at least fifty +dollars are thus deposited the man cannot take his wife home; but so long +as the matter continues dalam rasa-an (under consideration) it would be +deemed scandalous in the father to listen to any other proposals. When +there is a difficulty in producing the necessary sum it is not uncommon +to resort to an expedient termed mengiring jujur, that is, to continue a +debtor with the family until he can raise money sufficient to redeem +himself; and after this long credit is usually given for the remainder. +Years often elapse, if the families continue on good terms, without the +debt being demanded, particularly when a hundred and four dollars have +been paid, unless distress obliges them to it. Sometimes it remains +unadjusted to the second and third generation, and it is not uncommon to +see a man suing for the jujur of the sister of his grandfather. These +debts constitute in fact the chief part of their substance; and a person +is esteemed rich who has several of them due to him for his daughters, +sisters, aunts, and great aunts. Debts of this nature are looked upon as +sacred, and are scarcely ever lost. In Passummah, if the race of a man is +extinct, and some of these remain unpaid, the dusun or village to which +the family belonged must make it good to the creditor; but this is not +insisted upon amongst the Rejangs. + +In lieu of paying the jujur a barter transaction, called libei, sometimes +takes place, where one gadis (virgin) is given in exchange for another; +and it is not unusual to borrow a girl for this purpose from a friend or +relation, the borrower binding himself to replace her or pay her jujur +when required, A man who has a son and daughter gives the latter in +exchange for a wife to the former. The person who receives her disposes +of her as his own child or marries her himself. A brother will give his +sister in exchange for a wife, or, in default of such, procure a cousin +for the purpose. If the girl given in exchange be under age a certain +allowance per annum is made till she becomes marriageable. Beguppok is a +mode of marriage differing a little from the common jujur, and probably +only taking place where a parent wants to get off a child labouring under +some infirmity or defect. A certain sum is in this case fixed below the +usual custom, which, when paid, is in full for her value, without any +appendages. In other cases likewise the jujur is sometimes lessened and +sometimes increased by mutual agreement; but on trials it is always +estimated at a hundred and twenty dollars. If a wife dies soon after +marriage, or at any time without children, the full jujur cannot be +claimed; it is reduced to eighty dollars; but should more than that have +been laid down in the interim there is no refunding. The jujur of a +widow, which is generally eighty dollars, without appendages, is again +reduced upon a third marriage, allowances being made for dilapidation. A +widow being with child cannot marry again till she is delivered, without +incurring a penalty. In divorces it is the same. If there be no +appearance of pregnancy she must yet abstain from making another choice +during the period of three months and ten days. + +When the relations and friends of the man go in form to the parents of +the girl to settle the terms of the marriage they pay at that time the +adat besasala, or earnest, of six dollars generally; and these kill a +goat or a few fowls to entertain them. It is usually some space of time +(except in cases of telari gadis or elopement) after the payment of the +besasala, before the wedding takes place; but, when the father has +received that, he cannot give his daughter to any other person without +incurring a fine, which the young lady sometimes renders him liable to; +for whilst the old folk are planning a match by patutan, or regular +agreement between families, it frequently happens that miss disappears +with a more favoured swain and secures a match of her own choice. The +practice styled telari gadis is not the least common way of determining a +marriage, and from a spirit of indulgence and humanity, which few codes +can boast, has the sanction of the laws. The father has only the power +left of dictating the mode of marriage, but cannot take his daughter away +if the lover is willing to comply with the custom in such cases. The girl +must be lodged, unviolated, in the house of some respectable family till +the relations are advised of the enlevement and settle the terms. If +however upon immediate pursuit they are overtaken on the road, she may be +forced back, but not after she has taken sanctuary. + +By the Mosaic law, if a man left a widow without children his brother was +to marry her. Among the Sumatrans, with or without children, the brother, +or nearest male relation of the deceased, unmarried (the father +excepted), takes the widow. This is practised both by Malays and country +people. The brother, in taking the widow to himself, becomes answerable +for what may remain due of her purchase money, and in every respect +represents the deceased. This is phrased ganti tikar +bantal'nia--supplying his place on his mat and pillow. + +CHASTITY OF THE WOMEN. + +Chastity prevails more perhaps among these than any other people. It is +so materially the interest of the parents to preserve the virtue of their +daughters unsullied, as they constitute the chief of their substance, +that they are particularly watchful in this respect. But as marriages in +general do not take place so early as the forwardness of nature in that +climate would admit, it will sometimes happen, notwithstanding their +precaution, that a young woman, not choosing to wait her father's +pleasure, tastes the fruit by stealth. When this is discovered he can +oblige the man to marry her, and pay the jujur; or, if he chooses to keep +his daughter, the seducer must make good the difference he has occasioned +in her value, and also pay the fine, called tippong bumi, for removing +the stain from the earth. Prostitution for hire is I think unknown in the +country, and confined to the more polite bazaars, where there is usually +a concourse of sailors and others who have no honest settlement of their +own, and whom, therefore, it is impossible to restrain from promiscuous +concubinage. At these places vice generally reigns in a degree +proportioned to the number and variety of people of different nations who +inhabit them or occasionally resort thither. From the scenes which these +sea-ports present travellers too commonly form their judgment, and +imprudently take upon them to draw, for the information of the world, a +picture of the manners of a people. + +The different species of horrid and disgustful crimes, which are +emphatically denominated, against nature, are unknown on Sumatra; nor +have any of their languages terms to express such ideas. + +INCEST. + +Incest, or the intermarriage of persons within a certain degree of +consanguinity, which is, perhaps (at least after the first degree), +rather an offence against the institutions of human prudence than a +natural crime, is forbidden by their customs and punishable by fine: yet +the guilt is often expiated by a ceremony, and the marriages in many +instances confirmed. + +ADULTERY. + +Adultery is punishable by fine; but the crime is rare, and suits on the +subject still less frequent. The husband, it is probable, either conceals +his shame or revenges it with his own hand. + +DIVORCES. + +If a man would divorce a wife he has married by jujur he may claim back +what he has paid in part, less twenty-five dollars, the adat charo, for +the damage he has done her; but if he has paid the jujur in full the +relations may choose whether they will receive her or not; if not he may +sell her. If a man has paid part of a jujur but cannot raise the +remainder, though repeatedly dunned for it, the parents of the girl may +obtain a divorce; but if it is not with the husband's concurrence they +lose the advantage of the charo, and must refund all they have received. +A woman married by jujur must bring with her effects to the amount of ten +dollars, or, if not, it is deducted from the sum; if she brings more the +husband is accountable for the difference. The original ceremony of +divorce consists in cutting a rattancane in two, in presence of the +parties, their relations, and the chiefs of the country. + +SECOND MODE OF MARRIAGE. + +In the mode of marriage by ambel anak the father of a virgin makes choice +of some young man for her husband, generally from an inferior family, +which renounces all further right to, or interest in, him, and he is +taken into the house of his father-in-law, who kills a buffalo on the +occasion, and receives twenty dollars from the son's relations. After +this the buruk baik'nia (the good and bad of him) is vested in the wife's +family. If he murders or robs they pay the bangun, or the fine. If he is +murdered they receive the bangun. They are liable to any debts he may +contract after marriage; those prior to it remaining with his parents. He +lives in the family in a state between that of a son and a debtor. He +partakes as a son of what the house affords, but has no property in +himself. His rice plantation, the produce of his pepper-garden, with +everything that he can gain or earn, belong to the family. He is liable +to be divorced at their pleasure, and, though he has children, must leave +all, and return naked as he came. The family sometimes indulge him with +leave to remove to a house of his own, and take his wife with him; but +he, his children, and effects are still their property. If he has not +daughters by the marriage he may redeem himself and wife by paying her +jujur; but if there are daughters before they become emancipated the +difficulty is enhanced, because the family are likewise entitled to their +value. It is common however when they are upon good terms to release him +on the payment of one jujur, or at most with the addition of an adat of +fifty dollars. With this addition he may insist upon a release whilst his +daughters are not marriageable. If the family have paid any debts for him +he must also make them good. Should he contract more than they approve +of, and they fear his adding to them, they procure a divorce, and send +him back to his parents; but must pay his debts to that time. If he is a +notorious spendthrift they outlaw him by means of a writ presented to the +magistrate. These are inscribed on slips of bamboo with a sharp +instrument, and I have several of them in my possession. They must banish +him from home, and if they receive him again, or assist him with the +smallest sum, they are liable to all his debts. On the prodigal son's +return, and assurance of amendment, this writ may be redeemed on payment +of five dollars to the proattins, and satisfying the creditors. This kind +of marriage is productive of much confusion, for till the time it takes +place the young man belongs to one dusun and family, and afterwards to +another, and as they have no records to refer to there is great +uncertainty in settling the time when debts were contracted, and the +like. Sometimes the redemption of the family and their return to the +former dusun take place in the second or third generation; and in many +cases it is doubtful whether they ever took place or not; the two parties +contradicting each other, and perhaps no evidence to refer to. Hence +arise various and intricate bechars. + +THIRD, OR MALAYAN MODE OF MARRIAGE. + +Besides the modes of marriage above described, a third form, called +semando, has been adopted from the Malays, and thence termed semando +malayo or mardika (free). This marriage is a regular treaty between the +parties, on the footing of equality. The adat paid to the girl's friends +has usually been twelve dollars. The agreement stipulates that all +effects, gains, or earnings are to be equally the property of both, and +in case of divorce by mutual consent the stock, debts, and credits are to +be equally divided. If the man only insists on the divorce he gives the +woman her half of the effects, and loses the twelve dollars he has paid. +If the woman only claims the divorce she forfeits her right to the +proportion of the effects, but is entitled to keep her tikar, bantal, and +dandan (paraphernalia), and her relations are liable to pay back the +twelve dollars; but it is seldom demanded. This mode, doubtless the most +conformable to our ideas of conjugal right and felicity, is that which +the chiefs of the Rejang country have formally consented to establish +throughout their jurisdiction, and to their orders the influence of the +Malayan priests will contribute to give efficacy. + +In the ambel anak marriage, according to the institutions of Passummah, +when the father resolves to dismiss the husband of his daughter and send +him back to his dusun the sum for which he can redeem his wife and family +is a hundred dollars: and if he can raise that, and the woman is willing +to go with him, the father cannot refuse them; and now the affair is +changed into a kulo marriage; the man returns to his former tungguan +(settlement or family) and becomes of more consequence in society. These +people are no strangers to that sentiment which we call a regard to +family. There are some families among them more esteemed than others, +though not graced with any title or employment in the state. The origin +of this distinction it is difficult to trace; but it may have arisen from +a succession of men of abilities, or from the reputation for wisdom or +valour of some ancestor. Everyone has a regard to his race; and the +probability of its being extinct is esteemed a great unhappiness. This is +what they call tungguan putus, and the expression is used by the lowest +member of the community. To have a wife, a family, collateral relations, +and a settled place of residence is to have a tungguan, and this they are +anxious to support and perpetuate. It is with this view that, when a +single female only remains of a family, they marry her by ambel anak; in +which mode the husband's consequence is lost in the wife's, and in her +children the tungguan of her father is continued. They find her a husband +that will menegga tungguan, or, as it is expressed amongst the Rejangs +menegga rumah, set up the house again. + +The semando marriage is little known in Passummah. I recollect that a +pangeran of Manna, having lost a son by a marriage of this kind with a +Malay woman, she refused upon the father's death to let the boy succeed +to his dignities, and at the same time become answerable for his debts, +and carried him with her from the country; which was productive of much +confusion. The regulations there in respect to incontinence have much +severity, and fall particularly hard on the girl's father, who not only +has his daughter spoiled but must also pay largely for her frailty. To +the northward the offence is not punished with so much rigour, yet the +instances are there said to be rarer, and marriage is more usually the +consequence. In other respects the customs of Passummah and Rejang are +the same in these matters. + +RITES OF MARRIAGE. + +The rites of marriage, nikah (from the Arabian), consist simply in +joining the hands of the parties and pronouncing them man and wife, +without much ceremony excepting the entertainment which is given on the +occasion. This is performed by one of the fathers or the chief of the +dusun, according to the original customs of the country; but where +Mahometanism has found its way, a priest or imam executes the business. + +COURTSHIP. + +But little apparent courtship precedes their marriages. Their manners do +not admit of it, the bujang and gadis (youth of each sex) being carefully +kept asunder, and the latter seldom trusted from under the wing of their +mothers. Besides, courtship with us includes the idea of humble entreaty +on the man's side, and favour and condescension on the part of the woman, +who bestows person and property for love. The Sumatran on the contrary, +when he fixes his choice and pays all that he is worth for the object of +it, may naturally consider the obligation on his side. But still they are +not without gallantry. They preserve a degree of delicacy and respect +towards the sex, which might justify their retorting on many of the +polished nations of antiquity the epithet of barbarians. The +opportunities which the young people have of seeing and conversing with +each other are at the bimbangs, or public festivals, held at the balei, +or town hall of the dusun. On these occasions the unmarried people meet +together and dance and sing in company. It may be supposed that the young +ladies cannot be long without their particular admirers. The men, when +determined in their regards, generally employ an old woman as their +agent, by whom they make known their sentiments and send presents to the +female of their choice. The parents then interfere and, the preliminaries +being settled, a bimbang takes place. + +MARRIAGE FESTIVALS. + +At these festivals a goat, a buffalo, or several, according to the rank +of the parties, are killed, to entertain not only the relations and +invited guests but all the inhabitants of the neighbouring country who +choose to repair to them. The greater the concourse the more is the +credit of the host, who is generally on these occasions the father of the +girl; but the different branches of the family, and frequently all the +people of the dusun, contribute a quota of rice. + +ORDER OBSERVED. + +The young women proceed in a body to the upper end of the balei where +there is a part divided off for them by a curtain. The floor is spread +with their best mats, and the sides and ceiling of that extremity of the +building are hung with pieces of chintz, palampores, and the like. They +do not always make their appearance before dinner; that time, with part +of the afternoon, previous to a second or third meal, being appropriated +to cock-fighting and other diversions peculiar to the men. Whilst the +young are thus employed the old men consult together upon any affair that +may be at the time in agitation; such as repairing a public building or +making reprisals upon the cattle of a neighbouring people. The bimbangs +are often given on occasions of business only, and, as they are apt to be +productive of cabals, the Europeans require that they shall not be held +without their knowledge and approbation. To give authority to their +contracts and other deeds, whether of a public or private nature, they +always make one of these feasts. Writings, say they, may be altered or +counterfeited, but the memory of what is transacted and concluded in the +presence of a thousand witnesses +must remain sacred. Sometimes, in token of the final determination of an +affair, they cut a notch in a post, before the chiefs, which they call +taka kayu. + +AMUSEMENT OF DANCING. + +In the evening their softer amusements take place, of which the dances +are the principal. These are performed either singly or by two women, two +men, or with both mixed. Their motions and attitudes are usually slow, +and too much forced to be graceful; approaching often to the lascivious, +and not unfrequently the ludicrous. This is I believe the general opinion +formed of them by Europeans, but it may be the effect of prejudice. +Certain I am that our usual dances are in their judgment to the full as +ridiculous. The minuets they compare to the fighting of two game-cocks, +alternately approaching and receding. Our country dances they esteem too +violent and confused, without showing grace or agility. The stage dances +I have not a doubt would please them. Part of the female dress, called +the salendang, which is usually of silk with a gold head, is tied round +the waist, and the ends of this they at times extend behind them with +their hands. They bend forward as they dance, and usually carry a fan, +which they close and strike smartly against their elbows at particular +cadences. They keep time well, and the partners preserve a consistency +with each other though the figure and steps are ad libitum. A brisker +movement is sometimes adopted which proves more conformable to the taste +of the English spectators. + +SINGING. + +Dancing is not the only amusement on these occasions. A gadis sometimes +rises and, leaning her face on her arm, supporting herself against a +pillar, or the shoulder of one of her companions, with her back to the +audience, begins a tender song. She is soon taken up and answered by one +of the bujangs in company, whose greatest pretensions to gallantry and +fashion are founded on an adroitness at this polite accomplishment. The +uniform subject on such occasions is love, and, as the words are +extempore, there are numberless degrees of merit in the composition, +which is sometimes surprisingly well turned, quaint, and even witty. +Professed story-tellers are sometimes introduced, who are raised on a +little stage and during several hours arrest the attention of their +audience by the relation of wonderful and interesting adventures. There +are also characters of humour amongst them who, by buffoonery, mimicry, +punning, repartee, and satire (rather of the sardonic kind) are able to +keep the company in laughter at intervals during the course of a night's +entertainment. The assembly seldom breaks up before daylight, and these +bimbangs are often continued for several days and nights together till +their stock of provisions is exhausted. The young men frequent them in +order to look out for wives, and the lasses of course set themselves off +to the best advantage. + +DRESSES. + +They wear their best silken dresses, of their own weaving; as many +ornaments of filigree as they possess; silver rings upon their arms and +legs; and earrings of a particular construction. Their hair is variously +adorned with flowers and perfumed with oil of benzoin. Civet is also in +repute, but more used by the men. + +COSMETIC USED, AND MODE OF PREPARING IT. + +To render their skin fine, smooth, and soft they make use of a white +cosmetic called pupur. The mode of preparing it is as follows. The basis +is fine rice, which is a long time steeped in water and let to ferment, +during which process the water becomes of a deep red colour and highly +putrid, when it is drained off, and fresh added successively until the +water remains clear, and the rice subsides in the form of a fine white +paste. It is then exposed to the sun to dry, and, being reduced to a +powder, they mix with it ginger, the leaves of a plant called by them +dilam, and by Europeans patch-leaf (Melissa lotoria, R.), which gives to +it a peculiar smell, and also, as is supposed, a cooling quality. They +add likewise the flowers of the jagong (maize); kayu chendana +(sandalwood); and the seeds of a plant called there kapas antu +(fairy-cotton), which is the Hibiscus abelmoschus, or musk seed. All +these ingredients, after being moistened and well mixed together, are +made up into little balls, and when they would apply the cosmetic these +are diluted with a drop of water, rubbed between the hands, and then on +the face, neck, and shoulders. They have an apprehension, probably well +founded, that a too abundant or frequent application will, by stopping +the pores of the skin, bring on a fever. It is used with good effect to +remove that troublesome complaint, so well known to Europeans in India, +by the name of the prickly heat; but it is not always safe for strangers +thus to check the operations of nature in a warm climate. The Sumatran +girls, as well as our English maidens, entertain a favourable opinion of +the virtues of morning dew as a beautifier, and believe that by rubbing +it to the roots of the hair it will strengthen and thicken it. With this +view they take pains to catch it before sunrise in vessels as it falls. + +CONSUMMATION OF MARRIAGES. + +If a wedding is the occasion of the bimbang the couple are married, +perhaps, the second or third day; but it may be two or three more ere the +husband can get possession of his bride; the old matrons making it a rule +to prevent him, as long as possible, and the bride herself holding it a +point of honour to defend to extremity that jewel which she would yet be +disappointed in preserving.* + +(*Footnote. It is recorded that the jealousy between the English and +Dutch at Bantam arose from a preference shown to the former by the king +at a festival which he gave upon obtaining a victory of this nature, +which his bride had long disputed with him. For a description of a +Malayan wedding, with an excellent plate representing the conclusion of +the ceremony and the sleeping apartment, I beg to refer the reader to +Captain Forrest's Voyage to New Guinea page 286 quarto edition. The +bed-place is described at page 232 and the processional car (perarakan) +at page 241. His whole account of the domestic manners of the people of +Mindanao, at the court of which he lived on terms of familiarity, will be +found highly amusing.) + +They sit up in state at night on raised cushions, in their best clothes +and trinkets. They are sometimes loaded on the occasion with all the +finery of their relations, or even the whole dusun, and carefully eased +of it when the ceremony is over. But this is not the case with the +children of persons of rank. I remember being present at the marriage of +a young woman, whose beauty would not have disgraced any country, with a +son of Raddin, prince of Madura, to whom the English gave protection from +the power of the Dutch after his father had fallen a sacrifice.* She was +decked in unborrowed plumes. Her dress was eminently calculated to do +justice to a fine person; her hair, in which consists their chief pride, +was disposed with extreme grace; and an uncommon elegance and taste were +displayed in the workmanship and adjustment of her ornaments. It must be +confessed however that this taste is by no means general, especially +amongst the country people. Simplicity, so essential to the idea, is the +characteristic of a rude and quite uncivilized people, and is again +adopted by men in their highest state of refinement. The Sumatrans stand +removed from both these extremes. Rich and splendid articles of dress and +furniture, though not often procured, are the objects of their vanity and +ambition. + +(*Footnote. The circumstances of this disgraceful affair are preserved in +a book entitled A Voyage to the East Indies in 1747 and 1748. This Raddin +Tamanggung, a most intelligent and respectable man, died at Bencoolen in +the year 1790. His sons possess the good qualities of their father, and +are employed in the Company's service.) + +The bimbangs are conducted with great decorum and regularity. The old +women are very attentive to the conduct of the girls, and the male +relations are highly jealous of any insults that may be shown them. A lad +at one of these entertainments asked another his opinion of a gadis who +was then dancing. "If she was plated with gold," replied he, "I would not +take her for my concubine, much less for my wife." A brother of the girl +happened to be within hearing, and called him to account for the +reflection thrown on his sister. Krises were drawn but the bystanders +prevented mischief. The brother appeared the next day to take the law of +the defamer, but the gentleman, being of the risau description, had +absconded, and was not to be found. + +NUMBER OF WIVES. + +The customs of the Sumatrans permit their having as many wives by jujur +as they can compass the purchase of or afford to maintain; but it is +extremely rare that an instance occurs of their having more than one, and +that only among a few of the chiefs. This continence they in some measure +owe to their poverty. The dictates of frugality are more powerful with +them than the irregular calls of appetite, and make them decline an +indulgence that their law does not restrain them from. In talking of +polygamy they allow it to be the privilege of the rich, but regard it as +a refinement which the poor Rejangs cannot pretend to. Some young risaus +have been known to take wives in different places, but the father of the +first, as soon as he hears of the second marriage, procures a divorce. A +man married by semando cannot take a second wife without repudiating the +first for this obvious reason that two or more persons could not be +equally entitled to the half of his effects. + +QUESTION OF POLYGAMY. + +Montesquieu infers that the law which permits polygamy is physically +conformable to the climate of Asia. The season of female beauty precedes +that of their reason, and from its prematurity soon decays. The empire of +their charms is short. It is therefore natural, the president observes, +that a man should leave one wife to take another: that he should seek a +renovation of those charms which had withered in his possession. But are +these the real circumstances of polygamy? Surely not. It implies the +contemporary enjoyment of women in the same predicament; and I should +consider it as a vice that has its source in the influence of a warm +atmosphere upon the passions of men, which, like the cravings of other +disordered appetites, make them miscalculate their wants. It is probably +the same influence, on less rigid nerves, that renders their thirst of +revenge so much more violent than among northern nations; but we are not +therefore to pronounce murder to be physically conformable to a southern +climate. Far be it from my intention however to put these passions on a +level; I only mean to show that the president's reasoning proves too +much. It must further be considered that the genial warmth which expands +the desires of the men, and prompts a more unlimited exertion of their +faculties, does not inspire their constitutions with proportionate +vigour; but on the contrary renders them in this respect inferior to the +inhabitants of the temperate zone; whilst it equally influences the +desires of the opposite sex without being found to diminish from their +capacity of enjoyment. From which I would draw this conclusion, that if +nature intended that one woman only should be the companion of one man, +in the colder regions of the earth it appears also intended a fortiori +that the same law should be observed in the hotter; inferring nature's +design, not from the desires, but from the abilities with which she has +endowed mankind. + +Montesquieu has further suggested that the inequality in the comparative +numbers of each sex born in Asia, which is represented to be greatly +superior on the female side, may have a relation to the law that allows +polygamy. But there is strong reason to deny the reality of this supposed +excess. The Japanese account, taken from Kaempfer, which makes them to be +in the proportion of twenty-two to eighteen, is very inconclusive, as the +numbering of the inhabitants of a great city can furnish no proper test; +and the account of births at Bantam, which states the number of girls to +be ten to one boy, is not only manifestly absurd, but positively false. I +can take upon me to assert that the proportion of the sexes throughout +Sumatra does not sensibly differ from that ascertained in Europe; nor +could I ever learn from the inhabitants of the many eastern islands whom +I have conversed with that they were conscious of any disproportion in +this respect. + +CONNEXION BETWEEN POLYGAMY AND PURCHASE OF WIVES. + +But from whatever source we derive polygamy its prevalence seems to be +universally attended with the practice of giving a valuable consideration +for the woman, instead of receiving a dowry with her. This is a natural +consequence. Where each man endeavours to engross several, the demand for +the commodity, as a merchant would express it, is increased, and the +price of course enhanced. In Europe on the contrary, where the demand is +small; whether owing to the paucity of males from continual diminution; +their coldness of constitution, which suffers them rather to play with +the sentimental than act from the animal passion; their corruption of +manners leading them to promiscuous concubinage; or, in fine, the +extravagant luxury of the times, which too often renders a family an +insupportable burden--whatever may be the cause it becomes necessary, in +order to counteract it and produce an additional incitement to the +marriage state, that a premium be given with the females. We find in the +history of the earliest ages of the world that, where a plurality of +women was allowed of, by law or custom, they were obtained by money or +service. The form of marriage by semando among the Malays, which admits +but of one partner, requires no sum to be paid by the husband to the +relations of the wife except a trifle, by way of token, or to defray the +expenses of the wedding-feast. The circumstance of the rejangs confining +themselves to one, and at the same time giving a price for their wives, +would seem an exception to the general rule laid down; but this is an +accidental and perhaps temporary restraint, arising, it may be, from the +European influence, which tends to make them regular and industrious, but +keeps them poor: affords the means of subsistence to all, but the +opportunity of acquiring riches to few or none. In their genuine state +war and plunder caused a rapid fluctuation of property; the little wealth +now among them, derived mostly from the India Company's expenditure, +circulates through the country in an equal stream, returning chiefly, +like the water exhaled in vapours from the sea, to its original source. +The custom of giving jujurs had most probably its foundation in polygamy; +and the superstructure subsists, though its basis is partly mouldered +away; but, being scarcely tenantable, the inhabitants are inclined to +quit, and suffer it to fall to the ground. Moderation in point of women +destroying their principle, the jujurs appear to be devoid of policy. +Open a new spring of luxury, and polygamy, now confined to a few +individuals amongst the chiefs, will spread throughout the people. Beauty +will be in high request; each fair one will be sought for by many +competitors; and the payment of the jujur be again esteemed a reasonable +equivalent for possession. Their acknowledging the custom under the +present circumstances to be a prejudicial one, so contrary to the spirit +of eastern manners, which is ever marked with a blind veneration for the +establishments of antiquity, contributes to strengthen considerably the +opinion I have advanced. + +GAMING. + +Through every rank of the people there prevails a strong spirit of +gaming, which is a vice that readily insinuates itself into minds +naturally indisposed to the avocations of industry; and, being in general +a sedentary occupation, is more adapted to a warm climate, where bodily +exertion is in few instances considered as an amusement. + +DICE. OTHER MODES. + +Beside the common species of gambling with dice, which, from the term +dadu applied to it, was evidently introduced by the Portuguese, they have +several others; as the judi, a mode of playing with small shells, which +are taken up by handfuls, and, being counted out by a given number at a +time (generally that of the party engaged), the success is determined by +the fractional number remaining, the amount of which is previously +guessed at by each of the party. + +CHESS. + +They have also various games on chequered boards or other delineations, +and persons of superior rank are in general versed in the game of chess, +which they term main gajah, or the game of the elephant, naming the +pieces as follows: king, raja; queen or vizir, mantri; bishop or +elephant, gajah; knight or horse, kuda; castle, rook, or chariot, ter; +and pawn or foot-soldier, bidak. For check they use the word sah; and for +checkmate, mat or mati. Among these names the only one that appears to +require observation as being peculiar is that for the castle or rook, +which they have borrowed from the Tamul language of the peninsula of +India, wherein the word ter (answering to the Sanskrit rat'ha) signifies +a chariot (particularly such as are drawn in the processions of certain +divinities), and not unaptly transferred to this military game to +complete the constituent parts of an army. Gambling, especially with +dice, is rigorously forbidden throughout the pepper districts, because it +is not only the child, but the parent of idleness, and by the events of +play often throws whole villages into confusion. Debts contracted on this +account are declared to be void. + +COCK-FIGHTING. + +To cock-fighting they are still more passionately addicted, and it is +indulged to them under certain regulations. Where they are perfectly +independent their propensity to it is so great that it resembles rather a +serious occupation than a sport. You seldom meet a man travelling in the +country without a cock under his arm, and sometimes fifty persons in a +company when there is a bimbang in one of the neighbouring villages. A +country-man coming down, on any occasion, to the bazaar or settlement at +the mouth of the river, if he boasts the least degree of spirit must not +be unprovided with this token of it. They often game high at their +meetings; particularly when a superstitious faith in the invincibility of +their bird has been strengthened by past success. A hundred Spanish +dollars is no very uncommon risk, and instances have occurred of a +father's staking his children or wife, and a son his mother or sisters, +on the issue of a battle, when a run of ill luck has stripped them of +property and rendered them desperate. Quarrels, attended with dreadful +consequences, have often arisen on these occasions. + +RULES OF COCKING. + +By their customs there are four umpires appointed to determine on all +disputed points in the course of the battles; and from their decision +there lies no appeal except the Gothic appeal to the sword. A person who +loses and has not the ability to pay is immediately proscribed, departs +with disgrace, and is never again suffered to appear at the galangang. +This cannot with propriety be translated a cockpit, as it is generally a +spot on the level ground, or a stage erected, and covered in. It is +inclosed with a railing which keeps off the spectators; none but the +handlers and heelers being admitted withinside. A man who has a high +opinion of and regard for his cock will not fight him under a certain +number of dollars, which he places in order on the floor: his poorer +adversary is perhaps unable to deposit above one half: the standers-by +make up the sum, and receive their dividends in proportion if successful. +A father at his deathbed has been known to desire his son to take the +first opportunity of matching a certain cock for a sum equal to his whole +property, under a blind conviction of its being betuah, or invulnerable. + +MATCHES. + +Cocks of the same colour are never matched but a grey against a pile, a +yellow against a red, or the like. This might have been originally +designed to prevent disputes or knavish impositions. The Malay breed of +cocks is much esteemed by connoisseurs who have had an opportunity of +trying them. Great pains is taken in the rearing and feeding; they are +frequently handled and accustomed to spar in public, in order to prevent +any shyness. Contrary to our laws, the owner is allowed to take up and +handle his cock during the battle to clear his eye of a feather or his +mouth of blood. When a cock is killed, or runs, the other must have +sufficient spirit and vigour left to peck at him three times, on his +being held to him for that purpose, or it becomes a drawn battle; and +sometimes an experienced cocker will place the head of his vanquished +bird in such an uncouth posture as to terrify the other and render him +unable to give this proof of victory. The cocks are never trimmed, but +matched in full feather. The artificial spur used in Sumatra resembles in +shape the blade of a scimitar, and proves a more destructive weapon than +the European spur. It has no socket but is tied to the leg, and in the +position of it the nicety of the match is regulated. As in horse-racing +weight is proportioned to inches, so in cocking a bird of superior weight +and size is brought to an equality with his adversary by fixing the steel +spur so many scales of the leg above the natural spur, and thus obliging +him to fight with a degree of disadvantage. It rarely happens that both +cocks survive the combat. + +In the northern parts of the island, where gold-dust is the common medium +of gambling, as well as of trade, so much is accidentally dropped in +weighing and delivering that at some cock-pits, where the resort of +people is great, the sweepings are said, probably with exaggeration, to +be worth upwards of a thousand dollars per annum to the owner of the +ground; beside his profit of two fanams (five pence) for each battle. + +QUAIL-FIGHTING. + +In some places they match quails, in the manner of cocks. These fight +with great inveteracy, and endeavour to seize each other by the tongue. +The Achinese bring also into combat the dial-bird (murei) which resembles +a small magpie, but has an agreeable though imperfect note. They +sometimes engage one another on the wing, and drop to the ground in the +struggle. + +FENCING. + +They have other diversions of a more innocent nature. Matches of fencing, +or a species of tournament, are exhibited on particular days; as at the +breaking up of their annual fast, or month of ramadan, called there the +puasa. On these occasions they practise strange attitudes, with violent +contortions of the body, and often work themselves up to a degree of +frenzy, when the old men step in and carry them off. These exercises in +some circumstances resemble the idea which the ancients have given us of +the pyrrhic or war dance; the combatants moving at a distance from each +other in cadence, and making many turns and springs unnecessary in the +representation of a real combat. This entertainment is more common among +the Malays than in the country. The chief weapons of offence used by +these people are the kujur or lance and the kris. This last is properly +Malayan, but in all parts of the island they have a weapon equivalent, +though in general less curious in its structure, wanting that waving in +the blade for which the kris is remarkable, and approaching nearer to +daggers or knives. + +Among their exercises we never observe jumping or running. They smile at +the Europeans, who in their excursions take so many unnecessary leaps. +The custom of going barefoot may be a principal impediment to this +practice in a country overrun with thorny shrubs, and where no fences +occur to render it a matter of expediency. + +DIVERSION OF TOSSING A BALL. + +They have a diversion similar to that described by Homer as practised +among the Phaeacians, which consists in tossing an elastic wicker ball or +round basket of split rattans into the air, and from one player to +another, in a peculiar manner. This game is called by the Malays sipak +raga, or, in the dialect of Bencoolen, chipak rago, and is played by a +large party standing in an extended circle, who endeavour to keep up the +ball by striking it either perpendicularly, in order to receive it again, +or obliquely to some other person of the company, with the foot or the +hand, the heel or the toe, the knee, the shoulder, the head, or with any +other part of the body; the merit appearing to consist in producing the +effect in the least obvious or most whimsical manner; and in this sport +many of them attain an extraordinary degree of expertness. Among the +plates of Lord Macartney's Embassy will be found the representation of a +similar game, as practised by the natives of Cochinchina. + +SMOKING OF OPIUM. + +The Sumatrans, and more particularly the Malays, are much attached, in +common with many other eastern people, to the custom of smoking opium. +The poppy which produces it not growing on the island, it is annually +imported from Bengal in considerable quantities, in chests containing a +hundred and forty pounds each. It is made up in cakes of five or six +pounds weight, and packed with dried leaves; in which situation it will +continue good and vendible for two years, but after that period grows +hard and diminishes considerably in value. It is of a darker colour, and +is supposed to have less strength than the Turkey opium. About a hundred +and fifty chests are consumed annually on the west coast of Sumatra, +where it is purchased, on an average, at three hundred dollars the chest, +and sold again in smaller quantities at five or six. But on occasions of +extraordinary scarcity I have known it to sell for its weight in silver, +and a single chest to fetch upwards of three thousand dollars. + +PREPARATION. + +The method of preparing it for use is as follows. The raw opium is first +boiled or seethed in a copper vessel; then strained through a cloth to +free it from impurities; and then a second time boiled. The leaf of the +tambaku, shred fine, is mixed with it, in a quantity sufficient to absorb +the whole; and it is afterwards made up into small pills, about the size +of a pea, for smoking. One of these being put into the small tube that +projects from the side of the opium pipe, that tube is applied to a lamp, +and the pill being lighted is consumed at one whiff or inflation of the +lungs, attended with a whistling noise. The smoke is never emitted by the +mouth, but usually receives vent through the nostrils, and sometimes, by +adepts, through the passage of the ears and eyes. This preparation of the +opium is called maddat, and is often adulterated in the process by mixing +jaggri, or pine sugar, with it; as is the raw opium, by incorporating +with it the fruit of the pisang or plantain. + +EFFECTS OF OPIUM. + +The use of opium among these people, as that of intoxicating liquors +among other nations, is a species of luxury which all ranks adopt +according to their ability, and which, when once become habitual, it is +almost impossible to shake off. Being however like other luxuries +expensive, few only among the lower or middling class of people can +compass the regular enjoyment of it, even where its use is not +restrained, as it is among the pepper-planters, to the times of their +festivals. That the practice of smoking opium must be in some degree +prejudicial to the health is highly probable; yet I am inclined to think +that effects have been attributed to it much more pernicious to the +constitution than it in reality causes. The bugis soldiers and others in +the Malay bazaars whom we see most attached to it, and who use it to +excess, commonly appear emaciated; but they are in other respects +abandoned and debauched. The Limun and Batang Assei gold-traders, on the +contrary, who are an active, laborious class of men but yet indulge as +freely in opium as any others whatever, are notwithstanding the most +healthy and vigorous people to be met with on the island. It has been +usual also to attribute to the practice destructive consequences of +another nature from the frenzy it has been supposed to excite in those +who take it in quantities. But this should probably rank with the many +errors that mankind have been led into by travellers addicted to the +marvellous; and there is every reason to believe that the furious +quarrels, desperate assassinations, and sanguinary attacks, which the use +of opium is said to give birth to, are idle notions, originally adopted +through ignorance and since maintained from the mere want of +investigation, without having any solid foundation. It is not to be +controverted, that those desperate acts of indiscriminate murder, called +by us mucks, and by the natives mengamok, do actually take place, and +frequently too in some parts of the East (in Java in particular) but it +is not equally evident that they proceed from any intoxication except +that of their unruly passions. Too often they are occasioned by excess of +cruelty and injustice in their oppressors. On the west coast of Sumatra +about twenty thousand pounds weight of this drug are consumed annually, +yet instances of this crime do not happen (at least within the scope of +our knowledge) above once in two or three years. During my residence +there I had an opportunity of being an eyewitness but to one muck. The +slave of a Portuguese woman, a man of the island of Nias, who in all +probability had never handled an opium pipe in his life, being treated by +his mistress with extreme severity for a trifling offence, vowed he would +have revenge if she attempted to strike him again, and ran down the steps +of the house with a knife in each hand, as it is said. She cried out, +mengamok! The civil guard was called, who, having the power in these +cases of exercising summary justice, fired half a dozen rounds into an +outhouse where the unfortunate wretch had sheltered himself on their +approach, and from whence he was at length dragged, covered with wounds. +Many other mucks might perhaps be found, upon scrutiny, of the nature of +the foregoing, where a man of strong feelings was driven by excess of +injury to domestic rebellion. + +It is true that the Malays, when in a state of war they are bent on any +daring enterprise, fortify themselves with a few whiffs of opium to +render them insensible to danger, as the people of another nation are +said to take a dram for the same purpose; but it must be observed that +the resolution for the act precedes, and is not the effect of, the +intoxication. They take the same precaution previous to being led to +public execution; but on these occasions show greater signs of stupidity +than frenzy. Upon the whole it may be reasonably concluded that the +sanguinary achievements, for which the Malays have been famous, or +infamous rather, in history, are more justly to be attributed to the +natural ferocity of their disposition, or to the influence upon their +manners of a particular state of society, than to the qualities of any +drug whatever. The pretext of the soldiers of the country-guard for using +opium is that it may render them watchful on their nightly posts: we on +the contrary administer it to procure sleep, and according to the +quantity it has either effect. The delirium it produces is known to be so +very pleasing that Pope has supposed this to have been designed by Homer +when he describes the delicious draught prepared by Helen, called +nepenthe, which exhilarated the spirits and banished from the mind the +recollection of woe. + +It is remarkable that at Batavia, where the assassins just now described, +when taken alive, are broken on the wheel, with every aggravation of +punishment that the most rigorous justice can inflict, the mucks yet +happen in great frequency, whilst at Bencoolen, where they are executed +in the most simple and expeditious manner, the offence is extremely rare. +Excesses of severity in punishment may deter men from deliberate and +interested acts of villainy, but they add fuel to the atrocious +enthusiasm of desperadoes. + +PIRATICAL ADVENTURES. + +A further proof of the influence that mild government has upon the +manners of people is that the piratical adventures so common on the +eastern coast of the island are unknown on the western. Far from our +having apprehensions of the Malays, the guards at the smaller English +settlements are almost entirely composed of them, with a mixture of Bugis +or Makasar people. Europeans, attended by Malays only, are continually +travelling through the country. They are the only persons employed in +carrying treasure to distant places; in the capacity of secretaries for +the country correspondence; as civil officers in seizing delinquents +among the planters and elsewhere; and as masters and supercargoes of the +tambangans, praws, and other small coasting vessels. So great is the +effect of moral causes and habit upon a physical character esteemed the +most treacherous and sanguinary. + + +CHAPTER 15. + +CUSTOM OF CHEWING BETEL. +EMBLEMATIC PRESENTS. +ORATORY. +CHILDREN. +NAMES. +CIRCUMCISION. +FUNERALS. +RELIGION. + +CUSTOM OF CHEWING BETEL. + +Whether to blunt the edge of painful reflection, or owing to an aversion +our natures have to total inaction, most nations have been addicted to +the practice of enjoying by mastication or otherwise the flavour of +substances possessing an inebriating quality. The South Americans chew +the cocoa and mambee, and the eastern people the betel and areca, or, as +they are called in the Malay language, sirih and pinang. This custom has +been accurately described by various writers, and therefore it is almost +superfluous to say more on the subject than that the Sumatrans +universally use it, carry the ingredients constantly about them, and +serve it to their guests on all occasions--the prince in a gold stand, +and the poor man in a brass box or mat bag. The betel-stands of the +better rank of people are usually of silver embossed with rude figures. +The Sultan of Moco-moco was presented with one by the India Company, with +their arms on it; and he possesses beside another of gold filigree. The +form of the stand is the frustum of a hexagonal pyramid reversed, about +six or eight inches in diameter. It contains many smaller vessels fitted +to the angles, for holding the nut, leaf, and chunam, which is quicklime +made from calcined shells; with places for the instruments (kachip) +employed in cutting the first, and spatulas for spreading the last. + +When the first salutation is over, which consists in bending the body, +and the inferior's putting his joined hands between those of the +superior, and then lifting them to his forehead, the betel is presented +as a token of hospitality and an act of politeness. To omit it on the one +hand or to reject it on the other would be an affront; as it would be +likewise in a person of subordinate rank to address a great man without +the precaution of chewing it before he spoke. All the preparation +consists in spreading on the sirih leaf a small quantity of the chunam +and folding it up with a slice of the pinang nut. Some mix with these +gambir, which is a substance prepared from the leaves of a tree of that +name by boiling their juices to a consistence, and made up into little +balls or squares, as before spoken of: tobacco is likewise added, which +is shred fine for the purpose, and carried between the lip and upper row +of teeth. From the mastication of the first three proceeds a juice which +tinges the saliva of a bright red, and which the leaf and nut, without +the chunam, will not yield. This hue being communicated to the mouth and +lips is esteemed ornamental; and an agreeable flavour is imparted to the +breath. The juice is usually (after the first fermentation produced by +the lime) though not always swallowed by the chewers of betel. We might +reasonably suppose that its active qualities would injure the coats of +the stomach, but experience seems to disprove such a consequence. It is +common to see the teeth of elderly persons stand loose in the gums, which +is probably the effect of this custom, but I do not think that it affects +the soundness of the teeth themselves. Children begin to chew betel very +young, and yet their teeth are always beautifully white till pains are +taken to disfigure them by filing and staining them black. To persons who +are not habituated to the composition it causes a strong giddiness, +astringes and excoriates the tongue and fauces, and deadens for a time +the faculty of taste. During the puasa, or fast of ramadan, the +Mahometans among them abstain from the use of betel whilst the sun +continues above the horizon; but excepting at this season it is the +constant luxury of both sexes from an early period of childhood, till, +becoming toothless, they are reduced to the necessity of having the +ingredients previously reduced to a paste for them, that without further +effort the betel may dissolve in the mouth. Along with the betel, and +generally in the chunam, is the mode of conveying philtres, or love +charms. How far they prove effectual I cannot take upon me to say, but +suppose that they are of the nature of our stimulant medicines, and that +the direction of the passion is of course indiscriminate. The practice of +administering poison in this manner is not followed in latter times; but +that the idea is not so far eradicated as entirely to prevent suspicion +appears from this circumstance, that the guest, though taking a leaf from +the betel-service of his entertainer, not unfrequently applies to it his +own chunam, and never omits to pass the former between his thumb and +forefinger in order to wipe off any extraneous matter. This mistrustful +procedure is so common as not to give offence. + +TOBACCO. + +Beside the mode before-mentioned of enjoying the flavour of tobacco it is +also smoked by the natives and for this use--after shredding it fine +whilst green and drying it well it is rolled up in the thin leaves of a +tree, and is in that form called roko, a word they appear to have +borrowed from the Dutch. The rokos are carried in the betel-box, or more +commonly under the destar or handkerchief which, in imitation of a +turband, surrounds the head. Much tobacco is likewise imported from China +and sells at a high price. It seems to possess a greater pungency than +the Sumatran plant, which the people cultivate for their own use in the +interior parts of the island. + +EMBLEMATIC PRESENTS. + +The custom of sending emblematical presents in order to make known, in a +covert manner, the birth, progress, or change of certain affections of +the mind, prevails here, as in some other parts of the East; and not only +flowers of various kinds have their appropriate meaning, but also +cayenne-pepper, betel-leaf, salt, and other articles are understood by +adepts to denote love, jealousy, resentment, hatred, and other strong +feelings. + +ORATORY. + +The Sumatrans in general are good speakers. The gift of oratory seems +natural to them. I knew many among them whose harangues I have listened +to with pleasure and admiration. This may be accounted for perhaps from +the constitution of their government, which being far removed from +despotism seems to admit, in some degree, every member of the society to +a share in the public deliberations. Where personal endowments, as has +been observed, will often raise a private man to a share of importance in +the community,superior to that of a nominal chief, there is abundant +inducement for the acquisition of these valuable talents. The forms of +their judicial proceedings likewise, where there are no established +advocates and each man depends upon his own or his friend's abilities for +the management of his cause, must doubtless contribute to this habitual +eloquence. We may add to these conjectures the nature of their domestic +manners, which introduce the sons at an early period of life into the +business of the family, and the counsels of their elders. There is little +to be perceived among them of that passion for childish sports which +marks the character of our boys from the seventh to the fourteenth year. +In Sumatra you may observe infants, not exceeding the former age, full +dressed and armed with a kris, seated in the circle of the old men of the +dusun, and attending to their debates with a gravity of countenance not +surpassed by their grandfathers. Thus initiated they are qualified to +deliver an opinion in public at a time of life when an English schoolboy +could scarcely return an answer to a question beyond the limits of his +grammar or syntax, which he has learned by rote. It is not a little +unaccountable that this people, who hold the art of speaking in such high +esteem, and evidently pique themselves on the attainment of it, should +yet take so much pains to destroy the organs of speech in filing down and +otherwise disfiguring their teeth; and likewise adopt the uncouth +practice of filling their mouths with betel whenever they prepare to hold +forth. We must conclude that it is not upon the graces of elocution they +value an orator, but his artful and judicious management of the subject +matter; together with a copiousness of phrase, a perspicuity of thought, +an advantageous arrangement, and a readiness, especially, at unravelling +the difficulties and intricacies of their suits. + +CHILD-BEARING. + +The curse entailed on women in the article of child-bearing does not fall +so heavy in this as in the northern countries. Their pregnancy scarcely +at any period prevents their attendance on the ordinary domestic duties; +and usually within a few hours after their delivery they walk to the +bathing-place, at a small distance from the house. The presence of a sage +femme is often esteemed superfluous. The facility of parturition may +probably be owing to the relaxation of the frame from the warmth of the +climate; to which cause also may be attributed the paucity of children +borne by the Sumatran women and the early decay of their beauty and +strength. They have the tokens of old age at a season of life when +European women have not passed their prime. They are like the fruits of +the country, soon ripe and soon decayed. They bear children before +fifteen, are generally past it at thirty, and grey-headed and shrivelled +at forty. I do not recollect hearing of any woman who had six children +except the wife of Raddin of Madura, who had more; and she, contrary to +the universal custom, did not give suck to hers. + +TREATMENT OF CHILDREN. + +Mothers carry the children not on the arm, as our nurses do, but +straddling on the hip, and usually supported by a cloth which ties in a +knot on the opposite shoulder. This practice I have been told is common +in some parts of Wales. It is much safer than the other method, less +tiresome to the nurse, and the child has the advantage of sitting in a +less constrained posture: but the defensive armour of stays, and +offensive weapons called pins, might be some objection to the general +introduction of the fashion in England. The children are nursed but +little, not confined by any swathing or bandages, and, being suffered to +roll about the floor, soon learn to walk and shift for themselves. When +cradles are used they are swung suspended from the ceiling of the rooms. + +AGE OF THE PEOPLE. + +The country people can very seldom give an account of their age, being +entirely without any species of chronology. Among those country people +who profess themselves Mahometans to very few is the date of the Hejra +known; and even of those who in their writings make use of it not one in +ten can pronounce in what year of it he was born. After a few taun padi +(harvests) are elapsed they are bewildered in regard to the date of an +event, and only guess at it from some contemporary circumstance of +notoriety, as the appointment of a particular dupati, the incursion of a +certain enemy, or the like. As far as can be judged from observation it +would seem that not a great proportion of the men attain to the age of +fifty, and sixty years is accounted a long life. + +NAMES. + +The children among the Rejangs have generally a name given to them by +their parents soon after their birth, which is called namo daging. The +galar (cognomen), another species of name, or title, as we improperly +translate it, is bestowed at a subsequent, but not at any determinate, +period: sometimes as the lads rise to manhood, at an entertainment given +by the parent, on some particular occasion; and often at their marriage. +It is generally conferred by the old men of the neighbouring villages, +when assembled; but instances occur of its being irregularly assumed by +the persons themselves; and some never obtain any galar. It is also not +unusual, at a convention held on business of importance, to change the +galar of one or two of the principal personages to others of superior +estimation; though it is not easy to discover in what this pre-eminence +consists, the appellations being entirely arbitrary, at the fancy of +those who confer them: perhaps in the loftier sound, or more pompous +allusion in the sense, which latter is sometimes carried to an +extraordinary pitch of bombast, as in the instance of Pengunchang bumi, +or Shaker of the World, the title of a pangeran of Manna. But a climax is +not always perceptible in the change. + +FATHER NAMED FROM HIS CHILD. + +The father, in many parts of the country, particularly in Passummah, is +distinguished by the name of his first child, as Pa-Ladin, or Pa-Rindu +(Pa for bapa, signifying the father of), and loses in this acquired his +own proper name. This is a singular custom, and surely less conformable +to the order of nature than that which names the son from the father. +There it is not usual to give them a galar on their marriage, as with the +Rejangs, among whom the filionymic is not so common, though sometimes +adopted, and occasionally joined with the galar; as Radin-pa-Chirano. The +women never change the name given them at the time of their birth; yet +frequently they are called, through courtesy, from their eldest child, +Ma-si-ano, the mother of such a one; but rather as a polite description +than a name. The word or particle Si is prefixed to the birth-names of +persons, which almost ever consist of but a single word, as Si Bintang, +Si Tolong; and we find from Captain Forrest's voyage that in the island +of Mindanao the infant son of the Raja Muda was named Se Mama. + +HESITATE TO PRONOUNCE THEIR OWN NAME. + +A Sumatran ever scrupulously abstains from pronouncing his own name; not +as I understand from any motive of superstition, but merely as a +punctilio in manners. It occasions him infinite embarrassment when a +stranger, unacquainted with their customs, requires it of him. As soon as +he recovers from his confusion he solicits the interposition of his +neighbour. + +ADDRESS IN THE THIRD PERSON. + +He is never addressed, except in the case of a superior dictating to his +dependant, in the second person, but always in the third; using his name +or title instead of the pronoun; and when these are unknown a general +title of respect is substituted, and they say, for instance, apa orang +kaya punia suka, what is his honour's pleasure for what is your, or your +honour's pleasure? When criminals or other ignominious persons are spoken +to use is made of the pronoun personal kau (a contraction of angkau) +particularly expressive of contempt. The idea of disrespect annexed to +the use of the second person in discourse, though difficult to be +accounted for, seems pretty general in the world. The Europeans, to avoid +the supposed indecorum, exchange the singular number for the plural; but +I think with less propriety of effect than the Asiatic mode; if to take +off from the bluntness of address be the object aimed at. + +CIRCUMCISION. + +The boys are circumcised, where Mahometanism prevails, between the sixth +and tenth year. The ceremony is called krat kulop and buang or lepas malu +(casting away their shame), and a bimbang is usually given on the +occasion; as well as at the ceremony of boring the ears and filing the +teeth of their daughters (before described), which takes place at about +the age of ten or twelve; and until this is performed they cannot with +propriety be married. + +FUNERALS. + +At their funerals the corpse is carried to the place of interment on a +broad plank, which is kept for the public service of the dusun, and lasts +for many generations. It is constantly rubbed with lime, either to +preserve it from decay or to keep it pure. No coffin is made use of; the +body being simply wrapped in white cloth, particularly of the sort called +hummums. In forming the grave (kubur), after digging to a convenient +depth they make a cavity in the side, at bottom, of sufficient dimensions +to contain the body, which is there deposited on its right side. By this +mode the earth literally lies light upon it; and the cavity, after +strewing flowers in it, they stop up by two boards fastened angularly to +each other, so that the one is on the top of the corpse, whilst the other +defends it on the open side, the edge resting on the bottom of the grave. +The outer excavation is then filled up with earth, and little white flags +or streamers are stuck in order around. They likewise plant a shrub, +bearing a white flower, called kumbangkamboja (Plumeria obtusa), and in +some places wild marjoram. The women who attend the funeral make a +hideous noise, not much unlike the Irish howl. On the third and seventh +day the relations perform a ceremony at the grave, and at the end of +twelve months that of tegga batu, or setting up a few long elliptical +stones at the head and foot, which, being scarce in some parts of the +country, bear a considerable price. On this occasion they kill and feast +on a buffalo, and leave the head to decay on the spot as a token of the +honour they have done to the deceased, in eating to his memory.* The +ancient burying-places are called krammat, and are supposed to have been +those of the holy men by whom their ancestors were converted to the +faith. They are held in extraordinary reverence, and the least +disturbance or violation of the ground, though all traces of the graves +be obliterated, is regarded as an unpardonable sacrilege. + +(*Footnote. The above ceremonies (with the exception of the last) are +briefly described in the following lines, extracted from a Malayan poem. + +Setelah sudah de tangisi, nia +Lalu de kubur de tanamkan 'nia +De ambel koran de ajikan 'nia +Sopaya lepas deri sangsara 'nia +Mengaji de kubur tujuh ari +Setelah de khatam tiga kali +Sudah de tegga batu sakali +Membayer utang pada si-mati.) + +RELIGION. + +In works descriptive of the manners of people little known to the world +the account of their religion usually constitutes an article of the first +importance. Mine will labour under the contrary disadvantage. The ancient +and genuine religion of the Rejangs, if in fact they ever had any, is +scarcely now to be traced; and what principally adds to its obscurity, +and the difficulty of getting information on the subject, is that even +those among them who have not been initiated in the principles of +Mahometanism yet regard those who have as persons advanced a step in +knowledge beyond them, and therefore hesitate to own circumstantially +that they remain still unenlightened. Ceremonies are fascinating to +mankind, and without comprehending with what views they were instituted +the profanum vulgus naturally give them credit for something mysterious +and above their capacities, and accordingly pay them a tribute of +respect. With Mahometanism a more extensive field of knowledge (I speak +in comparison) is open to its converts, and some additional notions of +science are conveyed. These help to give it importance, though it must be +confessed they are not the most pure tenets of that religion which have +found their way to Sumatra; nor are even the ceremonial parts very +scrupulously adhered to. Many who profess to follow it give themselves +not the least concern about its injunctions, or even know what they +require. A Malay at Manna upbraided a countryman with the total ignorance +of religion his nation laboured under. "You pay a veneration to the tombs +of your ancestors: what foundation have you for supposing that your dead +ancestors can lend you assistance?" "It may be true," answered the other, +"but what foundation have you for expecting assistance from Allah and +Mahomet?" "Are you not aware, replied the Malay, that it is written in a +Book? Have you not heard of the Koran?" The native of Passummah, with +conscious inferiority, submitted to the force of this argument. + +If by religion is meant a public or private form of worship of any kind, +and if prayers, processions, meetings, offerings, images, or priests are +any of them necessary to constitute it, I can pronounce that the Rejangs +are totally without religion and cannot with propriety be even termed +pagans, if that, as I apprehend, conveys the idea of mistaken worship. +They neither worship God, devil, nor idols. They are not however without +superstitious beliefs of many kinds, and have certainly a confused +notion, though perhaps derived from their intercourse with other people, +of some species of superior beings who have the power of rendering +themselves visible or invisible at pleasure. These they call orang alus, +fine, or impalpable beings, and regard them as possessing the faculty of +doing them good or evil, deprecating their wrath as the sense of present +misfortunes or apprehension of future prevails in their minds. But when +they speak particularly of them they call them by the appellations of +maleikat and jin, which are the angels and evil spirits of the Arabians, +and the idea may probably have been borrowed at the same time with the +names. These are the powers they also refer to in an oath. I have heard a +dupati say, "My grandfather took an oath that he would not demand the +jujur of that woman, and imprecated a curse on any of his descendants +that should do it: I never have, nor could I without salah kapada +maleikat--an offence against the angels." Thus they say also, de talong +nabi, maleikat, the prophet and angels assisting. This is pure +Mahometanism. + +NO NAME FOR THE DEITY. + +The clearest proof that they never entertained an idea of Theism or the +belief of one supreme power is that they have no word in their language +to express the person of God, except the Allah tala of the Malays, +corrupted by them to Ulah tallo. Yet when questioned on the subject they +assert their ancestors' knowledge of a deity, though their thoughts were +never employed about him; but this evidently means no more than that +their forefathers as well as themselves had heard of the Allah of the +Mahometans (Allah orang islam). + +IDEA OF INVISIBLE BEINGS. + +They use, both in Rejang and Passummah, the word dewa to express a +superior invisible class of beings; but each country acknowledges it to +be of foreign derivation, and they suppose it Javanese. Radin, of Madura, +an island close to Java, who was well conversant with the religious +opinions of most nations, asserted to me that dewa was an original word +of that country for a superior being, which the Javans of the interior +believed in, but with regard to whom they used no ceremonies or forms of +worship:* that they had some idea of a future life, but not as a state of +retribution, conceiving immortality to be the lot of rich rather than of +good men. I recollect that an inhabitant of one of the islands farther +eastward observed to me, with great simplicity, that only great men went +to the skies; how should poor men find admittance there? The Sumatrans, +where untinctured with Mahometanism, do not appear to have any notion of +a future state. Their conception of virtue or vice extends no farther +than to the immediate effect of actions to the benefit or prejudice of +society, and all such as tend not to either of these ends are in their +estimation perfectly indifferent. + +(*Footnote. In the Transactions of the Batavian Society Volumes 1 and 3 +is to be found a History of these Dewas of the Javans, translated from an +original manuscript. The mythology is childish and incoherent. The Dutch +commentator supposes them to have been a race of men held sacred, forming +a species of Hierarchy, like the government of the Lamas in Tartary.) + +Notwithstanding what is asserted of the originality of the word dewa, I +cannot help remarking its extreme affinity to the Persian word div or +diw, which signifies an evil spirit or bad genius. Perhaps, long +antecedent to the introduction of the faith of the khalifs among the +eastern people, this word might have found its way and been naturalized +in the islands; or perhaps its progress was in a contrary direction. It +has likewise a connexion in sound with the names used to express a deity +or some degree of superior being by many other people of this region of +the earth. The Battas, inhabitants of the northern end of Sumatra, whom I +shall describe hereafter, use the word daibattah or daivattah; the +Chingalese of Ceylon dewiju, the Telingas of India dai-wundu, the Biajus +of Borneo dewattah, the Papuas of New Guinea 'wat, and the Pampangos of +the Philippines diuata. It bears likewise an affinity (perhaps +accidental) to the deus and deitas of the Romans.* + +(*Footnote. At the period when the above was written I was little aware +of the intimate connexion now well understood to have anciently subsisted +between the Hindus and the various nations beyond the Ganges. The most +evident proofs appear of the extensive dissemination both of their +language and mythology throughout Sumatra, Java, Balli (where at this day +they are best preserved), and the other eastern islands. To the Sanskrit +words dewa and dewata, signifying divinities in that great mother-tongue, +we are therefore to look for the source of the terms, more or less +corrupted, that have been mentioned in the text. See Asiatic Researches +Volume 4 page 223.) + +VENERATION FOR THE MANES AND TOMBS OF THEIR ANCESTORS. + +The superstition which has the strongest influence on the minds of the +Sumatrans, and which approaches the nearest to a species of religion, is +that which leads them to venerate, almost to the point of worshipping, +the tombs and manes of their deceased ancestors (nenek puyang). These +they are attached to as strongly as to life itself, and to oblige them to +remove from the neighbourhood of their krammat is like tearing up a tree +by the roots; these the more genuine country people regard chiefly, when +they take a solemn oath, and to these they apostrophise in instances of +sudden calamity. Had they the art of making images or other +representations of them they would be perfect lares, penates, or +household gods. It has been asserted to me by the natives (conformably to +what we are told by some of the early travellers) that in very ancient +times the Sumatrans made a practice of burning the bodies of their dead, +but I could never find any traces of the custom, or any circumstances +that corroborated it. + +METEMPSYCHOSIS. + +They have an imperfect notion of a metempsychosis, but not in any degree +systematic, nor considered as an article of religious faith. Popular +stories prevail amongst them of such a particular man being changed into +a tiger or other beast. They seem to think indeed that tigers in general +are actuated with the spirits of departed men, and no consideration will +prevail on a countryman to catch or to wound one but in self-defence, or +immediately after the act of destroying a friend or relation. They speak +of them with a degree of awe, and hesitate to call them by their common +name (rimau or machang), terming them respectfully satwa (the wild +animals), or even nenek (ancestors), as really believing them such, or by +way of soothing and coaxing them; as our ignorant country folk call the +fairies the good people. When a European procures traps to be set, by the +means of persons less superstitious, the inhabitants of the neighbourhood +have been known to go at night to the place and practise some forms in +order to persuade the animal, when caught, or when he shall perceive the +bait, that it was not laid by them, or with their consent. They talk of a +place in the country where the tigers have a court and maintain a regular +form of government, in towns, the houses of which are thatched with +women's hair. It happened that in one month seven or eight people were +killed by these prowling beasts in Manna district; upon which a report +became current that fifteen hundred of them were come down from +Passummah, of which number four were without understanding (gila), and +having separated from the rest ran about the country occasioning all the +mischief that was felt. The alligators also are highly destructive, owing +to the constant practice of bathing in the rivers, and are regarded with +nearly the same degree of religious terror. Fear is the parent of +superstition, by ignorance. Those two animals prove the Sumatran's +greatest scourge. The mischief the former commit is incredible, whole +villages being often depopulated by them, and the suffering people learn +to reverence as supernatural effects the furious ravages of an enemy they +have not resolution to oppose. + +The Sumatrans are firmly persuaded that various particular persons are +what they term betuah (sacred, impassive, invulnerable, not liable to +accident), and this quality they sometimes extend to things inanimate, as +ships and boats. Such an opinion, which we should suppose every man might +have an opportunity of bringing to the test of truth, affords a +humiliating proof of the weakness and credulity of human nature, and the +fallibility of testimony, when a film of prejudice obscures the light of +the understanding. I have known two men, whose honesty, good faith, and +reasonableness in the general concerns of life were well established, and +whose assertions would have weight in transactions of consequence: these +men I have heard maintain, with the most deliberate confidence and an +appearance of inward conviction of their own sincerity, that they had +more than once in the course of their wars attempted to run their weapons +into the naked body of their adversary, which they found impenetrable, +their points being continually and miraculously turned without any effort +on the part of the orang betuah: and that hundreds of instances of the +like nature, where the invulnerable man did not possess the smallest +natural means of opposition, had come within their observation. An +English officer, with more courage and humour than discretion, exposed +one imposture of this kind. A man having boasted in his presence that he +was endowed with this supernatural privilege, the officer took an +opportunity of applying to his arm the point of a sword and drew the +blood, to the no little diversion of the spectators, and mortification of +the pretender to superior gifts, who vowed revenge, and would have taken +it had not means been used to keep him at a distance. But a single +detection of charlatanerie is not effectual to destroy a prevalent +superstition. These impostors are usually found among the Malays and not +the more simple country people. + +NO MISSIONARIES. + +No attempts, I have reason to think, have ever been made by missionaries +or others to convert the inhabitants of the island to Christianity, and I +have much doubt whether the most zealous and able would meet with any +permanent success in this pious work. Of the many thousands baptized in +the eastern islands by the celebrated Francis Xavier in the sixteenth +century not one of their descendants are now found to retain a ray of the +light imparted to them; and probably, as it was novelty only and not +conviction that induced the original converts to embrace a new faith, the +impression lasted no longer than the sentiment which recommended it, and +disappeared as rapidly as the itinerant apostle. Under the influence +however of the Spanish government at Manila and of the Dutch at Batavia +there are many native Christians, educated as such from children. In the +Malayan language Portuguese and Christians are confounded under the same +general name; the former being called orang Zerani, by corruption for +Nazerani. This neglect of missions to Sumatra is one cause that the +interior of the country has been so little known to the civilized world. + + +CHAPTER 16. + +THE COUNTRY OF LAMPONG AND ITS INHABITANTS. +LANGUAGE. +GOVERNMENT. +WARS. +PECULIAR CUSTOMS. +RELIGION. + +Having thus far spoken of the manners and customs of the Rejangs more +especially, and adverted, as occasion served, to those of the Passummah +people, who nearly resemble them, I shall now present a cursory view of +those circumstances in which their southern neighbours, the inhabitants +of the Lampong country, differ from them, though this dissimilitude is +not very considerable; and shall add such information as I have been +enabled to obtain respecting the people of Korinchi and other tribes +dwelling beyond the ranges of hills which bound the pepper-districts. + +LIMITS OF THE LAMPONG COUNTRY. + +By the Lampong country is understood a portion of the southern extreme of +the island, beginning, on the west coast, at the river of Padang-guchi, +which divides it from Passummah, and extending across as far as +Palembang, on the north-east side, at which last place the settlers are +mostly Javans. On the south and east sides it is washed by the sea, +having several ports in the Straits of Sunda, particularly Keysers and +Lampong Bays; and the great river Tulang-bawang runs through the heart of +it, rising from a considerable lake between the ranges of mountains. That +division which is included by Padang-guchi, and a place called Nassal, is +distinguished by the name of Briuran, and from thence southward to Flat +Point, by that of Laut-Kawur; although Kawur, properly so called, lies in +the northern division. + +TULANG BAWANG RIVER. + +Upon the Tulang-bawang, at a place called Mangala, thirty-six leagues +from its mouth, the Dutch have a fortified post. There also the +representative of the king of Bantam, who claims the dominion of the +whole country of Lampong, has his residence, the river Masusi, which runs +into the former, being the boundary of his territories and those of the +sultan of Palembang. In the neighbourhood of these rivers the land is so +low as to be overflowed in the rainy season, or months of January and +February, when the waters have been known to rise many feet in the course +of a few hours, the villages, situated on the higher spots, appearing as +islands. The houses of those immediately on the banks are built on piles +of ironwood timber, and each has before it a floating raft for the +convenience of washing. In the western parts, towards Samangka, on the +contrary, the land is mountainous, and Keyser's Peak, as well as Pugong, +are visible to a great distance at sea. + +INHABITANTS. + +The country is best inhabited in the central and mountainous parts, where +the people live independent, and in some measure secure from the inroads +of their eastern neighbours, the Javans, who, from about Palembang and +the Straits, frequently attempt to molest them. It is probably within but +a very few centuries that the south-west coast of this country has been +the habitation of any considerable number of people; and it has been +still less visited by strangers, owing to the unsheltered nature of the +sea thereabouts, and want of soundings in general, which renders the +navigation wild and dangerous for country vessels; and to the rivers +being small and rapid, with shallow bars and almost ever a high surf. If +you ask the people of these parts from whence they originally came they +answer, from the hills, and point out an inland place near the great lake +from whence they say their forefathers emigrated: and further than this +it is impossible to trace. They of all the Sumatrans have the strongest +resemblance to the Chinese, particularly in the roundness of face and +constructure of the eyes. They are also the fairest people of the island, +and the women are the tallest and esteemed the most handsome. + +LANGUAGE. + +Their language differs considerably, though not essentially, from that of +the Rejangs, and the characters they use are peculiar to themselves, as +may be observed in the specimens exhibited. + +GOVERNMENT. + +The titles of government are pangeran (from the Javans), kariyer, and +kiddimong or nebihi; the latter nearly answering to dupati among the +Rejangs. The district of Kroi, near Mount Pugong, is governed by five +magistrates called Panggau-limo, and a sixth, superior, called by way of +eminence Panggau; but their authority is said to be usurped and is often +disputed. The word in common signifies a gladiator or prizefighter. The +pangeran of Suko, in the hills, is computed to have four or five thousand +dependants, and sometimes, on going a journey, he levies a tali, or +eighth part of a dollar, on each family, which shows his authority to be +more arbitrary and probably more strictly feudal than among the Rejangs, +where the government is rather patriarchal. This difference has doubtless +its source in the wars and invasions to which the former people are +exposed. + +WARS. + +The Javanese banditti, as has been observed, often advance into the +country, and commit depredations on the inhabitants, who are not, in +general, a match for them. They do not make use of firearms. Beside the +common weapons of the island they fight with a long lance which is +carried by three men, the foremost guiding the point and covering himself +and his companions with a large shield. A compact body thus armed would +have been a counterpart of the Macedonian phalanx, but can prove, I +should apprehend, of but little use among a people with whom war is +carried on in a desultory manner, and more in the way of ambuscade than +of general engagement, in which alone troops so armed could act with +effect. + +Inland of Samangka, in the Straits of Sunda, there is a district, say the +Lampongs, inhabited by a ferocious people called orang Abung, who were a +terror to the neighbouring country until their villages were destroyed +some years ago by an expedition from the former place. Their mode of +atoning for offences against their own community, or, according to a +Malayan narrative in my possession, of entitling themselves to wives, was +by bringing to their dusuns the heads of strangers. The account may be +true, but without further authentication such stories are not to be too +implicitly credited on the faith of a people who are fond of the +marvellous and addicted to exaggeration. Thus they believed the +inhabitants of the island Engano to be all females, who were impregnated +by the wind, like the mares in Virgil's Georgics. + +MANNERS. + +The manners of the Lampongs are more free, or rather licentious, than +those of any other native Sumatrans. An extraordinary liberty of +intercourse is allowed between the young people of different sexes, and +the loss of female chastity is not a very uncommon consequence. The +offence is there however thought more lightly of, and instead of +punishing the parties, as in Passummah and elsewhere, they prudently +endeavour to conclude a legal match between them. But if this is not +effected the lady still continues to wear the insignia of virginity, the +fillet and arm-rings, and takes her place as such at festivals. It is not +only on these public occasions that the young men and women have +opportunities of forming arrangements, as in most other parts of the +island. They frequently associate together at other times; and the former +are seen gallantly reclining in the maiden's lap, whispering soft +nonsense, whilst she adjusts and perfumes his hair, or does a friendly +office of less delicacy to a European apprehension. At bimbangs the women +often put on their dancing dress in the public hall, letting that garment +which they mean to lay aside dexterously drop from under, as the other +passes over the head, but sometimes, with an air of coquetry, displaying +as if by chance enough to warm youthful imaginations. Both men and women +anoint themselves before company when they prepare to dance; the women +their necks and arms, and the men their breasts. They also paint each +others faces; not, seemingly, with a view of heightening or imitating the +natural charms, but merely as matter of fashion; making fantastic spots +with the finger on the forehead, temples, and cheeks, of white, red, +yellow, and other hues. A brass salver (tallam) covered with little china +cups, containing a variety of paints, is served up for this purpose. + +Instances have happened here, though rarely, of very disagreeable +conclusions to their feasts. A party of risaus among the young fellows +have been known suddenly to extinguish the lights for the purpose of +robbing the girls, not of their chastity, as might be apprehended, but of +the gold and silver ornaments of their persons. An outrage of this nature +I imagine could only happen in Lampong, where their vicinity to Java +affords the culprits easier and surer means of escape, than in the +central parts of the island; and here too their companies appear to be +more mixed, collected from greater distances, and not composed, as with +the Rejang people, of a neighbourly assemblage of the old men and women +of a few contiguous villages with their sons and daughters, for the sake +of convivial mirth, of celebrating a particular domestic event, and +promoting attachments and courtship amongst the young people. + +PARTICULAR CUSTOMS. + +In every dusun there is appointed a youth, well fitted by nature and +education for the office, who acts as master of ceremonies at their +public meetings, arranges the young men and women in their proper places, +makes choice of their partners, and regulates all other circumstances of +the assembly except the important economy of the festival part or cheer, +which comes under the cognizance of one of the elders. Both parts of the +entertainment are preceded by long complimentary speeches, delivered by +the respective stewards, who in return are answered and complimented on +their skill, liberality, and other qualities, by some of the best bred +amongst the guests. Though the manner of conducting, and the appendages +of these feasts, are superior in style to the rustic hospitality of some +of the northern countries, yet they are esteemed to be much behind those +in the goodness and mode of dressing their food. The Lampongs eat almost +all kinds of flesh indiscriminately, and their guleis (curries or made +dishes) are said, by connoisseurs, to have no flavour. They serve up the +rice divided into portions for each person, contrary to the practice in +the other countries; the tallam being covered with a handsome crimson +napkin manufactured for that use. They are wont to entertain strangers +with much more profusion than is met with in the rest of the island. If +the guest is of any consequence they do not hesitate to kill, beside +goats and fowls, a buffalo, or several, according to the period of his +stay, and the number of his attendants. One man has been known to +entertain a person of rank and his suite for sixteen days, during which +time there were not less than a hundred dishes of rice spread each day, +containing some one, some two bamboos. They have dishes here, of a +species of china or earthenware, called batu benauang, brought from the +eastward, remarkably heavy, and very dear, some of them being valued at +forty dollars a piece. The breaking one of them is a family loss of no +small importance. + +RECEPTION OF STRANGERS. + +Abundantly more ceremony is used among these people at interviews with +strangers than takes place in the countries adjacent to them. Not only +the chief person of a party travelling, but every one of his attendants, +is obliged, upon arriving at a town, to give a formal account of their +business, or occasion of coming that way. When the principal man of the +dusun is acquainted by the stranger with the motives of his journey he +repeats his speech at full length before he gives an answer; and if it is +a person of great consequence, the words must pass through two or three +mouths before they are supposed to come with sufficient ceremony to his +ears. This in fact has more the air of adding to his own importance and +dignity than to that of the guest; but it is not in Sumatra alone that +respect is manifested by this seeming contradiction. + +The terms of the jujur, or equivalent for wives, is the same here, +nearly, as with the Rejangs. The kris-head is not essential to the +bargain, as among the people of Passummah. The father of the girl never +admits of the putus tali kulo, or whole sum being paid, and thereby +withholds from the husband, in any case, the right of selling his wife, +who, in the event of a divorce, returns to her relations. Where the putus +tali is allowed to take place, he has a property in her, little differing +from that of a slave, as formerly observed. The particular sums which +constitute the jujur are less complex here than at other places. The +value of the maiden's golden trinkets is nicely estimated, and her jujur +regulated according to that and the rank of her parents. The semando +marriage scarcely ever takes place but among poor people, where there is +no property on either side, or in the case of a slip in the conduct of +the female, when the friends are glad to make up a match in this way +instead of demanding a price for her. Instances have occurred however of +countrymen of rank affecting a semando marriage in order to imitate the +Malayan manners; but it has been looked upon as improper and liable to +create confusion. + +The fines and compensation for murder are in every respect the same as in +the countries already described. + +RELIGION. + +The Mahometan religion has made considerable progress amongst the +Lampongs, and most of their villages have mosques in them: yet an +attachment to the original superstitions of the country induces them to +regard with particular veneration the ancient burying-places of their +fathers, which they piously adorn and cover in from the weather. + +SUPERSTITIOUS OPINIONS. + +In some parts, likewise, they superstitiously believe that certain trees, +particularly those of a venerable appearance (as an old jawi-jawi or +banyan tree) are the residence, or rather the material frame of spirits +of the woods; an opinion which exactly answers to the idea entertained by +the ancients of the dryads and hamadryads. At Benkunat in the Lampong +country there is a long stone, standing on a flat one, supposed by the +people to possess extraordinary power or virtue. It is reported to have +been once thrown down into the water and to have raised itself again to +its original position, agitating the elements at the same time with a +prodigious storm. To approach it without respect they believe to be the +source of misfortune to the offender. + +The inland people of that country are said to pay a kind of adoration to +the sea, and to make to it an offering of cakes and sweetmeats on their +beholding it for the first time, deprecating its power of doing them +mischief. This is by no means surprising when we consider the natural +proneness of unenlightened mankind to regard with superstitious awe +whatever has the power of injuring them without control, and particularly +when it is attended with any circumstances mysterious and inexplicable to +their understandings. The sea possesses all these qualities. Its +destructive and irresistible power is often felt, and especially on the +coasts of India where tremendous surfs are constantly breaking on the +shore, rising often to their greatest degree of violence without any +apparent external cause. Add to this the flux and reflux and perpetual +ordinary motion of that element, wonderful even to philosophers who are +acquainted with the cause, unaccountable to ignorant men, though long +accustomed to the effects; but to those who only once or twice in their +lives have been eyewitnesses to the phenomena, supernatural and divine. +It must not however be understood that anything like a regular worship is +paid to the sea by these people, any more than we should conclude that +people in England worship witches when they nail a horseshoe on the +threshold to prevent their approach, or break the bottoms of eggshells to +hinder them from sailing in them. It is with the inhabitants of Lampong +no more than a temporary sentiment of fear and respect, which a little +familiarity soon effaces. Many of them indeed imagine it endowed with a +principle of voluntary motion. They tell a story of an ignorant fellow +who, observing with astonishment its continual agitation, carried a +vessel of sea water with him, on his return to the country, and poured it +into a lake, in full expectation of seeing it perform the same fanciful +motions he had admired it for in its native bed.* + +(*Footnote. The manners of the natives of the Philippine or Luzon Islands +correspond in so many striking particulars with those of the inland +Sumatrans, and especially where they differ most from the Malays, that I +think no doubt can be entertained, if not of a sameness of origin, at +least of an intercourse and connection in former times which now no +longer exists. The following instances are taken from an essay preserved +by Thevenot, entitled Relation des Philippines par un religieux; traduite +d'un manuscrit Espagnol du cabinet de Monsieur Dom. Carlo del Pezzo +(without date), and from a manuscript communicated to me by Alex +Dalrymple, Esquire. "The chief Deity of the Tagalas is called Bathala mei +Capal, and also Diuata; and their principal idolatry consists in adoring +those of their ancestors who signalised themselves for courage or +abilities, calling them Humalagar, i.e. manes: They make slaves of the +people who do not keep silence at the tombs of their ancestors. They have +great veneration for the crocodile, which they call nono, signifying +grandfather, and make offerings to it. Every old tree they look upon as a +superior being, and think it a crime to cut it down. They worship also +stones, rocks, and points of land, shooting arrows at these last as they +pass them. They have priests who, at their sacrifices, make many +contortions and grimaces, as if possessed with a devil. The first man and +woman, they say, were produced from a bamboo, which burst in the island +of Sumatra; and they quarrelled about their marriage. The people mark +their bodies in various figures, and render them of the colour of ashes, +have large holes in their ears, blacken and file their teeth, and make an +opening which they fill up with gold, they used to write from top to +bottom till the Spaniards taught them to write from left to right, +bamboos and palm leaves serve them for paper. They cover their houses +with straw, leaves of trees, or bamboos split in two which serve for +tiles. They hire people to sing and weep at their funerals, burn benzoin, +bury their dead on the third day in strong coffins, and sometimes kill +slaves to accompany their deceased masters.") + +The latter account is more particular, and appears of modern date. + +They held the caiman, or alligator, in great reverence, and when they saw +him they called him nono, or grandfather, praying with great tenderness +that he would do them no harm, and to this end, offered him of whatever +they had in their boats, throwing it into the water. There was not an old +tree to which they did not offer divine worship, especially that called +balete; and even at this time they have some respect for them. Beside +these they had certain idols inherited from their ancestors, which the +Tagalas called Anita, and the Bisayans, Divata. Some of these were for +the mountains and plains, and they asked their leave when they would pass +them: others for the corn fields, and to these they recommend them, that +they might be fertile, placing meat and drink in the fields for the use +of the Anitos. There was one, of the sea, who had care of their fishing +and navigation; another of the house, whose favour they implored at the +birth of a child, and under whose protection they placed it. They made +Anitos also of their deceased ancestors, and to these were their first +invocations in all difficulties and dangers. They reckoned amongst these +beings, all those who were killed by lightning or alligators, or had any +disastrous death, and believed that they were carried up to the happy +state, by the rainbow, which they call Balan-gao. In general they +endeavoured to attribute this kind of divinity to their fathers, when +they died in years, and the old men, vain with this barbarous notion, +affected in their sickness a gravity and composure of mind, as they +conceived, more than human, because they thought themselves commencing +Anitos. They were to be interred at places marked out by themselves, that +they might be discovered at a distance and worshipped. The missionaries +have had great trouble in demolishing their tombs and idols; but the +Indians, inland, still continue the custom of pasing tabi sa nano, or +asking permission of their dead ancestors, when they enter any wood, +mountain, or corn field, for hunting or sowing; and if they omit this +ceremony imagine their nonos will punish them with bad fortune. + +Their notions of the creation of the world, and formation of mankind, had +something ridiculously extravagant. They believed that the world at first +consisted only of sky and water, and between these two, a glede; which, +weary with flying about, and finding no place to rest, set the water at +variance with the sky, which, in order to keep it in bounds, and that it +should not get uppermost, loaded the water with a number of islands, in +which the glede might settle and leave them at peace. Mankind, they said, +sprang out of a large cane with two joints, that, floating about in the +water, was at length thrown by the waves against the feet of the glede, +as it stood on shore, which opened it with its bill, and the man came out +of one joint, and the woman out of the other. These were soon after +married by consent of their God, Batkala Meycapal, which caused the first +trembling of the earth; and from thence are descended the different +nations of the world.") + + +CHAPTER 17. + +ACCOUNT OF THE INLAND COUNTRY OF KORINCHI. +EXPEDITION TO THE SERAMPEI AND SUNGEI-TENANG COUNTRIES. + +COUNTRY OF KORINCHI. + +At the back of the range of high mountains by which the countries of +Indrapura and Anak-sungei are bounded lies the district or valley of +Korinchi, which, from its secluded situation, has hitherto been little +known to Europeans. In the year 1800 Mr. Charles Campbell, whose name I +have had frequent occasion to mention, was led to visit this spot, in the +laudable pursuit of objects for the improvement of natural history, and +from his correspondence I shall extract such parts as I have reason to +hope will be gratifying to the reader. + +MR. CAMPBELL'S JOURNEY. + +Says this indefatigable traveller: + +The country of Korinchi first occupied my attention. From the sea-coast +at Moco-moco to the foot of the mountains cost us three days' weary +journey, and although our path was devious I cannot estimate the distance +at less than thirty miles, for it was late on the fourth day when we +began to ascend. Your conjecture that the ridge is broader betwixt the +plains of Anak-sungei and valley of Korinchi than that which we see from +Bencoolen is just. Our route in general lay north-east until we attained +the summit of the first high range, from which elevated situation, +through an opening in the wood, the Pagi or Nassau Islands were clearly +visible. During the next day our course along the ridge of hills was a +little to the northward of northwest, and for the two following days +almost due north, through as noble a forest as was ever penetrated by +man. On the evening of the last we descended by a steep and seemingly +short path from the summit of the second range (for there are obviously +two) into the Korinchi country. + +SITUATION OF LAKE. + +This descent did not occupy us more than twenty minutes, so that the +valley must lie at a great height above the level of the sea; but it was +yet a few days march to the inhabited and cultivated land on the border +of the great lake, which I conjecture to be situated directly behind +Indrapura, or north-east from the mouth of that river. There are two +lakes, but one of them is inconsiderable. I sailed for some time on the +former, which may be nearly as broad as the strait between Bencoolen and +Rat Island. My companions estimated it at seven miles; but the eye is +liable to much deception, and, having seen nothing for many days but +rivulets, the grandeur of the sheet of water, when it first burst upon +our sight, perhaps induced us to form too high a notion of its extent. +Its banks were studded with villages; it abounds with fish, particularly +the summah, a species of cyprinus; its waters are clear and beautiful +from the reflection of the black and shining sand which covers the bottom +in many places to the depth of eight or ten inches. + +INHABITANTS. + +The inhabitants are below the common stature of the Malays, with harder +visages and higher cheekbones, well knit in their limbs, and active; not +deficient in hospitality, but jealous of strangers. The women, excepting +a few of the daughters of the chiefs, were in general illfavoured, and +even savage in their aspect. At the village of In-juan on the borders of +the lake I saw some of them with rings of copper and shells among their +hair; they wore destars round their heads like the men, and almost all of +them had siwars or small daggers at their sides. They were not shut up or +concealed from us, but mixed with our party, on the contrary, with much +frankness. + +BUILDINGS. + +The people dwell in hordes, many families being crowded together in one +long building. That in which I lived gave shelter to twenty-five +families. The front was one long undivided verandah, where the unmarried +men slept; the back part was partitioned into small cabins, each of which +had a round hole with a door to fit it, and through this the female +inmates crept backwards and forwards in the most awkward manner and +ridiculous posture. This house was in length two hundred and thirty feet, +and elevated from the ground. Those belonging to the chiefs were smaller, +well constructed of timber and plank, and covered with shingles or thin +plates of board bound on with rattans, about the size and having much the +appearance of our slates. + +DRESSES. + +The dresses of the young women of rank were pretty enough. A large blue +turband, woven with silver chains, which, meeting behind and crossing, +were fastened to the earrings in festoons, decorated their heads. In this +was placed a large plume of cock's feathers, bending forward over the +face. The jacket was blue, of a silky texture, their own work, and +bordered with small gold chain. The body-dress, likewise of their own +weaving, was of cotton mingled with silk, richly striped and mixed with +gold thread; but they wear it no lower than the knees. The youths of +fashion were in a kind of harlequin habit, the forepart of the trousers +white, the back-part blue; their jacket after the same fashion. They +delighted much in an instrument made from some part of the iju palm-tree, +which resembled and produced a sound like the jews-harp. + +COOKERY. + +Their domestic economy (I speak of the houses of the chiefs) seemed +better regulated than it generally is in these countries; they seemed +tolerably advanced in the art of cookery, and had much variety of food; +such as the flesh of deer, which they take in rattan snares, wild ducks, +abounding on the lake; green pigeons, quails innumerable; and a variety +of fish beside the summah already mentioned, and the ikan gadis, a +species of carp which attains to a greater size here than in the rivers. + +ESCULENT VEGETABLES. + +The potato, which was introduced there many years ago, is now a common +article of food, and cultivated with some attention. Their plantations +supply many esculent herbs, fruits, and roots; but the coconut, although +reared as a curiosity, is abortive in these inland regions, and its place +is supplied by the buah kras (Juglans camirium), of which they also make +their torches. Excellent tobacco is grown there, also cotton and indigo, +the small leafed kind. They get some silk from Palembang, and rear a +little themselves. The communication is more frequent with the north-west +shore than with the eastern, and of late, since the English have been +settled at Pulo Chinco, they prefer going there for opium to the more +tedious (though less distant) journey by which they formerly sought it at +Moco-moco. + +GOLD. + +In their cockpits the gold-scales are frequent, and I have seen +considerable quantities weighed out by the losers. This metal, I am +informed, they get in their own country, although they studiously evaded +all inquiries on the subject. + +GUNPOWDER. + +They make gunpowder, and it is a common sport among the young boys to +fire it out of bamboos. In order to increase its strength, in their +opinion, they mingle it with pepper-dust. + +LEPERS. + +In a small recess on the margin of the lake, overhung with very rugged +cliffs and accessible only by water, I saw one of those receptacles of +misery to which the leprous and others afflicted with diseases supposed +to be contagious are banished. I landed much against the remonstrances of +my conductors, who would not quit the boat. There were in all seven of +these unfortunate people basking on the beach and warming the wretched +remains of their bodies in the sun. They were fed at stated periods by +the joint contribution of the neighbouring villages, and I was given to +understand that any attempt to quit this horrid exile was punished with +death. + +PECULIAR PLANTS. + +I had little time for botanizing; but I found there many plants unknown +to the lowlands. Among them were a species of prune, the water-hemlock, +and the strawberry. This last was like that species which grows in our +woods; but it was insipid. I brought the roots with me to Fort +Marlborough, where it lingered a year or two after fruiting and gradually +died.* I found there also a beautiful kind of the Hedychium coronarium, +now ranked among the kaempferias. It was of a pale orange, and had a most +grateful odour. The girls wear it in their hair, and its beautiful head +of lily flowers is used in the silent language of love, to the practice +of which, during your stay here, I suppose you were no stranger, and +which indicates a delicacy of sentiment one would scarcely expect to find +in the character of so rude a people. + +(*Footnote. This plant has fruited also in England, but doubts are +entertained of its being really a fragaria, By Dr. Smith it is termed a +potentilla.) + +CHARACTER OF PEOPLE. + +Although the chiefs received us with hospitality yet the mass of people +considered our intentions as hostile, and seemed jealous of our +intrusion. Of their women however they were not at all jealous, and the +familiarity of these was unrestrained. They entertained us with dances +after their fashion, and made some rude attempts at performing a sort of +pantomime. I may now close this detail with observing that the natives of +this mountainous region have stronger animal spirits than those of the +plains, and pass their lives with more variety than the torpid +inhabitants of the coast; that they breathe a spirit of independence, and +being frequently engaged in warfare, village against village, they would +be better prepared to resist any invasion of their liberties. + +SUSPICIONS. + +They took great offence at a large package carried by six men which +contained our necessaries, insisting that within it we had concealed a +priuk api, for so they call a mortar or howitzer, one of which had been +used with success against a village on the borders of their country +during the rebellion of the son of the sultan of Moco-moco; and even when +satisfied respecting this they manifested so much suspicion that we found +it necessary to be constantly on our guard, and were once nearly provoked +by their petulance and treachery to proceed to violence. When they found +our determination they seemed humble, but were not even then to be +trusted; and when we were on our return a friendly chief sent us +intelligence that an ambuscade had been laid for us in one of the narrow +passes of the mountains. We pursued our journey however without meeting +any obstruction. + +... + +On the subject of gold I have only to add to Mr. Campbell's information +that, in the enumeration by the natives of places where there are +gold-mines, Karinchi is always included. + +EXPEDITION TO INTERIOR COUNTRY. + +Opportunities of visiting the interior parts of the island have so seldom +occurred, or are likely to occur, that I do not hesitate to present to +the reader an abstract of the Journal kept by Lieutenant Hastings Dare +(now a captain on the Bengal establishment) whilst commanding an +expedition to the countries of Ipu, Serampei, and Sungei-tenang, which +border to the south-east on that of Korinchi above described; making at +the same time my acknowledgments to that gentleman for his obliging +communication of the original, and my apologies for the brevity to which +my subject renders it necessary to confine the narrative. + +ORIGIN OF DISTURBANCES. + +Sultan Asing, brother to the present sultan of Moco-moco, in conjunction +with Pa Muncha and Sultan Sidi, two hill-chiefs his relations, residing +at Pakalang-jambu and Jambi, raised a small force with which, in the +latter part of the year 1804, they made a descent on Ipu, one of the +Company's districts, burnt several villages and carried off a number of +the inhabitants. The guard of native Malay troops not being sufficiently +strong to check these depredations, a party was ordered from Fort +Marlborough under the command of Lieutenant Hastings Dare, consisting of +eighty-three sepoy officers and men, with five lascars, twentytwo Bengal +convicts, and eighteen of the Bugis-guard; in the whole one hundred and +twenty-eight. + +November 22 1804. Marched from Fort Marlborough, and December 3 arrived +at Ipu. The roads extremely bad from the torrents of rain that fell. 4th. +Mr. Hawthorne, the Resident, informed us that the enemy had fortified +themselves at a place called Tabe-si-kuddi, but, on hearing of the +approach of the detachment, had gone off to the hills in the +Sungeitenang country and fortified themselves at Koto Tuggoh, a village +that had been a receptacle for all the vagabonds from the districts near +the coast. 13th. Having procured coolies and provisions, for which we +have been hitherto detained, quitted Ipu in an east-north-east direction, +and passed through several pepper and rice plantations. At dusun Baru one +of our people caught a fine large fish, called ikan gadis. 14th. Marched +in a south-east direction; crossed several rivulets, and reached again +the banks of Ipu river, which we crossed. It was about four feet deep and +very rapid. Passed the night at dusun Arah. The country rather hilly; +thermometer 88 degrees at noon. 15th. Reached dusun Tanjong, the last +place in the Ipu district where rice or any other provision is to be +found, and these were sent on from Talang Puttei, this place being +deserted by its inhabitants, several of whom the enemy had carried off +with them as slaves. The country very hilly, and roads, in consequence of +the heavy rains, bad and slippery. 16th. Marched in a north and east +direction. + +HOT SPRINGS. + +After crossing the Ayer Ikan stream twice we arrived at some hot springs, +about three or four miles in the winding course we were obliged to take +from dusun Tanjong, situated in a low swampy spot, about sixty yards in +circumference. This is very hot in every part of it, excepting (which is +very extraordinary) one place on its eastern side, where, although a hot +spring is bubbling up within one yard of it, the water running from it is +as cold as common spring water. In consequence of the excessive heat of +the place and softness of the ground none of us could get close to the +springs; but upon putting the thermometer within three yards of them it +immediately rose to 120 degrees of Fahrenheit. We could not bear our +fingers any time in the water. It tasted copperish and bitter; there was +a strong sulphurous smell at the place, and a green sediment at the +bottom and sides of the spring, with a reddish or copper-coloured scum +floating on the surface. After again crossing the Ikan stream we arrived +at dusun Simpang. The enemy had been here, and had burned nearly half of +the village and carried off the inhabitants. The road from Tanjong to +Simpang was entirely through a succession of pepper-gardens and rice +plantations. We are now among the hills. Country in a higher state of +cultivation than near the coast, but nearly deserted, and must soon +become a waste. Could not get intelligence of the enemy. Built huts on +Ayer Ikan at Napah Kapah. 17th. Marched in a south direction and crossed +Ayer Tubbu, passing a number of durian trees on its bank. Again crossed +the stream several times. Arrived early at Tabe-si-kuddi, a small talang, +where the enemy had built three batteries or entrenchments and left +behind them a quantity of grain, but vegetating and unfit for use. +Previously to our reaching these entrenchments some of the detachment got +wounded in the feet with ranjaus, set very thickly in the ground in every +direction, and which obliged us to be very cautious in our steps until we +arrived at the banks of a small rivulet, called the Nibong, two or three +miles beyond them. + +RANJAUS. + +Ranjaus are slips of bamboo sharpened at each end, the part that is stuck +in the ground being thicker than the opposite end, which decreases to a +fine thin point, and is hardened by dipping it in oil and applying it to +the smoke of a lamp near the flame. They are planted in the footpaths, +sometimes erect, sometimes sloping, in small holes, or in muddy and miry +places, and when trodden upon (for they are so well concealed as not to +be easily seen) they pierce through the foot and make a most disagreeable +wound, the bamboo leaving in it a rough hairy stuff it has on its +outside, which irritates, inflames, and prevents it from healing. The +whole of the road this day lay over a succession of steep hills, and in +the latter part covered with deep forests. The whole of the detachment +did not reach our huts on the bank of the Nibong stream till evening, +much time being consumed in bringing on the mortar and magazine. Picked +up pouches, musket stocks, etc., and saw new huts, near one of which was +a quantity of clotted blood and a fresh grave. 18th. Proceeded +east-north-east and passed several rivulets. Regained the banks of the +Ipu river, running north-east to south-west here tolerably broad and +shallow, being a succession of rapids over a rough stony bed. Encamped +both this night and the last where the enemy had built huts. 19th. +Marched in a north direction. More of the detachment wounded by ranjaus +planted in the pathways. Roads slippery and bad from rains, and the hills +so steep it is with difficulty we get the mortar and heavy baggage +forward. Killed a green snake with black spots along its back, about four +feet long, four to five inches in girt, and with a thick stumpy tail. The +natives say its bite is venomous. Our course today has been north along +the banks of the Ipu river; the noise of the rapids so great that when +near it we can with difficulty hear each other speak. 20th. Continued +along the river, crossing it several times. Came to a hot spring in the +water of which the thermometer rose to 100 degrees at a considerable +distance from its source. The road today tolerably level and good. + +LEECHES. + +We were much plagued by a small kind of leech, which dropped on us from +the leaves of the trees, and got withinside our clothes. We were in +consequence on our halting every day obliged to strip and bathe ourselves +in order to detach them from our bodies, filled with the blood they had +sucked from us. They were not above an inch in length, and before they +fixed themselves as thin as a needle, so that they could penetrate our +dress in any part. We encamped this evening at the conflux of the Simpang +stream and Ipu river. Our huts were generally thatched with the puar or +wild cardamum leaf, which grows in great abundance on the banks of the +rivers in this part of the country. It bears a pleasant acid fruit, +growing much in the same way as the maize. In long journeys through the +woods, when other provisions fail, the natives live principally on this. +The leaf is something like that of the plantain, but not nearly so large. +21st. Arrived at a spot called Dingau-benar, from whence we were obliged +to return on account of the coolies not being able to descend a hill +which was at least a hundred and fifty yards high, and nearly +perpendicular. In effecting it we were obliged to cling to the trees and +roots, without which assistance it would have been impracticable. It was +nearly evening before one half of the detachment had reached the bottom, +and it rained so excessively hard that we were obliged to remain divided +for the night; the rear party on the top of the steep hill, and the +advanced on the brow of another hill. One of the guides and a Malay +coolie were drowned in attempting to find a ford across the Ipu river. I +was a long time before we could get any fire, everything being completely +soaked through, and the greater part of the poor fellows had not time to +build huts for themselves. Military disposition for guarding baggage, +preventing surprise, etc. 22nd. We had much difficulty in getting the +mortar and its bed down, being obliged to make use of long thick rattans +tied to them and successively to several trees. It was really admirable +to observe the patience of the sepoys and Bengal convicts on this +occasion. On mustering the coolies, found that nearly one half had run +during the night, which obliged us to fling away twenty bags of rice, +besides salt and other articles. Our course lay north, crossing the river +several times. My poor faithful dog Gruff was carried away by the +violence of the stream and lost. We were obliged to make bridges by +cutting down tall trees, laying them across the stream, and interlacing +them with rattans. + +We were now between two ranges of very high hills; on our right hand +Bukit Pandang, seen from a great distance at sea; the road shockingly +bad. Encamped on the western bank. 23rd. Marched in a north direction, +the roads almost impassable. The river suddenly swelled so much that the +rear party could not join the advanced, which was so fortunate as to +occupy huts built by the enemy. There were fires in two of them. We were +informed however that the Serampei and Sungei-tenang people often come +this distance to catch fish, which they dry and carry back to their +country. At certain times of the year great quantities of the ringkis and +ikan-gadis are taken, besides a kind of large conger-eel. We frequently +had fish when time would admit of the people catching them. It is +impossible to describe the difficulties we had to encounter in +consequence of the heavy rains, badness of the roads, and rapidity of the +river. The sepoy officer and many men ill of fluxes and fevers, and lame +with swelled and sore feet. 24th. Military precautions. Powder damaged. +Thunder and lightning with torrents of rain. Almost the whole of the rice +rotten or sour. 25th. Continued to march up the banks of the river. No +inhabitants in this part of the country. + +IRREGULARITY OF COMPASS. + +The compass for these several days has been very irregular. We have two +with us and they do not at all agree. The road less bad. At one place we +saw bamboos of the thickness of a man's thigh. There were myriads of very +small flies this evening, which teased us much. Occupied some huts we +found on the eastern bank. This is Christmas evening; to us, God knows, a +dull one. Our wines and liquors nearly expended, and we have but one +miserable half-starved chicken left although we have been on short +allowance the whole way. 26th. Roads tolerable. Passed a spot called +Kappah, and soon after a waterfall named Ipu-machang, about sixty feet +high. Picked up a sick man belonging to the enemy. He informed us that +there were between two and three hundred men collected at Koto Tuggoh, +under the command of Sutan Sidi, Sutan Asing, and Pa Muncha. These three +chiefs made a festival, killing buffaloes, as is usual with the natives +of Sumatra on such occasions, at this place, and received every +assistance from the principal Dupati, who is also father-in-law to Pa +Muncha. They possess sixty stand of muskets, beside blunderbusses and +wall-pieces. They had quitted the Company's districts about twenty-three +days ago, and are gone, some to Koto Tuggoh, and others to +Pakalang-jambu. 27th. Marched in a north-north-east direction; passed +over a steep hill which took us three hours hard walking. The river is +now very narrow and rapid, not above twelve feet across; it is a +succession of waterfalls every three or four yards. After this our road +was intricate, winding, and bad. We had to ascend a high chasm formed in +the rock, which was effected by ladders from one shelf to another. +Arrived at the foot of Bukit Pandang, where we found huts, and occupied +them for the night. We have been ascending the whole of this day. Very +cold and rainy. At night we were glad to make large fires and use our +blankets and woollen clothes. Having now but little rice left we were +obliged to put ourselves to an allowance of one bamboo or gallon measure +among ten men; and the greater part of that rotten. + +ASCEND A HIGH MOUNTAIN. + +28th. Ascended Bukit Pandang in an east-north-east direction. Reached a +small spring of water called Pondo Kubang, the only one to be met with +till the hill is descended. About two miles from the top, and from thence +all the way up, the trees and ground were covered very thick with moss; +the trees much stunted, and altogether the appearance was barren and +gloomy; to us particularly so, for we could find little or nothing +wherewith to build our huts, nor procure a bit of dry wood to light a +fire. In order to make one for dressing the victuals, Lieutenant Dare was +compelled to break up one of his boxes, otherwise he and Mr. Alexander, +the surgeon, must have eaten them raw. It rained hard all night, and the +coolies and most of the party were obliged to lie +down on the wet ground in the midst of it. + +MEN DIE FROM SEVERITY OF THE WEATHER. + +It was exceedingly cold to our feelings; in the evening the thermometer +was down to 50 degrees, and in the night to 45 degrees. In consequence of +the cold, inclemency, and fatigue to which the coolies were exposed, +seven of them died that night. The lieutenant and surgeon made themselves +a kind of shelter with four tarpaulins that were fortunately provided to +cover the medicine chest and surgical instruments, but the place was so +small that it scarcely held them both. In the evening when the former was +sitting on his campstool, whilst the people were putting up the +tarpaulins, a very small bird, perfectly black, came hopping about the +stool, picking up the worms from the moss. It was so tame and fearless +that it frequently perched itself on his foot and on different parts of +the stool; which shows that these parts of the country must be very +little frequented by human beings. 29th. Descended Bukit Pandang. Another +coolie died this morning. We are obliged to fling away shells. After +walking some time many of the people recovered, as it was principally +from cold and damps they suffered. Crossed a stream called Inum where we +saw several huts. In half an hour more arrived at the banks of the +greater Ayer Dikit River, which is here shallow, rapid, and about eighty +yards broad. We marched westerly along its banks, and reached a hut +opposite to a spot called Rantau Kramas, where we remained for the night, +being prevented from crossing by a flood. 30th. Cut down a large tree and +threw it across the river; it reached about halfway over. With this and +the assistance of rattans tied to the opposite side we effected our +passage and arrived at Rantau Kramas. Sent off people to Ranna Alli, one +of the Serampei villages, about a day's march from hence, for provisions. +Thermometer 59 degrees. + +The greater Ayer Dikit river, on the north side of which this place lies, +runs nearly from east to west. There are four or five bamboo huts at it, +for the temporary habitation of travellers passing and repassing this +way, being in the direction from the Serampei to the Sungei-tenang +country. These huts are covered with bamboos (in plenty here) split and +placed like pantiles transversely over each other, forming, when the +bamboos are well-grown, a capital and lasting roof (see above). 31st. A +Malay man and woman taken by our people report that the enemy thirteen +days ago had proceeded two days march beyond Koto Tuggoh. Received some +provisions from Ranna Alli. The enemy, we are informed, have dug holes +and put long stakes into them, set spring-spears, and planted the road +very thickly with ranjaus, and were collecting their force at Koto Tuggoh +(signifying the strong fortress) to receive us. 1805. January 1st and +2nd. Received some small supplies of provisions. + +COME UP WITH THE ENEMY. + +On the 3rd we were saluted by shouting and firing of the enemy from the +heights around us. Parties were immediately sent off in different +directions as the nature of the ground allowed. + +ATTACK. + +The advanced party had only time to fire two rounds when the enemy +retired to a strong position on the top of a steep hill where they had +thrown up a breastwork, which they disputed for a short time. On our +getting possession of it they divided into three parties and fled. We had +one sepoy killed and several of the detachment wounded by the ranjaus. +Many of the enemy were killed and wounded and the paths they had taken +covered with blood; but it is impossible to tell their numbers as they +always carry them off the moment they drop, considering it a disgrace to +leave them on the field of battle. If they get any of the bodies of their +enemies they immediately strike off the head and fix it on a long pole, +carrying it to their village as a trophy, and addressing to it every sort +of abusive language. Those taken alive in battle are made slaves. After +completely destroying everything in the battery we marched, and arrived +at the top of a very high hill, where we built our huts for the evening. +The road was thickly planted with ranjaus which, with the heavy rains, +impeded our progress and prevented us from reaching a place called +Danau-pau. Our course today has been north-east and easterly, the roads +shockingly bad, and we were obliged to leave behind several coolies and +two sepoys who were unable to accompany us. 4th. Obliged to fling away +the bullets of the cartridges, three-fourths of which were damaged, and +other articles. Most of the detachment sick with fluxes and fevers, or +wounded in the feet. Marched in an eastern direction. Reached a spot very +difficult to pass, being knee-deep in mud for a considerable way, with +ranjaus concealed in the mud, and spring-spears set in many places. We +were obliged to creep through a thicket of canes and bamboos. About noon +the advanced party arrived at a lake and discovered that the enemy were +on the opposite side of a small stream that ran from the lake, where they +had entrenched themselves behind four small batteries in a most +advantageous position, being on the top of a steep hill, of difficult +access, with the stream on one side, the lake on the other, and the other +parts surrounded by a swamp. + +ENTRENCHMENTS ATTACKED AND CARRIED. + +We immediately commenced the attack, but were unable, from the number of +ranjaus in the only accessible part, to make a push on to the enemy. +However about one o'clock we effected our purpose, and completely got +possession of the entrenchments, which, had they been properly defended, +must have cost us more than the half of our detachment. We had four +sepoys severely wounded, and almost the whole of our feet dreadfully cut. +Numbers of the enemy were killed and wounded. They defended each of the +batteries with some obstinacy against our fire, but when once we came +near them they could not stand our arms, and ran in every direction. At +this place there are no houses nor inhabitants, but only temporary huts, +built by the Sungei-tenang people, who come here occasionally to fish. +The lake, which is named Danau-pau, has a most beautiful appearance, +being like a great amphitheatre, surrounded by high and steep mountains +covered with forests. It is about two miles in diameter. We occupied some +huts built by the enemy. The place is thickly surrounded with bamboos. + +MOTIVES FOR RETURNING TO THE COAST. + +In consequence of the number of our sick and wounded, the small strength +of coolies to carry their baggage, and the want of medicines and +ammunition, as well as of provisions, we thought it advisable to return +to Rantau Kramas; and to effect this we were obliged to fling away the +mortar-bed, shells, and a number of other things. We marched at noon, and +arrived in the evening at the top of the hill where we had before +encamped, and remained for the night. 6th. Reached Rantau Kramas. 7th. +Marching in torrents of rain. People exceedingly harassed, reduced, and +emaciated. Relieved by the arrival of Serampei people with some +provisions from Ranna Alli. 8th. After a most fatiguing march arrived at +that place half-dead with damps and cold. The bearers of the litters for +the sick were absolutely knocked up, and we were obliged to the sepoys +for getting on as we did. Our route was north-west with little variation. +9th. Remained at Ranna Alli. This serampei village consists of about +fifteen houses, and may contain a hundred and fifty or two hundred +inhabitants. It is thickly planted all round with a tall hedge of live +bamboos, on the outside of which ranjaus are planted to the distance of +thirty or forty feet. Withinside of the hedge there is a bamboo pagar or +paling. It is situated on a steep hill surrounded by others, which in +many places are cleared to their tops, where the inhabitants have their +ladangs or rice plantations. They appeared to be a quiet, inoffensive set +of people; their language different from the Malayan, which most of them +spoke, but very imperfectly and hardly to be understood by us. On our +approach the women and children ran to their ladangs, being, as their +husbands informed us, afraid of the sepoys. + +GOITRES. + +Of the women whom we saw almost every one had the goitres or swellings +under the throat; and it seemed to be more prevalent with these than with +the men. One woman in particular had two protuberances dangling at her +neck as big as quart bottles. + +There are three dupatis and four mantris to this village, to whom we made +presents, and afterwards to the wives and families of the inhabitants. +10th and 11th. Preparing for our march to Moco-moco, where we can recruit +our force, and procure supplies of stores and ammunition. 12th. Marched +in a north and north-west direction. + +HANGING BRIDGE. + +Passed over a bridge of curious construction across the Ayer Abu River. +It was formed of bamboos tied together with iju ropes and suspended to +the trees, whose branches stretched nearly over the stream. + +The Serampei women are the worst-favoured creatures we ever saw, and +uncouth in their manners. Arrived at Tanjong Kasiri, another fortified +village, more populous than Ranna Alli. 13th. The sick and heavy baggage +were ordered to Tanjong Agung, another Serampei village. + +HOT SPRINGS. + +14th. Arrived at Ayer Grau or Abu, a small river, within a yard or two of +which we saw columns of smoke issuing from the earth, where there were +hot springs of water bubbling up in a number of places. The stream was +quite warm for several yards, and the ground and stones were so hot that +there was no standing on them for any length of time. The large pieces of +quartz, pumice, and other stones apparently burnt, induce us to suppose +there must have formerly been a volcano at this spot, which is a deep +vale, surrounded by high hills. Arrived much fatigued at Tanjong Agung, +where the head dupati received us in his best style. + +COCONUTS. + +He seemed to know more of European customs and manners than those whom we +have hitherto met with, and here, for the first time since quitting the +Ipu district, we got coconuts, which he presented to us. + +CASSIA. + +We saw numbers of cassia-trees in our march today. The bark, which the +natives brought us in quantities, is sweet, but thick and coarse, and +much inferior to cinnamon. This is the last and best fortified village in +the Serampei country, bordering on the forests between that and +Anak-Sungei. + +PECULIAR REGULATION. + +They have a custom here of never allowing any animal to be killed in any +part of the village but the balei or town hall, unless the person wishing +to do otherwise consents to pay a fine of one fathom of cotton cloth to +the priest for his permission. The old dupati told us there had been +formerly a great deal of sickness and bloodshed in the village, and it +had been predicted that, unless this custom were complied with, the like +would happen again. We paid the fine, had the prayers of the priest, and +killed our goats where and as we pleased. 16th. Marched in a +south-westerly direction, and, after passing many steep hills, reached +the lesser Ayer Dikit River, which we crossed, and built our huts on its +western bank. 17th. Marched in a west, and afterwards a south, direction; +the roads, in consequence of the rain ceasing today, tolerably dry and +good, but over high hills. Arrived at Ayer Prikan, and encamped on its +western bank; its course north and south over a rough, stony bed; very +rapid, and about thirty yards across, at the foot of Bukit Lintang. Saw +today abundance of cassiatrees. 18th. Proceeded to ascend Bukit Lintang, +which in the first part was excessively steep and fatiguing; our route +north and north-west when descending, south-south-west. Arrived at one of +the sources of the Sungei-ipu. Descending still farther we reached a +small spring where we built our huts. 19th. On our march this day we were +gratified by the receipt of letters from our friends at Bencoolen, by the +way of Moco-moco, from whence the Resident, Mr. Russell, sent us a supply +of wine and other refreshments, which we had not tasted for fourteen +days. Our course lay along the banks of the Sungei-ipu, and we arrived at +huts prepared for us by Mr. Russell. 20th. At one time our guide lost the +proper path by mistaking for it the track of a rhinoceros (which are in +great numbers in these parts), and we got into a place where we were +teased with myriads of leeches. Our road, excepting two or three small +hills, was level and good. Reached the confluence of the Ipu and Si +Luggan Rivers, the latter of which rises in the Korinchi country. Passed +Gunong Payong, the last hill, as we approached Moco-moco, near to which +had been a village formerly burnt and the inhabitants made slaves by Pa +Muncha and the then tuanku mudo (son of the sultan). 21st. Arrived at +talang Rantau Riang, the first Moco-moco or Anak-Sungei village, where we +found provisions dressed for us. At dusun Si Ballowe, to which our road +lay south-easterly, through pepper and rice plantations, sampans were in +readiness to convey us down the river. This place is remarkable for an +arau tree (casuarina), the only one met with at such a distance from the +sea. The country is here level in comparison with what we have passed +through, and the soil rather sandy, with a mixture of red clay. 22nd. The +course of the river is south-west and west with many windings. Arrived at +Moco-moco. + +DESCRIPTION OF MOCO-MOCO. + +Fort Ann lies on the southern and the settlement on the northern side of +the Si Luggan River, which name belongs properly to the place also, and +that of Moco-moco to a small village higher up. The bazaar consists of +about one hundred houses, all full of children. At the northern end is +the sultan's, which has nothing particular to distinguish it, but only +its being larger than other Malay houses. Great quantities of fish are +procured at this place, and sold cheap. The trade is principally with the +hill-people, in salt, piece-goods, iron, steel, and opium; for which the +returns are provisions, timber, and a little gold-dust. Formerly there +was a trade carried on with the Padang and other ate angin people, but it +is now dropped. The soil is sandy, low, and flat. + +EXPEDITION RESUMED. + +It being still necessary to make an example of the Sungei-tenang people +for assisting the three hostile chiefs in their depredations, in order +thereby to deter others from doing the same in future, and the men being +now recovered from their fatigue and furnished with the requisite +supplies, the detachment began to march on the 9th of February for Ayer +Dikit. It now consists of Lieutenant Dare, Mr. Alexander, surgeon, +seventy sepoys, including officers, twenty-seven lascars and Bengal +convicts, and eleven of the bugis-guard. Left the old mortar and took +with us one of smaller calibre. + +ACCOUNT OF SERAMPEI COUNTRY AND PEOPLE. + +From the 10th to the 22nd occupied in our march to the Serampei village +of Ranna Alli. The people of this country acknowledge themselves the +subjects of the sultan of Jambi, who sometimes but rarely exacts a +tribute from them of a buffalo, a tail of gold, and a hundred bamboos of +rice from each village. They are accustomed to carry burdens of from +sixty to ninety pounds weight on journeys that take them twenty or thirty +days; and it astonishes a lowlander to see with what ease they walk over +these hills, generally going a shuffling or ambling pace. Their loads are +placed in a long triangular basket, supported by a fillet across the +forehead, resting upon the back and back part of the head, the broadest +end of the triangle being uppermost, considerably above the head, and the +small end coming down as low as the loins. The Serampei country, +comprehending fifteen fortified and independent dusuns, beside talangs or +small open villages, is bounded on the north and north-west by Korinchi, +on the east, south-east, and south by Pakalang-jambu and Sungei-tenang, +and on the west and south-west by the greater Ayer Dikit River and chain +of high mountains bordering on the Sungei-ipu country. 23rd. Reached +Rantau Kramas. Took possession of the batteries, which the enemy had +considerably improved in our absence, collecting large quantities of +stones; but they were not manned, probably from not expecting our return +so soon. 24th. Arrived at those of Danau-pau, which had also been +strengthened. The roads being dry and weather fine we are enabled to make +tolerably long marches. Our advanced party nearly caught one of the enemy +planting ranjaus, and in retreating he wounded himself with them. 25th. +Passed many small rivulets discharging themselves into the lake at this +place. + +COME UP WITH THE ENEMY. + +26th. The officer commanding the advanced party sent word that the enemy +were at a short distance ahead; that they had felled a number of trees to +obstruct the road, and had thrown an entrenchment across it, extending +from one swamp and precipice to another, where they waited to receive us. +When the whole of the detachment had come up we marched on to the attack, +scrambled over the trees, and with great difficulty got the mortar over. + +FIRST ATTACK FAILS. + +The first onset was not attended with success, and our men were dropping +fast, not being able to advance on account of the ranjaus, which almost +pinned their feet to the ground. Seeing that the entrenchments were not +to be carried in front, a subedar with thirty sepoys and the bugis-guard +were ordered to endeavour to pass the swamp on the right, find out a +pathway, and attack the enemy on the flank and rear, while the remainder +should, on a preconcerted signal, make an attack on the front at the same +time. To prevent the enemy from discovering our intentions the drums were +kept beating, and a few random shots fired. Upon the signal being given a +general attack commenced, and our success was complete. + +ENTRENCHMENTS CARRIED. + +The enemy, of whom there were, as we reckon, three or four hundred within +the entrenchments, were soon put to the rout, and, after losing great +numbers, among whom was the head dupati, a principal instigator of the +disturbances, fled in all directions. We lost two sepoys killed and seven +wounded, beside several much hurt by the ranjaus. The mortar played +during the time, but is not supposed to have done much execution on +account of the surrounding trees. + +THEIR CONSTRUCTION. + +The entrenchments were constructed of large trees laid horizontally +between stakes driven into the ground, about seven feet high, with +loopholes for firing. Being laid about six feet thick, a cannonball could +not have penetrated. They extended eighty or ninety yards. The headman's +quarters were a large tree hollowed at the root. + +As soon as litters could be made for the wounded, and the killed were +buried, we continued our march in an eastern direction, and in about an +hour arrived at another battery, which however was not defended. In front +of this the enemy had tied a number of long sharp stakes to a stone, +which was suspended to the bough of a tree, and by swinging it their plan +was to wound us. + +ARRIVE AT A STREAM RUNNING INTO THE JAMBI RIVER. + +Crossed the Tambesi rivulet, flowing from south to north, and one of the +contributary streams to the Jambi River, which discharges itself into the +sea on the eastern side of the Island. Built our huts near a field of +maize and padi. + +KOTO TUGGOH. + +27th. Marched to Koto Tuggoh, from whence the inhabitants fled on our +throwing one shell and firing a few muskets, and we took possession of +the place. It is situated on a high hill, nearly perpendicular on three +sides, the easiest entrance being on the west, but it is there defended +by a ditch seven fathoms deep and five wide. The place contains the +ballei and about twenty houses, built in general of plank very neatly put +together, and carved; and some of them were also roofed with planks or +shingles about two feet long and one broad. The others with the leaves of +the puar or cardamum, which are again very thinly covered with iju. This +is said to last long, but harbours vermin, as we experienced. When we +entered the village we met with only one person, who was deformed, dumb, +and had more the appearance of a monkey than a human creature. + +DESTROYED. ENTER KOTO BHARU. + +March 1st. After completely destroying Koto Tuggoh we marched in a north +and afterwards an east direction, and arrived at Koto Bharu. The head +dupati requesting a parley, it was granted, and, on our promising not to +injure his village, he allowed us to take possession of it. We found in +the place a number of Batang Asei and other people, armed with muskets, +blunderbusses, and spears. At our desire, he sent off people to the other +Sungei-tenang villages to summon their chiefs to meet us if they chose to +show themselves friends, or otherwise we should proceed against them as +we had done against Koto Tuggoh. + +PEACE CONCLUDED. + +This dupati was a respectable-looking old man, and tears trickled down +his cheeks when matters were amicably settled between us: indeed for some +time he could hardly be convinced of it, and repeatedly asked, "Are we +friends?" 2nd. The chiefs met as desired, and after a short conversation +agreed to all that we proposed. Papers were thereupon drawn up and signed +and sworn to under the British colours. After this a shell was thrown +into the air at the request of the chiefs, who were desirous of +witnessing the sight. + +MODE OF TAKING AN OATH. + +Their method of swearing was as follows: The young shoots of the +anau-tree were made into a kind of rope, with the leaves hanging, and +this was attached to four stakes stuck in the ground, forming an area of +five or six feet square, within which a mat was spread, where those about +to take the oath seated themselves. A small branch of the prickly bamboo +was planted in the area also, and benzoin was kept burning during the +ceremony. The chiefs then laid their hands on the koran, held to them by +a priest, and one of them repeated to the rest the substance of the oath, +who, at the pauses he made, gave a nod of assent; after which they +severally said, "may the earth become barren, the air and water +poisonous, and may dreadful calamities fall on us and our posterity, if +we do not fulfil what we now agree to and promise." + +ACCOUNT OF SUNGEI-TENANG COUNTRY. + +We met here with little or no fruit excepting plantains and pineapples, +and these of an indifferent sort. The general produce of the country was +maize, padi, potatoes, sweet-potatoes, tobacco, and sugar-cane. The +principal part of their clothing was procured from the eastern side of +the island. They appear to have no regular season for sowing the grain, +and we saw plantations where in one part they had taken in the crop, in +another part it was nearly ripe, in a third not above five inches high, +and in a fourth they had but just prepared the ground for sowing. Upon +the whole, there appeared more cultivation than near the coast. + +MANNERS OF PEOPLE. + +It is a practice with many individuals among these people (as with +mountaineers in some parts of Europe) to leave their country in order to +seek employment where they can find it, and at the end of three or four +years revisit their native soil, bringing with them the produce of their +labours. If they happen to be successful they become itinerant merchants, +and travel to almost all parts of the island, particularly where fairs +are held, or else purchase a matchlock gun and become soldiers of +fortune, hiring themselves to whoever will pay them, but always ready to +come forward in defence of their country and families. They are a thick +stout dark race of people, something resembling the Achinese; and in +general they are addicted to smoking opium. We had no opportunity of +seeing the Sungei-tenang women. The men are very fantastical in their +dress. Their bajus have the sleeves blue perhaps whilst the body is +white, with stripes of red or any other colour over the shoulders, and +their short breeches are generally one half blue and the other white, +just as fancy leads them. Others again are dressed entirely in blue +cotton cloth, the same as the inhabitants of the west coast. The bag +containing their sirih or betel hangs over the shoulder by a string, if +it may be so termed, of brass wire. Many of them have also twisted brass +wire round the waist, in which they stick their krises. + +CHARMS. + +They commonly carry charms about their persons to preserve them from +accidents; one of which was shown to us, printed (at Batavia or Samarang +in Java) in Dutch, Portuguese, and French. It purported that the writer +was acquainted with the occult sciences, and that whoever possessed one +of the papers impressed with his mark (which was the figure of a hand +with the thumb and fingers extended) was invulnerable and free from all +kinds of harm. It desired the people to be very cautious of taking any +such printed in London (where certainly none were ever printed), as the +English would endeavour to counterfeit them and to impose on the +purchasers, +being all cheats. (Whether we consider this as a political or a +mercantile speculation it is not a little extraordinary and ridiculous). +The houses here, as well as in the Serampei country, are all built on +posts of what they call paku gajah (elephant-fern, Chamaerops palma, +Lour.), a tree something resembling a fern, and when full-grown a +palm-tree. It is of a fibrous nature, black, and lasts for a great length +of time. Every dusun has a ballei or town hall, about a hundred and +twenty feet long and proportionably broad, the woodwork of which is +neatly carved. The dwelling-houses contain five, six, or seven families +each, and the country is populous. The inhabitants both of Sungei-tenang +and Serampei are Mahometans, and acknowledge themselves subjects of +Jambi. The former country, so well as we were able to ascertain, is +bounded on the north and north-west by Korinchi and Serampei, on the west +and south-west by the Anak-sungei or Moco-moco and Ipu districts, on the +south by Labun, and on the east by Batang Asei and Pakalang-jambu. 3rd. +Marched on our return to the coast, many of the principal people +attending us as far as the last of their plantations. It rained hard +almost the whole of this day. + +RETURN TO THE COAST. + +On the 14th arrived at Moco-moco; on the 22nd proceeded for Bencoolen, +and arrived there on the 30th March 1805, after one of the most fatiguing +and harassing expeditions any detachment of troops ever served upon; +attended with the sickness of the whole of the party, and the death of +many, particularly of Mr. Alexander, the surgeon. + +End of Lieutenant Dare's narrative. + +It is almost unnecessary to observe that these were the consequences of +the extreme impolicy of sending an expedition up the country in the heart +of the rainy season. The public orders issued on the occasion were highly +creditable to Lieutenant Dare. + + +CHAPTER 18. + +MALAYAN STATES. +ANCIENT EMPIRE OF MENANGKABAU. +ORIGIN OF THE MALAYS AND GENERAL ACCEPTATION OF NAME. +EVIDENCES OF THEIR MIGRATION FROM SUMATRA. +SUCCESSION OF MALAYAN PRINCES. +PRESENT STATE OF THE EMPIRE. +TITLES OF THE SULTAN. +CEREMONIES. +CONVERSION TO MAHOMETAN RELIGION. +LITERATURE. +ARTS. +WARFARE. +GOVERNMENT. + +MALAYAN STATES. + +I shall now take a more particular view of the Malayan states, as +distinguished from those of the people termed orang ulu or countrymen, +and orang dusun or villagers, who, not being generally converted to the +Mahometan religion, have thereby preserved a more original character. + +EMPIRE OF MENANGKABAU. + +The principal government, and whose jurisdiction in ancient times is +understood to have comprehended the whole of Sumatra, is Menangkabau,* +situated under the equinoctial line, beyond the western range of high +mountains, and nearly in the centre of the island; in which respect it +differs from Malayan establishments in other parts, which are almost +universally near the mouths of large rivers. The appellations however of +orang menangkabau and orang malayo are so much identified that, +previously to entering upon an account of the former, it will be useful +to throw as much light as possible upon the latter, and to ascertain to +what description of people the name of Malays, bestowed by Europeans upon +all who resemble them in features and complexion, properly belongs. + +(*Footnote. The name is said to be derived from the words menang, +signifying to win, and karbau, a buffalo; from a story, carrying a very +fabulous air, of a famous engagement on that spot between the buffaloes +and tigers, in which the former are stated to have acquired a complete +victory. Such is the account the natives give; but they are fond of +dealing in fiction, and the etymology has probably no better foundation +than a fanciful resemblance of sound.) + +ORIGIN OF MALAYS. + +It has hitherto been considered as an obvious truth, and admitted without +examination that, wherever they are found upon the numerous islands +forming this archipelago, they or their ancestors must have migrated from +the country named by Europeans (and by them alone) the Malayan peninsula +or peninsula of Malacca, of which the indigenous and proper inhabitants +were understood to be Malays; and accordingly in the former editions of +this work I spoke of the natives of Menangkabau as having acquired their +religion, language, manners, and other national characteristics from the +settling among them of genuine Malays from the neighbouring continent. It +will however appear from the authorities I shall produce, amounting as +nearly to positive evidence as the nature of the subject will admit, that +the present possessors of the coasts of the peninsula were on the +contrary in the first instance adventurers from Sumatra, who in the +twelfth century formed an establishment there, and that the indigenous +inhabitants, gradually driven by them to the woods and mountains, so far +from being the stock from whence the Malays were propagated, are an +entirely different race of men, nearly approaching in their physical +character to the negroes of Africa. + +MIGRATION FROM SUMATRA. + +The evidences of this migration from Sumatra are chiefly found in two +Malayan books well known, by character at least, to those who are +conversant with the written language, the one named Taju assalatin or +Makuta segala raja-raja, The Crown of all Kings, and the other, more +immediately to the purpose, Sulalat assalatin or Penurun-an segala +rajaraja, The Descent of all (Malayan) Kings. Of these it has not been +my good fortune to obtain copies, but the contents, so far as they apply +to the present subject, have been fully detailed by two eminent Dutch +writers to whom the literature of this part of the East was familiar. +Petrus van der Worm first communicated the knowledge of these historical +treatises in his learned Introduction to the Malayan Vocabulary of +Gueynier, printed at Batavia in the year 1677; and extracts to the same +effect were afterwards given by Valentyn in Volume 5 pages 316 to 320 of +his elaborate work, published at Amsterdam in 1726. The books are +likewise mentioned in a list of Malayan Authors by G.H. Werndly, at the +end of his Maleische Spraak-kunst, and by the ingenious Dr. Leyden in his +Paper on the Languages and Literature of the Indo-Chinese Nations, +recently published in Volume 10 of the Asiatic Researches. The substance +of the information conveyed by them is as follows; and I trust it will +not be thought that the mixture of a portion of mythological fable in +accounts of this nature invalidates what might otherwise have credit as +historical fact. The utmost indeed we can pretend to ascertain is what +the natives themselves believe to have been their ancient history; and it +is proper to remark that in the present question there can be no +suspicion of bias from national vanity, as we have reason to presume that +the authors of these books were not Sumatrans. + +The original country inhabited by the Malayan race (according to these +authorities) was the kingdom of Palembang in the island of Indalus, now +Sumatra, on the river Malayo, which flows by the mountain named +Maha-meru, and discharges itself into the river Tatang (on which +Palembang stands) before it joins the sea. Having chosen for their king +or leader a prince named Sri Turi Buwana, who boasted his descent from +Iskander the Great, and to whom, on that account, their natural chief +Demang Lebar Daun submitted his authority, they emigrated, under his +command (about the year 1160), to the south-eastern extremity of the +opposite peninsula, named Ujong Tanah, where they were at first +distinguished by the appellation of orang de-bawah angin or the Leeward +people, but in time the coast became generally known by that of Tanah +malayo or the Malayan land. + +SINGAPURA BUILT. + +In this situation they built their first city, which they called +Singapura (vulgarly Sincapore), and their rising consequence excited the +jealousy of the kings of Maja-pahit, a powerful state in the island of +Java. To Sri Turi Buwana, who died in 1208, succeeded Paduka Pikaram +Wira, who reigned fifteen years; to him Sri Rama Vikaram, who reigned +thirteen, and to him Sri Maharaja, who reigned twelve. + +MALAKA BUILT. + +His successor, Sri Iskander Shah, was the last king of Singapura. During +three years he withstood the forces of the king of Maja-pahit, but in +1252, being hard pressed, he retired first to the northward, and +afterwards to the western, coast of the peninsula, where in the following +year he founded a new city, which under his wise government became of +considerable importance. To this he gave the name of Malaka, from a +fruit-bearing tree so called (myrabolanum) found in abundance on the hill +which gives natural strength to the situation. Having reigned here +twenty-two years, beloved by his subjects and feared by his neighbours, +Iskander Shah died in 1274, and was succeeded by Sultan Magat, who +reigned only two years. Up to this period the Malayan princes were +pagans. Sultan Muhammed Shah, who ascended the throne in 1276, was the +first Mahometan prince, and by the propagation of this faith acquired +great celebrity during a long reign of fifty-seven years. His influence +appears to have extended over the neighbouring islands of Lingga and +Bintan, together with Johor, Patani, Kedah, and Perak, on the coasts of +the peninsula, and Campar and Aru in Sumatra; all of which acquired the +appellative of Malayo, although it was now more especially applied to the +people of Malaka, or, as it is commonly written, Malacca. He left the +peaceful possession of his dominions to his son Sultan Abu Shahid, who +had reigned only one year and five months when he was murdered in 1334 by +the king of Arrakan, with whose family his father had contracted a +marriage. His successor was Sultan Modafar or Mozafar Shah, who was +distinguished for the wisdom of his government, of which he left a +memorial in a Book of Institutes or Laws of Malaka, held to this day in +high estimation. This city was now regarded as the third in rank (after +Maja-pahit on Java, and Pase on Sumatra) in that part of the East. + +(*Footnote. The account given by Juan de Barros of the abandonment of the +Malayan city of Singapura and foundation of Malacca differs materially +from the above; and although the authority of a writer, who collected his +materials in Lisbon, cannot be put in competition with that of Valentyn, +who passed a long and laborious life amongst the people, and quotes the +native historians, I shall give an abstract of his relation, from the +sixth book of the second Decade. "At the period when Cingapura flourished +its king was named Sangesinga; and in the neighbouring island of Java +reigned Pararisa, upon whose death the latter country became subject to +the tyranny of his brother, who put one of his nephews to death, and +forced many of the nobles, who took part against him, to seek refuge +abroad. Among these was one named Paramisora, whom Sangesinga received +with hospitality that was badly requited, for the stranger soon found +means to put him to death, and, by the assistance of the Javans who +accompanied him in his flight, to take possession of the city. The king +of Siam, whose son-in-law and vassal the deceased was, assembled a large +force by sea and land, and compelled the usurper to evacuate Cingapura +with two thousand followers, a part of whom were Cellates (orang sellat +men of the Straits) accustomed to live by fishing and piracy, who had +assisted him in seizing and keeping the throne during five years. They +disembarked at a place called Muar, a hundred and fifty leagues from +thence, where Paramisora and his own people fortified themselves. The +Cellates, whom he did not choose to trust, proceeded five leagues +farther, and occupied a bank of the river where the fortress of Malacca +now stands. Here they united with the half-savage natives, who like +themselves spoke the Malayan language, and, the spot they had chosen +becoming too confined for their increasing numbers, they moved a league +higher up, to one more convenient, and were at length joined by their +former chief and his companions. During the government of his son, named +Xaquen Darxa (a strange Portuguese corruption of Iskander or Sekander +Shah) they again descended the river, in order to enjoy the advantages of +a sea-port, and built a town, which, from the fortunes of his father, was +named Malacca, signifying an exile." Every person conversant with the +language must know that the word does not bear that nor any similar +meaning, and an error so palpable throws discredit on the whole +narrative.) + +About the year 1340 the king of Siam, being jealous of the growing power +of Malaka, invaded the country, and in a second expedition laid siege to +the capital; but his armies were defeated by the general of Modafar, +named Sri Nara Dirija. After these events Modafar reigned some years with +much reputation, and died in 1374. His son, originally named Sultan +Abdul, took the title of Sultan Mansur Shah upon his accession. At the +time that the king of Maja-pahit drove the Malays from Singapura, as +above related, he likewise subdued the country of Indragiri in Sumatra; +but upon the occasion of Mansur Shah's marriage (about the year 1380) +with the daughter of the then reigning king, a princess of great +celebrity, named Radin Gala Chendra Kiran, it was assigned to him as her +portion, and has since continued (according to Valentyn) under the +dominion of the princes of Malaka. Mansur appears to have been engaged in +continual wars, and to have obtained successes against Pahang, Pase, and +Makasar. His reign extended to the almost incredible period of +seventy-three years, being succeeded in 1447 by his son Sultan +Ala-wa-eddin. During his reign of thirty years nothing particular is +recorded; but there is reason to believe that his country during some +part of that time was under the power of the Siamese. Sultan Mahmud Shah, +who succeeded him, was the twelfth Malayan king, and the seventh and last +king of Malaka. + +JOHOR FOUNDED. + +In 1509 he repelled the aggression of the king of Siam; but in 1511 was +conquered by the Portuguese under Alfonso d'Alboquerque, and forced, with +the principal inhabitants, to fly to the neighbourhood of the first +Malayan establishment at the extremity of the peninsula, where he founded +the city of Johor, which still subsists, but has never attained to any +considerable importance, owing as it may be presumed to the European +influence that has ever since, under the Portuguese, Hollanders, and +English, predominated in that quarter.* + +(*Footnote. It was subdued by the Portuguese in 1608. In 1641 Malacca was +taken from them by the Hollanders, who held it till the present war, +which has thrown it into the possession of the English. The interior +boundaries of its territory, according to the Transactions of the +Batavian Society, are the mountains of Rombou, inhabited by a Malayan +people named Maning Cabou, and Mount Ophir, called by the natives +Gunong-Ledang. These limits, say they, it is impracticable for a European +to pass, the whole coast, for some leagues from the sea, being either a +morass or impenetrable forest; and these natural difficulties are +aggravated by the treacherous and bloodthirsty character of the natives. +The description, which will be found in Volume 4 pages 333 to 334, is +evidently overcharged. In speaking of Johor the original emigration of a +Malayan colony from Sumatra to the mouth of that river, which gave its +name to the whole coast, is briefly mentioned.) + +ANCIENT RELIGION. + +With respect to the religion professed by the Malayan princes at the time +of their migration from Sumatra, and for about 116 years after, little +can be known, because the writers, whose works have reached us, lived +since the period of conversion, and as good Mahometans would have thought +it profane to enter into the detail of superstitions which they regard +with abhorrence; but from the internal evidence we can entertain little +doubt of its having been the religion of Brahma, much corrupted however +and blended with the antecedent rude idolatry of the country, such as we +now find it amongst the Battas. Their proper names or titles are +obviously Hindu, with occasional mixture of Persian, and their mountain +of Maha-meru, elsewhere so well known as the seat of Indra and the dewas, +sufficiently points out the mythology adopted in the country. I am not +aware that at the present day there is any mountain in Sumatra called by +that name; but it is reasonable to presume that appellations decidedly +connected with Paganism may have been changed by the zealous propagators +of the new faith, and I am much inclined to believe that by the Maha-meru +of the Malays is to be understood the mountain of Sungei-pagu in the +Menangkabau country, from whence issue rivers that flow to both sides of +the island. In the neighbourhood of this reside the chiefs of the four +great tribes, called ampat suku or four quarters, one of which is named +Malayo (the others, Kampi, Pani, and Tiga-lara); and it is probable that +to it belonged the adventurers who undertook the expedition to Ujong +Tanah, and perpetuated the name of their particular race in the rising +fortunes of the new colony. From what circumstances they were led to +collect their vessels for embarkation at Palembang rather than at +Indragiri or Siak, so much more convenient in point of local position, +cannot now be ascertained. + +Having proposed some queries upon this subject to the late Mr. Francis +Light, who first settled the island of Pinang or Prince of Wales island, +in the Straits of Malacca, granted to him by the king of Kedah as the +marriage portion of his daughter, he furnished me in answer with the +following notices. "The origin of the Malays, like that of other people, +is involved in fable; every raja is descended from some demigod, and the +people sprung from the ocean. According to their traditions however their +first city of Singapura, near the present Johor, was peopled from +Palembang, from whence they proceeded to settle at Malacca (naming their +city from the fruit so called), and spread along the coast. The peninsula +is at present inhabited by distinct races of people. The Siamese possess +the northern part to latitude 7 degrees, extending from the east to the +west side. The Malays possess the whole of the sea-coast on both sides, +from that latitude to Point Romania; being mixed in some places with the +Bugis from Celebes, who have still a small settlement at Salmigor. The +inland parts to the northward are inhabited by the Patani people, who +appear to be a mixture of Siamese and Malays, and occupy independent +dusuns or villages. Among the forests and in the mountains are a race of +Caffres, in every respect resembling those of Africa excepting in +stature, which does not exceed four feet eight inches. The Menangkabau +people of the peninsula are so named from an inland country in Pulo +Percha (Sumatra). A distinction is made between them and the Malays of +Johor, but none is perceptible." + +To these authorities I shall add that of Mr. Thomas Raffles, at this time +Secretary to the government of Pulo Pinang, a gentleman whose +intelligence and zeal in the pursuit of knowledge give the strongest hope +of his becoming an ornament to oriental literature. To his correspondence +I am indebted for much useful information in the line of my researches, +and the following passages corroborate the opinions I had formed. "With +respect to the Menangkabaus, after a good deal of inquiry, I have not yet +been able decidedly to ascertain the relation between those of that name +in the peninsula and the Menangkabaus of Pulo Percha. The Malays affirm +without hesitation that they all came originally from the latter island." +In a recent communication he adds, "I am more confident than ever that +the Menangkabaus of the peninsula derive their origin from the country of +that name in Sumatra. Inland of Malacca about sixty miles is situated the +Malay kingdom of Rumbo, whose sultan and all the principal officers of +state hold their authority immediately from Menangkabau, and have written +commissions for their respective offices. This shows the extent of that +ancient power even now, reduced as it must be, in common with that of the +Malay people in general. I had many opportunities of communicating with +the natives of Rumbo, and they have clearly a peculiar dialect, +resembling exactly what you mention of substituting the final o for a, as +in the word ambo for amba. In fact, the dialect is called by the Malacca +people the language of Menangkabau." + +HISTORY OF MENANGKABAU IMPERFECTLY KNOWN. + +Returning from this discussion I shall resume the consideration of what +is termed the Sumatran empire of Menangkabau, believed by the natives of +all descriptions to have subsisted from the remotest times. With its +annals, either ancient or modern, we are little acquainted, and the +existence of any historical records in the country has generally been +doubted; yet, as those of Malacca and of Achin have been preserved, it is +not hastily to be concluded that these people, who are the equals of the +former, and much superior to the latter in point of literature, are +destitute of theirs, although they have not reached our hands. It is +known that they deduce their origin from two brothers, named +Perapati-si-batang and Kei Tamanggungan, who are described as being +among the forty companions of Noah in the ark, and whose landing at +Palembang, or at a small island near it, named Langkapura, is attended +with the circumstance of the dry land being first discovered by the +resting upon it of a bird that flew from the vessel. From thence they +proceeded to the mountain named Siguntang-guntang, and afterwards to +Priangan in the neighbourhood of the great volcano, which at this day is +spoken of as the ancient capital of Menangkabau. Unfortunately I possess +only an imperfect abstract of this narrative, obviously intended for an +introduction to the genealogy of its kings, but, even as a fable, +extremely confused and unsatisfactory; and when the writer brings it down +to what may be considered as the historical period he abruptly leaves +off, with a declaration that the offer of a sum of money (which was +unquestionably his object) should not tempt him to proceed. + +LIMITS. + +At a period not very remote its limits were included between the river of +Palembang and that of Siak, on the eastern side of the island, and on the +western side between those of Manjuta (near Indrapura) and Singkel, where +(as well as at Siak) it borders on the independent country of the Battas. +The present seat, or more properly seats, of the divided government lie +at the back of a mountainous district named the Tiga-blas koto +(signifying the thirteen fortified and confederated towns) inland of the +settlement of Padang. The country is described as a large plain +surrounded by hills producing much gold, clear of woods, and +comparatively well cultivated. Although nearer to the western coast its +communications with the eastern side are much facilitated by +water-carriage. + +LAKE. + +Advantage is taken in the first place of a large lake, called Laut-danau, +situated at the foot of the range of high mountains named gunong Besi, +inland of the country of Priaman, the length of which is described by +some as being equal to a day's sailing, and by others as no more than +twenty-five or thirty miles, abounding with fish (especially of two +species, known by the names of sasau and bili), and free from alligators. + +RIVERS. + +From this, according to the authority of a map drawn by a native, issues +a river called Ayer Ambelan, which afterwards takes the name of +Indragiri, along which, as well as the two other great rivers of Siak to +the northward, and Jambi to the southward, the navigation is frequent, +the banks of all of them being peopled with Malayan colonies. Between +Menangkabau and Palembang the intercourse must, on account of the +distance, be very rare, and the assertion that in the intermediate +country there exists another great lake, which sends its streams to both +sides of the island, appears not only to be without foundation in fact, +but also at variance with the usual operations of nature; as I believe it +may be safely maintained that, however numerous the streams which furnish +the water of a lake, it can have only one outlet; excepting, perhaps, in +flat countries, where the course of the waters has scarcely any +determination, or under such a nice balance of physical circumstances as +is not likely to occur. + +POLITICAL DECLINE. + +When the island was first visited by European navigators this state must +have been in its decline, as appears from the political importance at +that period of the kings of Achin, Pedir, and Pase, who, whilst they +acknowledged their authority to be derived from him as their lord +paramount, and some of them paid him a trifling complimentary tribute, +acted as independent sovereigns. Subsequently to this an Achinese +monarch, under the sanction of a real or pretended grant, obtained from +one of the sultans, who, having married his daughter, treated her with +nuptial slight, and occasioned her to implore her father's interference, +extended his dominion along the western coast, and established his +panglimas or governors in many places within the territory of +Menangkabau, particularly at Priaman, near the great volcano-mountain. +This grant is said to have been extorted not by the force of arms but by +an appeal to the decision of some high court of justice similar to that +of the imperial chamber in Germany, and to have included all the low or +strand-countries (pasisir barat) as far southward as Bengkaulu or +Silebar. About the year 1613 however he claimed no farther than Padang, +and his actual possessions reached only to Barus.* + +(*Footnote. The following instances occur of mention made by writers at +different periods of the kingdom of Menangkabau. ODOARDUS BARBOSA, 1519. +"Sumatra, a most large and beautiful island; Pedir, the principal city on +the northern side, where are also Pacem and Achem. Campar is opposite to +Malacca. Monancabo, to the southward, is the principal source of gold, as +well from mines as collected in the banks of the rivers." DE BARROS, +1553. "Malacca had the epithet of aurea given to it on account of the +abundance of gold brought from Monancabo and Barros, countries in the +island of Camatra, where it is procured." DIOGO de COUTO, 1600. "He gives +an account of a Portuguese ship wrecked on the coast of Sumatra, near to +the country of Manancabo, in 1560. Six hundred persons got on shore, +among whom were some women, one of them, Dona Francisca Sardinha, was of +such remarkable beauty that the people of the country resolved to carry +her off for their king; and they effected it, after a struggle in which +sixty of the Europeans lost their lives. At this period there was a great +intercourse between Manancabo and Malacca, many vessels going yearly with +gold to purchase cotton goods and other merchandise. In ancient times the +country was so rich in this metal that several hundredweight (seis, sete, +e mais candiz, de que trez fazem hum moyo) were exported in one season. +Volume 3 page 178. LINSCHOTEN, 1601. "At Menancabo excellent poniards +made, called creeses; best weapons of all the orient. Islands along the +coast of Sumatra, called islands of Menancabo." ARGENSOLA, 1609. "A +vessel loaded with creeses manufactured at Menancabo and a great quantity +of artillery; a species of warlike machine known and fabricated in +Sumatra many years before they were introduced by Europeans." LANCASTER, +1602. "Menangcabo lies eight or ten leagues inland of Priaman." BEST, +1613. " A man arrived from Menangcaboo at Ticoo, and brought news from +Jambee." BEAULIEU, 1622. "Du cote du ponant apres Padang suit le royaume +de Manimcabo; puis celuy d'Andripoura-Il y a (a Jambi) grand trafic d'or, +qu'ils ont avec ceux de Manimcabo." Vies des Gouverneurs Gen. Hollandois, +1763. Il est bon de remarquer ici que presque toute la cote occidentale +avoit ete reduite par la flotte du Sieur Pierre de Bitter en 1664. +L'annee suivante, les habitans de Pauw massacrerent le Commissaire Gruis, +etc.; mais apres avoir venge ce meurtre, et dissipe les revoltes en 1666, +les Hollandois etoient restes les maitres de toute cette etendue de cotes +entre Sillebar et Baros, ou ils etablirent divers comptoirs, dont celui +de Padang est le principal depuis 1667. Le commandant, qui y reside, est +en meme temps Stadhouder (Lieutenant) de l'Empereur de Maningcabo, a qui +la Compagnie a cede, sous diverses restrictions & limitations, la +souverainete sur tous les peuples qui babitent le long du rivage" etc.) + +DIVISION OF THE GOVERNMENT. + +In consequence of disturbances that ensued upon the death of a sultan +Alif in the year 1680, without direct heirs, the government became +divided amongst three chiefs, presumed to have been of the royal family +and at the same time great officers of state, who resided at places named +Suruwasa, Pagar-ruyong, and Sungei-trap; and in that state it continues +to the present time. Upon the capture of Padang by the English in 1781 +deputations arrived from two of these chiefs with congratulations upon +the success of our arms; which will be repeated with equal sincerity to +those who may chance to succeed us. The influence of the Dutch (and it +would have been the same with any other European power) has certainly +contributed to undermine the political consequence of Menangkabau by +giving countenance and support to its disobedient vassals, who in their +turn have often experienced the dangerous effects of receiving favours +from too powerful an ally. Pasaman, a populous country, and rich in gold, +cassia, and camphor, one of its nearest provinces, and governed by a +panglima from thence, now disclaims all manner of dependence. Its +sovereignty is divided between the two rajas of Sabluan and Kanali, who, +in imitation of their former masters, boast an origin of high antiquity. +One of them preserves as his sacred relic the bark of a tree in which his +ancestor was nursed in the woods before the Pasaman people had reached +their present polished state. The other, to be on a level with him, +possesses the beard of a reverend predecessor (perhaps an anchorite), +which was so bushy that a large bird had built its nest in it. Raja +Kanali supported a long war with the Hollanders, attended with many +reverses of fortune. + +Whether the three sultans maintain a struggle of hostile rivalship, or +act with an appearance of concert, as holding the nominal sovereignty +under a species of joint-regency, I am not informed, but each of them in +the preamble of his letters assumes all the royal titles, without any +allusion to competitors; and although their power and resources are not +much beyond those of a common raja they do not fail to assert all the +ancient rights and prerogatives of the empire, which are not disputed so +long as they are not attempted to be carried into force. Pompous +dictatorial edicts are issued and received by the neighbouring states +(including the European chiefs of Padang), with demonstration of profound +respect, but no farther obeyed than may happen to consist with the +political interests of the parties to whom they are addressed. Their +authority in short resembles not a little that of the sovereign pontiffs +of Rome during the latter centuries, founded as it is in the superstition +of remote ages; holding terrors over the weak, and contemned by the +stronger powers. The district of Suruwasa, containing the site of the old +capital, or Menangkabau proper, seems to have been considered by the +Dutch as entitled to a degree of pre-eminence; but I have not been able +to discover any marks of superiority or inferiority amongst them. In +distant parts the schism is either unknown, or the three who exercise the +royal functions are regarded as co-existing members of the same family, +and their government, in the abstract, however insignificant in itself, +is there an object of veneration. Indeed to such an unaccountable excess +is this carried that every relative of the sacred family, and many who +have no pretensions to it assume that character, are treated wherever +they appear, not only with the most profound respect by the chiefs who go +out to meet them, fire salutes on their entering the dusuns, and allow +them to level contributions for their maintenance; but by the country +people with such a degree of superstitious awe that they submit to be +insulted, plundered, and even wounded by them, without making resistance, +which they would esteem a dangerous profanation. Their appropriate title +(not uncommon in other Malayan countries) is Iang de per-tuan, literally +signifying he who ruleth. + +A person of this description, who called himself Sri Ahmed Shah, heir to +the empire of Menangkabau, in consequence of some differences with the +Dutch, came and settled amongst the English at Bencoolen in the year +1687, on his return from a journey to the southward as far as Lampong, +and being much respected by the people of the country gained the entire +confidence of Mr. Bloom, the governor. He subdued some of the +neighbouring chiefs who were disaffected to the English, particularly +Raja mudo of Sungei-lamo, and also a Jennang or deputy from the king of +Bantam; he coined money, established a market, and wrote a letter to the +East India Company promising to put them in possession of the trade of +the whole island. But shortly afterwards a discovery was made of his +having formed a design to cut off the settlement, and he was in +consequence driven from the place. The records mention at a subsequent +period that the sultan of Indrapura was raising troops to oppose him.* + +(*Footnote. The following anecdote of one of these personages was +communicated to me by my friend, the late Mr. Crisp. "Some years ago, +when I was resident of Manna, there was a man who had long worked in the +place as a coolie when someone arrived from the northward, who happened +to discover that he was an Iang de per-tuan or relation of the imperial +family. Immediately all the bazaar united to raise him to honour and +independence; he was never suffered to walk without a high umbrella +carried over him, was followed by numerous attendants, and addressed by +the title of tuanku, equivalent to your highness. After this he became an +intriguing, troublesome fellow in the Residency, and occasioned much +annoyance. The prejudice in favour of these people is said to extend over +all the islands to the eastward where the Malay tongue is spoken.") + +HIS TITLES. + +The titles and epithets assumed by the sultans are the most extravagantly +absurd that it is possible to imagine. Many of them descend to mere +childishness; and it is difficult to conceive how any people, so far +advanced in civilization as to be able to write, could display such +evidences of barbarism. A specimen of a warrant of recent date, addressed +to Tuanku Sungei-Pagu, a high-priest residing near Bencoolen, is as +follows: + +Three circular Seals with inscriptions in Arabic characters. + +(Eldest brother) Sultan of Rum. Key Dummul Alum. Maharaja Alif. + +(Second brother) Sultan of China. Nour Alum. Maharaja Dempang or Dipang. + +(Youngest brother) Sultan of Menangkabau. Aour Alum. Maharaja Dirja or +Durja. + +TRANSLATION OF A WARRANT. + +The sultan of Menangkabau, whose residence is at Pagar-ruyong, who is +king of kings; a descendant of raja Iskander zu'lkarnaini; possessed of +the crown brought from heaven by the prophet Adam; of a third part of the +wood kamat, one extremity of which is in the kingdom of Rum and another +in that of China; of the lance named lambing lambura ornamented with the +beard of janggi; of the palace in the city of Rum, whose entertainments +and diversions are exhibited in the month of zul'hijah, and where all +alims, fakiahs, and mulanakaris praise and supplicate Allah; possessor of +the gold-mine named kudarat-kudarati, which yields pure gold of twelve +carats, and of the gold named jati-jati which snaps the dalik wood; of +the sword named churak-simandang-giri, which received one hundred and +ninety gaps in conflict with the fiend Si Katimuno, whom it slew; of the +kris formed of the soul of steel, which expresses an unwillingness at +being sheathed and shows itself pleased when drawn; of a date coeval with +the creation; master of fresh water in the ocean, to the extent of a +day's sailing; of a lance formed of a twig of iju ; the sultan who +receives his taxes in gold by the lessong measure; whose betel-stand is +of gold set with diamonds; who is possessor of the web named sangsista +kala, which weaves itself and adds one thread yearly, adorned with +pearls, and when that web shall be completed the world will be no more; +of horses of the race of sorimborani, superior to all others; of the +mountain Si guntang-guntang, which divides Palembang and Jambi, and of +the burning mountain; of the elephant named Hasti +Dewah; who is vicegerent of heaven; sultan of the golden river; lord of +the air and clouds; master of a ballei whose pillars are of the shrub +jalatang; of gandarangs (drums) made of the hollow stems of the +diminutive plants pulut and silosuri; of the anchor named paduka jati +employed to recover the crown which fell into the deep sea of Kulzum; of +the gong that resounds to the skies; of the buffalo named Si Binuwang +Sati, whose horns are ten feet asunder; of the unconquered cock, +Sengunani; of the coconut-tree which, from its amazing height and being +infested with serpents and other noxious reptiles, it is impossible to +climb; of the blue champaka flower, not to be found in any other country +than his (being yellow elsewhere); of the flowering shrub named +Srimenjeri, of ambrosial scent; of the mountain on which the celestial +spirits dwell; who when he goes to rest wakes not until the gandarang +nobat sounds; He the sultan Sri Maharaja Durja furthermore declares, +etc.* + +(*Footnote. The following Letter from the sultan of Menangkabau to the +father of the present sultan of Moco-moco, and apparently written about +fifty years ago, was communicated to me by Mr. Alexander Dalrymple, and +though it is in part a repetition I esteem it too curious to hesitate +about inserting it. The style is much more rational than that of the +foregoing. "Praised be Almighty God! Sultan Gagar Alum the great and +noble King, whose extensive power reacheth unto the limits of the wide +ocean; unto whom God grants whatever he desires, and over whom no evil +spirit, nor even Satan himself has any influence; who is invested with an +authority to punish evil-doers; and has the most tender heart in the +support of the innocent; has no malice in his mind, but preserveth the +righteous with the greatest reverence, and nourisheth the poor and needy, +feeding them daily from his own table. His authority reacheth over the +whole universe, and his candour and goodness is known to all men. +(Mention made of the three brothers.) The ambassador of God and his +prophet Mahomet; the beloved of mankind; and ruler of the island called +Percho. At the time God made the heavens, the earth, the sun, the moon, +and even before evil spirits were created, this sultan Gagar Alum had his +residence in the clouds; but when the world was habitable God gave him a +bird called Hocinet, that had the gift of speech; this he sent down on +earth to look out for a spot where he might establish an inheritance, and +the first place he alighted upon was the fertile island of Lankapura, +situated between Palembang and Jambi, and from thence sprang the famous +kingdom of Manancabow, which will be renowned and mighty until the +Judgment Day. + +"This Maha Raja Durja is blessed with a long life and an uninterrupted +course of prosperity, which he will maintain in the name, and through the +grace of the holy prophet, to the end that God's divine Will may be +fulfilled upon earth. He is endowed with the highest abilities, and the +most profound wisdom and circumspection in governing the many tributary +kings and subjects. He is righteous and charitable, and preserveth the +honour and glory of his ancestors. His justice and clemency are felt in +distant regions, and his name will be revered until the last day. When he +openeth his mouth he is full of goodness, and his words are as grateful +as rosewater to the thirsty. His breath is like the soft winds of the +heavens, and his lips are the instruments of truth; sending forth +perfumes more delightful than benjamin or myrrh. His nostrils breathe +ambergris and musk; and his countenance has the lustre of diamonds. He is +dreadful in battle, and not to be conquered, his courage and valour being +matchless. He, the sultan Maha Raja Durja, was crowned with a sacred +crown from God; and possesses the wood called Kamat, in conjunction with +the emperors of Rome and China. (Here follows an account of his +possessions nearly corresponding to those above recited.) + +"After this salutation, and the information I have given of my greatness +and power, which I attribute to the good and holy prophet Mahomet, I am +to acquaint you with the commands of the sultan whose presence bringeth +death to all who attempt to approach him without permission; and also +those of the sultan of Indrapura who has four breasts. This friendly +sheet of paper is brought from the two sultans above named, by their bird +anggas, unto their son, sultan Gandam Shah, to acquaint him with their +intention under this great seal, which is that they order their son +sultan Gandam Shah to oblige the English Company to settle in the +district called Biangnur, at a place called the field of sheep, that they +may not have occasion to be ashamed at their frequent refusal of our +goodness in permitting them to trade with us and with our subjects; and +that in case he cannot succeed in this affair we hereby advise him that +the ties of friendship subsisting between us and our son is broken; and +we direct that he send us an answer immediately, that we may know the +result--for all this island is our own." It is difficult to determine +whether the preamble, or the purport of the letter be the more +extraordinary.) + +Probably no records upon earth can furnish an example of more +unintelligible jargon; yet these attributes are believed to be +indisputably true by the Malays and others residing at a distance from +his immediate dominions, who possess a greater degree of faith than wit; +and with this addition, that he dwells in a palace without covering, free +from inconvenience. It is at the same time but justice to these people to +observe that, in the ordinary concerns of life, their writings are as +sober, consistent, and rational as those of their neighbours. + +REMARKS ON WARRANT. + +The seals prefixed to the warrant are, beside his own and that of the +emperor of China, whose consequence is well known to the inhabitants of +the eastern islands, that of the sultan of Rum, by which is understood in +modern times, Constantinople, the seat of the emperor of the Turks, who +is looked up to by Mahometans, since the ruin of the khalifat, as the +head of their religion; but I have reason to think that the appellation +of Rumi was at an earlier period given by oriental writers to the +subjects of the great Turkoman empire of the Seljuks, whose capital was +Iconium or Kuniyah in Asia minor, of which the Ottoman was a branch. This +personage he honours with the title of his eldest brother, the descendant +of Iskander the two-horned, by which epithet the Macedonian hero is +always distinguished in eastern story, in consequence, as may be +presumed, of the horned figure on his coins,* which must long have +circulated in Persia and Arabia. Upon the obscure history of these +supposed brothers some light is thrown by the following legend +communicated to me as the belief of the people of Johor. "It is related +that Iskander dived into the sea, and there married a daughter of the +king of the ocean, by whom he had three sons, who, when they arrived at +manhood, were sent by their mother to the residence of their father. He +gave them a makuta or crown, and ordered them to find kingdoms where they +should establish themselves. Arriving in the straits of Singapura they +determined to try whose head the crown fitted. The eldest trying first +could not lift it to his head. The second the same. The third had nearly +effected it when it fell from his hand into the sea. After this the +eldest turned to the west and became king of Rome, the second to the east +and became king of China. The third remained at Johor. At this time Pulo +Percha (Sumatra) had not risen from the waters. When it began to appear, +this king of Johor, being on a fishing party, and observing it oppressed +by a huge snake named Si Kati-muno, attacked the monster with his sword +called Simandang-giri, and killed it, but not till the sword had received +one hundred and ninety notches in the encounter. The island being thus +allowed to rise, he went and settled by the burning mountain, and his +descendants became kings of Menangkabau." This has much the air of a tale +invented by the people of the peninsula to exalt the idea of their own +antiquity at the expense of their Sumatran neighbours. The blue +champaka-flower of which the sultan boasts possession I conceive to be an +imaginary and not an existent plant. The late respected Sir W. Jones, in +his Botanical Observations printed in the Asiatic Researches Volume 4 +suspects that by it must be meant the Kaempferia bhuchampac, a plant +entirely different from the michelia; but as this supposition is built on +a mere resemblance of sounds it is necessary to state that the Malayan +term is champaka biru, and that nothing can be inferred from the +accidental coincidence of the Sanskrit word bhu, signifying ground, with +the English term for the blue colour. + +(*Footnote. See a beautiful engraving of one of these coins preserved in +the Bodleian collection, Oxford, prefixed to Dr. Vincent's Translation of +the Voyage of Nearchus printed in 1809.) + +CEREMONIES. + +With the ceremonies of the court we are very imperfectly acquainted. The +royal salute is one gun; which may be considered as a refinement in +ceremony; for as no additional number could be supposed to convey an +adequate idea of respect, but must on the contrary establish a definite +proportion between his dignity and that of his nobles, or of other +princes, the sultan chooses to leave the measure of his importance +indefinite by this policy and save his gunpowder. It must be observed +that the Malays are in general extremely fond of the parade of firing +guns, which they never neglect on high days, and on the appearance of the +new moon, particularly that which marks the commencement and the +conclusion of their puasa or annual fast. Yellow being esteemed, as in +China, the royal colour, is said to be constantly and exclusively worn by +the sultan and his household. His usual present on sending an embassy +(for no Sumatran or other oriental has an idea of making a formal address +on any occasion without a present in hand, be it never so trifling), is a +pair of white horses; being emblematic of the purity of his character and +intentions. + +CONVERSION TO MAHOMETAN RELIGION. + +The immediate subjects of this empire, properly denominated Malays, are +all of the Mahometan religion, and in that respect distinguished from the +generality of inland inhabitants. How it has happened that the most +central people of the island should have become the most perfectly +converted is difficult to account for unless we suppose that its +political importance and the richness of its gold trade might have drawn +thither its pious instructors, from temporal as well as spiritual +motives. Be this as it may, the country of Menangkabau is regarded as the +supreme seat of civil and religious authority in this part of the East, +and next to a voyage to Mecca to have visited its metropolis stamps a man +learned, and confers the character of superior sanctity. Accordingly the +most eminent of those who bear the titles of imam, mulana, khatib, and +pandita either proceed from thence or repair thither for their degree, +and bring away with them a certificate or diploma from the sultan or his +minister. + +In attempting to ascertain the period of this conversion much accuracy is +not to be expected; the natives are either ignorant on the subject or +have not communicated their knowledge, and we can only approximate the +truth by comparing the authorities of different old writers. Marco Polo, +the Venetian traveller who visited Sumatra under the name of Java minor +(see above) says that the inhabitants of the seashore were addicted to +the Mahometan law, which they had learned from Saracon merchants. This +must have been about the year 1290, when, in his voyage from China, he +was detained for several months at a port in the Straits, waiting the +change of the monsoon; and though I am scrupulous of insisting upon his +authority (questioned as it is), yet in a fact of this nature he could +scarcely be mistaken, and the assertion corresponds with the annals of +the princes of Malacca, which state, as we have seen above, that sultan +Muhammed Shah, who reigned from 1276 to 1333, was the first royal +convert. Juan De Barros, a Portuguese historian of great industry, says +that, according to the tradition of the inhabitants, the city of Malacca +was founded about the year 1260, and that about 1400 the Mahometan faith +had spread considerably there and extended itself to the neighbouring +islands. Diogo do Couto, another celebrated historian, who prosecuted his +inquiries in India, mentions the arrival at Malacca of an Arabian priest +who converted its monarch to the faith of the khalifs, and gave him the +name of Shah Muhammed in the year 1384. This date however is evidently +incorrect, as that king's reign was earlier by fifty years. Corneille le +Brun was informed by the king of Bantam in 1706 that the people of Java +were made converts to that sect about three hundred years before. +Valentyn states that Sheik Mulana, by whom this conversion was effected +in 1406, had already disseminated his doctrine at Ache, Pase (places in +Sumatra), and Johor. From these several sources of information, which are +sufficiently distinct from each other, we may draw this conclusion, that +the religion, which sprang up in Arabia in the seventh century, had not +made any considerable progress in the interior of Sumatra earlier than +the fourteenth, and that the period of its introduction, considering the +vicinity to Malacca, could not be much later. I have been told indeed, +but cannot vouch for its authenticity, that in 1782 these people counted +670 years from the first preaching of their religion, which would carry +the period back to 1112. It may be added that in the island of Ternate +the first Mahometan prince reigned from 1466 to 1486; that Francis +Xavier, a celebrated Jesuit missionary, when he was at Amboina in 1546 +observed the people then beginning to learn to write from the Arabians; +that the Malays were allowed to build a mosque at Goak in Makasar +subsequently to the arrival of the Portuguese in 1512; and that in 1603 +the whole kingdom had become Mahometan. These islands, lying far to the +eastward, and being of less considerable account in that age than +subsequent transactions have rendered them, the zeal of religious +adventurers did not happen to be directed thither so soon as to the +countries bordering on the sea of India. + +By some it has been asserted that the first sultan of Menangkabau was a +Xerif from Mecca, or descendant of the khalifs, named Paduka Sri Sultan +Ibrahim, who, settling in Sumatra, was received with honour by the +princes of the country, Perapati-si-batang and his brother, and acquired +sovereign authority. They add that the sultans who now reside at +Pagar-ruyong and at Suruwasa are lineally descended from that Xerif, +whilst he who resides at Sungei Trap, styled Datu Bandhara putih, derives +his origin from Perapati. But to this supposition there are strong +objections. The idea so generally entertained by the natives, and +strengthened by the glimmering lights that the old writers afford us, +bespeaks an antiquity to this empire that stretches far beyond the +probable era of the establishment of the Mahometan religion in the +island. Radin Tamanggung, son of a king of Madura, a very intelligent +person, and who as a prince himself was conversant with these topics, +positively asserted to me that it was an original Sumatran empire, +antecedent to the introduction of the Arabian faith; instructed, but by +no means conquered, as some had imagined, by people from the peninsula. +So memorable an event as the elevation of a Xerif to the throne would +have been long preserved by annals or tradition, and the sultan in the +list of his titles would not fail to boast of this sacred extraction from +the prophet, to which however he does not at all allude; and to this we +may add that the superstitious veneration attached to the family extends +itself not only where Mahometanism has made a progress, but also among +the Battas and other people still unconverted to that faith, with whom it +would not be the case if the claim to such respect was grounded on the +introduction of a foreign religion which they have refused to accept. + +Perhaps it is less surprising that this one kingdom should have been +completely converted than that so many districts of the island should +remain to this day without any religion whatever. It is observable that a +person of this latter description, coming to reside among the Malays, +soon assimilates to them in manners, and conforms to their religious +practices. The love of novelty, the vanity of learning, the fascination +of ceremony, the contagion of example, veneration for what appears above +his immediate comprehension, and the innate activity of man's +intellectual faculties, which, spurred by curiosity, prompts him to the +acquisition of knowledge, whether true or false--all conspire to make him +embrace a system of belief and scheme of instruction in which there is +nothing that militates against prejudices already imbibed. He +relinquishes no favourite ancient worship to adopt a new, and is +manifestly a gainer by the exchange, when he barters, for a paradise and +eternal pleasures, so small a consideration as the flesh of his foreskin. + +TOLERANT PRINCIPLES. + +The Malays, as far as my observation went, did not appear to possess much +of the bigotry so commonly found amongst the western Mahometans, or to +show antipathy to or contempt for unbelievers. To this indifference is to +be attributed my not having positively ascertained whether they are +followers of the sunni or the shiah sect, although from their tolerant +principles and frequent passages in their writings in praise of Ali I +conclude them to be the latter. Even in regard to the practice of +ceremonies they do not imitate the punctuality of the Arabs and others of +the mussulman faith. Excepting such as were in the orders of the +priesthood I rarely noticed persons in the act of making their +prostrations. Men of rank I am told have their religious periods, during +which they scrupulously attend to their duties and refrain from +gratifications of the appetite, together with gambling and cockfighting; +but these are not long nor very frequent. Even their great Fast or puasa +(the ramadan of the Turks) is only partially observed. All those who have +a regard for character fast more or less according to the degree of their +zeal or strength of their constitutions; some for a week, others for a +fortnight; but to abstain from food and betel whilst the sun is above the +horizon during the whole of a lunar month is a very rare instance of +devotion. + +LITERATURE. + +Malayan literature consists chiefly of transcripts and versions of the +koran, commentaries on the mussulman law, and historic tales both in +prose and verse, resembling in some respect our old romances. Many of +these are original compositions, and others are translations of the +popular tales current in Arabia, Persia, India, and the neighbouring +island of Java, where the Hindu languages and mythology appear to have +made at a remote period considerable progress. Among several works of +this description I possess their translation (but much compressed) of the +Ramayan, a celebrated Sanskrit poem, and also of some of the Arabian +stories lately published in France as a Continuation of the Thousand and +one Nights, first made known to the European world by M. Galland. If +doubts have been entertained of the authenticity of these additions to +his immortal collection the circumstance of their being (however +partially) discovered in the Malayan language will serve to remove them. +Beside these they have a variety of poetic works, abounding rather with +moral reflections and complaints of the frowns of fortune or of +ill-requited love than with flights of fancy. The pantun or short +proverbial stanza has been already described. They are composed in all +parts of the island, and often extempore; but such as proceed from +Menangkabau, the most favoured seat of the Muses, are held in the first +esteem. Their writing is entirely in the modified Arabic character, and +upon paper previously ruled by means of threads drawn tight and arranged +in a peculiar manner. + +ARTS. + +The arts in general are carried among these people to a greater degree of +perfection than by the other natives of Sumatra. The Malays are the sole +fabricators of the exquisite gold and silver filigree, the manufacture of +which has been particularly described. + +FIREARMS. + +In the country of Menangkabau they have from the earliest times +manufactured arms for their own use and to supply the northern +inhabitants of the island, who are the most warlike, and which trade they +continue to this day, smelting, forging, and preparing, by a process of +their own, the iron and steel for this purpose, although much is at the +same time purchased from Europeans.* + +(*Footnote. The principal iron mines are at a place called Padang Luar, +where the ore is sold at the rate of half a fanam or forty-eighth part of +a dollar for a man's load, and carried to another place in the +Menangkabau country called Selimpuwong, where it is smelted and +manufactured.) + +CANNON. + +The use of cannon in this and other parts of India is mentioned by the +oldest Portuguese historians, and it must consequently have been known +there before the discovery of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope. Their +guns are those pieces called matchlocks, the improvement of springs and +flints not being yet adopted by them; the barrels are well tempered and +of the justest bore, as is evident from the excellence of their aim, +which they always take by lowering, instead of raising the muzzle of the +piece to the object. They are wrought by rolling a flatted bar of iron of +proportionate dimensions spirally round a circular rod, and beating it +till the parts of the former unite; which method seems preferable in +point of strength to that of folding and soldering the bar +longitudinally. The art of boring may well be supposed unknown to these +people. Firelocks are called by them snapang, from the Dutch name. +Gunpowder they make in great quantities, but either from the injudicious +proportion of the ingredients in the composition, or the imperfect +granulation, it is very defective in strength. + +SIDE-ARMS. + +The tombak, lambing, and kujur or kunjur are names for weapons of the +lance or spear kind; the pedang, rudus, pamandap, and kalewang are of the +sword kind, and slung at the side, the siwar is a small instrument of the +nature of a stiletto, chiefly used for assassination; and the kris is a +species of dagger of a particular construction, very generally worn, +being stuck in front through the folds of a belt that goes several times +round the body. + + +(PLATE 17. SUMATRAN WEAPONS. +A. A Malay Gadoobang. +B. A Batta Weapon. +C. A Malay Creese. +One-third of the size of the Originals. +W. Williams del. and sculpt. +Published by W. Marsden, 1810.) + + +(PLATE 17a. SUMATRAN WEAPONS. +D. A Malay Creese. +E. An Achenese Creese. +F. A Malay Sewar. +One-third of the size of the Originals. +W. Williams del. and sculpt.) + + +KRIS-BLADE. + +The blade is about fourteen inches in length, not straight nor uniformly +curved, but waving in and out, as we see depicted the flaming swords that +guarded the gates of paradise; which probably may render a wound given +with it the more fatal. It is not smooth or polished like those of our +weapons, but by a peculiar process made to resemble a composition, in +which veins of a different metal are apparent. This damasking (as I was +informed by the late Mr. Boulton) is produced by beating together steel +and iron wire whilst in a state of half fusion, and eating them with +acids, by which the softest part is the most corroded; the edges being of +pure steel. Their temper is uncommonly hard. The head or haft is either +of ivory, the tooth of the duyong (sea-cow), that of the hippopotamus, +the snout of the ikan layer (voilier), of black coral, or of fine-grained +wood. This is ornamented with gold or a mixture of that and copper, which +they call swasa, highly polished and carved into curious figures, some of +which have the beak of a bird with the arms of a human creature, and bear +a resemblance to the Egyptian Isis. The sheath also is formed of some +beautiful species of wood, hollowed out, with a neat lacing of split +rattan, stained red round the lower parts; or sometimes it is plated with +gold. The value of a kris is supposed to be enhanced in proportion to the +number of persons it has slain. One that has been the instrument of much +bloodshed is regarded with a degree of veneration as something sacred. +The horror or enthusiasm inspired by the contemplation of such actions is +transferred to the weapon, which accordingly acquires sanctity from the +principle that leads ignorant men to reverence whatever possesses the +power of effecting mischief. Other circumstances also contribute to give +them celebrity, and they are distinguished by pompous names. Some have a +cushion by their bedside on which is placed their favourite weapon. I +have a manuscript treatise on krises, accompanied with drawings, +describing their imaginary properties and value, estimated at the price +of one or more slaves. The abominable custom of poisoning them, though +much talked of, is rarely practised I believe in modern times. They are +frequently seen rubbing the blades with lime-juice, which has been +considered as a precaution against danger of this kind, but it is rather +for the purpose of removing common stains or of improving the damasked +appearance. + +MODES OF WARFARE. + +Although much parade attends their preparations for war and their +marches, displaying colours of scarlet cloth, and beating drums, gongs, +and chennangs, yet their operations are carried on rather in the way of +ambuscade and surprise of straggling parties than open combat, firing +irregularly from behind entrenchments, which the enemy takes care not to +approach too near. + +HORSES. + +They are said to go frequently to war on horseback, but I shall not +venture to give their force the name of cavalry. The chiefs may probably +avail themselves of the service of this useful animal from motives of +personal indulgence or state, but on account of the ranjaus or +sharp-pointed stakes so commonly planted in the passes (see the preceding +journal of Lieutenant Dare's march, where they are particularly +described), it is scarcely possible that horse could be employed as an +effective part of an army. It is also to be observed that neither the +natives nor even Europeans ever shoe them, the nature of the roads in +general not rendering it necessary. The breed of them is small but well +made, hardy, and vigorous. The soldiers serve without pay, but the +plunder they obtain is thrown into a common stock, and divided amongst +them. Whatever might formerly have been the degree of their prowess they +are not now much celebrated for it; yet the Dutch at Padang have often +found them troublesome enemies from their numbers, and been obliged to +secure themselves within their walls. Between the Menangkabau people, +those of Rau or Aru, and the Achinese, settled at Natal, wars used to be +incessant until they were checked by the influence of our authority at +that place. The factory itself was raised upon one of the breast-works +thrown up by them for defence, of which several are to be met with in +walking a few miles into the country, and some of them very substantial. +Their campaigns in this petty warfare were carried on very deliberately. +They made a regular practice of commencing a truce at sunset, when they +remained in mutual security, and sometimes agreed that hostilities should +take place only between certain hours of the day. The English resident, +Mr. Carter, was frequently chosen their umpire, and upon these occasions +used to fix in the ground his golden-headed cane, on the spot where the +deputies should meet and concert terms of accommodation; until at length +the parties, grown weary of their fruitless contests, resolved to place +themselves respectively under the dependence and protection of the +company. The fortified villages, in some parts of the country named +dusun, and in others kampong, are here, as on the continent of India, +denominated kota or forts, and the districts are distinguished from each +other by the number of confederated villages they contain. + +GOVERNMENT. + +The government, like that of all Malayan states, is founded on principles +entirely feudal. The prince is styled raja, maha-raja, iang de pertuan, +or sultan; the nobles have the appellation of orang kaya or datu, which +properly belongs to the chiefs of tribes, and implies their being at the +head of a numerous train of immediate dependants or vassals, whose +service they command. The heir-apparent has the title of raja muda. + +OFFICERS OF STATE. + +From amongst the orang kayas the sultan appoints the officers of state, +who as members of his council are called mantri, and differ in number and +authority according to the situation and importance of the kingdom. Of +these the first in rank, or prime minister, has the appellation of +perdana mantri, mangko bumi, and not seldom, however anomalously, +maharaja. Next to him generally is the bandhara, treasurer or high +steward; then the laksamana and tamanggung, commanders-in-chief by sea +and land, and lastly the shahbandara, whose office it is to superintend +the business of the customs (in sea-port towns) and to manage the trade +for the king. The governors of provinces are named panglima, the heads of +departments pangulu. The ulubalang are military officers forming the +bodyguard of the sovereign, and prepared on all occasions to execute his +orders. From their fighting singly, when required, in the cause of the +prince or noble who maintains them, the name is commonly translated +champion; but when employed by a weak but arbitrary and cruel prince to +remove by stealth obnoxious persons whom he dares not to attack openly +they may be compared more properly to the Ismaelians or Assassins, so +celebrated in the history of the Crusades, as the devoted subjects of the +Sheikh al-jabal, or Old Man of the Mountain, as this chief of Persian +Irak is vulgarly termed. I have not reason however to believe that such +assassinations are by any means frequent. The immediate vassals of the +king are called amba raja; and for the subjects in general the word rayet +has been adopted. Beside those above named there is a great variety of +officers of government of an inferior class; and even among the superior +there is not at every period, nor in every Malayan state, a consistent +uniformity of rank and title. + +GOVERNMENT BY FOUR DATUS. + +The smaller Malayan establishments are governed by their datus or heads +of tribes, of whom there are generally four; as at Bencoolen (properly +Bengkaulu) near to which the English settlement of Fort Marlborough is +situated, and where Fort York formerly stood. These are under the +protection or dominion of two native chiefs or princes, the pangerans of +Sungei-lamo and Sungei-etam, the origin of whose authority has been +already explained. Each of these has possessions on different parts of +the river, the principal sway being in the hands of him of the two who +has most personal ability. They are constant rivals, though living upon +familiar terms, and are only restrained from open war by the authority of +the English. Limun likewise, and the neighbouring places of Batang-asei +and Pakalang-jambu, near the sources of Jambi River, where gold is +collected and carried chiefly to Bencoolen and the settlement of Laye, +where I had opportunities of seeing the traders, are each governed by +four datus, who, though not immediately nominated by the sultan, are +confirmed by, and pay tribute to, him. The first of these, whose +situation is most southerly, receive also an investiture (baju, garment, +and destar, turband) from the sultan of Palembang, being a politic +measure adopted by these merchants for the convenience attending it in +their occasional trading concerns with that place. + +HOT SPRINGS. + +At Priangan, near Gunong-berapi, are several hot mineral springs, called +in the Malayan map already mentioned, panchuran tujuh or the seven +conduits, where the natives from time immemorial have been in the +practice of bathing; some being appropriated to the men, and others to +the women; with two of cold water, styled the king's. It will be +recollected that in ancient times this place was the seat of government. + +ANCIENT SCULPTURE. + +Near to these springs is a large stone or rock of very hard substance, +one part of which is smoothed to a perpendicular face of about ten or +twelve feet long and four high, on which are engraved characters supposed +to be European, the space being entirely filled with them and certain +chaps or marks at the corners. The natives presume them to be Dutch, but +say that the latter do not resemble the present mark of the Company. +There is some appearance of the date 1100. The informant (named Raja +Intan), who had repeatedly seen and examined it, added that M. Palm, +governor of Padang, once sent Malays with paper and paint to endeavour to +take off the inscription, but they did not succeed; and the Dutch, whose +arms never penetrated to that part of the country, are ignorant of its +meaning. It is noticed in the Malayan map. Should it prove to be a Hindu +monument it will be thought curious. + + +CHAPTER 19. + +KINGDOMS OF INDRAPURA, ANAK-SUNGEI, PASSAMMAN, SIAK. + + +INDRAPURA. + +Among the earliest dismemberments of the Menangkabau empire was the +establishment of Indrapura as an independent kingdom. Though now in its +turn reduced to a state of little importance, it was formerly powerful in +comparison with its neighbours, and of considerable magnitude, including +Anak-Sungei and extending as far as Kattaun. Some idea of its antiquity +may be formed from a historical account given by the Sultan of Bantam to +the intelligent traveller Corneille le Brun, in which it is related that +the son of the Arabian prince who first converted the Javans to the +religion of the Prophet, about the year 1400, having obtained for himself +the sovereignty of Bantam, under the title of pangeran, married the +daughter of the raja of Indrapura, and received as her portion the +country of the Sillabares, a people of Banca-houlou. + +CLAIMS OF THE SULTAN OF BANTAM. + +Upon this cession appears to be grounded the modern claim of the sultan +to this part of the coast, which, previously to the treaty of Paris in +1763, was often urged by his sovereigns, the Dutch East India Company. +His dominion is said indeed to have extended from the southward as far as +Urei river, and at an early period to Betta or Ayer Etam, between Ipu and +Moco-moco, but that the intermediate space was ceded by him to the raja +of Indrapura, in satisfaction for the murder of a prince, and that a +small annual tax was laid by the latter on the Anaksungei people on +account of the same murder (being the fourth part of a dollar, a bamboo +of rice, and a fowl, from each village), which is now paid to the sultan +of Moco-moco. In the year 1682 the district of Ayer Aji threw off its +dependence on Indrapura. In 1696 Raja Pasisir Barat, under the influence +of the Dutch, was placed on the throne, at the age of six years, and his +grandfather appointed guardian; but in 1701, in consequence of a quarrel +with his protectors, the European settlers were massacred. + +WAR WITH THE DUTCH. + +This was the occasion of a destructive war, in the event of which the +raja and his mantris were obliged to fly, and the country was nearly +depopulated. In 1705 he was reinstated, and reigned till about 1732. + +DECLINE OF THE KINGDOM. + +But the kingdom never recovered the shock it had received, and dwindled +into obscurity. Its river, which descends from the mountains of Korinchi, +is considered as one of the largest in the southern part of the west +coast, and is capable of admitting sloops. The country formerly produced +a large quantity of pepper, and some gold was brought down from the +interior, which now finds another channel. An English factory was +established there about the year 1684, but never became of any +importance. + +KINGDOM OF ANAK-SUNGEI. + +From the ruins of Indrapura has sprung the kingdom of Anak-sungei, +extending along the sea-coast from Manjuta River to that of Urei. Its +chief bears the title of sultan, and his capital, if such places deserve +the appellation, is Moco-moco. A description of it will be found above. +Although the government is Malayan, and the ministers of the sultan are +termed mantri (a title borrowed from the Hindus) the greatest part of the +country dependent on it is inhabited by the original dusun people, and +accordingly their proper chiefs are styled proattin, who are obliged to +attend their prince at stated periods, and to carry to him their +contribution or tax. His power over them however is very limited. + +The first monarch of this new kingdom was named sultan Gulemat, who in +1695 established himself at Manjuta, by the assistance of the English, in +consequence of a revolution at Indrapura, by which the prince who had +afforded them protection on their first settling was driven out through +the intrigues, as they are termed, of the Dutch. It was a struggle, in +short, between the rival Companies, whose assistance was courted by the +different factions as it happened to suit their purpose, or who, becoming +strong enough to consider themselves as principals, made the native +chiefs the tools of their commercial ambition. In the year 1717 Gulemat +was removed from the throne by an assembly of the chiefs styling +themselves the mantris of Lima-kota and proattins of Anak-sungei, who set +up a person named Raja Kechil-besar in his room, appointing at the same +time, as his minister and successor, Raja Gandam Shah, by whom, upon his +accession in 1728, the seat of government was removed from Manjuta to +Moco-moco. He was father of sultan Pasisir Barat shah mualim shah, still +reigning in the year 1780, but harassed by the frequent rebellions of his +eldest son. The space of time occupied by the reigns of these two +sovereigns is extraordinary when we consider that the former must have +been at man's estate when he became minister or assessor in 1717. Nor is +it less remarkable that the son of the deposed sultan Gulemat, called +sultan Ala ed-din, was also living, at Tappanuli, about the year 1780, +being then supposed ninety years of age. He was confined as a state +prisoner at Madras during the government of Mr. Morse, and is mentioned +by Captain Forrest (Voyage to the Mergui Archipelago, page 57) as uncle +to the king of Achin, who reigned in 1784. The first English settlement +at Moco-moco was formed in 1717. + +PASSAMMAN. + +Passamman was the most northern of the provinces immediately dependant on +Menangkabau, and afterwards, together with Priaman and many other places +on the coast, fell under the dominion of the kings of Achin. It is now +divided into two petty kingdoms, each of which is governed by a raja and +fourteen pangulus. Formerly it was a place of considerable trade, and, +beside a great export of pepper, received much fine gold from the +mountains of the Rau country, lying about three days' journey inland. The +inhabitants of these are said to be Battas converted to Mahometanism and +mixed with Malays. They are governed by datus. The peculiarity of dress +remarked of the Korinchi people is also observable here, the men wearing +drawers that reach just below the calf, having one leg of red and the +other of white or blue cloth, and the baju or garment also +party-coloured. The greater part of the gold they collect finds its way +to Patapahan on the river of Siak, and from thence to the eastern side of +the island and straits of Malacca. The Agam tribe adjoining to the Rau, +and connecting to the southward with Menangkabau, differs little from +Malays, and is likewise governed by datus. + +SIAK. + +The great river of Siak has its source in the mountains of the +Menangkabau country, and empties itself nearly opposite to Malacca, with +which place it formerly carried on a considerable trade. From the Dutch +charts we had a general knowledge of its course as far as a place called +Mandau or Mandol, as they write the name, and where they had a small +establishment on account of its abounding with valuable shiptimber. + +SURVEY. + +A recent survey executed by Mr. Francis Lynch, under the orders of the +government of Pulo Pinang, has made us more particularly acquainted with +its size, its advantages, and defects. From the place where it discharges +itself into the straits of Kampar or Bencalis, to the town of Siak is, +according to the scale of his chart, about sixty-five geographical miles, +and from thence to a place called Pakan bharu or Newmarket, where the +survey discontinues, is about one hundred more. The width of the river is +in general from about three-quarters to half a mile, and its depth from +fifteen to seven fathoms; but on the bar at low-water spring-tides there +are only fifteen feet, and several shoals near its mouth. The tides rise +about eleven feet at the town, where at full and change it is high-water +at nine A.M. Not far within the river is a small island on which the +Dutch had formerly a factory. The shores are flat on both sides to a +considerable distance up the country, and the whole of the soil is +probably alluvial; but about a hundred and twenty-five or thirty miles up +Mr. Lynch marks the appearance of high land, giving it the name of +Princess Augusta Sophia hill, and points it out as a commanding situation +for a settlement. + +SHIP-TIMBER. + +He speaks in favourable terms of the facility with which ship-timber of +any dimensions or shape may be procured and loaded. Respecting the size +or population of the town no information is given. + +GOVERNMENT. + +The government of it was (in October 1808) in the hands of the Tuanku +Pangeran, brother to the Raja, who in consequence of some civil +disturbance had withdrawn to the entrance of the river. His name is not +mentioned, but from the Transactions of the Batavian Society we learn +that the prince who reigned about the year 1780 was Raja Ismael, "one of +the greatest pirates in those seas." The maritime power of the kingdom of +Siak has always been considerable, and in the history of the Malayan +states we repeatedly read of expeditions fitted out from thence making +attacks upon Johor, Malacca, and various other places on the two coasts +of the peninsula. Most of the neighbouring states (or rivers) on the +eastern coast of Sumatra, from Langat to Jambi, are said to have been +brought in modern times under its subjection. + +TRADE. + +The trade is chiefly carried on by Kling vessels, as they are called, +from the coast of Coromandel, which supply cargoes of piece-goods, and +also raw silk, opium, and other articles, which they provide at Pinang or +Malacca; in return for which they receive gold, wax, sago, salted fish, +and fish-roes, elephants' teeth, gambir, camphor, rattans, and other +canes. According to the information of the natives the river is navigable +for sloops to a place called Panti Chermin, being eight days' sail with +the assistance of the tide, and within half a day's journey by land of +another named Patapahan, which boats also, of ten to twenty tons, reach +in two days. This is a great mart of trade with the Menangkabau country, +whither its merchants resort with their gold. Pakan-bharu, the limit of +Mr. Lynch's voyage, is much lower down, and the abovementioned places +are consequently not noticed by him. The Dutch Company procured annually +from Siak, for the use of Batavia, several rafts of spars for masts, and +if the plan of building ships at Pinang should be encouraged large +supplies of frame-timber for the purpose may be obtained from this river, +provided a sense of interest shall be found sufficiently strong to +correct or restrain the habits of treachery and desperate enterprise for +which these people have in all ages been notorious. + +RAKAN. + +The river Rakan, to the northward of Siak, by much the largest in the +island, if it should not rather be considered as an inlet of the sea, +takes its rise in the Rau country, and is navigable for sloops to a great +distance from the sea; but vessels are deterred from entering it by the +rapidity of the current, or more probably the reflux of the tide, and +that peculiar swell known in the Ganges and elsewhere by the appellation +of the bore. + +KAMPAR. + +That of Kampar, to the southward, is said by the natives to labour under +the same inconvenience, and Mr. Lynch was informed that the tides there +rise from eighteen to twenty-four feet. If these circumstances render the +navigation dangerous it appears difficult to account for its having been +a place of considerable note at the period of the Portuguese conquest of +Malacca, and repeatedly the scene of naval actions with the fleets of +Achin, whilst Siak, which possesses many natural advantages, is rarely +mentioned. In modern times it has been scarcely at all known to +Europeans, and even its situation is doubtful. + +INDRAGIRI. + +The river of Indragiri is said by the natives to have its source in a +lake of the Menangkabau country, from whence it issues by the name of +Ayer Ambelan. Sloops tide it up for five or six weeks (as they assert), +anchoring as the ebb begins to make. From a place called Lubok ramo-ramo +they use boats of from five to twenty tons, and the smaller sort can +proceed until they are stopped by a fall or cascade at Seluka, on the +borders of Menangkabau. This extraordinary distance to which the +influence of the tides extends is a proof of the absolute flatness of the +country through which these rivers take the greater part of their course. + +JAMBI. + +Jambi River has its principal source in the Limun country. Although of +considerable size it is inferior to Siak and Indragiri. At an early stage +of European commerce in these parts it was of some importance, and both +the English and Dutch had factories there; the former on a small island +near the mouth, and the latter at some distance up the river. The town of +Jambi is situated at the distance of about sixty miles from the sea, and +we find in the work of the historian, Faria y Sousa, that in the year +1629 a Portuguese squadron was employed twenty-two days in ascending the +river, in order to destroy some Dutch ships which had taken shelter near +the town. Lionel Wafer, who was there in 1678 (at which time the river +was blockaded by a fleet of praws from Johor), makes the distance a +hundred miles. The trade consists chiefly in gold-dust, pepper, and +canes, but the most of what is collected of the first article proceeds +across the country to the western coast, and the quality of the second is +not held in esteem. The port is therefore but little frequented by any +other than native merchants. Sometimes, but rarely, a private trading +ship from Bengal endeavours to dispose of a few chests of opium in this +or one of the other rivers; but the masters scarcely ever venture on +shore, and deal with such of the Malays as come off to them at the sword +point, so strong is the idea of their treacherous character. + +PALEMBANG. + +The kingdom of Palembang is one of considerable importance, and its river +ranks amongst the largest in the island. It takes its rise in the +district of Musi, immediately at the back of the range of hills visible +from Bencoolen, and on that account has the name of Ayer Musi in the +early part of its course, but in the lower is more properly named the +Tatong. + +SIZE OF RIVER. + +Opposite to the city of Palembang and the Dutch Company's factory it is +upwards of a mile in breadth, and is conveniently navigated by vessels +whose draft of water does not exceed fourteen feet. Those of a larger +description have been carried thither for military purposes (as in 1660, +when the place was attacked and destroyed by the Hollanders) but the +operation is attended with difficulty on account of numerous shoals. + +FOREIGN TRADE. + +The port is much frequented by trading vessels, chiefly from Java, +Madura, Balli, and Celebes, which bring rice, salt, and cloths, the +manufacture of those islands. With opium, the piece-goods of the west of +India, and European commodities it is supplied by the Dutch from Batavia, +or by those who are termed interlopers. These in return receive pepper +and tin, which, by an old agreement made with the sultan, and formally +renewed in 1777, are to be exclusively delivered to the Company at +stipulated prices, and no other Europeans are to be allowed to trade or +navigate within his jurisdiction. + +DUTCH FACTORY. + +In order to enforce these conditions the Dutch are permitted to maintain +a fort on the river with a garrison of fifty or sixty men (which cannot +be exceeded without giving umbrage), and to keep its own cruisers to +prevent smuggling. The quantity of pepper thus furnished was from one to +two millions of pounds per annum. Of tin the quantity was about two +millions of pounds, one third of which was shipped (at Batavia) for +Holland, and the remainder sent to China. It has already been stated that +this tin is the produce of the island of Bangka, situated near the mouth +of the river, which may be considered as an entire hill of tin-sand. The +works, of which a particular account is given in Volume 3 of the Batavian +Transactions, are entirely in the hands of Chinese settlers. In the year +1778 the Company likewise received thirty-seven thousand bundles of +rattans. + +LOW COUNTRY. + +The lower parts of the country of Palembang towards the sea-coast are +described as being flat marshy land, and with the exception of some few +tracts entirely unfit for the purposes of cultivation. It is generally +understood to have been all covered by the sea in former ages, not only +from its being observed that the strand yearly gains an accession, but +also that, upon digging the earth at some distance inland, sea-shells, +and even pieces of boat-timber, are discovered. + +INTERIOR COUNTRY. ITS TRADE. + +The interior or upland districts on the contrary are very productive, and +there the pepper is cultivated, which the king's agent (for trade in +these parts is usually monopolized by the sovereign power) purchases at a +cheap rate. In return he supplies the country people with opium, salt, +and piece-goods, forming the cargoes of large boats (some of them +sixty-six feet in length and seven in breadth, from a single tree) which +are towed against the stream. The goods intended for Passummah are +conveyed to a place called Muara Mulang, which is performed in fourteen +days, and from thence by land to the borders of that country is only one +day's journey. This being situated beyond the district where the pepper +flourishes their returns are chiefly made in pulas twine, raw silk in its +roughest state, and elephants' teeth. From Musi they send likewise +sulphur, alum, arsenic, and tobacco. Dragons-blood and gambir are also +the produce of the country. + +ITS GOVERNMENT. + +These interior parts are divided into provinces, each of which is +assigned as a fief or government to one of the royal family or of the +nobles, who commit the management to deputies and give themselves little +concern about the treatment of their subjects. The pangerans, who are the +descendants of the ancient princes of the country, experience much +oppression, and when compelled to make their appearance at court are +denied every mark of ceremonious distinction. + +SETTLERS FROM JAVA. + +The present rulers of the kingdom of Palembang and a great portion of the +inhabitants of the city originally came from the island of Java, in +consequence, as some suppose, of an early conquest by the sovereigns of +Majapahit; or, according to others, by those of Bantam, in more modern +times; and in proof of its subjection, either real or nominal, to the +latter, we find in the account of the first Dutch voyages, that "in 1596 +a king of Bantam fell before Palembang, a rebel town of Sumatra, which he +was besieging." + +ROYAL FAMILY. + +The Dutch claim the honour of having placed on the throne the family of +the reigning sultan (1780), named Ratu Akhmet Bahar ed-din, whose eldest +son bears the title of Pangeran Ratu, answering to the RaJa muda of the +Malays. The power of the monarch is unlimited by any legal restriction, +but not keeping a regular body of troops in pay his orders are often +disregarded by the nobles. Although without any established revenue from +taxes or contributions, the profit arising from the trade of pepper and +tin (especially the latter) is so great, and the consequent influx of +silver, without any apparent outlet, so considerable, that he must +necessarily be possessed of treasure to a large amount. The customs on +merchandize imported remain in the hands of the shabhandaras, who are +required to furnish the king's household with provisions and other +necessaries. The domestic attendants on the prince are for the most part +females. + +CURRENCY. + +The currency of the country and the only money allowed to be received at +the king's treasury is Spanish dollars; but there is also in general +circulation a species of small base coin, issued by royal authority, and +named pitis. These are cut out of plates composed of lead and tin, and, +having a square hole in the middle (like the Chinese cash), are strung in +parcels of five hundred each, sixteen of which (according to the Batavian +Transactions) are equivalent to the dollar. In weighing gold the tail is +considered as the tenth part of the katti (of a pound and a third), or +equal to the weight of two Spanish dollars and a quarter. + +CITY. + +The city is situated in a flat marshy tract, a few miles above the delta +of the river, about sixty miles from the sea, and yet so far from the +mountains of the interior that they are not visible. It extends about +eight miles along both banks, and is mostly confined to them and to the +creeks which open into the river. The buildings, with the exception of +the king's palace and mosque, being all of wood or bamboos standing on +posts and mostly covered with thatch of palm-leaves, the appearance of +the place has nothing to recommend it. There are also a great number of +floating habitations, mostly shops, upon bamboo-rafts moored to piles, +and when the owners of these are no longer pleased with their situation +they remove upwards or downwards, with the tide, to one more convenient. +Indeed, as the nature of the surrounding country, being overflowed in +high tides, scarcely admits of roads, almost all communication is carried +on by means of boats, which accordingly are seen moving by hundreds in +every direction, without intermission. The dalam or palace being +surrounded by a high wall, nothing is known to Europeans of the interior, +but it appears to be large, lofty, and much ornamented on the outside. +Immediately adjoining to this wall, on the lower side, is a strong, +square, roofed battery, commanding the river, and below it another; on +both of which many heavy cannon are mounted, and fired on particular +occasions. In the interval between the two batteries is seen the meidan +or plain, at the extremity of which appears the balerong or hall where +the sultan gives audience in public. This is an ordinary building, and +serving occasionally for a warehouse, but ornamented with weapons +arranged along the walls. The royal mosque stands behind the palace, and +from the style of architecture seems to have been constructed by a +European. It is an oblong building with glazed windows, pilasters, and a +cupola. The burial place of these sovereigns is at old Palembang, about a +league lower down the river, where the ground appears to be somewhat +raised from having long been the site of habitations. + +ENCOURAGEMENT TO FOREIGNERS. + +The policy of these princes, who were themselves strangers, having always +been to encourage foreign settlers, the city an lower parts of the river +are in a great measure peopled with natives of China, Cochinchina, +Camboja, Siam, Patani on the coast of the peninsula, Java, Celebes, and +other eastern places. In addition to these the Arabian priests are +described by the Dutch as constituting a very numerous and pernicious +tribe, who, although in the constant practice of imposing upon and +plundering the credulous inhabitants, are held by them in the utmost +reverence. + +RELIGION. + +The Mahometan religion prevails throughout all the dominions of the +sultan, with the exception of a district near the seacoast, called +Salang, where the natives, termed orang kubu, live in the woods like wild +animals. The literature of the country is said to be confined to the +study of the koran, but opinions of this kind I have found in other +instances to be too hastily formed, or by persons not competent to obtain +the necessary information. + +LANGUAGE. + +The language of the king and his court is the high dialect of the Javan, +mixed with some foreign idioms. In the general intercourse with strangers +the conversation is always in Malayan, with the pronunciation (already +noticed) of the final o for a. + +CHARACTER OF INHABITANTS. + +Amongst the people of Palembang themselves this language (the character +of which they employ) is mixed with the common Javan. The Dutch, on whom +we must rely for an account of the manners and disposition of these +people, and which will be found in Volume 3 page 122 of the Batavian +Transactions, describe those of the low country as devoid of every good +quality and imbued with every bad one; whilst those of the interior are +spoken of as a dull, simple people who show much forbearance under +oppression*; but it is acknowledged that of these last they have little +knowledge, owing to the extreme suspicion and jealousy of the government, +which takes alarm at any attempt to penetrate into the country. + +(*Footnote. A ridiculous story is told of a custom amongst the +inhabitants of a province named Blida, which I should not repeat but for +its whimsical coincidence with a jeu d'esprit of our celebrated Swift. +When a child is born there (say the Palembangers), and the father has any +doubts about the honesty of his wife, he puts it to the proof by tossing +the infant into the air and catching it on the point of a spear. If no +wound is thereby inflicted he is satisfied of its legitimacy, but if +otherwise he considers it as spurious.) + +INTERIOR VISITED BY ENGLISH. + +This inland district having been visited only by two servants of the +English East India Company who have left any record of their journeys, I +shall extract from their narratives such parts as serve to throw a light +upon its geography. The first of these was Mr. Charles Miller, who, on +the 19th of September 1770, proceeded from Fort Marlborough to Bentiring +on the Bencoolen river, thence to Pagar-raddin, Kadras, Gunong Raja, +Gunong Ayu, Kalindang, and Jambu, where he ascended the hills forming the +boundary of the Company's district, which he found covered with lofty +trees. The first dusun on the other side is named Kalubar, and situated +on the banks of the river Musi. From thence his route lay to places +called Kapiyong and Parahmu, from all of which the natives carry the +produce of their country to Palembang by water. The setting in of the +rains and difficulties raised by the guides prevented him from proceeding +to the country where the cassia is cut, and occasioned his return towards +the hills on the 10th of October, stopping at Tabat Bubut. The land in +the neighbourhood of the Musi he describes as being level, the soil black +and good, and the air temperate. It was his intention to have crossed the +hills to Ranne-lebar, on the 11th, but missing the road in the woods +reached next day Beyol Bagus, a dusun in the Company's district, and +thence proceeded to Gunong Raja, his way lying partly down a branch of +the Bencoolen river, called Ayer Bagus, whose bed is formed of large +pebble-stones, and partly through a level country, entirely covered with +lofty bamboos. From Gunong Raja he returned down Bencoolen River on a +bamboo raft to Bentiring, and reached Fort Marlborough on the 18th of +October. The other traveller, Mr. Charles Campbell, in a private letter +dated March 1802 (referring me, for more detailed information, to +journals which have not reached my hand), says, "We crossed the hills +nearly behind the Sugar-loaf, and entered the valley of Musi. Words +cannot do justice to the picturesque scenery of that romantic and +delightful country, locked in on all sides by lofty mountains, and +watered by the noble river here navigable for very large canoes, which, +after receiving the Lamatang and several other streams, forms the +Palembang. Directing our course behind the great hill of Sungei-lamo we +in three days discovered Labun, and crossed some considerable streams +discharging themselves into the river of Kattaun. Our object there being +completed we returned along the banks of the Musi nearly to the dusun of +Kalubat, at which place we struck into the woods, and, ascending the +mountain, reached towards evening a village high up on the Bencoolen +River. There is but a single range, and it is a fact that from the +navigable part of the Musi river to a place on that of Bencoolen where +rafts and sampans may be used is to the natives a walk of no more than +eight hours. Musi is populous, well cultivated, and the soil exceedingly +rich. The people are stout, healthy looking, and independent in their +carriage and manners, and were to us courteous and hospitable. They +acknowledge no superior authority, but are often insulted by predatory +parties from Palembang." These freebooters would perhaps call themselves +collectors of tribute. It is much to be regretted that little political +jealousies and animosities between the European powers whose influence +prevails on each side of the island prevent further discoveries of the +course of this considerable river. + + +CHAPTER 20. + +THE COUNTRY OF THE BATTAS. +TAPPANULI-BAY. +JOURNEY INTO THE INTERIOR. +CASSIA-TREES. +GOVERNMENTS. +ARMS. +WARFARE. +TRADE. +FAIRS. +FOOD. +MANNERS. +LANGUAGE. +WRITING. +RELIGION. +FUNERALS. +CRIMES. +EXTRAORDINARY CUSTOM. + +BATTAS. + +One of the most considerable distinctions of people in the island, and by +many regarded as having the strongest claims to originality, is the +nation of the Battas (properly Batak), whose remarkable dissimilitude to +the other inhabitants, in the genius of their customs and manners, and +especially in some extraordinary usages, renders it necessary that a +particular degree of attention should be paid to their description. + +SITUATION OF THE COUNTRY. + +This country is bounded on the north by that of Achin, from which it is +separated by the mountains of Papa and Deira, and on the south by the +independent district of Rau or Rawa; extending along the sea-coast on the +western side from the river of Singkel to that of Tabuyong, but inland, +to the back of Ayer Bangis, and generally across the island, which is +narrow in that part, to the eastern coast; but more or less encroached +upon by the Malayan and Achinese establishments in the most convenient +maritime situations, for the purposes of their commerce. It is very +populous, and chiefly in the central parts, where are extensive open or +naked plains, on the borders (as it is said) of a great lake; the soil +fertile, and cultivation so much more prevalent than in the southern +countries, which are mostly covered with woods, that there is scarcely a +tree to be seen excepting those planted by the natives about their +villages, which are not, as elsewhere, on the banks of rivers, but +wherever a strong situation presents itself. Water indeed is not so +abundant as to the southward, which may be attributed to the +comparatively level surface, the chain of high mountains which extends +northwards from the straits of Sunda through the interior of the island, +in a great measure terminating with gunong Passummah or Mount Ophir. +About the bay of Tappanuli however the land is high and wooded near the +coast. + +ITS DIVISIONS. + +The Batta territory is divided (according to the information obtained by +the English Residents) into the following principal districts; Ankola, +Padambola, Mandiling, Toba, Selindong, and Singkel, of which the first +has five, the third three, and the fourth five subordinate tribes. +According to the Dutch account published in the Transactions of the +Batavian Society, which is very circumstantial, it is divided into three +small kingdoms. One of these named Simamora is situated far inland and +contains a number of villages, and among others those named Batong, Ria, +Allas, Batadera, Kapkap (where the district producing benzoin commences), +Batahol, Kotta-tinggi (the place of the king's residence), with two +places lying on the eastern coast called Suitara-male and Jambu-ayer. +This kingdom is said to yield much fine gold from the mines of Batong and +Sunayang. Bata-salindong also contains many districts, in some of which +benzoin, and in others fine gold, is collected. The residence of the king +is at Salindong. Bata-gopit lies at the foot of a volcano-mountain of +that name, from whence, at the time of an eruption, the natives procure +sulphur, to be afterwards employed in the manufacture of gunpowder. The +little kingdom of Butar lies northeastward of the preceding and reaches +to the eastern coast, where are the places named Pulo Serony and Batu +Bara; the latter enjoying a considerable trade; also Longtong and +Sirigar, at the mouth of a great river named Assahan. Butar yields +neither camphor, benzoin, nor gold, and the inhabitants support +themselves by cultivation. The residence of the king is at a town of the +same name. + +ANCIENT BUILDING. + +High up on the river of Batu Bara, which empties itself into the straits +of Malacca, is found a large brick building, concerning the erection of +which no tradition is preserved amongst the people. It is described as a +square, or several squares, and at one corner is an extremely high +pillar, supposed by them to have been designed for carrying a flag. +Images or reliefs of human figures are carved in the walls, which they +conceive to be Chinese (perhaps Hindu) idols. The bricks, of which some +were brought to Tappanuli, are of a smaller size than those used by the +English. + +SINGKEL. + +Singkel River, by much the largest on the western coast of the island, +has its rise in the distant mountains of Daholi, in the territory of +Achin, and at the distance of about thirty miles from the sea receives +the waters of the Sikere, at a place called Pomoko, running through a +great extent of the Batta country. After this junction it is very broad, +and deep enough for vessels of considerable burden, but the bar is +shallow and dangerous, having no more than six feet at low-water +spring-tides, and the rise is also six feet. The breadth here is about +three-quarters of a mile. Much of the lower parts of the country through +which it has its course is overflowed during the rainy season, but not at +two places, called by Captain Forrest Rambong and Jambong, near the +mouth. The principal town lies forty miles up the river on the northern +branch. On the southern is a town named Kiking, where more trade is +carried on by the Malays and Achinese than at the former, the Samponan or +Papa mountains producing more benzoin than those of Daholi. It is said in +a Dutch manuscript that in three days' navigation above the town of +Singkel you come to a great lake, the extent of which is not known. + +Barus, the next place of any consequence to the southward, is chiefly +remarkable for having given name throughout the East to the Kapurbarus +or native camphor, as it is often termed to distinguish it from that +which is imported from Japan and China, as already explained. This was +the situation of the most remote of the Dutch factories, long since +withdrawn. It is properly a Malayan establishment, governed by a raja, a +bandhara, and eight pangulus, and with this peculiarity, that the rajas +and bandharas must be alternately and reciprocally of two great families, +named Dulu and D'ilhir. The assumed jurisdiction is said to have extended +formerly to Natal. The town is situated about a league from the coast, +and two leagues farther inland are eight small villages inhabited by +Battas, the inhabitants of which purchase the camphor and benzoin from +the people of the Diri mountains, extending from the southward of Singkel +to the hill of Lasa, behind Barus, where the Tobat district commences. + +TAPPANULI. + +The celebrated bay of Tappanuli stretches into the heart of the Batta +country, and its shores are everywhere inhabited by that people, who +barter the produce of their land for the articles they stand in need of +from abroad, but do not themselves make voyages by sea. Navigators assert +that the natural advantages of this bay are scarcely surpassed in any +other part of the globe; that all the navies of the world might ride +there with perfect security in every weather; and that such is the +complication of anchoring-places within each other that a large ship +could be so hid in them as not to be found without a tedious search. At +the island of Punchong kechil, on which our settlement stands, it is a +common practice to moor the vessels by a hawser to a tree on shore. +Timber for masts and yards is to be procured in the various creeks with +great facility. Not being favourably situated with respect to the general +track of outward and homeward-bound shipping, and its distance from the +principal seat of our important Indian concerns being considerable, it +has not hitherto been much used for any great naval purposes; but at the +same time our government should be aware of the danger that might arise +from suffering any other maritime power to get footing in a place of this +description. The natives are in general inoffensive, and have given +little disturbance to our establishments; but parties of Achinese traders +(without the concurrence or knowledge, as there is reason to believe, of +their own government), jealous of our commercial influence, long strove +to drive us from the bay by force of arms, and we were under the +necessity of carrying on a petty warfare for many years in order to +secure our tranquillity. In the year 1760 Tappanuli was taken by a +squadron of French ships under the command of the Comte d'Estaing; and in +October 1809, being nearly defenceless, it was again taken by the Creole +French frigate, Captain Ripaud, joined afterwards by the Venus and La +Manche; under the orders of Commodore Hamelin. By the terms of the +surrender private property was to be secured, but in a few days, after +the most friendly assurances had been given to the acting resident, with +whom the French officers were living, this engagement was violated under +the ill-founded pretence that some gold had been secreted, and everything +belonging to the English gentlemen and ladies, as well as to the native +settlers, was plundered or destroyed by fire, with circumstances of +atrocity and brutality that would have disgraced savages. The +garden-house of the chief (Mr. Prince, who happened to be then absent +from Tappanuli) at Batu-buru on the main was likewise burned, together +with his horses, and his cattle were shot at and maimed. Even the books +of accounts, containing the statement of outstanding debts due to the +trading-concern of the place were, in spite of every entreaty, +maliciously destroyed or carried off, by which an irreparable loss, from +which the enemy could not derive a benefit, is sustained by the +unfortunate sufferers. It cannot be supposed that the government of a +great and proud empire can give its sanction to this disgraceful mode of +carrying on war. + +In the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1778 is a brief account of +the Batta country and the manners of its inhabitants, extracted from the +private letters of Mr. Charles Miller, the Company's botanist, whose +observations I have had repeated occasion to quote. I shall now +communicate to the reader the substance of a report made by him of a +journey performed in company with Mr. Giles Holloway, then resident of +Tappanuli, through the interior of the country of which we are now +speaking, with a view to explore its productions, particularly the +cassia, which at that time was thought likely to prove an object of +commerce worthy of attention. + +MR. MILLER'S JOURNEY INTO THE COUNTRY. + +Says Mr. Miller: + +Previously to our setting out on this journey we consulted people who had +formerly been engaged in the cassia-trade with regard to the most proper +places to visit. They informed us that the trees were to be found in two +different districts; namely in the inland parts to the northward of the +old settlement at Tappanuli; and also in the country of Padambola, which +lies between fifty and sixty miles more to the southward. They advised us +to prefer going into the Padambola country, although the more distant, on +account of the inhabitants of the Tappanuli country (as they represented) +being frequently troublesome to strangers. They also told me there were +two kinds of the kulit manis, the one of which, from their account of it, +I was in hopes might prove to be the true cinnamon-tree. + +June 21st, 1772. We set out from Pulo Punchong and went in boats to the +quallo (mouth or entrance) of Pinang Suri river, which is in the bay, +about ten or twelve miles south-east of Punchong. Next morning we went up +the river in sampans, and in about six hours arrived at a place called +quallo Lumut. The whole of the land on both sides of the river is low, +covered with wood, and uninhabited. In these woods I observed camphor +trees, two species of oak, maranti, rangi, and several other +timber-trees. About a quarter of a mile from that place, on the opposite +side of the river, is a Batta kampong, situated on the summit of a +regular and very beautiful little hill, which rises in a pyramidical +form, in the middle of a small meadow. The raja of this kampong, being +informed by the Malays that we were at their houses, came over to see us, +and invited us to his house, where we were received with great ceremony, +and saluted with about thirty guns. This kampong consists of about eight +or ten houses, with their respective padi-houses. It is strongly +fortified with a double fence of strong rough camphor planks, driven deep +into the earth, and about eight or nine feet high, so placed that their +points project considerably outward. These fences are about twelve feet +asunder, and in the space between them the buffaloes are kept at night. +Without-side these fences they plant a row of a prickly kind of bamboo, +which forms an almost impenetrable hedge from twelve to twenty feet +thick. In the sapiyau or building in which the raja receives strangers we +saw a man's skull hanging up, which he told us was hung there as a +trophy, it being the skull of an enemy they had taken prisoner, whose +body (according to the custom of the Battas) they had eaten about two +months before. June 23rd. We walked through a level woody country to the +kampong of Lumut, and next day to Satarong, where I observed several +plantations of benzoin-trees, some cotton, indigo, turmeric, tobacco, and +a few pepper-vines. We next proceeded to Tappolen, to Sikia, and to +Sa-pisang. This last is situated on the banks of Batang-tara river, three +or four days' journey from the sea; so that our course had hitherto been +nearly parallel to the coast. + +July 1st. We left Sa-pisang and took a direction towards the hills, +following nearly the course of the Batang-tara. We travelled all this day +through a low, woody, and entirely uncultivated country, which afforded +nothing worthy of observation. Our guide had proposed to reach a kampong, +called Lumbu; but missing the road we were obliged to wade up the river +between four and five miles, and at length arrived at a ladang extremely +fatigued; where the badness of the weather obliged us to stop and take up +our quarters in an open padi-shed. The next day the river was so swelled +by the heavy rain which had fallen the preceding day that we could not +prosecute our journey, and were obliged to pass it and the remaining +night in the same uncomfortable situation. (This is the middle of the dry +season in the southern parts of the island.) July 3rd. We left the ladang +and walked through a very irregular and uninhabited tract, full of rocks +and covered with woods. We this day crossed a ridge of very steep and +high hills, and in the afternoon came to an inhabited and well-cultivated +country on the edge of the plains of Ancola. We slept this night in a +small open shed, and next day proceeded to a kampong called Koto Lambong. +July 5th. Went through a more open and very pleasant country to +Terimbaru, a large kampong on the southern edge of the plains of Ancola. +The land hereabout is entirely clear of wood, and either ploughed and +sown with padi or jagong (maize), or used as pasture for their numerous +herds of buffaloes, kine, and horses. The raja being informed of our +intentions to come there sent his son and between thirty and forty men, +armed with lances and matchlock guns, to meet us, who escorted us to +their kampong, beating gongs and firing their guns all the way. The raja +received us in great form, and with civility ordered a buffalo to be +killed, detained us a day, and when we proceeded on our journey sent his +son with a party to escort us. I observed that all the unmarried women +wore a great number of tin rings in their ears (some having fifty in each +ear), which circumstance, together with the appearance of the country, +seemed to indicate its abounding with minerals; but on making inquiry I +found that the tin was brought from the straits of Malacca. Having made +the accustomed presents to the raja we left Terimbaru, July 7th, and +proceeded to Sa-masam, the raja of which place, attended by sixty or +seventy men, well armed, met us and conducted us to his kampong, where he +had prepared a house for our reception, treating us with much hospitality +and respect. The country round Sa-masam is full of small hills but clear +of wood, and mostly pasture ground for their cattle, of which they have +great abundance. I met with nothing remarkable here excepting a prickly +shrub called by the natives Andalimon, the seed-vessels and leaves of +which have a very agreeable spicy taste, and are used by them in their +curries. + +July 10th. Proceeded on our journey to Batang Onan, the kampong where the +Malays used to purchase the cassia from the Battas. After about three +hours walk over an open hilly country we again came into thick woods, in +which we were obliged to pass the night. The next morning we crossed +another ridge of very high hills, covered entirely with woods. In these +we saw the wild benzoin-tree. It grows to a much larger size than the +cultivated kind, and yields a different sort of resin called kaminian +dulong or sweet-scented benzoin. It differs in being commonly in more +detached pieces, and having a smell resembling that of almonds when +bruised. Arrived at Batang Onan in the afternoon. This kampong is +situated in a very extensive plain on the banks of a large river which +empties itself into the straits of Malacca, and is said to be navigable +for sloops to within a day's journey of Batang Onan. + +CASSIA-TREES. + +July 11th. Went to Panka-dulut, the raja of which place claims the +property of the cassia-trees, and his people used to cut and cure the +bark and transport it to the former place. The nearest trees are about +two hours walk from Panka-dulut on a high ridge of mountains. They grow +from forty to sixty feet high, and have large spreading heads. They are +not cultivated, but grow in the woods. The bark is commonly taken from +the bodies of the trees of a foot or foot and half diameter; the bark +being so thin, when the trees are younger, as to lose all its qualities +very soon. I here inquired for the different sorts of cassia-tree of +which I had been told, but was now informed that there was only one sort, +and that the difference they mentioned was occasioned entirely by the +soil and situation in which the trees grow; that those which grow in a +rocky dry soil have red shoots, and their bark is of superior quality to +that of trees which grow in moist clay, whose shoots are green. I also +endeavoured to get some information with regard to their method of curing +and quilling the cassia, and told them my intentions of trying some +experiments towards improving its quality and rendering it more valuable. +They told me that none had been cut for two years past, on account of a +stop being put to the purchases at Tappanuli; and that if I was come with +authority to open the trade I should call together the people of the +neighbouring kampongs, kill a buffalo for them, and assure them publicly +that the cassia would be again received; in which case they would +immediately begin to cut and cure it, and would willingly follow any +instructions I should give them; but that otherwise they would take no +trouble about it. I must observe that I was prevented from getting so +satisfactory an account of the cassia as I could have wished by the +ill-behaviour of the person who accompanied us as guide, from whom, by +his thorough knowledge of the country, and of the cassia-trade, of which +he had formerly been the chief manager, we thought we had reason to +expect all requisite assistance and information, but who not only refused +to give it, but prevented as much as possible our receiving any from the +country people. July 14th. We left Batang Onan in order to return, +stopped that night at a kampong called Koto Moran, and the next evening +reached Sa-masam; from whence we proceeded by a different road from what +we had travelled before to Sapisang, where we procured sampans, and went +down the Batang-tara river to the sea. July 22nd we returned to Pulo +Punchong. + +End of Mr. Miller's Narrative. + +It has since been understood that they were intentionally misled, and +taken by a circuitous route to prevent their seeing a particular kampong +of some consideration at the back of Tappanuli, or for some other +interested object. Near the latter place, on the main, Mr. John Marsden, +who went thither to be present at the funeral of one of their chiefs, +observed two old monuments in stone, one the figure of a man, the other +of a man on an elephant, tolerably well executed, but they know not by +whom, nor is there any among them who could do the same work now. The +features were strongly Batta. + +NATAL. + +Our settlement at Natal (properly Natar), some miles to the south of the +large river of Tabuyong, and on the confines of the Batta country, which +extends at the back of it, is a place of much commerce, but not from its +natural or political circumstances of importance in other respects. It is +inhabited by settlers there, for the convenience of trade, from the +countries of Achin, Rau, and Menangkabau, who render it populous and +rich. Gold of very fine quality is procured from the country (some of the +mines being said to lie within ten miles of the factory), and there is a +considerable vent for imported goods, the returns for which are chiefly +made in that article and camphor. Like other Malayan towns it is governed +by datus, the chief of whom, styled datu besar or chief magistrate, has +considerable sway; and although the influence of the Company is here +predominant its authority is by no means so firmly established as in the +pepper-districts to the southward, owing to the number of people, their +wealth, and enterprising, independent spirit.* It may be said that they +are rather managed and conciliated than ruled. They find the English +useful as moderators between their own contending factions, which often +have recourse to arms, even upon points of ceremonious precedence, and +are reasoned into accommodation by our resident going among them +unattended. At an earlier period our protection was convenient to them +against the usurpation, as they termed it, of the Dutch, of whose +attempts and claims they were particularly jealous. By an article of the +treaty of Paris in 1763 these pretensions were ascertained as they +respected the two European powers, and the settlements of Natal and +Tappanuli were expressly restored to the English. They had however +already been re-occupied. Neither in fact have any right but what +proceeds from the will and consent of the native princes. + +(*Footnote. Upon the re-establishment of the factory in 1762 the resident +pointed out to the Datu besar, with a degree of indignation, the number +of dead bodies which were frequently seen floating down the river, and +proposed his cooperating to prevent assassinations in the country, +occasioned by the anarchy the place fell into during the temporary +interruption of the Company's influence. "I cannot assent to any measures +for that purpose," replied the datu: "I reap from these murders an +advantage of twenty dollars a head when the families prosecute." A +compensation of thirty dollars per month was offered him, and to this he +scarcely submitted, observing that he should be a considerable loser, as +there fell in this manner at least three men in the month. At another +time, when the resident attempted to carry some regulation into +execution, he said, "kami tradah suka begito, orang kaya!" "We do not +choose to allow it, sir;" and bared his right arm as a signal of attack +to his dependants in case the point had been insisted on. Of late years +habit and a sense of mutual interest have rendered them more +accommodating.) + +BATTA GOVERNMENTS. + +The government of the Batta country, although nominally in the hands of +three or more sovereign rajas, is effectively (so far as our intercourse +with the people enables us to ascertain) divided into numberless petty +chiefships, the heads of which, also styled rajas, have no appearance of +being dependant upon any superior power, but enter into associations with +each other, particularly with those belonging to the same tribe, for +mutual defence and security against any distant enemy. They are at the +same time extremely jealous of any increase of their relative power, and +on the slightest pretext a war breaks out between them. The force of +different kampongs is notwithstanding this very unequal, and some rajas +possess a much more extensive sway than others; and it must needs be so, +where every man who can get a dozen followers and two or three muskets +sets up for independence. Inland of a place called Sokum great respect +was paid to a female chief or uti (which word I conceive to be a liquid +pronunciation of putri, a princess), whose jurisdiction comprehended many +tribes. Her grandson, who was the reigning prince, had lately been +murdered by an invader, and she had assembled an army of two or three +thousand men to take revenge. An agent of the Company went up the river +about fifteen miles in hopes of being able to accommodate a matter that +threatened materially the peace of the country; but he was told by the +uti that, unless he would land his men, and take a decided part in her +favour, he had no business there, and he was obliged to reembark without +effecting anything. The aggressor followed him the same night and made +his escape. It does not appear likely, from the manners and dispositions +of the people, that the whole of the country was ever united under one +supreme head. + +AUTHORITY OF RAJAS. + +The more powerful rajas assume authority over the lives of their +subjects. The dependants are bound to attend their chief in his journeys +and in his wars, and when an individual refuses he is expelled from the +society without permission to take his property along with him. They are +supplied with food for their expeditions, and allowed a reward for each +person they kill. The revenues of the chief arise principally from fines +of cattle adjudged in criminal proceedings, which he always appropriates +to himself; and from the produce of the camphor and benzoin trees +throughout his district; but this is not rigorously insisted upon. When +he pays his gaming debts he imposes what arbitrary value he thinks proper +on the horses and buffaloes (no coin being used +in the country), which he delivers, and his subjects are obliged to +accept them at that rate. They are forced to work in their turns, for a +certain number of days, in his rice plantations. There is, in like +manner, a lesser kind of service for land held of any other person, the +tenant being bound to pay his landlord respect wherever he meets him, and +to provide him with entertainment whenever he comes to his house. The +people seem to have a permanent property in their possessions, selling +them to each other as they think fit. If a man plants trees and leaves +them, no future occupier can sell them, though he may eat the fruit. +Disputes and litigations of any kind that happen between people belonging +to the same kampong are settled by a magistrate appointed for that +purpose, and from him it is said there is no appeal to the raja: when +they arise between persons of different kampongs they are adjusted at a +meeting of the respective rajas. When a party is sent down to the Bay to +purchase salt or on other business it is accompanied by an officer who +takes cognizance of their behaviour, and sometimes punishes on the spot +such as are criminal or refractory. This is productive of much order and +decency. + +SUCCESSION. + +It is asserted that the succession to the chiefships does not go in the +first instance to the son of the deceased, but to the nephew by a sister; +and that the same extraordinary rule, with respect to property in +general, prevails also amongst the Malays of that part of the island, and +even in the neighbourhood of Padang. The authorities for this are various +and unconnected with each other, but not sufficiently circumstantial to +induce me to admit it as a generally established practice. + +RESPECT FOR THE SULTAN OF MENANGKABAU. + +Notwithstanding the independent spirit of the Battas, and their contempt +of all power that would affect a superiority over their little societies, +they have a superstitious veneration for the sultan of Menangkabau, and +show blind submission to his relations and emissaries, real or pretended, +when such appear among them for the purpose of levying contributions: +even when insulted and put in fear of their lives they make no attempt at +resistance: they think that their affairs would never prosper; that their +padi would be blighted, and their buffaloes die; that they would remain +under a kind of spell for offending those sacred messengers. + +PERSONS. + +The Battas are in their persons rather below the stature of the Malays, +and their complexions are fairer; which may perhaps be owing to their +distance, for the most part, from the sea, an element they do not at all +frequent. + +DRESS. + +Their dress is commonly of a sort of cotton cloth manufactured by +themselves, thick, harsh, and wiry, about four astas or cubits long, and +two in breadth, worn round the middle, with a scarf over the shoulder. +These are of mixed colours, the prevalent being a brownish red and a blue +approaching to black. They are fond of adorning them, particularly the +scarf, with strings and tassels of beads. The covering of the head is +usually the bark of a tree, but the superior class wear a strip of +foreign blue cloth in imitation of the Malayan destars, and a few have +bajus (outer garments) of chintz. The young women, beside the cloth round +the middle, have one over the breasts, and (as noticed in Mr. Miller's +journal) wear in their ears numerous rings of tin, as well as several +large rings of thick brass wire round their necks. On festival days +however they ornament themselves with earrings of gold, hair-pins, of +which the heads are fashioned like birds or dragons, a kind of +three-cornered breastplate, and hollow rings upon the upper arm, all, in +like manner, of gold. The kima shell, which abounds in the bay, is +likewise worked into arm-rings, whiter, and taking a better polish than +ivory. + +ARMS. + +Their arms are matchlock guns, with which they are expert marksmen, +bamboo lances or spears with long iron heads, and a side-weapon called +jono, which resembles and is worn as a sword rather than a kris. The +cartridge-boxes are provided with a number of little wooden cases, each +containing a charge for the piece. In these are carried likewise the +match, and the smaller ranjaus, the longer being in a joint of bamboo, +slung like a quiver over the shoulder. They have machines curiously +carved and formed like the beak of a large bird for holding bullets, and +others of peculiar construction for a reserve of powder. These hang in +front. On the right side hang the flint and steel, and also the +tobacco-pipe. Their guns, the locks of which {for holding the match) are +of copper, they are supplied with by traders from Menangkabau; the swords +are of their own workmanship, and they also manufacture their own +gunpowder, extracting the saltpetre, as it is said, from the soil taken +from under houses that have been long inhabited (which in consequence of +an uncleanly practice is strongly impregnated with animal salts), +together with that collected in places where goats are kept. Through this +earth water is filtered, and being afterwards suffered to evaporate the +saltpetre is found at the bottom of the vessel. Their proper standard in +war is a horse's head, from whence flows a long mane or tail; beside +which they have colours of red or white cloth. For drums they use gongs, +and in action set up a kind of warwhoop. + +WARFARE. + +The spirit of war is excited among these people by small provocation, and +their resolutions for carrying it into effect are soon taken. Their life +appears in fact to be a perpetual state of hostility, and they are always +prepared for attack and defence. When they proceed to put their designs +into execution the first act of defiance is firing, without ball, into +the kampong of their enemies. Three days are then allowed for the party +fired upon to propose terms of accommodation, and if this is not done, or +the terms are such as cannot be agreed to, war is then fully declared. +This ceremony of firing with powder only is styled carrying smoke to the +adversary. During the course of their wars, which sometimes last for two +or three years, they seldom meet openly in the field or attempt to decide +their contest by a general engagement, as the mutual loss of a dozen men +might go near to ruin both parties, nor do they ever engage hand to hand, +but keep at a pretty safe distance, seldom nearer than random-shot, +excepting in case of sudden surprise. They march in single files, and +usually fire kneeling. It is not often that they venture a direct attack +upon each other's works, but watch opportunities of picking off +stragglers passing through the woods. A party of three or four will +conceal themselves near the footways, and if they see any of their foes +they fire and run away immediately; planting ranjaus after them to +prevent pursuit. On these occasions a man will subsist upon a potato a +day, in which they have much the advantage of the Malays (against whom +they are often engaged in warfare), who require to be better fed. + +FORTIFICATIONS. + +They fortify their kampongs with large ramparts of earth, halfway up +which they plant brushwood. There is a ditch without the rampart, and on +each side of that a tall palisade of camphor timber. Beyond this is an +impenetrable hedge of prickly bamboo, which when of sufficient growth +acquires an extraordinary density, and perfectly conceals all appearance +of a town. Ranjaus, of a length both for the body and the feet, are +disposed without all these, and render the approaches hazardous to +assailants who are almost naked. At each corner of the fortress, instead +of a tower or watch-house, they contrive to have a tall tree, which they +ascend to reconnoitre or fire from. But they are not fond of remaining on +the defensive in these fortified villages, and therefore, leaving a few +to guard them, usually advance into the plains, and throw up temporary +breast-works and entrenchments. + +TRADE. + +The natives of the sea-coast exchange their benzoin, camphor, and cassia +(the quantity of gold-dust is very inconsiderable) for iron, steel, +brass-wire, and salt, of which last article a hundred thousand bamboo +measures are annually taken off in the bay of Tappanuli. These they +barter again with the more inland inhabitants, in the mode that shall +presently be described, for the products and manufactures of the country, +particularly the home-made cloth; a very small quantity of cotton +piece-goods being imported from the coast and disposed of to the natives. +What they do take off is chiefly blue-cloth for the head, and chintz. + +FAIRS HELD. + +For the convenience of carrying on the inland-trade there are established +at the back of Tappanuli, which is their great mart, four stages, at +which successively they hold public fairs or markets on every fourth day +throughout the year; each fair, of course, lasting one day. The people in +the district of the fourth stage assemble with their goods at the +appointed place, to which those of the third resort in order to purchase +them. The people of the third, in like manner, supply the wants of the +second, and the second of the first, who dispose, on the day the market +is held, of the merchandise for which they have trafficked with the +Europeans and Malays. On these occasions all hostilities are suspended. +Each man who possesses a musket carries it with a green bough in the +muzzle, as a token of peace, and afterwards, when he comes to the spot, +following the example of the director or manager of the party, discharges +the loading into a mound of earth, in which, before his departure, he +searches for his ball. There is but one house at the place where the +market is held, and that is for the purpose of gaming. The want of booths +is supplied by the shade of regular rows of fruit-trees, mostly durian, +of which one avenue is reserved for the women. The dealings are conducted +with order and fairness; the chief remaining at a little distance, to be +referred to in case of dispute, and a guard is at hand, armed with +lances, to keep the peace; yet with all this police, which bespeaks +civilization, I have been assured by those who have had an opportunity of +attending their meetings that in the whole of their appearance and +deportment there is more of savage life than is observed in the manners +of the Rejangs, or inhabitants of Lampong. Traders from the remoter Batta +districts, lying north and south, assemble at these periodical markets, +where all their traffic is carried on, and commodities bartered. They are +not however peculiar to this country, being held, among other places, at +Batang-kapas and Ipu. By the Malays they are termed onan. + +ESTIMATE BY COMMODITIES INSTEAD OF COIN. + +Having no coin all value is estimated among them by certain commodities. +In trade they calculate by tampangs (cakes) of benzoin; in transactions +among themselves more commonly by buffaloes: sometimes brass wire and +sometimes beads are used as a medium. A galang, or ring of brass wire, +represents about the value of a dollar. But for small payments salt is +the most in use. A measure called a salup, weighing about two pounds, is +equal to a fanam or twopence-halfpenny: a balli, another small measure, +goes for four keppeng, or three-fifths of a penny. + +FOOD. + +The ordinary food of the lower class of people is maize and +sweet-potatoes, the rajas and great men alone indulging themselves with +rice. Some mix them together. It is only on public occasions that they +kill cattle for food; but not being delicate in their appetites they do +not scruple to eat part of a dead buffalo, hog, rat, alligator, or any +wild animal with which they happen to meet. Their rivers are said not to +abound with fish. Horse-flesh they esteem their most exquisite meat, and +for this purpose feed them upon grain and pay great attention to their +keep. They are numerous in the country, and the Europeans at Bencoolen +are supplied with many good ones from thence, but not with the finest, as +these are reserved for their festivals. They have also, says Mr. Miller, +great quantities of small black dogs, with erect pointed ears, which they +fatten and eat. Toddy or palm-wine they drink copiously at their feasts. + +BUILDINGS. + +The houses are built with frames of wood, with the sides of boards, and +roof covered with iju. They usually consist of a single large room, which +is entered by a trap-door in the middle. The number seldom exceeds twenty +in one kampong; but opposite to each is a kind of open building that +serves for sitting in during the day, and as a sleepingplace for the +unmarried men at night. These together form a sort of street. To each +kampong there is also a balei, where the inhabitants assemble for +transacting public business, celebrating feasts, and the reception of +strangers, whom they entertain with frankness and hospitality. At the end +of this building is a place divided off, from whence the women see the +spectacles of fencing and dancing; and below that is a kind of orchestra +for music. + +DOMESTIC MANNERS. + +The men are allowed to marry as many wives as they please, or can afford, +and to have half a dozen is not uncommon. Each of these sits in a +different part of the large room, and sleeps exposed to the others; not +being separated by any partition or distinction of apartments. Yet the +husband finds it necessary to allot to each of them their several +fireplaces and cooking utensils, where they dress their own victuals +separately, and prepare his in turns. How is this domestic state and the +flimsiness of such an imaginary barrier to be reconciled with our ideas +of the furious, ungovernable passions of love and jealousy supposed to +prevail in an eastern harem? or must custom be allowed to supersede all +other influence, both moral and physical? In other respects they differ +little in their customs relating to marriage from the rest of the island. +The parents of the girl always receive a valuable consideration (in +buffaloes or horses) from the person to whom she is given in marriage; +which is returned when a divorce takes place against the man's +inclination. The daughters as elsewhere are looked upon as the riches of +the fathers. + +CONDITION OF WOMEN. + +The condition of the women appears to be no other than that of slaves, +the husbands having the power of selling their wives and children. They +alone, beside the domestic duties, work in the rice plantations. These +are prepared in the same mode as in the rest of the island; except that +in the central parts, the country being clearer, the plough and harrow, +drawn by buffaloes, are more used. The men, when not engaged in war, +their favourite occupation, commonly lead an idle, inactive life, passing +the day in playing on a kind of flute, crowned with garlands of flowers; +among which the globe-amaranthus, a native of the country, mostly +prevails. + +HORSERACING. + +They are said however to hunt deer on horseback, and to be attached to +the diversion of horseracing. They ride boldly without a saddle or +stirrups, frequently throwing their hands upwards whilst pushing their +horse to full speed. The bit of the bridle is of iron, and has several +joints; the head-stall and reins of rattan: in some parts the reins, or +halter rather, is of iju, and the bit of wood. They are, like the rest of +the Sumatrans, much addicted to gaming, and the practice is under no kind +of restraint, until it destroys itself by the ruin of one of the parties. +When a man loses more money than he is able to pay he is confined and +sold as a slave; being the most usual mode by which they become such. A +generous winner will sometimes release his unfortunate adversary upon +condition of his killing a horse and making a public entertainment. + +LANGUAGE. + +They have, as was before observed, a language and written character +peculiar to themselves, and which may be considered, in point of +originality, as equal at least to any other in the island, and although, +like the languages of Java, Celebes, and the Philippines, it has many +terms in common with the Malayan (being all, in my judgment, from one +common stock), yet, in the way of encroachment, from the influence, both +political and religious, acquired by its immediate neighbours, the Batta +tongue appears to have experienced less change than any other. For a +specimen of its words, its alphabet, and the rules by which the sound of +its letters is modified and governed, the reader is referred to the Table +and Plate above. It is remarkable that the proportion of the people who +are able to read and write is much greater than of those who do not; a +qualification seldom observed in such uncivilized parts of the world, and +not always found in the more polished. + +WRITING. + +Their writing for common purposes is, like that already described in +speaking of the Rejangs, upon pieces of bamboo. + +BOOKS. + +Their books (and such they may with propriety be termed) are composed of +the inner bark of a certain tree cut into long slips and folded in +squares, leaving part of the wood at each extremity to serve for the +outer covering. The bark for this purpose is shaved smooth and thin, and +afterwards rubbed over with rice-water. The pen they use is a twig or the +fibre of a leaf, and their ink is made of the soot of dammar mixed with +the juice of the sugar-cane. The contents of their books are little known +to us. The writing of most of those in my possession is mixed with +uncouth representations of scolopendra and other noxious animals, and +frequent diagrams, which imply their being works of astrology and +divination. These they are known to consult in all the transactions of +life, and the event is predicted by the application of certain characters +marked on a slip of bamboo, to the lines of the sacred book, with which a +comparison is made. But this is not their only mode of divining. Before +going to war they kill a buffalo or a fowl that is perfectly white, and +by observing the motion of the intestines judge of the good or ill +fortune likely to attend them; and the priest who performs this ceremony +had need to be infallible, for if he predicts contrary to the event it is +said that he is sometimes punished with death for his want of skill. +Exclusively however of these books of necromancy there are others +containing legendary and mythological tales, of which latter a sample +will be given under the article of religion. + +REMARK BY DR. LEYDEN. + +Dr. Leyden, in his Dissertation on the Languages and Literature of the +Indo-Chinese nations, says that the Batta character is written neither +from right to left, nor from left to right, nor from top to bottom, but +in a manner directly opposite to that of the Chinese, from the bottom to +the top of the line, and that I have conveyed an erroneous idea of their +natural form by arranging the characters horizontally instead of placing +them in a perpendicular line. Not having now the opportunity of verifying +by ocular proof what I understood to be the practical order of their +writing, namely, from left to right (in the manner of the Hindus, who, +there is reason to believe, were the original instructors of all these +people), I shall only observe that I have among my papers three distinct +specimens of the Batta alphabet, written by different natives at +different periods, and all of them are horizontal. But I am at the same +time aware that as this was performed in the presence of Europeans, and +upon our paper, they might have deviated from their ordinary practice, +and that the evidence is therefore not conclusive. It might be presumed +indeed that the books themselves would be sufficient criterion; but +according to the position in which they are held they may be made to +sanction either mode, although it is easy to determine by simple +inspection the commencement of the lines. In the Batavian Transactions +(Volume 3 page 23) already so often quoted, it is expressly said that +these people write like Europeans from the left hand towards the right: +and in truth it is not easy to conceive how persons making use of ink can +conduct the hand from the bottom to the top of a page without marring +their own performance. But still a matter of fact, if such it be, cannot +give way to argument, and I have no object but to ascertain the truth. + +RELIGION. + +Their religion, like that of all other inhabitants of the island who are +not Mahometans, is so obscure in its principles as scarcely to afford +room to say that any exists among them. Yet they have rather more of +ceremony and observance than those of Rejang or Passummah, and there is +an order of persons by them called guru (a well-known Hindu term), who +may be denominated priests, as they are employed in administering oaths, +foretelling lucky and unlucky days, making sacrifices, and the +performance of funeral rites. For a knowledge of their theogony we are +indebted to M. Siberg, governor of the Dutch settlements on the coast of +Sumatra, by whom the following account was communicated to the late M. +Radermacher, a distinguished member of the Batavian Society, and by him +published in its Transactions. + +MYTHOLOGY. + +The inhabitants of this country have many fabulous stories, which shall +be briefly mentioned. They acknowledge three deities as rulers of the +world, who are respectively named Batara-guru, Sori-pada, and +Mangalla-bulang. The first, say they, bears rule in heaven, is the father +of all mankind, and partly, under the following circumstances, creator of +the earth, which from the beginning of time had been supported on the +head of Naga-padoha, but, growing weary at length, he shook his head, +which occasioned the earth to sink, and nothing remained in the world +excepting water. They do not pretend to a knowledge of the creation of +this original earth and water, but say that at the period when the latter +covered everything, the chief deity, Bataraguru, had a daughter named +Puti-orla-bulan, who requested permission to descend to these lower +regions, and accordingly came down on a white owl, accompanied by a dog; +but not being able, by reason of the waters, to continue there, her +father let fall from heaven a lofty mountain, named Bakarra, now situated +in the Batta country, as a dwelling for his child; and from this mountain +all other land gradually proceeded. The earth was once more supported on +the three horns of Naga-padoha, and that he might never again suffer it +to fall off Batara-guru sent his son, named Layang-layang-mandi +(literally the dipping swallow) to bind him hand and foot. But to his +occasionally shaking his head they ascribe the effect of earthquakes. +Puti-orla-bulan had afterwards, during her residence on earth, three sons +and three daughters, from whom sprang the whole human race. + +The second of their deities has the rule of the air betwixt earth and +heaven, and the third that of the earth; but these two are considered as +subordinate to the first. Besides these they have as many inferior +deities as there are sensible objects on earth, or circumstances in human +society; of which some preside over the sea, others over rivers, over +woods, over war, and the like. They believe likewise in four evil +spirits, dwelling in four separate mountains, and whatever ill befalls +them they attribute to the agency of one of these demons. On such +occasions they apply to one of their cunning men, who has recourse to his +art, and by cutting a lemon ascertains which of these has been the author +of the mischief, and by what means the evil spirit may be propitiated; +which always proves to be the sacrificing a buffalo, hog, goat, or +whatever animal the wizard happens on that day to be most inclined to +eat. When the address is made to any of the superior and beneficent +deities for assistance, and the priest directs an offering of a horse, +cow, dog, hog, or fowl, care must be taken that the animal to be +sacrificed is entirely white. + +They have also a vague and confused idea of the immortality of the human +soul, and of a future state of happiness or misery. They say that the +soul of a dying person makes its escape through the nostrils, and is +borne away by the wind, to heaven, if of a person who has led a good +life, but if of an evil-doer, to a great cauldron, where it shall be +exposed to fire until such time as Batara-guru shall judge it to have +suffered punishment proportioned to its sins, and feeling compassion +shall take it to himself in heaven: that finally the time shall come when +the chains and bands of Naga-padoha shall be worn away, and he shall once +more allow the earth to sink, that the sun will be then no more than a +cubit's distance from it, and that the souls of those who, having lived +well, shall remain alive at the last day, shall in like manner go to +heaven, and those of the wicked, be consigned to the before-mentioned +cauldron, intensely heated by the near approach of the sun's rays, to be +there tormented by a minister of Batara-guru, named Suraya-guru, until, +having expiated their offences, they shall be thought worthy of reception +into the heavenly regions. + +... + +To the Sanskrit scholar who shall make allowances for corrupt orthography +many of these names will be familiar. For Batara he will read avatara; +and in Naga-padoha he will recognise the serpent on whom Vishnu reposes. + +OATHS. + +Their ceremonies that wear most the appearance of religion are those +practised on taking an oath, and at their funeral obsequies. A person +accused of a crime and who asserts his innocence is in some cases +acquitted upon solemnly swearing to it, but in others is obliged to +undergo a kind of ordeal. A cock's throat is usually cut on the occasion +by the guru. The accused then puts a little rice into his mouth (probably +dry), and wishes it may become a stone if he be guilty of the crime with +which he stands charged, or, holding up a musket bullet, prays it may be +his fate in that case to fall in battle. In more important instances they +put a small leaden or tin image into the middle of a dish of rice, +garnished with those bullets; when the man, kneeling down, prays that his +crop of rice may fail, his cattle die, and that he himself may never take +salt (a luxury as well as necessary of life), if he does not declare the +truth. These tin images may be looked upon as objects of idolatrous +worship; but I could not learn that any species of adoration was paid to +them on other occasions any more than to certain stone images which have +been mentioned. Like the relics of saints, they are merely employed to +render the form of the oath more mysterious, and thereby increase the awe +with which it should be regarded. + +FUNERAL CEREMONIES. + +When a raja or person of consequence dies the funeral usually occupies +several months; that is, the corpse is kept unburied until the +neighbouring and distant chiefs, or, in common cases, the relations and +creditors of the deceased, can be convened in order to celebrate the +rites with becoming dignity and respect. Perhaps the season of planting +or of harvest intervenes, and these necessary avocations must be attended +to before the funeral ceremonies can be concluded. The body however is in +the meantime deposited in a kind of coffin. To provide this they fell a +large tree (the anau in preference, because of the softness of the +central part, whilst the outer coat is hard), and, having cut a portion +of the stem of sufficient length, they split it in two parts, hollow each +part so as to form a receptacle for the body, and then fit them exactly +together. The workmen take care to sprinkle the wood with the blood of a +young hog, whose flesh is given to them as a treat. The coffin being thus +prepared and brought into the house the body is placed in it, with a mat +beneath, and a cloth laid over it. Where the family can afford the +expense it is strewed over with camphor. Having now placed the two parts +in close contact they bind them together with rattans, and cover the +whole with a thick coating of dammar or resin. In some instances they +take the precaution of inserting a bamboo-tube into the lower part, +which, passing thence through the raised floor into the ground, serves to +carry off the offensive matter; so that in fact little more than the +bones remain. + +When the relations and friends are assembled, each of whom brings with +him a buffalo, hog, goat, dog, fowl, or other article of provision, +according to his ability, and the women baskets of rice, which are +presented and placed in order, the feasting begins and continues for nine +days and nights, or so long as the provisions hold out. On the last of +these days the coffin is carried out and set in an open space, where it +is surrounded by the female mourners, on their knees, with their heads +covered, and howling (ululantes) in dismal concert, whilst the younger +persons of the family are dancing near it, in solemn movement, to the +sound of gongs, kalintangs, and a kind of flageolet; at night it is +returned to the house, where the dancing and music continues, with +frequent firing of guns, and on the tenth day the body is carried to the +grave, +preceded by the guru or priest, whose limbs are tattooed in the shape of +birds and beasts, and painted of different colours,* with a large wooden +mask on his face. + +(*Footnote. It is remarkable that in the Bisayan language of the +Philippines the term for people so marked, whom the Spaniards call +pintados, is batuc. This practice is common in the islands near the coast +of Sumatra, as will hereafter be noticed. It seems to have prevailed in +many parts of the farther East, as Siam, Laos, and several of the +islands.) + +He takes a piece of buffalo-flesh, swings it about, throwing himself into +violent attitudes and strange contortions, and then eats the morsel in a +voracious manner. He then kills a fowl over the corpse, letting the blood +run down upon the coffin, and just before it is moved both he and the +female mourners, having each a broom in their hands, sweep violently +about it, as if to chase away the evil spirits and prevent their joining +in the procession, when suddenly four men, stationed for the purpose, +lift up the coffin, and march quickly off with it, as if escaping from +the fiend, the priest continuing to sweep after it for some distance. It +is then deposited in the ground, without any peculiar ceremony, at the +depth of three or four feet; the earth about the grave is raised, a shed +built over it, further feasting takes place on the spot for an indefinite +time, and the horns and jaw-bones of the buffaloes and other cattle +devoured on the occasion are fastened to the posts. Mr. John and Mr. +Frederick Marsden were spectators of the funeral of a raja at Tappanuli +on the main. Mr. Charles Miller mentions his having been present at +killing the hundred and sixth buffalo at the grave of a raja, in a part +of the country where the ceremony was sometimes continued even a year +after the interment; and that they seem to regard their ancestors as a +kind of superior beings, attendant always upon them. + +CRIMES. + +The crimes committed here against the order and peace of society are said +not to be numerous. Theft amongst themselves is almost unknown, being +strictly honest in their dealings with each other; but when discovered +the offender is made answerable for double the value of the goods stolen. +Pilfering indeed from strangers, when not restrained by the laws of +hospitality, they are expert at, and think no moral offence; because they +do not perceive that any ill results from it. Open robbery and murder are +punishable with death if the parties are unable to redeem their lives by +a sum of money. A person guilty of manslaughter is obliged to bear the +expense attending the interment of the deceased and the funeral-feast +given to his friends, or, if too poor to accomplish this it is required +of his nearest relation, who is empowered to reimburse himself by selling +the offender as a slave. In cases of double adultery the man, upon +detection, is punished with death, in the manner that shall presently be +described; but the woman is only disgraced, by having her head shaven and +being sold for a slave, which in fact she was before. This distribution +of justice must proceed upon the supposition of the females being merely +passive subjects, and of the men alone possessing the faculties of free +agents. A single man concerned in adultery with a married woman is +banished or outlawed by his own family. The lives of culprits are in +almost all cases redeemable if they or their connections possess property +sufficient, the quantum being in some measure at the discretion of the +injured party. At the same time it must be observed that, Europeans not +being settled amongst these people upon the same footing as in the +pepper-districts, we are not so well acquainted either with the principle +or the practice of their laws. + +EXTRAORDINARY CUSTOM. + +The most extraordinary of the Batta customs, though certainly not +peculiar to these people, remains now to be described. Many of the old +travellers had furnished the world with accounts of anthropophagi or +maneaters, whom they met with in all parts of the old and new world, and +their relations, true or false, were in those days, when people were +addicted to the marvellous, universally credited. In the succeeding ages, +when a more skeptical and scrutinizing spirit prevailed, several of these +asserted facts were found upon examination to be false; and men, from a +bias inherent in our nature, ran into the opposite extreme. It then +became established as a philosophical truth, capable almost of +demonstration, that no such race of people ever did or could exist. But +the varieties, inconsistencies, and contradictions of human manners are +so numerous and glaring that it is scarcely possible to fix any general +principle that will apply to all the incongruous races of mankind, or +even to conceive an irregularity to which some or other of them have not +been accustomed. + +EAT HUMAN FLESH. + +The voyages of our late famous circumnavigators, the veracity of whose +assertions is unimpeachable, have already proved to the world that human +flesh is eaten by the savages of New Zealand; and I can with equal +confidence, from conviction of the truth, though not with equal weight of +authority, assert that it is also, in these days, eaten in the island of +Sumatra by the Batta people, and by them only. Whether or not the +horrible custom prevailed more extensively in ancient times I cannot take +upon me to ascertain, but the same historians who mention it as practised +in this island, and whose accounts were undeservedly looked upon as +fabulous, relate it also of many others of the eastern people, and those +of the island of Java in particular, who since that period may have +become more humanized.* + +(*Footnote. Mention is made of the Battas and their peculiar customs by +the following early writers: NICOLO DI CONTI, 1449. "In a certain part of +this island (Sumatra) called Batech, the people eat human flesh. They are +continually at war with their neighbours, preserve the skulls of their +enemies as treasure, dispose of them as money, and he is accounted the +richest man who has most of them in his house." ODOARDUS BARBOSA, 1516. +"There is another kingdom to the southward, which is the principal source +of gold; and another inland, called Aaru (contiguous to the Batta +country) where the inhabitants are pagans, who eat human flesh, and +chiefly of those they have slain in war." DE BARROS, 1563. "The natives +of that part of the island which is opposite to Malacca, who are called +Batas, eat human flesh, and are the most savage and warlike of all the +land." BEAULIEU, 1622. "The inland people are independent, and speak a +language different from the Malayan. Are idolaters, and eat human flesh; +never ransom prisoners, but eat them with pepper and salt. Have no +religion, but some polity." LUDOVICO BARTHEMA, in 1505, asserts that the +people of Java were cannibals previously to their traffic with the +Chinese.) + +They do not eat human flesh as the means of satisfying the cravings of +nature, for there can be no want of sustenance to the inhabitants of such +a country and climate, who reject no animal food of any kind; nor is it +sought after as a gluttonous delicacy. + +MOTIVES FOR THIS CUSTOM. + +The Battas eat it as a species of ceremony; as a mode of showing their +detestation of certain crimes by an ignominious punishment; and as a +savage display of revenge and insult to their unfortunate enemies. The +objects of this barbarous repast are prisoners taken in war, especially +if badly wounded, the bodies of the slain, and offenders condemned for +certain capital crimes, especially for adultery. Prisoners unwounded (but +they are not much disposed to give quarter) may be ransomed or sold as +slaves where the quarrel is not too inveterate; and the convicts, there +is reason to believe, rarely suffer when their friends are in +circumstances to redeem them by the customary equivalent of twenty +binchangs or eighty dollars. These are tried by the people of the tribe +where the offence was committed, but cannot be executed until their own +particular raja has been made acquainted with the sentence, who, when he +acknowledges the justice of the intended punishment, sends a cloth to +cover the head of the delinquent, together with a large dish of salt and +lemons. The unhappy victim is then delivered into the hands of the +injured party (if it be a private wrong, or in the case of a prisoner to +the warriors) by whom he is tied to a stake; lances are thrown at him +from a certain distance by this person, his relations, and friends; and +when mortally wounded they run up to him, as if in a transport of +passion, cut pieces from the body with their knives, dip them in the dish +of salt, lemon-juice, and red pepper, slightly broil them over a fire +prepared for the purpose, and swallow the morsels with a degree of savage +enthusiasm. Sometimes (I presume, according to the degree of their +animosity and resentment) the whole is devoured by the bystanders; and +instances have been known where, with barbarity still aggravated, they +tear the flesh from the carcase with their teeth. To such a depth of +depravity may man be plunged when neither religion nor philosophy +enlighten his steps! All that can be said in extenuation of the horror of +this diabolical ceremony is that no view appears to be entertained of +torturing the sufferers, of increasing or lengthening out the pangs of +death; the whole fury is directed against the corpse, warm indeed with +the remains of life, but past the sensation of pain. A difference of +opinion has existed with respect to the practice of eating the bodies of +their enemies actually slain in war; but subsequent inquiry has satisfied +me of its being done, especially in the case of distinguished persons, or +those who have been accessories to the quarrel. It should be observed +that their campaigns (which may be aptly compared to the predatory +excursions of our Borderers) often terminate with the loss of not more +than half a dozen men on both sides. The skulls of the victims are hung +up as trophies in the open buildings in front of their houses, and are +occasionally ransomed by their surviving relations for a sum of money. + +DOUBTS OBVIATED. + +I have found that some persons (and among them my friend, the late Mr. +Alexander Dalrymple) have entertained doubts of the reality of the fact +that human flesh is anywhere eaten by mankind as a national practice, and +considered the proofs hitherto adduced as insufficient to establish a +point of so much moment in the history of the species. It is objected to +me that I never was an eyewitness of a Batta feast of this nature, and +that my authority for it is considerably weakened by coming through a +second, or perhaps a third hand. I am sensible of the weight of this +reasoning, and am not anxious to force any man's belief, much less to +deceive him by pretences to the highest degree of certainty, when my +relation can only lay claim to the next degree; but I must at the same +time observe that, according to my apprehension, the refusing assent to +fair, circumstantial evidence, because it clashes with a systematic +opinion, is equally injurious to the cause of truth with asserting that +as positive which is only doubtful. My conviction of the truth of what I +have not personally seen (and we must all be convinced of facts to which +neither ourselves nor those with whom we are immediately connected could +ever have been witnesses) has arisen from the following circumstances, +some of less, and some of greater authority. It is in the first place a +matter of general and uncontroverted notoriety throughout the island, and +I have conversed with many natives of the Batta country (some of them in +my own service), who acknowledged the practice, and became ashamed of it +after residing amongst more humanized people. It has been my chance to +have had no fewer than three brothers and brothers-in-law, beside several +intimate friends (of whom some are now in England), chiefs of our +settlements of Natal and Tappanuli, of whose information I availed +myself, and all their accounts I have found to agree in every material +point. The testimony of Mr. Charles Miller, whose name, as well as that +of his father, is advantageously known to the literary world, should +alone be sufficient for my purpose. In addition to what he has related in +his journal he has told me that at one village where he halted the +suspended head of a man, whose body had been eaten a few days before, was +extremely offensive; and that in conversation with some people of the +Ankola district, speaking of their neighbours and occasional enemies of +the Padambola district, they described them as an unprincipled race, +saying, "We, indeed, eat men as a punishment for their crimes and +injuries to us; but they waylay and seize travellers in order to +ber-bantei or cut them up like cattle." It is here obviously the +admission and not the scandal that should have weight. When Mr. Giles +Holloway was leaving Tappanuli and settling his accounts with the natives +he expostulated with a Batta man who had been dilatory in his payment. "I +would," says the man, "have been here sooner, but my pangulu (superior +officer) was detected in familiarity with my wife. He was condemned, and +I stayed to eat share of him; the ceremony took us up three days, and it +was only last night that we finished him." Mr. Miller was present at this +conversation, and the man spoke with perfect seriousness. A native of the +island of Nias, who had stabbed a Batta man in a fit of frenzy at +Batang-tara river, near Tappanuli bay, and endeavoured to make his +escape, was, upon the alarm being given, seized at six in the morning, +and before eleven, without any judicial process, was tied to a stake, cut +in pieces with the utmost eagerness while yet alive, and eaten upon the +spot, partly broiled, but mostly raw. His head was buried under that of +the man whom he had murdered. This happened in December 1780, when Mr. +William Smith had charge of the settlement. A raja was fined by Mr. +Bradley for having caused a prisoner to be eaten at a place too close to +the Company's settlement, and it should have been remarked that these +feasts are never suffered to take place withinside their own kampongs. +Mr. Alexander Hall made a charge in his public accounts of a sum paid to +a raja as an inducement to him to spare a man whom he had seen preparing +for a victim: and it is in fact this commendable discouragement of the +practice by our government that occasions its being so rare a sight to +Europeans, in a country where there are no travellers from curiosity, and +where the servants of the Company, having appearances to maintain, cannot +by their presence as idle spectators give a sanction to proceedings which +it is their duty to discourage, although their influence is not +sufficient to prevent them. + +A Batta chief, named raja Niabin, in the year 1775 surprised a +neighbouring kampong with which he was at enmity, killed the raja by +stealth, carried off the body, and ate it. The injured family complained +to Mr. Nairne, the English chief of Natal, and prayed for redress. He +sent a message on the subject to Niabin, who returned an insolent and +threatening answer. Mr. Nairne, influenced by his feelings rather than +his judgment (for these people were quite removed from the Company's +control, and our interference in their quarrels was not necessary) +marched with a party of fifty or sixty men, of whom twelve were +Europeans, to chastise him; but on approaching the village they found it +so perfectly enclosed with growing bamboos, within which was a strong +paling, that they could not even see the place or an enemy. + +DEATH OF MR. NAIRNE. + +As they advanced however to examine the defences a shot from an unseen +person struck Mr. Nairne in the breast, and he expired immediately. In +him was lost a respectable gentleman of great scientific acquirements, +and a valuable servant of the Company. It was with much difficulty that +the party was enabled to save the body. A caffree and a Malay who fell in +the struggle were afterwards eaten. Thus the experience of later days is +found to agree with the uniform testimony of old writers; and although I +am aware that each and every of these proofs taken singly may admit of +some cavil, yet in the aggregate they will be thought to amount to +satisfactory evidence that human flesh is habitually eaten by a certain +class of the inhabitants of Sumatra. + +That this extraordinary nation has preserved the rude genuineness of its +character and manners may be attributed to various causes; as the want of +the precious metals in its country to excite the rapacity of invaders or +avarice of colonists, the vegetable riches of the soil being more +advantageously obtained in trade from the unmolested labours of the +natives; their total unacquaintance with navigation; the divided nature +of their government and independence of the petty chieftains. which are +circumstances unfavourable to the propagation of new opinions and +customs, as the contrary state of society may account for the complete +conversion of the subjects of Menangkabau to the faith of Mahomet; and +lastly the ideas entertained of the ferociousness of the people from the +practices above described, which may well be supposed to have damped the +ardour and restrained the zealous attempts of religious innovators. + + +CHAPTER 21. + +KINGDOM OF ACHIN. +ITS CAPITAL. +AIR. +INHABITANTS. +COMMERCE. +MANUFACTURES. +NAVIGATION. +COIN. +GOVERNMENT. +REVENUES. +PUNISHMENTS. + +Achin (properly Acheh) is the only kingdom of Sumatra that ever arrived +to such a degree of political consequence in the eyes of the western +people as to occasion its transactions becoming the subject of general +history. But its present condition is widely different from what it was +when by its power the Portuguese were prevented from gaining a footing in +the island, and its princes received embassies from all the great +potentates of Europe. + +SITUATION. + +Its situation occupies the north-western extreme of the island, bordering +generally on the country of the Battas; but, strictly speaking, its +extent, inland, reaches no farther than about fifty miles to the +southeast. Along the north and eastern coast its territory was +considered in 1778 as reaching to a place called Karti, not far distant +from Batubara river, including Pidir, Samerlonga, and Pase. On the +western coast, where it formerly boasted a dominion as far down as +Indrapura, and possessed complete jurisdiction at Tiku, it now extends no +farther than Barus; and even there, or at the intermediate ports, +although the Achinese influence is predominant and its merchants enjoy +the trade, the royal power seems to be little more than nominal. The +interior inhabitants from Achin to Singkel are distinguished into those +of Allas, Riah, and Karrau. The Achinese manners prevail among the two +former; but the last resemble the Battas, from whom they are divided by a +range of mountains. + +CAPITAL. + +The capital stands on a river which empties itself by several channels +near the north-west point of the island, or Achin Head, about a league +from the sea, where the shipping lies in a road rendered secure by the +shelter of several islands. The depth of water on the bar being no more +than four feet at low-water spring-tides, only the vessels of the country +can venture to pass it; and in the dry monsoon not even those of the +larger class. The town is situated on a plain, in a wide valley formed +like an amphitheatre by lofty ranges of hills. It is said to be extremely +populous, containing eight thousand houses, built of bamboos and rough +timbers, standing distinct from each other and mostly raised on piles +some feet above the ground in order to guard against the effects of +inundation. The appearance of the place and nature of the buildings +differ little from those of the generality of Malayan bazaars, excepting +that its superior wealth has occasioned the erection of a greater number +of public edifices, chiefly mosques, but without the smallest pretension +to magnificence. The country above the town is highly cultivated, and +abounds with small villages and groups of three or four houses, with +white mosques interspersed.* + +(*Footnote. The following description of the appearance of Achin, by a +Jesuit missionary who touched there in his way to China in 1698, is so +picturesque, and at the same time so just, that I shall make no apology +for introducing it. Imaginez vous une foret de cocotiers, de bambous, +d'ananas, de bagnaniers, au milieu de laquelle passe une assez belle +riviere toute couverte de bateaux; mettez dans cette foret une nombre +incroyable de maisons faites avec de cannes, de roseaux, des ecorces, et +disposez les de telle maniere qu'elles forment tantot des rues, et tantot +des quartiers separes: coupez ces divers quartiers de prairies et de +bois: repandez par tout dans cette grande foret, autant d'hommes qu'on en +voit dans nos villes, lorsqu'elles sont bien peuplees; vous vous formerez +une idee assez juste d'Achen; et vous conviendrez qu'une ville de ce gout +nouveau peut faire plaisir a des etrangers qui passent. Elle me parut +d'abord comme ces paysages sortis de l'imagination d'un peintre ou d'un +poete, qui rassemble sous un coup d'oeil, tout ce que la campagne a de +plus riant. Tout est neglige et naturel, champetre et meme un peu +sauvage. Quand on est dans la rade, on n'appercoit aucun vestige, ni +aucune apparence de ville, parceque des grands arbres qui bordent le +rivage en cachent toutes les maisons; mais outre le paysage qui est tres +beau, rien n'est plus agreable que de voir de matin un infinite de petits +bateaux de pecheurs qui sortent de la riviere avec le jour, et qui ne +rentrent que le soir, lorsque le soleil se couche. Vous diriez un essaim +d'abeilles qui reviennent a la cruche chargees du fruit de leur travail. +Lettres Edifiantes Tome 1. For a more modern account of this city I beg +leave to refer the reader to Captain Thomas Forrest's Voyage to the +Mergui Archipelago pages 38 to 60, where he will find a lively and +natural description of everything worthy of observation in the place, +with a detail of the circumstances attending his own reception at the +court, illustrated with an excellent plate.) + +The king's palace, if it deserves the appellation, is a very rude and +uncouth piece of architecture, designed to resist the attacks of internal +enemies, and surrounded for that purpose with a moat and strong walls, +but without any regular plan, or view to the modern system of military +defence.* + +(*Footnote. Near the gate of the palace are several pieces of brass +ordnance of an extraordinary size, of which some are Portuguese; but two +in particular, of English make, attract curiosity. They were sent by king +James the first to the reigning monarch of Acheen, and have still the +founder's name and the date legible upon them. The diameter of the bore +of one is eighteen inches; of the other twenty-two or twenty-four. Their +strength however does not appear to be in proportion to the calibre, nor +do they seem in other respects to be of adequate dimensions. James, who +abhorred bloodshed himself, was resolved that his present should not be +the instrument of it to others.) + +AIR. + +The air is esteemed comparatively healthy, the country being more free +from woods and stagnant water than most other parts; and fevers and +dysenteries, to which these local circumstances are supposed to give +occasion, are there said to be uncommon. But this must not be too readily +credited; for the degree of insalubrity attending situations in that +climate is known so frequently to alter, from inscrutable causes, that a +person who has resided only two or three years on a spot cannot pretend +to form a judgment; and the natives, from a natural partiality, are +always ready to extol the healthiness, as well as other imputed +advantages, of their native places. + +INHABITANTS. + +The Achinese differ much in their persons from the other Sumatrans, being +in general taller, stouter, and of darker complexions. They are by no +means in their present state a genuine people, but thought, with great +appearance of reason, to be a mixture of Battas and Malays, with chulias, +as they term the natives of the west of India, by whom their ports have +in all ages been frequented. In their dispositions they are more active +and industrious than some of their neighbours; they possess more +sagacity, have more knowledge of other countries, and as merchants they +deal upon a more extensive and liberal footing. But this last observation +applies rather to the traders at a distance from the capital and to their +transactions than to the conduct observed at Achin, which, according to +the temper and example of the reigning monarch, is often narrow, +extortionary, and oppressive. Their language is one of the general +dialects of the eastern islands, and its affinity to the Batta may be +observed in the comparative table; but they make use of the Malayan +character. In religion they are Mahometans, and having many priests, and +much intercourse with foreigners of the same faith, its forms and +ceremonies are observed with some strictness. + +COMMERCE. + +Although no longer the great mart of eastern commodities, Achin still +carries on a considerable trade, as well with private European merchants +as with the natives of that part of the coast of India called Telinga, +which is properly the country lying between the Kistna and Godavery +rivers; but the name, corrupted by the Malays to Kling, is commonly +applied to the whole coast of Coromandel. These supply it with salt, +cotton piece-goods, principally those called long-cloth white and blue, +and chintz with dark grounds; receiving in return gold-dust, raw silk of +inferior quality, betel-nut, patch-leaf (Melissa lotoria, called dilam by +the Malays) pepper, sulphur, camphor, and benzoin. The two latter are +carried thither from the river of Sungkel, where they are procured from +the country of the Battas, and the pepper from Pidir; but this article is +also exported from Susu to the amount of about two thousand tons +annually, where it sells at the rate of twelve dollars the pikul, chiefly +for gold and silver. The quality is not esteemed good, being gathered +before it is sufficiently ripe, and it is not cleaned like the Company's +pepper. The Americans have been of late years the chief purchasers. The +gold collected at Achin comes partly from the mountains in the +neighbourhood but chiefly from Nalabu and Susu. Its commerce, +independently of that of the out-ports, gives employment to from eight to +ten Kling vessels, of a hundred and fifty or two hundred tons burden, +which arrive annually from Porto Novo and Coringa about the month of +August, and sail again in February and March. These are not permitted to +touch at any places under the king's jurisdiction, on the eastern or +western coast, as it would be injurious to the profits of his trade, as +well as to his revenue from the customs and from the presents exacted on +the arrival of vessels, and for which his officers at those distant +places would not account with him. It must be understood that the king of +Achin, as is usual with the princes of this part of the world, is the +chief merchant of his capital, and endeavours to be, to the utmost of his +power, the monopolizer of its trade; but this he cannot at all times +effect, and the attempt has been the cause of frequent rebellions. There +is likewise a ship or two from Surat every year, the property of native +merchants there. The country is supplied with opium, taffetas, and +muslins from Bengal, and also with iron and many other articles of +merchandise, by the European traders. + +PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. + +The soil being light and fertile produces abundance of rice, esculent +vegetables, much cotton, and the finest tropical fruits. Both the mango +and mangustin are said to be of excellent quality. Cattle and other +articles of provision are in plenty, and reasonable in price. The plough +is there drawn by oxen, and the general style of cultivation shows a +skill in agriculture superior to what is seen in other parts of the +island. + +MANUFACTURES. + +Those few arts and manufactures which are known in other parts of the +island prevail likewise here, and some of them are carried to more +perfection. A considerable fabric of a thick species of cotton cloth, and +of striped or chequered stuff for the short drawers worn both by Malays +and Achinese, is established here, and supplies an extensive foreign +demand, particularly in the Rau country, where they form part of the +dress of the women as well as men. They weave also very handsome and rich +silk pieces, of a particular form, for that part of the bodydress which +the Malays call kain-sarong; but this manufacture had much decreased at +the period when my inquiries were made, owing, as the people said, to an +unavoidable failure in the breed of silkworms, but more probably to the +decay of industry amongst themselves, proceeding from their continual +civil disturbances. + +NAVIGATION. + +They are expert and bold navigators, and employ a variety of vessels +according to the voyages they have occasion to undertake, and the +purposes either of commerce or war for which they design them. The river +is covered with a number of small fishing vessels which go to sea with +the morning breeze and return in the afternoon with the sea-wind, full +laden. These are named koleh, are raised about two streaks on a sampan +bottom, have one mast and an upright or square sail, but long in +proportion to its breadth, which rolls up. These sometimes make their +appearance so far to the southward as Bencoolen. The banting is a trading +vessel, of a larger class, having two masts, with upright sails like the +former, rising at the stem and stern, and somewhat resembling a Chinese +junk, excepting in its size. They have also very long narrow boats, with +two masts, and double or single outriggers, called balabang and jalor. +These are chiefly used as war-boats, mount guns of the size of swivels, +and carry a number of men. For representations of various kinds of +vessels employed by these eastern people the reader is referred to the +plates in Captain Forrest's two voyages. + +COIN. + +They have a small thin adulterated gold coin, rudely stamped with Arabic +characters, called mas or massiah. Its current value is said to be about +fifteen, and its intrinsic about twelve pence, or five Madras fanams. +Eighty of these are equal to the bangkal, of which twenty make a katti. +The tail, here an imaginary valuation, is one-fifth of the bangkal, and +equal to sixteen mas. The small leaden money, called pitis or cash, is +likewise struck here for the service of the bazaar; but neither these nor +the former afford any convenience to the foreign trader. Dollars and +rupees pass current, and most other species of coin are taken at a +valuation; but payments are commonly made in gold dust, and for that +purpose everyone is provided with small scales or steelyards, called +daching. They carry their gold about them, wrapped in small pieces of +bladder (or rather the integument of the heart), and often make purchases +to so small an amount as to employ grains of padi or other seeds for +weights. + +GOVERNMENT. + +The monarchy is hereditary, and is more or less absolute in proportion to +the talents of the reigning prince; no other bounds being set to his +authority than the counterbalance or check it meets with from the power +of the great vassals, and disaffection of the commonalty. But this +resistance is exerted in so irregular a manner, and with so little view +to the public good, that nothing like liberty results from it. They +experience only an alternative of tyranny and anarchy, or the former +under different shapes. Many of the other Sumatran people are in the +possession of a very high degree of freedom, founded upon a rigid +attachment to their old established customs and laws. The king usually +maintains a guard of a hundred sepoys (from the Coromandel coast) about +his palace, but pays them indifferently. + +The grand council of the nation consists of the king or Sultan, the +maharaja, laksamana, paduka tuan, and bandhara. Inferior in rank to these +are the ulubalangs or military champions, among whom are several +gradations of rank, who sit on the king's right hand, and other officers +named kajuran, who sit on his left. At his feet sits a woman, to whom he +makes known his pleasure: by her it is communicated to a eunuch, who sits +next to her, and by him to an officer, named Kajuran Gondang, who then +proclaims it aloud to the assembly. There are also present two other +officers, one of whom has the government of the Bazaar or market, and the +other the superintending and carrying into execution the punishment of +criminals. All matters relative to commerce and the customs of the port +come under the jurisdiction of the Shabandar, who performs the ceremony +of giving the chap or licence for trade; which is done by lifting a +golden-hafted kris over the head of the merchant who arrives, and without +which he dares not to land his goods. Presents, the value of which are +become pretty regularly ascertained, are then sent to the king and his +officers. If the stranger be in the style of an ambassador the royal +elephants are sent down to carry him and his letters to the monarch's +presence; these being first delivered into the hands of a eunuch, who +places them in a silver dish, covered with rich silk, on the back of the +largest elephant, which is provided with a machine (houdar) for that +purpose. Within about a hundred yards of an open hall where the king sits +the cavalcade stops, and the ambassador dismounts and makes his obeisance +by bending his body and lifting his joined hands to his head. When he +enters the palace, if a European, he is obliged to take off his shoes, +and having made a second obeisance is seated upon a carpet on the floor, +where betel is brought to him. The throne was some years ago of ivory and +tortoiseshell; and when the place was governed by queens a curtain of +gauze was hung before it, which did not obstruct the audience, but +prevented any perfect view. The stranger, after some general discourse, +is then conducted to a separate building, where he is entertained with +the delicacies of the country by the officers of state, and in the +evening returns in the manner he came, surrounded by a prodigious number +of lights. On high days (ari raya) the king goes in great state, mounted +on an elephant richly caparisoned, to the great mosque, preceded by his +ulubalangs, who are armed nearly in the European manner. + +DIVISION OF THE COUNTRY. + +The whole kingdom is divided into certain small districts or communities, +called mukim, which seem to be equivalent to our parishes, and their +number is reckoned at one hundred and ninety, of which seventythree are +situated in the valley of Achin. Of these last are formed three larger +districts, named Duo-puluh duo (twenty-two), Duo-puluh-limo +(twenty-five), and Duo-puluh-anam (twenty-six), from the number of mukims +they respectively contain; each of which is governed by a panglima or +provincial governor, with an imam and four pangichis for the service of +each mosque. The country is extremely populous; but the computations with +which I have been furnished exceed so far all probability that I do not +venture to insert them. + +REVENUES. + +The regular tax or imposition to which the country is subject, for the +use of the crown, is one koyan (about eight hundred gallons) of padi from +each mukim, with a bag of rice, and about the value of one Spanish dollar +and a half in money, from each proprietor of a house, to be delivered at +the king's store in person, in return for which homage he never fails to +receive nearly an equivalent in tobacco or some other article. On certain +great festivals presents of cattle are made to the king by the +orang-kayas or nobles; but it is from the import and export customs on +merchandise that the revenue of the crown properly arises, and which of +course fluctuates considerably. What Europeans pay is between five and +six per cent, but the Kling merchants are understood to be charged with +much higher duties; in the whole not less than fifteen, of which twelve +in the hundred are taken out of the bales in the first instance, a +disparity they are enabled to support by the provident and frugal manner +in which they purchase their investments, the cheap rate at which they +navigate their vessels, and the manner of retailing their goods to the +natives. These sources of wealth are independent of the profit derived +from the trade, which is managed for his master by a person who is styled +the king's merchant. The revenues of the nobles accrue from taxes which +they lay, as feudal lords, upon the produce of the land cultivated by +their vassals. At Pidir a measure of rice is paid for every measure of +padi sown, which amounts to about a twentieth part. At Nalabu there is a +capitation tax of a dollar a year; and at various places on the inland +roads there are tolls collected upon provisions and goods which pass to +the capital. + +ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. + +The kings of Achin possess a grant of territory along the sea-coast as +far down as Bencoolen from the sultan of Menangkabau, whose superiority +has always been admitted by them, and will be perhaps so long as he +claims no authority over them, and exacts neither tribute nor homage. + +PUNISHMENTS. + +Achin has ever been remarkable for the severity with which crimes are +punished by their laws; the same rigour still subsists, and there is no +commutation admitted, as is regularly established in the southern +countries. There is great reason however to conclude that the poor alone +experience the rod of justice; the nobles being secure from retribution +in the number of their dependants. Petty theft is punished by suspending +the criminal from a tree, with a gun or heavy weight tied to his feet; or +by cutting off a finger, a hand, or leg, according to the nature of the +theft. Many of these mutilated and wretched objects are daily to be seen +in the streets. Robbery, on the highway and housebreaking, are punished +by drowning, and afterwards exposing the body on a stake for a few days. +If the robbery is committed upon an imam or priest the sacrilege is +expiated by burning the criminal alive. A man who is convicted of +adultery or rape is seldom attempted to be screened by his friends, but +is delivered up to the friends and relations of the injured husband or +father. These take him to some large plain and, forming themselves in a +circle, place him in the middle. A large weapon, called a gadubong, is +then delivered to him by one of his family, and if he can force his way +through those who surround him and make his escape he is not liable to +further prosecution; but it commonly happens that he is instantly cut to +pieces. In this case his relations bury him as they would a dead buffalo, +refusing to admit the corpse into their house, or to perform any funeral +rites. Would it not be reasonable to conclude that the Achinese, with so +much discouragement to vice both from law and prejudice, must prove a +moral and virtuous people? yet all travellers agree in representing them +as one of the most dishonest and flagitious nations of the East, which +the history of their government will tend to corroborate. + + +CHAPTER 22. + +HISTORY OF THE KINGDOM OF ACHIN, FROM THE PERIOD OF ITS BEING VISITED BY +EUROPEANS. + +PROCEEDINGS OF THE PORTUGUESE. + +The Portuguese, under the conduct of Vasco de Gama, doubled the Cape of +Good Hope in the year 1497, and arrived on the coast of Malabar in the +following year. These people, whom the spirit of glory, commerce, and +plunder led to the most magnanimous undertakings, were not so entirely +engaged by their conquests on the continent of India as to prevent them +from extending their views to the discovery of regions yet more distant. +They learned from the merchants of Guzerat some account of the riches and +importance of Malacca, a great trading city in the farther peninsula of +India, supposed by them the Golden Chersonnese of Ptolemy. Intelligence +of this was transmitted to their enterprising sovereign Emanuel, who +became impressed with a strong desire to avail himself of the flattering +advantages which this celebrated country held out to his ambition. + +1508. + +He equipped a fleet of four ships under the command of Diogo Lopez de +Sequeira, which sailed from Lisbon on the eighth day of April 1508 with +orders to explore and establish connexions in those eastern parts of +Asia. + +1509. + +After touching at Madagascar Sequeira proceeded to Cochin, where a ship +was added to his fleet, and, departing from thence on the eighth of +September 1509, he made sail towards Malacca; but having doubled the +extreme promontory of Sumatra (then supposed to be the Taprobane of the +ancients) he anchored at Pidir, a principal port of that island, in which +he found vessels from Pegu, Bengal, and other countries. The king of the +place, who, like other Mahometan princes, was styled sultan, sent off a +deputation to him, accompanied with refreshments, excusing himself, on +account of illness, from paying his compliments in person, but assuring +him at the same time that he should derive much pleasure from the +friendship and alliance of the Portuguese, whose fame had reached his +ears. Sequeira answered this message in such terms that, by consent of +the sultan, a monument of their amity was erected on the shore; or, more +properly, as the token of discovery and possession usually employed by +the European nations. He was received in the same manner at a place +called Pase, lying about twenty leagues farther to the eastward on the +same coast, and there also erected a monument or cross. Having procured +at each of these ports as much pepper as could be collected in a short +time he hastened to Malacca, where the news of his appearance in these +seas had anticipated his arrival. Here he was near falling a sacrifice to +the insidious policy of Mahmud, the reigning king, to whom the Portuguese +had been represented by the Arabian and Persian merchants (and not very +unjustly) as lawless pirates, who, under the pretext of establishing +commercial treaties, had, at first by encroachments, and afterwards with +insolent rapacity, ruined and enslaved the princes who were weak enough +to put a confidence in them, or to allow them a footing in their +dominions. He escaped the snares that were laid for him but lost many of +his people, and, leaving others in captivity, he returned to Europe, and +gave an account of his proceedings to the king. + +1510. + +A fleet was sent out in the year 1510 under Diogo Mendez to establish the +Portuguese interests at Malacca; but Affonso d'Alboquerque, the governor +of their affairs in India, thought proper to detain this squadron on the +coast of Malabar until he could proceed thither himself with a greater +force. + +1511. + +And accordingly on the second of May 1511 he set sail from Cochin with +nineteen ships and fourteen hundred men. He touched at Pidir, where he +found some of his countrymen who had made their escape from Malacca in a +boat and sought protection on the Sumatran shore. They represented that, +arriving off Pase, they had been ill-treated by the natives, who killed +one of their party and obliged them to fly to Pidir, where they met with +hospitality and kindness from the prince, who seemed desirous to +conciliate the regard of their nation. Alboquerque expressed himself +sensible of this instance of friendship, and renewed with the sultan the +alliance that had been formed by Sequeira. He then proceeded to Pase, +whose monarch endeavoured to exculpate himself from the outrage committed +against the Portuguese fugitives, and as he could not tarry to take +redress he concealed his resentment. In crossing over to Malacca he fell +in with a large junk, or country vessel, which he engaged and attempted +to board, but the enemy, setting fire to a quantity of inflammable +oleaginous matter, he was deterred from his design, with a narrow escape +of the destruction of his own ship. The junk was then battered from a +distance until forty of her men were killed, when Alboquerque, admiring +the bravery of the crew, proposed to them that, if they would strike and +acknowledge themselves vassals of Portugal, he would treat them as +friends and take them under his protection. This offer was accepted, and +the valiant defender of the vessel informed the governor that his name +was Jeinal, the lawful heir of the kingdom of Pase; he by whom it was +then ruled being a usurper, who, taking advantage of his minority and his +own situation as regent, had seized the crown: that he had made attempts +to assert his rights, but had been defeated in two battles, and was now +proceeding with his adherents to Java, some of the princes of which were +his relations, and would, he hoped, enable him to obtain possession of +his throne. + +1511. + +Alboquerque promised to effect it for him, and desired the prince to +accompany him to Malacca, where they arrived the first of July 1511. In +order to save the lives of the Portuguese prisoners, and if possible to +effect their recovery, he negotiated with the king of Malacca before he +proceeded to an attack on the place; which conduct of his Jeinal +construed into fear, and, forsaking his new friend, passed over in the +night to the Malayan monarch, whose protection he thought of more +consequence to him. When Alboquerque had subdued the place, which made a +vigorous resistance, the prince of Pase, seeing the error of his policy, +returned, and threw himself at the governor's feet, acknowledged his +injurious mistrust, and implored his pardon, which was not denied him. He +doubted however it seems of a sincere reconciliation and forgiveness, +and, perceiving that no measures were taking for restoring him to his +kingdom, but on the contrary that Alboquerque was preparing to leave +Malacca with a small force, and talked of performing his promise when he +should return from Goa, he took the resolution of again attaching himself +to the fortunes of the conquered monarch, and secretly collecting his +dependants fled once more from the protection of the Portuguese. He +probably was not insensible that the reigning king of Pase, his +adversary, had for some time taken abundant pains to procure the favour +of Alboquerque, and found an occasion of demonstrating his zeal. The +governor, on his return from Malacca, met with a violent storm on the +coast of Sumatra near the point of Timiang, where his ship was wrecked. +Part of the crew making a raft were driven to Pase, where the king +treated them with kindness and sent them to the coast of Coromandel by a +merchant ship. Some years after these events Jeinal was enabled by his +friends to carry a force to Pase, and obtained the ascendency there, but +did not long enjoy his power. + +Upon the reduction of Malacca the governor received messages from several +of the Sumatran princes, and amongst the rest from the king of a place +called Kampar, on the eastern coast, who had married a daughter of the +king of Malacca, but was on ill terms with his father-in-law. He desired +to become a vassal of the Portuguese crown, and to have leave to reside +under their jurisdiction. His view was to obtain the important office of +bandhara, or chief magistrate of the Malays, lately vacant by the +execution of him who possessed it. He sent before him a present of +lignum-aloes and gum-lac, the produce of his country, but Alboquerque, +suspecting the honesty of his intentions, and fearing that he either +aspired to the crown of Malacca or designed to entice the merchants to +resort to his own kingdom, refused to permit his coming, and gave the +superintendence of the natives to a person named Nina Chetuan. + +1514. + +After some years had elapsed, at the time when Jorge Alboquerque was +governor of Malacca, this king (Abdallah by name) persisting in his +views, paid him a visit, and was honourably received. At his departure he +had assurances given him of liberty to establish himself at Malacca, if +he should think proper, and Nina Chetuan was shortly afterwards removed +from his office, though no fault was alleged against him. He took the +disgrace so much to heart that, causing a pile to be erected before his +door, and setting fire to it, he threw himself into the flames.* + +(*Footnote. This man was not a Mahometan but one of the unconverted +natives of the peninsula who are always distinguished from the Moors by +the Portuguese writers.) + +The intention of appointing Abdallah to the office of bandhara was +quickly rumoured abroad, and, coming to the knowledge of the king of +Bintang, who was driven from Malacca and now carried on a vigorous war +against the Portuguese, under the command of the famous Laksamana, he +resolved to prevent his arrival there. For this purpose he leagued +himself with the king of Lingga, a neighbouring island, and sent out a +fleet of seventy armed boats to block up the port of Kampar. By the +valour of a small Portuguese armament this force was overcome in the +river of that name, and the king conducted in triumph to Malacca, where +he was invested in form with the important post he aspired to. But this +sacrifice of his independence proved an unfortunate measure to him; for +although he conducted himself in such a manner as should have given the +amplest satisfaction, and appears to have been irreproachable in the +execution of his trust, yet in the following year the king of Bintang +found means to inspire the governor with diffidence of his fidelity, and +jealousy of his power. + +1515. + +He was cruelly sentenced to death without the simplest forms of justice +and perished in the presence of an indignant multitude, whilst he called +heaven to witness his innocence and direct its vengeance against his +interested accusers. This iniquitous and impolitic proceeding had such an +effect upon the minds of the people that all of any property or repute +forsook the place, execrating the government of the Portuguese. The +consequences of this general odium reduced them to extreme difficulties +for provisions, which the neighbouring countries refused to supply them +with, and but for some grain at length procured from Siak with much +trouble the event had proved fatal to the garrison. + +1516. + +Fernando Perez d'Andrade, in his way to China, touched at Pase in order +to take in pepper. He found the people of the place, as well as the +merchants from Bengal, Cambay, and other parts of India, much +discontented with the measures then pursuing by the government of +Malacca, which had stationed an armed force to oblige all vessels to +resort thither with their merchandise and take in at that place, as an +emporium, the cargoes they were used to collect in the straits. The king +notwithstanding received Andrade well, and consented that the Portuguese +should have liberty to erect a fortress in his kingdom. + +1520. + +Extraordinary accounts having been related of certain islands abounding +in gold, which were reported by the general fame of India to lie off the +southern coast of Sumatra, a ship and small brigantine, under the command +of Diogo Pacheco, an experienced seaman, were sent in order to make the +discovery of them. Having proceeded as far as Daya the brigantine was +lost in a gale of wind. Pacheco stood on to Barus, a place renowned for +its gold trade, and for gum benzoin of a peculiar scent, which the +country produced. It was much frequented by vessels, both from the +neighbouring ports in the island, and from those in the West of India, +whence it was supplied with cotton cloths. The merchants, terrified at +the approach of the Portuguese, forsook their ships and fled +precipitately to the shore. The chiefs of the country sent to inquire the +motives of his visit, which he informed them were to establish friendly +connexions and to give them assurances of unmolested freedom of trade at +the city of Malacca. Refreshments were then ordered for his fleet, and +upon landing he was treated with respect by the inhabitants, who brought +the articles of their country to exchange with him for merchandise. His +chief view was to obtain information respecting the situation and other +circumstances of the ilhas d'Ouro, but they seemed jealous of imparting +any. At length, after giving him a laboured detail of the dangers +attending the navigation of the seas where they were said to lie, they +represented their situation to be distant a hundred leagues to the +south-east of Barus, amidst labyrinths of shoals and reefs through which +it was impossible to steer with any but the smallest boats. If these +islands, so celebrated about this time, existed anywhere but in the +regions of fancy,* they were probably those of Tiku, to which it is +possible that much gold might be brought from the neighbouring country of +Menangkabau. Pacheco, leaving Barus, proceeded to the southward, but did +not make the wished-for discovery. He reached the channel that divides +Sumatra from Java, which he called the strait of Polimban, from a city he +erroneously supposed to lie on the Javan shore, and passing through this +returned to Malacca by the east; being the first European who sailed +round the island of Sumatra. In the following year he sailed once more in +search of these islands, which were afterwards the object of many +fruitless voyages; but touching again at Barus he met with resistance +there and perished with all his companions. + +(*Footnote. Linschoten makes particular mention of having seen them, and +gives practical directions for the navigation, but the golden dreams of +the Portuguese were never realized in them.) + +A little before this time a ship under the command of Gaspar d'Acosta was +lost on the island of Gamispola (Pulo Gomez) near Achin Head, when the +people from Achin attacked and plundered the crew, killing many and +taking the rest prisoners. A ship also which belonged to Joano de Lima +was plundered in the road, and the Portuguese which belonged to her put +to death. These insults and others committed at Pase induced the governor +of Malacca, Garcia de Sa, to dispatch a vessel under Manuel Pacheco to +take satisfaction; which he endeavoured to effect by blocking up the +ports, and depriving the towns of all sources of provision, particularly +their fisheries. As he cruised between Achin and Pase a boat with five +men, going to take in fresh water at a river nigh to the latter, would +have been cut off had not the people, by wonderful efforts of valour, +overcome the numerous party which attacked them. The sultan, alarmed for +the consequences of this affray, sent immediately to sue for +reconciliation, offering to make atonement for the loss of property the +merchants had sustained by the licentiousness of his people, from a +participation in whose crimes he sought to vindicate himself. The +advantage derived from the connexion with this place induced the +government of Malacca to be satisfied with his apology, and cargoes of +pepper and raw silk were shortly after procured there; the former being +much wanted for the ships bound to China. + +Jeinal, who had fled to the king of Malacca, as before mentioned, +followed that monarch to the island of Bintang, and received one of his +daughters in marriage. Six or seven years elapsed before the situation of +affairs enabled the king to lend him any effectual assistance, but at +length some advantages gained over the Portuguese afforded a proper +opportunity, and accordingly a fleet was fitted out, with which Jeinal +sailed for Pase. In order to form a judgment of the transactions of this +kingdom it must be understood that the people, having an idea of +predestination, always conceived present possession to constitute right, +however that possession might have been acquired; but yet they made no +scruple of deposing and murdering their sovereigns, and justified their +acts by this argument; that the fate of concerns so important as the +lives of kings was in the hands of God, whose vicegerents they were, and +that if it was not agreeable to him and the consequence of his will that +they should perish by the daggers of their subjects it could not so +happen. Thus it appears that their religious ideas were just strong +enough to banish from their minds every moral sentiment. The natural +consequence of these maxims was that their kings were merely the tyrants +of the day; and it is said that whilst a certain ship remained in the +port no less than two were murdered, and a third set up: but allowance +should perhaps be made for the medium through which these accounts have +been transmitted to us. + +The maternal uncle of Jeinal, who, on account of his father's +infirmities, had been some time regent, and had deprived him of the +succession to the throne, was also king of Aru or Rou, a country not far +distant, and thus became monarch of both places. The caprices of the Pase +people, who submitted quietly to his usurpation, rendered them ere long +discontented with his government, and being a stranger they had the less +compunction in putting him to death. Another king was set up in his room, +who soon fell by the hands of some natives of Aru who resided at Pase, in +revenge for the assassination of their countryman. + +1519. + +A fresh monarch was elected by the people, and in his reign it was that +Jeinal appeared with a force from Bintang, who, carrying everything +before him, put his rival to death, and took possession of the throne. +The son of the deceased, a youth of about twelve years of age, made his +escape, accompanied by the Mulana or chief priest of the city, and +procured a conveyance to the west of India. There they threw themselves +at the feet of the Portuguese governor, Lopez Sequeira, then engaged in +an expedition to the Red Sea, imploring his aid to drive the invader from +their country, and to establish the young prince in his rights, who would +thenceforth consider himself as a vassal of the crown of Portugal. It was +urged that Jeinal, as being nearly allied to the king of Bintang, was an +avowed enemy to that nation, which he had manifested in some recent +outrages committed against the merchants from Malacca who traded at Pase. +Sequeira, partly from compassion, and partly from political motives, +resolved to succour this prince, and by placing him on the throne +establish a firm interest in the affairs of his kingdom. He accordingly +gave orders to Jorge Alboquerque, who was then proceeding with a strong +fleet towards Malacca, to take the youth with him, whose name was +Orfacam,* and after having expelled Jeinal to put him in possession of +the sovereignty. + +(*Footnote. Evidently corrupted, as are most of the country names and +titles, which shows that the Portuguese were not at this period much +conversant in the Malayan language.) + +When Jeinal entered upon the administration of the political concerns of +the kingdom, although he had promised his father-in-law to carry on the +war in concert with him, yet, being apprehensive of the effects of the +Portuguese power, he judged it more for his interest to seek a +reconciliation with them than to provoke their resentment, and in +pursuance of that system had so far recommended himself to Garcia de Sa, +the governor of Malacca, that he formed a treaty of alliance with him. +This was however soon interrupted, and chiefly by the imprudence of a man +named Diogo Vaz, who made use of such insulting language to the king, +because he delayed payment of a sum of money he owed him, that the +courtiers, seized with indignation, immediately stabbed him with their +krises, and, the alarm running through the city, others of the Portuguese +were likewise murdered. The news of this affair, reaching Goa, was an +additional motive for the resolution taken of dethroning him. + +1521. + +Jorge d'Alboquerque arrived at Pase in 1521 with Prince Orfacam, and the +inhabitants came off in great numbers to welcome his return. The king of +Aru had brought thither a considerable force the preceding day, designing +to take satisfaction for the murder of his relation, the uncle of Jeinal, +and now proposed to Alboquerque that they should make the attack in +conjunction, who thought proper to decline it. Jeinal, although he well +knew the intention of the enemy, yet sent a friendly message to +Alboquerque, who in answer required him to relinquish his crown in favour +of him whom he styled the lawful prince. He then represented to him the +injustice of attempting to force him from the possession of what was his, +not only by right of conquest but of hereditary descent, as was well +known to the governor himself; that he was willing to consider himself as +the vassal of the king of Portugal, and to grant every advantage in point +of trade that they could expect from the administration of his rival; and +that since his obtaining the crown he had manifested the utmost +friendship to the Portuguese, for which he appealed to the treaty formed +with him by the government of Malacca, which was not disturbed by any +fault that could in justice be imputed to himself. These arguments, like +all others that pass between states which harbour inimical designs, had +no effect upon Alboquerque, who, after reconnoitring the ground, gave +orders for the attack. The king was now sensible that there was nothing +left for him but to conquer or die, and resolved to defend himself to +extremity in an entrenchment he had formed at some distance from the town +of Pase, where he had never yet ventured to reside as the people were in +general incensed against him on account of the destruction of the late +king of their choice; for though they were ever ready to demolish those +whom they disliked, yet were they equally zealous to sacrifice their own +lives in the cause of those to whom they were attached. The Portuguese +force consisted but of three hundred men, yet such was the superiority +they possessed in war over the inhabitants of these countries that they +entirely routed Jeinal's army, which amounted to three thousand, with +many elephants, although they fought bravely. When he fell they became +dispirited, and, the people of Aru joining in the pursuit, a dreadful +slaughter succeeded, and upwards of two thousand Sumatrans lay dead, with +the loss of only five or six Europeans; but several were wounded, among +whom was Alboquerque himself. + +The next measure was to place the young prince upon the throne, which was +performed with much ceremony. The mulana was appointed his governor, and +Nina Cunapan, who in several instances had shown a friendship for the +Portuguese, was continued in the office of Shabandar. It was stipulated +that the prince should do homage to the crown of Portugal, give a grant +of the whole produce of pepper of his country at a certain price, and +defray the charges of a fortress which they then prepared to erect in his +kingdom, and of which Miranda d'Azeuedo was appointed captain, with a +garrison of a hundred soldiers. The materials were mostly timber, with +which the ruins of Jeinal's entrenchment supplied them. After +Alboquerque's departure the works had nearly fallen into the hands of an +enemy, named Melek-el-adil, who called himself sultan of Pase and made +several desultory attacks upon them; but he was at length totally routed, +and the fortifications were completed without further molestation. + +1521. + +A fleet which sailed from the west of India a short time after that of +Alboquerque, under the command of Jorge de Brito, anchored in the road of +Achin, in their way to the Molucca Islands. There was at this time at +that place a man of the name of Joano Borba, who spoke the language of +the country, having formerly fled thither from Pase when Diogo Vaz was +assassinated. Being afterwards intrusted with the command of a trading +vessel from Goa, which foundered at sea, he again reached Achin, with +nine men in a small boat, and was hospitably received by the king, when +he learned that the ship had been destined to his port. Borba came off to +the fleet along with a messenger sent by the king to welcome the +commander and offer him refreshments for his fleet, and, being a man of +extraordinary loquacity, he gave a pompous description to Brito of a +temple in the country in which was deposited a large quantity of gold: he +mentioned likewise that the king was in possession of the artillery and +merchandise of Gaspar d'Acosta's vessel, some time since wrecked there; +and also of the goods saved from a brigantine driven on shore at Daya, in +Pacheco's expedition; as well as of Joano de Lima's ship, which he had +caused to be cut off. Brito, being tempted by the golden prize, which he +conceived already in his power, and inflamed by Borba's representation of +the king's iniquities, sent a message in return to demand the restitution +of the artillery, ship, and goods, which had been unlawfully seized. The +king replied that, if he wanted those articles to be refunded, he must +make his demand to the sea which had swallowed them up. Brito and his +captains now resolved to proceed to an attack upon the place, and so +secure did they make themselves of their prey that they refused +permission to a ship lately arrived, and which did not belong to their +squadron, to join them or participate in the profits of their adventure. +They prepared to land two hundred men in small boats; a larger, with a +more considerable detachment and their artillery, being ordered to +follow. About daybreak they had proceeded halfway up the river, and came +near to a little fort designed to defend the passage, where Brito thought +it advisable to stop till the remainder of their force should join them; +but, being importuned by his people, he advanced to make himself master +of the fort, which was readily effected. Here he again resolved to make +his stand, but by the imprudence of his ensign, who had drawn some of the +party into a skirmish with the Achinese, he was forced to quit that post +in order to save his colours, which were in danger. At this juncture the +king appeared at the head of eight hundred or a thousand men, and six +elephants. A desperate conflict ensued, in which the Portuguese received +considerable injury. Brito sent orders for the party he had left to come +up, and endeavoured to retreat to the fort, but he found himself so +situated that it could not be executed without much loss, and presently +after he received a wound from an arrow through the cheeks. No assistance +arriving, it was proposed that they should retire in the best manner they +could to their boats; but this Brito would not consent to, preferring +death to flight, and immediately a lance pierced his thighs, and he fell +to the ground. The Portuguese, rendered desperate, renewed the combat +with redoubled vigour, all crowding to the spot where their commander +lay, but their exertions availed them nothing against such unequal force, +and they only rushed on to sacrifice. Almost every man was killed, and +among these were near fifty persons of family who had embarked as +volunteers. Those who escaped belonged chiefly to the corps-de-reserve, +who did not, or could not, come up in time to succour their unfortunate +companions. Upon this merited defeat the squadron immediately weighed +anchor, and, after falling in with two vessels bound on the discovery of +the Ilhas d'Ouro, arrived at Pase, where they found Alboquerque employed +in the construction of his fortress, and went with him to make an attack +on Bintang. + +STATE OF ACHIN IN 1511. + +At the period when Malacca fell into the hands of the Portuguese Achin +and Daya are said by the historians of that nation to have been provinces +subject to Pidir, and governed by two slaves belonging to the sultan of +that place, to each of whom he had given a niece in marriage. Slaves, it +must be understood, are in that country on a different footing from those +in most other parts of the world, and usually treated as children of the +family. Some of them are natives of the continent of India, whom their +masters employ to trade for them; allowing them a certain proportion of +the profits and permission to reside in a separate quarter of the city. +It frequently happened also that men of good birth, finding it necessary +to obtain the protection of some person in power, became voluntary slaves +for this purpose, and the nobles, being proud of such dependants, +encouraged the practice by treating them with a degree of respect, and in +many instances they made them their heirs. The slave of this description +who held the government of Achin had two sons, the elder of whom was +named Raja Ibrahim, and the younger Raja Lella, and were brought up in +the house of their master. The father being old was recalled from his +post; but on account of his faithful services the sultan gave the +succession to his eldest son, who appears to have been a youth of an +ambitious and very sanguinary temper. A jealousy had taken place between +him and the chief of Daya whilst they were together at Pidir, and as soon +as he came into power he resolved to seek revenge, and with that view +entered in a hostile manner the district of his rival. When the sultan +interposed it not only added fuel to his resentment but inspired him with +hatred towards his master, and he showed his disrespect by refusing to +deliver up, on the requisition of the sultan, certain Portuguese +prisoners taken from a vessel lost at Pulo Gomez, and which he afterwards +complied with at the intercession of the Shabandar of Pase. This conduct +manifesting an intention of entirely throwing off his allegiance, his +father endeavoured to recall him to a sense of his duty by representing +the obligations in which the family were indebted to the sultan, and the +relationship which so nearly connected them. But so far was this +admonition from producing any good effect that he took offence at his +father's presumption, and ordered him to be confined in a cage, where he +died. + +1521. + +Irritated by these acts, the sultan resolved to proceed to extremities +against him; but by means of the plunder of some Portuguese vessels, as +before related, and the recent defeat of Brito's party, he became so +strong in artillery and ammunition, and so much elated with success, that +he set his master at defiance and prepared to defend himself. His force +proved superior to that of Pidir, and in the end he obliged the sultan to +fly for refuge and assistance to the European fortress at Pase, +accompanied by his nephew, the chief of Daya, who was also forced from +his possessions. + +1522. + +Ibrahim had for some time infested the Portuguese by sending out parties +against them, both by sea and land; but these being always baffled in +their attempts with much loss, he began to conceive a violent antipathy +against that nation, which he ever after indulged to excess. He got +possession of the city of Pidir by bribing the principal officers, a mode +of warfare that he often found successful and seldom neglected to +attempt. These he prevailed upon to write a letter to their master, +couched in artful terms, in which they besought him to come to their +assistance with a body of Portuguese, as the only chance of repelling the +enemy by whom they pretended to be invested. The sultan showed this +letter to Andre Henriquez, then governor of the fort, who, thinking it a +good opportunity to chastise the Achinese, sent by sea a detachment of +eighty Europeans and two hundred Malays under the command of his brother +Manuel, whilst the sultan marched overland with a thousand men and +fifteen elephants to the relief of the place. They arrived at Pidir in +the night, but, being secretly informed that the king of Achin was master +of the city, and that the demand for succour was a stratagem, they +endeavoured to make their retreat; which the land troops effected, but +before the tide could enable the Portuguese to get their boats afloat +they were attacked by the Achinese, who killed Manuel and thirty-five of +his men. + +Henriquez, perceiving his situation at Pase was becoming critical, not +only from the force of the enemy but the sickly state of his garrison, +and the want of provisions, which the country people now withheld from +him, discontinuing the fairs that they were used to keep three times in +the week, dispatched advices to the governor of India, demanding +immediate succours, and also sent to request assistance of the king of +Aru, who had always proved the steadfast friend of Malacca, and who, +though not wealthy, because his country was not a place of trade, was yet +one of the most powerful princes in those parts. The king expressed his +joy in having an opportunity of serving his allies, and promised his +utmost aid; not only from friendship to them, but indignation against +Ibrahim, whom he regarded as a rebellious slave. + +1523. + +A supply of stores at length arrived from India under the charge of Lopo +d'Azuedo, who had orders to relieve Henriquez in the command; but, +disputes having arisen between them, and chiefly on the subject of +certain works which the shabandar of Pase had been permitted to erect +adjoining to the fortress, d'Azuedo, to avoid coming to an open rupture, +departed for Malacca. Ibrahim, having found means to corrupt the honesty +of this shabandar, who had received his office from Alboquerque, gained +intelligence through him of all that passed. This treason, it is +supposed, he would not have yielded to but for the desperate situation of +affairs. The country of Pase was now entirely in subjection to the +Achinese, and nothing remained unconquered but the capital, whilst the +garrison was distracted with internal divisions. + +After the acquisition of Pidir the king thought it necessary to remain +there some time in order to confirm his authority, and sent his brother +Raja Lella with a large army to reduce the territories of Pase, which he +effected in the course of three months, and with the more facility +because all the principal nobility had fallen in the action with Jeinal. +He fixed his camp within half a league of the city, and gave notice to +Ibrahim of the state in which matters were, who speedily joined him, +being anxious to render himself master of the place before the promised +succours from the king of Aru could arrive. His first step was to issue a +proclamation, giving notice to the people of the town that whoever should +submit to his authority within six days should have their lives, +families, and properties secured to them, but that all others must expect +to feel the punishment due to their obstinacy. This had the effect he +looked for, the greater part of the inhabitants coming over to his camp. +He then commenced his military operations, and in the third attack got +possession of the town after much slaughter; those who escaped his fury +taking shelter in the neighbouring mountains and thick woods. He sent a +message to the commander of the fortress, requiring him to abandon it and +to deliver into his hands the kings of Pidir and Daya, to whom he had +given protection. Henriquez returned a spirited answer to this summons, +but, being sickly at the time, at best of an unsteady disposition, and +too much attached to his trading concerns for a soldier, he resolved to +relinquish the command to his relation Aires Coelho, and take passage for +the West of India. + +1523. + +He had not advanced farther on his voyage than the point of Pidir, when +he fell in with two Portuguese ships bound to the Moluccas, the captains +of which he made acquainted with the situation of the garrison, and they +immediately proceeded to its relief. Arriving in the night they heard +great firing of cannon, and learned next morning that the Achinese had +made a furious assault in hopes of carrying the fortress before the +ships, which were descried at a distance, could throw succours into it. +They had mastered some of the outworks, and the garrison represented that +it was impossible for them to support such another shock without aid from +the vessels. The captains, with as much force as could be spared, entered +the fort, and a sally was shortly afterwards resolved on and executed, in +which the besiegers sustained considerable damage. Every effort was +likewise employed to repair the breaches and stop up the mines that had +been made by the enemy in order to effect a passage into the place. +Ibrahim now attempted to draw them into a snare by removing his camp to a +distance and making a feint of abandoning his enterprise; but this +stratagem proved ineffectual. Reflecting then with indignation that his +own force consisted of fifteen thousand men whilst that of the Europeans +did not exceed three hundred and fifty, many of whom were sick and +wounded, and others worn out with the fatigue of continual duty +(intelligence whereof was conveyed to him), he resolved once more to +return to the siege, and make a general assault upon all parts of the +fortification at once. Two hours before daybreak he caused the place to +be surrounded with eight thousand men, who approached in perfect silence. +The nighttime was preferred by these people for making their attacks as +being then most secure from the effect of firearms, and they also +generally chose a time of rain, when the powder would not burn. As soon +as they found themselves perceived they set up a hideous shout, and, +fixing their scaling ladders, made of bamboo and wonderfully light, to +the number of six hundred, they attempted to force their way through the +embrasures for the guns; but after a strenuous contest they were at +length repulsed. Seven elephants were driven with violence against the +paling of one of the bastions, which gave way before them like a hedge, +and overset all the men who were on it. Javelins and pikes these enormous +beasts made no account of, but upon setting fire to powder under their +trunks they drew back with precipitation in spite of all the efforts of +their drivers, overthrew their own people, and, flying to the distance of +several miles, could not again be brought into the lines. The Achinese +upon receiving this check thought to take revenge by setting fire to some +vessels that were in the dockyard; but this proved an unfortunate measure +to them, for by the light which it occasioned the garrison were enabled +to point their guns, and did abundant execution. + +1524. + +Henriquez, after beating sometime against a contrary wind, put back to +Pase, and, coming on shore the day after this conflict, resumed his +command. A council was soon after held to determine what measures were +fittest to be pursued in the present situation of affairs, and, taking +into their consideration that no further assistance could be expected +from the west of India in less than six months, that the garrison was +sickly and provisions short, it was resolved by a majority of votes to +abandon the place, and measures were taken accordingly. In order to +conceal their intentions from the enemy they ordered such of the +artillery and stores as could be removed conveniently to be packed up in +the form of merchandise and then shipped off. A party was left to set +fire to the buildings, and trains of powder were so disposed as to lead +to the larger cannon, which they overcharged that they might burst as +soon as heated. But this was not effectually executed, and the pieces +mostly fell into the hands of the Achinese, who upon the first alarm of +the evacuation rushed in, extinguished the flames, and turned upon the +Portuguese their own artillery, many of whom were killed in the water as +they hurried to get into their boats. They now lost as much credit by +this ill conducted retreat as they had acquired by their gallant defence, +and were insulted by the reproachful shouts of the enemy, whose power was +greatly increased by this acquisition of military stores, and of which +they often severely experienced the effects. To render their disgrace +more striking it happened that as they sailed out of the harbour they met +thirty boats laden with provisions for their use from the king of Aru, +who was himself on his march overland with four thousand men: and when +they arrived at Malacca they found troops and stores embarked there for +their relief. The unfortunate princes who had sought an asylum with them +now joined in their flight; the sultan of Pase proceeded to Malacca, and +the sultan of Pidir and chief of Daya took refuge with the king of Aru. + +1525. + +Raja Nara, king of Indragiri, in conjunction with a force from Bintang, +attacked the king of a neighbouring island called Lingga, who was in +friendship with the Portuguese. A message which passed on this occasion +gives a just idea of the style and manners of this people. Upon their +acquainting the king of Lingga, in their summons of surrender, that they +had lately overcome the fleet of Malacca, he replied that his +intelligence informed him of the contrary; that he had just made a +festival and killed fifty goats to celebrate one defeat which they had +received, and hoped soon to kill a hundred in order to celebrate a +second. His expectations were fulfilled, or rather anticipated, for the +Portuguese, having a knowledge of the king of Indragiri's design, sent +out a small fleet which routed the combined force before the king of +Lingga was acquainted with their arrival, his capital being situated high +up on the river. + +1526. + +In the next year, at the conquest of Bintang, this king unsolicited sent +assistance to his European allies. + +1527. + +However well founded the accounts may have been which the Portuguese have +given us of the cruelties committed against their people by the king of +Achin, the barbarity does not appear to have been only on one side. +Francisco de Mello, being sent in an armed vessel with dispatches to Goa, +met near Achin Head with a ship of that nation just arrived from Mecca +and supposed to be richly laden. As she had on board three hundred +Achinese and forty Arabs he dared not venture to board her, but battered +her at a distance, when suddenly she filled and sunk, to the extreme +disappointment of the Portuguese, who thereby lost their prize; but they +wreaked their vengeance on the unfortunate crew as they endeavoured to +save themselves by swimming, and boast that they did not suffer a man to +escape. Opportunities of retaliation soon offered. + +1528. + +Simano de Sousa, going with a reinforcement to the Moluccas from Cochin, +was overtaken in the bay by a violent storm, which forced him to stow +many of his guns in the hold; and, having lost several of his men through +fatigue, he made for the nearest port he could take shelter in, which +proved to be Achin. The king, having the destruction of the Portuguese at +heart, and resolving if possible to seize their vessel, sent off a +message to De Sousa recommending his standing in closer to the shore, +where he would have more shelter from the gale which still continued, and +lie more conveniently for getting off water and provisions, at the same +time inviting him to land. This artifice not succeeding, he ordered out +the next morning a thousand men in twenty boats, who at first pretended +they were come to assist in mooring the ship; but the captain, aware of +their hostile design, fired amongst them, when a fierce engagement took +place in which the Achinese were repulsed with great slaughter, but not +until they had destroyed forty of the Portuguese. The king, enraged at +this disappointment, ordered a second attack, threatening to have his +admiral trampled to death by elephants if he failed of success. A boat +was sent ahead of this fleet with a signal of peace, and assurances to De +Sousa that the king, as soon as he was made acquainted with the injury +that had been committed, had caused the perpetrators of it to be +punished, and now once more requested him to come on shore and trust to +his honour. This proposal some of the crew were inclined that he should +accept, but being animated by a speech that he made to them it was +resolved that they should die with arms in their hands in preference to a +disgraceful and hazardous submission. The combat was therefore renewed, +with extreme fury on the one side, and uncommon efforts of courage on the +other, and the assailants were a second time repulsed; but one of those +who had boarded the vessel and afterwards made his escape represented to +the Achinese the reduced and helpless situation of their enemy, and, +fresh supplies coming off, they were encouraged to return to the attack. +De Sousa and his people were at length almost all cut to pieces, and +those who survived, being desperately wounded, were overpowered, and led +prisoners to the king, who unexpectedly treated them with extraordinary +kindness, in order to cover the designs he harboured, and pretended to +lament the fate of their brave commander. He directed them to fix upon +one of their companions, who should go in his name to the governor of +Malacca, to desire he would immediately send to take possession of the +ship, which he meant to restore, as well as to liberate them. He hoped by +this artifice to draw more of the Portuguese into his power, and at the +same time to effect a purpose of a political nature. A war had recently +broken out between him and the king of Aru, the latter of whom had +deputed ambassadors to Malacca, to solicit assistance, in return for his +former services, and which was readily promised to him. It was highly the +interest of the king of Achin to prevent this junction, and therefore, +though determined to relax nothing in his plans of revenge, he hastened +to dispatch Antonio Caldeira, one of the captives, with proposals of +accommodation and alliance, offering to restore not only this vessel, but +also the artillery which he had taken at Pase. These terms appeared to +the governor too advantageous to be rejected. Conceiving a favourable +idea of the king's intentions, from the confidence which Caldeira, who +was deceived by the humanity shown to the wounded captives, appeared to +place in his sincerity, he became deaf to the representations that were +made to him by more experienced persons of his insidious character. A +message was sent back, agreeing to accept his friendship on the proposed +conditions, and engaging to withhold the promised succours from the king +of Aru. Caldeira, in his way to Achin, touched at an island, where he was +cut off with those who accompanied him. The ambassadors from Aru being +acquainted with this breach of faith, retired in great disgust, and the +king, incensed at the ingratitude shown him, concluded a peace with +Achin; but not till after an engagement between their fleets had taken +place, in which the victory remained undecided. + +In order that he might learn the causes of the obscurity in which his +negotiations with Malacca rested, Ibrahim dispatched a secret messenger +to Senaia Raja, bandhara of that city, with whom he held a +correspondence; desiring also to be informed of the strength of the +garrison. Hearing in answer that the governor newly arrived was inclined +to think favourably of him, he immediately sent an ambassador to wait on +him with assurances of his pacific and friendly disposition, who returned +in company with persons empowered, on the governor's part, to negotiate a +treaty of commerce. These, upon their arrival at Achin, were loaded with +favours and costly presents, the news of which quickly flew to Malacca, +and, the business they came on being adjusted, they were suffered to +depart; but they had not sailed far before they were overtaken by boats +sent after them, and were stripped and murdered. The governor, who had +heard of their setting out, concluded they were lost by accident. +Intelligence of this mistaken opinion was transmitted to the king, who +thereupon had the audacity to request that he might be honoured with the +presence of some Portuguese of rank and consequence in his capital, to +ratify in a becoming manner the articles that had been drawn up; as he +ardently wished to see that nation trafficking freely in his dominions. + +1529. + +The deluded governor, in compliance with this request, adopted the +resolution of sending thither a large ship under the command of Manuel +Pacheco, with a rich cargo, the property of himself and several merchants +of Malacca, who themselves embarked with the idea of making extraordinary +profits. Senaia conveyed notice of this preparation to Achin, informing +the king at the same time that, if he could make himself master of this +vessel, Malacca must fall an easy prey to him, as the place was weakened +of half its force for the equipment. When Pacheco approached the harbour +he was surrounded by a great number of boats, and some of the people +began to suspect treachery, but so strongly did the spirit of delusion +prevail in this business that they could not persuade the captain to put +himself on his guard. He soon had reason to repent his credulity. +Perceiving an arrow pass close by him, he hastened to put on his coat of +mail, when a second pierced his neck, and he soon expired. The vessel +then became an easy prey, and the people, being made prisoners, were +shortly afterwards massacred by the king's order, along with the +unfortunate remnant of De Sousa's crew, so long flattered with the hopes +of release. By this capture the king was supposed to have remained in +possession of more artillery than was left in Malacca, and he immediately +fitted out a fleet to take advantage of its exposed state. The pride of +success causing him to imagine it already in his power, he sent a +taunting message to the governor in which he thanked him for the late +instances of his liberality, and let him know he should trouble him for +the remainder of his naval force. + +Senaia had promised to put the citadel into his hands, and this had +certainly been executed but for an accident that discovered his +treasonable designs. The crews of some vessels of the Achinese fleet +landed on a part of the coast not far from the city, where they were well +entertained by the natives, and in the openness of conviviality related +the transactions which had lately passed at Achin, the correspondence of +Senaia, and the scheme that was laid for rising on the Portuguese when +they should be at church, murdering them, and seizing the fortress. +Intelligence of this was reported with speed to the governor, who had +Senaia instantly apprehended and executed. This punishment served to +intimidate those among the inhabitants who were engaged in the +conspiracy, and disconcerted the plans of the king of Achin. + +This appears to be the last transaction of Ibrahim's reign recorded by +the Portuguese historians. His death is stated by De Barros to have taken +place in the year 1528 in consequence of poison administered to him by +one of his wives, to revenge the injuries her brother, the chief of Daya, +had suffered at his hand. In a Malayan work (lately come into my +possession) containing the annals of the kingdom of Achin, it is said +that a king, whose title was sultan Saleh-eddin-shah, obtained the +sovereignty in a year answering to 1511 of our era, and who, after +reigning about eighteen years, was dethroned by a brother in 1529. +Notwithstanding some apparent discordance between the two accounts there +can be little doubt of the circumstances applying to the same individual, +as it may well be presumed that, according to the usual practice in the +East, he adopted upon ascending the throne a title different from the +name which he had originally borne, although that might continue to be +his more familiar appellation, especially in the mouths of his enemies. +The want of precise coincidence in the dates cannot be thought an +objection, as the event not falling under the immediate observation of +the Portuguese they cannot pretend to accuracy within a few months, and +even their account of the subsequent transactions renders it more +probable that it happened in 1529; nor are the facts of his being +dethroned by the brother, or put to death by the sister, materially at +variance with each other; and the latter circumstance, whether true or +false, might naturally enough be reported at Malacca. + +1529. + +His successor took the name of Ala-eddin-shah, and afterwards, from his +great enterprises, acquired the additional epithet of keher or the +powerful. By the Portuguese he is said to have styled himself king of +Achin, Barus, Pidir, Pase, Daya, and Batta, prince of the land of the two +seas, and of the mines of Menangkabau. + +1537. + +Nothing is recorded of his reign until the year 1537, in which he twice +attacked Malacca. The first time he sent an army of three thousand men +who landed near the city by night, unperceived by the garrison, and, +having committed some ravages in the suburbs, were advancing to the +bridge, when the governor, Estavano de Gama, sallied out with a party and +obliged them to retreat for shelter to the woods. Here they defended +themselves during the next day, but on the following night they +re-embarked, with the loss of five hundred men. A few months afterwards +the king had the place invested with a larger force; but in the interval +the works had been repaired and strengthened, and after three days +ineffectual attempt the Achinese were again constrained to retire. + +1547. + +In the year 1547 he once more fitted out a fleet against Malacca, where a +descent was made; but, contented with some trifling plunder, the army +re-embarked, and the vessels proceeded to the river of Parles on the +Malayan coast. Hither they were followed by a Portuguese squadron, which +attacked and defeated a division of the fleet at the mouth of the river. +This victory was rendered famous, not so much by the valour of the +combatants, as by a revelation opportunely made from heaven to the +celebrated missionary Francisco Xavier of the time and circumstances of +it, and which he announced to the garrison at a moment when the approach +of a powerful invader from another quarter had caused much alarm and +apprehension among them. + +Many transactions of the reign of this prince, particularly with the +neighbouring states of Batta and Aru (about the years 1539 and 1541) are +mentioned by Ferdinand Mendez Pinto; but his writings are too apocryphal +to allow of the facts being recorded upon his authority. Yet there is the +strongest internal evidence of his having been more intimately acquainted +with the countries of which we are now speaking, the character of the +inhabitants, and the political transactions of the period, than any of +his contemporaries; and it appears highly probable that what he has +related is substantially true: but there is also reason to believe that +he composed his work from recollection after his return to Europe, and he +may not have been scrupulous in supplying from a fertile imagination the +unavoidable failures of a memory, however richly stored. + +1556. + +The death of Ala-eddin took place, according to the Annals, in 1556, +after a reign of twenty-eight years. + +1565. + +He was succeeded by sultan Husseinshah, who reigned about eight, and +dying in 1565 was succeeded by his son, an infant. This child survived +only seven months; and in the same year the throne was occupied by Raja +Firman-shah, who was murdered soon after. + +1567. + +His successor, Raja Janil, experienced a similar fate when he had reigned +ten months. This event is placed in 1567. Sultan Mansur-shah, from the +kingdom of Perak in the peninsula, was the next who ascended the throne. + +1567. + +The western powers of India having formed a league for the purpose of +extirpating the Portuguese, the king of Achin was invited to accede to +it, and, in conformity with the engagements by which the respective +parties were bound, he prepared to attack them in Malacca, and carried +thither a numerous fleet, in which were fifteen thousand people of his +own subjects, and four hundred Turks, with two hundred pieces of +artillery of different sizes. In order to amuse the enemy he gave out +that his force was destined against Java, and sent a letter, accompanied +with a present of a kris, to the governor, professing strong sentiments +of friendship. A person whom he turned on shore with marks of ignominy, +being suspected for a spy, was taken up, and being put to the torture +confessed that he was employed by the Ottoman emperor and king of Achin +to poison the principal officers of the place, and to set fire to their +magazine. He was put to death, and his mutilated carcase was sent off to +the king. This was the signal for hostilities. He immediately landed with +all his men and commenced a regular siege. Sallies were made with various +success and very unequal numbers. In one of these the chief of Aru, the +king's eldest son, was killed. In another the Portuguese were defeated +and lost many officers. A variety of stratagems were employed to work +upon the fears and shake the fidelity of the inhabitants of the town. A +general assault was given in which, after prodigious efforts of courage, +and imminent risk of destruction, the besieged remained victorious. The +king, seeing all his attempts fruitless, at length departed, having lost +three thousand men before the walls, beside about five hundred who were +said to have died of their wounds on the passage. The king of Ujong-tanah +or Johor, who arrived with a fleet to the assistance of the place, found +the sea for a long distance covered with dead bodies. This was esteemed +one of the most desperate and honourable sieges the Portuguese +experienced in India, their whole force consisting of but fifteen hundred +men, of whom no more than two hundred were Europeans. + +1568. + +In the following year a vessel from Achin bound to Java, with ambassadors +on board to the queen of Japara, in whom the king wished to raise up a +new enemy against the Portuguese, was met in the straits by a vessel from +Malacca, who took her and put all the people to the sword. It appears to +have been a maxim in these wars never to give quarter to an enemy, +whether resisting or submitting. + +1569. + +In 1569 a single ship, commanded by Lopez Carrasco, passing near Achin, +fell in with a fleet coming out of that port, consisting of twenty large +galleys and a hundred and eighty other vessels, commanded by the king in +person, and supposed to be designed against Malacca. The situation of the +Portuguese was desperate. They could not expect to escape, and therefore +resolved to die like men. During three days they sustained a continual +attack, when, after having by incredible exertions destroyed forty of the +enemy's vessels, and being themselves reduced to the state of a wreck, a +second ship appeared in sight. The king perceiving this retired into the +harbour with his shattered forces. + +It is difficult to determine which of the two is the more astonishing, +the vigorous stand made by such a handful of men as the whole strength of +Malacca consisted of, or the prodigious resources and perseverance of the +Achinese monarch. + +1573. + +In 1573, after forming an alliance with the queen of Japara, the object +of which was the destruction of the European power, he appeared again +before Malacca with ninety vessels, twenty-five of them large galleys, +with seven thousand men and great store of artillery. He began his +operations by sending a party to set fire to the suburbs of the town, but +a timely shower of rain prevented its taking effect. He then resolved on +a different mode of warfare, and tried to starve the place to a surrender +by blocking up the harbour and cutting off all supplies of provisions. +The Portuguese, to prevent the fatal consequences of this measure, +collected those few vessels which they were masters of, and, a merchant +ship of some force arriving opportunely, they put to sea, attacked the +enemy's fleet, killed the principal captain, and obtained a complete +victory. + +1574. + +In the year following Malacca was invested by an armada from the queen of +Japara, of three hundred sail, eighty of which were junks of four hundred +tons burden. After besieging the place for three months, till the very +air became corrupted by their stay, the fleet retired with little more +than five thousand men, of fifteen that embarked on the expedition. + +1575. + +Scarcely was the Javanese force departed when the king of Achin once more +appeared with a fleet that is described as covering the straits. He +ordered an attack upon three Portuguese frigates that were in the road +protecting some provision vessels, which was executed with such a furious +discharge of artillery that they were presently destroyed with all their +crews. This was a dreadful blow to Malacca, and lamented, as the +historian relates, with tears of blood by the little garrison, who were +not now above a hundred and fifty men, and of those a great part +noneffective. The king, elated with his success, landed his troops, and +laid siege to the fort, which he battered at intervals during seventeen +days. The fire of the Portuguese became very slack, and after some time +totally ceased, as the governor judged it prudent to reserve his small +stock of ammunition for an effort at the last extremity. The king, +alarmed at this silence, which he construed into a preparation for some +dangerous stratagem, was seized with a panic, and, suddenly raising the +siege, embarked with the utmost precipitation; unexpectedly relieving the +garrison from the ruin that hung over it, and which seemed inevitable in +the ordinary course of events. + +1582. + +In 1582 we find the king appearing again before Malacca with a hundred +and fifty sail of vessels. After some skirmishes with the Portuguese +ships, in which the success was nearly equal on both sides, the Achinese +proceeded to attack Johor, the king of which was then in alliance with +Malacca. Twelve ships followed them thither, and, having burned some of +their galleys, defeated the rest and obliged them to fly to Achin. The +operations of these campaigns, and particularly the valour of the +commander, named Raja Makuta, are alluded to in Queen Elizabeth's letter +to the king, delivered in 1602 by Sir James Lancaster. + +About three or four years after this misfortune Mansur-shah prepared a +fleet of no less than three hundred sail of vessels, and was ready to +embark once more upon his favourite enterprise, when he was murdered, +together with his queen and many of the principal nobility, by the +general of the forces, who had long formed designs upon the crown. + +1585. + +This was perpetrated in May 1585, when he had reigned nearly eighteen +years. In his time the consequence of the kingdom of Achin is represented +to have arrived at a considerable height, and its friendship to have been +courted by the most powerful states. No city in India possessed a more +flourishing trade, the port being crowded with merchant vessels which +were encouraged to resort thither by the moderate rates of the customs +levied; and although the Portuguese and their ships were continually +plundered, those belonging to every Asiatic power, from Mecca in the West +to Japan in the East, appear to have enjoyed protection and security. The +despotic authority of the monarch was counterpoised by the influence of +the orang-kayas or nobility, who are described as being possessed of +great wealth, living in fortified houses, surrounded by numerous +dependants, and feeling themselves above control, often giving a +licentious range to their proud and impatient tempers. + +The late monarch's daughter and only child was married to the king of +Johor,* by whom she had a son, who, being regarded as heir to the crown +of Achin, had been brought to the latter place to be educated under the +eye of his grandfather. When the general (whose name is corruptly written +Moratiza) assumed the powers of government, he declared himself the +protector of this child, and we find him mentioned in the Annals by the +title of Sultan Buyong (or the Boy). + +(*Footnote. The king of Achin sent on this occasion to Johor a piece of +ordnance, such as for greatness, length, and workmanship (says +Linschoten), could hardly be matched in all Christendom. It was +afterwards taken by the Portuguese, who shipped it for Europe, but the +vessel was lost in her passage.) + +1588. + +But before he had completed the third year of his nominal reign he also +was dispatched, and the usurper took formal possession of the throne in +the year 1588, by the name of Ala-eddin Rayet-shah,* being then at an +advanced period of life. + +(*Footnote. Valentyn, by an obvious corruption, names him Sulthan Alciden +Ryetza, and this coincidence is strongly in favour of the authenticity +and correctness of the Annals. John Davis, who will be hereafter +mentioned, calls him, with sufficient accuracy, Sultan Aladin.) + +The Annals say he was the grandson of Sultan Firman-shah; but the +Europeans who visited Achin during his reign report him to have been +originally a fisherman, who, having afterwards served in the wars against +Malacca, showed so much courage, prudence, and skill in maritime affairs +that the late king made him at length the chief commander of his forces, +and gave him one of his nearest kinswomen to wife, in right of whom he is +said to have laid claim to the throne. + +The French Commodore Beaulieu relates the circumstances of this +revolution in a very different manner.* + +(*Footnote. The commodore had great opportunity of information, was a man +of very superior ability, and indefatigable in his inquiries upon all +subjects, as appears by the excellent account of his voyage, and of Achin +in particular, written by himself, and published in Thevenot's +collection, of which there is an English translation in Harris; but it is +possible he may, in this instance, have been amused by a plausible tale +from the grandson of this monarch, with whom he had much intercourse. +John Davis, an intelligent English navigator whose account I have +followed, might have been more likely to hear the truth as he was at +Achin (though not a frequenter of the court) during Ala-eddin's reign, +whereas Beaulieu did not arrive till twenty' years after, and the report +of his having been originally a fisherman is also mentioned by the Dutch +writers.) + +He says that, upon the extinction of the ancient royal line, which +happened about forty years before the period at which he wrote, the +orang-kayas met in order to choose a king, but, every one affecting the +dignity for himself, they could not agree and resolved to decide it by +force. In this ferment the cadi or chief judge by his authority and +remonstrances persuaded them to offer the crown to a certain noble who in +all these divisions had taken no part, but had lived in the reputation of +a wise, experienced man, being then seventy years of age, and descended +from one of the most respectable families of the country. After several +excuses on his side, and entreaties and even threats on theirs, he at +length consented to accept the dignity thus imposed upon him, provided +they should regard him as a father, and receive correction from him as +his children; but no sooner was he in possession of the sovereign power +than (like Pope Sixtus the Fifth) he showed a different face, and the +first step after his accession was to invite the orang-kayas to a feast, +where, as they were separately introduced, he caused them to be seized +and murdered in a court behind the palace. He then proceeded to demolish +their fortified houses, and lodged their cannon, arms, and goods in the +castle, taking measures to prevent in future the erection of any +buildings of substantial materials that could afford him grounds of +jealousy. He raised his own adherents from the lower class of people to +the first dignities of the state, and of those who presumed to express +any disapprobation of his conduct he made great slaughter, being supposed +to have executed not less than twenty thousand persons in the first year +of his reign. + +From the silence of the Portuguese writers with respect to the actions of +this king we have reason to conclude that he did not make any attempts to +disturb their settlement of Malacca; and it even appears that some +persons in the character of ambassadors or agents from that power resided +at Achin, the principal object of whose policy appears to have been that +of inspiring him with jealousy and hatred of the Hollanders, who in their +turn were actively exerting themselves to supplant the conquerors of +India. + +1600. + +Towards the close of the sixteenth century they began to navigate these +seas; and in June 1600 visited Achin with two ships, but had no cause to +boast of the hospitality of their reception. An attempt was made to cut +them off, and evidently by the orders or connivance of the king, who had +prevailed upon the Dutch admiral to take on board troops and military +stores for an expedition meditated, or pretended, against the city of +Johor, which these ships were to bombard. Several of the crews were +murdered, but after a desperate conflict in both ships the treacherous +assailants were overcome and driven into the water, "and it was some +pleasure (says John Davis, an Englishman, who was the principal pilot of +the squadron) to see how the base Indians did fly, how they were killed, +and how well they were drowned."* This barbarous and apparently +unprovoked attack was attributed, but perhaps without any just grounds, +to the instigation of the Portuguese. + +(*Footnote. All the Dutchmen on shore at the time were made prisoners, +and many of them continued in that state for several years. Among these +was Captain Frederick Houtman, whose Vocabulary of the Malayan language +was printed at Amsterdam in 1604, being the first that was published in +Europe. My copy has the writer's autograph.) + +1600. + +In November 1600 Paulus van Caarden, having also the command of two Dutch +ships, was received upon his landing with much ceremony; but at his first +audience the king refused to read a letter from the Prince of Orange, +upon its being suggested to him that instead of paper it was written on +the skin of an unclean animal; and the subsequent treatment experienced +by this officer was uniformly bad. It appears however that in December +1601 the king was so far reconciled to this new power as to send two +ambassadors to Holland, one of whom died there in August 1602, and the +other returned to Achin subsequently to the death of his master. + +1602. + +The first English fleet that made its appearance in this part of the +world, and laid the foundation of a commerce which was in time to eclipse +that of every other European state, arrived at Achin in June 1602. Sir +James Lancaster, who commanded it, was received by the king with abundant +ceremony and respect, which seem with these monarchs to have been usually +proportioned to the number of vessels and apparent strength of their +foreign guests. The queen of England's letter was conveyed to court with +great pomp, and the general, after delivering a rich present, the most +admired article of which was a fan of feathers, declared the purpose of +his coming was to establish peace and amity between his royal mistress +and her loving brother, the great and mighty king of Achin. He was +invited to a banquet prepared for his entertainment, in which the service +was of gold, and the king's damsels, who were richly attired and adorned +with bracelets and jewels, were ordered to divert him with dancing and +music. Before he retired he was arrayed by the king in a magnificent +habit of the country, and armed with two krises. In the present sent as a +return for the queen's there was, among other matters, a valuable ruby +set in a ring. Two of the nobles, one of whom was the chief priest, were +appointed to settle with Lancaster the terms of a commercial treaty, +which was accordingly drawn up and executed in an explicit and regular +manner. The Portuguese ambassador, or more properly the Spanish, as those +kingdoms were now united, kept a watchful and jealous eye upon his +proceedings; but by bribing the spies who surrounded him he foiled them +at their own arts, and acquired intelligence that enabled him to take a +rich prize in the straits of Malacca, with which he returned to Achin; +and, having loaded what pepper he could procure there, took his departure +in November of the same year. On this occasion it was requested by the +king that he and his officers would favour him by singing one of the +psalms of David, which was performed with much solemnity. + +Very little is known of the military transactions of this reign, and no +conquest but that of Pase is recorded. He had two sons, the younger of +whom he made king of Pidir, and the elder, styled Sultan Muda, he kept at +Achin, in order to succeed him in the throne. In the year 1603 he +resolved to divide the charge of government with his intended heir, as he +found his extraordinary age began to render him unequal to the task, and +accordingly invested him with royal dignity; but the effect which might +have been foreseen quickly followed this measure. The son, who was +already advanced in years, became impatient to enjoy more complete power, +and, thinking his father had possessed the crown sufficiently long, he +confined him in a prison, where his days were soon ended. + +1604. + +The exact period at which this event took place is not known, but, +calculating from the duration of his reign as stated in the Annals, it +must have been early in the year 1604.* He was then ninety-five years of +age,** and described to be a hale man, but extremely gross and fat. + +(*Footnote. The Dutch commander Joris van Spilbergen took leave of him in +April 1603, and his ambassador to Holland, who returned in December, +1604, found his son on the throne, according to Valentyn. Commodore +Beaulieu says he died in 1603.) + +(**Footnote. According to Beaulieu Davis says he was about a hundred; and +the Dutch voyages mention that his great age prevented his ever appearing +out of his palace.) + +His constitution must have been uncommonly vigorous, and his muscular +strength is indicated by this ludicrous circumstance, that when he once +condescended to embrace a Dutch admiral, contrary to the usual manners of +his country, the pressure of his arms was so violent as to cause +excessive pain to the person so honoured. He was passionately addicted to +women, gaming, and drink, his favourite beverage being arrack. By the +severity of his punishments he kept his subjects in extreme awe of him; +and the merchants were obliged to submit to more exactions and +oppressions than were felt under the government of his predecessors. The +seizure of certain vessels belonging to the people of Bantam and other +arbitrary proceedings of that nature are said to have deterred the +traders of India from entering into his ports. + +The new king, who took the name of Ali Maghayat-shah, proved himself, +from indolence or want of capacity, unfit to reign. He was always +surrounded by his women, who were not only his attendants but his guards, +and carried arms for that purpose. His occupations were the bath and the +chase, and the affairs of state were neglected insomuch that murders, +robberies, oppression, and an infinity of disorders took place in the +kingdom for want of a regular and strict administration of justice. A son +of the daughter of Ala-eddin had been a favourite of his grandfather, at +the time of whose death he was twenty-three years of age, and continued, +with his mother, to reside at the court after that event. His uncle the +king of Achin having given him a rebuke on some occasion, he left his +palace abruptly and fled to the king of Pidir, who received him with +affection, and refused to send him back at the desire of the elder +brother, or to offer any violence to a young prince whom their father +loved. This was the occasion of an inveterate war which cost the lives of +many thousand people. The nephew commanded the forces of Pidir, and for +some time maintained the advantage, but these, at length seeing +themselves much inferior in numbers to the army of Ali-Maghayat, refused +to march, and the king was obliged to give him up, when he was conveyed +to Achin and put in close confinement. + +1606. + +Not long afterwards a Portuguese squadron under Martin Alfonso, going to +the relief of Malacca, then besieged by the Dutch, anchored in Achin road +with the resolution of taking revenge on the king for receiving these +their rivals into his ports, contrary to the stipulations of a treaty +that had been entered into between them. The viceroy landed his men, who +were opposed by a strong force on the part of the Achinese; but after a +stout resistance they gained the first turf fort with two pieces of +cannon, and commenced an attack upon the second, of masonry. In this +critical juncture the young prince sent a message to his uncle requesting +he might be permitted to join the army and expose himself in the ranks, +declaring himself more willing to die in battle against the Kafers (so +they always affected to call the Portuguese) than to languish like a +slave in chains. The fears which operated upon the king's mind induced +him to consent to his release. The prince showed so much bravery on this +occasion, and conducted two or three attacks with such success that +Alfonso was obliged to order a retreat, after wasting two days and losing +three hundred men in this fruitless attempt. The reputation of the prince +was raised by this affair to a high pitch amongst the people of Achin. +His mother, who was an active, ambitious woman, formed the design of +placing him on the throne, and furnished him with large sums of money, to +be distributed in gratuities amongst the principal orang cayas. At the +same time he endeavoured to ingratiate himself by his manners with all +classes of people. To the rich he was courteous; to the poor he was +affable; and he was the constant companion of those who were in the +profession of arms. When the king had reigned between three and four +years he died suddenly, and at the hour of his death the prince got +access to the castle. He bribed the guards, made liberal promises to the +officers, advanced a large sum of money to the governor, and sending for +the chief priest obliged him by threats to crown him. In fine he managed +the revolution so happily that he was proclaimed king before night, to +the great joy of the people, who conceived vast hopes from his +liberality, courtesy, and valour. The king of Pidir was speedily +acquainted with the news of his brother's death, but not of the +subsequent transactions, and came the next day to take possession of his +inheritance. As he approached the castle with a small retinue he was +seized by orders from the reigning prince, who, forgetting the favours he +had received, kept him prisoner for a month, and then, sending him into +the country under the pretence of a commodious retreat, had him murdered +on the way. Those who put the crown on his head were not better requited; +particularly the Maharaja, or governor of the castle. In a short time his +disappointed subjects found that instead of being humane he was cruel; +instead of being liberal he displayed extreme avarice, and instead of +being affable he manifested a temper austere and inexorable. + +This king, whom the Annals name Iskander Muda, was known to our +travellers by the title of sultan Paduka Sri (words equivalent to most +gracious), sovereign of Achin and of the countries of Aru, Dilli, Johor, +Pahang, Kedah, and Perak on the one side, and of Barus, Pasaman, Tiku, +Sileda, and Priaman on the other. Some of these places were conquered by +him, and others he inherited. + +1613. + +He showed much friendship to the Hollanders in the early part of his +reign; and in the year 1613 gave permission to the English to settle a +factory, granting them many indulgences, in consequence of a letter and +present from king James the first. He bestowed on Captain Best, who was +the bearer of them, the title of orang kaya putih, and entertained him +with the fighting of elephants, buffaloes, rams, and tigers. His answer +to king James (a translation of which is to be found in Purchas) is +couched in the most friendly terms, and he there styles himself king of +all Sumatra. He expressed a strong desire that the king of England should +send him one of his countrywomen to wife, and promised to make her eldest +son king of all the pepper countries, that so the English might be +supplied with that commodity by a monarch of their own nation. But +notwithstanding his strong professions of attachment to us, and his +natural connexion with the Hollanders, arising from their joint enmity to +the Portuguese, it was not many years before he began to oppress both +nations and use his endeavours to ruin their trade. He became jealous of +their growing power, and particularly in consequence of intelligence that +reached him concerning the encroachments made by the latter in the island +of Java. + +The conquest of Aru seems never to have been thoroughly effected by the +kings of Achin. Paduka Sri carried his arms thither and boasted of having +obtained some victories. + +1613. + +In 1613 he subdued Siak in its neighbourhood. Early in the same year he +sent an expedition against the kingdom of Johor (which had always +maintained a political connexion with Aru) and, reducing the city after a +siege of twenty-nine days, plundered it of everything moveable, and made +slaves of the miserable inhabitants. The king fled to the island of +Bintang, but his youngest brother and coadjutor was taken prisoner and +carried to Achin. The old king of Johor, who had so often engaged the +Portuguese, left three sons, the eldest of whom succeeded him by the +title of Iang de per-tuan.* + +(*Footnote. This is not an individual title or proper name, but signifies +the sovereign or reigning monarch. In like manner Rega Bongsu signifies +the king's youngest brother, as Raja Muda does the heir apparent.) + +The second was made king of Siak, and the third, called Raja Bongsu, +reigned jointly with the first. He it was who assisted the Hollanders in +the first siege of Malacca, and corresponded with Prince Maurice. The +king of Achin was married to their sister, but this did not prevent a +long and cruel war between them. A Dutch factory at Johor was involved in +the consequences of this war, and several of that nation were among the +prisoners. In the course of the same year however the king of Achin +thought proper to establish Raja Bongsu on the throne of Johor, sending +him back for that purpose with great honours, assisting him to rebuild +the fort and city, and giving him one of his own sisters in marriage. + +1615. + +In 1615 the king of Achin sailed to the attack of Malacca in a fleet +which he had been four years employed in preparing. It consisted of above +five hundred sail, of which a hundred were large galleys, greater than +any at that time built in Europe, carrying each from six to eight hundred +men, with three large cannon and several smaller pieces. These galleys +the orang kayas were obliged to furnish, repair, and man, at the peril of +their lives. The soldiers served without pay, and carried three months +provision at their own charge. In this great fleet there were computed to +be sixty thousand men, whom the king commanded in person. His wives and +household were taken to sea with him. Coming in sight of the Portuguese +ships in the afternoon, they received many shot from them but avoided +returning any, as if from contempt. The next day they got ready for +battle, and drew up in form of a half moon. A desperate engagement took +place and lasted without intermission till midnight, during which the +Portuguese admiral was three times boarded, and repeatedly on fire. Many +vessels on both sides were also in flames and afforded light to continue +the combat. At length the Achinese gave way, after losing fifty sail of +different sizes, and twenty thousand men. They retired to Bancalis, on +the eastern coast of Sumatra, and shortly afterwards sailed for Achin, +the Portuguese not daring to pursue their victory, both on account of the +damage they had sustained and their apprehension of the Hollanders, who +were expected at Malacca. The king proposed that the prisoners taken +should be mutually given up, which was agreed to, and was the first +instance of that act of humanity and civilisation between the two powers. + +1619. + +Three years afterwards the king made a conquest of the cities of Kedah +and Perak on the Malayan coast, and also of a place called Dilli in +Sumatra. This last had been strongly fortified by the assistance of the +Portuguese, and gave an opportunity of displaying much skill in the +attack. Trenches were regularly opened before it and a siege carried on +for six weeks ere it fell. In the same year the king of Jorcan (a place +unknown at present by that name) fled for refuge to Malacca with eighty +sail of boats, having been expelled his dominions by the king of Achin. +The Portuguese were not in a condition to afford him relief, being +themselves surrounded with enemies and fearful of an attack from the +Achinese more especially; but the king was then making preparations +against an invasion he heard was meditated by the viceroy of Goa. +Reciprocal apprehensions kept each party on the defensive. + +1621. + +The French being desirous of participating in the commerce of Achin, of +which all the European nations had formed great ideas, and all found +themselves disappointed in, sent out a squadron commanded by General +Beaulieu, which arrived in January 1621, and finally left it in December +of the same year. He brought magnificent presents to the king, but these +did not content his insatiable avarice, and he employed a variety of mean +arts to draw from him further gifts. Beaulieu met also with many +difficulties, and was forced to submit to much extortion in his +endeavours to procure a loading of pepper, of which Achin itself, as has +been observed, produced but little. The king informed him that he had +some time since ordered all the plants to be destroyed, not only because +the cultivation of them proved an injury to more useful agriculture, but +also lest their produce might tempt the Europeans to serve him, as they +had served the kings of Jakatra and Bantam. From this apprehension he had +lately been induced to expel the English and Dutch from their settlements +at Priaman and Tiku, where the principal quantity of pepper was procured, +and of which places he changed the governor every third year to prevent +any connexions dangerous to his authority from being formed. He had +likewise driven the Dutch from a factory they were attempting to settle +at Padang; which place appears to be the most remote on the western coast +of the island to which the Achinese conquests at any time extended. + +1628. + +Still retaining a strong desire to possess himself of Malacca, so many +years the grand object of Achinese ambition, he imprisoned the ambassador +then at his court, and made extraordinary preparations for the siege, +which he designed to undertake in person. The laksamana or commander in +chief (who had effected all the king's late conquests) attempted to +oppose this resolution; but the maharaja, willing to flatter his master's +propensity, undertook to put him in possession of the city and had the +command of the fleet given to him, as the other had of the land forces. +The king set out on the expedition with a fleet of two hundred and fifty +sail (fortyseven of them not less than a hundred feet in the keel), in +which were twenty thousand men well appointed, and a great train of +artillery. After being some time on board, with his family and retinue as +usual, he determined, on account of an ill omen that was observed, to +return to the shore. The generals, proceeding without him, soon arrived +before Malacca. Having landed their men they made a judicious +disposition, and began the attack with much courage and military skill. +The Portuguese were obliged to abandon several of their posts, one of +which, after a defence of fifty days, was levelled with the ground, and +from its ruins strong works were raised by the laksamana. The maharaja +had seized another post advantageously situated. From their several camps +they had lines of communication, and the boats on the river were +stationed in such a manner that the place was completely invested. +Matters were in this posture when a force of two thousand men came to the +assistance of the besieged from the king of Pahang, and likewise five +sail of Portuguese vessels from the coast of Coromandel; but all was +insufficient to remove so powerful an enemy, although by that time they +had lost four thousand of their troops in the different attacks and +skirmishes. In the latter end of the year a fleet of thirty sail of +ships, large and small, under the command of Nunno Alvarez Botello, +having on board nine hundred European soldiers, appeared off Malacca, and +blocked up the fleet of Achin in a river about three miles from the town. +This entirely altered the complexion of affairs. The besiegers retired +from their advanced works and hastened to the defence of their galleys, +erecting batteries by the side of the river. The maharaja being summoned +to surrender returned a civil but resolute answer. In the night, +endeavouring to make his escape with the smaller vessels through the +midst of the Portuguese, he was repulsed and wounded. Next day the whole +force of the Achinese dropped down the stream with a design to fight +their way, but after an engagement of two hours their principal galley, +named the Terror of the World, was boarded and taken, after losing five +hundred men of seven which she carried. Many other vessels were +afterwards captured or sunk. The laksamana hung out a white flag and sent +to treat with Nunno, but, some difficulty arising about the terms, the +engagement was renewed with great warmth. News was brought to the +Portuguese that the maharaja was killed and that the king of Pahang was +approaching with a hundred sail of vessels to reinforce them. Still the +Achinese kept up a dreadful fire, which seemed to render the final +success doubtful; but at length they sent proposals desiring only to be +allowed three galleys of all their fleet to carry away four thousand men +who remained of twenty that came before the town. It was answered that +they must surrender at discretion; which the laksamana hesitating to do, +a furious assault took place both by water and land upon his galleys and +works, which were all effectually destroyed or captured, not a ship and +scarcely a man escaping. He himself in the last extremity fled to the +woods, but was seized ere long by the king of Pahang's scouts. Being +brought before the governor he said to him, with an undaunted +countenance, "Behold here the laksamana for the first time overcome!" He +was treated with respect but kept a prisoner, and sent on his own famous +ship to Goa in order to be from thence conveyed to Portugal: but death +deprived his enemies of that distinguished ornament of their triumph. + +1635. + +This signal defeat proved so important a blow to the power of Achin that +we read of no further attempts to renew the war until the year 1635, when +the king, encouraged by the feuds which at this time prevailed in +Malacca, again violated the law of nations, to him little known, by +imprisoning their ambassador, and caused all the Portuguese about his +court to be murdered. No military operations however immediately took +place in consequence of this barbarous proceeding. + +1640. 1641. + +In the year 1640 the Dutch with twelve men of war, and the king of Achin +with twenty-five galleys, appeared before that harassed and devoted city; +which at length, in the following year was wrested from the hands of the +Portuguese, who had so long, through such difficulties, maintained +possession of it. This year was also marked by the death of the sultan, +whom the Dutch writers name Paduka Sri, at the age of sixty, after a +reign of thirty-five years; having just lived to see his hereditary foe +subdued; and as if the opposition of the Portuguese power, which seems +first to have occasioned the rise of that of Achin, was also necessary to +its existence, the splendour and consequence of the kingdom from that +period rapidly declined. + +The prodigious wealth and resources of the monarchy during his reign are +best evinced by the expeditions he was enabled to fit out; but being no +less covetous than ambitious he contrived to make the expenses fall upon +his subjects, and at the same time filled his treasury with gold by +pressing the merchants and plundering the neighbouring states. An +intelligent person (General Beaulieu), who was for some time at his +court, and had opportunities of information on the subject, uses this +strong expression--that he was infinitely rich. He constantly employed in +his castle three hundred goldsmiths. This would seem an exaggeration, but +that it is well known the Malayan princes have them always about them in +great numbers at this day, working in the manufacture of filigree, for +which the country is so famous. His naval strength has been already +sufficiently described. He was possessed of two thousand brass guns and +small arms in proportion. His trained elephants amounted to some +hundreds. His armies were probably raised only upon the occasion which +called for their acting, and that in a mode similar to what was +established under the feudal system in Europe. The valley of Achin alone +was said to be able to furnish forty thousand men upon an emergency. A +certain number of warriors however were always kept on foot for the +protection of the king and his capital. Of these the superior class were +called ulubalang, and the inferior amba-raja, who were entirely devoted +to his service and resembled the janizaries of Constantinople. Two +hundred horsemen nightly patrolled the grounds about the castle, the +inner courts and apartments of which were guarded by three thousand +women. The king's eunuchs amounted to five hundred. + +The disposition of this monarch was cruel and sanguinary. A multitude of +instances are recorded of the horrible barbarity of his punishments, and +for the most trivial offences. He imprisoned his own mother and put her +to the torture, suspecting her to have been engaged in a conspiracy +against him with some of the principal nobles, whom he caused to be +executed. He murdered his nephew, the king of Johor's son, of whose +favour with his mother he was jealous. He also put to death a son of the +king of Bantam, and another of the king of Pahang, who were both his near +relations. None of the royal family survived in 1622 but his own son, a +youth of eighteen, who had been thrice banished the court, and was +thought to owe his continuance in life only to his surpassing his father, +if possible, in cruelty, and being hated by all ranks of people. He was +at one time made king of Pidir but recalled on account of his excesses, +confined in prison and put to strange tortures by his father, whom he did +not outlive. The whole territory of Achin was almost depopulated by wars, +executions, and oppression. The king endeavoured to repeople the country +by his conquests. Having ravaged the kingdoms of Johor, Pahang, Kedah, +Perak, and Dilli, he transported the inhabitants from those places to +Achin, to the number of twenty-two thousand persons. But this barbarous +policy did not produce the effect he hoped; for the unhappy people, being +brought naked to his dominions, and not allowed any kind of maintenance +on their arrival, died of hunger in the streets. In the planning his +military enterprises he was generally guided by the distresses of his +neighbours, for whom, as for his prey, he unceasingly lay in wait; and +his preparatory measures were taken with such secrecy that the execution +alone unravelled them. Insidious political craft and wanton delight in +blood united in him to complete the character of a tyrant. + +It must here be observed that, with respect to the period of this +remarkable reign, the European and Malayan authorities are considerably +at variance, the latter assigning to it something less than thirty solar +years, and placing the death of Iskander Muda in December 1636. The +Annals further state that he was succeeded by sultan +Ala-eddinMahayat-shah, who reigned only about four years and died in +February 1641. That this is the more accurate account I have no +hesitation in believing, although Valentyn, who gives a detail of the +king's magnificent funeral, was persuaded that the reign which ended in +1641 was the same that began in 1607. But he collected his information +eighty years after the event, and as it does not appear that any European +whose journal has been given to the world was on the spot at that period, +the death of an obscure monarch who died after a short reign may well +have been confounded by persons at a distance with that of his more +celebrated predecessor. Both authorities however are agreed in the +important fact that the successor to the throne in 1641 was a female. +This person is described by Valentyn as being the wife of the old king, +and not his daughter, as by some had been asserted; but from the Annals +it appears that she was his daughter, named Taju al-alum; and as it was +in her right that Maghayat-shah (certainly her husband), obtained the +crown, so upon his decease, there being no male heir, she peaceably +succeeded him in the government, and became the first queen regent of +Achin. The succession having thenceforward continued nearly sixty years +in the female line, this may be regarded as a new era in the history of +the country. The nobles finding their power less restrained, and their +individual consequence more felt under an administration of this kind +than when ruled by kings (as sometimes they were with a rod of iron) +supported these pageants, whom they governed as they thought fit, and +thereby virtually changed the constitution into an aristocracy or +oligarchy. The business of the state was managed by twelve orang-kayas, +four of whom were superior to the rest, and among these the maharaja, or +governor of the kingdom, was considered as the chief. It does not appear, +nor is it probable, that the queen had the power of appointing or +removing any of these great officers. No applications were made to the +throne but in their presence, nor any public resolution taken but as they +determined in council. The great object of their political jealousy seems +to have been the pretensions of the king of Johor to the crown, in virtue +of repeated intermarriages between the royal families of the two +countries, and it may be presumed that the alarms excited from that +quarter materially contributed to reconcile them to the female +domination. They are accordingly said to have formed an engagement +amongst themselves never to pay obedience to a foreign prince, nor to +allow their royal mistress to contract any marriage that might eventually +lead to such a consequence.* At the same time, by a new treaty with +Johor, its king was indirectly excused from the homage to the crown of +Achin which had been insisted upon by her predecessors and was the +occasion of frequent wars. + +(*Footnote. However fanciful it may be thought, I cannot doubt that the +example of our Queen Elizabeth, whose character and government were +highly popular with the Achinese on account of her triumphant contest +with the united powers of Spain and Portugal, had a strong influence in +the establishment of this new species of monarchy, and that the example +of her sister's marriage with Philip may have contributed to the +resolution taken by the nobles. The actions of our illustrious queen were +a common topic of conversation between the old tyrant and Sir James +Lancaster.) + +In proportion as the political consequence of the kingdom declined, its +history, as noticed by foreigners, becomes obscure. Little is recorded of +the transactions of her reign, and it is likely that Achin took no active +part in the concerns of neighbouring powers, but suffered the Hollanders, +who maintained in general a friendly intercourse with her, to remain in +quiet possession of Malacca. + +1643. + +In 1643 they sent an ambassador to compliment her upon her accession, and +at the same time to solicit payment for a quantity of valuable jewels +ordered by the deceased king, but for the amount of which she declined to +make herself responsible. + +1660. + +It is said (but the fact will admit of much doubt) that in 1660 she was +inclined to marry one of their countrymen, and would have carried her +design into execution had not the East India Company prevented by their +authority a connexion that might, as they prudently judged, be productive +of embarrassment to their affairs. + +1664. + +The Dutch however complain that she gave assistance to their enemies the +people of Perak, and in 1664 it was found necessary to send a squadron +under the command of Pieter de Bitter to bring her to reason. As it +happened that she was at this time at war with some of her own dependants +he made himself master of several places on the western coast that were +nominally at least belonging to Achin. + +1666. + +About 1666 the English establishments at Achin and some ports to the +southward appear to have given considerable umbrage to their rivals. + +1669. + +In 1669 the people of Dilli on the north-eastern coast threw off their +allegiance, and the power of the kingdom became gradually more and more +circumscribed. + +1675. + +This queen died in 1675, after reigning, with a degree of tranquillity +little known in these countries, upwards of thirty-four years. + +The people being now accustomed and reconciled to female rule, which they +found more lenient than that of their kings, acquiesced in general in the +established mode of government. + +1677. + +And she was immediately succeeded by another female monarch, named Nur +al-alum, who reigned little more than two years and died in 1677. + +The queen who succeeded her was named Anayet-shah. + +1684. + +In the year 1684 she received an embassy from the English government of +Madras, and appeared at that time to be about forty years. The persons +who were on this occasion presented to her express their suspicions, +which were suggested to them by a doubt prevailing amongst the +inhabitants, that this sovereign was not a real queen, but a eunuch +dressed up in female apparel, and imposed on the public by the artifices +of the orang kayas. But as such a cheat, though managed with every +semblance of reality (which they observe was the case) could not be +carried on for any number of years without detection, and as the same +idea does not appear to have been entertained at any other period, it is +probable they were mistaken in their surmise. Her person they describe to +have been large, and her voice surprisingly strong, but not manly.* + +(*Footnote. The following curious passage is extracted from the journal +of these gentlemen's proceedings. "We went to give our attendance at the +palace this day as customary. Being arrived at the place of audience with +the orang cayos, the queen was pleased to order us to come nearer, when +her majesty was very inquisitive into the use of our wearing periwigs, +and what was the convenience of them; to all which we returned +satisfactory answers. After this her majesty desired of Mr. Ord, if it +were no affront to him, that he would take off his periwig, that she +might see how he appeared without it; which, according to her majesty's +request, he did. She then told us she had heard of our business, and +would give her answer by the orang cayos; and so we retired." I venture, +with submission, to observe that this anecdote seems to put the question +of the sex beyond controversy.) + +The purport of the embassy was to obtain liberty to erect a fortification +in her territory, which she peremptorily refused, being contrary to the +established rules of the kingdom; adding that if the governor of Madras +would fill her palace with gold she could not permit him to build with +brick either fort or house. To have a factory of timber and plank was the +utmost indulgence that could be allowed; and on that footing the return +of the English, who had not traded there for many years, should be +welcomed with great friendship. The queen herself, the orang kayas +represented, was not allowed to fortify lest some foreign power might +avail themselves of it to enslave the country. In the course of these +negotiations it was mentioned that the agriculture of Achin had suffered +considerably of late years by reason of a general licence given to all +the inhabitants to search for gold in the mountains and rivers which +afforded that article; whereas the business had formerly been restricted +to certain authorized persons, and the rest obliged to till the ground. + +1684. + +The court feared to give a public sanction for the settlement of the +English on any part of the southern coast lest it should embroil them +with the other European powers.* + +(*Footnote. The design of settling a factory at this period in the +dominions of Achin was occasioned by the recent loss of our establishment +at Bantam, which had been originally fixed by Sir James Lancaster in +1603. The circumstances of this event were as follows. The old sultan had +thought proper to share the regal power with his son in the year 1677, +and this measure was attended with the obvious effect of a jealousy +between the parent and child, which soon broke forth into open +hostilities. The policy of the Dutch led them to take an active part in +favour of the young sultan, who had inclined most to their interests and +now solicited their aid. The English on the other hand discouraged what +appeared to them an unnatural rebellion, but without interfering, as they +said, in any other character than that of mediators, or affording +military assistance to either party; and which their extreme weakness +rather than their assertions renders probable. On the twenty-eighth of +March 1682 the Dutch landed a considerable force from Batavia, and soon +terminated the war. They placed the young sultan on the throne, +delivering the father into his custody, and obtained from him in return +for these favours an exclusive privilege of trade in his territories; +which was evidently the sole object they had in view. On the first day of +April possession was taken of the English factory by a party of Dutch and +country soldiers, and on the twelfth the agent and council were obliged +to embark with their property on vessels provided for the purpose, which +carried them to Batavia. From thence they proceeded to Surat on the +twenty-second of August in the following year. + +In order to retain a share in the pepper-trade the English turned their +thoughts towards Achin, and a deputation, consisting of two gentlemen, of +the names of Old and Cawley, was sent thither in 1684; the success of +which is above related. It happened that at this time certain Rajas or +chiefs of the country of Priaman and other places on the west coast of +Sumatra were at Achin also to solicit aid of that court against the +Dutch, who had made war upon and otherwise molested them. These +immediately applied to Mr. Ord, expressing a strong desire that the +English should settle in their respective districts, offering ground for +a fort and the exclusive purchase of their pepper. They consented to +embark for Madras, where an agreement was formed with them by the +governor in the beginning of the year 1685 on the terms they had +proposed. In consequence of this an expedition was fitted out with the +design of establishing a settlement at Priaman; but a day or two before +the ships sailed an invitation to the like purport was received from the +chiefs of Bangkaulu (since corruptly called Bencoolen); and as it was +known that a considerable proportion of the pepper that used to be +exported from Bantam had been collected from the neighbourhood of +Bencoolen (at a place called Silebar), it was judged advisable that Mr. +Ord, who was the person entrusted with the management of this business, +should first proceed thither; particularly as at that season of the year +it was the windward port. He arrived there on the twenty-fifth day of +June 1685, and, after taking possession of the country assigned to the +English Company, and leaving Mr. Broome in charge of the place, he sailed +for the purpose of establishing the other settlements. He stopped first +at Indrapura, where he found three Englishmen who were left of a small +factory that had been some time before settled there by a man of the name +of Du Jardin. Here he learned that the Dutch, having obtained a knowledge +of the original intention of our fixing at Priaman, had anticipated us +therein and sent a party to occupy the situation. In the meantime it was +understood in Europe that this place was the chief of our establishments +on the coast, and ships were accordingly consigned thither. The same was +supposed at Madras, and troops and stores were sent to reinforce it, +which were afterwards landed at Indrapura. A settlement was then formed +at Manjuta, and another attempted at Batang-kapas in 1686; but here the +Dutch, assisted by a party amongst the natives, assaulted and drove out +our people. Every possible opposition, as it was natural to expect, was +given by these our rivals to the success of our factories. They fixed +themselves in the neighbourhood of them and endeavoured to obstruct the +country people from carrying pepper to them or supplying them with +provisions either by sea or land. Our interests however in the end +prevailed, and Bencoolen in particular, to which the other places were +rendered subordinate in 1686, began to acquire some degree of vigour and +respectability. In 1689 encouragement was given to Chinese colonists to +settle there, whose number has been continually increasing from that +time. In 1691 the Dutch felt the loss of their influence at Silebar and +other of the southern countries, where they attempted to exert authority +in the name of the sultan of Bantam, and the produce of these places was +delivered to the English. This revolution proceeded from the works with +which about this time our factory was strengthened. In 1695 a settlement +was made at Triamang, and two years after at Kattaun and Sablat. The +first, in the year 1700, was removed to Bantal. Various applications were +made by the natives in different parts of the island for the +establishment of factories, particularly from Ayer-Bangis to the +northward, Palembang on the eastern side, and the people from the +countries south of Tallo, near Manna. A person was sent to survey these +last, as far as Pulo Pisang and Kroi, in 1715. In consequence of the +inconvenience attending the shipping of goods from Bencoolen River, which +is often impracticable from the surfs, a warehouse was built in 1701 at a +place then called the cove; which gave the first idea of removing the +settlement to the point of land which forms the bay of Bencoolen. The +unhealthiness of the old situation was thought to render this an +expedient step; and accordingly about 1714 it was in great measure +relinquished, and the foundations of Fort Marlborough were laid on a spot +two or three miles distant. Being a high plain it was judged to possess +considerable advantages; many of which however are counterbalanced by its +want of the vicinity of a river, so necessary for the ready and plentiful +supply of provisions. Some progress had been made in the erection of this +fort when an accident happened that had nearly destroyed the Company's +views. The natives incensed at ill treatment received from the Europeans, +who were then but little versed in the knowledge of their dispositions or +the art of managing them by conciliating methods, rose in a body in the +year 1719, and forced the garrison, whose ignorant fears rendered them +precipitate, to seek refuge on board their ships. These people began now +to feel alarms lest the Dutch, taking advantage of the absence of the +English, should attempt an establishment, and soon permitted some persons +from the northern factories to resettle the place; and, supplies arriving +from Madras, things returned to their former course, and the fort was +completed. The Company's affairs on this coast remained in tranquillity +for a number of years. The important settlement of Natal was established +in 1752, and that of Tappanuli a short time afterwards; which involved +the English in fresh disputes with the Dutch, who set up a claim to the +country in which they are situated. In the year 1760 the French under +Comte d'Estaing destroyed all the English settlements on the coast of +Sumatra; but they were soon reestablished and our possession secured by +the treaty of Paris in 1763. Fort Marlborough, which had been hitherto a +peculiar subordinate of Fort St. George, was now formed into an +independent presidency, and was furnished with a charter for erecting a +mayor's court, but which has never been enforced. In 1781 a detachment of +military from thence embarked upon five East India ships and took +possession of Padang and all other Dutch factories in consequence of the +war with that nation. In 1782 the magazine of Fort Marlborough, in which +were four hundred barrels of powder, was fired by lightning and blew up; +but providentially few lives were lost. In 1802 an act of parliament was +passed "to authorize the East India Company to make their settlement at +Fort Marlborough in the East Indies, a factory subordinate to the +presidency of Fort William in Bengal, and to transfer the servants who on +the reduction of that establishment shall be supernumerary, to the +presidency of Fort St. George." In 1798 plants of the nutmeg and clove +had for the first time been procured from the Moluccas; and in 1803 a +large importation of these valuable articles of cultivation took place. +As the plantations were, by the last accounts from thence, in the most +flourishing state, very important commercial advantages were expected to +be derived from the culture.) + +A few years before these transactions she had invited the king of Siam to +renew the ancient connexion between their respective states, and to unite +in a league against the Dutch, by whose encroachments the commerce of her +subjects and the extent of her dominions were much circumscribed. It does +not appear however that this overture was attended with any effect, nor +have the limits of the Achinese jurisdiction since that period extended +beyond Pidir on the northern, and Barus on the western coast. + +1688. + +She died in 1688, having reigned something less than eleven years, and +was succeeded by a young queen named Kamalat-shah; but this did not take +place without a strong opposition from a faction amongst the orang kayas +which wanted to set up a king, and a civil war actually commenced. The +two parties drew up their forces on opposite sides of the river, and for +two or three nights continued to fire at each other, but in the daytime +followed their ordinary occupations. These opportunities of intercourse +made them sensible of their mutual folly. They agreed to throw aside +their arms and the crown remained in possession of the newly elected +queen. It was said to have been esteemed essential that she should be a +maiden, advanced in years, and connected by blood with the ancient royal +line. In this reign an English factory, which had been long discontinued, +was reestablished at Achin, but in the interval some private traders of +this nation had always resided on the spot. These usually endeavoured to +persuade the state that they represented the India Company, and sometimes +acquired great influence, which they are accused of having employed in a +manner not only detrimental to that body but to the interests of the +merchants of India in general by monopolizing the trade of the port, +throwing impediments in the way of all shipping not consigned to their +management, and embezzling the cargoes of such as were. An asylum was +also afforded, beyond the reach of law, for all persons whose crimes or +debts induced them to fly from the several European settlements. These +considerations chiefly made the Company resolve to reclaim their ancient +privileges in that kingdom, and a deputation was sent from the presidency +of Madras in the year 1695 for that purpose, with letters addressed to +her illustrious majesty the queen of Achin, desiring permission to settle +on the terms her predecessors had granted to them; which was readily +complied with, and a factory, but on a very limited scale, was +established accordingly, but soon declined and disappeared. In 1704, when +Charles Lockyer (whose account of his voyage, containing a particular +description of this place, was published in 1711) visited Achin, one of +these independent factors, named Francis Delton, carried on a flourishing +trade. In 1695 the Achinese were alarmed by the arrival of six sail of +Dutch ships of force, with a number of troops on board, in their road, +not having been visited by any of that nation for fifteen years, but they +departed without offering any molestation. + +1699. + +This queen was deposed by her subjects (whose grounds of complaint are +not stated) about the latter part of the year 1699, after reigning also +eleven years; and with her terminated the female dynasty, which, during +its continuance of about fifty-nine years, had attracted much notice in +Europe. + +Her successor was named Beder al-alum sherif Hasham, the nature of whose +pretensions to the crown does not positively appear, but there is reason +to believe that he was her brother. When he had reigned a little more +than two years it pleased God (as the Annals express it) to afflict him +with a distemper which caused his feet and hands to contract (probably +the gout) and disqualified him for the performance of his religious +duties. + +1702. + +Under these circumstances he was induced to resign the government in +1702, and died about a month after his abdication. + +Perkasa-alum, a priest, found means by his intrigues to acquire the +sovereignty, and one of his first acts was to attempt imposing certain +duties on the merchandise imported by English traders, who had been +indulged with an exemption from all port charges excepting the +established complimentary presents upon their arrival and receiving the +chap or licence. This had been stipulated in the treaty made by Sir James +Lancaster, and renewed by Mr. Grey when chief of the Company's factory. +The innovation excited an alarm and determined opposition on the part of +the masters of ships then at the place, and they proceeded (under the +conduct of Captain Alexander Hamilton, who published an account of his +voyage in 1727) to the very unwarrantable step of commencing hostilities +by firing upon the villages situated near the mouth of the river, and +cutting off from the city all supplies of provisions by sea. The +inhabitants, feeling severely the effects of these violent measures, grew +clamorous against the government, which was soon obliged to restore to +these insolent traders the privileges for which they contended. + +1704. + +Advantage was taken of the public discontents to raise an insurrection in +favour of the nephew of the late queen, or, according to the Annals, the +son of Beder al-alum (who was probably her brother), in the event of +which Perkasa-alum was deposed about the commencement of the year 1704, +and after an interregnum or anarchy of three months continuance, the +young prince obtained possession of the throne, by the name of Jemal +al-alum. From this period the native writers furnish very ample details +of the transactions of the Achinese government, as well as of the general +state of the country, whose prosperous circumstances during the early +part of this king's reign are strongly contrasted with the misery and +insignificance to which it was reduced by subsequent events. The causes +and progress of this political decline cannot be more satisfactorily set +forth than in a faithful translation of the Malayan narrative which was +drawn up, or extracted from a larger work, for my use, and is distinct +from the Annals already mentioned: + +When raja Jemal al-alum reigned in Achin the country was exceedingly +populous, the nobles had large possessions, the merchants were numerous +and opulent, the judgments of the king were just, and no man could +experience the severity of punishment but through his own fault. In those +days the king could not trade on his own account, the nobles having +combined to prevent it; but the accustomed duties of the port were +considered as his revenue, and ten per cent was levied for this purpose +upon all merchandise coming into the country. The city was then of great +extent, the houses were of brick and stone. The most considerable +merchant was a man named Daniel, a Hollander; but many of different +nations were also settled there, some from Surat, some from Kutch, others +from China. When ships arrived in the port, if the merchants could not +take off all the cargoes the king advanced the funds for purchasing what +remained, and divided the goods among them, taking no profit to himself. +After the departure of the vessel the king was paid in gold the amount of +his principal, without interest. + +His daily amusements were in the grounds allotted for the royal sports. +He was attended by a hundred young men, who were obliged to be constantly +near his person day and night, and who were clothed in a sumptuous manner +at a monthly expense of a hundred dollars for each man. The government of +the different parts of the country was divided, under his authority, +amongst the nobles. When a district appeared to be disturbed he took +measures for quelling the insurrection; those who resisted his orders he +caused to be apprehended; when the roads were bad he gave directions for +their repair. Such was his conduct in the government. His subjects all +feared him, and none dared to condemn his actions. At that time the +country was in peace. + +When he had been a few years on the throne a country lying to the +eastward, named Batu Bara, attempted to throw off its subjection to +Achin. The chiefs were ordered to repair to court to answer for their +conduct, but they refused to obey. These proceedings raised the king's +indignation. He assembled the nobles and required of them that each +should furnish a vessel of war, to be employed on an expedition against +that place, and within two months, thirty large galleys, without counting +vessels of a smaller size, were built and equipped for sea. When the +fleet arrived off Batu Bara (by which must be understood the Malayan +district at the mouth of the river, and not the Batta territory through +which it takes its course), a letter was sent on shore addressed to the +refractory chiefs, summoning them to give proof of their allegiance by +appearing in the king's presence, or threatening the alternative of an +immediate attack. After much division in their councils it was at length +agreed to feign submission, and a deputation was sent off to the royal +fleet, carrying presents of fruit and provisions of all kinds. One of the +chiefs carried, as his complimentary offering, some fresh coconuts, of +the delicate species called kalapa-gading, into which a drug had been +secretly introduced. The king observing these directed that one should be +cut open for him, and having drunk of the juice, became affected with a +giddiness in his head. (This symptom shows the poison to have been the +upas, but too much diluted in the liquor of the nut to produce death). +Being inclined to repose, the strangers were ordered to return on shore, +and, finding his indisposition augment, he gave directions for being +conveyed back to Achin, whither his ship sailed next day. The remainder +of the fleet continued off the coast during five or six days longer, and +then returned likewise without effecting the reduction of the place, +which the chiefs had lost no time in fortifying. + +About two years after this transaction the king, under pretence of +amusement, made an excursion to the country lying near the source of the +river Achin, then under the jurisdiction of a panglima or governor named +Muda Seti; for it must be understood that this part of the kingdom is +divided into three districts, known by the appellations of the +Twenty-two, Twenty-six, and Twenty-five Mukims (see above), which were +governed respectively by Muda Seti, Imam Muda, and PerbawangShah (or +Purba-wangsa). These three chiefs had the entire control of the country, +and when their views were united they had the power of deposing and +setting up kings. Such was the nature of the government. The king's +expedition was undertaken with the design of making himself master of the +person of Muda Seti, who had given him umbrage, and on this occasion his +followers of all ranks were so numerous that wherever they halted for the +night the fruits of the earth were all devoured, as well as great +multitudes of cattle. Muda Seti however, being aware of the designs +against him, had withdrawn himself from the place of his usual residence +and was not to be found when the king arrived there; but a report being +brought that he had collected five or six hundred followers and was +preparing to make resistance, orders were immediately given for burning +his house. This being effected, the king returned immediately to Achin, +leaving the forces that had accompanied him at a place called Pakan +Badar, distant about half a day's journey from the capital, where they +were directed to entrench themselves. From this post they were driven by +the country chief, who advanced rapidly upon them with several thousand +men, and forced them to fall back to Padang Siring, where the king was +collecting an army, and where a battle was fought soon after, that +terminated in the defeat of the royal party with great slaughter. Those +who escaped took refuge in the castle along with the king. + +1723. + +Under these disastrous circumstances he called upon the chiefs who +adhered to him to advise what was best to be done, surrounded as they +were by the country people, on whom he invoked the curse of God; when one +of them, named Panglima Maharaja, gave it as his opinion that the only +effectual measure by which the country could be saved from ruin would be +the king's withdrawing himself from the capital so long as the enemy +should continue in its vicinity, appointing a regent from among the +nobles to govern the country in his absence; and when subordination +should be restored he might then return and take again possession of his +throne. To this proposition he signified his assent on the condition that +Panglima Maharaja should assure him by an oath that no treachery was +intended; which oath was accordingly taken, and the king, having +nominated as his substitute Maharaja Lela, one of the least considerable +of the ulubalangs, retired with his wives and children to the country of +the Four mukims, situated about three hours journey to the westward of +the city. (The Annals say he fled to Pidir in November 1723.) Great +ravages were committed by the insurgents, but they did not attack the +palace, and after some days of popular confusion the chiefs of the Three +districts, who (says the writer) must not be confounded with the officers +about the person of the king, held a consultation amongst themselves, +and, exercising an authority of which there had been frequent examples, +set up Panglima Maharaja in the room of the abdicated king (by the title, +say the Annals, of Juhar al-alum, in December 1723). About seven days +after his elevation he was seized with a convulsive disorder in his neck +and died. A nephew of Jemal al-alum, named Undei Tebang, was then placed +upon the throne, but notwithstanding his having bribed the chiefs of the +Three districts with thirty katties of gold, they permitted him to enjoy +his dignity only a few days, and then deposed him. (The same authority +states that he was set up by the chiefs of the Four mukims, and removed +through the influence of Muda Seti.) + +1724. 1735. + +The person whom they next combined to raise to the throne was Maharaja +Lela (before mentioned as the king's substitute). It was his good fortune +to govern the country in tranquillity for the space of nearly twelve +years, during which period the city of Achin recovered its population. +(According to the Annals he began to reign in February 1724, by the title +of Ala ed-din Ahmed shah Juhan, and died in June 1735.) It happened that +the same day on which the event of his death took place Jemal al-alum +again made his appearance, and advanced to a mosque near the city. His +friends advised him to lose no time in possessing himself of the castle, +but for trifling reasons that mark the weakness of his character he +resolved to defer the measure till the succeeding day; and the +opportunity, as might be expected, was lost. The deceased king left five +sons, the eldest of whom, named Po-chat-au (or Po-wak, according to +another manuscript) exhorted his brothers to unite with him in the +determination of resisting a person whose pretensions were entirely +inconsistent with their security. They accordingly sent to demand +assistance of Perbawang-shah, chief of the district of the Twenty-five +mukims, which lies the nearest to that quarter. He arrived before +morning, embraced the five princes, confirmed them in their resolution, +and authorised the eldest to assume the government (which he did, say the +Annals, by the title of Ala ed-din Juhan-shah in September 1735.) But to +this measure the concurrence of the other chiefs was wanting. At daybreak +the guns of the castle began to play upon the mosque, and, some of the +shot penetrating its walls, the pusillanimous Jemal al-alum, being +alarmed at the danger, judged it advisable to retreat from thence and to +set up his standard in another quarter, called kampong Jawa, his people +at the same time retaining possession of the mosque. A regular warfare +now ensued between the two parties and continued for no less than ten +years (the great chiefs taking different sides), when at length some kind +of compromise was effected that left Po-chat-au (Juhanshah) in the +possession of the throne, which he afterwards enjoyed peaceably for eight +years, and no further mention is made of Jemal al-alum. About this period +the chiefs took umbrage at his interfering in matters of trade, contrary +to what they asserted to be the established custom of the realm, and +assembled their forces in order to intimidate him. (The history of Achin +presents a continual struggle between the monarch and the aristocracy of +the country, which generally made the royal monopoly of trade the ground +of crimination and pretext for their rebellions). + +1755. + +Panglima Muda Seti, being considered as the head of the league, came down +with twenty thousand followers, and, upon the king's refusing to admit +into the castle his complimentary present (considering it only as the +prelude to humiliating negotiation), another war commenced that lasted +for two years, and was at length terminated by Muda Seti's withdrawing +from the contest and returning to his province. About five years after +this event Juhan shah died, and his son, Pochat-bangta, succeeded him, +but not (says this writer, who here concludes his abstract) with the +general concurrence of the chiefs, and the country long continued in a +disturbed state. + +END OF NARRATIVE. + +1760. + +The death of Juhan shah is stated in the Annals to have taken place in +August 1760, and the accession of the son, who took the name of Ala-eddin +Muhammed shah, not until November of the same year. Other authorities +place these events in 1761. + +1763. + +Before he had completed the third year of his reign an insurrection of +his subjects obliged him to save himself by flight on board a ship in the +road. This happened in 1763 or 1764. The throne was seized by the +maharaja (first officer of state) named Sinara, who assumed the title of +Beder-eddin Juhan shah, and about the end of 1765 was put to death by the +adherents of the fugitive monarch, Muhammed shah, who thereupon returned +to the throne.* + +(*Footnote. Captain Forrest acquaints us that he visited the court of +Mahomed Selim (the latter name is not given to this prince by any other +writer) in the year 1764, at which time he appeared to be about forty +years of age. It is difficult to reconcile this date with the recorded +events of this unfortunate reign, and I have doubts whether it was not +the usurper whom the Captain saw.) + +He was exposed however to further revolutions. About six years after his +restoration the palace was attacked in the night by a desperate band of +two hundred men, headed by a man called Raja Udah, and he was once more +obliged to make a precipitate retreat. This usurper took the title of +sultan Suliman shah, but after a short reign of three months was driven +out in his turn and forced to fly for refuge to one of the islands in the +eastern sea. The nature of his pretensions, if he had any, have not been +stated, but he never gave any further trouble. From this period Muhammed +maintained possession of his capital, although it was generally in a +state of confusion. + +1772. + +"In the year 1772," says Captain Forrest, "Mr. Giles Holloway, resident +of Tappanooly, was sent to Achin by the Bencoolen government, with a +letter and present, to ask leave from the king to make a settlement +there. I carried him from his residency. Not being very well on my +arrival, I did not accompany Mr. Holloway (a very sensible and discreet +gentleman, and who spoke the Malay tongue very fluently) on shore at his +first audience; and finding his commission likely to prove abortive I did +not go to the palace at all. There was great anarchy and confusion at +this time; and the malcontents came often, as I was informed, near the +king's palace at night." + +1775. + +The Captain further remarks that when again there in 1775 he could not +obtain an audience. + +1781. + +The Annals report his death to have happened on the 2nd of June 1781, and +observe that from the commencement to the close of his reign the country +never enjoyed repose. His brother, named Ala-eddin (or Uleddin, as +commonly pronounced, and which seems to have been a favourite title with +the Achinese princes), was in exile at Madras during a considerable +period, and resided also for some time at Bencoolen. + +The eldest son of the deceased king, then about eighteen years of age, +succeeded him on the 16th of the same month, by the title of Ala-eddin +Mahmud shah Juhan, in spite of an opposition attempted to be raised by +the partisans of another son by a favourite wife. Weapons had been drawn +in the court before the palace, when the tuanku agung or high priest, a +person of great respectability and influence, by whom the former had been +educated, came amidst the crowd, bareheaded and without attendance, +leading his pupil by the hand. Having placed himself between the +contending factions, he addressed them to the following effect: that the +prince who stood before them had a natural right and legal claim to the +throne of his father; that he had been educated with a view to it, and +was qualified to adorn it by his disposition and talents; that he wished +however to found his pretensions neither upon his birthright nor the +strength of the party attached to him, but upon the general voice of his +subjects calling him to the sovereignty; that if such was their sentiment +he was ready to undertake the arduous duties of the station, in which he +himself would assist him with the fruits of his experience; that if on +the contrary they felt a predilection for his rival, no blood should be +shed on his account, the prince and his tutor being resolved in that case +to yield the point without a struggle, and retire to some distant island. +This impressive appeal had the desired effect, and the young prince was +invited by unanimous acclamation to assume the reins of government.* + +(*Footnote. Mr. Philip Braham, late chief of the East India Company's +settlement of Fort Marlborough, by whom the circumstances of this event +were related to me, arrived at Achin in July 1781, about a fortnight +after the transaction. He thus described his audience. The king was +seated in a gallery (to which there were no visible steps), at the +extremity of a spacious hall or court, and a curtain which hung before +him was drawn aside when it was his pleasure to appear. In this court +were great numbers of female attendants, but not armed, as they have been +described. Mr. Braham was introduced through a long file of guards armed +with blunderbusses, and then seated on a carpet in front of the gallery. +When a conversation had been carried on for some time through the +Shabandar, who communicated his answers to an interpreter, by whom they +were reported to the king, the latter perceiving that he spoke the +Malayan language addressed him directly, and asked several questions +respecting England; what number of wives and children our sovereign had; +how many ships of war the English kept in India; what was the French +force, and others of that nature. He expressed himself in friendly terms +with regard to our nation, and said he should always be happy to +countenance our traders in his ports. Even at this early period of his +reign he had abolished some vexatious imposts. Mr. Braham had an +opportunity of learning the great degree of power and control possessed +by certain of the orang kayas, who held their respective districts in +actual sovereignty, and kept the city in awe by stopping, when it suited +their purpose, the supplies of provisions. Captain Forrest, who once more +visited Achin in 1784 and was treated with much distinction (see his +Voyage to the Mergui Archipelago page 51), says he appeared to be +twenty-five years of age; but this was a misconception. Mr. Kenneth +Mackenzie, who saw him in 1782, judged him to have been at that time no +more than nineteen or twenty, which corresponds with Mr. Braham's +statement.) + +Little is known of the transactions of his reign, but that little is in +favour of his personal character. The Annals (not always unexceptionable +evidence when speaking of the living monarch) describe him as being +endowed with every princely virtue, exercising the functions of +government with vigour and rectitude, of undaunted courage, attentive to +the protection of the ministers of religion, munificent to the +descendants of the prophet (seiyid, but commonly pronounced sidi) and to +men of learning, prompt at all times to administer justice, and +consequently revered and beloved by his people. I have not been enabled +to ascertain the year in which he died. + +1791. + +It appears by a Malayan letter from Achin that in 1791 the peace of the +capital was much disturbed, and the state of the government as well as of +private property (which induced the writer to reship his goods) +precarious. + +1805. + +In 1805 his son, then aged twenty-one, was on the throne, and had a +contention with his paternal uncle, and at the same time his +father-in-law, named Tuanku Raja, by whom he had been compelled to fly +(but only for a short time) to Pidir, the usual asylum of the Achinese +monarchs. Their quarrel appears to have been rather of a family than of a +political nature, and to have proceeded from the irregular conduct of the +queen-mother. The low state of this young king's finances, impoverished +by a fruitless struggle to enforce, by means of an expensive marine +establishment, his right to an exclusive trade, had induced him to make +proposals, for mutual accommodation, to the English government of Pulo +Pinang.* + +(*Footnote. Since the foregoing was printed the following information +respecting the manners of the Batta people, obtained by Mr. Charles +Holloway from Mr. W.H. Hayes, has reached my hands. "In the month of July +1805 an expedition consisting of Sepoys, Malays, and Battas was sent from +Tapanuli against a chief named Punei Manungum, residing at Negatimbul, +about thirty miles inland from Old Tapanuli, in consequence of his having +attacked a kampong under the protection of the company, murdered several +of the inhabitants, and carried others into captivity. After a siege of +three days, terms of accommodation being proposed, a cessation of +hostilities took place, when the people of each party having laid aside +their arms intermixed with the utmost confidence, and conversed together +as if in a state of perfect amity. The terms however not proving +satisfactory, each again retired to his arms and renewed the contest with +their former inveteracy. On the second day the place was evacuated, and +upon our people entering it Mr. Hayes found the bodies of one man and two +women, whom the enemy had put to death before their departure (being the +last remaining of sixteen prisoners whom they had originally carried +off), and from whose legs large pieces had been cut out, evidently for +the purpose of being eaten. During the progress of this expedition a +small party had been sent to hold in check the chiefs of Labusukum and +Singapollum (inland of Sibogah), who were confederates of Punei Manungum. +These however proved stronger than was expected, and, making a sally from +their kampongs, attacked the sergeant's party and killed a sepoy, whom he +was obliged to abandon. Mr. Hayes, on his way from Negatimbul, was +ordered to march to the support of the retreating party; but these having +taken a different route he remained ignorant of the particulars of their +loss. The village of Singapollam being immediately carried by storm, and +the enemy retreating by one gate, as our people entered at the opposite, +the accoutrements of the sepoy who had been killed the day before were +seen hanging as trophies in the front of the houses, and in the town +hall, Mr. Hayes saw the head entirely scalped, and one of the fingers +fixed upon a fork or skewer, still warm from the fire. On proceeding to +the village of Labusucom, situated little more than two hundred yards +from the former, he found a large plantain leaf full of human flesh, +mixed with lime-juice and chili-pepper, from which he inferred that they +had been surprised in the very act of feasting on the sepoy, whose body +had been divided between the two kampongs. Upon differences being settled +with the chiefs they acknowledged with perfect sangfroid that such had +been the case, saying at the same time, "you know it is our custom; why +should we conceal it?") + + +CHAPTER 23. + +BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE ISLANDS LYING OFF THE WESTERN COAST OF SUMATRA. + +ISLANDS ADJACENT TO SUMATRA. + +The chain of islands which extends itself in a line nearly parallel to +the western coast, at the distance from it of little more than a degree, +being immediately connected with the principal subject of this work, and +being themselves inhabited by a race or races of people apparently from +the same original stock as those of the interior of Sumatra, whose +genuineness of character has been preserved to a remarkable degree +(whilst the islands on the eastern side are uniformly peopled with +Malays), I have thought it expedient to add such authentic information +respecting them as I have been enabled to obtain; and this I feel to be +the more necessary from observing in the maps to which I have had +recourse so much error and confusion in applying the names that the +identity and even the existence of some of them have been considered as +doubtful. + +ENGANO. + +Of these islands the most southern is Engano, which is still but very +imperfectly known, all attempts to open a friendly communication with the +natives having hitherto proved fruitless; and in truth they have had but +too much reason to consider strangers attempting to land on their coast +as piratical enemies. In the voyage of J.J. Saar, published in 1662, we +have an account of an expedition fitted out from Batavia in 1645 for the +purpose of examining this island, which terminated in entrapping and +carrying off with them sixty or seventy of the inhabitants, male and +female. The former died soon after their arrival, refusing to eat any +other food than coconuts, but the women, who were distributed amongst the +principal families of Batavia, proved extremely tractable and docile, and +acquired the language of the place. It is not stated, nor does it appear +from any subsequent publication, that the opportunity was taken of +forming a collection of their words. + +From that period Engano had only been incidentally noticed, until in +March 1771 Mr. Richard Wyatt, then governor, and the council of Fort +Marlborough, sent Mr. Charles Miller in a vessel belonging to the Company +to explore the productions of this island. On approaching it he observed +large plantations of coconut-trees, with several spots of ground cleared +for cultivation on the hills, and at night many fires on the beach. +Landing was found to be in most parts extremely difficult on account of +the surf. Many of the natives were seen armed with lances and squatting +down amongst the coral rocks, as if to conceal their numbers. Upon rowing +into a bay with the ship's boat it was pursued by ten canoes full of men +and obliged to return. Mr. Whalfeldt, the surveyor, and the second mate +proceeded to make a survey of the bay and endeavour to speak with the +natives. They were furnished with articles for presents, and, upon seeing +a canoe on the beach of a small island, and several people fishing on the +rocks, they rowed to the island and sent two caffrees on shore with some +cloth, but the natives would not come near them. The mate then landed and +advanced towards them, when they immediately came to him. He distributed +some presents among them, and they in return gave him some fish. Several +canoes came off to the ship with coconuts, sugar-cane, toddy, and a +species of yam. The crew of one of them took an opportunity of unshipping +and carrying away the boat's rudder, and upon a musket being fired over +their heads many of them leaped into the sea. + +Mr. Miller describes these people as being taller and fairer than the +Malays, their hair black, which the men cut short, and the women wear +long, and neatly turned up. The former go entirely naked except that they +sometimes throw a piece of bark of tree, or plantain-leaf over their +shoulders to protect them from the heat of the sun. The latter also are +naked except a small slip of plantain-leaf round the waist; and some had +on their heads fresh leaves made up nearly in the shape of a bonnet, with +necklaces of small pieces of shell, and a shell hanging by a string, to +be used as a comb. The ears of both men and women have large holes made +in them, an inch or two in diameter, into which they put a ring made of +coconut-shell or a roll of leaves. They do not chew betel. Their language +was not understood by any person on board, although there were people +from most parts adjacent to the coast. Their canoes are very neat, formed +of two thin planks sewn together, sharp-pointed at each end and provided +with outriggers. In general they contain six or seven men. They always +carry lances, not only as offensive weapons, but for striking fish. These +are about seven feet in length, formed of nibong and other hard woods; +some of them tipped with pieces of bamboo made very sharp, and the +concave part filled with fish-bones (and shark's teeth), others armed +with pieces of bone made sharp and notched, and others pointed with bits +of iron and copper sharpened. They seemed not to be unaccustomed to the +sight of vessels. (Ships bound from the ports of India to the straits of +Sunda, as well as those from Europe, when late in the season, frequently +make the land of Engano, and many must doubtless be wrecked on its +coast). + +Attempts were made to find a river or fresh water, but without success, +nor even a good place to land. Two of the people from the ship having +pushed in among the rocks and landed the natives soon came to them, +snatched their handkerchiefs off their heads and ran away with them, but +dropped them on being pursued. Soon afterwards they sounded a +conch-shell, which brought numbers of them down to the beach. The bay +appeared to be well sheltered and to afford good anchorage ground. The +soil of the country for the most part a red clay. The productions Mr. +Miller thought the same as are commonly found on the coast of Sumatra; +but circumstances did not admit of his penetrating into the country, +which, contrary to expectation, was found to be so full of inhabitants. +In consequence of the loss of anchors and cables it was judged necessary +that the vessel should return to Fort Marlborough. Having taken in the +necessary supplies, the island was revisited. Finding no landing-place, +the boat was run upon the coral rocks. Signs were made to the natives, +who had collected in considerable numbers, and upon seeing our people +land had retreated towards some houses, to stop, but to no purpose until +Mr. Miller proceeded towards them unaccompanied, when they approached in +great numbers and accepted of knives, pieces of cloth, etc. Observing a +spot of cultivated ground surrounded by a sort of fence he went to it, +followed by several of the natives who made signs to deter him, and as +soon as he was out of sight of his own people began to handle his clothes +and attempt to pull them off, when he returned to the beach. + +Their houses stand singly in their plantations, are circular, about eight +feet in diameter, raised about six from the ground on slender ironwood +sticks, floored with planks, and the roof, which is thatched with long +grass, rises from the floor in a conical shape. No rice was seen among +them, nor did they appear to know the use of it when shown to them; nor +were cattle nor fowls of any kind observed about their houses. + +Having anchored off a low point of marshy land in the northern part of +the bay, where the natives seemed to be more accustomed to intercourse +with strangers, the party landed in hopes of finding a path to some +houses about two miles inland. Upon observing signs made to them by some +people on the coral reef Mr. Miller and Mr. Whalfeldt went towards them +in the sampan, when some among them took an opportunity of stealing the +latter's hanger and running away with it; upon which they were +immediately fired at by some of the party, and notwithstanding Mr. +Miller's endeavours to prevent them both the officer and men continued to +fire upon and pursue the natives through the morass, but without being +able to overtake them. Meeting however with some houses they set fire to +them, and brought off two women and a boy whom the caffrees had seized. +The officers on board the vessel, alarmed at the firing and seeing Mr. +Miller alone in the sampan, whilst several canoes full of people were +rowing towards him, sent the pinnace with some sepoys to his assistance. +During the night conch-shells were heard to sound almost all over the +bay, and in the morning several large parties were observed on different +parts of the beach. All further communication with the inhabitants being +interrupted by this imprudent quarrel, and the purposes of the expedition +thereby frustrated, it was not thought advisable to remain any longer at +Engano, and Mr. Miller, after visiting some parts of the southern coast +of Sumatra, returned to Fort Marlborough. + +PULO MEGA. + +The next island to the north-west of Engano, but at a considerable +distance, is called by the Malays Pulo Mega (cloud-island), and by +Europeans Triste, or isle de Recif. It is small and uninhabited, and like +many others in these seas is nearly surrounded by a coral reef with a +lagoon in the centre. Coconut-trees grow in vast numbers in the sand near +the sea-shore, whose fruit serves for food to rats and squirrels, the +only quadrupeds found there. On the borders of the lagoon is a little +vegetable mould, just above the level of high water, where grow some +species of timber-trees. + +PULO SANDING. + +The name of Pulo Sanding or Sandiang belongs to two small islands +situated near the south-eastern extremity of the Nassau or Pagi islands, +in which group they are sometimes included. Of these the southernmost is +distinguished in the Dutch charts by the term of Laag or low, and the +other by that of Bergen or hilly. They are both uninhabited, and the only +productions worth notice is the long nutmeg, which grows wild on them, +and some good timber, particularly of the kind known by the name of +marbau (Metrosideros amboinensis). An idea was entertained of making a +settlement on one of them, and in 1769 an officer with a few men were +stationed there for some months, during which period the rains were +incessant. The scheme was afterwards abandoned as unlikely to answer any +useful purpose. + +NASSAUS OR PULO PAGI. + +The two islands separated by a narrow strait, to which the Dutch +navigators have given the name of the Nassaus, are called by the Malays +Pulo Pagi or Pagei, and by us commonly the Poggies. The race of people by +whom these as well as some other islands to the northward of them are +inhabited having the appellation of orang mantawei, this has been +confounded with the proper names of the islands, and, being applied +sometimes to one and sometimes to another, has occasioned much confusion +and uncertainty. The earliest accounts we have of them are the reports of +Mr. Randolph Marriot in 1749, and of Mr. John Saul in 1750 and 1751, with +Captain Thomas Forrest's observations in 1757, preserved in Mr. +Dalrymple's Historical Relation of the several Expeditions from Fort +Marlborough to the Islands adjacent to the West-coast of Sumatra; but by +much the most satisfactory information is contained in a paper +communicated by Mr. John Crisp to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, in the +sixth volume of whose Transactions it is published, and from these +documents I shall extract such particulars as may best serve to convey a +knowledge of the country and the people. + +Mr. Crisp sailed from Fort Marlborough on the 12th of August 1792 in a +vessel navigated at his own expense, and with no other view than that of +gratifying a liberal curiosity. On the 14th he anchored in the straits of +See Cockup (Si Kakap), which divide the Northern from the Southern Pagi. +These straits are about two miles in length and a quarter of a mile over, +and make safe riding for ships of any size, which lie perfectly secure +from every wind, the water being literally as smooth as in a pond. The +high land of Sumatra (inland of Moco-moco and Ipu) was plainly to be +distinguished from thence. In the passage are scattered several small +islands, each of which consists of one immense rock, and which may have +been originally connected with the main island. The face of the country +is rough and irregular, consisting of high hills of sudden and steep +ascent, and covered with trees to their summits, among which the species +called bintangur or puhn, fit for the largest masts, abounds. The +sago-tree grows in plenty, and constitutes the chief article of food to +the inhabitants, who do not cultivate rice. The use of betel is unknown +to them. Coconut-trees, bamboos, and the common fruits of Sumatra are +found here. The woods are impervious to man: the species of wild animals +that inhabit them but few; the large red deer, hogs, and several kinds of +monkey, but neither buffaloes nor goats; nor are they infested with +tigers or other beasts of prey; They have the common domestic fowl, but +pork and fish are the favourite animal food of the natives. + +When the vessel had been two days at anchor they began to come down from +their villages in their canoes, bringing fruit of various kinds, and on +invitation they readily came on board without showing signs of +apprehension or embarrassment. On presenting to them plates of boiled +rice they would not touch it until it had been previously tasted by one +of the ship's company. They behaved whilst on board with much decorum, +showed a strong degree of curiosity, but not the least disposition for +pilfering. They appeared to live in great friendship and harmony with +each other, and voluntarily divided amongst their companions what was +given to them. Their stature seldom exceeds five feet and a half. Their +colour is like that of the Malays, a light brown or copper-colour. Some +canoes came alongside the vessel with only women in them, and upon being +encouraged by the men several ventured on board. When on the water they +use a temporary dress to shield them from the heat of the sun, made of +the leaves of the plantain, of which they form a sort of conical cap (the +same was observed of the women of Engano), and there is also a broad +piece of the leaf fastened round the body over their breasts, and another +round their waist. This leaf readily splits, and has the appearance of a +coarse fringe. When in their villages the women, like the men, wear only +a small piece of coarse cloth, made of the bark of a tree, round their +middle. Beads and other ornaments are worn about the neck. Although +coconuts are in such plenty they have not the use of oil, and their hair, +which is black, and naturally long, is, for want of it and the use of +combs, in general matted and full of vermin. They have a method of filing +or grinding their teeth to a point, like the people of Sumatra. + +The number of inhabitants of the two islands is supposed not to exceed +1400 persons. They are divided into small tribes, each occupying a small +river and living in one village. On the southern island are five of these +villages, and on the northern seven, of which Kakap is accounted the +chief, although Labu-labu is supposed to contain the greater number of +people. Their houses are built of bamboos and raised on posts; the under +part is occupied by poultry and hogs, and, as may be supposed, much filth +is collected there. Their arms consist of a bow and arrows. The former is +made of the nibong-tree, and the string of the entrails of some animal. +The arrows are of small bamboo, headed with brass or with a piece of hard +wood cut to a point. With these they kill deer, which are roused by dogs +of a mongrel breed, and also monkeys, whose flesh they eat. Some among +them wear krises. It was said that the different tribes of orang mantawei +who inhabit these islands never make war upon each other, but with people +of islands to the northward they are occasionally in a state of +hostility. The measurement of one of their war-canoes, preserved with +great care under a shed, was twenty-five feet in the length of the floor, +the prow projecting twenty-two, and the stern eighteen, making the whole +length sixty-five feet. The greatest breadth was five feet, and the depth +three feet eight inches. For navigating in their rivers and the straits +of Si Kakap, where the sea is as smooth as glass, they employ canoes, +formed with great neatness of a single tree, and the women and young +children are extremely expert in the management of the paddle. They are +strangers to the use of coin of any kind, and have little knowledge of +metals. The iron bill or chopping-knife, called parang, is in much esteem +among them, it serves as a standard for the value of other commodities, +such as articles of provision. + +The religion of these people, if it deserves the name, resembles much +what has been described of the Battas; but their mode of disposing of +their dead is different, and analogous rather to the practice of the +Southsea islanders, the corpse, being deposited on a sort of stage in a +place appropriated for the purpose, and with a few leaves strewed over +it, is left to decay. Inheritance is by male descent; the house or +plantation, the weapons and tools of the father, become the property of +the sons. Their chiefs are but little distinguished from the rest of the +community by authority or possessions, their pre-eminence being chiefly +displayed at public entertainments, of which they do the honours. They +have not even judicial powers, all disputes being settled, and crimes +adjudged, by a meeting of the whole village. Murder is punishable by +retaliation, for which purpose the offender is delivered over to the +relations of the deceased, who may put him to death; but the crime is +rare. Theft, when to a considerable amount, is also capital. In cases of +adultery the injured husband has a right to seize the effects of the +paramour, and sometimes punishes his wife by cutting off her hair. When +the husband offends the wife has a right to quit him and to return to her +parents' house. Simple fornication between unmarried persons is neither +considered as a crime nor a disgrace. The state of slavery is unknown +among these people, and they do not practise circumcision. + +The custom of tattooing, or imprinting figures on the skin, is general +among the inhabitants of this group of islands. They call it in their +language teetee or titi. They begin to form these marks on boys at seven +years of age, and fill them up as they advance in years. Mr. Crisp thinks +they were originally intended as marks of military distinction. The women +have a star imprinted on each shoulder, and generally some small marks on +the backs of their hands. These punctures are made with an instrument +consisting of a brass wire fixed perpendicularly into a piece of stick +about eight inches in length. The pigment made use of is the smoke +collected from dammar, mixed with water (or, according to another +account, with the juice of the sugar-cane). The operator takes a stalk of +dried grass, or a fine piece of stick, and, dipping the end in the +pigment, traces on the skin the outline of the figure, and then, dipping +the brass point in the same preparation, with very quick and light +strokes of a long, small stick, drives it into the skin, whereby an +indelible mark is produced. The pattern when completed is in all the +individuals nearly the same. + +In the year 1783 the son of a raja of one of the Pagi islands came over +to Sumatra on a visit of curiosity, and, being an intelligent man, much +information was obtained from him. He could give some account of almost +every island that lies off the coast, and when a doubt arose about their +position he ascertained it by taking the rind of a pumplenose or +shaddock, and, breaking it into bits of different sizes, disposing them +on the floor in such a manner as to convey a clear idea of the relative +situation. He spoke of Engano (by what name is not mentioned) and said +that their boats were sometimes driven to that island, on which occasions +they generally lost a part, if not the whole, of their crews, from the +savage disposition of the natives. He appeared to be acquainted with +several of the constellations, and gave names for the Pleiades, Scorpion, +Great Bear, and Orion's Belt. He understood the distinction between the +fixed and wandering stars, and particularly noticed Venus, which he named +usutat-si-geb-geb or planet of the evening. To Sumatra he gave the +appellation of Seraihu. As to religion he said the rajas alone prayed and +sacrificed hogs and fowls. They addressed themselves in the first place +to the Power above the sky; next to those in the moon, who are male and +female; and lastly, to that evil being whose residence is beneath the +earth, and is the cause of earthquakes. A drawing of this man, +representing accurately the figures in which his body and limbs were +tattooed, was made by Colonel Trapaud, and obligingly given to me. He not +only stood patiently during the performance, but seemed much pleased with +the execution, and proposed that the Colonel should accompany him to his +country to have an opportunity of making a likeness of his father. To our +collectors of rare prints it is well known that there exists an engraving +of a man of this description by the title of The Painted Prince, brought +to England by Captain Dampier from one of the islands of the eastern sea +in the year 1691, and of whom a particular account is given in his +Voyage. He said that the inhabitants of the Pagi islands derived their +origin from the orang mantawei of the island called Si Biru. + +SI PORAH OR GOOD FORTUNE. + +North-westward of the Pagi islands, and at no great distance, lies that +of Si Porah, commonly denominated Good Fortune Island, inhabited by the +same race as the former, and with the same manners and language. The +principal towns or villages are named Si Porah, containing, when visited +by Mr. John Saul in 1750, three hundred inhabitants, Si Labah three +hundred (several of whom were originally from the neighbouring island of +Nias), Si Bagau two hundred, and Si Uban a smaller number; and when +Captain Forrest made his inquiries in 1757 there was not any material +variation. Since that period, though the island has been occasionally +visited, it does not appear that any report has been preserved of the +state of the population. The country is described as being entirely +covered with wood. The highest land is in the vicinity of Si Labah. + +SI BIRU. + +The next island in the same direction is named Si Biru, which, although +of considerable size, being larger than Si Porah, has commonly been +omitted in our charts, or denoted to be uncertain. It is inhabited by the +Mantawei race, and the natives both of Si Porah and the Pagi Islands +consider it as their parent country, but notwithstanding this connexion +they are generally in a state of hostility, and in 1783 no intercourse +subsisted between them. The inhabitants are distinguished only by some +small variety of the patterns in which their skins are tattooed, those of +Si Biru having them narrower on the breast and broader on the shoulders. +The island itself is rendered conspicuous by a volcanomountain. + +PULO BATU. + +Next to this is Pulo Batu, situated immediately to the southward of the +equinoctial line, and, in consequence of an original mistake in +Valentyn's erroneous chart, published in 1726, usually called by +navigators Mintaon, being a corruption of the word Mantawei, which, as +already explained, is appropriated to a race inhabiting the islands of Si +Biru, Si Porah, and Pagi. Batu, on the contrary, is chiefly peopled by a +colony from Nias. These pay a yearly tax to the raja of Buluaro, a small +kampong in the interior part of the island, belonging to a race different +from both, and whose number it is said amounts only to one hundred, which +it is not allowed to exceed, so many children being reared as may replace +the deaths. They are reported to bear a resemblance to the people of +Makasar or Bugis, and may have been adventurers from that quarter. The +influence of their raja over the Nias inhabitants, who exceed his +immediate subjects in the proportion of twenty to one, is founded on the +superstitious belief that the water of the island will become salt when +they neglect to pay the tax. He in his turn, being in danger from the +power of the Malay traders who resort thither from Padang and are not +affected by the same superstition, is constrained to pay them to the +amount of sixteen ounces of gold as an annual tribute. + +The food of the people, as in the other islands, is chiefly sago, and +their exports coconuts, oil in considerable quantities, and swala or +seaslugs. No rice is planted there, nor, if we may trust to the Malayan +accounts, suffered to be imported. Upon the same authority also we are +told that the island derives its name of Batu from a large rock +resembling the hull of a vessel, which tradition states to be a +petrifaction of that in which the Buluaro people arrived. The same +fanciful story of a petrified boat is prevalent in the Serampei country +of Sumatra. From Natal Hill Pulo Batu is visible. Like the islands +already described it is entirely covered with wood. + +PULO KAPINI. + +Between Pulo Batu and the coast of Sumatra, but much nearer to the +latter, is a small uninhabited island, called Pulo Kapini (iron-wood +island), but to which our charts (copying from Valentyn) commonly give +the name of Batu, whilst to Batu itself, as above described, is assigned +the name of Mintaon. In confirmation of the distinctions here laid down +it will be thought sufficient to observe that, when the Company's packet, +the Greyhound, lay at what was called Lant's Bay in Mintaon, an officer +came to our settlement of Natal (of which Mr. John Marsden at that time +was chief) in a Batu oil-boat; and that a large trade for oil is carried +on from Padang and other places with the island of Batu, whilst that of +Kapini is known to be without inhabitants, and could not supply the +article. + +PULO NIAS. + +The most productive and important, if not the largest of this chain of +islands, is Pulo Nias. Its inhabitants are very numerous, and of a race +distinct not only from those on the main (for such we must relatively +consider Sumatra), but also from the people of all the islands to the +southward, with the exception of the last-mentioned. Their complexions, +especially the women, are lighter than those of the Malays; they are +smaller in their persons and shorter in stature; their mouths are broad, +noses very flat, and their ears are pierced and distended in so +extraordinary a manner as nearly, in many instances, to touch the +shoulders, particularly when the flap has, by excessive distension or by +accident, been rent asunder; but these pendulous excrescences are +commonly trimmed and reduced to the ordinary size when they are brought +away from their own country. Preposterous however as this custom may +appear, it is not confined to the Nias people. Some of the women of the +inland parts of Sumatra, in the vicinity of the equinoctial line +(especially those of the Rau tribes) increase the perforation of their +ears until they admit ornaments of two or three inches diameter. There is +no circumstance by which the natives of this island are more obviously +distinguished than the prevalence of a leprous scurf with which the skins +of a great proportion of both sexes are affected; in some cases covering +the whole of the body and limbs, and in others resembling rather the +effect of the tetter or ringworm, running like that partial complaint in +waving lines and concentric curves. It is seldom if ever radically cured, +although by external applications (especially in the slighter cases) its +symptoms are moderated, and a temporary smoothness given to the skin; but +it does not seem in any stage of the disease to have a tendency to +shorten life, or to be inconsistent with perfect health in other +respects, nor is there reason to suppose it infectious; and it is +remarkable that the inhabitants of Pulo Batu, who are evidently of the +same race, are exempt from this cutaneous malady. The principal food of +the common people is the sweet-potato, but much pork is also eaten by +those who can afford it, and the chiefs make a practice of ornamenting +their houses with the jaws of the hogs, as well as the skulls of the +enemies whom they slay. The cultivation of rice has become extensive in +modern times, but rather as an article of traffic than of home +consumption. + +These people are remarkable for their docility and expertness in +handicraft work, and become excellent house-carpenters and joiners, and +as an instance of their skill in the arts they practise that of letting +blood by cupping, in a mode nearly similar to ours. Among the Sumatrans +blood is never drawn with so salutary an intent. They are industrious and +frugal, temperate and regular in their habits, but at the same time +avaricious, sullen, obstinate, vindictive, and sanguinary. Although much +employed as domestic slaves (particularly by the Dutch) they are always +esteemed dangerous in that capacity, a defect in their character which +philosophers will not hesitate to excuse in an independent people torn by +violence from their country and connexions. They frequently kill +themselves when disgusted with their situation or unhappy in their +families, and often their wives at the same time, who appeared, from the +circumstances under which they were found, to have been consenting to the +desperate act. They were both dressed in their best apparel (the +remainder being previously destroyed), and the female, in more than one +instance that came under notice, had struggled so little as not to +discompose her hair or remove her head from the pillow. It is said that +in their own country they expose their children by suspending them in a +bag from a tree, when they despair of being able to bring them up. The +mode seems to be adopted with the view of preserving them from animals of +prey, and giving them a chance of being saved by persons in more easy +circumstances. + +The island is divided into about fifty small districts, under chiefs or +rajas who are independent of, and at perpetual variance with, each other; +the ultimate object of their wars being to make prisoners, whom they sell +for slaves, as well as all others not immediately connected with them, +whom they can seize by stratagem. These violences are doubtless +encouraged by the resort of native traders from Padang, Natal, and Achin +to purchase cargoes of slaves, who are also accused of augmenting the +profits of their voyage by occasionally surprising and carrying off whole +families. The number annually exported is reckoned at four hundred and +fifty to Natal, and one hundred and fifty to the northern ports (where +they are said to be employed by the Achinese in the gold-mines), +exclusive of those which go to Padang for the supply of Batavia, where +the females are highly valued and taught music and various +accomplishments. In catching these unfortunate victims of avarice it is +supposed that not fewer than two hundred are killed; and if the aggregate +be computed at one thousand it is a prodigious number to be supplied from +the population of so small an island. + +Beside the article of slaves there is a considerable export of padi and +rice, the cultivation of which is chiefly carried on at a distance from +the sea-coasts, whither the natives retire to be secure from piratical +depredations, bringing down the produce to the harbours (of which there +are several good ones), to barter with the traders for iron, steel, +beads, tobacco, and the coarser kinds of Madras and Surat piece-goods. +Numbers of hogs are reared, and some parts of the main, especially Barus, +are supplied from hence with yams, beans, and poultry. Some of the rajas +are supposed to have amassed a sum equal to ten or twenty thousand +dollars, which is kept in ingots of gold and silver, much of the latter +consisting of small Dutch money (not the purest coin) melted down; and of +these they make an ostentatious display at weddings and other festivals. + +The language scarcely differs more from the Batta and the Lampong than +these do from each other, and all evidently belong to the same stock. The +pronunciation is very guttural, and either from habit or peculiar +conformation of organs these people cannot articulate the letter p, but +in Malayan words, where the sound occurs, pronounce it as f (saying for +example Fulo Finang instead of Pulo Pinang), whilst on the contrary the +Malays never make use of the f, and pronounce as pikir the Arabic word +fikir. Indeed the Arabians themselves appear to have the same organic +defect as the people of Nias, and it may likewise be observed in the +languages of some of the South-sea islands. + +PULO NAKO-NAKO. + +On the western side of Nias and very near to it is a cluster of small +islands called Pulo Nako-nako, whose inhabitants (as well as others who +shall presently be noticed) are of a race termed Maros or orang maruwi, +distinct from those of the former, but equally fair-complexioned. Large +quantities of coconut-oil are prepared here and exported chiefly to +Padang, the natives having had a quarrel with the Natal traders. The +islands are governed by a single raja, who monopolizes the produce, his +subjects dealing only with him, and he with the praws or country vessels +who are regularly furnished with cargoes in the order of their arrival, +and never dispatched out of turn. + +PULO BABI. + +Pulo Babi or Hog island, called by the natives Si Malu, lies +northwestward from Nias, and, like Nako-Nako, is inhabited by the Maruwi +race. Buffaloes (and hogs, we may presume) are met with here in great +plenty and sold cheap. + +PULO BANIAK. + +The name of Pulo Baniak belongs to a cluster of islands (as the terms +imply) situated to the eastward, or in-shore of Pulo Babi, and not far +from the entrance of Singkel River. It is however most commonly applied +to one of them which is considerably larger than the others. It does not +appear to furnish any vegetable produce as an article of trade, and the +returns from thence are chiefly sea-slug and the edible birds-nest. The +inhabitants of these islands also are Maruwis, and, as well as the others +of the same race, are now Mahometans. Their language, although considered +by the natives of these parts as distinct and peculiar (which will +naturally be the case where people do not understand each other's +conversation), has much radical affinity to the Batta and Nias, and less +to the Pagi; but all belong to the same class, and may be regarded as +dialects of a general language prevailing amongst the original +inhabitants of this eastern archipelago, as far at least as the Moluccas +and Philippines. + +THE END. + + + + +INDEX. + + +Achin or Acheh: +kingdom of, its boundaries. +Situation, buildings, and appearance of the capital. +Air esteemed healthy. +Inhabitants described. +Present state of commerce. +Productions of soil, manufactures, navigation. +Coin, government. +Officers of state, ceremonies. +Local division. +Revenues, duties. +Administration of justice and punishments. +History of. +State of the kingdom at the time when Malacca fell into the hands of the +Portuguese. +Circumstances which placed Ibrahim, a slave of the king of Pidir, on the +throne. +Rises to considerable importance during the reign of Mansur-shah. +King of, receives a letter from Queen Elizabeth. +Letter from King James the First. +Commencement of female reigns. +Their termination. +Subsequent events. + +Achin Head: +situation of. + +Address: +custom of, in the third instead of the second person. + +Adultery: +laws respecting. + +Agriculture. + +Air: +temperature of. + +Ala-eddin: +or Ula-eddin Shah, king of Achin, lays repeated siege to Malacca. +His death. + +Alboquerque (Affonso d'): +touches at Pidir and Pase in his voyage to Malacca. + +Alligators: +Superstitious dread of. + +Amomum: +different species of. + +Amusements. + +Anak-sungei: +kingdom of. + +Ancestors: +veneration for burying-places of. + +Animals: +account of. + +Annals: +Malayan, of the kingdom of Achin. + +Ants: +variety and abundance of. +White-ant. + +Arabian: +travellers, mention Sumatra by the name of Ramni. + +Arabic: +character, with modifications, used by the Malays. + +Arithmetic. + +Arsenic: +yellow. + +Arts: +and manufactures. + +Aru, kingdom of. + +Astronomy. + +Atap: +covering for roofs of houses. + +Babi: +island of. + +Bamboo: +principal material for building. +Account of the. + +Bangka: +island of, its tin-mines. + +Baniak: +islands of. + +Banyan: +tree or jawi-jawi, its peculiarities. + +Bantam: +city of. +Expulsion of English from thence. + +Barbosa, (Odoardus): +his account of Sumatra. + +Barthema (Ludovico): +his visit to the island. + +Barus: +a place chiefly remarkable for having given its name to the most valuable +sort of camphor. + +Bats: +various species of. + +Batta: +country of. +Its divisions. +Mr. Miller's journey into it. +Governments. +Authority of the rajas. +Succession. +Persons, dress, and weapons of the inhabitants. +Warfare. +Fortified villages or kampongs. +Trade, mode of holding fairs. +Food. +Buildings, domestic manners. +Horse-racing. +Books. +Observations on their mode of writing. +Religion. +Mythology. +Oaths. +Funeral ceremonies. +Crimes and punishments. +Practice of eating human flesh. +Motives for this custom. +Mode of proceeding. +Doubts obviated. +Testimonies. +Death of Mr. Nairne in the Batta country. +Originality of manners preserved amongst this people, and its probable +causes. + +Batu (Pulo). + +Batu Bara: +river. + +Beards: +practice of eradicating. + +Beasts. + +Beaulieu: +commander of a French squadron at Achin. + +Beeswax. + +Bencoolen: +river and town. +Interior country visited. +Account of first English establishment at. + +Benzoin: +or benjamin, mode of procuring. +Nature of the trade. +Oil distilled from. + +Betel: +practice of chewing. +Preparation of. + +Betel-nut: +or areca, see Pinang. + +Bintang: +island of. + +Birds: +Species which form the edible nests. +Modes of catching. + +Birds-nest: +edible, account of. + +Biru: +island of. + +Blachang: +species of caviar, mode of preparing. + +Blades: +of krises. +mode of damasking. + +Boulton (Mr. Matthew). + +Bread-fruit: +or sukun. + +Breezes: +land and sea. + +Braham (Mr. Philip). + +Broff (Mr. Robert). + +Buffalo: +or karbau, description of the. +Killed at festivals. + +Building: +modes of, described. + +Bukit Lintang: +a high range of hills inland of Moco-moco. + +Bukit Pandang: +a high mountain inland of Ipu. + +Burying-places: +ancient, veneration for. + +Chameleon: +description of. + +Campbell (Mr. Charles). + +Camphor: +or kapur barus, a valuable drug. +Description of the tree. +Mode of procuring it. +Its price. +Camphor-oil. +Japan camphor. + +Cannibalism. + +Cannon: +use of, previously to Portuguese discoveries. + +Carpenters' work. + +Carving. + +Cassia: +description of the tree. +Found in the Serampei, Musi, and Batta countries. + +Cattle: +Laws respecting. + +Causes: +or suits, mode of deciding. + +Caut-chouc: +or elastic gum. + +Cements. + +Champaka: +flower. + +Character: +difference in respect of it, between the Malays and other Sumatrans. + +Characters: +of Rejang, Batta, and Lampong languages. + +Charms. + +Chastity. + +Chess: +game of, Malayan terms. + +Child-bearing. + +Children: +treatment of. + +Chinese: +colonists. + +Circumcision. + +Cloth: +manufacture of. + +Clothing: +materials of. + +Coal. + +Cock-fighting: +strong propensity to this sport. +Matches. + +Coconut-tree: +an important object of cultivation. +Does not bear fruit in the hill country. + +Codes: +of laws. +Remarks on. + +Coins: +current in Sumatra. + +Commerce. + +Company (English East India): +its influence. +Permission given to it to settle a factory at Achin. + +Compass: +irregularity of, noticed. + +Compensation: +for murder, termed bangun. + +Complexion: +fairness of, comparatively with other Indians. +Darkness of, not dependent on climate. + +Confinement: +modes of. + +Contracts: +made with the chiefs of the country, for obliging their dependants to +plant pepper. + +Conversion: +to religion of Mahomet, period of. + +Cookery. + +Copper. +Rich mine of. + +Coral rock. + +Corallines: +collection of, in the possession of Mr. John Griffiths. + +Cosmetic: +used, and mode of preparing it. + +Cotton: +two species of, cultivated. + +Courtship. + +Crisp (Mr. John). + +Cultivation: +of rice. + +Curry: +dish or mode of cookery so called. + +Custard-apple. + +Cycas circinalis: +(a palm-fern confounded with the sago-tree) described. + +Dalrymple (Mr. Alexander). + +Dammar: +a species of resin or turpentine. + +Dancing: +amusement of. + +Dare (Lieutenant Hastings). +Journal of his expedition to the Serampei and Sungei-tenang countries. + +Datu: +title of. + +Debts: +and debtors, laws respecting. + +Deer: +diminutive species of. + +Deity: +name for the, borrowed by the Rejangs from the Malays. + +Dice. + +Diseases: +modes of curing. + +Diversion: +of tossing a ball. + +Divorces: +laws respecting. + +Dragons'-blood: +a drug, how procured. + +Dress: +description of man's and woman's. + +Dupati: +nature of title. + +Durian: +fruit. + +Dusuns: +or villages, description of. + +Duyong: +or sea-cow. + +Dye-stuffs. + +Ears: +ceremony of boring. + +Earthenware. + +Earth-oil. + +Earthquakes. + +Eating: +mode of. + +Eclipses: +notion respecting. + +Edrisi: +his account of Sumatra by the name of Al-Rami. + +Elastic gum. + +Elephants. + +Elizabeth: +Queen, addresses a letter to the king of Achin. + +Elopements: +laws respecting. + +Emblematic presents. + +Engano: +island of. + +English: +their first visit to Sumatra. +Settle a factory at Achin. + +Europeans: +influence of. + +Evidence: +rules of, and mode of giving. + +Expedition: +to Serampei and Sungei-tenang countries. + +Fairs. + +Fencing. + +Fertility: +of soil. + +Festivals. + +Feud: +account of a remarkable one. + +Fevers: +how treated by the natives. + +Filigree: +manufacture of. + +Fire: +modes of kindling. +Necessary for warmth among the hills. + +Firearms: +manufactured in Menangkabau. + +Firefly. + +Fish: +Ikan layer, a remarkable species. +Various kinds enumerated. + +Fishing: +mode of. + +Fish-roes: +preserved by salting. +An article of trade. + +Flowers: +description of. + +Foersch, (Mr.): +his account of the poison-tree. + +Fogs: +dense among the hills. + +Food. + +Fortification: +mode of. + +Fort Marlborough: +the chief English settlement on the coast of Sumatra. +Establishment of. +Reduced by Act of Parliament. + +French: +settlement of Tappanuli taken by the, in the year 1760, and again in +1809, attended with circumstances of atrocity. +Sent a fleet to Achin, under General Beaulieu. + +Fruits: +description of. + +Funerals: +ceremonies observed at. + +Furniture: +of houses. + +Gambir: +mode of preparing it for eating with betel. + +Gaming: +laws respecting. +Propensity for, and modes of. + +Geography: +limited ideas of. + +Goitres: +natives of the hills subject to. +Disease not imputable to snow-water. +In the Serampei country. + +Gold: +island celebrated for its production of. +Chiefly found in the Menangkabau country. +Distinctions of. +Mode of working the mines. +Estimation of quantity procured. +Price. +Mode of cleansing. +Weights. + +Government: +Malayan. + +Grammar. + +Graves: +form of. + +Griffiths, (Mr. John). + +Guana: +or iguana, animal of the lizard kind. + +Guava: +fruit. + +Gum-lac. + +Gunpowder: +manufacture of. + +Hair: +modes of dressing the. + +Heat: +degree of. + +Hemp: +or ganja, its inebriating qualities. + +Henna: +of the Arabians used for tingeing the nails. + +Herbs: +and shrubs used medicinally. + +Hills: +inhabitants of, subject to goitres. + +Hippopotamus. + +History: +of Malayan kings. +Of Achinese. + +Hollanders: +their first visit to Sumatra. + +Holloway, (Mr. Giles). + +Horse-racing: +practised by the Battas. + +Horses: +small breed of. +Occasionally used in war. +Eaten as food by the Battas. + +Hot springs. + +Houses: +description of. + +Human flesh: +eaten by the Battas. + +Iang de per-tuan: +title of sovereignty. + +Ibrahim (otherwise, Saleh-eddin shah): +king of Achin, his origin. +Enmity to the Portuguese. +Transactions of his reign, and death. + +Iju: +a peculiar vegetable substance used for cordage. + +Ilhas d'Ouro: +attempts of the Portuguese to discover them. + +Import-trade. + +Incest. + +Indalas: +one of the Malayan names of Sumatra. + +Indigo: +Broad-leafed or tarum akar. + +Indragiri: +river of. +Has its source in a lake of the Menangkabau country. + +Indrapura: +kingdom of. + +Inhabitants: +general distinctions of. + +Inheritance: +rules of. + +Ink: +manufacture of. + +Insanity. + +Insects: +Various kinds of, enumerated. + +Instruments: +musical. + +Interest: +of money. + +Investiture. + +Ipu: +river of. +Sungei-ipu (a different river). + +Iron: +Ore smelted. +Manufactures of. +Mines. + +Iskander Muda (Paduka Sri): +king of Achin, receives a letter from king James the first, by Captain +Best, and gives permission for establishing an English factory. +Conquers Johor. +Attacks Malacca with a great fleet. +Receives an embassy from France. +Again attacks Malacca. +His death. +Wealth and power. + +Islands: +near the western coast, account of. + +Ivory. + +Jack: +fruit. + +Jaggri: +imperfect sort of sugar from a species of palm. + +Jambi: +river of. +Colonies settled on branches of it, for collecting gold. +Has its source in the Limun country. +Town of. + +Jambu: +fruit. + +James the first: +king, writes a letter to the king of Achin. + +Jeinal: +sultan of Pase, his history. + +Johor: +kingdom of. + +Kampar: +river of. +King of, negotiates with Alboquerque. + +Kampongs: +or fortified villages. + +Kananga: +flowering tree. + +Kapini: +island of. + +Kasumba: +name of, given to the carthamus and the bixa. + +Kataun: +or Cattown, river of. + +Kima: +or gigantic cockle. + +Koran. + +Korinchi: +country. +Mr. Campbell's visit to it. +Situation of lake. +Inhabitants and buildings. +Food, articles of commerce, gold. +Account of lepers. +Peculiar plants. +Character of the natives. + +Koto-tuggoh: +a fortified village of the Sungeitenang country. +Taken and destroyed. + +Krises: +description of. + +Kroi: +district of. + +Kulit-kayu: +or coolicoy, the bark of certain trees used in building, and for other +purposes. + +Kuwau: +argus or Sumatran pheasant. + +Labun: +district of. + +Lakes. + +Laksamana: +a title equivalent to commander-in-chief. + +Lampong: +country, limits of. +Inhabitants, language, and governments. +Wars. +Account of a peculiar people, called orang abung. +Manners and customs. +Superstitions. + +Land: +unevenness of its surface. +Newformed. +Rarely considered as the subject of property. + +Land: +and sea breezes, causes of. + +Language: +Nature of the Malayan. +Of others spoken in Sumatra. +Court. +Specimens of. +Batta. +Nias. + +Lanseh: +fruit. + +Laws: +and customs. +Compilation of. + +Laye: +river and district of. + +Leeches: +a small kind of, very troublesome on marches. + +Lemba: +district, inhabitants of, similar to the Rejangs. + +Leprosy: +account of. + +Lignum-aloes: +or kalambac. + +Limun: +district of. +Gold-traders of. + +Literature. + +Lizards. + +Longitude: +of Fort Marlborough, determined by observation. + +Looms: +description of. + +Macdonald, (Lieutenant-colonel John). + +Mackenzie, (Mr. Kenneth). + +Madagascar: +resemblance in customs of, to those of Sumatra. + +Mahmud shah Juhan (Ala-eddin). + +Mahometanism: +period of conversion to. + +Maize: +or jagong, cultivation of. + +Malacca: +or Malaka, city of, when founded. +Visited in 1509 by the Portuguese. +In 1511 taken by them. +Repeatedly attacked by the kings of Achin. +In 1641 taken by the Hollanders. + +Malays: +name of, applied to people of Menangkabau. +Nearly synonymous with Mahometan, in these parts. +Difference in character between Malays and other Sumatrans. +Guards composed of. +Origin of. +Race of kings. +Not strict in matters of religion. +Governments of. + +Malayan: +language. + +Malur: +or Malati flower (nyctanthes). + +Mango: +fruit, described. + +Mangustin: +fruit, described. + +Manjuta: +river and district of. +English settlement at. + +Manna: +district of. + +Mansalar: +island of. + +Mansur shah: +king of Achin, besieges Malacca, and is defeated. +Renews the attack, without success. +Again appears before it with a large fleet, and proceeds to the attack of +Johor. +Murdered when preparing to sail with a considerable expedition. + +Mantawei: +name of race of people inhabiting certain islands. + +Manufactures. + +Marco Polo: +his account of Sumatra, by the name of Java minor. +Visited it about the year 1290. + +Marriage: +modes of, and laws respecting. +Rites of. +Festivals. +Consummation of. + +Marsden (Mr. John). + +Measures: +of capacity and length. + +Measurement: +of time. + +Medicinal: +shrubs and herbs. + +Medicine: +art of. + +Mega: +island of. + +Menangkabau: +kingdom of. +History of, imperfectly known. +Limits of. +Rivers proceeding from it. +Political decline. +Early mention of it by travellers. +Division of the government. +Extraordinary respect paid to reigning family. +Titles of the sultan. +Remarks on them. +Ceremonies. +Conversion of people to the Mahometan religion. +Antiquity of the empire more remote than that event. +Sultan held in respect by the Battas. + +Metempsychosis: +ideas of, as entertained by the Sumatrans. + +Miller (Mr. Charles). + +Minerals. + +Mines: +gold. +Copper. +Iron. + +Missionaries: +no attempt of, to convert the Sumatrans to Christianity, upon record. + +Moco-moco: +in Anac-sungei, account of. + +Monkeys: +various species of. + +Monsoons: +causes of their change. + +Morinda: +wood of, used for dyeing. + +Mountains: +chain of, running along the island. +Height of Mount Ophir or Gunong Passamman. +High mountain called Bukit Pandang. + +Mucks: +practice, nature, and causes of. + +Muhammed shah (Ala-eddin or Ula-eddin): +succeeds Juhan shah as king of Achin. +His turbulent reign, and death. + +Mukim: +divisional district of the country of Achin. + +Mulberry. + +Murder: +compensation for. + +Musi: +district of. + +Music: +Minor key preferred. + +Mythology: +of the Battas. + +Nako-nako: +islands of. + +Nalabu: +port of. + +Name: +of Sumatra, unknown to the Arabian geographers, and to Marco Polo. +Various orthography of. +Probably of Hindu origin. + +Names: +when given to children. +Distinctions of. +Father often named from his child. +Hesitate to pronounce their own. + +Natal: +settlement of. +Gold of fine quality procured in the country of. +Governed by datus. + +Navigation. + +Nias: +island of. + +Nibong: +species of palm, description and uses of. + +Nicolo di Conti: +his visit to Sumatra. + +Nutmegs: +and cloves, first introduction of, by Mr. Robert Broff. +Second importation. +Success of the culture. + + +Oaths: +nature of, in legal proceedings. +Collateral. +Mode of administering. +Amongst the Battas. + +Odoricus: +his visit to the island of Sumoltra. + +Officers: +of state, in Malayan governments. +At Achin. + +Oil: +earth-. +Camphor-. +Coconut-. + +Ophir: +name of, not known to the natives. +Height of Mount Ophir or Gunong Passamman. + +Opium: +considerable importation of, from Bengal. +Law respecting. +Practice of smoking. +Preparation of. +Effects of. + +Oranges: +various species of. + +Oratory: +gift of, natural to the Sumatrans. + +Ornaments: +worn. + +Padang: +the principal Dutch settlement. + +Padang-guchi: +river of. + +Padi: +or rice, cultivation of upland. +Of lowland. +Transplantation of. +Rate of produce. +Threshing. +Beating out. + +Paduka Sri: +king of Achin, see Iskander Muda. + +Pagi (or Nassaus): +islands of. + +Palembang: +river of. +Rises in the district of Musi, near Bencoolen river. +Dutch factory on it. +Description of country on its banks. +Government. +City of. +Many foreign settlers. +Language. +Interior country visited by the English. + +Palma-christi. + +Pandan: +shrub, its fragrant blossom. + +Pangeran: +nature of title. +Authority much limited. + +Pantun: +or proverbial song. + +Papaw: +fruit. + +Pase: +kingdom of. + +Passamman: +province of. + +Passummah: +Legal customs of. + +Pawns: +or pledges, law respecting. + +Pepper: +principal object of the Company's trade. +Cultivation of. +Description of the plant. +Progress of bearing. +Time of gathering. +Mode of drying. +White pepper. +Surveys of plantations. +Transportation of. + +Percha (Pulo): +one of the Malayan names of Sumatra. + +Perfume. + +Pergularia odoratissima: +cultivated in England by Sir Joseph Banks. + +Persons: +of the natives, description of. + +Pheasant: +argus or Sumatran. + +Philippine: +islands, customs and superstitions of, resembling those of Sumatra. + +Pidir: +kingdom of. + +Pigafetta (Antonio): +in his voyage appears the earliest specimen of a Malayan vocabulary. + +Pikul: +weight. + +Pinang: +areca, or, vulgarly, the betel-nut-tree, and fruit. + +Pinang (Pulo): +island of. + +Pineapple. + +Piratical habits: +of Malays. + +Plantain: +or pisang. +Varieties of the fruit. + +Pleading: +mode of. + +Poetry: +fondness of the natives for. + +Polishing: +leaf. + +Polygamy: +question of. +Connexion between it and the practice of purchasing wives. + +Population. + +Porah: +island of. + +Portuguese: +expeditions of, rendered the island of Sumatra well known to Europeans. +Their first visit to it, under Diogo Lopez de Sequeira. +Transactions at Pidir, and Pase. +Conquer Malacca. +Sustain many attacks and sieges from kings of Achin. + +Potatoes: +cultivated in the Korinchi country. + +Priaman: +river and district of. +Invitation to the English to form a settlement there. + +Puhn: +or Poon, signifying tree in general, applied by Europeans to a particular +species. + +Puhn-upas: +or poison-tree, account of. + +Pulas: +species of twine from the kaluwi nettle. + +Pulse: +variety of. + +Pulo: +or island. + +Pulo: +point and bay. + +Punei-jambu: +a beautiful species of dove. + +Punishments: +corporal. +Amongst the Battas. +Amongst the Achinese. + +Quail-fighting. + +Queen: +government of Achin devolves to a. +Account of embassy from Madras to the. + +Radin: +prince of Madura. + +Raffles (Mr. Thomas). + +Rakan: +river or estuary. + +Rambutan: +fruit. + +Ramni: +name given to Sumatra by the Arabian geographers. + +Ranjaus: +description of. + +Rapes: +laws respecting. + +Rattan-cane: +fruit of. +Considerable export trade in. + +Rau: +or Rawa country. + +Rayet shah (Ala-eddin): +said to have been originally a fisherman, ascends the throne of Achin, +having murdered the heir. +During his reign the Hollanders first visited Achin. +And also the English, under Captain (Sir James) Lancaster, who carried +letters from Queen Elizabeth. +At the age of ninety-five, confined by his son. + +Reaping: +mode of. + +Rejang: +people of, chosen as a standard for description of manners. +Situation of the country. +Divided into tribes. +Their government. + +Religion: +state of, amongst the Rejang. +No ostensible worship. +The word dewa applied to a class of invisible beings. +Veneration for the tombs of their ancestors. +Ancient religion of Malays. +Motives for conversion to Mahometanism. +Of the Battas. + +Reptiles. + +Rhinoceros. + +Rice: +culture of. +Distinctions of ladang or upland, and sawah or lowland. +Sowing, mode of. +Reaping, mode of. +An article of trade. + +Rivers. + +Rock: +species of soft. +Coral. + +Rum: +or Rome, for Constantinople. + +Sago-tree: +or rambiya (confounded with the Cycas circinalis, a different tree), +described. + +Salt: +manufacture of. + +Saltpetre: +Procured from certain caves. + +Sanding: +islands or Pulo Sandiang. + +Sappan: +wood. + +Scorpion: +flower or anggrek kasturi. + +Sculpture: +ancient. + +Sea: +encroachments of. + +Sequeira (Diogo Lopez de): +first Portuguese who visited Sumatra. + +Serampei: +country. +Villages, government, features of the women. +Peculiar regulation. +Further account of. + +Sesamum: +or bijin, oil produced from. + +Sexes: +mistaken ideas of a considerable inequality in the numbers of the two. + +Shellfish. + +Siak: +river of. +Survey of. +Country on both sides flat and alluvial. +Abundance of ship-timber. +Government. +Trade. +Subdued by the king of Achin. + +Si Biru: +island of. + +Silebar: +river, and district of. + +Sileda: +attempt to work a gold mine at. + +Silk-cotton (bombax). + +Singapura: +city of, when founded. + +Singkel: +river. + +Si Porah: +or Good Fortune, island of. + +Situation: +of the island, general account of. + +Slavery: +state of, not common among the Rejangs. +Condition of negro slaves at Fort Marlborough. + +Smallpox: +its ravages. + +Snakes. + +Soil: +described. +Unevenness of surface. +Fertility of. + +Songs: +Singing. +amusement of. + +Spices: +see Nutmegs. + +Sugar: +manufacture of. +Imperfect sort, called jaggri. + +Sugar-cane, cultivation of. + +Suits: +see Causes. + +Sulphur: +Where procured. + +Sumatra: +name probably of Hindu origin. + +Sungei-lamo and Sungei-itam: +rivers. + +Sungei-tenang: +country, account of. + +Superstitious opinions. + +Surf: +Considerations respecting. +Probable cause of. + +Surveys: +of pepper plantations. + +Swala: +or sea-slug, an article of trade. + +Swasa: +a mixture of gold and copper so called. + +Tamarind: +tree. + +Tanjong: +flower. + +Tappanuli: +celebrated bay of. +Settlement on the island of Punchong kechil. +Taken in 1760 by the French, and again in 1809. + +Taprobane: +name of, applied to Sumatra in the middle ages. + +Teak: +timber, its valuable qualities. +Attempts to cultivate the tree. + +Teeth: +mode of filing them. +Sometimes plated with gold. + +Theft: +laws respecting. +Proof of, required. + +Thermometer: +height of, at Fort Marlborough, and at Natal. +So low as 45 degrees on a hill in the Ipu country. + +Threshing: +mode of. + +Thunder: +and lightning, very frequent. +Effect of. + +Tides: +At Siak. +Flow to a great distance in rivers on eastern side of the island. + +Tiger: +Ravages by this animal. +Traps. + +Tiku: +river and islands of. + +Timber: +great variety of. +Species enumerated. + +Time: +manner of dividing. + +Tin: +A considerable export of it to China. + +Titles. + +Tobacco: +cultivation of. + +Toddy: +or nira, how procured. + +Tools: +for mining. +Carpenters'. + +Torches: +or links. + +Trade. + +Triste: +island of, see Mega. + +Tulang-bawang: +river. + +Turmeric. + +Upas: +vegetable poison, account of. + +Urei: +river of. + +Utensils: +account of. + +Vegetable productions. + +Venereal disease. + +Villages: +description of. + +Virgins: +their distinguishing ornaments. + +Volcanoes: +called gunong api, account of. + +Warfare: +mode of. + +Waterfalls. + +Waterspout: +account of. + +Wax: +a considerable article of trade. + +Weapons. + +Weaving. + +Weights. + +Wens. + +White-ants. + +White pepper. + +Widows: +laws respecting. + +Wilkins (Mr. Charles). + +Winds. + +Wives: +number of. See Marriage. + +Worm-shell: +or Teredo navalis. + +Wood: +various species of. + +Woods: +Mode of clearing. + +Wounds: +laws respecting. + +Writing: +On bark of tree, and on slips of bamboo. +Specimens of. + +Yams: +various roots under that denomination. + +Year: +mode of estimating its length. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The History of Sumatra, by William Marsden + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF SUMATRA *** + +***** This file should be named 16768-8.txt or 16768-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/7/6/16768/ + +Produced by Sue Asscher + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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